acre ann Ane ee ee Oh eet ce scape eraser on ew Bi Nature A WEEKLY “a ar or ey = * ILLUSTRATED JOURNAL OF SCIENCE VOLUME CIV SEPTEMBER, 1919, to FEBRUARY, 1920 “Zo the solid ground Of Nature trusts the mind which builds for aye.” —WoORDSWORTH ¥ondon MACMILLAN AND CO, LimiTED NEW YORK: THE MACMILLAN COMPANY pea hee he oe Oks 5 fee Soa PRE RS ae | GA faders eel Ce aia Poeane nage NAME Abbot (C. G.), Measures of Solar Radiation made at Mount Wilson and Calama, Chile, in’ 1918, 160 Abbott (W. J. Lewis), Percussion Figures in Isotropic Solids, 600 eee ; ne a Abell (Prof. R. B.), appointed head of the Dept. of Chemistry of the Bradford Technical College, 345 : Abraham (H.), E.'’ Bloch, and L. Bloch, The Ultra-rapid Kinematograph, 459 ch Ackermann (A. S. E.), Power from the Sun, 500 Adames (H. B.), and J. E. Clark, Royal Meteorological Society’s Phenological Returns, 427 _ Adams (Dr. C. E.), Determination of the Position of the Moon by Photography, 518; Photographs on Glass of the Solar Corona, 518; Tables of Mathematical Func- tions; The Harmonic Analysis of Tidal Observations !." and thé Prediction of Tides, 517 Adams (J.), Presented with the Silver Medal of the Hunterian_ Society, 319 ; Adams (Prof. J.), Tests of Intelligence, 513 i Adams (W. $.), and A. H. Joy, Stars of High Velocity, 612 ; and Strémberg, Spectroscopic Determination of ‘Stellar Parallax, 511 : ye Aitken (Dr. J.), [death], 318; [obituary article], 337; be- quests by, 376 Aldridge (H. E.), Luminous Worms, 174 ae Alkins (W. E.), Morphogenesis of Reticularia lineata; 427 Allbutt (Sir T. Clifford), The New Birth. of Medicine, 204 Allen (Dr. E. J.), The Quantitative Study of Plankton, 707 Allen (Dr. H. S.), A Photoelectric Theory of Colour Vision, 174; Physics for Medical Students, 655 ; Allen (Dr. R. W.), Practical’ Vaccine-Treatment for the General Practitioner, 466 _ Allum (Mr.); The Decimalisation of Currency, 579 Amos (A.), Recommended for Appointment to the Lecture- | ship in Agriculture ‘in Cambridge University, 324 Anderson (Prof. A.),° The Deflection of Light during a Solar Eclipse, 304; 436; 563; The Displacement of Light Rays Passing near the Sun, 354 Andersson (Prof. J. G.), Request for a Government Grant for Scientific Researches and Collections in China, 178 | Andrew, Greenwood, and Green, Defects in’ the Final Tests of Nickel-chromium Forgings, 485 _ Dai cati 5 Andrewes (Dr. F. W-), appointed Harveian Orator of the Royal College of Physicians, 608 Annandale (Dr. N.), A Loom used by the Gaodar Herds- men of Seistan, 459; Mortality among Snails and the appearance of Blue-bottle Flies, 412; and others, The Aquatic Fauna of Seistan, 453; and others, The Fauna of the Inlé Lake, 176 , soeies Anthony (Dr. H. E.), Mammals Collected in Eastern Cuba during 1917, 672 Bes: ; Arber (Agnes), The Vegetative Morphology of Pistia and the Lemnacez, 345 : : Praaesepy Archer (Ellinor), Longevity of Cut Flowers, 619 Armstrong (Dr. E. F.), The Simple Carbohydrates and_ the Glucosides. Third edition, 526; and T. P. Hilditch, _ A Study of Catalytic Actions at Solid Surfaces. Part ii., 406 f Armstrong (Prof. H. E.), Chemistry in the Making, 219; i%¢ INDEX. INDEX. and others, Method and Substance of Science Teach- ing, 521 ; Arnold (Brof. J. O.), A New Alloy Tool-steel, 416; Re- signation of the Positions of Dean of, the Faculty ot Metallurgy and the Professorship of Metallurgy in Sheffield University, 107.;.career as Professor of. Metal- lurgy and Dean of the Faculty of Metallurgy in Sheffield University, 127 ; Ashworth (Dr. J. H.), appointed Professor of Zoology in Edinburgh University, 425; Zoology at the, British Association, 456 Aston (Dr. F. W.), Neon, 334; The Constitution of the Elements, 393; .The Mass Spectra of the Chemical . Elements, 714 Atack (F. W.), assisted by L. Whinyates, The Chemists’ _. Year Book, 1918-19, 2 vols., 112 f Auric (M.), The Cycle of Eclipses, 459 Aurousseau (M.), An Interesting Form of Sub-surface Drainage, 587 . : : ‘ Babcock (Dr. H. L.), The Turtles of New England, 23 Bacon (Major J. E.), New Sources of Aluminium, 277 Baden-Powell. (Lt.-Gen. Sir Robert), .The Need of Out-of- School Training and Environment as Auxiliary to Education, 522 ‘ Bahl (Karm Narayan), The Excretory System of Pheretima posthuma, 359 4 Bailey (A. M.), The Hawaian Island Reservation, 117 Baillaud (B.), Return.of the Finlay Comet, 367 Bainbridge (Prof. F. A.), The Physiology of Muscular Exercise, 590. Bairstow. (L.), Position and Prospects of Aviation, 246; The Scientific Development of Aviation during the War, 486; R. H. Fowler, and D. R. Hartree, Pressure Dis- tribution on the Head of a Shell Moving at High Velocities, 618. Baker (Prof. H. F.), Mathematical Notes, 714 Baker (Commdr. T. Y.), and Prof. L. N. G. Filon, A Theory of the Second Order Longitudinal. Spherical Aberration for a Symmetrical Optical System, 713 Baldit (A.), Effect produced by. the Electricity of Rain. on an Insulated Wire, 387. Balfour (Mr.), to. be nominated as. Chancellor of Cambridge University, 67; nomination. for the .Chancellorship of Cambridge. University,. 96; elected Chancellor of the University of Cambridge, 146; inaugurated Chancellor of Cambridge University, 266; The National Need for Scientific Research, 399 ‘ Ball (Dr. J.), Determination of Positions in the Libyan Desert, 574 ‘ Ballard (Dr. P. B.), The Development of Mental Tests,. 513 ; The Measurement of Practical. Ability, 513 : Balls (Dr. W. Lawrence), The Equipment of Research Laboratories, 399 Bamford (Capt. A. J.), Some Observations of the Upper. Air -over Palestine, 366 Barbellion (W. N..P.), Enjoying. Life: and other Literary Remains of, 529 ‘Barber (Dr. C. A.), Indian Sugar-canes, 14; 578 iv Index Nature, April 15, 1920 Barcroft (J.), Time Relations in a Dream, 154 Barker (Capt. D. Wilson), Use of a Prismatic Binocular for Viewing near Objects, 532 Barlow (the late G. T.), assisted by J. W. Meares. Com- piled by J. W. Meares. Hydro-electric Survey of India. Preliminary Report on the Water-power Resources of India, 363 Barnard (Edith E.), A Memorial Fellowship to, in Chicago University, 67 Barnard (J. E.), Construction and Use of Microscopes, 546 Barnes (Rey. Dr. E. W.), Address on James Watt, 75 Barnes and Morris’s “Algebraic Cube,’ 79 Barnett (E. de Barry), appointed Lecturer in Organic Chemistry at the Sir John Cass Technical Institute, 186 Barrell (Prof. J.), [obituary], 444; The Nature and Bear- ings of Isostasy ; The Status of the Theory of Isostasy, 6 “Sees (Sir J. W.), A Vision of the Possible: What the R.A.M.C. Might Become. An Account of some of the Medical Work in Egypt, together with a Constructive Criticism of the R.A.M.C., 21; The War Work of the Y.M.C.A. in Egypt, 560; and Lt. P. E. Deane, The Australian Army Medical Corps in Egypt, 560 Barrow (G.), Some Future Work for the Geologists’ Asso- ciation, 510 Barrs (C. E.), Fibroferrite from Cyprus, 649 Barter (E. G.), Radiation Pressure, 188 Bartholomew (Dr. J. G.), The Times Survey Atlas of the World. Part i., 658 Barus (Prof. C.), Report on Achromatic Interferometry, 677 Bateson (Prof. W-.), Linkage in the Silkworm: a Cor- rection, 315; The Progress of Mendelism, 214; and Caroline Pellew, Genetics of “ Rogues ’? among Culinary Peas, 649 Baudouin (M.), The Fibula of a Newly-born Infant of the Polished Stone Period, and Consequences in Anatomical Philosophy, 459 Baume (G.), and M. Robert, Some Properties of Pure Nitrous Anhydride and of its Solution in Nitrogen Peroxide, 407 Bausor (H. W.), Senior Practical Chemistry, 497 Baxendell (J.), Meteorological Observations made. at the Fernley Observatory, 1918, 477 Baxter and Fargher, Arsenic Compounds for Direct Intra- venous Injection in Simple Aqueous Solution, 342 Bayeux (R.), The Ozogenic Power of the Solar Radiation at the Altitude of the Mont Blane Observatory, 407 Bayliss (Prof. W. M.), awarded the Copley Medal of the Royal Society, 295: 362; An Introduction to General Physiology: With Practical Exercises, 654; Cross-Cir- culation as a Physiological Method, 479; Intravenous Injections of Gum Solutions in Cholera, 73 ; Physiology and Medicine, 389 Bazile (G.), New Methods for the Destruction of Acridians, 168 Beale (Sir William P.), re-elected President of the Minera- logical Society, 296 Beaver (W. N.); Unexplored New Guinea, 663 Bedford (the Duke of), and S. Pickering, Science and Fruit- growing: Being an Account of the Results obtained at the Woburn Experimental Fruit Farm since its Founda- tion in 1894, 558 Redson (Prof. P. P.), Presidential Address to the Chemistry Section of the British Association, 37: 54 Beebe (C. W.), awarded the Elliot Medal of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences, 376 Bell (A..Graham), The Magnetic Storm of August 11-12, 1919, 74 Bell (F. Jeffrey), Retirement from the Natural History Museum, 157 Bell (Sir Hugh), Presidential Address to the Economic Science and Statistics Section of the British Associa- tion, 27: 162 Bell (L.), The Albedo of Saturn’s Rings, 138 Bell (Dr. R. J. T.), appointed Professor of Pure and Applied Mathematics in the University of Otago. 146 Bellay (G. du), and M. Houdard, The Chemical Properties of Humus and their Utilisation for the Protection of Combatants against Asphyxiating Gases,- 683 Belot (E.), Vulcanicity, Natural and Artificial, 575 Benedicks (C.), The Thermo-electricity of Liquid Mercury Demonstrated by means of the Galvanometer, 187 Benedict (F. G.), W. R. Miles, P. Roth, and H. M. Smith, Human Vitality and Efficiency under Prolonged Re- stricted Diet, 644 Bennett (G. M.), and E. E. Turner, Organo-metallic De- rivatives of Chromium, Tungsten, and Iron, 148 Benson (W. A. S.), Rudiments of Handicraft, 72 Bent (A. C.), Nearctic Diving Birds of the Order Pygopodes, 20 Burcutraid (Dr.), The Group of Helium Stars in Orion, 299 Berry (Dr. E. W.), Cretaceous Plant-remains from Ten- nessee, etc., 542 Bertrand (G.), Brocq-Rousseu, and Dassonville, Compara- tive Action of Chloropicrin on the Weevil and on Tri- bolium, 619 ; Influence of Temperature and other Physical Agents on the Insecticidal Power of Chlorepicrin, 459; The Destruction of Bed-lice by Chloropicrin, 68; and M. Dassonville, Treatment of Scab in Horses by the Vapours of Chloropicrin, 88 Bertrand (L.), and A. Lanquine, Relations between Chemi- cal Composition, Microscopic Structure, and the Ceramic Qualities of Clays, 523 ' Besson (L.), Diminution of the Transparency of the Air at Paris, 651 Beuzeville (W. A. W. de), Determination of the Increment of Trees by Stem Analysis: Eucalyptus viminalis, 587 Bichet (A.), A System of Aiming at Objects in the Air, 307 Bierry (H.), Carnivora and the Three Classes of Food, 387 Biesbroeck, (G. van), Relative Masses of Binary Stars, 643 Biles (H. J. R.), awarded the Cammell Laird Scholarship — by the Institution of Naval Architects, 186 Bilham (E. G.), Barometric Pressure and Underground Water-level. 366 Bintner (J.), The Symptoms and Distribution of Silver- leaf Disease, 359° Bird (W. B. M.), Work of the Salters’ Institute of Industrial Chemistry, 398 Birmingham (the Bishop of), and others, The Declining Birth-rate, 157 Bissell (Dr. W. G.), [death], 357 ' p : Bjerknes (Prof. V.), Structure of the Atmosphere when Rain is Falling, 346 Black (F. A.), Planetary Rotation Periods and Group Ratios, 370 ; Blair (K. G.), The Australian Genus Cestrinus, Er. (fam. Tenebrionide), and Some Allied Genera, 407 Blair (Sir Robert), Continuation Schools, «22 Bland-Sutton (Sir John), elected First President of the Association of Surgeons of Great Britain and Ireland, 507 ; Blaringhem (L.), Vigour of Growth, compensating Sterility in the Hybrids of Species of ‘Digitalis, 88 E Blatter (Prof. E.), ‘‘Flora Arabica,’ Part i., 609 — reas Blatterman (Capt. A. S.), The Theory and Use of Radio- direction-finding Apparatus, 137 : Bliss (Major H. J. W.), Research Associations and Con- sulting Work and the Collection and Indexing of In- formation, 399 Bloch (E.), A Spectroscopic Arrangement for the Study of the Extreme Ultra-violet, 683 f Bloch (L.), Industrial Applications of Amplifying Electric Valves, 647 Blondel (A.), A Solution of Heterochromatic Photometry permitting of a Physical Measurement of the Luminous Intensity, 367 i Blount (B.), and J. H. Sequeira, The Colours of “Blue John ”’ and other Varieties of Fluorite, 65 Bolduan (Dr. C. F.), and J. Koopman, Immune Sera, Fifth edition, 434 ; Bolton (Dr. C.), Award of the Charles Graham Gold Medal to, 344 Bolton (H.), Report on the Bristol Museum and Art Gallery, 1918-19, 574 Bond (F. B.), The Hill of Vision: A Forecast of the Great War, «nd of Social Revolution with the Coming of the New Race, 690 Ng Bonde (C. v.), Some Abnormalities in the Cape Crawfish (Jasus lalandit), 148 Nature, Afril 15, 1920. Index Vv _ Borhote (J. L.), The Practice of Bird-liming in Lower . Egypt, 444 ’ : Bonney (Prof. T. G.), Annals of the Philosophical Club of the Royal Society, written from its Minute Books, 45 ; The Expansion of Geology, 203 Bonnier (G.), Comparative Culture of Seedlings at High ' Altitudes and in the Plain, 523 rae Bordas (F.), Milk Contamination, 523 ; The Preparation and Conservation of Sera and Vaccines by Drying in an Absolute Vacuum, 307 Bose (Sir J. C.), The Response of Plants to Wireless Stimu- lation, 172 Boswell (Prof.), Some Recent Problems in Geo-Chemistry, 455 Bothezat (G. de), The General Theory of Blade-screws, 543 Botley (Cicely M.), Mirage Effects, 56 Bottomley (W. B.), Effect of Nitrogen-fxing Organisms and Nucleic Acid Derivatives on Plant-growth, 345 Bougault (J.), and P. Robin, The Oxidation of Benzal- doxime, 20; The Oxidation of the Hydramides, 407 Boule (Prof. M.), Vertebrate Remains in the Caverns of Grimaldi, 581 Boulenger (E. G.), Methods of Rat Destruction, 97 Boulenger (G. A.), An Extraordinary Tortoise, Testudo Loveridgii, 715; The Genus Saphzosaurus, 271 Boulin (Ch.), and L. J. Simon, Action of Stannic Chloride on Dimethyl Sulphate, 271 Bower (Prof. F. O.), Botany of the Living Plant, 274; elected President of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, 177; Joseph Dalton Hooker, 561; Prof. J. Graham Kerr, and Dr. W. E. Agar, Lectures on Sex and Heredity, delivered in Glasgow, 1917-18, 351 Bowie (W.), Connection of the Arcs of Primary Triangula- tion along the Ninety-eighth Meridian in the U.S. and in Mexico, 5 Boycott (Prof. A. E.), Sedimentation of Blood Corpuscles, 532 Boyle (J. S. W.), appointed Lecturer and Assistant in Chemistry in University College, Dundee, 87 Braae and Fischer-Petersen, Comet 1919b, 100, 138, 180, 361 Brabrook (Sir E.), The Anthropological Institutes of France and the United Kingdom, 476 Brade-Birks (Hilda K.), and Rev. S. Graham Brade-Birks, Luminous Chilopoda, with special reference to Geophilus carpophagus, Leach, 705 Brade-Birks (Rev. S. Graham), appointed Lecturer in Zoology at the South-Eastern Agricultural College, 167; Luminous Worms, 23 ; 93 Bradlee (F. B. C.), The Maritime History of Newburyport, Mass., 63 : : Braesco (P.), The Expansion of Copper-antimony Alloys, 651 Bragg (Prof. W. H.), elected President of the Physical Society, 701; to deliver the Juvenile Christmas Lectures at the Royal Institution, 318; to deliver the Silvanus Thompson Memorial Lecture of the Réntgen Society, 670; X-rays in Physical Science, 235 Bragg (Prof. W. L.), Sound-ranging, 187 Branford (B.), A New Chapter in the Science of Govern- ment, 494 Brauner (Prof. B.), A Tribute from Prague, 374; Entente Scientific Literature in Central Europe during the War, 600 Breasted (Prof. J. H.); The Origin of Civilisation, with special reference to the Nile Valley, 267 Breton (A. C.), a Remarkable Picture-map from Mexico, 402 Brierley (W. B.), Species in Relation to Fungi, 520; 708 Bright (Sir Charles), Inter-Imperial Communication, through Cable, Wireless, and Air Methods, 137 j Britton (N. L.), and J. N. Rose, The Cactacez, 41 Brodetsky (Dr. S.), Mathematical Text-books, 109; Mathe- matics, Particular and General, ‘ 390 : Broili: (Dr. F.), appointed Professor of Geology and Paleontology in the University of Munich, 443 Brooks (C.:E. P.), Incidence of Fog in London on January 31, 1918, 675 _ Brooks (Sir D.), The Proposed James Watt’ Memorial. 74 Brown (Prof. E. W.), The Secular Acceleration of the Moon, . 299 Brown (Dr. R. N. Rudmose), Spitsbergen: An Account of Exploration, Hunting, the Mineral - Riches and Future Potentialities of an Arctic Archipelago, 635; The Coal Export Trade from Spitsbergen, 514 Browne (F. Balfour), appointed University Lecturer in Zoology in Cambridge University, 425 Brownlee (Dr. J.), The Periodicity of Influenza Epidemics, 296 Brownlie (D.), The Performance of Colliery Steam Boiler- plants, 120; The Running of Steam-boiler Plants, 611 Brunt (D.), Internal Friction in the Atmosphere, 714; On the Inter-relation of Wind Direction and Cloud Amount at Richmond, 675 Brunton (J. D.), Gift to the Applied Science Department of Sheffield University, 67 ‘Bryan (Prof. G. H.), Aeronautics in Italy, 656; Hodgson’s Tri-lingual Artillery Dictionary, 3 vols., 332; President- elect of the Institute of Aeronautical Engineers, 340; The Neglected Study of Probabilities, 464; The Sound Emitted by Air-screws, 486; Improvement of the Efficiency of Radiators in the Heating of Rooms, 487 Bryant (Major V. S.), Science in Preparatory Schools, 514 Buchanan (J. Y.), Accounts Rendered of Work Done and Things Seen, 686 Buckman (S. S.), Jurassic Chronology: I., Lias. ment I., West England Strata, 586 Bugnon (P.), Use of Commercial Inks in Plant Histology, Supple- 459 Buller (Prof. A. H. R.), elected President of the Canadian Branch of the Phytopathological Society of the United States, 541 Bulloch (Prof. W.), appointed Professor of Bacteriology in London University, tenable at the London Hospital Medical College, 425 Burchall (P. R.), Elementary Survey of the Present Position of Aerial Photogrammetry, 379 Burchnall (Capt. L. L.), appointed Lecturer in Mathematics in Durham University, 385 Burd (J. S.), Experiments in the Cultivation of Barley, 446 Burley (G. W.), The Cutting Power of Lathe-turning Tools, 478 Burrows (G. J.), Volume Changes in the Process of Solu- tion, 147 ; Burstall (Prof. F. W.), The Rise of Engineering Manu- facture, 74 Bury (E.), Production of Alcohol from Ethylene, 416 Butler (Prof. G. M.), Handbook of Mineralogy, Blowpipe Analysis, and Geometrical Crystallography, 434 Butterfield (K. L.), The Farmer and the New Day, 592 Butterworth (S.), The Self-inductance of Single-layer Flat Coils, 366 Buxton (L. H. D.), Measurements of Skulls in Cyprus, 487 Caie (J. M.), Food Production in Scotland, 553 Calder (Prof. W. M.), Geography and History in the Medi- terranean, 650 Calman (Dr. W. T.), appointed Secretary of the Ray Society, 158 Calvert (A. F.), Salt and the Salt Industry, 497 _ Cambage (R. H.), Acacia Seedlings. Part v., 555 Campbell (Prof. E. D.), The Solution Theory of Steel, etc., 523 Campbell (J. M. H.), C. G. Douglas, and F. G. Hobson, The Respiratory Exchange of Man during and after Muscular Exercise, 427 Campbell (Dr. Norman R.), National Representation upon International Councils, 72 Campbell (Dr. W. W.), elected an Honorary Member of the Royal Institution, 358 Camsell (C.), and W. Malcolm, The Mackenzie River Basin, 640 ; Cantrill (T. C.), Dr. R. L. Sherlock, and H. Dewey, Iron Ores: Sundry Unbedded Ores of Durham, East Cum- berland, North Wales, Derbyshire, the Isle of Man, Bristol District and Somerset, Devon and Cornwall, 429 Caporn (A. St. Clair), Early and Late Ripening in an Oat- cross, etc., 81 ; Cardot (J.), Proposal to Purchase the Herbarium of Mosses of, 572 Cargill (J. T.), Gift to Glasgow University, 325 vi Index. ; ts Nature, April:15, 1920 Carleton (H. M.), The Cajal Formalin-silver Nitrate Impreg- nation Method for the Golgi Apparatus, 406 Carothers (S. D.), Plane Strain: The Direct Determination of Stress, 617 Carpenter (Prof. G. H.), Heredity and Evolution, 81 dustry in Great Britain, 666; The Trend of .Modern Metallurgy, 243 Carpentier (Gen. H. W.), Bequests by, 167 Carpentier (J.), Colour Kinematographs of the Gaumont Establishment, 387 Carr (F. H.), elected a Director of the British Drug Houses, Ltd., 638 Carroll (Dr. R. S.), The Mastery of Nervousness based upon Self-Re-education. Third revised edition, 687 Casanowicz (I. M.), Catalogue of Examples of Ecclesiastical Art in the U.S. National Museum, 4o Cashmore (M.), Fermat’s Last Theorem: Three Proofs by: | Claude (G.), Advantages of the Synthesis of Ammonia at Elementary Algebra. Revised edition, 171 Casson (S.), Discoveries. in the Balkans during ‘the War, 487; Western Turkestan, 335 © Castelnuovo (Prof. G.), Calcolo delle ‘Probabilita, 464 Cater (G.), The Nature of Inference, 407 Cave (Capt.°C. J. P.), Quotations from the Diary of Samuel Pepys on the Weather, 458; The Audibility of Thunder, 132; The Deftection of Light during a Solar Eclipse, 413; The Status of a Meteorological Office and its Relation to the State and to the Public, 705 ‘Cave-Browne-Cave (Wing-Commdr.), Airships, 486 Chadwyck-Healey (Sir Charles), [obituary], 136 Chalmers (S. D:), [obituary], 318 ; Chamberlain (Austen), The Government Education, 75 Chamberlain (Prof. C. J.). The Living Cycads, 410 Chapman (Capt. E. H.), On the Use of the Normal Curve ’ of Errors in Classifying Observations in Meteorology, 675; The Study of the Weather, 312; The Variation of Wind Velocity with Height, 675 Chapman (F.), An Ostracod and Shell-mar! of Plelgtocené Age from Boneo Swamp, Victoria, 108; Tertiary Fossils from the Ooldéa Soak, South Australia, 347; Tertiary Fossils from Ooldea: Additional Note, 619 Chapman (R. H.), [obituary], 608 Chapman (Prof. R. W.), The Elements of Astronomy for Surveyors, 499 Chapman (Prof. S: J.), The Appointment of, to the Joint Permanent Secretaryship of the Board of Trade, 135 Chardonnet (M. de), The Use of Autochrome Plates instead of Hand-paintings for Clouds, 307 Charlier (C. L.), The Spiral Nebule, 68 Charpy (G.), and J. Durand, A Cause of Rupture of Steel Rails, and a Means of Suppressing it, 271 Chatterjee (N.), The Upper Limit of Unpleasant Beats, 708 Chatterjee (N. ‘N.), The’ Nationalisation of ' Algebraic ‘Equations, 187 Chavanne (G.), L. P. Clerc, and L. J. Simon, Analyses of German Aviation Petrols, 307 Cheel (E.), Three New Species of Leptospermum, 168 Cheeseman (T. F.), The Vascular Flora of Macquarie Island, 101 Chelle (L a Detection and Estimation of Traces of Hydro- cyanic and Thiocyanic Acids in a Complex Medium, 407 Detection: of ‘Hydrocyanic Acid in a Case of Poisoning, 367; Transformation of Hydrocyanic Acid into Thiocyanic Acid in the Course of Cadaveric Putre- factions, 327 Cheshire (Prof. F.), ' Optics, 530 Chevenard (P.), The Viscosity of Steels at High Tem- peratures, 326 Chilton (Prof. C.), A New Isopodan Genus (fam. Oniscidze) from Lake Corangamite, Victoria, 555; De- structive Boting Crustacea in New Zealand, 78; Orchestia tucuranna in New Zealand, 41 Chinnery (Lieut. E. W. P.), “Dengora’ baiari ” Initiation Ceremony of the Binandere Tribe, 386; People of the Hilly Country of New’ Guinea ; Stonework and Gold- fields in New Guinea, 488 Chofafdet (P.), Observations of Borrelly’s Comet, 87; Ob- servations of Finlay’s Comet made at the Besancon Observatory, 387 and University The Outlook of British Technical Chree (Dr. C.), awarded the Hughes Medal of the Royal Society, 295, 363; A Magnetic Storm Recorded at Kew Observatory, 120; The Magnetic Storm of August II-12, 1919, 468 Christmas (W. D, Exceptional Dryness of October, 1919, Carpenter (Prof. H. C. H.), A New Copper-refining In- 278 Church (Major A. G.), appointed Secretary of the National Union of Scientific Workers, 444; Scientific Workers and a National Federation, 693 Church (Sir Arthur H.), The ‘Collection :of Precious Stones of the late, in the Natural History Museum, — 357 Chuirch (A.. H.), 'Thalassiophyta and the Sub-aerial Trans- migration, 624; The Building of an Autotrophic Flagel- late, 594 Clark (W. B.), The Geography of Mar yien, 703 Clarke (I. M.), The New Gaspé Bird Sanctuaries in Canada, It very High Pressures, 683; The Industrial Em loy- ment of Extremely High Pressures, 307; The Syn- thesis of Ammonia at very High Pressures, 459 Clay (Prof. A. T.), American: Scholars and Research Work in Asia, 64 ‘ Clements (A. J.), The Trade in Musk,’ 97 Clifford (F. W.), The Library of the’ Chemical Society + oA Record of a Recent Attempt. at Co-operation, 29 Clowes (Prof. F.), and J. B. Coleman, A Treatise on Quali- tative Analysis : Adapted for Use in the Laboratories of Colleges and Technical Institutes, Ninth edition, 688; Elementary Practical Chemistry, Part i., Chemistry, Seventh edition, 688 General Coblentz (W. W.), and H. Kahler, Change in the Electri- | * cal Resistance of the Sulphide of Silver and of Bis-— muth, 478 Cockayne (Dr. ‘L.), The Aims and Aspirations of the New Zealand Institute, 516; The Papers Presented to the New Zealand Science Congress, 516 Cockerell (Prof. T. D. A.), Sugar-beet Seed, 661 Cohn (Prof.), A Sixth Member of the Trojan ‘Group of Planets, 100; Minor Planets, 511 Coker (Prof. E. G.), and K. C. Chakko, The ’Stress- strain Properties of Nitro-cellulose and the Law of its. Optical Behaviour, 617 Coker (R. E.), The Habits and Economic Relations of the Guano Birds of Peru, 378 Coldstream (Lt.-Col. W. M.), The Survey of India Maps pa the Modern Development of Indian Cartography, Cole ‘Prof, G. A. J.), elected President of the Irish ‘Geo- graphical Association, 554; Ireland: The Outpost, 411; On Lecturing with the Lantern, 457 Cole (Dr. L. J.), and Dr. W. A. Lippincott, Relation of Plumage’ to Ovarian Condition, 81 Colin (H.), and Mile. A. Chaudin, The Diastatic Inver- sion of Saccharose, 367 Connell (A.), appointed Professor of Surgery in ae University, 385 Conrady (Prof. A. E.), Microscopical Optics, 548 Conyngham (Col. L.), Exploration in Tibet and Neigh- bouring Regions, 1865-79, 570 Cooper (W. R.), Retirement from the Editorship of the Electrician, 266 oe = L.), A British Imperial Antarctic ene Coriat (Dr. I. H.), What is Psychoanalysis?, 22 Coronas (Rev. J.), The ‘‘ Quantico ’? Typhoon, 79 Cortie (Rev. A. L.), A New Astronomical ‘Model, 343; A Solar Eruption in a Giant Star, and Spectral ‘Changes, Bossennk (E.), Some Stars Possessing” a_ Total Proper Motion of more than 0.5”, 68 Couch (Sir A, Quillér), The Teaching of English, 521 Coulter (Prof. J. M.), The Evolution _of Botanical Re search, 581. Coupin (H.). The Causes of the Elongation ‘of the Stem of Etiolated Plants, 683 Courmont (P.), and A. Rochaix, The Bacterial Flora ‘of Sewage Effluents Purified by Bowes activées, 650 Cowdray (Lord), Donations to the University of. London, 344, 586 “Annual Crawford (H. S.), The Mural Paintings and Inscriptions ‘ . Nature, - April 15, 1920 Index vii Crabtree (J. H.),* British Ferns and how to Identify 410 p Cramp (Dr. :W.), appointed Professor of Electrical En- gineering in Birmingham University, 489 at Knockmoy Abbey, 475 Crawford (Prof.), and Misses Fairfield and Cummings, The Orbit of Finlay’s Comet r1919d, 380 Crawfurd (Dr. R.), to Deliver the Harveian Oration, 135 Cremieu (V.), and'A. Lepape, The Separation by Solidi- fication of Pure Carbon Dioxide from a Gaseous Mix- ture, 307 ; ; Crestani (Prof. G.), Meteorologia Aeronautica, 656 Crommelin (Dr. A. C. D.), Results of the . Total Solar Eclipse of May 29 and the Relativity Theory, 280; ’ Einstein’s Theory, 514; The Belgian Royal Observa- tory,’ 676; The Deflection of Light during a Solar Eclipse, 372; The Einstein Theory and Spectral Dis- placement, 532; The Theory of Relativity, 631 Crooke (Dr. W.), Cults of the Mother Goddesses in India, 608 Crossland (Dr. C.), Comfort and Health in the Tropics, 573 Crossley (Prof. A. W.), appointed‘ Director of Research to the British Cotton Industry Research Association, 296; The Appointment of, as Director of Research |: by the British Cotton Industry Research Association, 319 eit Crowley (Dr. J. F.), The Use of Electricity in Agriculture, 68 . 2 i Crowther (Dr. J. A.), A Manual of Physics, 658 etaaat Crozier (Col. C, D.), The Manufacture of High Explosives during the War, 455 : Cruickshank (Dr. J.), appointed Georgina Lecturer in Pathology in Aberdeen University, 385 Cummings (B. F.), [obituary], 177; Enjoying Life: and other Literary Remains of W. N. P. Barbellion, 529 Cunningham (Dr, Brysson), Hydro-electric Development - Works, 161; Irrigation in Egypt and the Sudan, 67: The Chippawa-Queenston Hydro-electric Development Scheme, 483; The Hydro-electric Survey of India, 363 ; The Reduction of Wave Action in Harbours, 614; The Sudan Irrigation Works, 120; Water in Action— Controlled and Free, 70 Cunningham (E.), Einstein’s Relativity Theory of Gravita- tion, 354, 374, 394; Einstein’s Theory and a Map Analogue, 437; The Theory of Relativity, 632 Curtis (R.), The “Grillo”? Plant for making Sulphuric _ Acid, 341 Cutler (D. W.), The Spermatogenesis of Infertile Hybrids between Pheasant and Gold Campine Fowl, 81 Czaplicka (Miss M. A.), Relation of History and Ethnology, with special reference to North Central Asia, 487; The Turks of Central Asia in History and at the Present Day, 273 Dakin (Prof.), Vitalism, 578 Dale (Dr.'H. H.), and others, The Réle of Capillaries in the Regulation of the Blood-flow, 519 Dall (Dr. W. H.), New Species of Molluscs of the Family Turritidee from the West Coast of America and Adjacent Regions, 98 Dallas (W. L.), [obituary], 63 Daly (Prof. R. A.), “Glacial-control’’ Theory of Growth of Coral Reefs, 360 Danden (Lieut. M. M.), Dizionario Internazionale di Aero- navigazione ¢ Costruzioni Aeronautiche. Italiano, Francese, Inglese, Tedesco, 656 Daniel (L.), The Causes of the Immersion of the Leaves of the Water-Lily, 407 Daniell (G. F.), Selection of Elementary Children for Higher Forms of Education, 513 Darling (C. R.), to deliver a course of Lectures on the Commerical Applications of Physics, 386 Darrow (F. L.), The Boys’ Own Book of Great Inventions, the 152 Dautriche (P.), The Field of Application for Aerophoto- graphy, 99 Davenport (Dr. C. B.), and M. T. Scudder, Naval Officers : McRobert |- Their Heredity and Development, 396 Davidson (C. R.), The Solar Eclipse of May 29, 1919, 544 J Davies (T. J. C. Fraser), The Sociological Society, 662 Davis (Dr. A. P.), and H. M. Wilson, Irrigation Engineer- ing. Seventh edition, 7o ; Davis (J. J.), The Natural Enemies of Phyllophaga, 4o Davis and Jordan, The Orifice as a Means of Measuring the Flow of Water through a Pipe, 647. Debenham (F.), elected a Fellow of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge, 616 Deecke (Prof. W.), Articles on Petrographic Subjects, 673 Deeley (R. M.), and others, Lubrication, 451 — Delage (Y.), Integrating Pitot Tube for measuring the average Velocity of Variable Currents, 683 Delaporte (P.), Proposed Reform of the Calendar, 415 Deller (Dr. E.), appointed Assistant Secretary to the Royal Society, 572 Dellinger (J. H.), Radio-Transmission and Reception, 543 Delpech (J.), Flameless Powders, 167; The Flashes Pro- duced by the Fire of Artillery, 187; The Pure “B” Powders, 68 Demenitroux (M.), Methods Used in France for the Pro- duction of Radium Bromide, 419 Dendy (Prof. A.), Animal Life and Human Progress, 21 Denham (H. J.), Gossypium in Pre-Linnzan Literature, 10 Densmore (F.), Teton Sioux Music, 437; The Sun Dance of the Teton Sioux, 437 Desch (Prof. C. H.), appointed Professor of Metallurgy in . Sheffield University, 405; The Metallurgical Position in this Country and the Central Empires, 455 Descombes (P.), The Use of Trees in Extracting Water from the Atmosphere, 491 Deslandres (Dr. H.), Sir Norman Lockyer, 191; The Con- stitution of the Atom and the Properties of, Band Spectra, 271, 347 Dewar (W.), Proposals for a Plumage Bill, 564 Dewsnup (Prof. E. R.), appointed Professor of Railway Administration in Liverpool University, 385 Dhar (N. R.), and G. Urbain, The Polarisation Electro- motive Forces of Iron in Solutions of Complex Salts, - 618 Dickson (A. A. C.), The Mica Miner’s and Prospector’s Guide, 276 Dickson (Prof. L. E.), History of the Theory of Numbers. Vol. I., Divisibility and Primality, 4 Dines (W. H.), Atmospheric and Terrestrial Radiation, 714: Progress of Meteorology, 247: The Characteristics of the Free Atmosphere, .505; The Deflection of Light during a Solar Eclipse, 393; Wind and Barometric Gradient, 525 Dixey (Dr. F. A.), Presidential Address to the Zoology Section of the British Association, 39, 12 Dixon (Prof. H. B.), and H. Stephen, The Discovery of Chemical Elements since 1869, 221 Dixon (Prof. H. H.), and T. G. Mason,’ A Cryoscopic Method for the Estimation of Sucrose, 555; and-H. H. Poole, Photo-synthesis and the Electronic Theory, 682 Dixon (R. B.), and A. L. Kreeber, Regrouping the Dialects of California, 541 Dobbin (Dr. L.), Formic Acid and the Stinging Hairs of the Common Nettle, 64 ; Dobell (Prof. C.), The Amcebe Living in Man, 369 Dobson (G. M. B.), Winds and Temperature-gradients in the Stratosvhere, 458 Domville-Fife (C.). Submarines and Sea Power, 433 Doncaster (Prof. L.), Mendelism, 655 Donnan (Prof. F. G.), Heat of Reaction and Gravitational Field, 392 : Doodson (A. T.), R. M.. Carey, and-R. Baldwin, Theo- retical Determination of the Longitudinal Seiches of Lake Geneva, 714 Douglas (Capt. C. K. M.), The Formation of Haloes. 641 Douslas (J. A.). Geological Sections through the Andes of Peru and Bolivia, II., 68 ) yi Douvillé (H.), The Annular Foraminiferze (Cyclostégnes) of Orbigny, £23 Dowling (J. J.). An Apparatus for the Production of High Electrostatic Potentials, 428 Downing (E. R.), A Source Book of Biological Nature Study, 465 eases (A. E.), The Economic Position of the Country, 26: vill Index if Nature, April 15, 1920 Druce (Dr. G. C.), Occurrence in Britain as Native Plants of Ajuga genevensis and Centaurium scilloides, Druce, var. portense (Brot.), 406 Druce (H. H.), Collection of Lyczenidz and Hesperide in the Hill Museum, Witley, 77 Duchemin (R. P.), General Position of Chemical Indus tries, especially in France, 268 Duerden (Prof. J. E.), Breeding Experiments with Ostriches, 155; Phylogenetic Degeneration in the Ostrich, 609; Promotion of a Plumage Bill, 499; Results of the Crossing of the Northern and Southern Forms of African Ostrich, 81 Duffield (Prof. W. G.), Relativity and the Displacement of Fraunhofer Lines, 659 Dufrénoy (J.), Experimental Bacterial Tumours in Pines, 683: I Duncan (F. Martin), Insect Pests and Plant Diseases in the Vegetable and Fruit Garden, 467; Photographs showing the Actinic Quality of the Light from a Living Pyrophorus Beetle, 345 pores (J. S.), appointed a Ray Lankester Investigator t the Marine Biological Laboratory, Plymouth, 7o1 Dunlop (Sir Nathaniel), [obituary], 340 Dykes (W. R.), nominated as Secretary of the Royal Hor- ticultural Society, 377 id (Sir F..W.), The Theory of Relativity, 631; Mr. Melotte, Open Stellar Clusters, 576 and Basterfield (Prof. T. H.), appointed Director of the Caw- thorn. Research Institute, 442 Eccles {Prof. W. H.), Special Arrangements of Three- electrode Valves, 487; Triode Valves as Electric Am- plifiers, 501; and others, Thermionic Valves, 454; and SUB B Vincent, The Variations of Wave- -length of the Oscillations Generated by Three-electrode Thermionic Tubes, etc., 617 Eddington (Prof. A. S.), Einstein’s Theory, 377; Observa- tions of the Solar Eclipse at Principe, 454; Rela- tivity, 400; The Deflection of Light during a Solar Eclipse, 372; The Predicted Shift of the Fraunhofer Lines, 598; The Sources of Stellar Energy, 269; The Theory of Relativity, 385, 631; and others, Rela- tivity, 454 Edwards (F. W.), Descriptions and Illustrations of Di- pera, 64 ¥ggar (W. D.), Presentation to, on Retirement from the Presidency of the Eton College Scientific Society, 444; The Teaching of English in Relation to School Science, 521 Einstein (Prof.), Interview with, 541; Relativity, 360 Ekblaw (K. J. T.), Farm Concrete, 495 Elgie (J. H.), The Stars Night by Night: Journal of a Star-Gazer, 467 Elliot (H.), Modern Science and Materialism, 625 Elliott (S.), Bequest to Edinburgh University, 425 Ellis (C.), The Hydrogenation of Oils: Catalysers and Catalysis and the Generation of Hydrogen and Oxygen, Second edition, 494 Eétvés (Baron R. von), [obituary], 319 Etheridge (Robert), [obituary article], 700 Evans (D. A. E.), British Ivon-ores, 565 Evans (E. V.), The Present Position of the Industry of Germany, 484 Evans (Dr. J. W.), elected President of the National Union of Scientific Workers, 297; Presidential Address to the Geology Section of the British Association, 38, 102 Evershed (J.), Is Venus Cloud-covered ?, 675 ; The Magnetic Storm of August 11-12, 1919, 436 Ewart (A. J.), The Synthesis of Sugar from Formaldehyde and its Polymers, etc., 558s; and J. R. Tovey, Con- tributions to the Flora of Australia, No. 28, 247 Ewart (Prof. J. Cossar), A Search for Fine Wool, 153; “- Telegony, 216 d’Eyncourt (Sir E. H. Tennyson), in the War, 486 Being the Chemical The British Tanks Used Fabaro (Dr. L.), Oscillations in the Luminosity of Incan- descent Electric Lamps illuminated by Alternating Currents, 542 Farmer (Prof. J. B.); awarded a Royal Medal of the Royal Society, 295, 363 Farr (C. C.), The Porosity of Porcelain, 517; and D. B. Macleod, The Viscosity of Sulphur, 712 Farrer (R.), The English Rock-garden, 2 vols., 664 Fawdry (R. C.), Dynamics, Part ii., 109 Fawsitt (Prof. C. E.), The Uniformities of Nature, 586; and C. H. Fischer, The Miscibility of Liquids, 555 Fayet (G.), and A. Schaumasse, Next Return of «the Periodic Comet 1911 VII. (Schaumasse), 19; Return of the Periodic Comet 1911 VII. (Schaumasse), 347 Fedden (R.), Golden Days from the Fishing Log of a Painter in Brittany, 391 Ferguson (E. W.), and Marguerite agg Tabanide from Camden Haven District, N.S.W., Ferry (E. S.), G. A. Shook, and -J. Rg "Lotiings Practical Pyrometry : The Theory, Calibration, and Use of In- struments for the Measurement of High Temepeceeneys 47 Fewkes (Dr. J. W.), A Remarkable Carved » Waodent Object from Santo Domingo, 378; Field-work on the Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado, 35 Fisher (Prof. E. F,), Resources and Industries » of the United States, 131 Fisher (H. A. L.), to Address the Annual Conference of Educational Associations, Fisk (Prof. W. W.), The hick of Cheese, 528 Fitzsimons (F. W.), The Natural History of South Afvican Mammals, 4 vols., 469 Flack (Dr. M.), appointed Milroy ‘Lecturer of the Reyal College of Physicians, 608 Flamand (G. B. M.), The Discovery of a Lens of Coal at Port-Gueydon, 307 Flamsteed g- ‘ The Bicentenary of the Death of, 417 Fleck: (Dr. The Separation of Isotopes, 565 “s Fleming (A. is M.), Industrial Research, 470; and others, Works Schools, 522 Fleming (Prof. J. A.), Progress’ of Electrical Invention, 239; Speaking across the Atlantic by Wireless: Tele- ' phony, 179; The Thermionic Valve and its Develop- ments in Radiotelegraphy and Telephony, 462 Fletcher (Prof. S. W.), Strawberry-growing, 592 Fleure (Prof. H. J.), The Survival in: Remote Parts of Wales of a Primitive Type, 487 ' Flint (Rev. Dr. W.), Race Consciousness, 118 Flower es S.), The Destruction of Birds in Lower Egypt, Forbes (Dr. ny O.), The Audibility of Thunder, 315 Forster (Sir Ralph), The Organic Department of the Chemical Laboratories of University College, London, to be named after, 344 Fortescue’ (Prof.), Application of Thermionic. Valve, 487 - - Fotheringham (Dr. J. K.), The Motion of the Moon, 612 Fouché (Ed.), Search for a Characteristic Equation Ap- plicable to Atmospheric Air, 491 Fowler (Prof. A.), awarded a Gold Medal by the National Academy of Sciences, Washington, 296; elected Presi- dent of the Royal Astronomical Society, 671; Spectro- scopic Astronomy, 234; The Centenary of the Royal Astronomical Society, 6743 The Theory of Relativity, 632 Rawle: (Sir Henry), elected President of the Institution of Automobile Engineers, 638 Fox (H. M.), elected a Fellow of Gonville and Caius Col- lege, Cambridge, 616 Fox (Dr. R. H.), Dr. John Fothergill and his Friends : Chapters in Eighteenth- century Life, 1 Frankland (Prof. P. F.), awarded the Davy Medal of the Royal Society, 295; 363 Franklin (Capt. T. B.), The Cooling of the Soil at Night, 4503 458 Fraser (o' C.), Newton’s Interpolation Formulas, 42 Fraser (Sir Thomas R.), [death], 474; [obituary article], 505 Freedman (P.), Tungsten Arc (“Pointolite ””) Lamps, 358° Freeman (Dr. W. E.), British Botanic Gardens and Stations, the Three-electrode fests (C.), A New Method for Testing the Fragility of Metallic Tubes, 347 French (J. W.), Percussion Figures in Isotropic Solids, 312 ; The Surface Layer of an Optical Polishing Tool, 682 Nature, , April 15, 1920, Index 1X Frick (H. €.), Bequests by the late, 386 Friend (Rev. Hi), A New British Enchytreid Worm, 174; __ British Well-worms, 5; Luminous Worms, 334 Frink (R. L.), appointed Director of Research by the Glass Research Association, 572 Froggatt (W. W.), A New Species of Wax Scale from ew Guinea, 271 Frohawk (F. W.), Birds Beneficial to Agriculture, 72 Frood and Hall, The Deposits of Saltpetre near Prieska ‘and Hay, Cape Province, 477 Fuller (C.), The Wing Venation and Respiratory System of Certain South African Termites, 78; 639 G. (W.), Euclid, Newton, and Einstein, 627 Galippe (V.), Micro-organisms Living in Paper, 347; Re- sistance of Living Intra-cellular Agents to the Action of Certain Chemical Substances, 128 Gamble (W.), Penrose’s Annual, 690 Gardiner (J. H.), The Rarer Elements, 310 Gardiner (Prof. J. Stanley), “The White Water,”’ 563 _ Gardiner (L.), Is for a Plumage Bill, 564 _. Gardner (A.), appointed Demonstrator in Anatomy in Man- chester University, 19 Gardner (J. A,), and F. W. Fox, The Distillation of Chloro- picrin, 419 . : Garelli (Prof.), Experiments for the Extraction of Nitrate of Ammonia from Surplus Stocks of Explosives, 447 Garner (R. L.), [obituary], 573 Garner (W. E.), An Electronic Theory of Isomerism, 661 Garrad (Mr.), Work of the Tractor on the Farm, 98 Garstang (Prof. J.), Provisionally appointed Director of the Projected British School of Archzology at Jerusalem, EEE BEI EN TI ONE EN POE TIES v R = R 398 Garstang (Prof. W.), Sea-fishery Investigations and. the Balance of Life, 48 Garuffa (Dr. E.), L’Aviazione. Eliche. Seconda edizione, 656 Gatenby (J. B.), Identification of Intra-cellular Structures, . 97; The Germ-cells and Early Development of Grantia compressa, 427 - Gates (Dr. Ruggles), Mutational v. Recapitulatory Char- acters, 521; The Existence of Two Fundamentally Different Types of Characters in Organisms, 713 Gauthier (Mlle. M.), The ‘‘Trypanosome ”’ of the Trout, 650 Gehrs (Prof. J. H.), Productive Agriculture, 495 Geikie (Sir Archibald), Retrospect and Prospect, 195; Science and Sociality, 45 Gemmill (Dr. J. F.), appointed Professor of Natural His- tory at University College, Dundee, 67; Zoology and Human Welfare, 21 George (D. Lloyd), The Place of the University in the General Field of Education, 167 Getman (Dr. F. H.), Outlines of Theoretical Chemistry. Second edition, Geyl (Dr. P.), Holland and International Rivers, 332 Ghambashidze {D.), Mineral Resources of Georgia and Caucasia: Manganese Industry of Georgia, 171 Gheury (Sgt. M. E. J.), A Simple and Rapid Method of Tide Prediction (including Diurnal Time and Height __ Inequalities), 171 Ghose (S. L.), The Myxophycez, or Blue-green Alge of Lahore, 297 Giacobini (M.), Observations of Finlay’s Comet made at the Paris Observatory, 387 Gibson (K. S.), Photo-electric Spectrophotometry by the Null Method, 478 Giglioli (Prof. I.), Vertical-pipe Irrigation for Orchards and Market-gardens in Arid Climates, 276 Gilchrist (Prof. J. D. F.), The Marine Biological Report of the Cape of Good Hope, 615 Giles (Dr. P.), elected Vice-Chancellor of Cambridge Uni- versity, 126 Gill (A.), Experiments with Horse-chestnuts, 575 Gillespie (T. H.), The Breeding of the King Penguin, 314 Giolitti (Dr. F.), presented with the Bessemer Medal of the Iron and Steel Institute, 77 : Glazebrook (Sir Richard), appointed Professor of Aviation _ in London University, tenable at the Imperial College of Science and Technology, 425; Recent Progress in Aeroplani, Idrovolanti, Aviation, 397; Retirement from the Directorship of the National Physical Laboratory, 8; 77 - Godard (H.), Observation of Finlay’s Periodic Comet {1g919e), made at the Bordeaux Observatory, 459 Godchot (M.), and F. Taboury, Some New Bicyclic Ketones, 523 : Godfrey (C.), The Modern Teaching of Geometry in Schools, 50 Godby (Col.), The Orchids of Hants and Dorset, 520 Godman (F. Du Cane), Lord Walsingham, so Gold (Lt.-Col. E.), Meteorology in Three Dimensions, 505 ; Relation of Meteorology to Aviation, 641 Goldschmidt (Prof. V. M.), Om Aluminiumfremstilling av Norske Raastoffer, 161 Golgi (Prof. C.), Retirement from the Professorship of General Pathology and Histology in the University of Pavia, 19 Gomme (A.), appointed Librarian of the Patent Office, 585 Goodchild (W. H.), awarded the Consolidated Gold Fields of South Africa, Ltd., Gold Medal by the Institution of Mining and Metallurgy, 573 Goodrich (E. S.), constituted Professor of Comparative Embryology in the University of Oxford, 616; Phago- cytosis and Protozoa, 456 Goris (A.), and Ch. Vischniac, Characters and Composition of Primeverose, 367 Gould (H. P.), Peach-growing, 495 Gowen (J. W.), A Biometrical Study of Crossing-over, 541 Goyen (P.), Elementary Mensuration, Constructive Plane Geometry, and Numerical Trigonometry, 390 Grabham (Dr. M. C.), Bird Migration, 334; Iridomermyx humilis in Madeira, 456 Graff (K.), Barnard’s Proper-motion Star, 420 ; Graham (Dr. J.), appointed Professor of Anatomy in the Anderson College of Medicine, Glasgow, 19 Gramont (A. de), The Direct Arc-spectra of Metals of Low Melting Point, 650 Grard (M.), Thermal Treatment of Aluminium Alloys, 18 Gray (Prof. A.), Presidential Address to the Mathematics and Physical Science Section of the British Association, wiga Gray (i). Effects of Some Ions on Spermatozoa; Effects of Ions on Ciliary Movement (Gills of Mytilus edulis), 366 ; The Relation of Spermatozoa to Certain Electrolytes II.), 42 Gea (Dre R. Whytlaw), elected President of the Eton College Scientific Society, 444 Gray (W. D.), The Reported Dinosaurian Reptile in the Congo Region, 7o1 Greaves (R. H.), The “Temper Brittleness’’ of a Nickel Chromium Steel, 480 Green (H. H.). Estimation of Small Quantities of Arsenic by Micro-titration with Iodine, 477 Greenish (Prof. H. G.), to Receive the Diploma of Docteur honoris causa from the University of Paris, 397 Greenwood (Dr. H. C.), {obituary], 443; Industrial Gases, 622 Greenwood (M.), The Incidence of Industrial Accidents upon Individuals, with Special Reference to Multiple Accidents, 158 Gregory (Prof. J. W.), The African Rift Valley, 518; The Flight from Cairo to the Cape. Scientific Aspects of the Route, 633; The Times African. Flight: Dis- covery of a New Volcanic Field, 667 Gregory (Sir Richard), Educational Value of the Kinema, 522; The Divorce of Laboratory and Class-room Courses, 514; The Promotion of Research, 259 Greig-Smith (Dr. R.), The Germicidal Activity of. the Eucalyptus Oils. Part ii., 20 Grierson (Sir George), The Linguistic Survey of India and the Census of 1911, 267 Griffith-Boscawen (Sir A.), appointed Deputy Chairman of the President’s Administrative Council of the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries, 342; The State and Agri- culture, 181 Griffiths (Mrs. C. H.), Diffraction Patterns in the Presence of Spherical Aberrations, 682 : Grignard (V.), G. Rivat, and Ed, Urbain, The Chlorination of Methyl Formate and Methyl Chlorofermate, 491, x Li 1a bs Nature, April 15, pene Grindley (Dr...J. H.), appointed Principal of the Dudley Technical College, "306... Grout (F.: F.), and T.. M. ‘Broderick, Sonictures in the Huronian Iron-bearing Strata of the Mesabie Range is in Minnesota, 360 Groves (C. E.), [death], 608 ; [obituary], 637 Gude (G. K.), elected President of the Malacological Society of London, 671 Guérin (T. W. M. de), A Sculptured Human Figure Dis- covered on the Dolmen of Déhus, Guernsey, 487; The Megaliths: in Guernsey, 117 Guillaume (J.), Observations of the Sun made at the Lyons Observatory, 491 Guillet (L.), The Transformation undergone by Certain Aluminium Alloys, 459; J. Durand, and J. Galibourg, The Tempering of Certain Aluminium Alloys, 128 Guthrie (D.), The Birds of South Uist, 136 Guyot (J.), and L: J. Simon, Action of Hydrates, Oxides, and Carbonates of the Alkaline Earths on Dimethyl . Sulphate, 167; Action of Sulphuric Anhydride and of Oleum on Methyl Alcohol, 747 Gwynne (Comes), Submarine Mining, 487 Haber (Prof. F.), Chemistry, 318 Hadfield (Sir Robert), Appreciation of the Work of the De- partment of Scientific and Industrial Research, 670; History of the Microscope and its Applications in Metallurgy, 545; History of Microscopical Invention, 535; The Labour Situation in. the Country, 159; The Work of Faraday and the Faraday Society, 539; and T. G. Elliot, The Study of Highly Magnified Metal Sections, 537 Hadwen (Dr. S.), and Dr. A. E. Cameron, Horse Bot-flies, 64 Hahw (O.), and L. Meitner, The Genesis of Actinium, 575 seat (H. H.), Shrubs belonging to the Genus Carissa, awarded the Nobel Prize of 1918 for Muldane (Viscount), What is Truth?, 405 age is J.), The Manufacture of Chemicals by Electrolysis, Hall (Sir A. D.), appointed ‘Vice-Chairman of the Presi- dent’s Administrative Council of the Board of Agricul- _ture and Fisheries, 342;.elected a Member of the Athenzeum Club, 608 ; Hall (H. R.), Prof. L. W. King, 27 Halliburton (Prof. W. D.), .“Traube’? Waves, 418; and others, Accessory Food Substances, s20; J. C. Drum- mond and R: K.. Cannan, The Food Value of a Synthetic Product Prepared from Olive Oil and Manni- tol, 419 Hallimond (A. F.), Torbernite, 650 Hallmann (E. F.),) New Genera of Monaxonid Sponges Related to the Genus Clathria, 555 Halm (Dr.), Comet 1919g, 612 satan alee (J. A.), Harmsworth’s Universal Encyclopedia. No. 1, 659 Hannabind (C. H.), Volumetric Analvsis for Students of Pharmaceutical and General Chemistry. Second edition, 497 Hansen (Miss V.), and Fischer Petersen; Prof. Wolf; M. Ebell, Comets, 66; Metcalf’s Comet, 12 Harcourt (A. G. Vernon), [obituary article], 49 Hardy (G. H.), appointed Savilian Professor of Geometry in the University of Oxford, 398 Harmer (Dr. S. F.), Antarctic Whaling, 377; Enece of the Natural History Museum, 353. ~ Harris (Prof. D. Fraser), The Medical and Allied Pro- fessions as a State Service, 508 Harris (J. A.), and F. G. Benedict, Basal Metabolism in Man, 644 Harris (Prof. T. S.), The Sugar- beet in America, 592 Harris (Sir William Snow), The Work of, 417 Harrison (H. T.), A New Form of Photometer, 358 Harrison (Dr. J. W. H.), Peculiar Sex-relationships in Inter-generic Hybrids of Bistonine, 574; Effect - of Alcohol on Selenia bilunaria, 609 Harrison (R.), Resignation: of the Assistant Secretaryship of the Royal Society, 361 A Biometric Study of Harrison (W. Js Se Lacivessity Lecturer in ‘Mathes ¢ matics in Cambridge University, Aas 33 Hartley (Brig.-Gen.), The Development . of Chemical ‘War- fare, 455 Hasse (Adelaide R.), Index of Economic, ‘Material’ in Bociss ments of. the States of the-U.S, 704 Hatch (Dr. F. H.), The Iron and Steel Industry of the ‘United. Kingdom. under War Conditions, 111 a Hatzidakis (J.), Excavations in Crete, 356 Faverfield (Prof. F. J.), [obituary], 117; Bequest by, to - the University of Oxford, 266 Haviland (Miss M. D. Dy Preliminary Note on the. re April 15, 1920. Index xi a AD Re a; Barley, 446 ‘Hodgson (E. S.), Trilingual Artillery Distonaty. Vol. i., English—French—ltalian, 332 ~ Hodsman (H. J.), and Prof. Cobb, Fests be the Expansions of Refractory Materials; 379 ~~ ‘Hogben (L. T:), Nuclear’.Phenomena in ‘the Oeste: of Wei a Galley 3405 Studies in Synapsis, sa ged gees cin. the Galtvation of 3 vols. 9: 674. ey (EL. R.), Some Aolvetion Opiliones, 733 Holmes (T.-V.), Warren’s Pre-History in Essex, 112 - _ Holtedahi (Dr. O.), Forthcoming Exploring Expedition to Novaya Zemlya, 3873 -Suess’s “Sal’’ and “Sima " Magmas, 574 Hooker (R.-H.), elected. President of the Royal’ Meteoro- logical Society, 57 Hopkins (Dr. Cyril &, [obituary article} Pere se Horton (F.), and Ann C. Davies, An Experimental Deter- mination of the Critical Electron Velocities for the Production of Radiation and Ionisation on Collision with Argon Atoms, 406; Effects of Electron Collisions with Platinum and with Hydrogen, 618; The Tonisa- tion by Electron Collisions in. Argon and Helium, 454; and Miss D. Bailey, The Luminosity. Produced in Helium, 454 Hosmer (Prof. G. L.), Text-boole on Practical Astronomy. Second edition, 3 Houstoun (Dr, R. A.), Elements of Physics, 658 Howard (A. L. » The Timbers of India, 159 Howard (Dr. L. O.), elected President of the American Association, 613. ~ Howchin (W.),, The Geology .of South Australia, ‘Divisions, gt Howorth (Sir Henry H.), The Turks of Central ee 273: Hrdlitka (Dr. A.), The Population of Russia; 341°. - Hughes (T, S.), Bequest. to the University. of London, 344’ Hull (Rev. J. E.), “Gynandry ” among Spiders, 81...’ Hull (L. M.), Method of Rating oT eecmlontonalve Gprie: rators, 510 camps (E. W.), Presentation to, on Vacating the “Librarian p of the Patent Office, ’585 ; rT oe as pietek (P.), The Calculations of G, -H, Darwin on ithe Stability of the Pyriform Figure,-650,.-- yal Humphreys (Prof. W. J.), The Factors Controlling Climate, - 610 wiKF _ Humphry (R. H.), appointed ‘Lecturer in Physies. at the a Sir John Cass Technical Institute, 186 : Hutchins (D. E.), The Economic Value of the Forests of . New Zealand, 159 ; Hutton (J. H.), Leopard-men in the Naga Hills, 427 ‘Huxley (J.), The Courtship of the Dabchick, 359; Meta: morphoses of Axolotl caused by Thyroid-feeding, 435 In “two Ilford, Ltd., A Giardewiog Solution for Gelatine Negatives, II Inge (Dean), appointed Romanes Lecturer for 1920, 266 Inglis (Prof.), Portable.“Military Bridges, 486 Innes (R. T. A.), The Blink Microscope, 66 Izat (A.), febitnaryt 540 Jackson (Rt. Hon. F. as. The Natiogat Alliance of Employers and Employed, 485 Jackson (Sir John), fobituary], 298 Jackson (V. H.), and A. T. Mukerjee, Improvements in Measurements with Quadrant Electrometers. Part ii., 459; The Utility of Desiccants in Electrostatic Measure: ments, 459° ; James (A. V. E.), The Physiography and Geography of the Bulla- Sydenham Area, 610 James (R. W.), The Antarctic : Shackleton’s Expedition. of Bg, 1914-17, at. j - Jardine (Dri ¥. E.). appointed Lecturer. on Applied Anatomy F ip Edinburgh University, 425 _ Jayaram (B.), The Manganese. ‘Ores of the Shimogat and Adiacent Districts, 137. - _ Jeans (J. H.), awarded a Royal, Medal of the Royal Society, Z 295; 363; Relativity, 400; 631 Jeffreys (Dr. ay Relativity, 401; The National ‘Union of Scientific Workers and “Research, 23 é Jekhowsky (B.), Orbit of the Metcalf Comet 1919), 68 Jespersen (P.), The North Atlantic Halibut Fishery, 158 Joad (C. E- M.), Essays in Cornmon-sense Philosophy, 352 Johansen (A. C:), The Biometrics of the Spring-spawning Herrings, 158 Johnson* (Prof. D velopment, 70 Johnston (Sir Harry H.), A ‘Comparative Study of the Bantu and Semi-Bantu Languages, 129; The Flight from Cairo to the ‘Cape Aviation and Exploration, 632; The Prehistory of South’ Africa, 315 Johnston (R. M.), Proposed Memorial to the late, 117° Johnston (W. J.); A Linear Associative Algebra Suitable for Electro-magnetic Relations and the Theory of Relativity, 365 Johnstone (Prof. J.).. The Extension - Territorial Waters in: Relation to Deep-sea Fishing, Jolibois (P.), A New Method of Physico-chemical Analysis of Precipitates, 523 Joly (Prof. J.); A Photoelectric Theory of Colour ‘Vision, 74: Relativity and. Radio-activity, me Scientific Signalling: and Safety at’ Sea; a vand py J: ‘Poole, Reversed Pleochroic Haloes, 92 Jones (Prof. Bryner), Results of Geeshing Up Grassland in 1918, 9 Jones (B. M.), elected Professor of Chemistry in the Uni- _ Versity College of Wales, Aberystwyth, 186; elected to the Francis Mond: Professorship of Aeronautical erate ; neering in Cambridge \ University, 107! Jones (Chapman); Progress of Photography, 25t : Jones ' (Dr.: DD.» W. Carmalt), appointed Professor of Systematic Medicine in Otago University, 490° Jordan, (Dr. A. C.),X-rays in Medical Science, by fae Jourdain (P. E. B.), [obituary], 8 ae Jutson (J: T.) Dust-whirls: in: Sub-arid Western’ nostsiie 619 ; Rock Expansion by Temperature Variation in Sub- arid Western Australiay: 108; The “.Clawing ’” Action of ' Raih in) Sub-arid.:: Western: ‘Australia, 108 Jutson ae arate \e ‘Geology of ‘Albany, ’ 579 “Ww, ), ‘Shore Processes and. Shore-line De- Rave (G. eae Aatine Hindu Spherical Peers 119 Kaye (Dr. Gl ‘We'C.), Industrial dnd Medical s Radiology; 696 eds Keeble (Dr. F. W.), elected Sherardian Professor of Botany in Oxford University, 426°, >” — (Lt.-Col. Bs F..E.), fabltuety wriiie), 317 Keen (B. A.). Forecasting! Frosts,:450° °! Keilin (Dr. D.),, The Larval Structure and Life-history of Melinda cognata, Meig., 399 Keith (Prof. A.), Life and Work:of Sir Francis Galton, 670; Menders of the Maimed:- The Anatomical and Physio- logical Principles underlying the Treatment of Injuries to Muscies, Nerves, Bones, and Joints, 493 ; Nationality and Race from an Anthropologist’ 's Point of View, 476; Presidential Address to the Anthropology Section of the British Association, 36; 301; Race and Nationality from an Anthropological Point of View, 3443 Race and Per- sonality, 311 Keltie (Sir John Scott), Firbgiess of Geography, 249; and Dr. M. Epstein, The Statesman’s Year Book, 1919, 152 Kennelly (Prof. A. E.), and E. Velander, A New Form of Rectangular Cpatponas Alternating-current Potentio- --. meter, 42 Kenoyer (L. A.), The Dimorphic Female Flower of Acalypha indica, Kerr (Prof. J. Graham), Text-book of Embryology. Vol. ii-, Vertebrata with the Exception of Mammalia, 300° ; Kerr (W.), appointed Research Assistant in Mechanical Engineering at the Glasgow Technical College, 19 Kidston. (Dr. R.), and Prof. W. H. Lang. Old Red Sand- stone Plants showing Structure from the Rhynie Chert Bed, Aberdeenshire. Part iii., 458; The Petrified Plants from the Silicified Peat-bed’ in = Old.’ Red Sandstone of Rhynie, 641 King (Prof. L. W.), H.R. Hall, 27 King (W. B. R.), appointed Assistant to the Professor of | Geology in Cambridge University, 364; Geological Work on the Western Front, 476 Kingzett (C. T.). Suggestion for the Analysis of Air’ obtained at High Altitudes, 540 xii Index Nature, April 15, 1920 Kitson (A. E.), Discovery of Diamonds in the Gold Coast, 485 Kling (A.), and D. Florentin, The Production’ of Carbon Monoxide in Flames of Different Gases, 618; A. Las- sieur, and R. Schmutz, The Preparation of Chloro- methylchloroformates, #59; and E. Jacob, The Proper- ties of the Chlorinated Methyl Carbonates, 683 Knibbs (G. H.), The Organisation of Imperial Statistics, 551 Knott (Dr. C. G.), elected President of the: Scottish Meteoro- logical Society, 444; The Propagation of Earthquake- waves through the Body of the Earth, 477; and Miss Dallas, Magnetic Strains in Nickel-steel Tubes, 715 Kohn-Abrest (E.), Aluminium Spontaneously Oxidisable in the Air, 618 Kopaczewski (W.), and Mme. Z. Gruzewska, Seric Toxicity and the Physical Properties of Colloidal Gels, 651 Koppen (W.), Proposed Alterations in the Classification of | Climates, 418 ‘ Kunz (Dr. G. F.), The Production of Precious Stones in ' 1919, 610 Kustner (Prof,), Barnard’s Proper-motion Star, 420 Kuwada .(Y.), The Origin of Maize, 639 Lacroix (A.), Mineralogical and Chemical Constitution of the Volcanic Lavas of Tibesti, 68 Laing (Miss M. E.), appointed Research Assistant in Physical Chemistry at Bristol University, 306 Laird (T. P.), appointed Professor of Accounting and Busi- ness Method in Edinburgh University, 425 Lake (P.), appointed Reader in Geography in Cambridge University, 364 Laman (Dr. K. E.), Return from the Congo with Ethno- graphical Material, 177 : Lang (Prof. W. H.), Hornea Lignieri, 367 Lankester (Sir E. Ray), Completion of Fifty Years’ Editor- ship of the Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science, 295; International Relations in Science, 172; Parasitic Amcebe and Disease, 369; The Foundation of Biolo- gical Sciences, 198 ; : Lapicque (L.), Seasonal Variation in the Chemical Com- position of Marine Alge, 618 La Porte (F.), Atmospheric Observations at Gavre by Means of Free Rubber Balloons, 715 Lapsley (Dr. G.), ‘and others, The America of To-day. Being Lectures delivered at th: Local Lectures Summer Meeting of the University of Cambridge, 1918, 151 Lapworth (Prof. A.), and L. K. Pearson, The Direct Re- placement of Glycerol in Fats by Higher Polyhydric Alcohols, 399 Larmor (Sir Joseph),’ Determination of the Strengths of the Sources of a Disturbance Propagated into a Medium, 419; Generalised Relativity, in connection with Mr. W. J. Johnston’s Symbolic Calculus, 365 ; Gravita- tion and Light, 412; 530 Lartigne (A.), A New Form for the Formule of Line Spectra, 387 Lauder (Prof, A.), Agriculture at the British Association, 553 Laufer (Dr. B.), The “ Flying Gallop’? in Art, 114 emery (L. de), The Mineral Resources of Alsace-Lorraine, 40 Laurie (Dr. R. D.), Eugenics Education in the Training College, and Eugenics Education in’ the School, 513 Law (Bonar), and others, Gift to Glasgow University, 325 Lawrence (Col. T. E.), elected to a Research Fellowship at All Souls College, Oxford, 306 Lawson (R. W.), Displacement of Spectral Lines, 565; Entente Scientific Literature in Central Europe during the War, 436; The Doubly Refracting Structure of Silica Glass, 335 Layard (Nina F.), Remains of a Fossil Lion in Ipswich, 413 Lea (A. M.), New Species of Australian Coleoptera. Part XV., 555 Learmonth (Rear-Admiral F. C.), appointed Hydrographer of the Navy, 77 ; Lebour (Dr. Marie), The Food of Larval and Post-larval Fishes, 457 ‘| Lewis (Dr. T.), awarded the W. J. Mickle Lecat (Dr. M.), Pensées sur la Science, la Guerre et sur des Sujets trés Variés, Le Chatelier (H.), and B. Bogitch, Refractory Properties of Aluminous Materials, 128 “ Ledoux-Lebard and Dauvillier, The Fundamental Constants of the Spectrometry of the X-rays, 347 bag Lees (Prof. C. H.),: The Liquefaction of Gases, 247; The Temperature of the Earth’s Interior, 713 Lees (Dr. D.), appointed Lecturer on Venereal Diseases in Edinburgh University, 425 i Lefroy (Prof. H. Maxwell), and E. C. Ansorge. Report on an Inquiry into the Silk Industry in India. Three vols., 471 ‘ Legendre (J.), The Food of Eleotris Legendrei, 347 Leiper (Prof. R. T.), awarded the Straits Settlement Gold Medal, 540; Work of, 572 Leishman (Major-Gen. Sir W.), Protective. Inoculation ‘against Influenza in the Army, 703 ; : Lelean (Lt.-Col. P. S.), Defensive Science in Gas Warfare 646 Lemoigne (M.), A Specific Reaction of 2: 3-Butyleneglycol and of Acetyl-methylearbinol, 651 Lenney (C. W.), Bequest by, to Boston University, 167 Le Souef (Dr. W. H. D.), The More Important Indigenous Mammals of Australia, 297 Lester-Garland (L. V.), A Revision of the Genus Baphia, Afzel, 346 ; Leupp (F. E.:), George Westinghouse : Life and . Achievements, 592 : Leuschner (Prof.), Metcalf’s Comet, 12 Lever Bros. (Ltd.), Cattle Food Calendar, 1 His I Fellowship of London University, 426 : Lewis (Prof. W. C. McC.), Physical Chemistry, 3 rae Lightfoot (G.), Engineering Standardisation, pot Lincoln (Prof. A. T.), Text-book of Physical Chemistry, 3 Lindemann (Prof. A. F.), Relativity, 401; 632 Lippincott (Dr. W. A.), The Blue Andalusian Fowl, 81 Lister (G.), The Mycetozoa: A Short History of their Study in Britain; an Account of their Habitats Generally, and a List of Species Recorded from Essex, 332 Lister (Lord), Proposed Memorial to, in Edinburgh, 507; Unveiling of Tablets at University College in Memory of, 322 Little (A. D.), The Paper-making Qualities of Hawaian Bagasse, 341 : Lloyd (Dr. L. L:), appointed Head of the Department of Dyeing of the Bradford Technical College, 345 Lock (C. N. H.), elected a Fellow of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge, 616 Lockyer (Sir Norman), Valedictory Memories, 189; (Dr. H. Deslandres), 191 Lodge (Sir Oliver J.), Aither and Matter: Being Remarks on Inertia and on Radiation, and on the Possible Struc- ture of Atoms, 15; Aither and Matter, 82; Aither, The, versus Relativity, 543; A Photoelectric Theory of Colour Vision, 92 ; Atomic Energy, 435 ; Einstein’s Theory, 377; Gravitation and Light, 334; 354: 372: Relativity. 339; 400; Retirement of, 483; Sources of Power Known and Unknown, 397; Sources of Energy, The Need of Encouragement of Scientific Research, 75: The Theory ef Vision, 454; The Utilisation of Atomic Energy, 420 Loeb (Prof. J.), Amphoteric Colloids, 15; elected an Honorary Member of the Royal Institution, 358; The Sex of Frogs Developed from Parthenogenetic Eggs, 81 Loisel (P.), The Radio-activity of the Water from the Large Spring at Bagnoles-de-l’Orne and its Variations, 347 Loisy (E. de), The Synthetic Production of Alcohol or Ether, Starting with Coal-gas, 650 Lomas (E. K.), The Educational Aspects of Geography, 517 Longo (Carlotta), The Elementary Electrostatic Law accord- ing to Einstein’s Theory, 552 Lossky (Prof. N. O.), The Intuitive Basis of Knowledge, Translated by N. A. Duddington, 110 Louis (Prof. H.), British Iron Ores, 429; 565 Loveday (Prof. T.), appointed Principal of Southampton University College, 585 Lovell (J. H.), The Flower ‘and the Bee; Plant Life and Pollination, 132 Nature, April 15, 1920 Index Xill Low (Capt. J. W.), appointed Assistant in the Natural History Department, University College, Dundee, 712 Lowe (E. E.), The Taking over of Local Museums by the Board of Education, 703 : Lowe (Capt. P. R.), appointed Assistant in Charge of the Bird Room of the Natural History Museum, 340 Lowe (W.), Zoological Mission to the West Coast of Africa, 50 ; Lubs (H. A.), The Preparation of p-Aminocarvacrol and its Use as a Developing Agent in Photography, 79 Lucas (Sir C. P.), Islands as Centres of Preservation of Human Diversities, etc., 514 : -Lumiére and Seyewetz, A Simplified Method for the De- velopment of Autochrome Plates, 137 Lundahl (C. F.), Distances of the Stars of Type F, 479 Lyde (Prof. L. W.), Holland and International Rivers, 332 ; Presidential Address to the Geography Section of the British Association, 38; 141 Lydekker (R.), Wild Life of the World: A Descriptive Sur- ver of the Geographical Distribution of Animals. Three vols., Lyell of Kinnordy (Lord), Gift of Books on Geology to the Geology Department of Edinburgh University, 425 Lyman (Prof. T.), A Helium Series in the Extreme Ultra- Violet, 314; a ; Lynes (Capt. H.), logical Expedition to Darfur, 507 Lyons (Col. H. G.), Lt.-Col. B. F. E. Keeling, 317. . Lyster (Dr. C. R. C.), Retirement from the Position of Head of the Electro-therapeutic Department of the Middlesex Hospital, 358; [obituary], 572 Macalister (Prof. A.) [death], 8; [obituary article], 26 Macassey (Sir L.), The Economic Future of Women in - Industry, 9 Macfadyen (Lt. W. A.), An Aspect of Electrolytic Iron Deposition, 523 . Macfarlane (A.), Lectures on Ten British Physicists of the Nineteenth Century, 561 ; : Macfarlane (Prof. J. M.), The Causes and Course of Organic Evolution: A Study in Bioenergics, 149 Mackenzie (K. J. J.), re-appointed Reader in Agriculture in Cambridge University, 425 ‘Mackie (Miss), Discovery of a Faint Nova, 119; Nova in ~s Lyra, 704. ; ; Mackintosh (J.), The Outlook in Dairying, 554 : ‘Macleod (Prof. J. J. R.), assisted by Dr. R. G. Pearce and by others,- Physiology and Biochemistry in Modern . Medicine, 389 Macloskie (Prof. G.), [obituary], 540 Macmillan (George A.), Retirement of, from the Honorary Secretaryship of the Society for the Promotion of Hellenic Studies, 319 3 : ; Macmurray (J.), appointed Lecturer in Philosophy in Man- chester University, 19 Macpherson (Rev. H.), Herschel, 561 MacBride (Prof. E. W.), The Artificial t Echinus Larve with a Double Hydroccele, 456 MacMahon (Major P. A.), awarded the Sylvester Medal of the Royal Society, 295; 363 McBain (Capt. J. W.), appointed Professor of Physical Chemistry in the University of Bristol, 167; and C, S. Salmon, Colloidal Electrolytes, Soap Solutions and their Constitution, 712 ; McCarrison (Lt.-Col. R.), Genesis of Edema in Beri-beri, Production of 345 : ‘“McCaughey (Sir Samuel). Bequests by, 107 127 McClelland (J. A.), and A, Gilmour, The Electric. Charge -' on Rain, 682 f McCollum (Prof. E. V.), The Newer Knowledge of Nutri- tion: The Use of Food for the Preservation of Vitality and Health, 527 McDougall (Dr. W.), elected President of the Society for Psychical Research, 608 ; appointed Professor of Psycho- logy in Harvard University, 186 McIntosh (Prof. W. C.), Sea-fishery Investigations and the Balance of Life,’ 49. f : : _ McKay (R. F.), The Paravane or Otter, ‘“McKelvy (E. C.), [obituary], McKendrick (Major A. G.), vice, 660 487 Ce aS, tatistics of Valour and Ser- McLachlan (Dr. N. W.), An Experimental Method of Deter- mining the Primary Current at Break in a Magneto, 366 ; Effect of Pressure and Temperature on a Meter for Measuring the Rate of Flow of a Gas, 325 McLean (Prof. R. C.), Sex and Soma, 407 McLennan (E.), The Endyphytic Fungus of Lolium, 619 McLennan (Prof. J. C.), Resignation of the Post of Scientific Adviser to the board of Admiralty, 340 McMichael (L.), elected Hon. Secretary of the Wireless Society of London, 8 Maiden (J. H.), Notes on Acacias. No. iv., 587; The Coloration of the Young Foliage of Eucalyptus, 555 ; Two New Western Australian Species of Eucalyptus, 168 ; : Maitland (Gibb), The Nullagine Formation, 579 Makower (Dr. W.), and Dr. H. Geiger, Traduit de 1’Anglais r E. Philippi, Mesures Pratiques en Radioactivité, 626 Mallock (A.), Temperature in the Sun, 113 Mann (E. A.), and T. N. Kirton, Inertness in Industrial Explosives, 647 : Maquenne (L.), and E. Demoussy, Distribution and Migra- tion of Copper in the Tissues of Green Plants, 65; The Richness in Copper of Cultivated Soils, 407 Marbonne (E. de), The Geographical Unity of Syria, 97 Marconi (Mr.), Mysterious Interruptions in Wireless Opera- tions, 571 Marett (Dr. R. R.), Recent Excavations in Jersey, 487 _ Margerie (E. de), appointed Director of the Geological Survey of Alsace and Lorraine, 157 Marr (Prof. J. E.), The Pleistocene Deposits Around Cam- bridge, 386 : Marsh (S.), Alternating-current Electrolysis, 617 Marshall (Rev. E. S.), fobituary], 377 Marshall (Dr. F. H. A.), appointed Reader in Agricultural Physiology in Cambridge University, 364 Marshall (J.), An Unnoticed Point in the Theory of New- ton’s Rings, 714 Martin (Dr. C. J.), Preventive Medicine since 1869, 210; Martin (E. A.), Antiquity of the Genus Dolium, 446 Martin (L. C.), A New Form of “Daylight ’’ or Colour- matching Lamp, 358; and others, Colour-matching by Natural and Artificial Light, 610 Marvin (F. S.), The Century of Hope. A Sketch of Western Progress from 1815 to the Great War, 130 Masd (Rev. M. S.), Catalogue of Philippine Earthquakes for 1918, 98; Eruptions of the Bulusan Volcano in 1916, 1918-19, 99 Mason (T. G.), Electrolytes in the Leaf-sap of Syringa vulgaris, 427 ; Massingham (H. J.), Promotion of a Plumage Bill, 413 Massy (Miss Anne L.), The Holothurioidea of the Coasts of Ireland, 555 f : Masters (F. H.), appointed Editor of the Electrician, 266 Mathews (R. H.), Dyer-va-val Initiation Ceremony amongst the Birdhawal Tribe, 40 Matignon (C.), and Mlle. G. Marchal, Some Properties of Sodium Nitrite, 683; and E. Monnet, The Reversible Oxidation of Sodium Nitrite, 683 Matthews (Prof. E. R.), Studies in the Construction of Dams: Earthen and Masonry, 434 Matthews (R. B.), The Aviation Pocket-book for 1919-20. Seventh edition, 562 Mauguin (Ch.), and L. J. Simon, Cyanogen Chloride, 88; Preparation of Cyanogen Chloride by Held’s Method, Maupeia (Ch.), The Wind Velocity in the Stratosphere, 618 Mavor (G.), appointed Lecturer in Mechanical Engineer- ing at the Loughborough Technical College, 67 Maxwell (Sir Herbert), Change of Colour in Captive Birds, 692; The Hibernation of the House-fly, 435 Mazé (P.), M. Vila, and M. Lemoigne, Action of Cyanamide and Dicyanodiamide on the Development of Maize, 347; The Transformation of Cyanamide into: Urea by the Micro-organisms of the Soil, 387 Meadowcroft (L. V.), The Theorems of Lambert- and Adams on: Motion. in Elliptic ands Hyperbolic Orbits, 2 isda (J. W.),.-Hydro-electric Survey of, India. Pre- liminary Report on the Water-power Resources of India, 363; The General Principles of the ,Development and Storage of Water for Electrical Purposes, 161 Index L. Naiure, April 15, 3920 const (Mrs. M. L), Bequest to the University of. Oxford, Necks tc. F.9G,);-A Further: Study of Chromiqsome: Dimen- sions, 426... Meigh (E.), The Glass: Research Auiosietoms 299 Mellor (Dr. E: T.), awarded: the Consolidated Gold Fields of South Africa, Ltd.,.. Premium. by the Institution - of Mining and Metallurgy, 573 Melvin (Dr. G. S.),: appointed Professor of Physiology in Queen’s University, Kingston, Ontario, 19 “Mercier. (Dr. C.), A‘ Manual of the Electro-Chemical Treatment: of Seeds, 562 ; ideatht; 8; [obituary. hadteagiee 50 Merrill (Prof. E. D.), Identity of Poly podium spinvlosum, Burm.’ f., 20 Merton (Dr. T. R.), The Secondary Spectrum = Hydrogen ; te The Spectra of Isotopes, 406; The Spectra of Isotopes, 93 : Mesnager (M.), Method of Determination of the Internal Strains Existing in a Circular Cylinder, 618 Metcalf (M. M.), The Salpidze, 40 Miall (Dr. S.), Plotting. the Atomic » Weights Elements against. their Atomic Numbers, 704 Michelson (Dr. A. A.),‘and H. G. Gale, The Rigidity: of the Earth, 114; Tides in Pipes, 705 . Michkovitch (M.), Observation of Finlay’s Periodic Chavet made‘ at the Marseilles Observatory, 387 Micklethwait (Miss F.'M. G.), appointed - Principal of Swanley Hoiticultural College, 490 Middleton (Sir‘Thomas), Food Production in England, 553 Miers (Sir Henry A.), appointed a Member of’ the Ad- visory Council to. the Committee of the Privy Council for Scientific and Industrial Résearch, 178; elected President of the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society, 340; The Future of the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society, 326; Variation. of Refractive Indices, 334 Mill’ (Dr: H. R.), and M. de Carle S. Salter, British Rain- fall, 1918, 411 ! Millar (H.), Change of Colour in Plumage of Captive: “ Sun- birds,’’ or “ Honey-suckers,’’ 600 « ae ae The Pre-Cambrian Rocks of Central Canada, $ of the mine UH. bees Descriptive Geometry. Bourth : edition; 164 Miller 4Dr. . E.), Education for the Needs of Life: A UPektbooie 4 in the Principles of Education, 169 ~ Miller (J. M.), Connection between the Input Impedance of the Valve and the Load in the Plate Circuit, 510 Millikan (Dr. R. A.),, elected an Honorary Member of the Royal Institution, 358 Mills (J.), The Realities of Modern Science, 625 Milne (R. M.), Mathematical Papers for Admission into the Royal Military Academy and the Royal Military College. and Papers in Elementary Engineering for Naval Cadetships for the years 1909-18, 626 Milne (Prof. W. P.), The Mathematical Assocjation, 550; and G. J: B. Westcott, A First Course in me Calculus. Part i., Powers of X. 109 Milsum (I. N.), Fruit Culture in Malaya, 78 Mirande (R.), Alum Carmine and. its: Use, Combined with Iodine Green in Plant Histology, 684 ‘ Mitchell (J.), Two New Trilobites from Bowning, N. S.W., 271; Some Additional Trilobites from N.S.W., 587 Mitchell (Dr. P. Chalmers), Passenger and Observer on the Aeroplane Flying from Cairo to Cape Town, 607 Moir (J.), Colour and Chemical Constitution. Part ix., 491 Moir (J. Reid), Humanly Fashioned Flints in the Middle Glacial Gravel at Ipswich, 508; The Antiquity of Man, 235; and others, Pre-History of Man in Britain. Flint A” eg pel from the Chalky Boulder Clay of Suffolk, 70) Molteno (P. A.). Gift ae an Institute of Parasitology at Cambridge University, 305 Monaco (Prince of), Stray Mines in the North Atlantic, 187; The Oceanographic Study of the Mediterranean, 459 Moncton (H. W.), The Flora of the District of the London Clav, 520 Mond (R:), Gift to the Royal Institution, 296 Mond (R. L.), and C. Heberlein, Chemistry of ‘Burgundy Mixture,’’ S82 miccistobies (Mr.), The Plateau of ‘WMenteen Aiddtatia, 579 Moore (Prof. B.), Colloid and Saline in Shock and Cholera, ; be i Oh ah Mosce i (Dr. G. E: Ns External and Internal Relations, 490 Moore:(H.), Future Supplies. of Motor Fuel, 584 ds Moreno (Dr.. F. P.),-[obituary], 508, Morgan (Prof. C. Lloyd), Eugenics and Environment, Babi Morgan (Prof. G, T.), Applied Chemistry in Relation to ’ University Training, 1475: to.deliver the Streatfeild Memorial Lecture, 78 Morgan (Sir Herbert E.), and others, Need of the Country for Educated Men in directing Business: Affairs, 522 Morgan (J. D.), Principles of Electric Spark Ignition is Internal-combustion. Engines, 372. seach Morgan (P. G.), :The Organisation sand Functions of a State Geological-Survey, 517 reed tebles Morgan (Prof. I. H.), The Scene Sexual. Characters of Poultry, 159 eae a Moris (Sir » Daniel), Presidential’ Andee to the: Botany ‘Section of the British Association, .37, 38 ry Mes teed (Dr. Th.), The Use of the Word “ Anlage BaP : » .To.Lead an Expedition to Celebes and other i th 78 Moseley (H..G; J.), Scientific Work.of the-late, 444 _ ‘Moureur(G.);: and C. Dufraisse, The Stabilisation of Acro- lein, 307; P. Robin, and J. Pougnet, The Stabilisation of ‘Avedlein) 650i;;-and A. Lepape. The oe of Acrolein, 326, 387; and G. Mignonac, The De! oly by - genation: ofthe. Primary: and engaesacse gi ‘ Catalytic Oxidationj'715): © Moulton (H. Fletcher), The Binstela Theory’ aie Spectral Displacement, 532 Moulton (Rt. Hon. Lord), Science and War : The: peas Lecture, 1919, 352 : : Murray (Prof. Gilbert). An Amendment to the Responsions Statute moved by, in Congregation of Oxford ss roaie and Lost, 364 Murray (J. Alan), The Classification of Cattle Foods, 553 Muscio (B.),° Lectures on Industrial Psychology. Second edition, revised, 687 Mustawfi (Hamd- Allah), The Geographical Part of the Nuzhat-Al-Quliab, translated by G. Le Strange, 112 Mutch (Dr. N.), The Isolation of a Single Bacterial Cell, 446 Myers (F: W. H.), Human Personality and its Survival of Bodily gee Edited and abridged by S. ne and Bale : Myres ets é o 4 elected General Secretary of the British © Association, 52; Excavations on Sites in Cyprus in 1913, 487 Naser (Dr. Vv), Proposals for an Suchanie of Students between Denmark and Great Britain, 522 Nathan (Col. vestigation Officer under the am Pcie < Board, S40 Nathan (R.), promoted to K.C.S.1., ‘ Nethersole (Sir Michael) [obituary], ay Newell '(R. L.), appointed Demonstrator in Anatomy in. Manchester University, 19 Newnham (E. V.), Examples of Katabatic Wind in the : Valley of the Upper Thames at the Aerological Obser- vatory at Benson, Oxon., 675 : Newsholme | (Sir Arthur), and others, Influenza, 275 : Newton (Dr. A. P.), appointed Professor of Imperial His- tory in London University, tenable at King’s’ College, Nicholas (T. C.), appointed Demonstrator in- CemORy in Cambridge University, 364 Nichols (Prof. E. L.), elected General Secretary ‘of the American Association, 613 Nichols (Dr. W: H.), Research and its Application. a6a Nicholson (Prof. J. W.), The Lateral Vibrations of Sharply Pointed Bars, 713 Nicholson (S. B.), The Sun-spot Curve, 160 Aiea iomign (P.), The Action of Reagents upon Glass-powder, Nicoll (Prof. M.), appointed Harben Lecturer of the Royal Institute of Public Health. 376 Nicolle (M.), E. Debains, and E, Césari, The Mutual Pre- cipitation of Toxins and their Antitoxins, OIG 77% ‘Sir Frederic), appointed Power Alcohol In- . e Aprit. 15, 19205 Lndex “XV Gall,”’ Niven: (Prof. W.), Stone and, Terra-cotta Remains found __ inthe Neighbourhaod of; the City of Mexico, 9 Normand (Lieut. C. W. B.), Effect of High ithe teen ie Humidity, and Wind. onthe. Human: Body, 366° : Norris-Rogers (L. N.), Mirage Effects, 630°. North (F. J.), Syringothyris, ;Winchell, _ boniferous. Brachiopoda rererred D’Orbigny, 586... Noyes, jun. (W. A), Polarisation in Iron Soiations, 683 ; and certain Car- to puted te Iron, 407 Nuttall. (Prof Gack, Lies and their Relation to Discaex a “Oakesmith (Dr. J.), Race and Personality : An tagline. into the Origin and Growth of Patriotism, 311 Ogilvie (A. G.), appointed Reader in Geography in’ Man- ' chester University, 19 Ogilvie (Dr. F. G.), The Use.of. the Science Museum, South Kensington, 3 Okada (Prof. tT): Weather Forecasting in Japan‘: 509 Olivier (C. P.), and Van Maanen and Sanford, The Parallax of Nova Aquilz, 1918, 160 Olsen (Dr, O), to’ Conduct an Expedition to Siberia, “158 O'Neill (J. J.), Platinum in Canada, 574 Onslow (H.), A Periodic Structure in many Insect Scales, and the Cause of their Iridescent Colours, 649 Oppermann (A.), Premiers Eléments @ une Théorie du Quadrilatére Complet, 169 Ormerod (Miss Eleanor Anne), A Memorial Tablet to, at St. Albans, 638 Orton (Dr. J. wey Sex-phenomena in the Common Limpet (Patella vulgata), 373 Osborne (Prof, h. F.), Portrait of, presented to the Sedg- wick Museum, Cambridge University, 38. Osler (Sir William), [death], 443 ; [obituary article], 472 aap : H)), The Nesting Habits of the Sparrow Hawk, Bed UM. 'N), A Fungus Disease ‘of Potato- tubers, 341 Owen (W. D.), Guide to the Study of the Ionic. Valve: Showing its Development and Application to Wireless Telegraphy and Telephony, 332 Oye (Dr. P. van), The Cheetognatha found in Plankton taken off the North Coast of Java, 446 age in ), Gravitational Deflection of High-speed Particles, Rican (E. ), Tables of the Digamma and . Trigamma Functions, 341 : Palatini (Dr. A.)-La Teoria di Relativita nel suo sviluppo storico, 552; Traiettorie dinamiche dei sestemi ‘olonomi con tre gradi di liberta, 552 mer (Capt. A. R.), “The White _ Water,”’ 563 almer (G. W.), [obituary], 136 ; aneth (Dr. F.), appointed Professor of Chemistry in Ham- burg University, 426. rkinson (T. W. F.), Plea for the Encouragement of, - Geography in the Higher Forms of Secondary Schools, 514 rmelee (Dr. M.), Criminology, 687 ay (P.), Irrigation in Syria and Palestine, 44 ¢ (E.), The Interference of Power Circuits with Tele- phone Circuits, 517. Parry (Rear-Admiral Sir John F.),- Retirement of, as Hydro- grapher of the Navy, 77 arsons (Hon. Sir Charles A.), Presidential Address: to the British’ Association, 28; Researches at High Tempera-. tures and Pressures, 677; 709 sons (Prof. F. G.), Racial Characters:.of the Modern Briton, 487; Results of an Anthropological Examina-- tion of German Prisoners of War, 475 on (Prof. D. Noél), Presidential Address to the Physi- logy Section of the British Association, 39, 322°’ eake (H.). Origin and Relation of the Nordic and Mon- gee Elements in the: Finnic Population, 487 °° > ° : Nietenstein (Dr. M.), The Colouring Matter of the ‘‘Red-pea | :The: Potential SVSETY: for. Plecsolysing Solutions of, Pear (Prof. T. H.), The Elimination: of Wasteful Effort’ in) Industry, 387 Pearce (R.), Donation to the Royal Institution, 296 Pearl (Prof. Raymond), Analysis of the Mortality Statistics of the American Influenza Epidemic of 1918, 509 - Pearson (Prof. Karl), A» Method of Generalising Tcheby- cheff’s First Theorem, 580 Peary (Rear-Admiral R. E. ), {obituary article], 699 Pease (F. G.), Lunar Photography with the roo-in. Re- flector, 511 Peddie (Prof. W.), The Adequacy of the Vounm Helmholtz Theory of Colour-vision and Colour-blindness, 715; ‘The Quaternionic System as the Algebra of the Rela- ‘tions of Physics and Relativity, 7155 The Atomic ‘Space Lattice in Magnetite, 714° Peel (T.), Examples in Heat and Heat Engines, 690 Peet (T. E.), appointed Professor of Egyptology in Liverpool University, 425 Péringuey (Dr. L.), Bushmen Engravings, 44 Perrett (W.), Some Questions of Phonetic Theory, Chap. v., The Perception of Sound,. 591° Perrine (C. D.), Aphelia of Planets and Cotes 343 Perry (Sir Cooper), appointed Principal Officer of the Uni- versity of London, 344 Perry (W. J.), The Historical Process, .490 Petavel (Prof, J. E.), eee Director. of the Nati liek Physical »Laboratory,' 8; Presidential Address' to’ ‘the’ Engineering Section of the British Association, 38, 181 - Peters (Prof. C. A.), The Preparation’ of Substances Im- portant in Agriculture. Third edition, 497° fi Pézard (A.), Alimentary Castration in Cocks submitted ' te an exclusively Carnivorous Diet, 523: Philip (A.); Some Laboratory Tests-on Mineral Oils, 298 sap aa J. C.), Physical ChemistryPast and Present, Prins (Dr. HL B.), Differential and ‘Integral ‘Calculus, piensa 4 ea ane F.” Courty,: Observations of the Metcalf and Borrelly Comets, 128 Pickard (Dr. R. HH), _appothted Principal of Battersea Polytechnic, 325 « Pickering (S.), Mirage Effects, 6303 ' Radiation Cenaete. tures, 153; The Explosion: at Bailléul, 5 Pickering (Prof. W. H.), Lunar Studies, 542; The Birth of the Moon, 479; The Harvard Observatory. at Mande- ville, Jamaica, 138; The Orion Nebula, 448 - i Pictet and Potok, The Distillation of Sodium: Stearate car Sodium” Oleate, 360 Pilcher (R. B.), The Profession’ of Chemistry; 409 Rea Agr ass Pirsson (Prof. L. V.) fobituary) 443 Plimmer (Dr. R. H. chemical Department of Craibstorie Animal Nutrition Research Institute, 127 Planck (Prof. M.), awarded’ the Nobel Prize: of 1918" fbr Physics, 318 °«' Playfair (G, I.), Peridinee of N.S.W., 587 Poincaré (L.), Speech at the Openitig of the’ British’ Bureau of the Office National des Universités et Ecoles Frangaises, 712° ’ Poincaré (President), installed a ection of Gieszow ‘Unie! versity ; the Honorary Degree of LL. D. conferred “tipon, by Giasgow. University, 324: Gift to’ Glasgow Univer- sity, 325; Welcome to London, 295 Pole-Evans (Dr. I. B.), appointed Director: of the Botanical Survey of the Territories ‘included ° ins the Union ‘of, South Africa, 607. Pope (Sir William J.), The Phaisgcishy: of Coloured Ob-. jects, 346; The Position of Chemistry in Germany and , this Country as ‘a Result'of'the War, 4 5 ‘Porter (Prof. A. W.), The Yepour Pressure er Binary “Mix-' tures, 523 Porter (Mrs. L.), Floral: “Developintent in Tricuspidaria lanceolata, 346 yx! ee A.), appointed Héad of the BRA v ae Portevin (M.), Influence of wariotis Factors on the Creation Ss of Internal Longitudinal Strains earn t the Rapid Cool. e ing of Steel Cylindérs; 407. 2, Prain. (Sir David), elected ‘President of ‘the ‘Associati ign Of Econoinic Biologists, Preston (H.), Cost of ’ mabe atory? “Apparatus, SIt) Priestley. (Prof.); Fhe Phentinerion of Root! “pressure, 521 Xvi Index . Nature, April 15, 1920 Prior (Dr. G. T.), The Classification of Meteorites, 649 Proudman (Dr. J.), appointed Professor of Applied Mathe- matics in Liverpool University, 344 Punnett (Prof. R. C.), Mendelism. Fifth edition, 655 Purcell (Prof. P.), appointed Peat Investigation Officer under the Fuel Research Board, 540 Quilter (G. F.), Photographs of Appearances of Mirage at Ingatestone, 458 Race (J.), The Examination of Milk for Public Health Purposes, 467 Rai (Hashmat), Note on Nitrogen, 187; and H. B. Dunni- cliff, The Purification of Indian Sesame (“Til ’’) Oil, 187 Raman (Prof. C. V.), Percussion Figures in Isotropic Solids, 113; and Sivakali Kumar, Musical Drums with Harmonic Overtones, 500 Ramsay (the late Sir William), Unveiling of a Medallion Portrait of, in the University of Glasgow, 397 Ramsbottom (E. N.), elected to a Research Fellowship in Manchester University, 19 Ranken (Dr. C.), Industrial Chemistry, 497 Rankine (Prof. A. O.), Telephoning by Light, 604 Rasmussen (K.), Exploration of Northern Greenland, 453 Rawlins (F. I. G.), Report on the Collection of Metallur- gical Specimens presented to the Royal Microscopical Society by Sir Robert Hadfield, 406 Rawlley (R. C.), The Silk Industry and Trade, 591 Raworth (B. A.) [obituary], 135 Rawson (Col. H. E.), Plant-sports produced at will, 346 Ray (S. H.), Australian Signposts, 643; Unexplored Papua, 663 Rayleigh (Lord), Polarisation of Light Scattered by Helium Atoms, 412; Scattering of Light by Resonating Mole- cules, 276; The Doubly Refracting Structure of Silica Glass, 1 Read (Sir C. Hercules), An Ancient Chinese Bronze, 574 © Reader (T. W.), awarded the Foulerton Award of the Geologists’ Association, 397 Redmayne (Sir Richard), Resignation of the Chief Inspec- torship of Mines, 376 Reed (W. G.), Frost and the Growing Season, 95 Regan (C. Tate), and others, The Distribution of Fresh- water Fishes, 456 Reid (J. H.), The Charters Towers Goldfield, 515 Reisner (Prof, G. A.), Discovery in the Nile Valley of a Horse Cemetery, 702 Rendle (Dr. A. B.), Organisation of Scientific Work, 691 Rey (J.), The Characteristic of a Lighthouse at the Horizon, 271 Reynolds (Prof. J. Emerson) [death], 701 Reynolds (J. H.), Fifty Years of Technical Education, 257 Riccd (Prof. A.), Heliographic Latitudes of the Solar Pro- tuberances (1880-1918), 187; [obituary], 378 Rice (J.), The Predicted Shift of the Fraunhofer Lines, 598 Richards (Prof. T. W.), elected President of the American Academy of. Arts and Sciences, 116 Richardson (L. F.), The Deflection of Light during a Solar Eclipse, 393 Richet (Prof. C.), Injections of Gum or of Plasma after Bleeding, 491; La Sélection Humaine, 351 Rideal (E. K.), ‘Conferment of Doctorate upon, by the University of London, 185; and Prof. H. S. Taylor, Catalysis in Theory and Practice, 46% Ridewood (Dr. W. G.), Cephalodiscus, 481 Ridgeway (Sir William), A Remarkable Irish Bronze Axe, 445; The Colours of Racehorses, 334 Rigg (T.), appointed Agricultural Chemist at the Cawthorn Research Institute, 442 Rintoul and Baxter (The Misses), Ornithology for 1918, 10 Roaf (Dr. H. E.), appointed Professor of Physiology at the London Hospital Medical College, 616; Pathology of Pellagra, 520 Robb (Dr. A. A.), The Straight Path, soq Robbins (Prof. W. W.), The Botany of Crop Plants, 46 Report on Scottish Roberts (Prof. M. M.), and Prof. J. T. Colpitts, Analytic Geometry, 390 Robertson (C. Grant), appointed Principal of Birmingham University, 425; Welcomed as Principal of Birming- ham University, 615 Robertson (Dr, G. M.), appointed Professor of Psychiatry i in Edinburgh University, 425 Robin (P.), The Peroxide of Benzaldoxime, 307 Robinson (Capt. J.), Directive Wireless Telegraphy as Ap- plied to Aircraft, 487; Wireless Navigation for Aircraft, 24 Robinson (W.), Features of Mechanical Strains in Timber, etc., 345 Robson (F.), The Seashore Its Inhabitants and” How to Know Them, 132 Rockefeller (J. D. y Gift to the General Education Board, 158; Further Gift to the Rockefeller Institute, 267: Large Gift for Education and Science, 457 Rogers (Sir Leonard), Intravenous Injections of Gum Solu- tions in Cholera, 73 Rohlfs (R.), A High Aeroplane Altitude, 63; A Record Aeroplane Ascent, 77 Rohr (Prof. von), Optical Systems and the Graphical Methods of Determining Images, 704 Rolleston (Dr.), The Epidemiology, Symptoms, and Treat- ment of Cerebro-spinal Fever, 359 Rolleston (Sir Humphry Davy), Gifts to the Royal Institu- tion, 296 ea A ), The Climate of Liberia and its Effect on Man, Microscopical hes: +Sir E. Denison), Report of the Calcutta University Commission, 537 Ross (Prof.), National Scientific Organisation and Educa- tion, 578 Ross (Sir Ronald), Work for Scientific Workers, 297 Ross (R.), Mirage Effects, 662 Roubaud (E.), Antagonism of Cattle and Man in the Blood Nutrition of Anopheles maculipennis, 88 Round (Capt. H. J.), Radio Direction and Position Finding, 76 the National Union of. Risers (G.), J. Boisseau, and M. d’CElsnitz, Traitement des” Psychonévroses de Guerre, 22 Roux (Prof. E.), awarded the Oliver Sharpey Prize by the Royal College of Physicians, 608 Roux (Dr. P. B. E.), elected an Honorary Member of the Royal Institution, 358 Runner (G. H.), The Tobacco Beetle : in Tobacco Products, 301 Running (Prof. T. R.), Empirical Formulas, 109 Russ (Dr. S.), elected President of the Réntgen Society, 96 Russell (A.), Occurrence of Phenakite and Scheelite at Wheal Cock, St. Just, 326 Russell (Capt. A. S.), to Edit Discovery, 186 ; Russell (Dr. E. J.), Dr. Cyril G. Hopkins, 442; Farming in the New, Era, 592; The Ithaca Agricultural Experi- mental Station, 482; War-time and Post-war Problems of Food Production, 553 Russell (Hon. G. W.), Plea for Government Support for Science in New Zealand, 516 Russell (Prof.), The Sources of Stellar Energy, 269 Rutherford (Sir Ernest), Radium and the Electron, 226; and Dr. A. H. Compton, Radio-activity and Gravitation, 412 An. Important Pest Sabatier (Dr. P.), elected an Honorary Member of the Royal Institution, 358; and A, Mailhe, The Catalytic Reduction of the os; ign Acetic Esters, 347 Sachs (E. O.) [obituary], 6. Saha (Megh Nad), Radiation Pressure, 448 Saillard (E.), The Nitrogen Balance in Sugar Manufacture, 651 Salter (Carle), and F. J. W. Whipple, Editors of the Meteorological Magazine (hitherto Symons’s Meteorologi- cal Magazine), 608 Sampson (Prof. R. A.), Newton’s Views on Gravitation. etc. ; The Theory of Einstein and its Observational Tests, 458 Sanford (Prof. F.), The: ignis fatuus, 267 Nature, ] April 15, 1920, Index XVii Sankey (G. S.), made a K.B.E., 443 Saunders (Miss), A Graded Series of Forms in Matthiola, uiitdere (J. T.), Hydrogen-ion Concentration and Photo- synthesis, 366 Savile (Sir Henry), The Tercentenary of the Foundation of the University Chairs of Geometry and Astronomy by, 398 Schafer (Sir E. Sharpey), Developments of Physiology, "207; The Fatal Result of Section of Both Vagus Nerves, 3 18 Scnitittinise (A.), Observations of Finlay’s Comet made at the Nice Observatory, 3 Schlesinger (Dr. F.), aco Director of the Yale Observa- tory, 417; Two Stars with Large Parallaxes, 342 Schnittger br. B.), A Large Neolithic Graveyard found --by, at Gestilren, 77 Schoeller (Dr. W. R.), and A. R. Powell, The Analysis of Minerals and Ores of the Rarer ‘Elements for Analytical Chemists, Metallurgists, and Advanced Students, 310; - Villamaninite, a New Mineral, 326 Scholes (G. E.), appointed Professor of thermodynamics of Heat Engines, 648 Schorr (Dr.), Holmes’s Comet, 704 Schott (G. A.), The Scattering of X- and Y-rays by Rings of Electrons, 365 Schuchert (Dr. C.), The Stratigraphical Position of the American Morrison and the East African Tendaguru _ Formations, 672° ~ Schuster (Sir Arthur), The Deflection of Light during a Solar Eclipse, 468; The Influence of Small Changes ot Temperature on Atmospheric Refraction, 714” Schwarz (Prof. E. H. L.), The Kalahari Lake Scheme, 158 Scott (Dr.), Relation of the Seed-plants to the Higher _ Cryptogams, 521 Seares (F. H.), Absolute Magnitude as a Function of Colour, 479 Searles (E. F.), Gift to the University of California, 67 Sebileau (Dr. ), appointed Professor of Laryngology in the ‘University of Paris, 107 Senderens (J. B.), The Catalytic Hydrogenation of Lactose, GEO Senter (Dr.), and others, The Present Position of the * Theory of Ionisation in Solution, 707 é Sexton (Mrs. E. W.), appointed a Ray Lankester Investiga- tor at the Marine Biological Laboratory, Plymouth, 701 Shackleton (Sir Ernest), South: The Story of Shackleton’s ; Last Expedition, 1914-17, 602 Shah (Ikbal Ali), The Folk-life of Afghanistan, 573 Shand (Prof. S. J.). A Rift-valley in Western Persia, 490 ecm (Jean), The Structure of Megascolex Fletcheri, -nov., 619 Shapley (Dr.), A Nova discovered by Prof. Wolf and Prof. Barnard, 160; Open Stellar Clusters, 576; and Mrs., Stellar Clusters, 119 Sharp (H.), Seventh Quinquennial Review of the Progress Education in India, 156 Shastri (M. H.), The Contributions of Bengal to Hindu Civilisation, 418 ; Shaw and Mather, The Oilfields of Allen County, Ken- tucky, & Shaw (D. M.), The Forward Protrusion and Obliquity in the Upper Incisors, etc., 136 Shaw (Dr. J. B.), Lectures on the Philosophy of Mathe- matics, 390 Shaw (Sir Napier), Manual of Meteorology. Part IV. : The Relation of the Wind to the Distribution of Barometric Pressure, 525; Pioneers in the Science of the Weather, 613; Presidential Address to the Educa- sy Science Section of the British’ Association, 38, Engineering- Shaxby (Capt. J. H.), A Cheap and Siorplé Microbalance, . 335, _ Sheather (A. L.), A Malaria-like Parasite found in ‘the! Blood of an Indian Buffalo, 445 Sheldon (Prof. S.), and Prof. E. ‘Part I. : Mechanics, Sound, Heat, and Light, 4 Shelford (Dr. V. E.), Waste Involved in the Discharge of | Domestic and Industrial Sewage into the Sea’ and Rivers, 78 Hausmann, Physical | Laboratory Experiments for Engineering Students. | Sheppard (S. E.), and G. Meyer, Experiments with Photo- ' graphic Plates, 642 Sheppard (T.), Dane’s Dyke, 445; The Trade, 609 Sherrington (Prof. C. S.), Mammalian Physiology, 71 Shipley (Dr. A. E.), Resignation of the Vice-Chancellorship of Cambridge University, 126 Shipley (J. W.), The Nature of the Katmai Volcanic Gases and Encrustations, 595 Shufeldt (Dr. R. Ww), Certain Cranial Sutures in the Primates, 44 Sibly (Dr. T. F.), appointed Principal of Swansea Univer- sity College, 616; Iron Ores: The Hzmatites of the Forest of n and South Wales, 429 Sibree (E.), The Stanton Drew Stones, 445 ° Silberstein (Dr. L.), Italian “Papers on Relativity, 552; Relativity, 400 Simmonds (C.), Alcohol : Its Production, Properties, Chemis- try, and Industrial Applications, with Chapters on Methyl Alcohol, Fusel Oil, and Spirituous Beverages, Hull Whaling 431 Simmonds (W. G.), awarded the Parsons Scholarship by the Institution of Naval Architects, 186 Simpson (Dr. E. S.), Gearksutite at Gingin, Western Aus- tralia, 649 Skinner (J. J.), awarded the Edward Longstreth Medal of the Franklin Institute, 8 Skinner (S.), Radiation Temperature : Dew, 277 Slade (Dr. R. E.), and F. C. Toy, A New Method of Spec- trophotometry in the Visible and .Ultra-violet and the Absorption of Light by Silver Bromide, 713; and G. I. Higson, Causes of the Shape of the Characteristic Curve of a Photographic Plate, 510 Slipher ea -), Spectrum of Comet Brorsen-Metcalf, 576 Smiles (Dr. S.), appointed Daniell Professor of Chemistry at King’s College, London, 616 Smith (A. Malins), appointed Head of the Department of Biology of the Bradford Technical College, 345 Smith (B.), Iron Ores: Haematites of West Cumberland, * Lancashire, and the Lake District, 429 Smith (Prof. D. E.), Number Stories of Long Ago ; Number Puzzles before the Log Fire, 42 Smith (F. e+; A Ray Blotter: 682 : Smith (Prof. G. Elliot), The Evolution of the Dragon, 350 Smith (Dr. G. F. H.), A Curious Crystal from the Binnen- tal, 326 Smith (H. G.), The Essential Oil of Boronia binnata, Smith, and the Presence of Elemicin, 108 Smith (Prof. J. A.), The Philosophy of Giovanni Gentile, 586 Smith (Capt. Ross), Aeroplane Flight to Australia; 397: Smith (R. T.), The Electrification of Railways, 320 Smith (Dr. V. A.) [obituary], 671 Smith (W. Campbell), Volcanic Rocks in Northern Kordo- fan, Sudan, 693 Smyth (L. B.), "The Carboniferous Coast Section at Mala- hide, 427 Snell (H. J.), and W. H. Tams, The Natural History of Rodrigues, 366 ; Soddy (Prof. F.), Aspects of Modern Science, 625; Atoms and Molecules, 230; Organisation of Scientific Work, 691; The Waste of Youth, 89 Sola (C. }, Discovery of a New Comet (:920a), 576 Somerville (Prof. W.), Presidential Address to the Agri- culture Section of the British Association, 36, 421 Soreau (R.), Experimental Laws of the Variations of Baro- metric Pressure and of the Specific Gravity of Air with Altitude, 459 Spencer (Dr. J. F.), The Metals of the Rare Earths, 31u Spencer (L. J.), New Crystal-forms on Pyrites, Calcite, and Epidote, 326 Srinivasan (K. C.), The Manufacture of Glue in the Tropics, 611 Stacey (Lt, W. F.), Upper-air Temperatures at Martlesham Heath, February. 1917. to Tanuary. 1918, 675 met (Dr. J. C.), The Taxation of Profits of " Piisinestes, - * 485 : ’ Stanley (Major R.), appointed Principal. ‘of the Belfast Municipal Technical Institute, and Director of Technical Instruction for Belfast, 186; Text-book on Wireless Telegraphy. New edition in two vols., 462 XViii Index [ Nature, April 15, 1920 Stapfer and Moleski, Snowfalls, 618 Starck (H. P.), appointed Lecturer in Chemistry at the Bradford Technical College, 345 Stark (E. E.), The Effect of Low Power-factor from the Viewpoint of Electric: Power Station Operators, 517 Stark (Prof. H.), awarded the Nobel Prize. of 1919 for cca 318 Stead (Dr. J. E.), Investigations on Some Ternary Alloys: of Tin, Antimony, and Arsenic, 448; nominated as Presi- dent of the Iron and Steel Institute, 340 Steel (T.), Water from the Roots of the Red Mallee, 20 Steenwijk (J. E. de Vos Van), The Transit Circle, 80 Stefansson (V.), Living off the Country, 118 Step (E.), Insect Artizans and their Work, 132 Stephen (H.), and Prof. H. B. Dixon, The PONE S of Chemical Elements since 1869, 221 Stephens (J. G.), A New Method of Meduiving: Molecular Weights. 555 Sterling (J. W.), Bequest to Yale University, 67 Stewart (Dr. J. G.), appointed Lecturer in Engineering at University College, London, 107 Stewart (J. S.), The Rocky Mountain Belt in Alberta. 672 Stirling (the late Sir Edward), and E. R. Waite, Description of Toas, or Australian Aboriginal Direction Signs, 643 Stoddart (Dr. W. H. B.), Mind and its Disorders. Third edition, 624 Stokes (Dr. A. C.), Aquatic Microscopy for Beginners ; Common Objects from the Ponds and Ditches. edition, 498 Straehling (C.), The Radio-activity of Uranium, 459 Strassmaier (Father J. N.), [death], 506; [obituary], 540 Strathcona (Lord), Legacy of, to Yale University, 146; (Exors. of the late), Gift to the Institute of Parasitology, Cambridge University, 364 Stratton (Mr.), Types of Spectra occurring in the History of Nova Geminorum, 454 Stromeyer (C. E.) Memorandum for 1918-19 on Steam Boilers and Economisers, 675; The Study of Nationali- ties, 490 Stroobant (Prof.), Nova Aquile, 676; The Constitution of the Ring of Minor Planets, 676 Stuart (Prof. H. W.), College Studies, 490 Stuart (Dr. M.), The Deposits of Potash Salts in the Punjab Salt Range and Kchat, 268 Stuart (Dr. T.), appointed Lecturer in Mathematics at the Loughborough Technical College, 67 Suffern (C.). The Migration of Birds over the Mediterranean Sea, 418 Sulman (H. L.), awarded the Gold Medal of the Institution of Mining and Metallurgy, 573; The Study of Flota- _. tion, 401 Sunier (Dr. A. L. J.), Stomatopoda in the Fishery Station and the Museum at Buitenzorg, 446 Sussmilch (C. -A.), and Prof. T. W. Edgeworth David, Seaguence and Correlation of the Permo-Carboniferous and Carboniferous Rocks of N.S.W. Part i., 587 Swann (H. Kirke), A Synoptical List of the Accipitres _ (Diurnal Birds of Prey), Parts i. and ii., 529 Swinton (A. A. Campbell), Power from the Sun, 392, 532 Sykes (Major-Gen. Sir F. H.), Imperial Air Routes, 634 or, Fourth Tanret (G.), The Miellée of the Poplar, 367 Tansley (A. G.), appointed University Lecturer in Botany in Cambridge Universitv, 425 Tarazona (I.), Observation of the Solar Eclipse of November 22, 1919, at Valencia, 491 Tarde (A. de), Work of the French in Morocco, 298 Tarn (A.), Mirage Effects, 662 Tarrant (A. G.), The Measurement of Physical Properties at High Temperatures, 523 Taylor (F.), Australian Phlebotomic Diptera, New Culicida and Tabanide, and Synonymy, 555 Taylor (Griffith), The. Possibilities of Settlement in Tropical Australia, 648 Taylor (Dr. Hugh S.), Catalysis in Chemical Industry, 04 Taylor (J. R.), apnointed Director of Humanistic Studies in the Huddersfield Technical College. 127 Teale (E. O.). The Diabaseé and Associated Rocks of the 'Howqua River, near Mansfield, Victoria, 108 ‘Theal (Dr. Thaysen (Dr. A. C.), Different Aspects of Bacteriology out- side a7 the 455 McCall), Ethnography and Condition of South Attica before a.p. 1505. Second edition, 315 — Thomas (Major E, R.), The Work of an Ammunition Chenist.in the Field, 455 Thomas (Capt. H. Hamshaw), Some Features in the Topo- graphy and Geological History of Palestine, 345; The Desert Flora of Western Egypt, 520 Ys Thompson (Prof. D’Arcy W.), International Relations in- Science, 154; The Birth of Oceanography, 686 - Thompson (H.), Modern Engineering Workshop. Practice, 352 Thompson (Dr. McLean), Nature and Origin of the Pith and Inner Endodermis in Medullated Ferns, 521 Thomson (Dr. G. H.), awarded the Prize for a Paper on the Availability of Pearson’s Formule for Psycho- physics, 608 Thomson (Dr. J. Allan), The Geology and Palzontology of the Palliser Bay District, 517 . ea Thomson (Prof. J. Arthur), Heredity. Third edition, 923 Secrets of Animal Life, 172 Thomson (Sir J. J.), Presidential Address to the Royal Society, 361; Recommended for Re-election as Presi- dent of the Royal Society, 295; The Influence of In- vestigations on the Electrical Properties of Gases on Our Conceptions of the Structure of Matter, 224 Thorburn (A.), A Naturalist’s Sketch Book, 432 Thornton (Dr.), Ignition of Gases by Hot Wires, 487 — Thornton rates ), The Thermal Conductivity and the Velocity of Sound in Insulating Materials, 487 Thorp (Major G.), appointed Chief Instructor in Electricity at the School of Military Engineering, Chatham, 186 - Thorpe (Sir Edward), Progress of Chemistry, 217 Thrum (T. G.), The Formation of the -Hawaian Islands, etc., 508 Tilden (Sir William A.), Progress in Science Teaching, 253 Tilho (Col. J.), Discoveries in the Sahara, 610; The Raw Materials and Railways of Tropical ‘Africa North of the Equator, 68 Tillyard (Dr. R. J.), Australian Neuroptera. No, 8. Re- vision. of the Family Ithonide, 147; Mesozoic Insects of Queensland. No. 6, 147; No. 7, 587: The Panor- poid Complex. Part iii., The Wing-venation, 408 Tizard (Col.), Reduction of Engine Performance at a Great Height to a Standard Pressure, Density, and Temperature, 486 Tolkowsky (M.), Conferment of the Degree of D.Sc. upon, by the University of London, 616 Tolmatcheff (Dr.), Conditions in Petrograd, 443 Torporley (N.), The Career of, 297 ' Torricelli, Opere di Evangelista, Edite da: Gino Torta e Giuseppe Vassura. Three vols., 557 Townsend (Prof. J. S.),° Ionisation ‘of Gases, 233 - Trail (Prof. J. W. H.), fobituary article], 76 Travers (Dr. M. W.), The Control of Scientific a In: dustrial arate 597; The Position of the Glass Trade after the War, 455 A Trelease (Prof. wo “The Flora of Central America and the Antilles and Former Land Connections, 476° Trotter (A. P.), Lambert and Photometry, 358 Trouo (R. S.), elected Professor of Forestry, in Oxford : University, 186 Trowbridge (S. B. P.), and others, Zoological Sculpture in Art and Architecture, 117 Turner (Dr. A. J.), Revision of Australian Lepidoptera. Part vi, 20: 147 : Turner (Prof. H.), Long-Period Variables, 643 Turner (H. G.), [obituary], 702 Tutton (Dr. A. E. H.), Crystallographic Properties of nae: clinic Double Selenates of the Cobalt Group, ete., 447 Tweedy (Sir John), The Surgical Tradition (The Thomas Vicary Lecture), 418 Twenhofel (W. H.), Pre-Cambrian and Carboniferous Be Deposits, 640 Twyman (F.), Nariatinn of Refractive ial: 315 Uljanin (Prof. W.), Reduction of the Measurement: of the Horizontal Component of the Earth’s Magnetic Field - to that of an Electric Current, 510 Nature, - 7 April 15,1920 Index X1x Ungemach, (H.), A Remarkable Deposit of Chalcostibite in Morocco, 387 Unwin (Dr. W. C.), Developments: of Mechanical Science, 241; Results of Notched-bar Tests, 79 Van der Goot (P.), The Aphides of Java, 648 Vanderlinden (H.), Observations of Borrelly’s Comet, 1919¢, 326; Orbit of Comet 1919¢, 80 © Van Dyke (F. C.), Works Management, 543 Vaughan (W. W.), The Importance of Science as Part of a Liberal Education, 514 Vernon (Dr. H. M.), The Influence of Hours of Work and of Ventilation on Output in Tinplate Manufacture, 136; and others, The Influence of the Six-hour Day on In- dustrial Efficiency and Fatigue, 519 Véronnet (A.), Time and Temperature of Formation of a a=) Star, :3607 Victorian, Popular Science, 630 Vigneron (H.), Les Applications de la Physique pendant la Guerre, 2 : Villey (J.), Explosion Motors for Rarefied Atmospheres, 683 Vincent (Prof. T. Swale), appointed Professor of Physio- logy at the Middlesex Hospital Medical School, 616 Vines (Prof. S. H.), Impending Retirement of, from the Sherardian Professorship of Botany in the University of Oxford, 167 Vinter-Hansen (Miss), and Mr. Fischer-Petersen, A New Comet, 43 : Volmat (J.), Application of Aerial Photography to Hydro- graphic Surveys, 326 Vonwiller (Prof. O. U.), The Elastic Properties of Selenium, 347 : Vredenburg (E. W.), Shells: of the Family Doliidz, 78 Vries (Prof. H. de), The Present Position of the Mutation Theory, 213 Wade (Sir Charles G.), Australia: Problems and Prospects, 130; Prices and Government Control, 485 Wadia (D. N.), Geology of India for Students, 502 Wales (Prince of), Admission as Fellow of the Royal Society, 571; Conferment of Degree upon, 19; Con- sent to Become an Honorary Member of the Iron and Steel Institute, 77 j Walker (Emery), Reproduction of Illustrations, 1869-1919, 252 Walker (Prof. J.), Organic Chemistry for Students of Medicine. Second edition, 499 Walker (R. J.), The: Development of Geared Turbines for the Propulsion of Ships, 486 Walker (W.), appointed Chief Inspector of Mines, 397 Walker-Tisdale (C. W.), and T..R. Robinson, Practical Butter-making. Fourth revision, 528 Wall (Dr. R. C.), appointed Bradshaw Lecturer of the Royal College of Physicians, 608 Wallace (R. F.), [obituary], 573 Waller (Prof. A. D.), Decrease in Electrical Resistance, 520; The Energy Output of Dock Labourers during Heavy Work. Part i., 427 Walmsley (Lieut. L.), The Use of the Aeroplane in African Exploration, 379 3 Walpole (Dr. G. S.), The Present Position of the Chemical Industry of Germany, 484 Walsh (J. W. T.), The Resolution of a Curve into a Number of Exponential Components, 325 Walsingham (Lord), A Tribute fo the late F. DuCane God- man, 40; [obituary article], 376 Walton (Prof. L. B.), Factors of Organic Evolution, 81 Warburton (C.), The Solitary Wasp, Crabro cephalotes, 366 Ward (Prof. H. B.), and Prof. G. C. Whipple, Fresh-water "Biology, 498 Ward (Prof, J.), In the Beginning . . ., 325 Ward (Prof. R. De C.), Some Characteristics of the Rain- fall of the United States, 483 Wardlaw (Dr. H. S. H.), The Venous Oxygen Content of f the Alkaline Reserve of the Blood in Pneumonic In- Influenza, 407 — Warre (Rev. Dr. E.), [obituary], 572 Warren (S. H.), A Stone-axe Factory at Graig-lwyd, Pen- maenmawr, 346; Pre-Higtory in Essex, 112 Watkins (J. R.), Tests on Wood for Spars of Aeroplane - Wings, 42 ae Watson and Sons, Ltd., Catalogue of X-ray and Electro- medical Apparatus, 320 Watson (D. M. S.), Paleontology and the Evolution Theory, 485 é Watson (Prof. G. N.), Diffraction of Electric Waves, 454 Watson (Sir George), Endowment of a Chair in American History, Literature, and Institutions, 386 Watt (Sir George), Cotton Growing in the British Empire, 694 Watts (F.), appointed Lecturer in Psychology in the Uni- versity of Manchester, 616; Work as Assistant to the Director of the Department of Industrial Administra- tion in the Manchester College of Technology, 648 Watts (Prof. W. W.), Shropshire: The Geography of the County, 331 : ; Waugh (F. W.), Canadian Aboriginal Canoes, 78 Wayland (E. J.), The Problem of the Stone Ages in Ceylon, 609 Weaver (E. R.), and E. E. Weibel, Instruments for De- tecting and Measuring Combustible Gas Present in the Air, 65 Webber (Dr. W. P.), and Prof. L. C. Plant, Mathematical Analysis, 169 Weber (Sir H.), On Longevity and Means for the Pro- longation of Life. Edited by Dr. F. Parkes Weber. Fifth edition, 527 Webster (Dr. A. G.), elected an. Honorary Member of the Royal Institution, 358 Wedderburn (Dr. E. M.), Meteorology and Gunners, 641 Weigall-(Lt.-Col. A. G.), and C. Wrey, A Large State Farm: A Business and Educational Undertaking, 592 Welldon (Bishop J. E. C.), Political Science, 494; Training in Citizenship, 522 Wells (H. G.), The Outline of History: Being a Plain History of Life and Mankind. Part i., 371 Wells (Dr. S. Russell), elected Vice-Chancellor of London University, 42 5 Werner (Prof. A.), [death], 376 i West (Capt. R.), The Application of Air-brakes to Aero- planes, 486 r Weston (Capt. W. J.), The North Riding of Yorkshire, 4 Wheeler (Dr. Olive), New Views of Human Personality, 513 Wheeler (R. E. M.), Conferment of the Degree of D.Lit. upon, by the University of Loridon, 616 Whiddington (Dr.), A Wireless Method of Measuring e/m, 454; Thermionic Valves on Aircraft, 630 Whipple (F. J. W.), Equal Parallel Cylindrical Conductors in Electrical Problems, 365; The Laws of Approacn to the Geostrophic Wind,.458 Whipple (R. S.), elected President of the Optical Society, 671 Whitby, Variation in Hevea brasiliensis, 98 White (C. T.), A Revised Account of the Queensland Lecythidacex, 587 ? White (G. F.), Nosema-disease in Bees, 41 Whitehead (Prof. A. N.), Fundamental Principles in Educa- tion, 522; The Theory of Relativity, 632 Whitman (Prof. C. O.), Inheritance, Fertility, and the Dominance of Sex and Colour in Hybrids of Wild Species of Pigeons, edited by Dr. O. Riddle, 566; Orthogenetic Evolution in Pigeons, edited by Dr. O. Riddle, 566; The Behavior of Pigeons, edited by Prof. H. A. Carr, 566 Whitmell (C. T.), Surface-tension, 278; [obituary], 398 Whittaker (Prof. E. T.), A Survey of the . Numerical Methods of Solving Equations, 550 Whymper (Capt. R.), The Conditions that Govern Stale- ness in Bread, 99 Wicksteed (J. H.), [obituary], 443 Widal (F.), and P. Vallery-Radot, Anaphylaxy due to Anti- pyrin after a Long Phase of Sensibilisation, 683 Wieland (Dr. G. R.), Classification of the Cycadophyta, Introductory 509 Wiglesworth (Dr. J.), Bequest to Bristol University, 126 Wilks (Rev. W.), Resignation of the Secretaryship of the Royal Horticultural Society, 377 XX ‘ Index [ Nature, April 15, 1920 Willcocks (Sir William), The Nile Projects, 120 Williams (J. G.), The Electrolytic Formation of Perchlorate, 523 Williamson (H. B.), A Revision of the Genus Pultenza, 555 Willis (Dr. J. C.), A Dictionary of the Flowering Plants and Ferns. Fourth edition, 410; Origin of the Flora of New Zealand, 520 Willows (Dr. R. “ay Recent Work on Colloids, 650 Wilson (C. T. R.), elected President of the Cambridge Philosophical Society, 267 ; Wilson (Dr. F. J.), appointed l’rofessor of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry at the Glasgow Technical College, 19 Wilson (Dr. J.), [obituary], 539 Wilson (Prof. J.), The Application of the Food-unit Method in the Fattening of Cattle, 682 Wilson (the Ven. Canon J. M.), Science and the Church, 201 Wilson (Dr. W.), An: Astronomical Model, 344 Wimperis (Major H. E.), appointed Head of the Air Navi- gation Research Section of the Air Ministry, 572 Winslow (Prof. C. E. A.), The Untilled Fields of Public Health, 703 Wood (A.), appointed University Lecturer in Experimental Physics in Cambridge University, 425 Wood (Dr. H. B.), Sanitation Practically Applied, 311 Wood (Sir H. Trueman), The Development of our Natural Resources, 339 Wood (Prof. R:; W.), Researches on Physical Optics. Part ii. Resonance Radiation and Resonance Spectra, 526 Woods (Miss), Discovery of a Nova, 160 : ‘ Woodward (Dr. A. Smith), The Antiquity of Man, 212; 335 Wormald (H.), Conferment of Doctorate upon, by the University of London, 185 ‘ Wourtzel (E.), Existence of Nitrous Anhydride in the Gaseous State, 651; The Velocity of Oxidation of Nitric Oxide, 683 bai Wright (R.), Apparatus for Vapour-pressure Determina- tions, 581 hiss ae Wright (W. B.), Minor Periodicity in Glacial Retreat, 682 Yapp (Prof. R. H.), appointed Professor of Botany in Birmingham «University, 489 Young (J.), appointed an Assistant Lecturer in the Depart- ment of Physics of Birmingham University, 615 Young (Prof. S.), Brown’s Formula for Distillation, 555 Young (W. J.), A. Breinl, J. J. Harris, and W. A. Osborne, Effects of Exercise and Humid Heat upon the Pulse Rate, etc., 345 Zilva (Dr. S. S.), Effect of Prolonged Dietetic Deficiency, 66 Zimmer (G. F.), The Mechanical Handling of Chemical Materials, 137 1 Znaniecki (Dr. F.), Cultural Reality, 110 TITLE INDEX. Aberdeen University: Dr. J. Cruickshank appointed Georgina McRobert Lecturer in Pathology in, 385 ; Con- ferment of Honorary Degrees, 712 Aberystwyth, University College of Wales, B. M. Jones elected Professor of Chemistry in the, 186 Absolute Magnitude as a Function of Colour, F. H. Seares, Sele Sietanns, Part v., R. H. Cambage, 555 Acacias, Notes on, No. iv., J. H. Maiden, 586 Acalypha indica, The Dimorphic Female Flower of, L. A. Kenoyer, 297 Accipitres, A Synoptical List of the (Diurnal Birds of Prey), Parts i. and ii., H. Kirke Swann, 529 Accounts Rendered of Work Done and Things Seen,.J. Y. Buchanan, 686 Acridians, New Methods for the Destruction of, G. Bazile, 168 Acrolein : The Stabilisation of, C. Moureu and C. Dufraisse, o7; C. Moureu, C. Dufraisse, P. Robin and J. Pougnet, 650; C. Moureu and A. Lepape, 326, 387 Actinium, The Genesis of, O. Hahn and L. Meitner, 575 Admiralty, Board of, Resignation of Prof. J. C. McLennan of the Post of Scientific Adviser to the, 340 Adult Education: 452; Committee of the Ministry of Re- construction, Final Report of the, 452 ; Advisory Council to the Committee of the Privy Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, Sir Henry A. Miers appointed a Member of the, 178 Aerial: Photogrammetry, the Present Position of, P. R. Burchall, 379; Photography, Application of, to Hydro- graphic Surveys, J. Volmat, 326 Aeronavigazione’ e Costruzioni Aeronautiche, Dizionario Internazionale di, Italiano, Francese, Inglese, Tedesco, Lt. M. M. Dander, 656 Aeronautica, Meteorologia, Prof. G. Crestani, 656 Aeronautical Engineers, Institute of, Foundation of an, Prof. .G.H. Bryan President Elect of, 340 Aeronautics: Exhibition at the Science Museum, South Kensington, 397; in Italy, Prof. G. H. Bryan, 656 Aero-Photography, the Field of Application for, P. Dautriche, 99 4 ‘ Aeroplane: Altitude Record, An, R. Rohlfs, 77; Flight from Cairo to Capetown, 607; to Australia, The, Capt Ross Smith,, 397; High Altitude, An, R. Rohlfs, 63; Use of the, in African Exploration, Lieut. L. Walmsley, 379 Ether: and Matter: being Remarks on Inertia, and on Radiation, and on the Possible Structure of Atoms, Sir Oliver J. Lodge, 15, 82; The, versus Relativity, Sir Oliver J. Lodge, 543 - Afforestation of Water-catchment Areas, Prof. A. Henry, 520, 554 Afghanistan, The Folk-life of, Ikbal Ali Shah, 573 Africa, Tropical, Raw Materials and Railways of, North of the Equator, M. Tilho, 68 African Rift Valley, The, Prof. J. W. Gregory, 518 Agar-agar, The Preparation of, in California, 703 Agricultural: and Horticultural Research Station, Long Ashton, Report of the, 418; Experimental Station, Ithaca, New-York, Reports of the, for the Years 1914-17, 482; Research, A New Development in, 579 Agriculture: and the State, Sir Arthur Griffith-Boscawen, 181; at the British Association, Prof. A. Lauder, 553; Electricity in, Dr. J. F. Crowley, 268; Frosts and, in the United States, 95; Productive, Prof. J. H. Gehrs, 495; The Preparation of Substances important in, Prof. C. A. Peters. Third edition, 497 Aiming at Objects in the Air, A System of, A. Bichet, oO Air aie, Application of, to Aeroplanes, Capt. R. West, 486; Diminution of the Transparency of the, at Paris, L. Besson, 651; Navigation Research Section of the Air Ministry, Major H. E. Wimperis appointed Head of the, 572; obtained at High Altitudes, Proposed Analysis of, C. T. Kingzett, 540; Pollution of the, by Smoke, etc., Appointment of a Departmental Com- mittee upon, 701; Routes, Imperial, Major-Gen. Sir F. H. Sykes, 634; -screws, The Sound. emitted by, Prof. G. H. Bryan, 486 ‘ " PON ears Nature, April 15, 1920. Index Xxi Aircraft: Research, The Need for, 589; Wireless Naviga- tion for, Capt. J. Robinson, 24 Airships, Wing-Comdr, Cave-Browne-Cave, 486 Ajuga genevensis and Centaurium scilloides, Druce, var. portense (Brot.), Occurrence in Britain as Native Plants of, Dr. G. C. Druce, 406 Albany, The Geology of, Jutson and Simpson, 579 Alcohol: from Ethylene Gas, E. Bury, 416; its Production, Properties, Chemistry, and Industrial Applications. With Chapters on Methyl Alcohol, Fusel Oil, and Spirituous Beverages, C. Simmonds, 431; or Ether, A , Commercial Method for the Synthetic Production of, starting with Coal-gas, E. de Loisy, 650; Power, Investigation Officer, Col. Sir Frederic Nathan appointed, 540 Alcohols, the Primary and Secondary, The Dehydrogenation of, by Catalytic Oxidation, C. Moureu and G. Mig- nonac, 715 : Aldabra, etc., The Flora of, Dr. W. B. Hemsley, 118 Algal Deposits, Pre-Cambrian and Carboniferous, W. H. Twenhofel, 640 Algebra, A Linear Associative, suitable for Electro-magnetic Relations and the Theory of Relativity, W. J. Johnston, 365 Algebraic: Cube, The, 79; Equations, The Rationalisation of, N. N. Chatterjee, 187 : Allen County, Kentucky, The Oilfields Mather, 672 Alloys: Light Aluminium Casting, Tests of, 478; of the Duralumin Type, Heat-treatment of, 510; of Tin, Anti- mony, and Arsenic, Some Ternary, Dr. J. E. Stead, 448; Spherical Shell Crystals in, 448 Alpine Plants for Rock-gardens, 664 Alsace and Lorraine: Geological Survey of, E. de Margerie appointed Director of the, 157; The Mineral Resources of, L. de Launay, 640 Alternating-current Electrolysis, S. Marsh, 617 Alum Carmine and its Use, combined with Iodine Green in Plant Histology, R. Mirande, 683 Aluminium Alloys: The Tempering of certain, L. Guillet, J. Durand, and J. Galibourg, 128; The Transforma- tion undergone by certain, L. Guillet, 459; Thermal Treatment of, M. Grard, 187; in . Norway, New Sources of, L. Hawkes, 160; New Sources of, Major J. E. Bacon, 277; Spontaneously Oxidisable in the Air, E. Kohn-Abrest, 618 Aluminiumfremstilling av Norske Raastoffer, Om, Prof. V. M. Goldschmidt, 161 America of To-day, The, being Lectures delivered at the Local Lectures Summer Meeting of the University of Cambridge, 1918. Edited by Dr. G. Lapsley, 151 American: Academy of Arts and Sciences, Prof. T. W. Richards elected President of the, 116; Agriculture, An Atlas of, 640; Association, The St. Louis Meeting of the, 612; Dr. L. O. Howard appointed President of the Association, and Prof. E. L. Nichols General Secretary, 613; Books on Agriculture, 495; Embassy, Closing of the Office of Scientific Attaché at the, 40; History, Literature, and Institutions, Endowment of a Chair in, Sir George Watson, 386; Meteorological Society, Formation of an, 40; Morrison and the East African Tendaguru Formations, The Stratigraphical Position of the, Dr. C. Schuchert, 672; Scholars and Research Work in Asia, Prof. A. T. Clay, 64; Uni- versities, 151 Americans who have produced Inventions of the First Rank, II p-Aminocarvacrol, Preparation of, and its Use as a Develop- ing Agent in Photography, H. A. Lubs, 79 Amoebe : living in, Man, The, Prof. C. Dobell, 369; Para- sitic, and Disease, Sir E. Ray Lankester, 369 Ammonia: Advantages of the Synthesis of, at Very High Pressures, G. Claude, 683; Nitrate of, The Extraction of, from Surplus Stocks of Explosives, Prof. Garelli, 447; The Synthesis of, at Very High Pressures, G. Claude, 459 Ammunition Chemist, Work of an, in the Field, Major E. R. Thomas, 455 Amplifying Electric Valves, Applications of, L. Bloch, 647 of, Shaw and Anaphylaxy due to Antipyrin after a Long Phase of Sensi- bilisation, F. Widal and P, Vallery-Radot, 683 Andalusian Fowl, The Blue, Dr. W. A. Lippincott, 81 Anderson College of Medicine, Glasgow, Dr. J. Graham appointed Professor of Anatomy in the, 19 Andes of Peru and Bolivia, Geological Sections through the, ii., J. A. Douglas, 681 Anglo-Saxon Remains at Ravensbury Manor, Mitcham, 474 Animal Life: and Human Progress. Edited by Prof. A. Dendy, 21; Secrets of, Prof. J. Arthur Thomson, 172 “* Anlage,’’ A Protest against the Use of the Word, Dr- Th. Mortensen, 357 Anopheles maculipennis, Antagonism of Cattle and Man im the Blood Nutrition of, E. Roubaud, 88 Antarctic Whaling, Dr. S. F. Harmer, 377 Anthropological Institutes of France and the United King- dom,’ The, Sir E. Brabrook, 476 Anthropology at the British Association, 487 Apples, Experiments to Ascertain the Composition of Run- nings of Pressed, Misses D. Haynes and H. M. Judd, 379 Aquatic Fauna of Seistan, Dr. N. Annandale and others, 453 Aquatic Microscopy for Beginners; or, Common Objects from the Ponds and Ditches, Dr. A. C. Stokes. Fourth edition, 498 Arc-spectra of Metals of Low Melting Point, The Direet, A. de Gramont, 650 Arcs of Primary Triangulation in the U.S. and Mexico, Connection of the, W. Bowie, 509 Aristotelian Society, Proceedings of the. New Series, voll xix; Supplementary vol. ii., 559 Armstrong College, Comdr. C. Hawkes appointed Professor of Engineering at, 616 j Arsenic: Compounds for Direct Intravenous Injection in Simple Aqueous Solution, Baxter and Fargher, 342; Estimation of Small Quantities of, by Micro-titration with Iodine, H. H. Green, 477 Artillery Dictionary, Trilingual, E. S. Hodgson. 3 vols. Vol. i., English-French-Italian, 332 Asset and Obligation, 621 Association of Surgeons of Great Britain and Ireland, Formation of the, Sir John Bland Sutton elected Presi- dent, 507 Astronomical: Lectures and Essays, 370; Model, A New, Rev. A. L. Cortie, 343; Observatories, Selection of Sites for, 138 ASTRONOMICAL NOTES. Comets : Metcalf’s Comet, Miss V. Hansen and F._ Fischer- Petersen, 12; Comet Notes, 43; Comets, Miss V. Hansen and F. Fischer-Petersen; Prof. Leuschner, Prof. Wolf; M. Ebell, 66; Comets, H. Vanderlinden, 80; Comet 1919b, Braae and Fischer-Petersen, 1003. Comets, 100; Comet 1919¢c, 119; Ephemeris of Comet 1919b, Braae and Fischer-Petersen, 138; Comet 1919b (Brorsen-Metcalf), Braae and Fischer-Petersen, 180; Comets, 269; Comets, 321; Comets, Aphelia of Planets and, C. D. Perrine, 343; Comets, 361; Comets, 380; Comets, 448; New Comet 1920a, C. Sola, 576; Spec- trum of Comet Brorsen-Metcalf, Prof. Slipher, 576; Comets, 612; Holmes’s Comet, Dr. Schorr, 704 Instruments : The Blink Microscope, R. T. A. Innes, 66; Lunar Photo- graphy with the 1oo-in. Reflector, F. G. Pease, 511 Meteors : The Recent Shower of Perseids, 12; Large Meteors, 179; The Leonid Meteors, 299; Large Fireball, 321; The Leonid Meteoric Shower, 342; The December Meteoric Shower, 400; Fireball of December 25, 448; Large Fireball on January 16, 544, 576; Large Fireball om February 4, 642 Observatories : The Selection of Sites for Astronomical Observatories, Prof. W..H. Pickering, 138 Planets : Minor Planets, 100; The Albedo of Saturn’s Rings, L- Bell, 138; The Secular Acceleration of the Moon, Prof. E. W. Brown, 299; Aphelia of Planets and Xxii Index ¥ Nature, April 15, 1920 Comets, C. D. Perrine, 343; Heliocentric Grouping of Planets-in December, 361; The Birth. of. the Moon, Prof. W. H. Pickering, 479; Minor Planets, Dr. F. Cohn, 511; Lunar Studies, Prof. W. H. Pickering, 544; The Motion of the Moon, Dr. J. K. Fothering- ham, 612; Mercury as an Evening Star, 674; Is Venus Cloud- covered?, J. Evershed, 675; Minor Planet GM, 704 Stars : A Faint Nova, Miss Mackie, 119; Stellar’ Clusters, Dr. and Mrs. Shapley, 119; Nove, Miss Woods; Dr. Shapley; Mr. Joy; C. P. Olivier; Van Maanen and Sanford, 160; The Sources of Stellar Energy, Prof. Russell ; Prof. Eddington, 269; The Group of Helium Stars in Orion, Dr. Bergstrand, 299; Two Stars with Large Parallaxes, Prof. F. Schlesinger, 342; Barnard’s Proper-motion Star, K. Graff, 420; The Orion Nebula, Prof. W. H. Pickering, 448 ; "Distances of the Stars of Type F, C, F. Lundahl, 479; Absolute Magnitude as a Function of Colour, F. H. Seares, 479 ; Spectroscopic Determination of Stellar Parallax, W. $. Adams and G. Stromberg, 511; Open Stellar Clusters, Dr. H. Shapley; Sir F. W. Dyson, and Mr. Melotte, 576; Stars of High Velocity, W. S. Adams and A. H. Joy, 612; Relative Masses of Binary Stars, G. van Biesbroeck, 643; Long-period Variables, Prof. Turner, 643; Nova in Lyra, Miss Mackie, 704 Sun: The Sun-spot Curve, S. B. Nicholson, 160; Solar Radia- tion, C. G. Abbot, 160; -The Great,Solar Prominence of Last May, 420; The Solar Eclipse of May 29, 1919, C. R. Davidson, 544 Miscellaneous : The Future of the Transit Circle, J. E. de Vos Van Steenwijk, 80; The Twenty-four-hour Day, 100; Hindu Spherical Astronomy, G. R.. Kaye, 119; Fall of a Meteorite in America, 361; Wireless Time Signals, 380; Leeds Astronomical Society, vol. xxvi. of the Journal, 380; Discussion on Relativity, Prof. .Edding- ton; Dr. Jeans; Sir Oliver Lodge; Dr. Silberstein ; » Prof. Iaindemann; Dr. Jeffreys, 400; Radiation Pres- sure, Megh Nad Saha, 448; Centenary of the Royal ‘Astronomical Society, Prof. A. Fowler, 674; Tides in ‘. Pipes, A. A. Michelson and H. G. Gale, 705 - for Surveyors, The Elements of, Prof. R. W. Chapman, 499; Practical, Text-book on, Prof. G. L. Hosmer, Second edition, 3; Spectroscopic, Prof. A. Fowler, 234; The Adolfo Stahl Lectures in, delivered in San Francisco, Cal., in 1916-17 and 1917-18, under the auspices of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific, Astronomy : 370 - Atheneum Club, Sir Daniel Hall, elected a member of the, 608 Atmosphere : Free, The Characteristics of the, W. H. Dines, 505; Internal Friction in the, D. Brant, 714; The Structure of the, when Rain is falling,~ Prof. V. Bjerknes, 346 Atmospheric: Air, Search for a Characteristic Equation Applicable to, Ed. Fouché, 491; and Terrestrial Radia- tion, W. H. Dines, 714; Refraction, The Influence of small Changes of Temperature on, Sir Arthur Schuster, 714; Observations at Gavre by means of free Rubber Balloons, F. La Porte, 715 Atom, The Constitution of the, and the Properties of Band Spectra, Dr. H. Deslandres, 271; 347 Atomic: Disintegration and Heat Energy, Sir Oliver Lodge, 420; Energy, Sir Oliver J. Lodge, 435; Weights of ' the Elements, Plotting the, against their Atomic Num- bers, Dr. S. Miall, 704; Weights, &c., problems of, 398 Atoms and Molecules, Prof. F. Soddy, 230 Aurora of October 1, The, Dr. C. Chree, and others, 119 Australia: Problems and Prospects, Sir C. G. Wade, 130; the Flora of, Contributions to, No. 28, A. J. Ewart and ad se Tovey, 347; Tropical, Future of, G. ,Taylor, 648 Australian Army Medical Corps in Egypt, the, Lt.-Col. J. W. Barrett and Lt. P. E, Deane, 560; Educational Institutions, Bequests to, by Sir Samuel McCaughey, | 127; Lepidoptera, Revision of, Part vi., Dr. A: Turner, 20; Lepidoptera, Part vi., Dr. A.J. Paste 1473 Opiliones, Some, H. R. Hogg, RRL Neuroptera, . No.'8: Revision of the Family Ithonidz, Dr. R. J. | Tillyard, 147; Phlebotomic Diptera, new. Culicidze and- Tabanide, and Synonymy, F. Taylor, 555; Rainfall P and Wheat Yield, 606; Signposts, S, H. Ray, 643; South, Geology, 91; Stratiomyidee (Diptera), with Ron cription of New Species, G.B Hill, e712 Autochrome Plates, a Simplified Method for the Develop- ; ‘137; The use +of, — M. ide i -ment of, Lumiére and Seyewetz, instead of Hand-paintings for Chardonnet, ° 307 Automobile Engineers, Institution of, Sir Henry Fowler elected President of the, 638 Autotrophic Flagellate, The Beading of an, A. H. Church, Clouds, 594 Autumn Weather, the Abnormal, 417 Aviation: during the War, Progress of 1919-20, The, R. B. Matthews, Seventh edition, 562 ; Position and Prospects of, L. ‘Bairstow, 246; nih oes ‘Progress in, Sir Richard: Glazebrook, 397° : Awards for Medical Discovery, Suggested, 671 Axolotl, Metamorphosis of, APs 's. Huxley, 435 Bacterial Cell, a Single, the Isolation of, Dr. N. Mutch, 446 Bacteriology outside Medicine, Different Dspace bes? ES scaeg A. C. Thaysen, 455 Bailleul, The Explosion at, is S. Pickering, 5 - Balkans, Discoveries made in the, au the War, Seo Casson, 487 Bantu « Languages, a Comparative Study of the Bantu Se Li V, Lester- a ‘ and Semi-, Baphia, Afzel, Garland, 346 Sir Harry H. Johnston, 129 A revision of the Genus,- Barnard College, Bequest to, by Genl. H. Ww. Carpentier, 167 Barnard’s Proper-motion Star, K. Graff ; Prof. ‘Rultnes, 420 Barometric Pressure and Underground "Water-levél, BG. . Bilham, 366; Variations of, and of the Specific ‘Gravity of Air with Altitude, R. Soreau, 459 Battersea Polytechnic, courses at, 43; Dr. R. H, Pickard appointed Principal of, 325 Beats, Unpleasant, The Upper Limit of, N. Chatterjee, 708 Bedford College for Women, Decision to Extend the; 306 © Bed-lice, Destruction of, by wee hl G. Bertrand, Brocq-Rousseau and Dassonville, Beginning In the, Prof. J. Ward, 375 Belfast Municipal Technical Institute, Major R appointed Principal of the, 186 Belgian Royal Observatory, Dr. iA. C.° D: Cromuniiliag 676 Belgique, Annuaire de 1’Observatoire Royal de, 1920, 158 Belgium, Gifts for Education ‘in, 67 Benzaldoxime, Oxidation of, J. Bougault and P. Robin, 20; The Peroxide of, P. Robin, 307 _- Beri-beri, The Genesis of CEdema in, Lt.-Col. at McCarri- son, 345 Biological: Nature-Study, A Seniree Book of, E. R. Downing, 465; Problems, 90; Science in Secondary Schools,’ Prof. S. J. Hickson, 693; Sciences, The Foundations of, Sir E. Ray Lankester, 198 Biologists, Economic, Association of, General Meeting of the, Sir David Prain elected President, 417 8 : Biology, Fresh-water, Profs. H. B. Ward and G. eG. Whipple, 498 ‘ Biometrika, Vol. xii.; Pts. iii, and iv., 579 Bird-Liming in Lower Egypt, J. L..Bonhote, 444; Migra- tion, Dr. M. C. Grabham, 334 Birds : 444; Beneficial to Agriculture, F, W. Frohawk, 72 ; of South Uist, D. Guthrie, 136; The Migration of, over the Mediterranean Sea, .C. Suffern, 418 ow Birkbeck College, Celebration of Founder's Day, 405; , Courses at, 87 Birmingham : Principal of, 425; C. Grant Robertson ‘welcomed as the Scientific’ Development of, L. Bairstow, 486; Pocket-book for - caused we Rie eed, Sia : and the Destruction of Insect Pests, Major Si Flower, . University, C. Genie Robertson ‘appointed | T= Department of Physics, 615; Gift to, for the Endowment of the Adrian Brown chair of Brewing; Gift to, for a Lectureship in honour of Prof. J. H. Muirhead, 648; Prof. R: H. Yapp appointed Professor of Botany, Dr. W. Cramp, Professor of Electrical Engineering in, 489 Birth-rate, The declining, The Bishop of Birmingham, and ; _ others, 157 ; : Bistoninee, Peculiar Sex-relationships in Inter-generic Hy- brids of, Dr. J. W. H. Harrison, 574 + Blade-screws, The General Theory of, G. de Bothezat,: 543 Blink Microscope, The, R. T. A. Innes, 66 ’ Blood Corpuscles, Sedimentation of, Prof. A. E. Boycott, a may: ; Bicd hows The Réle of Capillaries in the Regulation of the, Dr. H. H. Dale, 519 “ Blue John ’’ and other varieties of Fluorite, Cause of the Colours of, B. Blount and J. H. Sequeira, 65 Board of Agriculture and Fisheries, Reorganisation of the, and Appointments under, 319; Sir A. Griffith- Boscawen -appointed Deputy Chairman, and Sir A. D. Hall Vice-Chairman of the President’s Administrative Council of the, 342 : Board of Trade, the appointment of Prof. S. J. Chapman as Joint’ Permanent Secretary of the, 135 Body-lice, History of Isolated Pairs of, and of their Off- spring, Dr. E. Hindle, 456 Boiler Plants, Colliery, D.. Brownlie, 120 ; Boronia pinnata, Smith, The Essential Oil of, and the Presence of Elemicin, H. G. Smith, 108 Borrelly’s Comet, Observations of, P. Chofardet, 87; H. Vanderlinden, 326 - ; : ' ere Boston: Society of Natural History, Memoirs of the, Vol. viii., No 3, The Turtles of New England, Dr. H. L. Babcock, 23; University, Bequest to, by :C. .W. Lenney, 167 ~ : , - Botanic Gardens and Stations, British, 263 Botanical : Research, The Evolution of, Prof. J. M. Coulter, a 581; Teaching, Elementary, Reconstruction of, 64 Botany at the British Association, 520 Boys’ Own Book of Great Inventions, The, F. L. Darrow, 152 i Bradford Technical College, Appointments at the,: 345 Bread, Staleness in, The Conditions that Govern, Capt. R. Whymper, 99 © Brisbane University, Bequest to, by Sir Samuel McCaughey, 108 Bristol : Museum and Art Gallery, Report of the, H. Bolton, 574; University, Appointment of Capt. J. W. McBain to the Chair of Physical Chemistry in, 167; Bequest to, by Dr. J. Wiglesworth, 126; Miss M. E. Laing appointed Research Assistant in Physical Chemistry in, 306 : British 1 ak seat Universities, Proposed Exchange of Teachers and Students between, 345; Antaretic (Terra Nova) Expedition, 1910. Cephalodiscus, Dr. W. G. Ridewood, 481; Association, The Bournemouth Meet- ing of the, 7; Inaugural Address of the President, the Hon. Sir Charles A. Parsons, 28; Summaries of Addresses of Presidents of Sections, 36; to be Held at Cardiff in 1920, and at Edinburgh in 1921, 52; Bourne- mouth, The, 51; Presidential Address to the Mathe- matical and Physical Science Section, Prof. A. Gray, 52; Presidential Address to the Chemistry Section, Prof, P. P. Bedson, 59; Presidential Address to the Geology Section, Dr. J. W. Evans, 102; - Presi- dential Address to the Zoology Section, Dr. F. A. Dixey, 121; Regplutions on the Need of Grants from the Government for Research, 135; at Bourne- mouth, The, Presidential Address to the Geography Section, Prof. L. W. Lyde, 141; Proposed History of the, 158; Presidential Address to the Economic Science and Statistics Section, Sir Hugh Bell, 162; Presidential Address to the Engineering . Section, Prof. J. E. Petavel, 181; Presidential Address to the Anthropology Section, Prof. A. Keith, 301; Presidential Address to the. Physiology Section, Prof. D. Noél Paton, 312; The, and Scientific Research, 3373 Presidential Address to the Botany Section, Sir Daniel Morris, 381; Presidential Address to the got os Natur tes April 15, x92): Index XXIll Principal; J. Young appointed an Asst. Lecturer in the Educational Science -Section, Sir . Napier Shaw, 401; Presidential: Address to the Agriculture Section, Prof. W. Somerville, 421; Physics at the, 454; Chemistry at the, 455; Zoology at the, Prof. J. H. Ashworth, 456; Geology at the, 484; Economics at the, 485; Engineering at the, 486; Anthropology at the, 487; Physiology at the, 519; Botany at the, 520; Education at the, 521; Agriculture at the, Prof. A Lauder, 353; of Research for the Cocoa, Chocolate, Sugar, Confectionery, and Jam Trades, Formation ‘of a, 117; Botanic Gardens and Stations, 263 ;- Dr. W. E. Freeman; The Writer of the Article, 469; Bureau of the Office National des Universités et Ecoles Frangaises, L. Poincaré at the Opening of the, 712; Cotton Industry Research Association, Prof. A. W. Crossley appointed Director of Research to the, 296; The Appointment of Prof. A. W. Crossley as Director of Research of the, 319; Chemists during the War, Services of, 8; Empire, Cotton-growing in the, Sir George Watt, 694; Enchytreeid Worm, A New, Rev. H, Friend, 174; Ferns and How to. Identify. Them, J. H. Crabtree, 410; Fisheries Guild, Proposed Foundation of the, 638; Imperial Antarctic Expedition, A, J. Li Cope, 93; Iron Ores, Prof. H. Louis, 429; D. A. E.. Evans; Prof. H. Louis, 565; Launderers’ Industry, The Research Association for the, Approved, 507; Medical Association, Forthcoming Annual Meeting of the, at Cambridge, 474; Physicists, Lectures on Ten, of the Nineteenth Century, A. Macfarlane, 561; Rainfall, 1918, Dr. H. R. Mill and M. de Carle S. Salter, 411; Rubber and Tyre Manu- facturers’ Research Association, Establishment of the, 158; Science Exhibition, Glasgow, 343; Science Guild, Journal of the, July, 11, January, .642; Scientific Societies Founded during the Past Fifty Years, 270; Technical Optics, The Outlook of, Prof. F. Cheshire, 530; Well-worms, Rev. H. Friend, 5 Brown’s Formula for Distillation, Prof. S. Young, 555 Bryophyllum calycinum, Mechanism of Regeneration in, 15 Budapest University Unable to Resume its Work through Lack of Fuel, 364 Bulla-Sydenham Area, Physiography and Geography of the, A. V. E. James, 619 Bulusan Volcano, Eruptions of the, Rev. M. S. Masd, 99 Bureau International des Poids et Mesures, Travaux et . Mémoires du. Tome xvi., 12 ‘‘ Burgundy Mixture,’’ Chemistry of, R.. L. Mond and C. Heberlein, 82 Bushman Engravings, Dr. L. Péringuey, 44 . ‘ Butter-making: Practical. Fourth revision, .C. W. Walker- Tisdale and T. R. Robinson, 528 Butyleneglycol, A Specific Reaction of 2»: Acetylmethylcarbinol, M. Lemoigne, 651 3-, and of Cactaceze, The, N. L. Britton and J. N. Rose, 41 Cairo: School of Medicine, Dr. E. Hindle Appointed Pro- fessor of Biology in the, 127; to the Cape, The Flight from, Sir H. H. Johnston, 632; Prof. J. W. Gregory, 633 ; Cajal formalin-silver Nitrate Impregnation Method for the Golgi Apparatus, The, H. M. Carleton, 406 Calculus; A First Course in the, Part i., Powers of X, Dr. W. P. Milne and G. J. .B. Westcott, 109; Differ- ential and Integral, Dr. H. B. Phillips, 1o9 Calcutta University Commission, Report..of the, Denison Ross, 537 Calendar, The Reform of the, 415 Calendrier, réforme du, Commission pour la, 415 California University ; Bequest to, by General H. W. Car- pentier, 167; Gift to, by E. F. Searles, 67 Californian Dialects, R. B. Dixon, and A. L.. Kroeber, Sir -E. 541 Cambridge: Forestry Association, Archives of the, 1919, 672; Philosophical Society, Election of Officers, 267; University Press, New Catalogue of the, 639; The Universities of Oxford and, The Royal Commission on, 329; Women at, 265; University, Mr. A. J. ‘Balfour to be Nominated as Chancellor of, 67; The Nomination of Mr. Balfour as Chancellor of, 96; XXiV Index [ Nature, April 15, 1920. B. M. Jones Elected to the Francis Mond Professor- ship of Aeronautical Engineering in, 107; Resignation of the Vice-Chancellorship of, by Dr. A. E. Shipley, Election as Vice-Chancellor of Dr. P. Giles, 126; Mr. A. J. Balfour Elected Chancellor of, 146; Mr. Balfour In- augurated Chancellor of, 266; Gift by P. A. Molteno for an Institute of Parasitology; Postponement of Special Lectures by Sir J. J. Thomson and Prof. Eddington ; Recommendations of the General Board of Studies; Difficulties of Accommodation at, 305; Forthcoming Establishment of a Professorship of Physical Chemistry ; Recommendation of A. Amos to the University Lecture- ship in Agriculture, 324; Appointment of Royal Com- missioners to Consider Financial Assistance to, 325; Gift to the Institute of Parasitology, by the Executors of the late Lord Strathcona & Mount Royal;-Dr. F. H. A. Marshall Appointed Reader in Agricultural Physiology ; P, Lake Appointed Reader in Geography; W. B. R. King Appointed Assistant to the Professor of Geology, and C. Nicholas Appointed Demonstrator in Geology ; 364; Lecture on the Theory of Relativity, Prof. Edding- ton; Presentation of a Portrait of Prof. H. F. Osborn ; 385; K. J. J. Mackenzie Re-appointed Reader in Agriculture ; W. J. Harrison Appointed University Lec- turer in Mathematics, A. Wood, University Lecturer in Experimental Physics, A. G. Tansley, University Lecturer in Botany, and F. Balfour Brown, University Lecturer in Zoology, 425; A John Couch Adams Astronomership in, 615; Offer of an E. G. Fearnsides Scholarship; H. M. Fox, F. Debenham, and C. N. H. Lock Elected Fellows of Gonville & Caius College, 616 Cammellaird-Fullagar Marine Oil-Engine, The, 642 Camphor Cultivation in the West Indies, 98 Canada, the Mineral Production of, for 1918, 673 Canadian Aboriginal Canoes, F. W. Waugh, 78 Cancer Research and Vivisection, 136 Carbohydrates, The Simple, and the Glucosides, Dr. E. F. Armstrong. Third edition, 526 Carbon: Dioxide, Pure, The Separation by Solidification of, from a Gaseous Mixture, V. Cremieu and A. Lepape, 307 ; Monoxide in Flames of Different Gases, Production of, A. Kling and D. Florentin, 618 Carboniferous Coast Section at Malahide, The, L. B. Smyth, 427 Carnivora and the Three Classes of Food, H. Bierry, 387 Cass, Sir John, Technical Institute, E. de Barry Barnett Appointed Lecturer in Organic Chemistry, and R. H. Humphry Lecturer in Physics at the, 186 Catalysis: in Chemical Industry, Dr. H. S. Taylor, 94; in Theory and Practice, Dr. E. K. Rideal and Prof. H. S. Taylor, 463 Catalytic Actions at Solid Surfaces, Part ii., Dr. E. F. Armstrong and T. P. Hilditch, 406 Cattle: Food Calendar, Lever Bros, 119; Foods, The Classification of, J. Alan Murray, 553; the Fattening of, Application of the Food-unit Method to, Prof. J. Wilson, 682 Cawthorn Research Institute, The, Prof. T. H. Easterfield Appointed Director of; T. Rigg Appointed Agricultural Chemist at, 442 Celebes and Other Places, Dr. Th. Mortensen to Lead an Expedition to, 78 Central: America and the Antilles, The Existing Flora of, Prof. W. Trelease, 476; Canada, The Pre-Cambrian Rocks of, Dr. Miller, 485 Cephalodiscus and the Archichordates, 481 Cerebral Cortex, Sensation and the, Dr. Head, 267 Cerebro-spinal Fever, the Epidemiology, Symptoms, and Treatment of, Dr. Rolleston, 359 Cestrinus, Er. (fam. Tenebrionidz), and Some Allied Genera, K. G. Blair, 407 Ceylon, the Problem of the Stone Ages in, E. J. Wayland, Chadwick Public Lectures, Forthcoming, 712 Chetognatha in Plankton Taken off the North Coast of Java, Dr. R. van Ove, 446 Chalcostibite, a Remarkable Deposit of, in Morocco, H. Ungemach, 387 Characters in Organisms, The Existence of two Funda- mentally Different Types of, Dr. R. R. Gates, 713 Charters Towers Goldfield, The, J. H. Reid, 515 Chatham School of Military Engineering, Major G. Thorp Appointed Chief Instructor in Electricity at the, 186 Cheese: and Butter-making, 528; The Book of, C. Thorn and Prof. W. W. Fisk, 528 Chemical : Dictionary, The Condensed, 622 ; Elements, The ' Discovery of, Since, 1869, Prof. H. B. Dixon and H. Stephen, 221; The Mass Spectra of the, F. W. Aston, 714; Industries, General Position of, in the Chief Countries of the World, R. P. Duchemin, 268; The Organisation of, 484; Materials, The Mechanical Handling of, G. F. Zimmer, 137; Society, changes in the Officers and Council of the, 7o1; Forthcoming Lectures at the, 158; The Library of the, F. W. Clifford, 298; Technology, The, 65; Warfare, The Development of, Brig.-Gen. Hartley, 455 Chemicals, The Manufacture of, by Electrolysis, A. J. . Hale, 529 ; Chemist, the Government, Report of, 575 : Chemistry: Annual Reports on the Progress of, for 1918, issued by the Chemical Society, Vol. xv., 91; Applied, in relation to University Training, Prof. G. T. Mor- gan, 147; at the British Association, 455; Elementary Practical, Part i., General Chemistry, Prof. F. Clowes and J. B. Coleman, Seventh edition, 688; Handbooks of, 497; Industrial, Dr. C. Ranken, 497; Industrial, 622; in the Making, Prof. H. E. Armstrong, 219; Organic, for Students of Medicine, Prof. J. Walker, Second edition, 499; Physical, Past and Present, Prof. J. C. Philip, 223 ; Text-book of, Prof. A. T. Lincoln, 3; Practical, Senior, H. W. Bansor, 497; Progress of, Sir Edward Thorpe, 217; The Position of, in Germany: and this Country as a Result of the War, Sir William Pope, 455; The Profession of, R. B. Pilcher, 409; Theoretical, Outlines of, Dr. F. H. Getman, edition, 3 Chemists, the British Association of, the Second Annual Meeting of, 319 ; Chemists’. Year Book, The, 1918-19, Edited by F. W. Atack, assisted by L. Whinyates, 2 vols., 112 Chicago University, foundation of the Edith Barnard Memorial Fellowship in, 67 ‘ ; China, Scientific Researches and Collections in, Proposed Swedish Grant towards, 178 Chinese Bronze, An ancient, Sir C. Hercules Read, 574 Chippawa-Queenston Hydro-electric Development Scheme, The, Dr. B. Cunningham, 483 Chlorinated Methyl Carbonates, The Properties of the, A. Kling, D. Florentin, and E. Jacob, 683 Chlorination of Methyl Formate and Methyl Chloroformate, V. Grignard, G. Rivat, and Ed. Urbain, 491 * Chloromethylchloroformates, Preparation of, A. Kling, and others, 459 : Chloropicrin : Comparative Action of, on the Weevil and on Tribolium, G. Bertrand, Brocq-Rousseu, and Das- sonville, 619; Insecticidal Power of, Influence of Tem- perature and other Physical Agents on the, G. Bertrand, and others, 459; Production of a Gas in the Distillation of, J. A. Gardner and F. W. Fox, 419 Chromosome Dimensions, A further Study of, C. F. U. Meek, 426 © Citizenship, Training in, Bishop Welldon, 522 Civil Engineers, Institution of, Abstracts of Papers of the, 674 Civilisation, The Origin of, with Special Reference to the Nile Valley, Prof. J. H. Breasted, 267 Classics in the Educational System of the United King- dom, Appointment of a Committee upon, 364 Clays, Relations between Chemical, Composition, Micro- scopic Structure, and the Ceramic Qualities of, L. Bertrand and A. Lanquine, 523 Climate, Factors Controlling, Prof. W. J. Humphreys, 610 Climates, Classification of, Proposed Alterations in the, W. Koppen, 418 ; Coal at Port-Gueydon, Discovery of a lens of, G. B. M. Flamand, 307 Cobalt Group, R,Co (SeO,),, 6H,O,, Crystallographic properties of the Monoclinic Double Selenates of the, Dr. A. E. H. Tutton, 447 Cocks, Alimentary Castration in, Submitted to an -Exclu- sively Carnivorous Diet, A. Pézard, 523 Cocoa, Production and Consumption of, 10 Nature, i April 15, 1920. Lndex XXV College Studies, Prof. H. W. Stuart, 490 Colliery Boiler-plants, Performance of, D. Brownlie, 120 tare and Saline in Shock and Cholera, Prof. B. ‘Moore, Colloidal : Electrolytes, Soap Solutions and their Con- stitution, J. W. McBain and C. S. Salmon, 712; gels. Seric Toxicity and the Physical Properties of, . Kopaczewski and Mme. Z. Gruzewska, 651 Colloids: Amphoteric, Prof. J. Loeb, Recent Work on, Dr. R. S. Willows, 650 Cologne Post, The, 458 Colonial Services, Agricultural Departments in the, Ap- ' pointment of a Committee to consider the, 325 Colour ; and Chemical Constitution, Part.ix., J. Moir, 4913 Change of, in Captive Birds, Sir Herbert Maxwell, 693; in Plumage, Chan nge of, of Captive ‘‘Sun-birds,”’ or ‘‘ Honey-suckers,’’ Millar, 600; Kinematographs of the Gaumont Establishment, J. Charpentier, 387; -Matching by Natural and Artificial Light, C. Martin, and _ others, 610; Vision, A _ Photo- electric Theory of, Prof. Ie Joly, 74; Sir Oliver Lodge, gas) Dro oH. 5. Allen, 174 Columbia University, Bequest to, by Gen. H. Ww. Car- pentier, 167 Comet: 1916c, Orbit of, H. Vanderlinden, 80, 119; 1919b, Ephemeris of, Braae and Fischer-Petersen, 138, 180; Spectrum of, Prof. Slipher, 576; 1919g, Dr. Halm, 612; 1920a, Discovery of, C. Sola, 576; Notes, 43, Comets: Miss V. Hansen and F. Petersen ; Prof. Wolf; M. Ebell, 66, 100, 269, 321, 361, 380, 448; Metcalf and Borrelly, Observations of the, L. Picart and F. Courty, 128 Common-sense Philosophy, Essays in, C. E. M. Joad, 352 Congo, Return of Dr. K. E. Laman from the, 177 Congress, Librarian of, Report of the, 43 Conquest, No. 1, 321; February, 641 Continuation Schools, Sir Robert Blair, 522 Copper: -antimony Alloys, Expansion of, P. Braesco, 651; in the ‘Tissues of Green Plants, Distribution and Migra- tion of, L. Maquenne and E. Demoussy, 651; -refining Industry, A new, in Great Britain, 666; the Richness in, of Cultivated Soils, L. Maquenne and .E. Demoussy, 153 407 Coral- reefs, the “Glacial-control ’? Theory of i Growth of, ‘Prof. R. A..Daly, 360 CORRESPONDENCE. Aluminium, New Sources of, Major J. - Bacon, 277 Atomic Energy, Sir Oliver i} Lodge, 4 Axolotl, Metamorphosis of, caused hos Thyroid- feeding, J. S. Huxley, 435 Biological sexes in Secondary Schools, Prof. S. J, Hick- son, 693 Bird Migration, Dr. M. C. Grabham, 334 Blood Corpuscles, Sedimentation of, Prof. A. E. Boycott, 5 Bius-bottle Flies, Mortality among Snails and the Appear- ance of, Dr. N: Annandale, 412 British Botanic Gardens and Stations, Dr. W. E. Freeman ; The Writer of the Article, 469 British Imperial Antarctic Expedition, A, J. L. Cope, 93 British Iron-Ores, D. A. E. Evans; Prof. H. Louis, 565 British Technical Optics, The Outlook of, Prof. F. Cheshire, 530 British Well-worms, Rev. H. Friend, 5 Colloid and Saline in Shock and Cholera, Prof. B. Moore, 131 ; Colour, Change of, in Plumage of Captive ‘‘ Sun-birds ’’ or Honey-suckers, H.. Millar, 600 Colour in Captive Birds, Change of, Sir Herbert Maxwell, 693 aN Colour Vision, A Photo-electric Theory of, Prof. J. Joly, 74; Sir Oliver Lodge, 92; Dr. H. S. Allen, 174 Earth, The Rigidity of the, Dr. A. A. Michelson and He. G Gale, 114 Einstein’s Theory and a Map Analogue, E. Cunningham, 437 Einstein Theory, The, and Spectral Displacement, H. Fletcher Moulton, Dr. A. C. D. Crommelin, 532 Electronic Theory of Isomerism, An, W. E. Garner, 661 chaps The Constitution of the, Dr. F. W. Aston, Fachytreeid Worm, A New British, Rev. H. Friend, 174 Entente Scientific Literature in Central Europe during the War, R. W. Lawson, 437; Prof. B. Brauner, 600 Euclid, Newton, and Einstein, W. G., 627 Explosion at Bailleul, The, S. Pickering, 5 Fishery Investigations and the Balance of Life, Prof. W. Garstang, 48; Prof. W. C. McIntosh, 49 “ Flying allop,”” The, in Art, Dr. B. Laufer, 114 Fraunhofer Lines, The Predicted Shift of the, J. Prof. A. S. Eddington, 598 Gravitation and Light, Sir Oliver Lodge, 334, 354, 372; Sir Joseph Larmor, 412, 530 Gravitation, Radio-activity and, Sir Ernest Rutherford and Dr. A. H. Compton, 412 Gravitational Deflection of High-speed Particles, L. Page, 692 Holland and International Rivers, P. Geyl; L. W. Lyde, 333 House-fly, The Hibernation of the, Sir Herbert Maxwell, Rice, De: Prof. 435 International Councils, National Representation upon, Dr. Norman R. Campbell, 72 International Relations in Science, Prof. D’Arcy W. Thompson, 154; Sir E. Ray Lankester, 172 ; Intravenous Injections of Gum Solutions in Cholera, Sir Leonard Rogers; Prof. W. M. Bayliss, 73 Isotopes, The Separation of, Dr. A. Fleck, 565 Isotopes, The Spectra of, Dr. T. R. Merton, 93 Katmai Volcanic Gases and Encrustations, The Nature of the, J. W. Shipley, 595 King’ Penguin, The Breeding of the, T. H. Gillespie, 314 Light, Gravitation and, Sir Joseph Larmor, 412, 530 Light, Polarisation of, scattered by Helium Atoms, Lord Rayleigh, 412 Light Rays passing near the Sun, The Displacement of, Prof, A. Anderson, 354 Light, Scattering of, Rayleigh, 276 Light, The Deflection of, during a Solar Eclipse, Prof. A. S. Eddington; Dr. A. C. D. Crommelin, 372; W. H. Dines; L. F. Richardson, 303; Prof. A. Anderson, 394, 436, 563; Capt. C. J. P. Cave, 413; Sir Arthur Schuster, 468 Limpet, Common, Sex-phenomena in the, Dr. J. H. Orton, by Resonating Molecules, Lord 373 Lion, Fossil, Remains of a, in Ipswich, Nina F. Layard, 413 Magnetic Storm of August 11-12, 1919, The, A. Graham Bell, 74; J. Evershed, 436; Dr. C. Chree, 468 Man, The Antiquity of, J. Reid Moir; Dr. A. Smith Wood- ward, 335 Mirage Effects, Cicely M. Botley, 56°; S. Pickering; L. N. Norris-Rogers ; H. Hillman, 630; R. Ross; A. Tarn, 662 Musical Drums with Harmonic Overtones, Prof. C. V. Raman and Sivakali Kumar, 500 National Union of Scientific Workers and Research, The, Dr. H. Jeffreys, 23 Natural History Museum, Harmer, 353 Neon, Dr. F. W. Aston, 334 October, 1919, Exceptional Dryness of, W. D. Christmas, 278 A Optics, British Technical, Prot ok. Cheshire, 530 Organisation of Scientific Work, Dr. A. B. Rendle, 691; Prof. F. Soddy, 691 Percussion Figures in Isotropic Solids, Prof. C. V. Raman, . 113; J. W. French, 312; W. J. L. Abbott, 600 Pleochroic Haloes, Reversed, Prof. J. Joly and J. H. J. - Poole, 92 : Plumage Bill, Promotion of a, H. J. Massingham, 413; Prof. J. E.. Duerden, 499; Proposals for a, L. Gardiner ; W. Dewar, 564 Popular Science, Victorian, 630 Prague, A Tribute from, Prof. B. Brauner, 374 Prismatic Binocular, Use of a, for viewing near Objects, Capt. D. Wilson Barker, 532 Progress of the, Dr. S. F. The Outlook of, XXVi Lndex Nature, buck 15, 1920 Racehorses, The Colours of, Sir William Ridgeway, 334 Radiation Temperatures, S. Pickering, 153; Dew, Skinner, 277 Radio-activity and Gravitation, Sir Ernest Rutherford and Dr. A. H. Compton, 412 Radio-activity, Relativity and, Prof. J. Joly, 468 Reaction and Gravitational Field, Heat of, Prof. F. G. Donnan, 392 Refractive Index, Variations of, F. Twyman, 315 Refractive Indices, Variation of, Sir Henry A. Miers, 334 Relativity and Radio-activity, Prof. J. Joly, 468 Relativity and the Displacement of Frauhofer Lines, Prof. W. G. Duffield, 659 Royal Meteorological Society’s Phenological H. B. Adames and J. E. Clark, 437 Scientific and Industrial Research, The Control of, Dr. W. M. Travers, 597 Scientific Workers and a National Federation, Major A. G. Church, 693 Sex-phenomena in the Common Limpet, Dr. J. H. Orton, Returns, 373 Silica Glass, The Doubly Refracting Structure of, Lord Rayleigh, 153; R. W. Lawson, 335 Silkworm, Linkage in the: A Correction, Prof. W. Bate- son, 315 Snails, Mortality among, and the Appearance of Blue- bottle Flies, Dr. N. Annandale, 412 Sociological Society, The, T. J. C. Fraser Davies, 662 Spectral Lines, Displacement of, R. W. Lawson, 565 Straight Path, The, Dr. A. A. Robb, 599 Strasbourg, The University of, Mathematics at, H. B. Heywood, 74 Sugar-beet Seed, Prof. T. D. A. Cockerell, 661 Sun, Power from the, A. A. Campbell Swinton, 392, 532; A. S. E, Ackermann, 500 Surface-tension, C. T. Whitmell, 278 Temperature in the Sun, A. Mallock, 113 Thermionic Valves on Aircraft, Prof. R. Whiddington, 630 Thunder, The Audibility of, Capt. C. J. P. Cave, 132; Dr. H. O. Forbes, 315 Time Relations in a Dream, J. Barcroft, 154 Ultra-violet, A Helium Series in the Extreme, Prof. T. Lyman, 314; Prof. W. M. Hicks, 393; Prof. T. Lyman, 6 595 Valour and Service, Statistics of, Major A. G. McKendrick, 660 Vertical-pipe Irrigation for Orchards and Market-gardens in Arid Climates, Prof. I. Giglioli, 276 Volcanic Rocks in Northern Kordofan, Sudan, W. Campbell Smith, 693 “White’ Water,’’ The, Stanley Gardiner, 563 Wireless Stimulation, The Response of Plants to, Sir J. C. Bose, 172 Wool, Fine, A Search for, Prof. J. C. Ewart, 153 Worms, Luminous, Rev. S. Graham Brade-Birks, 23, 93; H. E. Aldridge, 174; Rev. H. Friend, 334 Capt. A. R. Palmer; Prof. J. Cotton: Growing in the British Empire, Sir George Watt, 694; Industry, Botanical Research Studentships in Connection with the, 186 Crabro cephalotes, Note on the Solitary Wasp, C. War- burton, 366 Craibstone Animal Nutrition Research Institute, Dr. R. H. A. Plimmer appointed Head of the Department of Bio-Chemistry of, 127 Cretaceous Plant-remains from Tennessee, &c., Dr. Berry, 542 Criminology : Dr. M. Parmelee, 687; and Nervousness, 687 Crop Plants, The Botany of, Prof. W. W. Robbins, 46 Cross-Circulation as a Physiological Method, Prof. W. M. Bayliss, 479 “* Crossing-over,’’ J. W. Gowen, 541 Crystal: A curious, from the Binnental, Dr. G, F. H. Smith, 326; -forms, New, on Pyrites, Calcite, and Epidote, L. J. Spencer, 326 - Cuba. Eastern, Mammals Collected During 1917 in, Dr. H. E. Anthony, 672 Cultivated Plants, Botany of, 46 E. W. Cultural Reality, Dr. F. Znaniecki, 110. ~ ' Cyanamide, The Transformation of, into Urea’ by the Micro-organisms of the Soil, P. Mazé, Vila, and Le- moigne, 387 ; } Cyanogen Chloride, Ch. Mauguin and L. J. Simon, 88; cay tot of, by Held’s Method, Ch. Mauguin and L. imon, 44 Cpr Classification of the, Dr. G. R. Wieland, 509: Cycads, The Living, Prof. C. J. Chamberlain, 410 Cylindrical Conductors, Equal Parallel, in Electrical Prob- lems, F. J. W. Whipple, 365 Cyprus: Excavations in, in 1913, Prof. J. L. Myreas 4875 Measurements of Skulls i in, L. H. D. Buxton, 487 Dabchick, The Courtship of the, J. Huxley, 359 Dairying, The Outlook in, J. Mackintosh, 554 ‘* Daily: Telegraph ’? Victory Atlas of the World, The. Part i., 276, 419; The Review in Nature of the, 674° Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Centenary of, 146 Benin: Studies in the Construction of, Masonry, Prof. E. R. Matthews, 434 Danes’ Dyke, T. Sheppard, 445 Dartmoor: Hydro-electric Supply Scheme, Abandonment of the, 541; Water-power and, 461 Davy-Faraday Research Laboratory, The, of the Royal Institution, 264 isk Daylight, ”? or Colour-matching Lamp, A New Form. ii . C. Martin, 358 Rae r and. i DEATHS. Aitken (Dr. J.), 318, 337 Barrell (Prof. J.), 444 Bissell (Dr. W. G.), 357 Chadwyck-Healey (Sir Charles), Chalmers (S. D.), 318 Chapman (R. H.), 608 Cummings (B. F.), 177 Dallas (W. L.), 6 Dunlop (Sir Nathaniel), 340 Eétvés (Baron R. von), 319 Fraser (Sir Thomas R.), 474, 505 Garner (R. L.), 573 Greenwood (Dr. H. C.), 443 Groves (C. E.), 608, 637 Harcourt (Dr. A. G. Vernon), 49 Haverfield (Prof. F, J.), 117 Hazen (Dr. J. V.), 357 Headley (F. W.), 358 Hitchcock (Prof. on H.), 358 Hopkins (Dr. G.), 442 Izat (A.), 540 ~ Jackson (Sir John), 398 Jourdain (P. E. B.), 117 Keeling (Lt.-Col. B. F. E.), 317 King (Prof. L. W.), 27 a Lyster (Dr. C. R. C.), 572 Macalister (Prof. A.), 8, 26 Macloskie (Prof. G.), 540 McKelvy (E. C.), 507 Marshall (Rev. E. S.), 377 FEES Mercier (Dr. C. A.), 8, 50 te Moreno (Dr. F. P.), 508 Nethersole (Sir Michael), 607 Osler (Sir William), 443, 472 Palmer (G. W.), 136 Pirsson (Prof. L. V.), 443 Raworth (B. A.), 135 Reynolds (Prof, J. Emerson), 701 Riccd (Prof. A.), 378 Sachs (E. O.), 63 Smith (Dr. V. A.), 671 Strassmaier (Father J. ay 506, 540 Trail (Prof. J. W. H.), 76 Turner (H. G.), 702 Wallace (R. F.), 573 Walsingham (Lord), 376 Warre (Rev. Dr. E.), 572 ‘ Werner (Prof. A.), 376 : : See en ee Pe ee ee ee en ee ee eae m eNe a ee tS oe ee a ee Oe oe a eee SL Se a ee, ee ee Ee ; Nature, April 15, 1920! L[ndex Xxvii ES Whitmell’ (C. T), 308 Wicksteed (J. H.), 443 Wilson (Dr. J.), 539 Decimalisation of Currency, The, Allum, 579 “‘Dengora baiari’’ Initiation Ceremony, E. W. P. Chinnery, 386 k Diabase and Associated Rocks of the Howqua River, - Victoria, E. O. Teale, 108 Dietetic Deficiency, Effect of, on Immunity to Disease, Dr. S. S. Zilva, 66 Diffraction Patterns in the Presence of Spherical Aberra- tions, Mrs. C. H. Griffiths, 682 Digamma and Trigamma Functions, Tables of E. Pairman, 341 Digitalis, Vigour of Growth, compensating Sterility, in the Hybrids of Species of, L. Blaringhem, 88 Dimethyl Sulphate, Action of Hydrates, Oxides, and Car- bonates of the Alkaline Earths on, J. Guyot and L. J. Simon, 167 Dinosaurian Reptile in the Congo Region, Report of a, 396; W. D. Gray, 7or Discovery, Forthcoming Publication of a New Journal entitled, 186; No. 1, 554 Disturbance Propagated into a Medium, The Problem of Finding the Strengths of the Sources of, Sir Joseph Larmor, 419 Dolium, Antiquity of, E. A. Martin, 446 Douglas Firs, The, Prof. A. Henry and Miss M. G. Flood, 682 - Dragon: The Evolution cf the, Prof. G. Elliot Smith, 350; of Mythology, 350 Drainage, Sub-surface, An Interesting Form of, M. Aurous- seau, 587 Dudley Technical College, Principal of the, 306 Dundee: University College, Dr. J. F. Gemmill appointed Professor of Natural History at, 67; J. S. W. Boyle appointed Lecturer and Assistant in Chemistry in, 87; Capt. J. W. Low appointed Assistant in the Natural History Department of, 712 Durham University: Capt. L. L. Burchnall appointed Lecturer in Mathematics in, 385; Forthcoming Definitive Edition of the Roll of Service and Roll of Honour, 425 - ‘ Dust-whirls. in Sub-arid Western Australia, J. T. Jutson, 619 : i ; Dyer-va-val Initiation Ceremony, The, R. H. Matthews, 40 Dynamics, Part ii., R. C. Fawdry, 109 The, Lieut. the, Dr. J. H. Grindley. appointed Earth, The Rigidity of the, Dr. A. A. Michelson and H. G. Gale, 114 Earthquake: in Mexico, A Violent, 474; Shock in the Region of Monte Amiata, near Siena, 63; aves through the Body of the Earth, Propagation of, Prof. ’ C. G. Knott, 477 Earthquakes, Destructive; in Mexico, 508 Earth’s Interior, The Temperature of the, Prof. C. H. Lees, 713; Magnetic Field, Reducing the measure- ment of the Horizontal Component of the, Prof. W. Uljanin, 510 - ; 5 East: Africa and Uganda Natural History Society, Jour- nal of the, 10; Indian Seas, Meteorological Conditions of the, 119 ; Echinus Larvez, The Artificial Production of, with a Double Hydrocoele, Prof. E. W. MacBride, 456 Eclipses, The Cycle of, M. Auric, 459. Economic Position of the Country, The Present, A. E. Doxford, 268 Economics at the British Association, 485 Edinburgh University: Developments in, 87; Beguest to, by S. Elliott; Projected additional equipment for the _ Engineering Laboratory, 425; Dr. F. E. Jardine ap- pointed Lecturer on Applied Anatomy, and Dr. D. Lees Lecturer on Venereal Diseases; Presentation of Geo- _logy volumes to the Geology Department, .by Lord Lyell of Kinnordy, 425; Dr. G. M. Robertson ap- pointed Professor of Psychiatry; Dr. J. H. Ashworth Professor of Zoology, and T. P. Laird Professor of Accounting and Business Method, 425 Educated Men, Need in the country of, for directing Busi- ness Affairs, Sir H. E. Morgan, and others, 522 Education : Adult, 452; and Life, 169; and Science, Large Gift for, J. D. Rockefeller, 457; at the British Asso- ciation, 521; Board of, Appointment of a Departmental Committee of the, on the award of scholarships, and for the provision of free places in secondary schoois, 186 ; for the Needs of Life: A Text-book in the Principles of Education, Dr. I. E, Miller, 169; Fundamental Principles in, Prof. A. N. Whitehead, 522; in British India, 101; in India, Seventh Quinquennial Review of the Progress of, H. Sharp, 156; National, Problems of, Twelve Scottish Educationists, Edited by J. Clarke, 89; Technical, Fifty Years of, J, H. Reynolds, 257 Educational : Associations, Forthcoming Conference of, 365 ; The Eighth Annual Conference of, 513; Conferences, 513; Grants for ex-Service Officers and Men, 68 Egypt: Irrigation in, Appointment of a Commission on, 580; Western, Desert Flora of, Capt. H. H. Thomas, 520 Eighteenth-Century Physician, An, 1 Einstein, Prof., Interview with, 541 : Einstein’s Theory of Gravitation, Sir Joseph Larmor, and others, 339; E. Cunningham, 354; 374; Prof. Eddington; Sir Oliver Lodge, 377; E. Cunningham, 394; Prof. A. S. Eddington, and others, 454; Dr. Crommelin, 514; C. Longo, 552; and a Map Analogue, E. Cunningham, 437; and its Observational Tests, Prof. R. A. Sampson, 458; and Spectral Dis- placement, H. Fletcher Moulton; Dr. A. C. D. Crom- ‘ melin, 532 , Electric: Amplifiers, Triode Valves as, Prof. W. H. Eccles, 501; Charge on Rain, Further Observations of the, J. A. McClelland and A. Gilmour, 682; Spark Ignition, Principles of, in Internal-combustion Engines, J. D. Morgan, 372; Waves, Diffraction of, Prof. G. N. Wat- son, 454 : Electrical: Invention, Progress of, Prof. J. A. Fleming, 239; Properties of Gases, The Influence of Investiga- tions on the, on our Conceptions of the Structure of Matter, Sir J. J. Thomson, 224; Resistance of the Hand, Prof. A. D. Waller, 520 ; Electrician, Resignation by W. R.-Cooper of the Editor- ship; Appointment of F. H. Masters as Editor, 266 Electricity : (Supply) Bill, The, 338; Read a Second Time in the House of Lords, 376; 416 Electrification of ‘Railways, The, R. T. Smith, 320 Electro-chemical Treatment of Seeds, A Manual of the, Dr. .C. Mercier, 562 Electrode Valves, Three, Special Arrangements of, Prof. Eccles, 487 Electron: Collisions with Platinum and with Hydrogen, Effects of, F. Horton and Ann C. Davies, 618; Radium and the, Sir Ernest Rutherford, 226; Velocities for the Production of Radiation and Ionisation on Collision with Argon Atoms, Experimental Determination of the critical, F. Horton and Ann C. Davies, 406 Electrostatic: Measurements, Utility of Desiccants in, ' V. H. Jackson and A. T. Mukerjee, 459; Potentials, High, An Apparatus for the Production of, J. J. Dowling, 428 , : ‘Electrotechnical Commission, International, Meeting of the, 177 Elementary Children, The Selection of, for Higher Forms of Education, G. F. Daniell, 513 Elements, The Constitution of the, Dr. F. W. Aston, 393 Eleotris Legendrei, The Food of, J. Legendre, 347 Embryology, Text-book of, Vol. ii., Vertebrata, with the Exception of Mammalia, Prof. J. Graham Kerr, 309 Empirical Formulas, Prof. T. R. Running, 109 Employers and Employed, The National Ajliance of, Rt. : Hon. F. Huth Jackson, 485 Encephalitis Lethargica, an Obscure Disease, Report of an inquiry into an, 452 : Energy: Output of Dock Labourers during Heavy Work. Part i., Dr. A. D. Waller, 427; Sources of, Sir Oliver Lodge, 75 Engine Performance, Reduction of, at a Great Height, Col. Tizard, 486 Engineering : Abstracts, Separate Issue of, by the Institu- XXVili Indéx cg Nature, pri 15, 1920 tion of Civil Engineers, 179; at the British Association, 486; Manufacture, The Rise of, Prof. F. W. Burstall, 74; Standardisation, G. Lightfoot, 447; Workshop Practice, Modern, H. Thompson, 352 ; English: Rock Garden, The, A. Farrer, 2 vols., 664; The Teaching of, Sir A. Quiller-Couch, 521; in Relation to School Science, W. D. Eggar, 521 Entente Scientific Literature in Central Europe during the War, R. W. Lawson, 436; Prof. B. Brauner, 600 Entomologists at the Natural History Museum, The Pay of, 339 Equations, Solving, A Survey of the Numerical Methods of, Prof. E. T. Whittaker, 550 Essex, Pre-History in, as recorded in the Journal of the Essex Field Club, S. H. Warren, 112 Estimates, Tentative Revised, in a ‘‘ Normal ’’ Year, 177 Ethnography and Condition of South Africa before a.p. 1505, Dr. G. McCall Theal. Second Edition, 315 Etiolated Plants,.Causes of the Elongation of the Stem of, H. Coupin, 683 Eton College Scientific Society, a Conversazione of the, Presentation to W. D. Eggar the retiring President ; Dr. R. Whytlaw Gray elected President of the, 444 Eucalyptus: Coloration of the Young Foliage of, J. H. Maiden, 555; Oils, The Germicidal Activity of the, Part ii., Dr. R. Greig-Smith, 20; Two new Western Australian Species of, J. H. Maiden, 168; viminalis, Determination of the Increment of Trees by Stem Analysis, W. A. W. de Benzeville, 587 Euclid, Newton, and Einstein, W. G., 627 Eugenics : 351; and Environment, Prof. C. Lloyd Morgan, 351; Education in the Training College ; Eugenics Edu- cation in the School, Dr. R. D. Laurie, 513 Europe, Boundary Delimitation in, A. R. Hinks, 445 Evolution: Facts and Factors of, 149; Heredity and, Prof. G. H. Carpenter, 81; of Ostrich Plumes, 155; Or- ganic, The Causes and Course of, A Study in Bio- energics, Prof. J. M. Macfarlane, 149; The Factors of, Prof. L. B. Walton, 81 Exercise and Humid Heat, Effects of, upon the Pulse-rate, Blood-pressure, Body Temperature, and Blood Con- centration, W. J. Young, A. Breinl, J. J. Harris, and W. A. Osborne, 345 Experimental Researches carried out in the Department of Glass Technology, University of Sheffield. Vol. i., 1917- + 18,2 Exploration of the Sea, International Council for,the, Vol. xxv. of the “Rapports et Procés-Verbaux’’ of the, 78; Forthcoming Meeting of the, 7or 3. Explosion Motors for Rarefied Atmospheres, J. Villey, 683 Explosives: High, Manufacture of, during the War, Col. C. D. Crozier, 455; Industrial, Development of Inertness in, E. A. Mann and T. N. Kirton, 647 External and Internal Relations, Dr. G. E. Moore, 490 Familiar, The Study of the, 465 Faraday, The Work of, and the Robert Hadfield, 539 Farm: A Large State, A Business and Educational Under- taking, Lt.-Col. A. G. Weigall and C. Wrey, 592; Concrete, K. J. T. Ekblaw, 495 Farmer, The, and the New Day, K. L. Butterfield, 592 Farming in the New Era, Dr. E. J. Russell, 592 Fauna of the Inlé Lake, The, Dr. N. Annandale and others, 176 Fernley Observatory, Meteorological Observations made at the, in 1918, J. Baxendell, 477 Ferns: British, and How to Identify Them, J. H. Crab- tree, 410; Medullated, Nature and Origin of the Pith and Inner Endodermis in, Dr. M, Thompson, 521 Fibroferrite from Cyprus, C. E. Barrs,. 649 Fibula of a Newly Born Infant of the, Polished Stone Period, The, and Consequences in Anatomical Phito- - sophy, M. Baudouin, 459 Field-mouse, A New Species of, from Foula, M. A. C. Hinton, 418 EOE oe Finlay Comet: Return of the, B. Baillaud, 367; Prof. Crawford and Misses Fairfield and Cummings, 380;) Faraday Society, Sir Observations of, M. Michkévitch, M. Giacobini, P. Chofardet, A. Schaumasse, 387; H. Godard, 459 Pinas fimigirs Nordic and Mongoloid Elements in the, - Peake, 487 \ ra Fireball: A Large, 321; on December 25, 448; Large, on January 16, 544; of January 16, The, 576; Large, on February 4, 642 = Fishery : Investigations, Proposed International Scheme of, 318, International Council for, Report for 1913 of the, 541; in South Africa, Report on, Prof. J. D. F. Gil- christ, 615 MAE a Fishes: Fresh-water, Distribution of, C. Tate Regan and others, 456; Larval and Post-larval, Food of, Dr. Marie Lebour, 457 Se Bee: Fishing, Deep-sea, The Extension of Territorial Waters in Relation to, Prof. J. Johnstone, 135; Industry, ‘The Reconstruction of the, 133; -log of a Painter in ' Brittany, Golden Days from the, R.’Fedden, 391 Flamsteed, John, The Bicentenary of the Death of, 417 Flashes Produced by the Fire of Artillery, M. Delpech, 187 Flax Production in Great Britain, Report on, Flies, Bluebottle, Mortality among Snails andthe Appear- ance of, Dr. N. Annandale, 412. : ; Flint Implements from the Chalky Boulder Clay of Suffolk, J. Reid Moir, 706 prah Flints, Humanly fashioned, in the Middle Glacial Gravel at Ipswich, J. Reid Moir, 508 ; Nise “‘ Flora Arabica,” part i., Prof. E. Blatter, 609 Flora of Macquarie Island, The Vascular, T. F. Cheese- man, Io1 Flotation : A Contribution to the Study of, H. L. Sulman, ne Principles of Ore Extraction, 401; Process; the, 73 ’ : Flow of Water through a Pipe, the Orifice as a Means of Measuring the Davis and Jordan, 647 : Flower, The, and the Bee: Plant Life and Pollination, . H. Lovell, 132’ : Flowers, Cut, Longevity of, Ellinor Archer, 619 — Fluorescence, Researches on, 526 ‘ ‘ Flying Gallop,’’ The, in Art, Dr. B. ‘Laufer; irq ~ ; Food Production: in England, Sir T. Middleton, 553; in Scotland, J. M. Caie, 553; War-time and Post-war Problems of, Dr. E. J. Russell, 553 ; Substances, Acces- sory, Prof. W. D. Halliburton, and others, 520 Fog in London on January 31, 1918, Incidence of, C. E. P. Brooks, 675 wi ig Foraminifera (Cyclostégnes), The Annular, of Orbigny, H. Douvillé, 523; Hitherto unemphasised Modifica. tions of Growth in the life-history of, E. Heron-Allen and Mr. Earland, 456 Forestry : Act, The Appointment of Commissioners under the, 318; Acts, Appointment of Commissioners under the, 295 : Forthcoming Books of Science, 11, 42, 66, 80, 100, 138, 179, 298, 320, 321, 342, 360, 380, 400, 419, 447, 478, 511, 544, 576, O11 Fossils, Japanese Memoir on, 542 Fothergill, Dr. John, and his Friends: Chapters in Eigh- teenth-century Life, Dr. R. H. Fox, 1 Foulerton award of the Geologists’ Association, T. W. Reader selected for the, 397 Fraunhofer Lines, The Predicted Shift of the, J. Rice; Prof. A. S. Eddington, 598 ; : French Ministry of Inventions, The, 99; Republic, Wel- come to London of the President of the, 295 + Fresh-water Biology, Profs. H. B. Ward and G, C. Whipple, 498 — ae Frost and the Growing Season, W. G. Reed, 95 Frosts: and Agriculture in the United States, 95; Forecasting, B. A. Keen, 450 3 : Fruit: Culture in Malaya, J. N. Milsum, 78; -Grower, Problems of the, 558; The true species complex of, W. B. Brierley, 520 i : Fungi, The Species Concept among, W. B. Brierley, 708 Galton Lecture of the Eugenics Education Society, The, Prof. A. Keith, 670 Gas: Combustible, Present in the Air, Instruments for Detecting and Measuring, 65; Forthcoming Introducticn Mature, April 15, 1920. Index 4 XxXiX of a Bill relating to the Value and Supply of, 206; Warfare, Defensive Science in, Lt.-Col. P. S, Lelean, 6 : ary : Ignition of, by Hot Wires, Dr. Thornton, 487; _. Industrial, Dr. H. C. Greenwood, 622; Ionisation of, Prof. J. S. Townsend, 233; The Influence of In- vestigations on the Electrical Properties of, on our Conceptions of the Structure of Matter, Sir J. J. Thomson, 224; The Liquefaction of, Prof. C. H. Lees, ' 247; The Occlusion of, by Metals: A General Dis- cussion held by the Faraday Society, November, 1918, _ 690 Gaspé Bird Sanctuaries, The, I. M. Clarke, 117 Gearksutite at Gingin, Western Australia, Dr. Simpson, 649 Gentile, Giovanni, The Philosophy of, Prof. J. A. Smith, Ei. 5; Gel theiniptes, Some Recent Problems in, Prof. Boswell, Genartbie.: Progress of, Sir John Scott Keltie 249; The Educational Aspects of, E. K. Lomas, 517; The En- couragement of, in the higher forms of Secondary Schools, T. W. F. Parkinson, 514 Geological: Society Awards, 507; Survey of Great Britain, Summary of Progress of the, 1918, 477: Work on the Western Front, W. B. R. King, 476 Geologists’ Association, Some Future Work for the, G. Barrow, 510 : Geology: at the British Association, 484; of India for Students, D. N. Wadia, 502; of South Australia, The. In two Divisions, W. Howchin, 91; of the country around Lichfield, 640; The Expansion of, Prof. I. G. Bonney, 203 Geometry; Analytic, Profs. M. M. Roberts and J. T. Colpitts, 390; Descriptive, H. W. Miller, Fourth Edition, 169; in Schools, Modern Teaching of, C. Godfrey, 550; Solid, including the Mensuration of Surfaces and Solids, Prof. R. S. Heath, Fourth Edition, I ona and Caucasia, Mineral Resources of, Manganese Industry of Georgia, D. Ghambashidze, 171 Geostrophic Wind, The Laws of Approach to the, F. J. W. Whipple, 458 German: Aviation Petrols, Analyses of, G. Chavanne, L. P, Clerc and L. J. Simon, 307; Prisoners of War in England, Anthropological Examination of, Prof. F. G. Parsons, 475; Technology, The Imperial League for, 65 Germany, Present position of the Chemical Industry of, E. V. Evans, Dr. G. S. Walpole,. 484 Girton College, Cambridge, Gift to, 585 Glacial Retreat, Minor Periodicity in, W. B. Wright, 682 Glasgow: Technical: College, Appointments at; Gifts to, 19; The British Science Exhibition, 343; University, Appointments in, 126; Installation of President Poin- caré as Rector; Conferment of the Honorary Degree of LL.D. upon President Poincaré, 324; Gift to the University of Nancy; Gifts to, 325; Conferment of Honorary Degrees, 344 ; Glass: Experimental Researches on, 2; Research Associa- tion, The, E. Meigh, 209; R. L. Frink appointed Director of Research by the, 572; Trade, The Position of the, after the War, Dr. W. M. Travers, 455; -powder, Action of Reagents upon, P. Nicolardot, 20 Glue, Manufacture of, in the Tropics, K. C. Srinivasan, 611 Glycerol in Fats, The Direct Replacement of, by higher ' Polyhydric Alcohols, Prof, A. Lapworth and L. K. Pearson, 399 ; Godman, the late F. Du Cane, Tribute to, Lord Wal- singham, 40 Gold Coast, Discovery of Diamonds in the, A. E. Kitson 485 Gold Standard, Restoration of the, R. G. Hawtrey, Gossypium in Pre-Linnzan Literature, H. J. Denham, to Government, the: Science of, A new chapter in, B. Bran- ford, 494 Grantia compressa, The Germ-cells and Early Development of, J. B. Gatenby, 427 Grass-land, Breaking up of, in 1918, Prof. B. Jones, 98 Gravitation and Light: Sir Oliver Lodge, 334, 354, 3723 Sir Joseph Larmor, 412, 530; Einstein’s Relativity, Theory of, E. Cunningham, 354, 374, 394; Radio- activity and, Sir Ernest Rutherford and Dr. A. H. _ Compton, 412 Gravitational Deflection of High-speed Particles, L. Page, 692 Greenland, Northern, Exploration of, 453 Grimaldi, Les Grottes de, fasc. iv., Tome i., Prof. M. Boule, 581 Guano Birds of Peru, R. E. Coker, 378 Guernsey: A Sculptured Human Figure discovered on the dolmen of Déhus, T. W. M. de Guérin, 487; The Megaliths in, Col, de Guérin, 117 Gum, Injections of, or of Plasma, after Bleeding, C. Richet, 491 Hadfields, Ltd., Essays by Apprentices of, on their Visit to London, 267 Haloes, &c., The Formation of, Capt. C. K. M. Douglas, 641 Halogen Acetic Esters, The Catalytic Reduction of the, P. Sabatier and A. Mailhe, 347° Hamburg University, Dr. F. Paneth appointed Professor of Chemistry in, 426 Handicraft, Rudiments of, W. A. S. Benson, 72 Hardening Solution for Gelatine Negatives, Ilford, Ltd., 11 Harmsworth’s Universal Encyclopedia, Edited by J. A. Hammerton, No. i., 659 Harris, Sir William Snow, Work of, 417. Harvard: Observatory, The, at Mandeville, Jamaica, Prof. W. H. Pickering, 138; University, Dr. W. “ McDougall appointed Professor: of Psychology in, 1 Harveian Oration, The, to be delivered by Dr. R. Craw- furd, 135 Hawaian: Bagasse, the Paper-making Qualities of, A. D. Little. 341; Island Reservation, The, A. M. Bailey, 117; Islands, &c., The Formation of the, T. G. Thrum, 508 Hazell Annual and Almanack, The New, Dr. T. A. Ingram, 562 Health, Public, The Untilled Fields of, Prof. C. E. A. Winslow, 703 Heat and Heat Engines, Examples in, T. Peel, 690; Energy, Atomic Disintegration and, Sir Oliver Lodge, 420 Helium: Series; A, in the Extreme Ultra-violet, Prof. T. Lyman, 314; Stars in Orion, The Group of, Dr. Bergstrand, 299 : Hellenic Studies, the Society for the Promotion of, Re- tirement of G. A. Macmillan from the honorary secre- taryship of, 319 Hell Gate Bridge, New York, 268 Heredity: Prof. J. Arthur Thomson, Third edition, 92; and Evolution, Prof. G. H. Carpenter, 81 Herrings, the Biometrics of the Spring-spawning, A. C. Johansen, 158 Herschel, Rev. H. Macpherson, 561 Heterochromatic Photometry, A solution of, permitting of a physical measurement of the Luminous Intensity, A. Blondel, 367 High: Pressures, Extremely, The Industrial Employment of, G. Claude, 307; Temperature, Humidity, and Wind, Effect of, on the Human Body, Lt. C. W. B. Nor- mand, 366 Hindu : Civilisation, the Contributions of Bengal to, M. H. Shastri, 418; Spherical Astronomy, G. R. Kaye, 119 Historical Process, The, W..J. Perry, 490 History. The Outline of, being a Plain History of Life and Mankind, H. G. Wells, Part i., 371 Holland and International Rivers, Dr. ~ L. W.. Lyde, 333 Holmes’s Comet, Dr. Schorr, 704 Holothurioidea of the Coasts of Ireland, The, Miss Anne L. Massy, 555 Hooker, Joseph Dalton, Prof. F. O. Bower, 561 Hope: Our Legacy of, 130; The Century of, A Sketch of P. Geyl; Prof. Xxx : Index. Be alg Western Progress from 1815 to the Great bia F. S. | Industrialist, A Great, 592 “ ee Marvin, 130 Industry; Elimination of Wasteful Effort. ‘in, ‘Prof. ‘e, H. Hornea Lignieri, One of the simplest Land-plants, Prof. Pear, 387 W. H. Lang, 367 Horse : Bot-flies, Drs. S. Hadwen and ‘A. E. Cameron, 64; Cemetery in the Nile Valley, discovery of a, Prof. G. A. Reisner, 702; -chestnuts, Experiments with, A. Gill, 575 House-fly: The Hibernation of the, Sir Herbert Maxwell, * 435; in Winter, -96 Huddersfield Technical College, J. R. Taylor appointed Director of Humanistic Studies in the, 127 Hull: Municipal Museum, The Drake and Bower Geo- logical Collections acquired by the, 9; Whaling Trade, The, T. Sheppard, 609 Human: Metabolism, 644; Personality and its survival of Bodily Death, F. W. H. Myers, Edited and Abridged by S. B, and L. H. M, 595; New Views of, Dr. Olive Wheeler 513 ; Vitality and Efficiency under pro- longed Restricted Diet, F. G. Benedict, W. R. Miles P. Roth, and H. M. Smith, 644 Humus, The Chemical Properties of, and their Utilisation for the protection of Combatants against Asphyxiating Gases, G. du Bellay and M. Houdard, 683 Hunterian Society, Celebration of the Centenary of the, presentation of the Society’s silver medal to j. Adams, 319 Huronian Iron-bearing strata of the Mesabie range in Minnesota, Structures in the, due to Algae, F. F. Grant and T. M. Broderick, 360 Hydramides, The Oxidation of the, J. Bougault and P. Robin, 407 : Hydrocyanic : Acid, Detection of, in a Case of Poisoning, L. Chelle, 367; Transformation of, into Thiocyanic Acid in the Course of Cadaveric Putrefactions, M. Chelle, 327; and Thiocyanic Acids in a Complex Medium, The Detection and Estimation of Traces of, L. Chelle, 407 Hydro-electric : Development Scheme, The, Chippawa- Queenston, Dr. B. Cunningham, 483; Development Works, Dr. B. Cunningham, 161; Survey of India, The, Dr. B. Cunningham, 363 Hydrogen :-ion Concentration and Photosynthesis, J. T. Saunders, 366; The Secondary Spectrum Coy Sige Was ° Merton, 406 Hydrographic Conference, The International, 440 Immune Sera, Dr. C, F. noes and J. Resopminn Fifth edition, 434 Imperial : Air Routes, Major-Gen. Sith ck. ‘Sykes, 634; Botanical Congress in London, The..Proposed. Aban- doned, 670; College of Science and Technology, Request for Power to Award Degrees, 426; mi cig ce The Organisation of, G. H. Knibbs, 551 Incandescent Electric Lamps, The Luminosity. of, Dr.. L, Fabaro, 542 ; India: Cults of the Mother Goddesses in, Dr. Ww, Crooke, 608; Government of, Appointment by the. of a Com- mittee on the Sugar Industry, 444: Hydro-electric Survey of, Resources ‘of, Compiled by J. W. Meares, 363; Review of the Mineral Production of, during 1918, 542; Seri- culture in. 471; Survey of, General Report of the, for. 1917-18, 509: Survev of, Maps and the Modern Development of Indian Cartography, Lt.-Col. W. M. Coldstream, 574; The Organisation of Scientific Work in, 653 5 Indian: Botanv, Journal of, No. 1, 297; Geology. so2: Munitions Board, Industrial Handbook, 1919. Revised edition, 413; Museum, Calcutta, Identification of Two Statues in the, 702; Sugar-canes and ae Origin, Some, Dr. C. A. Barber, 14; Studies in, Nat b= G Barber, 578 Industrial: Efficiency and Fatigue, The Influence of the. Six-hour Day on, Dr. H. M. Vernon, 519; Psychology, lectures on, B. Muscio. Second edition, Revised, 687 ; Research, A. P. M. Fleming, 470; Associations, 551; Pamphlet on, 9; Resources of India, 413 Preliminary Report on the Water-power |' Isotoves : Inference, The Nature of, G. Cater, 407 Influenza: A. Discussion Opened by Sir Aethue Neoliauae f 275; Epidemic of 1918-19, The, 509; Epidemics, The Periodicity of, Dr, J. Brownlee, 296; Mortality Statistics ‘in America, Prof. R. Pearl, 509 ; Protective - ‘Inoculation — Against, in: the Army, Major-Gen. ‘Sir W. ‘Leishman, 703; Pneumonic, The Venous Oxygen Content of, the Alkaline Reserve of the Blood in, Dr. H. S. H. Ward- law, 407; Returns, 638; Threatened Prevalence of, 573 ) Inks, Commercial, Use of, in Plant Histology, Pe Bugnon, 459 Insect : Fruit Garden, F. Martin Duncan, 467; Scales, A Periodic Structure in’ Many, and the Cause oF ‘Their Iridescent Colours, H. Onslow, 649 Insulating Materials, Relation between ‘the. Thermal Con- _ductivity .and the Velocity of Sound in, Prof. oat ton, 487 : Intelligence, Tests of, Prof. J. Adams, 513 Picked. Interferometry, Applications of, Prof. C. Barus, 677, ay Internal-combustion Engines, Principles’ of, Electrie ‘Spark Ignition in, J.D. Morgan, Kye ees Internal Strains Existing in a Circular Cylinder, “Method of Determination of the, M. Mesnager, 618 International : Co-ordination of Scientific Effort and: Action, Resolutions Respecting, 506 ; Hydrographic Confere The, 440; Organisation in - Science under hab ; Treaty, 506; Standardisation, 12 . aay Inventors, Difficulties of, 543 Pests and Plant Diseases in the Vegetable. and: Ionic Valve, Guide to the Study of .the, Showing # its Devel. : opment and Application to Wireless Telegeeeny. and Telephony, W. D. Owen, 332. ‘ Ionisation : by Electron Collisions in Argon and ‘Helium, Prof. Horton and Miss A. G.- Davies, 454; in Solution, The Present Position of the Theory of, Dr. Senter, and others, 707. Ions : (Gills of Mytilus edulis); J. Gray, 366; on, Spee and Tonisation, 707 ; Effects of, on Ciliary’ Meveionke vy J. Gray, 366 ea Ireland: The Outpost, Prof. G. A. I. Cole, 411 seeet ete humilis in Madeira, Dr. M. 456 Irish : Decorated and Socketed Bronze Axe, An, Sir Ww. Ridgeway, 445 ; Geographical Association, Prof. G. AL J. Cole elected President of the, 554 Bb is Egypt : 580; and the Sudan, Dr. B. Cunning. am Iron: and Steel Institute, Dr. _ President of the, 340;. Forthcoming Annual_ mee of the, 474; Deposition, Electrolytic, An Aspect Lt. W. A. Macfadyen, 523; Electrolysing Solutions of, The Potential Necessary for, W. A. Noyes, jun., 407; Cis Ores, aes gp Prof. H. Louis, 429; B. Smith; T. Cantrill, Dr. R. L. Sherlock, Tink: sibly, 429; Solutions, Noyes, jun., 683 Islands .as Centres of Preservation of Human River etc, Sir C. P. Lucas. 514 Tsomerism, An Electronic Theory of. W. E, Garner, 661 Isopodan. Genus, A New (fam. Oniscidz), from Lake Coran-. gamite, Victoria, Prof. C. Chilton, RES Isostasy : The Nature and Bearings of, and The Status of the Theory of, Prof. J. Barrell, 645 Tsostatic Compensation in the Farth’s: Crust, 645 The Separation of, Dr. A. Fleck, 565; Spectra of, Dr. T. R. Merton, 406 Ttalian Papers on Relativity, Dr, L. Silberstein, 552, Italy, Aeronautics in, Prof. G. H.. Brvan, 656 « Ithaca Agricultural Experimental | Beaton, The, Dr. E. J. and H. Dewey: Prof. Polarisation in,» W. A. The -Russell, 482 ; rs Jacobi, Mary Putnam, Fellowship of the Women’s Medical Association of _Neéw York, The, oe a i January Weather, 638 Ri is BA Ae J. E. Stead nominated _ ae G Ghupkane ee ee eee ee er ee Pe Ee ee Oe TON See Re ETS F als SH ses Pe ee eo ae Fee, ee ee eg =". ae Se ae , + i abe tive] Index “XXXi _ - Japan, ‘Attempts’ té°*Discover a‘ Forecasting Formula for, nee Oak aee foe Jasus alandii,.' as ‘Abormatii in the Cape Craw- ae ba Be ; 14. as ; | Java, THe ‘A, ne oh P, ‘van. der Goot, 648 _. ‘Jersey; Recent Excavations in, Dr. R. R. Marett, 487 Jerusalem, ‘AM Brojécted British ‘School of Archeology at, Prof. J. ‘Gurstang provisionally appointed director, 398 Jurassic: Chronology':''I., Vias’ © ‘Supplement I., West England Strata, ‘S ‘8. Buckman, 586 Kalahari Lake Scheme, The, Prof. E.. H. L. Schwarz, 158 Karyokynetosis, A. Paillot, 44 Rates Kashmir and Indian Silks, 591 Katabatic ‘Wind. in the Valley of the Upper Thames of the Aerological Observatory at Benson,’ Oxon, Notes |” _ Line Spectra, A New Form for the Formule of, A. Lar- on Examples of, E. V. Newnham, 675 : Katmai Volcanic Gases and Encrustations, The Nature of the, J. W. Shipley, 595 Ketones, Bicyclic, Sonie;new, M. Godchot and F. Taboury, +2. ES i 523 2 ahs, “Key ”’ Industries: A Bill to safeguard, 338; The Nur- ture of, 349; The Protection. of our, 5 Kinema, The Educational Value of the, Sir Richard , Gregory, 522 “4 eh 43° Kinematograph : in :Schools, The, 5803. Fhe Ultra-rapid, _ H. Abraham, E. Bloch, and L. Bloch, 459 : King Penguin, The Breeding of the, T. H. Gillespie, '314 King’s, College, London, Proposed Old \Students’ Asso :ia; | DPB HION At: TEA cnc tantia: t a te BAe eter atl King’s Speech at the Opening of Parliament, The, 637 Kloet Volcano, Java, Eruption of the, 63. ; Knowledge, The Intuitive Basis of, an. Epistemological Inquiry, Prof. N. O. Lossky. Translated by N. A. Duddington, 110 f Korinchi Peak, Sumatra, Results of a Collecting Expedi- | tion to, 64 Laboratory: and Classroom Courses, The Divorce of, Sir Richard Gregory, 514: Management, H. Preston. 514 Labour Situation in. the Country, The, Sir Robert Had- field, 159 ct Le The Catalytic Hydrogenation of, J. B. Senderens, 50 Lake Geneva, Theoretical Determination of the Longi- tudinal Seiches of, A, T. Doodson, R. M. Carey, and R. Baldwin, 714 Lambert and Photometry, A. P. Trotter, 358 Lankester, Ray, Investigators at the Marine Biological - Laboratory, Plymouth, J. S. Dunkerley, and Mrs. E. W. Sexton appointed. 7or1 Lathe-turning Tools, Cutting power of, G. W. Burley, 478 Lava Rush in a Cave, A, 640 f Laval University, Montreal, destroyed by fire, 344 L’Aviazione Aeroplani, Idrovolanti, Eliche, Dr. E. Garuffa. Seconda edizione, 656 Lecturing with the Lantern,’ Prof. G. A. J. Cole, 4=7 Ledebur Method for Oxygen in Steel, Eauilibrium Condi- tions in the System Carbon, Iron Oxide, and Hydrogen in relation to the, 510 Leeds: Astronomical Society, Vol. XXVI. of the Journal of the, 380; University, Conferment of Honorary Degrees, ; : Leonid: Meteoric Shower, The, 342: Meteors, 299 Leopard-men in the Naga Hills, J. H. Hutton, 427 Leptospermum, Three New Species of, E. Cheel, 168 Levelling. Precise, Major E. O. Henrici, a= ’ pee The Climate of, and its Effect on Man, E. Ross, 13 , Libyan Desert, Determination of Latitude and Longitude . in the, Dr. J. Ball, 574 iG Lice and their Relation to Disease, Prof. G. H. F. Nuttall, 456 Liddle Triennial Prize, The, of the London Hospital, 386 Life: and its Maintenance: A Symposium on Biological Problems of the Day, 90: Enjoving. and ‘other Literary Remains of W. N. P. Barbellion (B. F. Cummings), 529 Light :' Gravitation and, Sir Joseph Larmor, 412, 530; Polarisation of, scattered by Helium Atoms, Lord Rayleigh, 412; Scattering of, by Resonating Mole- cules, Lord Rayleigh, 276; Telephoning by, Prof. A. O. Rankine, 604; The Deflection of, during a Solar Eclipse, Prof. A. S. Eddington, Dr. A. C. D. Crom- melin, 372; during a Solar Eclipse, W. H. Dines, L. F. Richardson, Prof. A. Anderson, 393; Capt. C. J.P. Cave, 413; Prof. A. Anderson, 436; Sir Arthur Schuster, 468; Prof. A. Anderson, 563; Rays passing near the Sun, The Displacement of, Prof. A. Ander- son, 354 - 4 Lighthouse at the Horizon, Experimental Predetermina- "tion in the Laboratory of the Characteristic of a, J. Rey, 271 Limpet, Common (Patella vulgata), Sex Phenomena in the, Dr. J. H. Orton, 373 tigne, 387 : Linen Industry Research Association, Establishment of the, 158 ; 19Ges Lion, Remains of a Fossil, in IpsWiét, Nina F. Layard, 413 wv ah osh iatlaed Liquefaction of Gases, The, Prof. C. H. Lees, 247 Liquids, The Miscibility of, Prof. C. E. Fawsitt and C. -H, Fischer, 555 : Lister : Itstitute of Préventive Medicitie,, The, 264; Lord, Forthcoming Unveiling of Memorial Tablets to, at ‘University Coflegé, London 266; Unveiling of Tablets to the Memory of, at University College, 296, 312 ;, Proposed Memorial to, in Edinburgh. 507 “Liverpool: Marine Biology Committee, Annual Report of the/6772° University, Dr. J. Proudman appointed Professor ‘of Applied Mathematics, 344; Prof. E. R. Dewsnup appointed Professor of Commerce in, 385; ov TNE, Peéet'vappointed Professor of Egyptology, .and * Dre]. Jones Professor of Veterinary Anatomy, 425; *Appointrhent. of G. EE. Scholes as Professor of Engineering—Thermodynamies of Heat Engines, 648 ‘Living off the Country, V. Stefansson, 118 Livingstone Gollege,. Annual Report of, 418 Lloyd’s: Register of Shipping, Annual Report of, 320; ‘Shipbuilding Returns, £75. Lockyer, Sir Norman, Dr. H. Deslandres, 191 Lolium, The Endophytic Fungus of, E. McLennan, 619 London: Clay. Flora of the District of the, H. W. Monc- ton,-520; University, Programme of University Exten- sion Lectures, 108; Forthcoming‘ Lectures by. Sir Napier Shaw; Informal Meetings for Discussion at the Meteorological Office, Resumption of the Academic Teaching of Military Science, 127; A Bronze Medal re- ceived from the University of Paris in commemoration of the services of the universities of the Allied Nations during the war; Grants from the Drapers Company and the L.C.C.; Conferment.. of Doctorates, 185; Sir Cooper. Perry appointed Principal Officer ; Gifts to; Conferment of Degree of D.Sc..upon R. C. Rawlley; Dr. C. Bolton awarded the Charles Graham Gold Medal, 244: Dr. S. Russell Wells elected Vice-Chan- cellor :’ Sir Richard Glazebrook appointed Professor of Aviation at’ the Imperial College of Science and Technology; Dr. A. P. Newton appointed Professor of Imperial History at King’s College; Prof. W. Bulloch appointed Professor of Bacteriology at the London Hospital Medical College. 425: Conferment of Doctor- ates: Dr. T. Lewis awarded the W. J. Mickle Fellow- ship, 426; Dr. S. Smiles appointed Daniell Professor of Chemistry at King’s College; Dr. H. E. Roaf Pro- fessor of Physiology at the London Hospital Medical College; Prof. T. Swale Vincent Professor of Physio- logy at the Middlesex Hospital Medical School; Con- ferment of Doctorates on R. E. M. Wheeler and M. Tolkowsky, 616; Dr. H. L. Eason and Prof. L. N. G. _Filon elected on the Senate of, 585; University College : Dr. J. G. Stewart appointed Lecturer in Engineering at, 107 : Longevity, Nutrition and, 527: On, and Means for the Prolongation of Life, Sir Hermann Weber. Edited by Pr. F. Parkes Weber. Fifth edition, 527 Longitudinal Spherical Aberration, A Theory of the Second XXXil Lnaex [ ature, April 15, 1920 Order, for a Symmetrical Optical System, Comdr: T. Y. Baker and Prof. L. N. G. Filon, 713 : Longstreth, Edward, Medal of the Franklin Institute awarded to J. J. Skinner, 8 : Loughborough Technical College, Dr. T. Stuart Appointed Lecturer in Mathematics, and G. Mavor Lecturer in Mechanical Engineering at the, 67 Low Power-factor, Effect of, from the Viewpoint of Elec- tric Power Station Operators, E. E. Stark, 517 Lubrication and Lubricants, R. M. Deeley, and others, 45! Luminosity: in Centipedes, 705; Produced Prof. Horton and Miss D. Bailey, 454 Luminous: Chilopoda, with Special Reference to Geophilus carpophagus, Leach, Hilda K. Brade-Birks and Rev. S. Graham Brade-Birks, 705; Radiations, Origin of, Emitted by Vapours, G. A. Hemsalech, 491; Worms, Rev. S. Graham Brade-Birks, 93; H. E. Aldridge, 174 Lunar Photography with the rooin. Reflector, F. G. Pease, 511; Studies, Prof. W. H. Pickering, 544 Lycenidz and Hesperide, The Druce Collection of, at the Hill Museum, Witley, 77 Lyon, Foire de, Bulletin officiel de la, 9 in Helium, Mackenzie River Basin, The, C. Camsell and W. Malcolin, 640 Macquarie Island, The Vascular Flora of, T. F. Cheese- man, 101 Magnesite Deposits, The, of Bulong, 137 Magnetic Storm of August 11-12, 1919, The, A. Graham Bell, 74; J. Evershed, 436; Dr. C. Chree, 468 Magnetite, The Atomic Space Lattice in, Prof. W. Peddie, 714 E Maimed: Menders of the, The Anatomical and Physi- ological Principles underlying the Treatment of Injuries to Muscles, Nerves, Bones, and Joints, Prof. A. Keith, 493 Maize: the Development of, The Action of Cyanamide and Dicyanodiamide on, P. Mazé, M. Vila, and M. Le- moigne, 347; The Origin of, Y. Kuwada, 639 Malacological Society of London, Election of Officers and Council of the, 671 Malaria-like Parasite in the Blood of an Indian Buffalo, A. A. L. Sheather, 445 Mallee; Red, Water from the Roots of the, T. Steel, 20 Mallet Type of Locomotive, a Development of the, 342 _ Mammalian Physiology, Prof. C. S. Sherrington, 71 Man: in Britain, Pre-History of, Flint Implements..from the Chalky Boulder Clay of Suffolk, J. Reid Moir, 706; The Antiquity of, Dr. A. Smith Woodward, 212; J. Reid Moir; Dr. A. Smith Woodward, 335; The Dominion of, 371 Manchester: Chemical Club Incorporated with the Man- chester Literary and Philosophical Society, 178; Liter- ary and Philosophical Society, the Future of the, Sir Henry A. Miers, 326; Sir Henry A. Miers elected Presi- dent of the, 340; Municipal College of. Technology, Appeal for Funds, 405; F. Watts appointed Assistant to the Director of the Department of Industrial Ad- ministration, 648; University, Appointments in, 19; An Appeal for Funds, 426; A. V. Hill appointed Pro- fessor of Physiology in, 585; F. Watts appointed Lecturer in Psychology, 616 Manganese Ores, The, of the Shimoga and Adjacent Dis- tricts, B. Jayaram, 137 Maps, Large-scale, Value of, in War, 509 Marine: Algz, Seasonal Variation in the Chemical Com- position of, L. Lapicque, 618; Animals, The Abundance of, and a Quantitative Survey of their Occurrence, Prof. W. A. Herdman, 427; Biology, Recent English, 797 Maryland : Geological Survey, Volumes of the, for 1916-18, 703; The Geography of, W. B. Clark, 70 Mathematician’s Miscellany, A, 689 . age Mathematics: in the United States, 601; Particular and General, Dr. S. Brodetsky, 390;.the Philosophy of, Lectures on, Dr. J. B. Shaw, 390 “yi 3 Mathematical: Analysis, Introductory, Dr. W. P. Webber and Prof. L. C. Plant, 169; Association, Forthcoming Annual Meeting of the, 386; Prof. W. P. Milne, 550 Curriculum of the Secondary Schools in the U.S., Grant for a Study of the, 19; Functions, Tables of, Dr. C. E, Adams, 517; Notes, Prof. H. F. Baker, 714; Papers for Admission into the Royal Military Ac: y and the Royal Military College and Papers in Elemen- tary Engineering for Naval Cadetships for the years 1909-18, Edited by R. M. Milne, 626; Statistics, 579; Text-books, Dr. S. Brodetsky, 109, 169 Matter, the Structure of, The Influence of Investigations on the Electrical Properties of Gases on our Conceptions of, Sir J. J. Thomson, 224 Matthiola, A Graded Series of Forms in, Miss Saunders, 521 f ; Mauritius, Royal Alfred Observatory, Reports of the, 673 Measurement of Practical Ability, Dr. P. B. Ballard, 513 Mechanical Science, Developments of, Dr. W. C. Unwin, 241 ? Medical: and Allied Professions, The, as a State Service, Prof.. D. Fraser Harris, 508; Social War-work in Egypt, 560; Discovery, Awards for, 296; Rewards for, Medical Science: Abstracts and Reviews, Vol. i., No. 5, 793 Medical: Science, X-rays in, Dr. A. .C. Jordan, 237; Services of the Colonies and Dependencies, Appointment of a Committee on the, 297 : Medicine: Preventive, since 1869, Dr. C. J. Martin, 210; The New Birth of, Sir T. Clifford Allbutt, 204 ; Mediterranean : Geography. and History in the, Prof. W. M. Calder, 650; The Oceanographic Study of the, Prince of Monaco, 459 ‘ ; Megascolex Fletcheri, sp. nov., Structure of, Jean Shannon, 619 Melbourne. Zoological Park, The Mammals in the,. Dr. W.-H. D. Le Souef, 297 f : Melinda cognata, Meig., The Larval Structure and Life- history of, Dr. D. Keilin, 399 Mendelism: -Prof. .R. C. Punnett, Fifth Edition, Prof. L. Doncaster, 655; The Progress of, Prof. W. Bateson, 214 ote Mensuration, Elementary, Constructive Plane Geometry, and Numerical Trigonometry, P. Goyen, 390 : Mercury: as an Evening Star, 674; Liquid, The Thermo- electricity of, Demonstrated by means of the Galvano- meter, C. Benedicks, 187 : é Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado, Field-work on the, Dr. J. W..Fewkes, 359 +. : Mesopotamia, British Museum Excavations in, 341 Metabolism, Basal, in Man, A Biometric Study of, J. A. Harris and F. G. Benedict, 644 wis: Metallic Tubes, the Fragility of, A New Method of Testing, C. Frémont, 347 73 ae Metallurgical: Position, The, in this Country and the Central Empires, Prof. Desch, 455; Specimens Pre- sented to the Royal Microscopical Society, by Sir Robert Hadfield, Report on the, F. I. G. Rawlins, 406 © Metallurgy, Modern, The Trend of, Prof. H. C. H. Car- penter 243 Metals: and Alloys, Institute of, Forthcoming Annual General Meeting of the, 671; The Journal of, Vol. Institute of, Forthcoming Annual General Meeting of xxi., Edited by G. Shaw Scott, 391; of the Rare Earths, The, Dr. J. F. Spencer, 310; The Microscopy of, 535, Sir Robert Hadfield and T. G. Elliot, 537 Metaphysical Research, 559 , Metcalf’s Comet, Miss V. Hansen and Mr. Fischer-Petersen ; Prof. Leuschner, 12 ; Meteoric Shower, The December, 400 Meteorité, Fall of a, in’ America, 361 ; Meteorites, The Classification of, Dr. G. T. Prior, 649 Meteorological : Committee, International, Meeting of the, 135; Report of the, 446; Features of 1919, 475; Maga- zine (Formerly Symons’s Meteorological Magazine), C. Salter and F. J. W. Whipple, Editors of the, 608; Observations, Monthly Record of, of Canada, Bermuda, and Newfoundland, for March, 79; Office Circulars, Nos. 37 and 38, 11; Staff, Changes in the, 1353 The Position of the, 705; The Status of a, and its Relation A MM a “ ™ Saree tee ‘Mineral : Nature, April 15, 1920, Index xxxifi ss the State and to the Public, Capt. C. J. P: Cave, Meiscosiogy and Page Lt.-Col. E. Gold, 641; and Gunners, Dr. E. Wedderburn, 641; and the ’State, 685; in Three - Dimensions, Lt.-Col. E. Gold, 505; Manual of, Part iv.; The Relation of the Wind to ‘the Distribution of Hacométric Pressure, Sir Napier _ Shaw, 525; On the Use of the Normal Curves of ‘Errors in Classifying Observations in, Capt: E, H. Chapman, 675 ; Professional, 675; Progress of, W. H. Dines,. 247 Meteors, Large 179 Methyt Aleohol, Action of Sulphuric Anhydride and of Oleum on, J. Guyot and J. J. Simon, 347 Mexico: A remarkable Picture-map from, A. C. Breton, 702; A Violent Earthquake in, 474; Strong Earth- quakes in, 541; City, Stone and Terra-cotta, Remains Discovered in the Neighbourhood of, Prof. W. Niven, 9 Mica Miner’s and Prospector’s Guide, The, A. A. C. Dick- son, 276 Michell Thrust Bearing, A, 80 - Microbalance, A Cheap and Simple, Capt. J. H. Shaxby, 325 Microscope . : Forthcoming Symposium and Discussion on the, 378; Symposium on the, 535, 539; Sir Robert Hadfield, Introductory Address at the, 545 Microscopes, Construction and Use of, J. E. Barnard, 546 Microscopical : Invention, The History of, Sir Robert Had- field, 535; Optics, Prof. A. E. Conrady, 548 Military Bridges, Portable, Prof. Inglis, 486 Milk: Contamination, F. Bordas, 523; The Examination of, for Public Health Purposes, J. Race, 467 Mind and its Disorders, Dr. W. H. B. Stoddard, Third Edition, 624 : Oils, Some Laboratory Tests on, A. Philip, 298; Resources of Georgia, 171; Resources of Greaf Britain, Special Reports on the, Vols. viii., ix., x., 429 Mineralogical Society, Election of Officers and Council of the, 296 Mineralogy, Blowpipe Analysis; and Geometrical Crystallo- graphy, Handbook of, Prof. G. M. Butler, 434. Minerals and Ores, The Analysis of, of the Rarer Elements for Analytical Chemists, Metallurgists, and Advanced Students, Dr. W. R. Schoeller and A. R. Powell, 310 Mines: Chief Inspector of, Resignation of Sir Richard Redmayne as, 376; W. Walker appointed, 397; Stray, in the North Atlantic, Albert, Prince of Monaco, 187 Mining and Metallurgy, Institution of, Awards of the, 573; The War Memorial of the, 671 ee. State Entomologist of, Seventeenth Report of the, 64 Minoan Palace at Malia, Minor Planet G. M., 704 Mirage: at Ingatestone, Appearances of, G. F. Quilter, #58) Effects, Cicely M. Botley, 565; S. Pickering ; N. Norris-Rogers ; H. Hillman, 630; R. Ross; A. Tarn, 662 Modern: Briton, Racial Characters of the, Prof. F. G. Parsons, 487 ; Science, Aspects of, Prof. F. Soddy, 625 Molecular Weights, A New Method of Measuring, J. G. Stephens, 555 Molecules, Atoms and, Prof. F. Soddy, 230 Molluscs of the Family Turritide, New Species of, from the West Coast of America and Adjacent Regions, Dr. W. H. Dall, 98 Monaxonid Sponges, New Genera of, Related to the Genus Clathria, E. F. Hallmann, 555 Moon: Determination of the Position of the, by Photo- graphy, Dr. C. E. Adams, 518; The Birth of the, Prof. W. H. Pickering, 479; The Motion of the, Dr. J. K. Fotheringham, 612 ; The Secular Acceleration of the, Prof. E. W. Brown, | 299 Morocco, Work of the French in, A. de Tarde, 298 Mosses, Herbarium of, Proposal to Purchase M. J. Car- dot’s, 572 Motion in Elliptic and Hyperbolic Orbits, the Theorems of Lambert and Adams on, L. . Meadowcroft, 427 Motor Fuel, Future Supplies of, H. Moore, 554 Mural Paintings and Inscriptions at Knockmoy Abbey, H. S. Crawford, 475 in Crete, Discovery of a, 356 Muscular Exercise, The Physiology of, Prof. F. A. Bain- bridge, 530 : Museums, cation, and the Board, 114 Museums, Local, and the Board of Education, E. E. Lowe, 793 Musical Drums with Harmonic Overtones, Prof. C. V. Raman and Sivakali Kumar, 500 Musk, The Trade in, A. J. Clements, 97 Mutational v. Recapitulatory Characters, Dr. Ruggles Gates, 521— Mutation Theory, de Vries, 213 Mycetozoa, The, A Short History of their Study in Britain ; an Account of their Habitats Generally; and a List of Species recorded from Essex, G. Lister, 332 Mysore, Department of Mines of the State of, Report of the, for 1917-18, 641 Myxophycee, The, or Blue-green Alge of Lahore, S. L. Ghose, 297 The Present Position of the, Prof. H. National: Academy to Sciences, Washington, Award of a Gold Medal to Prof. A. Fowler, 296; ' Physical Laboratory, Prof. J. E. Petavel Appointed Director of the, in Succession to Sir Richard Glazebrook, 8; Retirement of Sir Richard Glazebrook from the Directorship of, 77; The, 264; N.P.L. Review, Part i. of the, 400; Representation upon International Councils, Dr. Norman R. Campbell, 72; Research Council of the United States, The, 668; Scientific Organisation and Education, Prof. Ross, 578; Union of Scientific Workers and Research, The, Dr. H. Jeffreys, 23; Inauguration of a London Branch, 267 ; Dr. J. W. Evans Elected President of the, Address of Sir Ronald Ross to the, 297; First Annual Report of the, 340; Major A. G. Church Appointed Secretary of the, 444; Questions, Nomination of eee Committees to deal with, 8 Nationalities, The Study of, C. B: Stromeyer, 490 Nationality and Race from an Anthropologist’s Point of View, Prof. A. Keith, 476 Natural : History, Open-air, 132; Museum, Retirement of F. Jeffrey Bell from the, 157; Capt. P. R. Lowe Appointed Assistant in Charge of the Bird-room at the 340; Congress of the, Dr. S. F. Harmer, 353; The late Sir A. H. Church’s Collection of Gems in the, 357; A Scientific Reunion at the, 377; Expeditions in Con- nection with the, 507; History of South Africa, 469; Resources, The Development of Our, and the Applica- tion of Science to Industry, Sir H. Trueman Wood, 339"; Naturalist’s Sketch-book, A, A. Thorburn, 432 Nature: A Great Artist of, 432; The Uniformities of, Prof. C. E. Fawsitt, 586 NaturE: The Jubilee of, Congratulatory Messages, Further Official Messages, 380 Naval: Architects, The Institution of, The Cammell Laird Scholarship Awarded to H. J. R. Biles; the Parsons Scholarship to W. G. Simmonds, 186; Forthcoming Scholarship of the, 386; Forthcoming Annual Meetings of the, 573; Scholarships of the, 681; Officer, The Inheritance of the, 396; Officers: their Heredity and Development, Dr. C. B. Davenport and M. T, Scudder, 396 i Navy, Hydrographer of the, Appointment of Rear-Admiral F. C. Learmouth in Succession to Rear-Admiral Sir John F. Parry, 77 Nearctic Diving Birds of the A. C. Bent, 320 Neolithic Graveyard, Discovery of a Large, Dr. B. Schnittger, 77 Neon, F. W. Astgn, 334 Nervous Disorders: Two Points of View, 22 Nervousness, The Mastery of, Based upon Self-re-education, Dr. R. S. Carroll. Third revised edition, 687 Nettle, The Common, Formic Acid in the Stinging Hairs of; Dr. L. Dobbin, 64 Neuroterus, A Gall-fly, Nuclear Phenomena in the Oocytes ‘of L. Hogben, 346 281; Order Pygopodes, The, at Gestilren, XXXIV Lndex Newburyport, Mass., The Maritime History of, F. B: C. Bradlee, 639 New: Guinea, People of the Hilly Country of the Interior of, E. w. P. Chinnery, 488; Stonework and Goldfields in, E. W. P. Chinnery, 488; Unexplored, W. N. Beaver, 663; Jersey, The Department of Conservation and Development of, Report of, 672; South Wales, Additional Trilobites from, J. Mitchell, 587; Camden Haven District, Tabanide from, E. W. Ferguson and Marguerite Henry, 587; Peridinew of, G. I. Playfair, 587; Report of the Director-General of Public Health, 1917, 475; Sequence and Correlation of the Permo- Carboniferous and Carboniferous Rocks of, Part i., C. A. Sussmilch and Prof. T. W. Edgeworth David, 587; Year Honours, The, 474 : Newton’s: Interpolation Formulas, D. C. Fraser, 42; Rings, An Unnoticed Point in the Theory of, a Marshall, 714; Views on Gravitation and their Subs fe quent History, Prof. R, A. Sampson, 458; Zéaland,'“A New Typographical Map of, 609; A Research Institute , for, 442; Destructive Boring Crustacea in, Prof. Chilton, “8; Floral Northern Invasions of, Dr. Willis, 520; Institute, Aims and Aspirations of. the, Dr. LE. ‘Cockdyne, 516; “National’”’ Schemes; for, H. Hill, ‘517; Plea’ for ‘the ‘Development of the»Natural Resources of, Hon! G! W2 ‘Russell, 516; Science Congress, 1919, The, 516% The Econoinic, Value of the Forests of, D. E. Hutchins, ' B50) ou Niagara Falls, The Electro-chemical *Industfies at the, 99 Nickel : --steél Fubes, Magnetic Strains in, Dr. C. G. Knott and Miss Dallas, 715; Chromium: ‘Steel’ Forgings, Andrew, Greenwood, and Green; R. H. Greaves, 480 Nigeria, Forest Administration of, Report on the, for 1918, 158 ; Nile Projects, The, Sir William Willcocks 190) aes Nitric Oxide, Velocity of Oxidation of, E.'Wourtzel, “68% Nitro-cellose, The Stress-strain Properties’ of, and the Law of its Optical Behaviour, Prof, E. G. Coker and’K. C. Chakko, 617 : a Nitrogen: Problem, The, 533, 568; Products Committee, Munitions Inventions Department, Final Report, 533; Note on, Rashmat Rai, 187 Nitrous : Anhydride in the Gaseous State, Existence of, E. Wourtzel, 651; Pure, Some Properties of, and of its Solution in Nitrogen Peroxide, G. Robert, 407 Nobel Prizes, Award of, to Profs. and F, Haber, 318 ! North: Atlantic Halibut Fishery, The, P. Jespersen, 158; Atlantic Ocean, Monthly Meteorological Chart..of the, 99; Central Asia, Relation of History and: Ethnology, with. Special Réference to, Miss M. A. Czaplicka, 487 Norway, New Sources of Aluminium in, L. Hawkes, 160 Nosema-disease in Bees, G. F. White, 41 Notched-bar Tests, Results of, Dr, W. C..Unwin, 79 Nova: Aquilz, Observations on, Father Cortie, 454; Prof. Stroobant,’ 676; Discovery art poss Miss Mackie, 119; Discovery of, Miss Woods, Shapley, E2PR. Olivier, Van Maanent and bap Ne 160; Geminorum, Types of Spectra in, Stratton, -454; in Lyra, Miss Mackie, 704 Novaya Zemlya, Forthcoming Expedition to, led by Dr. O. Holtedahl, 357 Nullagine Formation, The, Gibb Maitland, 579 Number: Puzzles before the Log Fire, Prof. 'D? E. Smith, 42; Stories of Long Ago, Prof. D. E. Smith, 42 Numbers, History of the Theory of, Vol. i., Divisibility and Primality, Prof..:1.;°E; Dickson, 4 Nutrition. and Longevity, 527; The Newer Knowledge of, M. Planck, H. Stark, The Use of Food for the Preservation o; Vitality and Health, Prof. E. V. McCollum, 527 Nuzhat-al-Qulib, The Geographical Part of the, Hamd- Allah Mustawfi Strange, 112 of Qazwin, Translated by G. Le . Oat-cross, Early and Late Ripening in an, A. St. Caporn, 81 Obscure Disease, an, Encephalitis lethargica, “482 Clair J. C.} Hydro“electric : Baume and M. | sa i Occlusion of Gases by Metals: The, a General ‘Discussion held by the Faraday Society, November, 1918, 690 Oceanography, The Birth of, Prof. ee We: Thompsoe, 686 ae 1919, Exceptional Dryness of, Ww: D Christmas, Oil-herdenin Industry, ‘The,. 494 Oils : The Vindeagenetou of, Cataigaend os Com a and ' the Generation - of Hydrogen ‘and Oxygen,” Second. edition, 494. Old Red Saridetone. Plants showing Structure from the Rhynie Chert-bed, Aberdeenshire. Part iii, Dr. 23% _ Kidston and Prof. W. H. Lang, 458 4 Olive Oil and Mannitol, The Food ay able of the Synthetic Product Eseperen from, Prof, Halliburton, J. C. Drum. “mond, and K. Cannan, 419 Olympia ‘Agricultural Co., Ltd., Research Department by the, 579 Olyenpic, The, to’be Equipped for the Use of Oiuel, thal- mologists, on the Desirability of a Special cation in, 416 ea Polishing Tool, The Surface Layer of an, : i w. _ Erench, 682 ; Society, Election of Officers of the, Pa ba “Systems and the Graphical Methods of ng von Rohr, 704; The Physical — ‘and, ” Establishment of a 379 Ophthalmology, Report of the Council of British Images; Prof. Societies’, Forthcoming Annual Exhibition, 4I7- Optics: . British Technical, The Outlook - of, Prof. F. Cheshire, 5303 Microscopical, Prof. A. E. Conrady, 548; Physical, Researches in, Part ii., Resonance Radiation and Resonance Spectra, Prof. R. W. ar 526° ‘Orchestia ‘tucuranna in New Zealand, Prof. C. Chilton, " Orchids of Hants and Dorset, Col. Godfrey, $26) ‘Ore Extraction, Flotation Principles of, 401 Organo-metallic Derivatives of Chromium, Tungsten, and Iron, G. M. Bennett and E. E. Turner, 148 : Orion Nebula, The, Prof. W. H. Pickering, 448 Orthogenetic Evolution in Pigeons, 566 Ostracod and Shell-marl, Boneo Swamp, Victoria, F. Chapman, 108 Ostrich: Phylogenetic Degeneration in_ the, Prof. iE EB. Duerden, 609; Plumes, Evolution of, 155; Resu Crossing the Northern ‘and Southern Forms of pene Prof. J. E. Duerden, 81 Ostriches, Breeding Experiments with, Prof. J. E. Duerden, I tage Untereion Dr. R. J. T. Bell Appointed Professor. of Pure and Applied Mathematics at, 146; Dr. D. W. Carmalt Jones Appointed Professor of Systematic Medi- cine in, 490 Out-of-school Training and Environment, The Need. m Sir Robert Baden-Powell, 522 Owl, The Little, a Danger to Poultry and Game, “10. Oxford : Commission on, 329: University, Impendin ment of Prof, S. H..Vines from the Sherard an Chair of Botany in, 167; A Record Number of Freshmen; The Resignation of Prof. Vines; R. S. Troup Elected Professor of Forestry; A Treasury Grant Received ; The Question of the Admission of Women to Matricula- _ tion and Degrees, 186; Passing of the Preamble of a_ Statute Providing that Women may be oe et Admitted to Degrees; Increase of Students in ral Economy ; A Vote to be Taken on Greek in Respon- sions, 681; Question of the Admission of Women; Col. T. E.. Lawrence Elected to a Research Fellowship - at All Souls College; The Statute Making Greek Optional in Responsions, 306; Appointment of Royal Commis- sioners to Consider Financial Assistance to, 325; Bequest to, by Mrs. M. L. Medley, 325; Prof, Keith’s Boyle Lecture on Race and Nationality from. an Anthropological Point of View, 344; Amendment by. Prof. Gilbert Murray to the Responsions Statute Moved in Congregation and Lost, 364; G. H. Hardy Appointed Savilian Professor of Geometry in, 398; Dr. F. W. Keeble Appointed Sherardian Professor of Botany, 426; E. S. Goodrich Constituted Professor of Comparative Embryology, 616 An, of Pleistocene Age from 4 and Cambridge, The Universities of, The al Retire- Se Me ts s zg Panorpoid Complex, _ Phenological H. ; Nature, ] April 15, 1920 Index ‘XXXV ‘Paleontology and the Evolution Theory, D. M. S. Watson, | Palestine Some Features in the Topography and Geo- logical History of, H. H. Thomas, 345; Upper Air over, Some Observations of the, Capt. A. J. Bamford, 66 Nae Canal, Source of Power for the Plant and Machinery of the, 400 Pan-American Union, Bulletin of the, 9 The, part iii: The Wing-venation, Dr. R. J. Tillyard, 408 : Paper: Micro-organisms Living in, their Resistance to the Action of Heat and of Time, V. Galippe, 347; Pulp in Australia, Manufacture of, 64 “Papua, Unexplored, S. H. Ray, 663 *Paravane or Otter, The, R. F. McKay, 487 Paris: Academy of Sciences, Prize Awards of the, 512; Bonaparte and Loutreuil Foundations, 550; Prizes Pro- posed for 1921, 577; the University of, Dr. Sebileau Appointed Professor of Laryngology in, 107; Courses of Instruction in the Faculty of Medicine of, 364; Prof. H. G. Greenish Nominated for the Honorary Doctorate Degree of, 397 Davia University, Retirement of Prof. C. Golgi from the Chair of General Pathology and Histology in, 19 Peach-growing, H. P. Gould, 495 ‘Pearson’s Formula for Psychophysics, the Availability of, Prize Awarded to Dr. G. H. Thomson for a Paper on, Peas, Culinary, The Genetics of ‘‘ Rogues ”’ W. Bateson and Caroline Pellew, 649 Peat Investigation Officer, Prof. P. Purcell Appointed, 540 Pellagra, Pathology of, Dr. H. E. Roaf, 520 Penrose’s Annual, edited by W. Gamble, 690 Pensées sur la Science, la Guerre et: sur des Sujets trés Variés, Dr. M. Lecat, 689 Perchlorate, The Electrolytic Formation of, J. G. Williams, 52 Pecoumiok Figures in Isotropic Solids, J: W. French, 312; W. J. Lewis Abbott, 600 Perseids, The Recent Shower of, 12 Petrified Plants from the Silicified Peat-bed in the Old Red Sandstone of Rhynie, Dr. R. Kidston and Prof, W. H. Lang, 641 Petrograd, Conditions of Scientific Men and Scientific Col- lections in, Dr. Tolmatcheff, 443 among, Prof. a Petrographic Subjects, Articles on, Prof. W. Deecke, 673 Phagocytosis and Protozoa, E. S. Goodrich, 456 Pheasant and Gold Campine Fowl, The Spermatogenesis of Infertile Hybrids between, D. W. Cutler, 81 Phenakite and Scheelite at Wheal Cock, St. Just, Occur- rence of, A. Russell, 326 Returns, oe Se B. Adames and J. Clark, 437. . Pheretima Pcie te The Peenents System of, K. N. Babl, Philippine Parcinulilese in 1918, Rev. M. S. Maso, 98 Philosophical Club of the Royal Society, Annals of the, Written from its Minute Books, Prof. T. G. Bonney, Meteorological Society's, 45 : Phonetic Theory, Some Questions of, Chap. v., The Per- ception of Sound, W. Perrett, 591 Photographic : Arts. and Crafts Exhibition, Forthcoming, 443; Plate, Action of a Weak Solution of a Soluble Iodide on a, S. E. Sheppard and G. Meyer, 642; Cause of the Shape of the Characteristic Curve of a, Dr/ R. E. Slade and G. I. Higson, 510 ° Photography: of Coloured Objects, The, Sir William J. Pope; 346; Progress of, Chapman Jones, 251° Photometer, A New Form of, H. T. Harrison, 358 Photo :-electric Spectrophotometry, Experiments on, by the Null Method, K. S. Gibson, 478; synthesis ‘and the Electronic Theory, Prof. H. H. Dixon and H. H. Poole, 682 : Phyllophaga, The Natural Enemies of, J. J. Davis, 40 Physical : and Chemical Constants, an American ‘Com- pendium of, Forthcoming Compilation of, 340; and Optical Societies’ Arinual Exhibition, The Forthcoming, 417, 514; Chemistry, Prof. W. C. McC. Lewis, 3; —Past and Present, Prof. J. C. Philip, 223; Labora- tory Experiments for Engineering Students, Profs. S. Sheldon and E. Hausmann. Part i., Mechanics, Sound, Heat, and Light, 4; Properties, Measurement of, at High Temperatures, A. G. ‘Tarrant, 523; Science, X-rays in, Prof. W. H. Bragg, 235; Society of London, Election of Officers and Council of the, 7o1 Physics: A Manual of, Dr. J. A. Crowther, 658; Applied, etdaey of, Forthcoming Publication’ of a, 320; at the British Association, 454; Elements of, Dr. R. A. Houstoun, 658; for Medical Students, Dr. HES. Allen, 658; in War, 2; the Commercial Applications of, Forthcoming Lectures on, C. R. Darling, 386 Physiology : and Biochemistry in Modern Medicine, Prof. J. J. R. Macleod, assisted by Dr. R. G. Pearce and others, 389; and Medicine, Prof. W. M. Bayliss, 389; at the British Association, 519; Developments of, Sir E. Sharpey Schafer, 207; General, Journal of, 15; General, An Introduction to, with Practical Exercises, Prof. W. M. Bayliss, 654; Mammalian, Prof. C. S. Sherrington, 71; Modern, 654; of Muscular Exercise, 9° ; Pinvakgos pendant la Guerre, H. Vigneron, 2 : Phytopathological Society, Establishment of a Canadian Branch of the; Meeting of the; Prof. A. H. R. Buller Elected President, 541 Pigeons: Inheritance, Fertility, and the Dominance of Sex and Colour in Hybrids of Wild Species of, Prof. C. O. Whitman, edited by Dr. O. Riddle, 566; Orthogenetic Evolution in, Prof. C. O. Whitman, edited by Dr. O. Riddle, 566; The Behavior of, Prof. C. O. Whit- man, edited by Prof. H. A. Carr, ‘566 Pines, Experimental Bacterial Tumours in, J. Dufrénoy, 168 Pistia and the Lemnacee, The Vegetative Morphology of, Agnes Arber, 345 Pitot Tube, An Integrating, for Measuring the Ayerage Velocity of Variable Currents, Y. Delage, 683 Place-names, Formation of a Committee ONS rss Planets : and Comets, Aphelia of, C. D. Perrine, 343; i December, Heliocentric Grouping of, 361; Minor, sae Dr. F. Cohn, 511; The Constitution of the Ring of, Prof. Stroobant, 676 Planetary Rotation Periods and Group Ratios, F. A. Black, Les ‘Applications de la, 370 Plane Strain: The Direct Determination of Stress, S. D. Carothers, 617 Plankton, Contribution to the Cuantitative Study of, Dr. OB Allen, 707 Platinum in Canada, J. J. O'Neill, 574 Plant: Life on Land, The Origin of, 624; -growth, Effect of Nitrogen-fixing Organisms and Nucleic Acid Deriva- tives on, W. B. Bottomley, 345; -lice in the Tropics, 648; Morphology, Applied, 578; Nutrition, Experiments on, J. S. Burd, D. R. Hoagland, 446; -sports Produced at Will, Col. H. E. Rawson, 346; the Living, Botany of, Prof. F. O. Bower, 274 Plants : The Response of, to Wireless Stimulation, Sir J. C. Bose, 172; and Ferns, A Dictionary of the, Dr. J. C. Willis. Fourth edition, 410; and Ferns, Flower- ing, 410 Pleistocene Deposits around Cambridge, The, Prof. J. E. Marr, 386 f Pleochroic Haloes, Reversed, Prof. J. Joly and J. H. J. Poole, 92 Plumage: Bill, Promotion of a, H. J. Massingham, 413; Prof. J. E. Duerden, 499; Proposals for a, L. Gardiner, W. Dewar, 564; Relation of, to Ovarian Condition, Deshi Je "Cole and W. A Lippincott, 81 Polarisation Electromotive Forces of Iron in Solutions of Complex Salts, N. R. Dhar and G. Urbain, 618 Political Science, Bishop J. E. C. Welldon, 494 Polypodium agar Burm, f., Identity of, Prof. E. D. Merrill, Poplar, The “mieliée of the, G. Tanret, 367 Porcelain, The Porosity of, C. C. Fart, 517 Potash: Recovery at Cement Plants, .137; Salts, The Deposits of, in the Punjab Salt Range and Kohat, Dr. M. Stuart, 268 Potato-tubers, A Fungus Disease of, 341 Potentiometer, Rectangular Component Alternating- -current, XXXVI Lndex Nature, April 15, 1920 A New Form of, E, Velander, 42 Poultry, The Secondary Sexual Characters of, Prof. T. H. Morgan, 159 Powders: Flameless, M. Delpech, 167; The Pure “ B,”’ J. Delpech, 68 Power: Circuits, The Interference of, with Telephone Circuits, E. Parry, 517; Known and Unknown, Sources of, Sir Oliver Lodge, 397 Practical Chemistry, 688 Prague, A Tribute from, Prof. B. Brauner, 374 Precious Stones, The Production of, in 1919, Dr. G. F. Kunz, 610 Precipitates, A New Method of Physico-chemical Analysis of, P. Jelibois, 523 Prehistoric Pottery in. Eastern Macedonia and the Plain of Philippi, Discovery of, 178 Pre-history of Man in Britain, Flint Implements from the Chalky Boulder Clay of Suffolk, J. Reid Moir, 706 Pressure: and Temperature, The Effect of, on a Meter for Measuring the Rate of Flow of a Gas, Dr. N. W. McLachlan, 325; Distribution on the Head of a Shell Moving at High Velocities, L. Bairstow, R. H. Fowler, and D. R. Hartree, 618 Preventive Medicine since 1869, Dr. C. J. Martin, 210 Prices and Government Control, Sir Charles G. Wade, 485 Primary Current at Break, An Experimental Method of Determining the, in a Magneto, Dr. N. W. McLachlan, 366 Primates, Certain Cranial Sutures in the, Dr. Shufeldt, 44 Primeverose, Characters and Composition of, A. Goris and Ch. Vischniac, 367 Princeton and other American Universities, Bequests to, H. C. Frick, 386 Prismatic Binocular, Use of a, for Viewing Near Objects, Capt. D. Wilson Barker, 432 Probabilita, Calcolo delle, Prof. G, Castelnuovo, 464 : Probabilities, The Neglected Study of, Prof. G. H. Bryan, 464 Process Year Book, The, vol. xxii. (Penrose’s Annual), edited by W. Gamble, 690 Proctotrypid, Hyper-parasite of Aphidius (Lygocerus sp.), Preliminary Note on the Life-history of a, Miss M. D. Haviland, 366 Progress and Promise, 190 Psychical Research, Society for, Dr. W. McDougall Elected President of the, 608 Psychology, Industrial, Lectures on, B. Muscio. Second edition, revised, 687; Normal and Morbid, 624; The Modern Science of, 208 Psychoanalysis? What is, Dr. I. H. Coriat, 22 Psychonévroses de Guerre, Traitement des, G. Roussy, J. Boisseau, M. d’CElsnitz, 22 Public Libraries, etc., Proposal for Certain Powers and Duties in Relation to, to be Transferred to the Board of Education, 522 Pultenzea, A Revision of the Genus, H. B. Williamson, 555 Pyriform Figure, the Stability of the, The Calculations of G. H. Darwin on, P. Humbert, 650 Pyrometry, Practical, The Theory, Calibration, and Use of Instruments for the Measurement of High Tempera- tures, E. S. Ferry, G. A. Shook, and J. R. Collins, 47 Pyrophorus Beetle, a Living, Photographs showing the Actinic Quality of the Light from, F. Martin Duncan, 345 Prof. A. E. Kennelly, and R. W. Quadrant Electrometers, Improvements in Measurements with, Part ii., V. H. Jackson and A. T. Mukerjee, 459 Quadrilatére Complet, Premiers Eléments d’une Théorie du, A. Oppermann, 169 Qualitative Analysis, A Treatise on, Prof. F. Clowes and J. B. Coleman. Ninth edition, 688 ‘* Quantico ’’ Typhoon, The, Rev. J. Coronas, 79 Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Society, Jubilee of the Editorship of Sir E. Ray Lankester of the, 295 Quaternionic System, Tne, as the Algebra of the Relations of Physics and Relativity, Prof. W. Peddie, 715 ueensland: Lecythidacee, A Revised Account of the, 6 rom! 5 White. 587; Mesozoic Insects of, No. 6: Blat- toidea, Dr. R. J. Tillyard, 147; No. 7, Dr. R. J. Tillyard, 587 HDie : Quesn’s. Malsseiy. Kingston, Ontario, Dr. G. S. Melvin appointed Professor of Physiology in, 19 os t Race: and Nationality, Prof. A. Keith, 3113. An. Inquiry into the Origin and Growth of Patriotism, 311; Con- sciousness, Rev. Dr. W. Flint, 118 : iis Racehorses, The Colours of, Sir William Ridgeway, 334 Radiation: Pressure, E.G. Barter, 188 ; Megh Nad Saha, 448; Temperature: Dew, S. Skinner, 277; Tempera- tures, S. Pickering, 153 : ‘ Radiators, Improvement of the Efficiency of, in the Heat- ing of Rooms, Prof. G. H. Bryan, 487 Radioactivité, Mesures. Pratiques en Dr. W. Makower and Dr. H. Geiger. Traduit de 1’Anglais by E. Philippi, 626 : Radio-activity : and Gravitation, Sir Ernest Rutherford and Dr. A, H. Compton, 412; of the Water from the Large Spring at Bagnoles-de-l’Orne and _ its Variations, P. Loisel, 347; Relativity and,’ Prof. J. Joly, 468 Radio: -communication and the Thermionic Valve, 462; Principles of, 330; The Principles Underlying, 330; Direction and Position Finding, Capt. H. J. Round, 576; -finding Apparatus, The Theory and Use of, Capt. A. S. Blatterman, 7 a ; ’ Radiographic Prints, Exhibition of, 507 ; Redidices: Industrial and Medical, Dr. G. W. C. Kaye, 696 Radio: Research Board, A, Established by the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, 638; Review, No. 1, 178; -Telegraphy and Telephony, The Thermionic Value and its Developments in, Prof. J. A. Fleming, 462; during the Solar Eclipse of May 29, 323; -trans- mission and Reception, J. H. Dellinger, 543 - Radium: and the Electron, Sir Ernest Rutherford, 226 ; Bromide, Methods Used in France for the Production of, M. Demenitroux, 419 Rain: Electricity of, Effect Produced by the, on an Insu- lated Wire, A. Baldit, 387; Map of Australia for 1918, nee British, 1918, Dr. H. R. Mill and M. de Carle Ss. Salter, 411; in England in 1919, 609; of the United States, The, 483 : 3 Ramsay: Memorial Fund, Contributions to, from Holland, 474; the late Sir William, Unveiling of a Medallion Portrait of, in the University of Glasgow, 397 “Randers Fjords Naturhistorie,’’ 378 Rarer Elements, The, J. H. Gardiner, 310 Rat Destruction, Methods of, E. G. Boulenger, 97 Ray: Plotter, A, F. G. Smith, 682; Society, Dr. W. T.~ Calman Appointed Secretary of the, 158 Reaction, Heat. of, and Gravitational Field, Prof. F. G. Donnan, 392 : : Reading, University College, Research Institute in Dairy- _ing, Appeal for Funds, 357 Reconstruction, 174 bs Red: Colouring Matter of Plant Galls, The, 707; “pea Gall,” The Colouring Matter of the, Dr. M. Nieren- stein Rede peed 1919, The, Science and War, Rt. Hon. Lord Moulton, 352 : Refractive Index, Variations of, F. Twyman, 315; Indices, Variation of, Sir Henry A. Miers, 334 Refractory: Materials, Expansions of, H. J. Hodsman and Prof, Cobb, 379; Properties of Aluminous Materials, H. Le Chatelier and B. Bogitch, 128 Relativita, La Teoria di, nel suo sviluppo storico, Dr. A. Palatini, 552 ae Relativity : Prof. Einstein, 360; Prof. A. S. Eddington, and others, 454; An Exposition on, Sir Oliver Lodge, 339; and Radio-activity, Prof. J. Joly, 468; and the Dis- placement of Fraunhofer Lines, Prof. W. G.. Duffield, 659; Discussion on, Prof. Eddington, and others, 400 ; Italian Papers on, Dr. ©. Silberstein, 552; Generalised, in Connection with W. J. Tohnston’s Symbolic Calculus, Sir Joseph Larmor, 365; Theory, Results of the Total ae Ne ae ie ae eS et ae ee Mall RTC mT ah eee ee Pome Nature, April 15, 1920. Index XXXVI Solar Eclipse of May 29, and the, Dr. A. C. D. Crom- melin, 280; of Gravitation, Einstein’s, E. Cunningham, ' 354; The Theory of, Prof. Eddington, 385; Dr. A. C. D. Crommelin, J. H. Jeans, and others, 631 Re-mapping of the World, The, 658 Reproduction of Illustrations, 1869-1919, Emery Walker, 252 Digest : and its Application, Dr. W. H. Nichols, 262; Associations and Consulting Work and the Collection ‘and Indexing of Information, Major H. J. W. Bliss, 399; Conference of, 399; Defence Society, January Report of the, 703; Laboratories, The Equipment of, Dr. W. Lawrence Balls, 399 5 The Organisation of, 6; The Promotion of, Sir Richard A. Gregory, 259 Resolution of a Curve into a Number of Exponential Com- ponents, J. W. T. Walsh, 325 Respiratory Exchange of Man during and after Muscular Exercise, The, J. M. H. 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Tams, 366 Romanes Lecture, Dean Inge Appointed, for 1920, 266 Réntgen Society, Election of Officers and Council of the, 96 Root-pressure, The Phenomenon of, Prof. Priestley, 521 Rose Research Fellowship at St. Bartholomew’s Hospital Medical School, Forthcoming Election to the, 319 Rothamsted: Establishment of an Entomological Labora- tory at, 157; The New Laboratories at, 180 Royal: Academy of Belgium, The, and Enemy Countries, 541; Astronomical Society, Centenary of the, Prof. A. Fowler, 674; Election of Officers and Council. of ‘the, 671; Botanic Society, Suggestions of the Committee Appointed by the Board of Agriculture upon the, 116; College of Physicians, Dr. F. W, Andrewes Appointed Harveian Orator, Dr. R. C. Wall, Bradford Lecturer, and Dr. M. Flack, Milroy Lecturer ; The Sharpey Prize Awarded to Prof. E. Roux, 608; College of Surgeons of England, Prof. A. Depage, Dr. P. Duval, Dr. A. Gosset, Prof. J. M. T. .Finney, and Dr. C. H. Mayo Elected Honorary. Fellows of the, 670; Commission on the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge, The, 329; Horticultural Society, Resignation of the Rev. W. Wilks of. the Secretaryship. of the; W. R. Dykes Nominated Secretary of the, 377; Institute of Public Health, Prof. M. Nicoll Appointed Harben - Lecturer of the, 376; Forthcoming Congress of the, in Brussels, 377; Institution, Gifts to the, 296; Prof. W. H. Bragg to Deliver the Christmas’ Course of. Juvenile Lectures at the, 318; Forthcoming Lectures at the, 358; Dr. x] Lndex g Nature April 15,1920" P. Sabatier, Dr. P.. P. E. Roux, Dr. J. R. A. Millikan, Dr. A. G. Webster, and Dr, W. W. Campbell Elected Honorary Members of the, 358; Meteorological Society, Election of Officers and Council _of the, R. H. Hooker Elected President; The Symons Gold Medal Presented to Prof. H. H.. Hildebrandsson, 573; Phenological Returns, H. B. Adames and J. E. Clark, 437; Photographic Society, Annual Exhibition of the, 157; The Scientific and Technical Group of the, 297; Society, Awards of the; Sir J. J. Thomson recommended for Re-election as President of the, 295; Anniversary Meeting of the; Resignation of R. J. Harrison of the, Assistant Secretaryship; Presidential Address by Sir J. J. Thomson, 361; Medallists of the, 362; The Prince of Wales Admitted a Fellow of the, 571; Dr. E. Deller appointed Assistant Secretary to the, 572; of Edinburgh, and the Universities of Edin- burgh and Glasgow, Bequests to, by Dr. J. Aitken, 376; Election of Officers and Council of the, 177 Russia, The Population of, Dr. A, Hrdlitka, 341 Saccharose, The Diastatic Inversion of, H. Colin and Mile. A. Chaudin, 367 ; Sahara, Discoveries in the, Col. J. Tilho, 610 Salpide, The, M. M. Metcalf, 40 Salt and the Salt Industry, A. F. Calvert, 497 Salters’ Institute of Industrial Chemistry, Works of the, W. B. M. Bird, 398 Saltpetre, the Deposits of, near Prieska and Hay, Cape Province, Frood and Hall, 477 Sanitation Practically Applied, Dr. H. B. Wood, 311 Saphzosaurus, The Genus, G. A. Boulenger, 271 Saturn’s Rings, The Albedo of, L. Bell, 138 Savilian Chairs of Geometry and Astronomy, The Founda- tion of the, 398 Scab in Horses, Treatment of, by the Vapours of Chloro- picrin, G. Bertrand and M. Dassonville, 88 Schaumasse Comet, The Return of, G. Fayet and A. Schaumasse, 19, 347 Results Obtained at the Woburn Experimental Fruit Farm since its Foundation in 1894, The Duke of Bed- |: ford and S. Pickering, 558; and Philosophy, Problems of, Aristotelian Society. Supplementary Volume ii., 559; and Sociality, Sir Archibald Geikie, 45; and the |) Church, the Ven. Canon J. M. Wilson, 201; and War: The Rede Lecture, 1919, Rt. Hon. Lord Moulton, 352; at Universities, Aspects of, Dr. A. Hill, 255; Books, a List of, Suitable for Use in Schools, 457 ; Importance of, as Part of a Liberal. Education, W. W. Vaughan, 514; in Preparatory Schools, Major V. S. Bryant, 514; Masters’ Association, Forthcoming Annual General Meeting of the, 306; Modern, and Materialism, H. Elliot, 625; The Realities of, J. Mills, 625; Popular, Victorian, 630; Teaching, Method and Substance of, Prof. H. E. Armstrong, -and others, 521 ;' Progress in, Sir William A. Tilden, 253 Scientific : and Industrial Research, Department of, Appre- ciation of the work of ‘the, Sir Robert Hadfield, 670; Report of the Committee of the Privy Council for, for the year 1918-19, 470; The Control of, Dr. M. W. Travers, 597; and Technical Books, a Catalogue of, .66; Biography, 561; Research for Naval Requirements, 357; Need of the Encouragement of, Sir Oliver Lodge, 7x: The British Association and, 337; The National Need for, A. J. Balfour, 399; Signalling and ‘Safety at Sea, Prof. J. Joly, 41; Workers and a National Federation, Major A. G. Church, 693; Work in India, The Organisation of, 653; Organisation of, Prof. F. Soddy; Dr. A. B. Rendle, 691; Worthies, xli., Sir Norman Lockyer, Dr. H. Deslandres, 191 Sclerometer, The Magnetic, 269 Scottish : Journal of Agriculture, October, 379 ; Meteorologi- cal Society, Forthcoming Lectures in Connection with the; Dr. C. G. Knott elected President of the, 444; Ornithology, Report on, for 1918, Misses Rintoul and Baxter, 10 Sea-fishery Investigations and the Balance of Life, Prof. 'W. Garstang, 48; Prof. W. C. McIntosh, 49 Loeb, Dr. — Seals, Protection of, by the New Zealand Government, 475 : ; Seashore, The,. Its Inhabitants and how to know them, F. Robson, 132 Secondary : School Curriculum, The, 669; School Examina- tion Council, Reports of the Investigators ee to Inquire into the Methods and Standards of Award in the Seven Approved First Examinations held in July, 1918, 669 ie Seedlings, Comparative Culture of, at High Altitudes and in the Plain, G. Bonnier, 523 Seed-plants, The Relation of the, to the Higher Crypto- grams, Dr. Scott, 521 : 3 Seessel, Theresa, Research Fellowships, Forthcoming Award of, 45 : Sein Aanattc Fauna of, Dr. N. Annandale, and others, 453 Sélection Humaine, La, Prof. C. Richet, 351 | Selenia bilunaria, Effect of Alcohol on, Dr. J. W. H. Harrison, 609 t : Selenium, the Elastic Properties of, Prof. O. U. Vonwiller, Sobers Vaccines, The Preparation and Conservation of, by Drying in an Absolute Vacuum, F. Sericulture in India, 471 a Sewage: Effluents, The Bacterial Flora of, Purified by boues activées, P. Courmont and A Rochaix, 650; Waste Involved in the Discharge of, into the Sea and Rivers, Dr. V. E. Shelford,-78 x és Sex: and Soma, Prof. R. C. McLean, 407; and ag oe Lectures on, Delivered in Glasgow, 1917-18, Profs. F. O. Bower, J. Graham Kerr, and Dr. W. E. Agar, 351; of Frogs Developed from Parthe us a Prof. J. Loeb, 81; Phenomena in the Common Limpet (Patella vulgata), Dr. J. H. Orton, 373 * ‘ Shackleton’s Antartic Expedition of 1914-17, James, 554, 602 Shakespearean Garden, A, 441 ‘ | Shan Alphabet, The Origin of the, 378 J. W. Nicholson, 713 Sep ' Sheffield: Museums and Mappin Art Gallery, Report of the, for the Past Five Years, 702; University, Gift to the Applied Science Department of, by J. D. Brunton, 67; Resignation of Prof. J. O. Arnold, 107; The Work of Prof. J. O. Arnold in,» 127; Speech by D. Lloyd George at, on the Place of the University in Education, 167; A. Connell appointed Professor of Surgery in, 385; Prof. C. H. Desch appointed to the Chair of ' Metallurgy in, 405 ‘Shells of the Family Doliide, E. W. Vredenburg, 78 ' Shide Seismological Observatory, Future of the, 8 Shore Processes and Shoreline Development, Prof. D. W. | Johnson, 70 : Shropshire: The Geography of the County, Prof. WwW. W. i Watts, 331 © : b | Shrubs Belonging to the Genus Carissa, H. H. Haines, \ 159 | Siberia, Forthcoming Expedition to, to be Conducted by f Dr. O. Olsen, 158 ‘Silica Glass, The Doubly Refracting Structure of, Lord i Rayleigh, 153; R. W.. Lawson, 335 si | Silk : indeaee pa Report on an Inquiry into the, Prof. H. Maxwell Lefroy and E. C. Ansorge, 3 vols., 471} | Industry, The, and Trade, R. C. Rawlley, 591 Silks, Kashmir and Indian, 591 | Silkworm: Linkage in the, A Correction, Prof. W. Bateson, Mt I : | siturtan Geology and Faunas of Ontario Peninsula, The, ‘Silvenieat Disease, Symptons and Distribution of, J. Bint- ner, 359 4 . |’ Single-layer Flat Coils, The Self-inductance of, S. Butter- | worth, 366 ‘ ‘Snails, Mortality among, and the Appearance of Blue- bottle Flies, Dr. N. Annandale, 412 | Snowfalls, Remarks on, Stapfer and Moleski, 618 ; | Société Royale Zoologique et Malacologique de Belgique, Adnfission of Ten Honorary Members, 573 j |Sociological Society, The, T. J. C. Fraser Davies, 662 Bordas, 307, RW. 4 . ' Sharply Pointed Bars, Lateral Vibrations of, The, Prof. x Science: and Fruit-growing: Being an Account of the |) ; Se oe ae ti : ee ee ee ee ee ee ee Nature, April 15, 1920, Lndex xli “Sodium: Nitrite, Some Properties of, C. Matignon and Mlle. G. Marchal, 683; The Reversible Oxidation of, C. Matignon and E. Monnet, 683 ; Stearate and Sodium Oleate, The Distillation of, Pictet and Potok, 360 Soil at Night, Cooling of the, Capt. T. Bry Franklin, 450, Boss, Solat® Eclipse of November 22, 1919, Observation of the, I. Tarazona, 491; Eclipse of May 29, Radiotelegraphy during the, 323; Observations of the, made at Principe, Prof. A. S. Eddington, 454; The, C. R. Davidson, 544 ; Prominence, The Great, of last May, 420; Protuber- ances, 1880-1918, Heliographic Latitudes of the, A. Riced, 187; Radiation, C. G. Abbot, 160; at the Altitude of the Mont Blanc Observatory, The Oxogenic Power of the, R. Bayeux, 407 Solution, Volume Changes in the Process of, G. J. Burrows, I Wee Perception, Theories of, 591; -ranging, Prof. W. L. Bragg, 187; 278 South : The Story of Shackleton's Last Expedition, 1914-17. Sir Ernest Shackleton, 602; Africa, Fishery Investiga- tions in, Report on, Prof. J. D. F. Gilchrist, 615; The Natural History of, Mammals, In four volumes. F. W. Fitzsimons, 469; The Pre-history of, Sir H. H. Johnston, 315; African Botanical Survey, Dr, J. B. Pole-Evans to act as Director of the, 607; Mygalo- morph Spiders, J. Hewitt, 64; Termites, The Wing Venation and Respiratory System of Certain, C.,Fuller, 78, 639 Southampton University College, Prof. T. Loveday ap- pointed Principal of, 585 South-Eastern Agricultural College, Wye, Rev. S. G. Brade-Birks appointed Lecturer in Zoology at the, 167 Sparrowhawk, Nesting Habits of the, J. H. Owen, 178 Spectral Lines, Displacement of, R. W. Lawson, 565 Spectrophotometry, A New Method of, in the Visible and Ultra-violet and the Absorption of Light by Silver Bromide, R. E. Slade and F. C. Toy, 713 Spectroscopic Astronomy, Prof, A. Fowler, 234 " Spermatozoa, The Relation of, to certain Electrolytes, (ii-), J. Gray, 427 Spiders, ‘‘ Gynandry ’’ among, Rev. J. Spiral Nebula, The, C. L. Charlier, 68 Spitsbergen: An Account of Exploration, Hunting, the - Mineral Riches and Future Potentialities of an Arctic Archipelago, Dr. R. N. Rudmose Brown, 635; The Coal Export Trade from, Dr. Rudmose Brown, 514; The Development of, 635 Squid, The, as Food, 44 St. Andrews Institute for Clinical Research, Prof. P. T. Herring, 615 Stahl, Adolfo, Lectures in Astronomy, The, 370 Standardisation, International, 12 Stannic Chloride, Action of, on Dimethyl Sulphate, Ch. Boulin and L. J. Simon, 271 Stanton Drew Stones, The, E. Sibree, 445 Stark Effect, the Electrical Resolution of the, 65 Star, Formation of a, Time and Temperature of, A. Véronnet, 367 Stars: Binary, Relative Masses of, G. van Biesbroeck, 643 ; Night by Night: The, Being the Journal of a Star _Gazer, J. H. Elgie, 467; of High Velocity, W. S. Adams and A. H. Joy, 612; of Type F, Distances of the, C. F. Lundahl, 479; Possessing a Total Annual Proper Motion of more than 0.5", E. Cosserat, 68; Two, with large Parallaxes, Prof. F. Schlesinger, 342 State Geological Survey, The Organisation and Functions of a, P. G. Morgan, 517 Statesman’s Year-Book, The, 1919, Edited by Sir John Scott Keltie and Dr. M. Epstein, 152 Statistics: Imperial, The Organisation of, G. H. Knibbs, 551; Public, the Collection and Presentation of, a Petition Urging the Appointment of a Royal Com- mission or Select Committee on the Methods of, 416 Steam: -boiler Plants, the Running of, D. Brownlee, 611; ‘Boilers’ and Economisers, C. E. Stromeyer, 675 ’ E. Hull, 81 Steel: A New Alloy Tool-, Prof. J. O. Arnold, 416; High- class, Reported Discovery in the Manufacture of, 702 ; Rails, A Cause of Rupture of, and a Means of Sup- pressing it, G. Charpy and J. Durand, 271; The Solu- tion Theory of, and the Influence of’ Changes in Carbide Concentration on the Electrical Resistivity, Prof. E. D. Campbell, 523 Steels at High Temperatures, The Viscosity of, P. Cheve- nard, 326 Stellar: Clusters, Dr. and Mrs. Shapley, 119; Open, Dr. H. Shapley; Sir F. W. Dyson, and Mr. Melotte, 576; Energy, The Sources of, Prof. Russell; Prof. Edding- ton, 269; Parallax, Spectroscopic Determination of, W. S. Adams and G. Strémberg, 511 Stereolepis gigas, The Growth of the Young of, 703 Stomatopoda at Buitenzorg, Dr. A. L. J. Sunier, 446 Stone-axe Factory, A, at Graig-lwyd, Penmaenmawr, S. H. Warren, 346 Straight Path, The, Dr. A. A. Robb, 599 Straits Settlkement Gold Medal: The, Awarded to Prof. R. T. Leiper, 540; the Award of the, to Dr. R. T. Leiper, 572 Strains, Internal Longitudinal, The Influence of various Factors on the Creation of, during the Rapid Cooling of Steel Cylinders, M. Portevin, 407 Streatfeild Memorial Lecture: The, to be Delivered by Prof. T. H. Morgan, 78; Prof. G. T. Morgan, 147 Strasbourg: The University of, Mathematics at, H. B. Heywood, 74; Inauguration of the, 345; Re-inaugura- tion of the, 365 Stratosphere, Winds and Temperature-Gradients in the, G. M. B. Dobson, 458 Strawberry-growing, Prof. S. W. Fletcher, 592 Students, Suggested Exchange of, between Denmark and Great Britain, Dr. V. Naser, 522 Submarine Mining, Comdr. Gwynne, 487 Submarines and Sea Power, C. Domville-Fife, 433 Suerose, A Cryoscopic Method for the Estimation of, Prof. H. H. Dixon and T. G. Mason, 554 Sudan Irrigation Works, The, Dr. B. Cunningham, 120 Suess’s “Sal’’ and “Sima’’ Magmas, Dr. Holtedahl, R74 r Sugar: Beet in America, The, Prof. T. S. Harris, 592; Seed, Prof. T..D. A. Cockerell, 661; Canes, some Indian, and their Origin, Dr. C. A. Barber, 14; from Formaldehyde and its Polymers, The Synthesis of, 1ts Quantitative Relations, and its Exothermic Charac- ter, A. J. Ewart, 555; Group, Scientific Study of’ the, 526; Industry, Appointment by the Government of India of a Committee on the, 444; Manufacture, the Nitrogen Balance in, E. Saillard, 651 : t Sulphide of Silver and of Bismuth, Change in the Electrical Resistance of the, W. W. Coblentz and H. Kahler, 478 Sulphur. The Viscosity of, C. C. Farr and D. B. Macleod, 712 Sulphuric Acid, Making, by the “Grillo’’ Plant, R. Curtis, 341 ‘ Summer Time, 63; Impending for the Present Year, 7o1 Sun: Dance of the Teton Sioux, The, F. Densmore, 437 ; Observations of the, made at the Lyons Observatory, J. Guillaume, 491; Power from’ the, A. A. Campbell Swinton, 392; A. S. E. Ackermann, 500; A. A. Camp- bell Swinton, 532; Spot Curve, The, S. B. Nicholson, 160; Temperature in the, A: Mallock, 113 Surface-tension, C. T. Whitmell, 278 Surgery of Deformities, 493 Surgical Tradition, The, Sir John Tweedy, 418 Swaniey Horticultural College, Miss F. M. G. Mickle- ' thwait appointed Principal of the, 490 Swansea University College, Dr. 'T. F. Principal of, 616 Swiney Lectures, Forthcoming, by Dr. J. D. Falconer, 178 Sydney University : Bequest to, by Sir Samuel McCaughey, 107; Government Grant to, 616 Symons: Memorial Gold Medal of the Royal Meteor- ological Society, The; awarded to Prof. H. H. Hilde- brandsson, 340; Meteorological Magazine, Sept., 99 Synapsis, Studies of a, I.; Oogenesis in the Hymenoptera, L. T. Hogben, 649; L. ‘IT. Hogben, a correction, 674 Syria, The Geographical Unity of, E. de Marbonhe, 97 Syringa Vulgaris, Electrolytes in the Leaf-sap of, T, G. Mason, 427 Syringothyris Winchell, etc., F. J. North, 586 Sibly appointed xiii Index Nature, . April. 15, 1920 ** Tactite,’? A-New Geological Term, F. L. Hess, 574 Tanks, British, Used in the War, Sir E. H. Tennyson d’Eyncourt, 486 Taxation of Profits, The, Dr. J. C. Stamp, 486 Technical: Book Review Index of the Carnegie Library, Pittsburgh, 478; Education, Fifty Years of, J. H. Reynolds, 257 ; Review, The, 77 Teeth, Forward Protrusion of the Upper ‘Incisor, etc., Dz M. Shaw,. 136 Telegony, Prof. J: Cossar Ewart, 216 Telephoning by Light, Prof. A. O. Rankine, 60a. Temperatures: High, and . Pressures, Researches at, Hon. Sir Charles A. Parsons, 677, 709 Tertiary Fossils: from Ooldea, F. Chapman, 619; from the Ooldea Soak; South Australia, F. Chapman, 347 Testudo Loveridgii, G. (A: Boulenger, 715 Teton Sioux, The Sun Dance of the, F. Densmore, 437° Thalassiophyta and the Subaerial Transmigration, A. H. Church, 624 Theme, The Missing, 69 Thermionic: Tubes, Three-electrode, The Variations of Wave-length’ of the Oscillations Generated by, due to Changes in Filament Current, etc., W. H. Eccles and J. H. Vincent, 617; Valve, Radio-communication and the, 462; and its Developments in Radio-telegraphy and Telephony, Prof. J. A. Fleming, 462; Three- electrode, J. M. Miller, L. M. Hull, 510; Application of the, Prof. Fortescue, 487; Prof. Eccles, Prof. Fortescue, Dr. Whiddington, 454; on Aircraft, Prof. R: Whiddington, 630 Thompson, Elizabeth, Science Fund, The, 608 Thule Expedition to. Northern Greenland, The Second, 453 Thunder, The Audibility of, Capt. C. J. P. Cave, 132; Dr. H. °O.:. Forbes; 315 Tibesti, Volcanic Lavas of, Mineralogical and Chemical Constitution of the, A. Lacroix, 68 Tibet and Neighbouring Regions, Exploration in, Col. L. Conyngham, 570 Tidal Observations arid the Prediction of Tides, The Har- | monic Analysis of, Dr! C. E. Adams, 517 Tide Prediction, A Simple and Rapid Method of (including Diurnal Time and Height Inequalities), Sgt. M. E. J. Gheury, 171 Timber: Diseases in Prepared, Dr. C. J. Gahan to Assist the Science Committee of the Royal Institute of British Architects in the Matter of, «73; Mechanical Strains in, Microscopical Features of, W. Robinson, 345 Time Relations in a Dream, J. Barcroft, 154 Times: African Flight, The, Discovery of a New Volcanic Field, Prof. J. W. Gregory, 667; Survey Atlas of the World, Prepared under the Direction of Dr. J. G. Bartholomew, part i., 658 ; Tin-plate Manufacture, Influence of Hours of Work and of Ventilation on Output in, Dr. H. M. Vernon, 136 Toas, Description of, or Australian Aboriginal Direction Signs, the late Sir E. Stirling and E. R. Waite, 643 Tobacco Beetle, The, G. H. Runner, 301 ; Tool-steel, A New Alloy, Prof. J. O. Arnold, 416 Torbernite, A. F. Hallimond, 650 Toronto University, Conferment of Degree upon the Prince of Wales, 19 Torporley, Nathaniel, The Remains of, 297 Torricelli: Opere di Evangelista, Edite da Gino Loria e ’ Giuseppe Vassura, 3 vols., Total Solar, Eclipse of May 29, Results of the, and the Relativity Theory, Dr. A. C. D. Crommelin, 280 Toxins and their Anti-toxins, Mutual Precipitation of, M: Nicolle, E. Debains, E. Césari, 619 Tractor: Trials, The Lincoln, 359; Work of the, on the Farm, Garrad, 98 Traiettorie dinamiche dei sistemi olonomi con tre gradi di liberta, Dr. A. Palatini, 552 Train Resistance, Experiments on, 581 Transit Circle, The Future of the, Steenwijk, 80 ‘* Traube ’? Waves; Prof. Halliburton, 418 Tricuspidaria lanceolata, Floral Development in, Mrs. L Porter, 346 Tri- tngual Artillery Dictionary, E. S. Hodgson. vol. i., English-French- Italian, B38." J: E. de Vos Van 3 vols., ‘Trilobites, Two New, from Bowning, N.S.W., J. “Mitchell, nef: Triode Valves as Electric Amplifiers; Prof. W. H: Eccles, 501 Tropical: Australia, The Future of, G. Taylor, 6485 Diseases Bureau, The, 265 Tropics, Comfort and Health in the, Dr. C. Crialana 573 Trout, The ‘‘ Trypanosome ’’ of the, Mlle. M. Gauthier, 650 Truth?, What is, Viscount Haldane, 405 Tungsten Arc (* Pointolite ”) Lamps, P. Freedman, ey Turbines: Geared, for the Propulsion of Ships. Walker, 486; The Geared, supplied’ to thes iro and Wachtmeister, 160° Turkestan, Western, S. Casson, 335 Turks of Central Asia, The, Sir Henry H. Hower 2733 in History and at the Present Day, M. A. Czaplicka, 273 Turtles: of New England, The, Dr. H. L. Babcock, 33° Twenty-four-hour Day, The, 100 Tyndall Mining Research Fund endear Forihéoming Award of, 457 nen Ultra-violet : the Extreme, A Helium Series in, Prof. CW. M. Hicks, 393; Prof. T Lyman, 565% A. Spectroscopic Arrangement for the Study of, L, and E. Bloch, 683. Union of South Africa, Fifth and Sixth Reports” of the Director of Veterinary Research of the, 477 United States: Cement Production in the, in 1 on Concrete Shipbuilding in the, 641; Cerne Board, Gift to, by J.D. Rockefeller, 158 ss et Economic Material in Documents of the The State of Pennsylvania, Adelaide Re ‘oes Eo Mathematics in the, 601; National — 2 Sciences, C. W. Beebe Awarded the Elliot Medal o the, 376; National Academy of Sciences and — National Research Council, Gift to, by the Cai arne a i: Corporation of New York, 638; National Museum, lection of Ecclesiastical Art in the, I. M. Casinanine 40; National Research Council, Rainfall of the, Some Characteristics of the, Prof. R. De C, Ward, 483; Resources and Industries” of the, Prof. E. F. Fisher, 131 ; The National Resgaaets uN of the, 668 Pe Universities : Science at, Aspects of, Dr. A. Hill, ages and the Training of Teachers, F. j. R. Hendy, 6815, League of, 637 3 University Bureau in Connection’ with the Gone Degree, Scheme for the Establishment, in London, of a, 617; College, London, Appeal on Behalf of the School of Engineering of, 586; 621; College, Southam ton, Dr. A. Hill resigning the Principalship of, 30653) |) Education, The Government and, Austen Chamberl: berlain, hes Women, International Federation of Forthcoming Meeting of the, 712 'Upper-air Temperatures at ‘Martlesham Heath, een! _ 1917, to January, 1918, Lt. W. F. Stacey, 675 Uranium, The peaches of, C. ‘Straehling, 59 “4 Vaccine: -therapy, 466; Treatment,’ Practical, oe the General Practitioner, Dr. R. W. ‘Allen, 466. é ae A Vagueness and Discrimination, 110 yeas Nerves, The Fatal Result of Section of: “Both, Sir ch E. Sharpey Schafer, 418 Valedictory Memories, Sir Norman Lockyer, 189 _ Valour and Service, Statistics of, Major A. G. McKendrick, Vapour-pressure: Determinations, Appararane for; aM Wright, 581; of Binary Mixtures, The, Prof. A. W. Porter, 523 Variables, "Long-period, Prof, H. H. Turner, 643” Venus Cloud-covered? Is, J. Evershed, 675 Vertebrate : Embryology, 309; Remains in the Caverns of Grimaldi, 581 Vertical-pipe Irrigation. for Orchards and Market- gardens in Arid Climates, Prof. I. Giglioli, 276 Veterinary: Science. and Practice, 418; Staffs in the Colonies and Shines hess Appointment of a Comanittoe on the,: 608 Se ee eA a ae Work of the, 116; — elas ad me fut :¥ Index xliii Vicary, The Thomas, Lecture, Sir John Tweedy, 418 -Villamaninite, a New. Mineral, Dr. W. R. Schoeller and A. R, Powell, 326 : Vision: of the Possible: A, What the R.A.M.C. might Become: An Account of Some of the Medical Work in Egypt, together with a Constructive Criticism of the R.A.M.C., Sir J. W. Barrett, 21; The Hill of, A Forecast of the Great War and of Social Revolution - with the Coming of the New. Race, F. B. Bond, 690; The Theory of, Sir Oliver Lodge, 454 . : Visual Tests for Motor-drivers, 646 Vitalism, Prof. Dakin, 578 | Volcanic Rocks in Northern Kordofan, Sudan, W. Campbell | Smith, 693 : | Volumetric Analysis for Students of Pharmaceutical and General Chemistry, C. H. Hampshire. Second edition, 497 Voyage of a Vice-Chancellor, The, 151 | Vulcanicity, Natural and Artificial, E. Belot, 575 Wales: A Primitive Type of Man in, Prof. H. J. Fleure, . 487; National Museum of, Annual Report of the, 639 War Gleanings, 21 Water : in Action—Controlled and Free, Dr. B. Cunning- ham, 70; for Electrical Purposes, The General Prin- ciples of the Development’ and Storage of, J. W. Meares, 161; from the Atmosphere, Use of Trees in Extracting, P. Descombes, 491; -lily, Immersion of the | Leaves of the, Causes of the, L. Daniel, 407; -power | and Dartmoor, 461 | Watt, James: Proposal for a Memorial to, Sir D. Brooks, | 74; Centenary Celebrations in Birmingham, 63, 74; Address on, Rev. Dr. E. W. Barnes, 75; and Inven- tion, Prof. Hele-Shaw, 75 _ Wave Action in Harbours, The Reduction of, Dr. Brysson ; Cunningham, 614 ; aT Arges _ Wax Scale from New Guinea, A New Species’ of; W. W. : Froggatt, 271 ; , eis _ Weather: Pioneers in the Science of the, Sir Napier Shaw, 613; Summer, 41; The Study of the, E. H. Chapman, * 312 ‘* Wedge ’’ Pyrometer, The, 11 Wellcome Chemical Research Laboratories, Publications of the, 65 _ Western: Australia, Sub-arid, Rock Expansion by Tem- : perature Variation in, J. T. Jutson, 108; Sub-arid, The ‘‘ Clawing ’’ Action of Rain in, J. T. Jutson, 108 ; The Plateau of, Montgomery, 570; The Royal Society of, 578; Persia, A Rift-valley in, Prof. S. J. Shand, 490 Westinghouse : George, His Life and Achievements, G. E. Leupp, 592 | _ Wheat: Production, the future of, 399; Yield, Australian | : Rainfall and, 606 | “White Water,’? The, Capt. A. R. Palmer, Prof. J. Ri. Stanley Gardiner, 563 | Wild: Birds, The Protection of, 7; Life of the World: A Descriptive Survey of the Geographical. Distribution | a of Animals, R. Lydekker, 3 vols., 69 | Wimbledon, The Village Club at, 295 4 Wind: and Barometric Gradient, W. H. Dines, 525; Direc- tion and Cloud Amount at’ Richmond, on the Inter- relation of, Lt. D. Brunt, 675; High velocity of the, 507; Velocity in the Stratosphere, Ch. Maurain, 618; The Variation.of, with Height, Capt. E. H. Chapman, 675 Winnipeg, Greater, The Supply of Water to, 298 Wireless: Communications, Imperial, appointment of a Committee to prepare a scheme of, 340; Method of Measuring e/m, A, Dr. Whiddington, 454; Navigation for Aircraft, Capt. J. Robinson, 24; Operations, Mysterious Interruptions in, Mr. Marconi, 571; Society of London, L. McMichael Elected Honorary Secretary of the, 8; and the Post Office, 40; Telephony, Speak- ing across the Atlantic by, Prof. J. A. Fleming, 179; Telegraphy, Directive, as applied to Aircraft, Capt. J. Robinson, 487; Text-book on, Prof. R. Stanley, . New edition in two volumes, 462; Time Signals, 380 Wiring Rules of the Institution of Electrical Engineers, Amended edition, 178 Women: at Cambridge, 265; in Ihdustry, The Economic Future of, Sir L. Macassey, 9 Wood for the spars of Aeroplane Wings, Tests on, J. R. Watkins, 42 Wooden Object, a Remarkable. Carved, Domingo, Dr, J. W.. Fewkes, 378 Wool, Fine, A Search for, Prof. J. C. Ewart, 153 Works: Management, F. C. Van Dyke, 543; Schools, A. P. M. Fleming, and others, 522 Worms : Luminous, Rev. S. Graham Brade-Birks, 23 ; Rev. H. Friend, 334 Wrekin, Round the, 331 from Santa X-ray: and Electro-medical Apparatus, Watson and Son's Catalogue of, 320; and y-rays, Scattering of, by Rings of. Electrons, G. A. Schott, 365 X-rays in,,Medical Science, Dr. A. C. Jordan, 237; in _ Physical Science, Prof. W. H. Bragg, 235; The Funda- ~ mental ConStants’ of the Spectrometry of the, Ledoux- Lebard and Dauvillier, 347 Yale: Observatory, Dr. F. Schlesinger Elected Director of the, 417; University, Bequest to, by J. W. Sterling, 67; The Lord Strathcona Legacy to, 146 Yorkshire, The North Riding of, Capt. W. J. Weston, 4 Young-Helmholtz Theory of Colour-vision and Colour- blindness, The Adequacy of the, Prof. W. Peddie, 715 Y.M.C.A. in Egypt, The War Work of the, Sir J. W. Barrett, 560 Youth, The Waste of, Prof. F. Soddy, 8&9 _ Zoological: Sculpture in Art and Architecture, S. B. P. Trowbridge, and others, 117; Society. of London, Prosperity of the, 444 Zoologists, The Salaries and Remuneration of, 554 Zoology : and Human Welfare, Dr. J. F. Gemmill, 21; at the British Association, Prof. J. H. Ashworth, 456; The Teaching of, in Schools, 554 ae aes a a A WEEKLY ILLUSTRATED JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. “To. the solid ground Of Nature trusts the mind which builds for aye."—WorDswoRTH. THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 4, 1910. j AN EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY PHYSICIAN. Dr. John Fothergill and his Friends: Chapters in | Eighteenth-century Life. By Dr. R. Hingston _ Fox. Pp. xxiv+434. (London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd., 191g.) Price 21s. net. \A ORE than any other period, the eighteenth ; century is rich in memoirs and biographical history, and from these sources have been obtained "most of our facts regarding the mode of life, the characters, and the mental activities of those who ‘were representative of that age. But estimates of the lives and work of physicians have not ‘appeared so frequently, although many medical ‘men in the eighteenth century influenced the ‘social life of their period profoundly enough to merit a biographical memoir. The life of Dr. John Fothergill is a case jin point, and the book under review is a valuable* contribution to the biographical his- tory of medicine. Fothergill is fully worthy of the care Dr. Fox has bestowed upon his history, for, in a sense, he was representative of his age and profession. He occupied a respectable, if “not a commanding, position in medicine; he was ver ready to promote. with his purse and influ- ‘ence the claims of science, and in an age when few paid attention to public health and education he was an energetic and enlightened reformer. Others, notably Lettsom, have essayed_ the portrait of Fothergill, but we do not remember ‘any memoir in which the character of the great Quaker physician is depicted with more accuracy and skill. : _ The life of Fothergill may be considered from the point of view of the physician, the man of Science, and the philanthropist. In all he played a considerable part, but his precise position as a Physician is difficult to describe. He. was, it is true, very successful in private practice, and NO. 2601, VOL. 104] enjoyed an unusually large share of public pat- ronage. From accounts that have been handed down, he appears to have been a shrewd and accurate observer of the clinical phenomena of disease. But to judge from the scanty and hastily composed medical writings left by Fothergill, he does not appear to have been a sagacious scien- tific thinker, nor has he contributed much to the advance of medicine. He was content to cling to the traditions of the old clinician, and was uninfluenced by the advances that were being made in the study of morbid anatomy as an aid to the diagnosis and treatment of disease. As a physician he belong's to the class of which Richard Warren, Henry Revell Reynolds, and Sir Henry Halford were leaders, but he cannot be assigned a place among the great men who advanced medi- cine, such as Matthew Baillie, William Prout, and Richard Bright. Fothergill’s position in science was not unlike that of Sir Joseph Banks, whose influence, more than actual scientific work performed, produced a salutary effect on British science jin the eighteenth century. Botany interested him keenly, and nearly all the time he could snatch from his medical commitments was devoted to the cultivation of his famous garden of thirty acres at Upton Park, where fifteen: gardeners were continually em- ployed. Fothergill’s estate at Upton Park was no mere pleasure garden devised for the purpose of social entertainment, but a nursery for the rearing of shrubs and plants brought from all parts of the world by collectors in Fothergill’s pay. In this way he was responsible for the intro- duction of many varieties which can be seen ‘in any garden at the present day. ’ Besides medicine and botany, Dr. Fox gives a full account of Fothergill’s work in education and politics, and his position as a leader of the Society of Friends is dealt with in a temperate and able manner. The book is trustworthy, and should commend itself to those who are interested in the intellectual progress of the eighteenth century. B 2 NATURE [SEPTEMBER 4, 1919 PHYSICS “IN WAR, Les Applications de la Physique pendant la Guerre. By H. Vigneron. Pp. vili+322. (Paris: Masson et Cie, 1919.) Price 7 francs net. ; BOOK with this title, appearing so soon after the termination of hostilities, could scarcely fail to excite considerable interest. The public in general and people with a scientific turn of mind in particular have been vaguely aware that, during the war; much work has been done in applying scientific principles to military pur- poses. In this country, as well as in Allied countries, there have been spread, in spite of the censorship, most exaggerated and _ distorted accounts of the practical results of these experi- ments. Here, then, in this book, it might have been supposed, would be afforded an opportunity of testing the truth of the rumours which have been current. To a reader in this frame of mind a perusal of the book will be somewhat disap- pointing. There are no great revelations, and it is a little difficult to see why the French censor- ship would not allow the author to publish the major portion of the contents during the war as he desired. The important subject of submarine detection and destruction, for example, is dealt with in a couple of pages. ‘There is internal evidence that this does not arise from lack of knowledge on the part of the author, but rather from the operation of the censorship, which can have been removed in a very limited sense only. The author has, no doubt, been seriously handi- capped in this way, for the French authorities appear to have been much more strict than our own. M. Vigneron, in his preface, very properly lays Stress on the.important part played in the war by those men of science who, before the war, conducted speculative research without thought of the possibility of its practical application, and were forced by circumstances to join hands with the ‘‘techniciens,’’ as he calls them. This alliance has produced far-reaching results, and there will be general agreement with the author that it should be fostered and perpetuated. The work of purely scientific workers is very liable to be lost sight of when it becomes absorbed in industry. One feels that M. Vigneron would have been able to do more justice to them had he delayed publication until it was permissible to refer more explicitly to their work. The author is evidently a believer in the practical fruits of pure science,-and his advocacy of the methods of the General Electric Co. of Schenectady in this respect is sound. j The first of the seven sections of the present volume deals principally with the applications of optics for military purposes. Of particular interest are the chapters concerning rangefinders, and the many and varied uses of photography in warfare. One misses, however, any adequate teference to modern methods of ‘signalling, such as those with infra-red and _ ultra-violet light, No. 2601, VOL. 104] -actually came invented by Prof. R. W. Wood. Sections .2 and 3 are devoted, respectively, to the aerial and submarine aspects of war, and contain many in- teresting facts and diagrams. ‘There is a long section. on artillery and projectiles, containing much information, most of which was probably available before the war. * wireless telegraphy, is shorter than might have been expected, but gives an interesting outline of present methods, including the use of therm- ionic valves as oscillators and amplifiers. There The sixth section, on — is merely a mention of wireless telephony, which — into considerable practical use during the war. Localisation of foreign materials in the human body, mainlyby means of X-rays, forms the subject of the dast chapter. The book is interesting and well written. It is illustrated with many good diagrams and photographic reproductions, which are explained clearly in the text. What is lacking with regard to “secret ’’ developments the author will, we hope, take up in a subsequent volume. EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCHES ON GLASS. Experimental Researches Carried Out in the Department of Glass Technology, University. of Sheffield. Vol. i., 1917-18. (Reprinted from the Journal of the Society of , Glass Tech- nology.) Pp. iii+178. (Shefiield : The Uni- versity, n.d.) : ‘Ske W. E. S. TURNER is to be congratulated _upon the success which has attended the formation of the Department of Glass Technology, Sheffield University, of which he is the head, and of the Society of Glass Technology, of which he is secretary, and in the foundation of which he played a leading part. The results of the experimental researches carried out in the department are now _teprinted from the journal of the society, together with certain reports to the council of the uni- versity. Glass is a peculiarly elusive subject for scientific investigation, but’ neither man of science, techno- logist, nor practical worker will deny that it is a fascinating one. We know practically nothing about the nature of glass, and in this respect we are much in the position of the metallurgists prior to the introduction of thermal and micrographic methods of investigation. We have as yet no key to the constitution of glass, and this must be sought in the purely scientific study of simple mixtures rather than in the investigation of com- — plex glasses, which experience has proved to be practically useful. At the beginning of the war very little informa- tion was available with regard even to the essential facts relating to scientific glassware, miners’ lamps, and electric bulbs, which our glass manu- facturers were called upon to supply with the least possible delay. Which was the best of the vari- ous brands of beakers and flasks at the moment in everyday use in chemical laboratories? was a question to which only the vaguest’ answer could be given. As to how these glasses should ee, Lee ne : } ai ee Te oe SEPTEMBER 4, 1919 | NATURE 3 ‘anneal so as to withstand the strain of laboratory use nothing was known at all. _\ The researches which are now republished relate “mainly to the practical class of problems. The seven papers on the testing of laboratory glass- ware contain information which has been of the greatest value to glass manufacturers. They should also be very carefully studied by everyone engaged in analytical work. The attention of chemists and physicists is also directed to some interesting papers relating to the calibration of volumetric apparatus and to blowpipe work. Experimental work in connection with refrac- tory materials, furnace problems, etc., is also being undertaken, but‘énly preliminary notes on ‘the results are as yet available. _ The publication contains an account of the educational activities of the department, which ‘includes a school of instruction in blowpipe work. M. W. T B PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY. (1) Text-book of Physical Chemistry. By Prof. ~ A. T. Lincoln. Pp.:viiit+547. (London: G. G. Harrap and Co., Ltd., 1918.) Price 12s. 6d. net. (2) Outlines of Theoretical Chemistry. _ F. H. Getman. Second edition, thoroughly _ revised and enlarged. Pp. xvi+539. (New - York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc.; London: ~ Chapman and Hall, Ltd., 1918.) Price 16s. 6d. er. net. oh the matter of text-books, physical chemistry 3 seems to be coming into its own. It is a healthy sign. Not, indeed, that mere numbers of text-books are any trustworthy measure of the erowth and vigour of a science, nor is the un- restricted compilation of them to be encouraged, but physical chemistry is a relatively youthful science, and there is still ample room for in- dividual exposition of the subject. _ We have before us two general text-books of physical chemistry of moderate size and scope, and it may be said at once that both can be recommended to students who are commencing the subject. In books of this kind the great difficulty for the writer is to know what to exclude, for, of course, much has to be excluded, and no very detailed discussion of any problem is possible. The two books, although of much the same ‘‘ standard,’’ naturally exhibit their in- dividuality in this respect. There is one point which should not be overlooked: both books are by American authors. It is evident that physical chemistry is taken much more seriously in America than it is in our own country. The fact is that the Americans, like the Germans before t , have realised the fundamental importance of physico-chemical thinking, not only for advance the theoretical side, but equally so for technical and industrial progress. _ (t) Prof. Lincoln’s book is well written, and the fundamental principles are clearly developed and xplained. Considerable attention is paid.to the aboratory side of the subject. There are a few NO. 2601, VOL. 104] 2S By Dr. historical references, which give added interest to the text. Without going into detail, it may be said that optical properties are particularly well treated, as is also the general problem of heterogeneous equilibrium—e.g. the phase rule and its manifold applications, the principles of fractional distillation, and the solubility relations of three components. (In the last connection a particularly good account is given of the use of the triangular diagram.) There is likewise a fairly comprehensive discussion of colloids, of non- aqueous solutions, and of the ionising power of a solvent. Except in a few sections, only the most elementary mathematics is employed. This makes the book very suitable for those beginning the subject, but, of course, limits its scope. There are a few misprints—e.g. Frick for Fick on p- 434—and a rather remarkable statement on p- 378 in connection with hydration, which is not quite what the author intends. The absence of a name index is perhaps a drawback, and the use of the term heat-tone as a translation of Wdarmetoénung is to be deprecated. (2) Dr. Getman’s book, which now reaches its second edition, is an excellent exposition of physical chemistry for those commencing. the. subject. Again only elementary mathematics is used, and, although numerous thermodynamical results are quoted and applied, the author has not attempted any systematic treatment of the prin- ciples of thermodynamics which would have taken him beyond the general aim and scope of the book. It may be mentioned that the subject of conduction of electricity through gases is given much more prominence than is usual in a book of this kind. The same thing is true of the subjects radio-activity, atomic structure, polarisa- tion, and photochemistry. The results of modern research have been incorporated in a_ skilful manner, and the student is frequently referred to original sources for further information: The presentation of the whole subject is consequently very much up to date. Each chapter is furnished with a set of problems which will be of good service in enabling the student to grasp thoroughly the meaning of what he reads. W. C. McC. Lewis. OUR BOOKSHELF. Text-book on Practical Astronomy. By Prof. George L. Hosmer. Second edition, revised. Pp. ix+205. (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc.; London: Chapman and Hall, Ltd., 1917.) Price gs. 6d. net. Tue professed object of the author was to satisfy the requirements of civil engineering students, who are unlikely to take up a more advanced study. of astronomy, and to produce a text-book intermediate between those formally devoted to astronomy and geodesy, and the short chapter on astronomy generally to be met with in works on surveying. By the lucidity of the explana- tions and the simplicity of the general treatment of the subject, the book seems well adapted to — 4 NATURE [SEPTEMBER 4, 1919 the needs of such students, and suggests com- parison with the work on astronomy by the late Hugh Godfray, which has held the field in our universities for so many years. A good deal of space is wisely devoted to the chapter on time, for the experience of teachers generally will con- firm the remark made in the’ preface that “this subject seems to cause the student: more difficulty than any other branch of practical astronomy.”’ The young student of spherical trigonometry, entering upon the practical solution of triangles, ‘is sometimes a little bewildered by the number and variety of the formule put before him for the determination of an angle from three given sides, by means of the halved sine, cosine, tan- gent, etc. A somewhat novel feature of Prof. Hosmer’s work is a short discussion of the con- ditions under which one of these is to be pre- ferred to the others. To each chapter is appended a small collection of examples, some numerical, some calculated to test the grasp obtained upon the subject-matter of the chapter. These should be of great assist- ance to the student. HeeBo iG: History of the Theory of Numbers. Vol. i. Divisibility and Primality, Publication No. 256. By Prof. L. E. Dickson. Pp. xii+ 486. (Wash- ington: Carnegie Institution of Washington, 1919. Tus ai appears to be a chronological encyclo- pedia rather than a history as that word is usually understood. Prof. Dickson has aimed at giving references to all papers bearing on the subject, and in most cases. he has given a sum- mary of the contents. These papers are so numerous that the need for brevity has forced the author into a style which is often abrupt and occasionally irritating, but the subject-matter will be found invaluable by all who aim at original work in the theory of numbers. The volume begins with an account of the theory of perfect numbers!; these are now of historical interest only, but the quest for all per- fect numbers. has proved one of the greatest driving forces in the general theory of numbers. The next topic includes the theorems of Fermat and of Wilson; it is remarkable that the first proof known of the one and the first enunciation of the other are both due to Leibniz. The section on indices, binomial congruences, and circulating decimals includes a large number of writings of an unusually miscellaneous char- acter, and the reader will find that this source contains much information which has not been easily accessible hitherto. The most elaborate chapter bears the title “Sum and. Number of Divisors’’; and_ this chapter contains many references to the analytical theory of numbers, which has grown so rapidly of late years. On the other hand, recent work 1 The Greeks called a number erect if the number happens to be equal to the sum ofits divisors. For example, we have 6=1+2+3, 28=1+24+4+7+14. NO, 2601, VOL. 104] on prime number theory is but lightly sketched, and rightly so, inasmuch as the treatise by Landau and subsequent reports have provided all the necessary material. Physical Laboratory Experiments for Engineer- ing Students. By Prof: Samuel Sheldon and Prof. Erich Hausmann. Part i. Mechanics, Sound, Heat, and Light. Pp. v+134. (Lon- don: Constable and Co., Ltd., 1919.) Price 6s. net. Tus book, prepared for use in the Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn, is suitable for candidates for engineering degrees who have already pur- sued laboratory courses in physics. “Each ex- periment has been chosen because of its close connection with engineering work, and in many cases the theoretical result may be calculated from the constants of the apparatus with which that. result obtained by experiment may readily be compared. As these two results approach to an equality the student gains confidence in the apparatus, confidence in the theory, and con- fidence in himself.’’ This is well said. There can be no doubt that many students lose not only confidence but also interest in physics when they find that owing to inefficient apparatus results of reasonable accuracy cannot be obtained. The experiments here described are well selected, and as apparatus of engineering design has been chosen, the equipment with ordinary care in use should continue to give sufficient accuracy. Special mention may be made of the apparatus for the study of the harmonic motion of a rotat- ing. system, which appears to be unknown to British instrument makers. The book is printed! on good paper, and is well illustrated. He. S.cAe The North Riding of Yorkshire. By Capt. W. J. Weston. Pp. viii+ 161. University Press, rgtg.) Price 2s. 6d. net. In view of the time which has elapsed since the greater proportion of these well-known county geographies were issued, one had almost feared that the greatest county had been overlooked. It is now apparent that three yolumes will be issued for Yorkshire, one for each Riding, and the first of these, dealing with the North Riding, has just appeared. As we are fairly familiar with all that have previously been published, it is a pleasure to be able to state that this is one of the best; the author seems to have had a better grasp of the object of the work he has had in hand, result- ing in a volume which is much more a geography than a guide-book. The illustrations are numer- ous and well chosen; misprints, as usual, are few —which makes that ,in the word “Montreal ’’ on p. 58 all the more glaring. The only statement we cannot agree with is in reference to the “raised beach ’’ at Saltburn, which is now known to be a “kitchen midden.’’ The colouring of the geological map at the end, for which the author is not responsible, does not seem quite so success- ful as with the maps in the earlier volumes. fi Beas a (Cambridge: At the— ——ae SEPTEMBER’ 4, 1919 | NATURE 5 LETTERS TO THE EDITOR. {The Editor does not hold himself responsible for _ Opinions expressed by his correspondents, Neither can be undertake to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manuscripts intended for | this or any other part of Nature. No notice is _ taken of anonymous communications.] The Exnlosion at Bailleul. _ Tue reports referred to in Nature of August 28 {p. 511) of the effects observed at Denmark Hill, - Norwich, and elsewhere by the explosion of a muni- tion dump at Bailleul at 1.10 p.m. G.M.T. on August 8 suggest that these effects were due mainly to earth tremors caused by the explosion, since the rattling of windows, extending in one case throughout two and a half minutes, is alone mentioned. Here, “however, at Harpendeti! and also at Luton and Stevenage, an actual “sound of a very marked _ character was heard. The first impression produced in my own case was that a ceiling or heavy picture ‘had fallen in one of the upper rooms, and I at once “went round the house to ascertain if that was the case. Everyone in the immediate neighbourhood seems to have heard the noise equally clearly, and it was’ very generally attributed at first to an explosion _of a factory or munition dump four to six miles dis- tant. The noise, which may have lasted two seconds, was preceded by a lesser sound, or perhaps only a tremor, which made one anticipate that something was coming. This, of course, is usual in the case of explosions. SPENCER PICKERING. Harpenden, Herts. 4 British Well-worms. _ From facts which have recently come to light, I am led to believe that there is a good deal yet to be _tearned about the Oligochzts which occur in our wells _ and water-supplies. It is now many years since I directed attention to the occurrence of Pachydrilus _(Lumbricillus) subterraneus, Vejd., in tap-water and elsewhere. The first well-worm to be discovered in _ the country was named by me Diachaeta curvisetosa. It was afterwards discovered that it belonged to the Haplotaxide, and is now known as Haplotaxis _urvisetosa, Friend. In spite of Michaelsen’s con- clusion to the contrary, this is quite a distinct worm from Haplotaxis gordioides, which I have found in this country. Another well-worm, the description of which may be expected to .appear shortly in the - Quarterly Journal of the Microscopical Society, is _ Anagaster fontinalis, Friend, which has been found in ‘East Anglia. I have notes of other species of worms found in water, including Rhynchelmis, taken in Hampshire, and some which have not been named _ for want of perfect material. As I am now engaged on the preparation of a monograph of British Oligochzts, # seems very desirable that our know- ledge of this branch of the subject should be per- fected, and it would be esteemed a great favour if - persons who find worms in their wells, pumps, taps, and water-supply would send me the same for _ identification and record. Hitperic FRIEND. Cathay,’ Solihull, August 29. Re i THE PROTECTION OF OUR “ KEY.” INDUSTRIES. Ht has long been foreseen that one of the 4 immediate consequences of peace would be _ to subject this country to a flood of manufactured articles from Germany. some time past that German manufacturers were preparing, by every means in their power, to NO. 2601, VOL. 104] It has been known for recover and retain their former hold on our home markets. They were steadily accumulating stocks to be ‘‘ dumped ”’ in Great Britain on the first possible opportunity. It was’ a policy of despair, but it was the only policy open to them. The salvation of certain of their industries de- pended on their being able to thwart, by fair means or foul, the expansion of such of these industries as the exigencies of war had called into existence in this country. Our national welfare, indeed, was bound up in these industries. The country was quick to recognise their importance, and the Government responded to public pressure by the steps it took to foster their initiation and development. Some of these steps were of paramount necessity as war measures, but they had a still wider significance. With the outbreak of war the Empire realised, as never before, that it had in large measure failed to perceive the full importance of the bearing of science upon indus- try. Owing to a variety of causes on which it is no longer necessary to dwell, we had allowed our chief enemy to take over and gradually to obtain almost exclusive possession, of certain ‘‘ key ’”’ industries ‘depending upon the applications of physical science, such as the manufacture of synthetic dyestuffs and drugs, analytical reagents and other chemical products, optical glass and instruments, electrical apparatus and magnetos, etc. We had become wholly dependent upon Germany for a large number of articles comprised under these categories which are absolutely essential to the prosecution of war under modern conditions. It speaks volumes for the innate genius of our race that our men of science and our manufacturers, when thus confronted with a national emergency, should have responded as they did to the country’s call. We have not only triumphed over difficulties which at one time seemed well-nigh insuperable, but, as is well known, we have also in many cases bettered the example of our enemies, and certain of our manu- factured articles have reached a pitch of excel- lence which Germany never attained. This pre-eminence—the fruit of so much anxiety and toil—ought surely to remain with us. Our legislators would be false to their trust if they allowed political expediency and _ party faction to rob the country of the position it has now gained through the circumstances and for- tune of a war which was thrust upon it. The common sense of the nation demands that those industries which we have been compelled by the necessities of this war to establish by a great ex- penditure of effort and capital, and which are everywhere recognised as no less important in times of peace, should be preserved and fostered. “Never again’’ has become a watchword. But, even apart from any question of security, the country would be blind to its opportunity if it ‘allowed these “key ’’ industries to fall back into their pre-war condition. The few years of their existence are, however, too short to have brought them into a position of stability. There is an enormous amount of leeway to make up. One 6 NATURE [SEPTEMBER 4, I919 cannot expect in four years to reach the position which it has taken forty years of organisation, skill, and enterprise on the part of Germany to secure. The country, therefore, will welcome the steps which the Board of Trade has taken, in con- formity with the Prime Minister’s recent state- ment in Parliament, to protect goods manufac- tured in Great Britain and Ireland against “dumping,’’ and to check any flood of imports (for instance, from Germany) that might arise from a collapse of exchange so disproportionate to costs of production in the country of origin as to enable sales to take place in this country at prices altogether below costs of production here. It is, of course, too much to expect that this action will pass unchallenged. There isa school of politicians in this country who, like the Bour- bons, learn nothing and forget nothing. They are a decreasing faction, it is true, and recent events have tended to submerge the survivors. In a few years they will be as extinct as the dodo. It is a significant fact that the fiscal tenets of the Manchester School are never cherished by a real democracy. Pending the legislation which is to be introduced into Parliament when it reassembles in the autumn, the Board of Trade under the powers conferred upon it will, as from September 1, 1919, prohibit the importation into the United Kingdom of synthetic dyestuffs, drugs, and “intermediates ’’ needed in their manufacture; also synthetic flavourings and perfumes, synthetic photographic chemicals, and a_ considerable number of inorganic products and medicaments of which the manufacture had to be started in this country in consequence of the war, and which German manufacturers had intended to “dump” into this country as soon as trade relations were re-established. In addition to the chemical products enumer- ated in the schedule of the proclamation, the Board of Trade is taking steps to protect the new industries dealing with optical glass, scien- tific glassware, laboratory porcelain, and a number of products of which the Germans by various means, some of them of a very dubious character, had secured a monopoly. This action will, no doubt, occasion great perturbation in the Teutonic mind. It may even amount to dismay. The enemy had probably calculated, and as usual miscalculated, on prejudices which occasionally seem to obscure the recognition of our true in- terests as a trading community. ‘“’Tis sport to have the engineer hoist with his own petar.”’ THE ORGANISATION OF RESEARCH. Peet of the scheme devised by the Depart- ment of Scientific and Industrial Research for the administration of the funds placed at its disposal by Parliament was the formation of associations among groups of manufacturers, and a conference was held on July 29 of representa- NO. 2601, VOL. 104] tives of: the associations already formed for the purpose of discussing some of the many problems which have presented themselves in connection with their work. In the absence of Mr. H. A. L. Fisher, President of the Board of Education, the chair was taken by Sir William McCormick, chairman of the Advisory Council. Sir Frank Heath, secre- tary of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, was also present, besides some sixty to seventy representatives. A great diversity of subjects was thus represented, though some, especially the great chemical industries, were con- spicuously unrepresented... The meeting was informed that nine researc associations were in operation, eight more have been approved and are only waiting the licence of the Board of Trade,-while twelve others are under discussion. So much having been accom- plished in the three years which have elapsed since the idea originated, it may be assumed that a general approval has been given to the scheme by the industrial world, but the initial difficulties are far from’ being overcome as yet. Among the subjects discussed at the conference the first was the formation of a records bureau, and the second the difficult and important one of the conditions of employment of research workers engaged by the associations. Other ques- tions related to co-operation among the associa- tions, and the amount and method of assessment of the subscriptions to be paid by the associated ee in addition to the subsidy from departmental unds. The formation .of a bureau of information and for the recording of results secured by research is a matter of the utmost importance. In the first: place it is proposed that its task should consist in storing up the results of work done by the associations, but even this will be found very ee ee ee a expensive and not free from difficulties, owing to — the views prevalent in some quarters as to. secrecy. The associations require access to in- formation of every kind, and apparently the representatives assembled have something to learn with regard to the existing sources of much of the information they require, for throughout the discussion no reference was made to the magni- ficent journals, containing both original papers and abstracts, issued by some of the British and American engineering and chemical societies. It seems to be recognised that a large number of reference libraries will have to be established, especially in the neighbourhood. of great centres of industry; but it ought also to be understood that every association will require a library stored with works of reference, and especially journals cognisant of the subjects it represents; indeed, every works which has a laboratory for research must be similarly provided. All this represents a large outlay of money, the amount of which can scarcely be calculated as yet. The other serious point under discussion con- cerned the interests of the separate associations, and perhaps more particularly those of the in- SEPTEMBER 4, 1919| NATURE 7 dividual research workers. And here it would be well to consider the difference between discovery and invention. The former is usually the result of protracted inquiry by highly skilled and highly educated workers, while invention may, and does often, result from the recognition of a need or opportunity for improvement in a machine or process by a mere workman, ignorant of science in a general sense, but whom long experience in some one industry has led to realise the tech- nical difficulties peculiar to the work in which he has been engaged. The question before the con- ference was how to estimate the value of the services rendered by a successful employee and the right way to reward them. This is a very difficult problem. Ainy system of bonuses would be for various reasons undesirable and perhaps unfair. There was agreement that the scale. of remuneration ‘must be liberal, in order, for one thing, that the man so employed may be free from anxieties as to his own future. But it is becoming clear to everyone that if industry is to enjoy the advantage of engaging the best brains of the nation this kind of calling must be made attractive to the rising young men and women. At present, as pointed out by the chairman, the new research associations are finding that there are not sufficient scientific workers to go round. _ THE BOURNEMOUTH MEETING OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION. 5, Bae success of the meeting of the British Association, which opens in Bournemouth on September 9, should be a foregone conclusion if one may judge by its appeal to the imagination. It may be said that a scientific history of the war will be presented. Commencing with the in- augural address of the president (the Hon. Sir Charles A. Parsons, K.C.B.), which will deal with “Engineering and the War,” throughout the week the invaluable war-work of men of science, which played so magnificent a part in our victory, will be the subject of a great variety of lectures and debates. Secrets which have hitherto been jealously preserved will be made public, and it should be possible after the meeting to estimate as’ never before the enormous importance of science in modern military operations. Apart from questions of war, a large proportion of the papers and discussions will be closely in touch with the problems and activities of the Empire to-day. Education, citizenship, and economic and industrial difficulties will all be pro- minent features of the programme. There is every reason, therefore, to believe that the meeting will be of unique interest and im- ’ portance. Whether it will be an equal success in point of numbers in attendance is less certain. The amount of interest shown locally in the pro- ceedings cannot at the time of writing be said to have come up to expectations. This comparative Jack of enthusiasm is not, however, surprising in a town of so many and diverse distractions. The NO, 2601, VOL. 104] number of applications for associateship and membership is at present much smaller than anticipated, but in the opinion of those competent to judge the eleventh hour will bring a marked improvement in this direction. One of the greatest problems which the local executive committee has had to face has been that of finding accommodation for visitors. A popular seaside resort in September inevitably presents extraordinary difficulties in this respect. Great efforts have been made to deal with the situation, and considerable public spirit has been displayed by hotel-keepers and others in helping the committee in its task. The local preparations for the meeting are well in hand. The work of adapting the Municipal College to the needs of the Association is prac- tically complete, and better accommodation has probably never been provided. THE PROTECTION OF WILD BIRDS. # Mage Report of the Departmental Committee on the Protection of Wild Birds, which has just been issued, after a considerable delay due to war conditions, marks an important step towards the proper and efficient control of British bird-life, which has been subject to the varying and complicated regulations of a long series of legislative enactments. The report foreshadows unified and simplified lines of regulation which, if adopted in law, ought to make the protection of wild birds. not only more practicable, but also more effective. Of the fresh suggestions made by the expert Departmental Committee, to which the thanks of all naturalists are due, the most far- reaching is that regarding the formation of a permanent Ornithological Advisory Committee, which would sit in London and not only advise the Central Authority on all ornithological questions, but also collect information and con- trol investigations bearing upon the activities and status of wild birds. It is astounding to learn, though it is undoubtedly on a par with the official attitude towards science, that the Wild Birds Protection Acts have been administered without any expert ornithological assistance, except in the case of Scotland. Even there the matter of advice seems to have been, so to speak, behind the scenes, for there is no evidence of public acknowledgment of this highly technical information and advice. Of many suggested improvements upon the old laws, mention can only be made of a few. All birds are recommended for protection during the breed- ing season, from May 1 to September 1, subject to the right of the owner or occupier, but even this exception is abolished in the case of scheduled birds, which, in Schedule A, including more than fifty species, are absolutely protected during the breeding season, and in Schedule B, including about twenty-seven species, are absolutely © pro- tected throughout the year. The unifying of the schedules for the protection of both birds and eggs is a vast improvement upon the present 8 _ NATURE [SEPTEMBER 4, I919 independence of the two groups, which has led only to confusion; while the protection of all birds and eggs on Sundays and the licensing of bird-catchers and bird-dealers are rew and valu- able suggestions. It must be the hope of the British naturalist that as soon as possible these recommendations will be adopted and become the law of the land. NOTES. WE are informed that the council of the Royal Society has nominated representative committees to deal with national questions connected with the inter- national unions which it is intended to form under the International Research Council. The committee for astronomy will consist of the Astronomers Royal for England, Scotland, and Ireland, the Superinten- dent of the Nautical Almanac, six members nominated by the Royal Society, six members nominated by the Royal Astronomical Society, two members nominated by the Royal Society of Edinburgh, two members appointed by the Royal Irish Academy, and two members appointed by the British Astronomical Asso- ciation. The committee for geodesy and geophysics will consist of the Astronomers Royal, the Director of the Meteorological Office, the Director-General of the Ordnance Survey, the Hydrographer of the Navy, two representatives of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, two representatives of the Royal Irish Academy, two members nominated by the British Association, and two members nominated by the Royal Society. Since their formation these committees have advised the council of the Royal Society on the formation of the international unions in their respective subjects, and nominated the delegates to the recent meeting at Brussels. The Federated Council for Pure and Applied Chemistry was also recognised as the national committee on that subject.. As regards other subjects, similar committees will no doubt be established, hut, no definite proposals having been submitted by any country, no action has hitherto been taken, and the powers of the delegates attending the meeting at the invitation of the council of the Royal Society were limited to the obtaining of information with regard to the views of other countries concerning the ‘estab- lishment of international unions. The recommenda- tions made only express the personal views of dele- gates attending the conference, and will, no doubt, be submitted to the proper authorities before any action is taken. At the death of Prof. Milne in 1913 the British Association Seismological Committee decided to main- tain the work at Shide, both the actual observations with seismographs and the collation of results from the Milne stations scattered over the globe. The seismographs were mounted in a disused stable; the clerical and computational work was carried on in an annexe built to the dwelling-house by the liberality of the late Mr. M. H. Gray. Mr. J. H. Burgess and Mr. S. W. Pring, two residents in the neighbourhood who had worked with Prof. Milne, were able to devote part of their time to the work under the general superintendence of the committee. The war steadily rendered this arrangement more and more difficult; Mr Burgess and Mr. Pring both ultimately left Shide, and early in the present year Mrs. Milne, from whom the observatory had been rented by the committee, announced her desire to sell the house, including the observatory, and to return to her home . in Japan. In anticipation of the difficulties becoming acute, preparations had been made for transferring NO. 2601, VOL. 104] | chester. the work to Oxford. last October in the basement of the Clarendon Laboratory, where Prof. C. V. Boys made his well- known gravity determination. Permission to make trial of this site was kindly granted by Mr. James Walker, then in charge, and has since been con- firmed by Prof. F. A. Lindemann. been eminently satisfactory, and there is ample room for the other component. The arrangements for housing the Milne seismological library (definitely left in his will to the British Association Committee) and the computational work are ‘not’ yet finally settled, but no serious difficulty is anticipated in finding a solution. The arrangements are necessarily of a provisional type at this moment, and liable to be modified by future events, such as the possible establishment ofa geophysical idstitute at Cambridge, andthe action ultimately taken by the Seismological Section of the International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics -recently established at Brussels. The Union itself was fully constituted, but the Seismo- logical Section was suspended until some legal formalities connected with the extinction of the former International Seismological Association have been completed.’ siftate WE regret to announce the death on September 2, — at seventy-five years of age, of Prof. Alexander Macalister, F.R.S., professor of anatomy in the University of Cambridge. : Dr. C. A. Mercier, physician for mental diseases to Charing Cross Hospital, «nd a distinguished authority upon mental diseases and related subjects, died on September 2 at sixty-seven years of age. Tue Lord President of the ‘Council has appointed Fe Prof. J. E.-Petavel, F.R.S., to be director of the National Physical Laboratory in succession to Sir Richard Glazebrook, C.B., F.R.S., who retires on reaching the soe on September 18 next. Prof. Petavel is professor of engineering and director of the Whitworth Laboratory in the University of Man- He is a member of the Advisory Committ for Aeronautics of the Air Ministry. ‘ THE committee of the Wireless Society of London met on July 24, under the presidency of Mr. Alan A. Campbell-Swinton, with a view to an early resum tion of activities. The hon. secretary, Mr. R. t. Klein, having resigned, and been elected an acting vice-president, Mr. Leslie McMichael, of 30 West End Lane, West Hampstead, N.W.6, has been elected hon. secretary, and to him ali com- ‘munications should be addressed. ‘The society is open to all those interested in the study and furtherance of wireless telegraphy, amateur or professional. Tue Edward Longstreth medal of the Franklin Institute, Philadelphia, has been awarded to Mr. J. Skinner, of the Bureau of Plant Industry of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, for his papers on ‘ Soil Aldehydes,” concerning which the committee reported : “These papers present the results of. scientific study of a new class of deleterious soil constituents, clearly described and effectively illustrated, the whole — a valuable. contribution to the science of agricultura chemistry, and one of marked practical importance.”’ From the Proceedings of the Institute of Chemistry we note that the preparation of an account of the services of British chemists during the war is under consideration. a book on the subject has been drawn up, and pre- liminary arrangements have been entered into with’ publishers. Such a work may be made both interesting A seismograph was mounted — A synopsis of the possible contents of The results have set dae ai tA | SEPTEMBER 4, 1919 | NATURE i 9 and valuable, and’ it is to be hoped ‘that the’ project will be worthily carried out. All chemists who are ‘communicate with the registrar of the institute. _. Two important geological collections of more than Tocal interest have recently been acquired by the Hull Municipal Museum, viz. the Drake and Bower col- ections. The first was formed by the late H. C. Drake, F.G.S., who spent mary years in the Scar- ‘borough district, and also collected largely among the saurian and other vertebrate remains. of the Oxford Clay in the Peterborough area. The other collection was formed by the Rev. C. R. Bower. Many of the ‘specimens are described and some figured in his paper on “The Zones of the Lower Chalk of Lincolnshire” ‘in the Proceedings of the Geological Association for i918. This collection consists of more than a ‘thousand excellently cleaned Chalk fossils, carefully abelled and localised, including many of those which have been figured in his paper, as well as one of the wo known examples. of .Actinocamax boweri, the other specimen being in the British Museum. The collections are largely from the Lower Chalk of Lin- colnshire and the Chalk of Yorkshire, and there. is an interesting series from the Upper Cretaceous of Dover, Folkestone, Kent, and Norfolls. . Tere is no denying the value of intelligent propa- ganda for increasing business and cultural relations ‘between various nations. As an example of the right kind of propaganda we would mention the Bulletin ‘of the Pan-American Union, published. in English, Spanish, Portuguese, and French. This magazine contains authoritative articles on North and South American activities, most of them being splendidly illustrated, ; Tue Bulletin officiel de la Foire de Lyon, of which two recent issues are to hand, is the outcome of the first Lyons Fair, and its object is to keep manufac. turers and others in touch with, the development of these fairs in France and other countries. In this ‘connection it is interesting to note that the next Lyons ‘Fair will be held. on October 1-15 next. The revious fair was a great success, but it is hoped that ‘British manufacturers will be more adequately repre- sented at the forthcoming fair. American competition in France, especially in matters engineering, is very keen, and it is up to British enterprise to‘ see that no trouble is spared in order that French traders, engineers, consumers of scientific products, etc., may know exactly what Britain is able to offer’ them. war he acted’ as arbitrator in innumerable labour disputes. He rightly states that the public in general ‘put little appreciates the enormous latent and un- utilised. capacities for production possessed by the women of the nation. He points out that between 1914 and 1918 more than 700,000 women directly re- placed men in industry, and did work customarily ‘done by men. On repetition work, which was such ‘a pronounced feature of war-time employment, women ‘often proved superior to men, as they do not suffer from the monotony to which men are so susceptible. “On the other hand, they are not man’s equal in skilled ‘work, and because of their greatly inferior physical st they cannot replace him in the heavier types ‘of industry. As regards the future, there ought to be no trade union rules which debar women from NO. 2601, VOL. 104] a position to assist in the matter are invited to any employment which is commensurate with their industrial qualifications, but women must not be allowed to undercut and displace men. They must come in as additional workers to accelerate the’ in- creased productivity which is such a crying need of the present day. Sir Lynden Macassey approves the conclusion of the Committee that women on piece- rates must, as compared with men, receive ‘‘ equal pay, for equal work,’’ but both he and they have missed the fallacy involved in such a contention. If the average woman has as large an output as the average man she is entitled to equal pay, but not otherwise. In most industries the cost of establish- ment and machinery is far higher than the cost of wages, and if, for instance, the woman produces only four-fifths as much as the man, it would not be reason- able for her employer to pay her. four-fifths his wages. Probably he could not afford to give her even three-fifths as much. AMONG the pamphlets on reconstruction problems recently published by H.M. Stationery Office is one relating to Industrial Research (No. 36, price 2d.), which ought to be read by the public, whether directly concerned with industry or not. It contains in fewer than thirty pages a very instructive sketch of the position in the past, and of what has already been accomplished in the way of instituting and organising new fields of research and indicating what may be hoped. for in the future. At the present time there can be few people who are not convinced of the necessity for research in its relation to industry, but it was not always so. Looking back only forty years or thereabouts, it may be asserted that at that time practically no provision was made by manufacturers for improvements in their several industries. Among the earliest of the manufacturers of iron and steel to carry on research were Sir Isaac Lowthian Bell and Sir Bernard Samuelson, but in other directions there was practically nothing to be seen in the way of research except—-to their credit be it said—among the great brewers, who set a fine example to the rest of the world in the way they proceeded to apply the results of Pasteur’s discoveries. In connection with agriculture the work of Sir John Lawes at Rotham- sted, aided through many years. by Sir Henry Gilbert, represented an advance of incalculable importance. Besides showing what can be done, their work seems to illustrate the fact that research, and hence _dis- covery, have in the past depended chiefly on the enthusiasm of the individual man of science. It remains to be seen how far this will continue to be the case. This certainly seems probable in connection with pure science, but we have yet to learn the extent to which organisation will facilitate the discovery of new facts and principles, though there can be no doubt as to the more abundant results which must accrue from the application of such facts and prin- ciples to practical. purposes. It is now clear that as there must be more scientific work done, there must be a larger number of properly trained scientific workers; and one of the first duties of the State will be to see that the universities and places of higher instruction are provided with the means of giving the instruction needed, and that conditions are so improved as to give the encouragement wanted to induce the most capable among the rising generation to pursue science. asa career. It is rightly pointed out in the pamphlet that. working-class opinion especially should be. made aware of the vital import- ance ‘of research. Tue Mexican Review of July describes, with photographs, a remarkable series of ‘stone and terra- cotta remains discovered in the neighbourhood of the fo) NATURE [SEPTEMBER 4, 1919 city of Mexico by Prof. W. Niven. The writer sup- poses that these remains, rude in design and work- manship in comparison with those from the upper Strata, represent. Chinese, Egyptian, and negro’ faces, buried under deposits of lava from volcanoes in prehistoric times. Besides these were found beads of jade, ‘presumably from China,” and seals, ‘in imitation, or perhaps. precedence, of ‘like objects found in the Babylonian and other ruins of the Far East.” It is to be hoped that these articles will soon be examined by experts. If these statements can be verified, they will furnish valuable evidence in support of the conclusions of Prof. Elliot Smith and other advocates of the theory of culture transmission. WE have received. No. 14 of the Journal of the East Africa and Uganda Natural History Society, written by residents in the African tropics, but printed in this country and published by Messrs. Longmans and Co. The issue contains descriptive articles on such subjects as the transmission of human and animal diseases by blood-sucking insects, and a number of short original notes on the habits of various African animals, such as baboons, crocodiles, and the aardvark. THE report on Scottish a for 1918 by the Misses Rintoul and Baxter, which appears in the July-August issue of the Scottish Naturalist, is an excellent and comprehensive compilation, and affords much information on a variety of subjects associated with bird-life. Though the necessary field-work during the year was carried out under greater disadvantages than ever before, yet the contributions of the numerous recorders relate to observations on no fewer than 184 species. No new birds were added to the avifauna, and the list of uncommon alien visitors is a short one, but a, number of species are mentioned as appearing in counties in which they were previously unknown. The influence of weather on bird-life during the year, the results of ‘“ringing,’’ and notes on plumage, food, habits, etc., are also given. The final section of the report deals with the migratory movements of both native species and birds of passage. The observations, which are concisely treated, have been made through- out the mainland and at coastal and insular stations from the Muckle Flugga—the northernmost outpost of the British Isles—to the Tweed and the Solway. The data relate to the comings and goings of no fewer than 160 species. Tue Times of August 18 contained an interesting article on the little owl as a danger to poultry and game. This bird was not originally a native of the British Isles, but was introduced into several parts of England in.some.numibers about a quarter of a century ago by several well-known ornithologists, who cannot have been aware of its harmful proclivi- ties. Apart, however, from its vices, it is an attrac- tive little bird. Since its introduction it has increased very rapidly, and is now widely distributed over England, and some have found their way into Wales, Scotland, and Ireland. Wherever it has established itself it has become a pest to poultry-keepers and game-preservers owing to the havoc it makes among the chicks. It also destroys great numbers of small birds up to the size of a blackbird. Although the little owl’s record is, in the main, a black one, and far outweighs anything that can be placed to its credit, yet it must be admitted that it destroys large numbers of small rodents, such as field-voles, as well as beetles and other insects, and thus renders some service to the agriculturist. The article is evidently based upon a wide knowledge of. the bird, and affords much information on other aspects of its life- history. NO. 2601, VOL. 104] In the Bulletin of the Imperial Institute (vol. xvii., 1919, Ppp. 40-95) there is an excellent detailed account of the production and consumption of cocoa, chiefly in the different countries of the Empire, and showing very clearly the disparities between them in various parts of the world. The United States, using 66,500. tons in 1913, is the greatest consumer, whilst its production is negligible. The United Kingdom in 1913 consumed about 28,000 tons, a great deal of which was imported from foreign countries, while the Empire produced about 88,000 tons, the bulk of which had to go abroad for consumption. In 1917, owing chiefly to the enormous increase of cultivation on the Gold Coast and elsewhere in West Africa, the production increased to 142,800 tons. No attempt is made to describe the methods of preparation in use in the different Colonies, and one is left to infer, when noting the comparative values of cocoa given in various places, that in general they leave a good deal to be desired. ‘The cocoa situation at present evidently turns upon the crop of West Africa, and if that country continues to turn out such enormous quanti- ties of an inferior article, trouble is certain’ to ensue. The great desideratum at the moment is to increase the consumption of this most valuable food and palat- able drink, and it is difficult to do so if the quality be but poor. Cocoa, it is well known, can ‘be produced’ with less trouble than many other: tropical crops, especially if some of the poorer Forastero varieties be employed, but to prepare it of really good quality— as, for instance, it is prepared by the English planters of Ceylon—involves much trouble and the use of better varieties. Nothing less than this, however, will save the market from being glutted with inferior brands of cocoa, ; Unper the title ‘‘ Gossypium in Pre-Linnzean Litera- ture ’’ (Botanical Memoirs No. 2, Oxford University — Press), H. J. Denham traces the literature of cotton-— yielding plants from the earliest writers to the time of Linnzus. The earliest reference to the use of cotton for textiles is by Herodotus, who mentions trees in India “the fruit whereof is a wool” of — which the natives make clothes. The first reference in botanical literature is by Theophrastus (370-285 B.C.), who speaks of a wool-bearing tree on. the Island of Tylos (in the Persian Gulf). Pliny (ap. — 23-79) repeats the information, but quotes the name ‘““Gossypinum ” for ‘the trees. Between the classical — writers and the herbalists who followed the Renais- sance no botanical mention of cotton occurs. By this time the plant was well known around the Mediterranean. The first figure of Gossypium in~ European literature would seem to be in the “Herbal”? of Dorstenius (1540) under the name of Bombax—apparently a conventional drawing of the Asiatic species, Gossypium herbaceum. A_ better figure of this plant was given by Fuchs (‘‘ Historia. Stirpium,’” 1542), with a detailed account; but that of Matthioli (‘‘Kreutterbuch,” 1563) is more satis-— factory. Czesalpino (1583) was the first botanist to indicate the relationship of the plant to the mallows. — In 1592 Prosper Alpinus, in his account of the flora” of Egypt, describes and figures another species, — G. arboreum, a small perennial shrub, a native of northern Africa. Columbus and the early explorers had found cotton in cultivation in the New World, and in 1651 Hernandez figured a Mexican species, G. mexicanum, the possible parent of the upland cottons. The botanical history of cotton in the later pre-Linnzean writers is mainly a record of the attempt to simplify the confusion created by the description of different species under the same headings, as, for instance, by Plukenet (‘*Phytographia,” 1691), SEPTEMBER 4, 1919] NATURE 1I though fortunately in this case the specimens from which the plates were drawn are preserved in the Sloane Herbarium in the British Museum. Linnzus } (1753) defined four species, the two Old World forms and two American, one of the latter being G. bar- badense, presumably the parent of the ‘Sea Island ”’ cotton. MeErEoROLOGICAL Office Circulars Nos. 37 and 38, issued July 1 and August. 1 respectively, deal. with current official notices. Reference is made _ in the July circular to Professional Notes No. 7—‘ The ‘Climate of North-West Russia,’ which was prepared for the use of the British forces acting on the Mur- man coast. The general climate is discussed for the district extending from the Arctic Ocean on the north to Petrograd and the ‘Gulf of Finland on the south, and from the Swedish frontier on the west to 45° east on the east. It deals with the dates of the thawing and freezing of the rivers. The temperature of the upper air is discussed, and other meteorological information is given. Upper-air temperatures in the north-east of France are given for the end ot April last as being of interest in connection with the heavy snowfall over England on April 27. The upper air was abnormally cold. The August circular has an obituary notice of Lord Rayleigh. Tue very effective hardening solution for gelatine negatives that Messrs. Ilford, Ltd., recently intro- duced is applied as a preliminary bath, before develop- ment, and enables development, etc., to be carried on at as high a temperature as rio° F. without any cooling being necessary. In the specification of the _ patent granted to Messrs. Agnew and Renwick, both of Messrs. Ilford, Ltd. (see British Journal of - Photography, August 8), it is stated that the formal- dehyde, which is the real hardening agent, is mixed with a salt of the class which tends to restrict the swelling of dry gelatine in water and raise its melting- point, so that even though the bath may be at as high a temperature as 110° F., the gelatine has no oppor- tunity of melting before it is hardened by the forma- line. This class of salts includes acetates, tartrates, citrates, oxalates, sulphates, phosphates, chromates, bicarbonates, and horates. Example formule are given, using sodium sulphate and ordinary sodium phosphate. A PAMPHLET issued by the Optical Pyrometer Syndi- cate, of Audrey House, Ely Place, E.C.1, contains some notes on optical pyrometers in general, and a special ‘account of the “wedge”? pyrometer and its uses. The early form of this instrument was described in Nature for July 22, 1915, the principle relied upon being the complete extinction of the source of light by means of a wedge of dark glass interposed between - the eye and the source, the temperature being deduced _ from’ the thickness of dark glass needed to secure extinction. It is claimed that not only can concordant _ results be obtained by a single observer trained to the use of the instrument, but also that separate observers may obtain readings agreeing to within 20° C. at 1500° C. One of the disadvantages of all optical pyrometers is that the personal judgment of ‘the operator must be relied upon, either in matching tints or in producing total extinction, and for these purposes all eyes are not equally sensitive. In view of the great increase _ in the use of optical pyrometers, an impartial investiga- tion of the various types from this point of view - would be an advantage, due regard being paid to the type of observer employéd in’ workshops. If the - agreement in readings claimed for the “‘wedge’” pyro- meter should prove to be general for all types of observer, this instrument ought to be very useful, and NO. 2601, VOL. 104] Religious Education,” Dr. Sophie Bryant; its simple construction a recommendation for indus- trial purposes, : Accorpinc to an editorial note in the Scientific American for July 19, the romance of invention is to be illustrated in’ a series of articles on Americans who have produced inventions of the first rank which have proved financially successful. The whole record shows that the ability to invent and the ability to make a commercial success of an invention are seldom com- bined in one man, and the editor almost regards them as mutually exclusive. The first article of the ‘series deals with the telephone. Dr. Graham Bell, who is now seventy-two, invented the telephone in 1876. He himself says he is not a business man and that his interest in the commercial side of an invention is small. He was, however, in the early days of the telephone so fortunate as to be associated with able business men who not only made it a commercial success, but also safeguarded the inventor’s interests in such a way that its success was of benefit to him. It is not desirable that so large a proportion of those who invent or discover something of the greatest value to humanity should see the reward pass to others while they themselves get little or no recognition from their country or the world at large. Tue Journal of the British Science Guild for July contains a summary of the proceedings of: various committees, including those dealing with education and with the metric system, and an account of the thirteenth annual meeting held on June 17. The education committee emphasises the unfavourable position of this country, as regards both the financial position of institutions for higher education and the number of students of university grade, in comparison with other countries. A detailed report on ‘Industrial Research and the Supply of Trained Scientific Workers’* has been sent to the Prime Minister, to the President of the Board of Education, and to universities and similar educational bodies. Special attention has also been devoted by the guild to the organisation of research in relation to fisheries, and importance is attached to the establishment of an institute and museum of oceanography, similar to those in existence in Berlin and in contemplation in Denmark. The attention of the Government has also been directed to the importance of establishing a strong optical industry in this country. A measure recommended is the introduction of certificates of origin of optical goods as a safeguard against fraudu- lent competition. The report of the thirteenth annual meeting includes the addresses delivered on that occa- sion by Major-Gen. Seely, Lord Sydenham, and Sir J. J. Thomson. The journal also contains an apprecia- tion of the late Sir Boverton Redwood by Prof. F. Clowes. Mr. Edward Arnold announces a new series entitled The Modern Educator’s Library. The general editor is Prof. A. A, Cock, and the aim is to present the considered views of teachers of wide exverience and ability upon the changes in method involved in the development in educational theory and practice, and upon the problems as yet unsolved. The first volume of the series (by Prof. T. Percy Nunn) will form an introduction to it, and will deal with the fundamental questions which lie at the root of educational inquiry. It will be entitled ‘‘Education: Its Data and First Principles.” Succeeding volumes will be ‘‘ Moral mee “ee e Teaching of Modern Foreign. Languages in School and University,” Prof. H. G. Atkins and H. L. Hutton; and ‘The Child under Eight.’ E. R. Murray and H. Brown Smith. Other books an- nounced by the same publisher are :—'‘tA Physician 12 NATURE, [SEPTEMBER 4, 1919 in France,’ Sir Wilmot Herringham; ‘The Struggle in the Air, 1914-18,’ Major C. C. Turner; ‘‘ Memories of the Months,’ Sir Herbert Maxwell, Bart., sixth series; ‘“‘Gardens: Their Form and Design,” Vis- countess Wolseley; and ‘‘Modern Roads,” H. P. Boulnois. Messrs. Thomas Murby and Co. an- nounce:—‘tAn Introduction to Paleontology,” Dr. A. Morley Davies; ‘‘ Petrographic Methods and Cal- culations,” Dr, A. Holmes; and ‘“‘A Nomenclature -of Petrology,” Dr. A. Holmes. Messrs, Scott, Green- wood, and Son have ready for publication the second English edition of ‘Chemical Reagents: Their Uses, Methods of Testing for Purity, and Commercial Varieties,’ Dr. C. Krauch; a new edition, by A. B. Searle, of the translation of E. Bourry’s ‘tA Treatise on Ceramic Industries’; and a new edition of ‘“Modern Brickmaking,” A. B. Searle. es ALL communications for the Imperial Mineral Resources Bureau should in future be sent to 2 Queen Anne’s Gate Buildings, Westminster, S.W.1, to which address the Bureau has recently removed. OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN. MercaLr’s Comet.—The following orbit of the comet discovered by Mr. Metcalf on August 21 is by Miss Vinter Hansen and Mr. Fischer-Petersen from observations on August 21, 22, 25 :— T= 1919 Oct. 16°1984 G.M.T. @ =128° 33°32 Gag 22 33 }19190 19° 58°03) log-g =9°68280 Error of middle place (observed minus computed), +0-39/ + 0:09’. i= ! Ephemeris for Greenwich Midnight. ‘ R.A. N. Decl. Log 7 Log 4 Sept. 5 19 13 33. 74 562 00147 9°3095 ; 7 +. 1625 41 76264 9:9997 93174 9 + 14 19 50 71 481 9:9842 9°3375 Il... 13 19 10 65. 92 99681 9:36066 13.» 12 4747 58370 99515 94016 The magnitude remains nearly constant at 63, so that it is on the verge of naked-eye visibility. Prof, Leuschner telegraphs that he identifies the comet with comet 1847 V (Brorsen), which was ex- pected about this time. If this is confirmed, it will be the fourth member of the Neptune group to be ob- served at a second return, the others being Olbers’s, Pons-Brooks’s, and Westphal’s. Halley’s comet is not reckoned. , Tur Recent SHOWER OF PrrsEIps.—The return of these meteors was fairly well observed this year, though the full moon occurring on August 11 greatly moderated the visible aspect of the display. The weather was very favourable, and a_ considerable number of meteors were recorded by Mrs. F. Wilson at Totteridge, Mr. S. B. Maltey at Ilfracombe, Mr. A. King at Scunthorpe, -in Lincolnshire, and Mr. Denning at Bristol. The radiant point appeared rather more diffuse or scattered than usual, but it exhibited the usual E.N.E. movement amongst the stars when observed on successive nights. A com- panion shower between a and f Persei was strikingly evident this year, and it furnished some fine meteors radiating from the point 48°+44°. Other contem- porary showers were remarked from | 336 —10°, 310° +80°, 313°+ 48°, 303°—9°, and 303°+24°; and between August 22-29 many small, slowish meteors were traced from positions at 332°+57° and 348° + 61°. The most brilliant Perseid seen flashed out on No. 2601, VOL. 104] August 12 at 1oh, 32m. G.M.T., and it was recorded at Totteridge, Bristol, and several other places, Its height was from 76 to 51 miles, and it passed from a point above 10 miles W.N.W. from Worcester t to: miles E. of Tredegar in South Wales: ; INTERNATIONAL STANDARDISATION. GUILLAUME, the distinguished director of * the Bureau International, is to be congratu- lated on the issue of this important volume. : And yet it is a sad record; occupied with the procés-verbaux of the fifth Inter- national Conference of Weights and Measures held at Paris in 1913, and attended by representatives of all the principal countries of the world, many of whom will never meet again. Much of the rest is the last work of Pierre Chappuis, whose death is recorded in a note to one of the papers by M. Guil- laume, and to whose labours are due the determina- tions of so many important constants. ms The procés-verbaux of the conference demand our first attention, for the meeting was, in many respects, important, and new ground was broken in various directions. The decisions reached by the delegates remain unfulfilled, and it will no doubt be the busi- ness of the sixth conference—which it is generally understood is to meet shortly—to consider the steps” that should now be taken to give effect to them or to modify them as may seem best; for on some of the matters discussed considerable difference of opinion may well arise. The fundamental business of the conference con- cerns weights and measures, the determination of standards of mass and length, the kilogram and the metre. The accurate calibration of these at once involves the measurement of temperature, and accordingly much of the work of the Bureau has — dealt with scales of temperature; the scale of the constant-volume hydrogen thermometer was chosen as standard, and all temperatures referred to it. For the range 0° to 100°, or, indeed, for one rather outside these limits, this sufficed, but accurate deter- the temperature of liquid air and up to peer 2500° C. The hydrogen thermometer is useless for such a range, and some steps- were necessary to — secure international agreement throughout the scale. There was no doubt that the absolute thermodynamic the greater part is ee ae a _minations of temperature are now required down to — scale was the standard to aim at; on the other hand, : there was no certainty as to the methods to be taken to realise that scale over the greater portion of the range. And so the conference, after emphasising the importance of researches which had for their object the perfecting of our knowledge of thermometric scales, expressed itself as the international service of weights and measures the Absolute scale in place of the ‘‘normal’’—i.e. hydrogen—scale so soon as the relationship between these scales had, thanks to the researches contem- ‘plated, been determined with. sufficient certainty, and (2) approving the determination of a certain number of standard temperatures as fixed points of the scale, a to be suitably chosen and agreed upon as soon as possible. : With the view of giving effect to this last resolu- tion, the conference invited the International Com- mittee on Weights and Measures to arrange with the directors of the national laboratories which had been dealing with the measurement of temperature to meet at the Bureau to select the standard temperatures and to take steps to secure their general adoption. In 1 “Travaux et Mémoires du Bureau International des Poids et Mesures.” Tome xyi. (Paris: Gauthier-Villars et Cie, 1917.) (1) ready to substitute for 7 SEPTEMBER 4, 1919 | NATURE 33 view of this invitation there was to have been a _ preliminary meeting of the directors of some of the _ laboratories concerned in Berlin in September, 1914; much correspondence had passed and all arrange- ments were complete. Representatives of the Reichs- anstalt visited the National Physical Laboratory in June, 1914, to compare standards. Sed dis aliter visum. So far as England and America are con- cerned, uniformity has been secured over the range from —182° C. to about r1oo®° C. by agreement between the directors of the Bureau of Standards and the National Physical Laboratory, and a common scale is in use at those institutions. Another important question dealt with by the con- ference related to the standardisation of end measures _ of length. M. Pérard presented an interesting report _on'the results of his investigation as to the methods of comparing end measures and line measures, and particularly as to the accuracy with which a length gauge built up of a number of Johannsen slips, the use of which has become so familiar during the war, represented the sum of the lengths of the individual gauges. He states as the result of his measurements that it is necessary to add an amount of about eight- hundredths of a micron for each contact in the com- plex gauge, a quantity which is negligible for all practical purposes when using the standards. But the report led to an interesting discussion on another point. The metre is standard at 0° C.; end gauges are used chiefly in engineering work, and the tem- perature in engineering shops is probably between 15° C. and 20° C. If, then, a gauge is standard at zero, it is’: necessary when using it at 20° to know _ its temperature coefficient with some accuracy; two gauges, one of steel, the other of gun-metal (say), both correct at. the standard temperature, differ appreciably at the temperature of use. Accordingly it has been proposed to standardise gauges for indus- trial purposes at a temperature more nearly that of an average shop; the correction which would then be required would in most cases be so small as to be negligible. English practice, of course, secures this; our measures are standard at 62° F. (167/,° C.). In America a temperature of 20° C. has been suggested. : The International Committee of Weights and Measures had in 1909 preferred to accept 0° C. as the standard temperature, and the French Technical Section of Artillery had adopted that in the standards employed by it. After discussion the matter was referred to a special committee consisting of Dr. Foerster and MM. Blumbach,? Egoroff, Guillaume, and Pérard, and on their recommendation the con- ference decided to invite the International Committee to pursue its investigations with the view of reaching as complete knowledge as possible of the metrological properties of steels, as well as of the construction, standardisation, and method of use of end standards of length. Sir David Gill pointed out that, while recognising that the adoption of 0° C. as the standard temperature was theoretically desirable, he accepted the resolution as one which reserved a final decision on the question until the completion of the experi- ments.. The question is a vital one if international standardisation is to become a reality. Its import- ance was illustrated during the war. A number of screw gauges about 2 in. in diameter were ordered on the Continent; the first batch received failed to _ pass inspection. They had been made correct at the - freezing-point, and the expansion between that tem- perature and the English standard, 62° F., brought them outside the limits for acceptance. A visit to ' the Continental works was necessary to explain the 2M. Blumbach’s many friends will be glad to know that he is well: a message has n recei from him asking for help to reconstitute the ‘Weights and Measures Department in Russia. NO. 260T. vot. Tod! .usual formula, but by means of a numerical point and put matters straight, causing delay and loss when time was of great importance. _ A third decision of the conference is of special interest to meteorological circles. In correcting a barometer to a standard, sea-level at latitude 45° has been accepted, and a formula due to Clairaut, but modified by Broch, based on the accepted value of g in latitude 45° and its variations with latitude, has been employed. The accepted value for g at sea- level at latitude 45° has been 980-665 cm./sec.*; recent observations, however, lead to g80-615 cm./sec.* as the more correct value,* and it became a question whether to modify the normal standard or not. The conference decided against any modification in view of the fact that the figure 980665 cm./sec.* had received legislative sanction in many countries. They agreed, however, that observations into which the local value of g entered should be reduced, not by the actor ‘*determined, if possible, directly for the locality in question,’’ Now the unit of barometric pressure is the millibar —a pressure of rooo dynes per sq. cm.—and the length of the column of mercury the weight of which gives rise to a pressure of one millibar is known as a baromil. A barometer the scale of which is graduated in baromils reads pressure in millibars. The length of the baromil is dependent on the value of g, and so varies with the locality, but it has been agreed by the International Conference of Meteoro- logists to take as standard the value of g at sea-level in latitude 45°, and the relation of the baromil to the mm. or the inch has been evaluated on the hypo- thesis that the standard value of g is 980-617 cm. /sec.’, the value assigned to it by Helmert. The decision, then, of the International Conference of Weights and Measures to retain as the standard value of g the old figure 980-665 involves, if it be used, a reduction of about 5 parts in 100,000 in the height of the column of mercury producing under standard condi- tions a pressure of ‘one’ millibar. The certificates usually issued with barometers state the température at which the scales read pressure in millibars under standard conditions. If reduction is to be made to a nominal standard of gravity of 980-665 cm., these temperatures will all need to be reduced correspond- ingly. The difficulty, of course, is avoided if we take the true value of g at latitude 45° instead of the standard value as the figure to be used in calculating the length of the baromil, i.e. if we assume that this is one of the cases in which a numerical factor directly determined is to be employed, and some such course as this no doubt will be adopted. A fourth matter of some interest which was dis- cussed was the proposal to adopt in future legislation for metric countries the M.K.S. system of units, in which the unit of length is the metre, that of mass the kilogram, and of time the second. On this system the unit of force is the ‘‘ Newton,’’ the force required to produce per second in a mass of 1 kilogram a velocity of 1 metre per second. Thus, 1 Newton=1000X100 C.G.S. units=10° dynes. The unit of work will be the work done by a Newton in moving its point of application 1 metre or 10o°X10* ergs, and this is the joule of the C.G.S. system. Accordingly, the unit of power is the watt. As a result of the discussion the International Com- mittee was invited to continue the study of all ques- tions connected with legislation based on metrical units. At the last session of the conference M. Battistella, the Italian delegate, raised a far-reaching question. The work of the conference and of the committee 3 The value given by Helmert is 980°617 cm./sec.?. 14 NATURE [SEPTEMBER 4, 1419 had hitherto, he pointed out, been limited to the fundamental standards of mass and length and ques- tions intimately connected with these. M. Battistella urged that this was insufficient to secure uniformity in all the details of importance to international science. In the name of his Government he directed attention to (1) the necessity for a legal definition, not only of the fundamental units of mass and length, but also of a whole series of connected units—units dealt with in the study of light, “heat, engineering, and elec- trical problems, and others, as well as for the speci- fication of the instruments best suited for the measurement of these quantities; and (2) the im- portance of the standardisation of the types of instru- ments to be employed so as to secure uniformity among countries using the metric system. As a result the International Committee was entrusted with the mandate of examining the proposal of the Italian delegate with the view of securing agreement on the questions raised. : Enough has, perhaps, been written to show that the matters under discussion were of no small import- ance. None of.them were settled; it remains for a future conference to examine them afresh and. to decide each in the manner which promises best to be of service to the world and to turn to advantage the lessons of the past five years. of trial. And now there is no space to describe the other half of the volume: M. Pérard’s elaborate note on the reduction of certain classes of observation or M. Chappuis’s two papers on the determination of the boiling-point of sulphur and the coefficient of dilatation of mercury. It must suffice to mention the results. For the’ boiling-point of sulphur on the thermodynamic scale under normal pressure he finds the value 444-60°. Holborn and Henning give 444:51°, and Day and Sosman 444:55°. The value at present in use at the National Physical Laboratory is 4445°- For the coefficient of dilatation of mercury his value is 0-18162884 x 10-°+8:5962282 x 10-°T. This value does not differ greatly from that deduced from his own earlier experiments of 1890; the differences between these results and those of Callendar and Moss (Phil. Trans., 1911) are considerably greater. For the range from 60° to 100°, where Chappuis’s two results agree very closely, the difference between them and the figures of Callendar and Moss would correspond with a temperature error of 025°, an error ten times greater than that which M. Chappuis con- siders possible. M. Chappuis died as the proofs of his paper were passing through the press. Those who know his work will wish to join in M. Guillaume’s tribute to his memory. He writes:—‘tThese two determina- tions of the coefficient of dilatation of mercury, separated by a quarter of a century, carried out by methods entirely different and with instruments which had no part in common, and yet in close agreement, will remain for metrologists of the future among the finest examples of the work of an experi- menter gifted with’ consummate skill, with a devo- tion to his task which stood every test and with an intense desire to reach the truth.” Reon. G. SOME INDIAN SUGAR-CANES AND THEIR ORIGIN. R. C. A. BARBER, Government Sugar-Cane Expert, Madras, continuing his studies on Indian sugar-canes, has given an account: of the classification of two new groups which he ‘describes as Saretha and Sunnabile (Memoirs of the Depart- NO. 2601, VOL. 104] small plots under high cultivation near large towns, in which they were used for eating as fruit. A second series of thin, hardy canes, grown under field conditions all over India, especially in the north, were unfitted for chewing, but were crushed and made into “ jaggery” or “gur.’? It is this second series which includes the subject of the memoir. In contrast with the first series these thin canes are considered to be indigenous to India, and were found to include several well-defined classes: A number of apparently isolated forms from all parts of the country were at first difficult of arrangement, but were afterwards found to fall into two groups, characterised by bending or erect leaf-tips and presence or absence of circlets of hairs at the nodes; the canes known as Saretha and Sunnabile have been selected to give names to the new groups. In classifying varieties under these two groups the characters usually employed in systematic work, such as differences in the floral organs and size of organs and plants, have not been found helpful, but dependence has been placed on a series of minute local differences. Thus in all the Saretha group there is a minute incrusta- tion on the rind, as if it had been attacked by a small mite, whereas this is absent in the Sunnabile group. The density of bloom is greater in the Saretha group, but the blackening of this bloom by fungus is sharper and more circumscribed in the Sunnabile group: Thickness of stem and size and vigour of plant seem to be of no value; and the existence of insignificant characters in- canes differing considerably in external appearance, and extending through wide stretches of country under varying climatic and cultural condi- tions, adds to their importance. Some sixty to seventy such characters are dealt with in detail. c Dr. Barber further points out that his classification is, not merely an empirical statement of unconnected differences, a sort of analytical key for the separation of varieties, but also presents data for a statement on the: lines of evolution among a section of cultivated canes. He claims to have advanced towards solving the origin of cultivated canes from their wild ancestor, and to have established a series of connecting links between: cultivated canes and the wild species of Saccharum now growing in India. A wide collection of specimens shows that there are some’ very. distinct varieties of Saccharum spontaneum more or less con- fined to definite geographical regions. A development in the size of the vegetative’ organs is observed in passing from the dry to the humid tracts in India similar to that met with in the Saretha and Sunnabile series of sugar-canes, and in the detailed list of characters’ showing differences between the two groups: we’ find a number mentioned in which the Saretha group approaches S. spontaneum. Such are the black incrustation on the stem, the circlet of hairs on the nodes, and certain leaf-characters, and_ these resemblances suggest that the Saretha group is the more primitive. But as a study of the seedlings of S. spontaneum raised at Coimbatore shows differ. ences among themselves similar to those obtaining between the two groups, it is considered that the Sunnabile varieties are also traceable to the same wild species. . Pik ; i Dr. Barber describes a method for building up an ideal cane for each variety and group. The results have been .reduced to curves, which show the differ- ences sufficiently well, but involve considerable labour, as in some cases they are based on as’ many as = i f we 3 L : _ SEPTEMBER 4, 1919} NATURE 15 _ £0,000 individual measurements. He has recently dis- _ sected some fifty stools, representing twenty-four varie- ties, and finds overwhelming evidence that the -late _ eanes are the thickest, thus reversing earlier con- clusions drawn from the behaviour of the Punjab canes late in the season, GENERAL PHYSIOLOGY. PNCREASED specialisation brings with it further subdivision of the sciences, and most of the new journals which are founded are restricted to narrower fields than-those of existing publications. Now and then, however, an attempt is made to counteract the evils of specialisation by insistence on broad principles and by the provision of a meeting-place for. workers in various branches of the same or of kindred sub- jects. Some such considerations must have led to the _ recent foundation of the Journal of General Physiology, _ which is edited by Prof. Jacques Loeb, a physiologist, and Prof. W. J. V. Osterhout, a botanist,. and ublished by the Rockefeller Institute of Medical Dcsearcty This journal, which was ‘referred to in our issue of October 31 last, is ‘‘devoted to the ex- planation of life-phenomena on the basis of the physical and chemical constitution of living matter,” and first appeared in September last. Its: scope may, to some extent, be illustrated by a number of reprints which we have received; they are of papers by Prof. Loeb, _ some. physico-chemical, some botanical in nature. _ In three papers on amphoteric colloids, which have appeared in the first three numbers of the new journal, Prof. Loeb has continued work previously published _ by him in the Journal of Biological Chemistry. Con- _ trary to what is generally stated in the literature of colloid chemistry, he concludes that the physical pro- perties of gelatin near the point of neutrality are affected only by the cations of a neutral salt, and not by its anions. “The error into which the colloid chemists have fallen is due to the fact that they always investigated the effect of a neutral salt on.a protein in the presence of the salt, while the writer took the precaution to wash the excess of. salt away after it had time to act on the gelatin.”’ Accordingly, a quan- tity of finely powdered gelatin is left for one hour in contact with a neutral salt solution. of known con- centration. The powder is then filtered off, and the excess of salt removed by repeated. washing with water. The gelatin is liquefied by heating to 50° C.., and diluted with water to make a 1 per cent. solution. Then, for instance, the osmotic pressure of the solu- tion is determined in a collodion bag. Treatment with salts of a bivalent metal (MgCl,, CaCl,) does not lead to an increase of osmotic pressure, but treatment with sufficiently concentrated solutions of salts of monovalent metals (NaCl, NaCNS, LiNO,, Na,SO,) results in an increased osmotic pressure. When the powdered gelatin is similarly treated with hydrochloric acid of varying concentrations, it is found that about N/256 HCI (which brings the gelatin to its isoelectric point, #u=4-7) makes the total swelling, the osmotic pressure, the conductivity, and the ‘‘alcohol.number” minima. On the less acid side gelatin is regarded as existing as a negative ion (e.g. gelatin-H or gelatin- + i ae + : Na); on the more acid side as a cation (gelatin-Cl or 5 + roy _ gelatins-OH). : . . In a later paper the author has determined the amount of bromine in combination with gelatin after treatment with hydrobromic acid of varying concen- trations. He regards the curves of osmotic pressure _ as an “unequivocal function” of the number of gelatin NO. 2601, VOL. 104] bromide molecules formed. Prof. Loeb has. evidently not seen the recent very careful and elaborate investiga- tion, by Sorensen and his collaborators, of egg-albumin, in the Comptes rendus of the’Carlsberg laboratory. A. considerable section of this monograph deals theoretically and practically with ‘the osmotic pres- sure of an amphoteric colloid of great purity in the presence of electrolytes, and takes into account factors which are not dealt with by Prof. Loeb’s simple pro- cedure. It will be interesting to see whether, after a perusal of Sérensen’s monograph, Prof. Loeb still maintains his somewhat sweeping criticism of colloid chemists. . d The botanical reprints are concerned with the mechanism of regeneration in Bryophyllum calycinum. The leaves of this plant possess peculiar dormant buds in each of the notches, which buds may give rise to roots and shoots so soon as the leaf is separated from the plant. The chemical mechanism of the process ‘is dealt with in a paper in the Annales de l’Institut Pasteur, and is a rare example of work published in English in a French journal. In other papers in the new journal the influence of the mass of a leaf on the quantity of shoots regenerated in an isolated piece of stem is measured, and the physio- logical basis of polarity is discussed. It is suggested that an inhibitory influence of the leaf upon shoot- formation (as compared with root-formation) is due to inhibitory substances secreted in the leaf, and carried by the sap from the leaf towards the base of the stem. ; AETHER AND MATTER: BEING REMARKS ON INERTIA, AND ON RADIATION, AND ON THE POSSIBLE STRUCTURE OF ATOMS. Part 1.—INeErtTIA. WE are each of us flying through space at nineteen miles a second, probably much more. Nothing is propelling us; we continue to move by our own inertia, simply because there is nothing to stop us: Motion is a fundamental property of matter. No piece of matter is at rest in the ether, the chances are infinite against any piece having the particular velocity zero; every bit is moving steadily at some given speed, unless acted on by unbalanced force. Then it is accelerated—changed either in speed or direction, or both. As a matter of fact, we, like other bodies on the earth, are acted on by two slight, unbalanced forces— one which makes us revolve round the earth once a day, like a satellite; the other which makes us revolve round the sun once a year, like a planet or asteroid. Our annual revolution.is not because we are attached to the earth; we are not attached, but revolve as independent bodies, and would revolve in just the same time and way if the earth were suddenly. obliterated; ‘only then we should find the, diurnal revolution transmuted into a twenty-four-hour rota: tion round our own centres of gravity, and the eccentricity of our annual orbit very slightly changed. In any case, there is’ no propelling force, only a residual radial force producing curvature of path. A railway train, or a ship moving steadily, is like- wise subject to no resultant ‘force. Propulsion and resistance bdlance. The whole power of an engine, after the start, is spent in overcoming friction: The motion ‘continues solely. by inertia. _ Any _ steadily moving body is an example of the first law of motion, You need not try to think of a body under no force 1 Amplified from a discourse delivered at the Royal Institution on Friday, February 28, 1919, by Sir Oliver J. Lodge, F:R.S. 16 NATURE [SEPTEMBER 4, I919 at all; you cannot think of such a body on the earth, but you can think of one under no resultant force, i.e. under balanced forces. Such.a body moves by reason of its inertia alone. It is in equilibrium; it is. not at rest. But. we have no sense of straightforward locomo- tion, and not the slightest clue to either the magni- tude or direction of our:motion through space. We can ascertain approximately how the sun is moving with reference to our system or cosmos of stars, but we do not know at what rate that system is itself moving. For all we know, it may be moving very fast, hundreds of miles per second. We have a sense of acceleration, however; we experience it in a lift as it begins to descend; and if the sensation is repeated often enough, as on a rough sea, the result is unpleasant. We have also a sense of rotation; we can tell when our vehicle— say a Tube train—turns a corner in the dark. Most animals appear to have a-sense of rotation, apparently located in the ear. But we have no sense of direct translation; and we have so far failed to devise any instrumental means for detecting our motion through the zther of space. The failure is not for lack of trying. Many experi- ments have been tried, but there is always some compensating: effect; so we get- mo answer to the question: At what rate and in what direction are we moving? The best known experiment is that of Michelson. and Morley, the result of which seems to assert that the zther clings to the earth, or that the earth is not moving through any kind of substance. , But Fizeau’s classical experiment showed that a transparent body carried with it none of the internal zther of space; and experiments made by myself* at Liverpool in the nineties of last century showed that a rapidly moving opaque body carries no external zwther with it, that there is no perceptible viscous drag or cling between matter and ether, and accord- ingly demonstrates that stagnation or absence of relative zther drift past the earth is not a reasonable explanation of Michelson’s negative result. The two experiments together, in fact, ought to. be taken as establishing the reality of the most interest- ing of all the compensating effects yet discovered, viz. the FitzGerald-Lorentz contraction of all matter in motion, which the electrical theory of cohesion renders so extremely probable. It only amounts to a 3-in.. shrinkage in the whole diameter of the earth in the direction of motion; but it is enough. This slight contraction or change of shape in moving bodies I régard as the definite and interesting com- pensating effect in this case. Incidentally, moreover, it establishes the electrical, i.e. the chemical, nature of cohesion. For, given that cohesion is a residual chemical affinity—due to the outstanding attraction of molecules composed of neutral groups of equal and opposite electric charges, brought so near together that the attraction between molecules is no longer averaged to zero*—then, on orthodox Maxwellian electric theory, a diminution of this force due to lateral motion is inevitable. And the resulting lateral expansion or longitudinal contraction, or both, is of the right order of magnitude. So this acts .as a previously quite unsuspected compensating effect, which exactly neutralises the drift effect otherwise to be anticipated. Thus, by superposition of two posi- tive consequences of drift, the Michelson experiment, like every other yet. made, declines to indicate that there is any drift at all. Hence, after many such negative results, it seems to become hopeless to inquire experimentally as to 2 See Phil. Trans., vol. clxxxiv. (1893), pp. 727-804, and vol. clxxxix. 1207), pp. 140-66. , _ \ 3 See, for instance, my book on electrons, chap. xvi. NO. 2601, VOL. 104] our motion through zther, unless, indeed, gravitation were exempt from the otherwise universal compensa- tion., In that case the electrical theory of matter applied to the motion of planets might yield a residual result. But my recent inquiry into this problem has suggested that gravitation, too, is in the conspiracy,* and in that case there is some ground for the con- tention of the extreme Relativists, not only that we do not know our motion—with which everyone agrees —but also that we never shall know it; and, in fact, that motion of matter through zther is a phrase without meaning. : I hope we shall not too readily shut the door on further attempts in this direction; and as a conserva- tive physicist I may be allowed to lament the extra- ordinary complexity introduced into physics and into natural philosophy by the principle of relativity, as so remarkably and powerfully developed by the mathe- matical genius of Einstein, with complication even of our fundamental ideas of space and time. The complications do not commend themselves to all of us, and I for one should be glad to return to the pristine simplicity of Newtonian dynamics, modified, of course, by the electrical theory of matter; ad- mitting the FitzGerald-Lorentz contraction, and admitting also the variation of effective inertia with speed. These things do not destroy, but supplement, Newtonian dynamics. They generalise it in a legiti- mate and intelligible manner. Such complications as these are clearly in accordance with truth, and are to be welcomed; but the complicated theory of gravitation’ created this century by Einstein, and developed by his successors, and the consequent ovyer- hauling of space and time relations, do not at present commend themselves to me, or, I think; to others of what I suppose must be called the older school. Meanwhile, the full-blown theory has the cou of its conviction and has predicted a definite result, viz. the deflection of a ray of light by the sun’s limb, equal to 1-75 seconds of arc. The prediction is going to be tested during the solar eclipse of May 29 this year, between Brazil and the Gulf of Guinea. Let the issue be clearly understood. If a star-ray grazing: the sun is deflected ? second it will mean only that light has weight, that the wave-front not only simu- lates the properties of matter by carrying momentum —as we know it does from the investigations «of Nichols and Hull, Poynting and Barlow, and others— but that it is even subject to gravity. For this would be.the angle between the asymptotes of a cometary orbit when the comet is moving with the speed of light and passing close to the sun.*° But the principle of relativity—through the refractive or converging influence of a strong divergent gravitational field— demands a greater deflection than this, more than twice as great. So there are three alternate deflections before us, to be settled by observation :—1r75 sec. ; o-75 sec.;. and zero. Let us hope that the result of this or of some other eclipse-opportunity may he definite enough to discriminate clearly and quantita- tively between these three alternative values, any one of which should be equally welcome to any lover of truth. : If the first answer is given decisively, it will be a conspicuous triumph for the theory of relativity, and will for a time be hailed as a death-blow to the zther. I claim beforehand, that such a contention is illegitimate, that the reality of the ather of space depends on other things, and that the establishment of the principle of relativity leaves it as real as before; though truly it becomes even less accessible, less 4 See the Pii/. Mag. for August, 1917, and February, 1918, pp. 145, 155 and 156. 5 See, for instance, my paper in the PAil, Mag. for August, 1917, p- 93 _ SEPTEMBER 4, 1919 | NATURE hy - amenable to experiment, than we might have hoped. _ Nevertheless, the zether is needed for any clear con- _ ception of potential energy, for any explanation. of elasticity, for any physical idea of the forces which unite and hold together the discrete particles of - matter whether by gravitation or cohesion or electric _ Or magnetic attraction, as well as for any reasonable understanding of what is meant by the velocity of light. Let us try to realise the position beforehand; for we shall be handicapped in the progress of our knowledge of the relation between matter and zether until these fundamental things are settled, and until everyone agrees that the ather has a real existence. I want people generally to admit that the ether is itself stationary as regards locomotion, and that it is the seat’ of all potential energy; and further, at least as a surmise, that it is the medium ‘out of which matter is probably made, and in which matter is perpetually moving by reason of its fundamental property called inertia—a property the full explana- tion of which must, I expect, ultimately be relegated to and considered as a property derived from the zther itself. ‘I call this lecture ‘t dither and Matter,” but I might equally well have called it ‘‘ Inertia,” for that is the main theme with which I have to deal—at least, in this first part. ~ - Is there anything else besides matter which pos- sesses or seems to possess inertia? Faraday dis- covered that an electric current had a property which bore some analogy to inertia, a property clearly depending on its magnetic field. Every current, even _ a convection current, is necessarily surrounded by > lines of magnetic force, and when the magnetic field _ is intense the current behaves as if it had. consider- able inertia. Faraday at first called the effect ‘the extra current.’’ The latter is the better name. To show it, I start a current in a circuit containing a stout ring of laterally subdivided iron round which | the current-conveying wire is wound, and I put in circuit an instrument which only responds when the current has risen to nearly its full strength. re ae ae Experimental Researches on Glass. By M. W.T.. 2 Physical Chemistry. By Prof..W. C. McC, Lewis . 3 Our Bookshelf e ; . Kiet ae grees Soom Letters to the Editor :— : " Wi The Explosion at’ Bailleul.—Spencer Pickering, F.R.S. : a tat Sa ite mad 2 Fy nn The Organisation of Research . . ..... : The Protection of Wild Birds. ......., et - Notes: =, BS Pear a at eee ; Our Astronomical Column :— tsi Metcalf’s Comet:.: (55 6). /.:°s\.. scan 12 The Recent Shower of Perseids ... . ....... 12 International Standardisation.. By R. T.G.... .. 12 Some Indian Sugar-canes and their Origin... . 14 General Physiology 65.0)... ) i ae 15 Ether and Matter: Being Remarks on Inertia, and on Radiation, and on the Possible Structure of Atoms. Part I. By Sir Oliver J. Lodge, F.R.S.. 15 University and Educational Intelligence ..... 19 Societies and Academies ........4 64, se WD Books Received Editorial and Publishing Offices: MACMILLAN . AND .CO., Lrtp., ST. MARTIN’S STREET, LONDON, W.C.2. Advertisements and business letters to be addressed to the Publishers. eh Editorial Communications to. the Editor. ; et Telegraphic Address: Puusts, LONDON. . Telephone Number: GERRARD 8830. : NATURE 21 _ THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 11, 1010. ZOOLOGY AND. HUMAN WELFARE. Animal Life and Human Progress. Edited by Prof. Arthur Dendy. Pp. ix+227. (London: Constable and Co., Ltd., 1919.) Price 1os. 6d. net. HIS volume is the outcome of a series of public lectures organised by Frof. Dendy t King’ s College, London, in 1917-18 under the uspices of the Imperial Studies Committee of the University of London. The object of the course was to inform’ public regarding zoo- gical results already ‘applied in furtherance of luman progress, and to emphasise the claims of ological science to recognition on terms of equality with other departments of learning. The college and the editor are to be congratulated, having, during the dark days of the war, arranged a course which makes so much for enlightenment d for reconstruction, but also on having made he subject-matter accessible to all through the edium of this volume. The lectures are most forming, and if we express regret at the absence f consistently full citation of the authors uoted, this is done in tribute to their permanent ue. Prof. Dendy contributes the preface and an pening lecture on “Man’s Account with the Lower Animals.’’ To the weighty material items in that account he adds the pregnant idea that wzsthesis, since the marvellous forms, colours, and tagrances of flowers arose “in the course of volution in response to what we may fairly call e tastes of insects long before man appeared n the scene.’’ Prof. Bourne adds a thoughtful ssay on “ Some Educational and Moral Aspects ' Zoology.’’ Prof. J. A. Thomson writes with usual vivid grace and wealth of illustration on ‘Man and the Web of Life.’’ Mr. Tate Regan iscusses ‘‘Museums and Research,’’ incidentally utting in a strong plea for the view that evolu- on has been mainly adaptive, and that a change structure has followed, not preceded, a change habits. “The Origin of Man”? is dealt with by Prof. Vood Jones, who concentrates on primitive hatomical features exhibited by man, differences tween man and other Primates, certain striking semblances to Tarsius, and the probable moteness of origin of the human. stock. ‘ith perhaps a little special pleading one could a good many of his data in a thesis having its subject “Non-Arboreal Man.’ “Some habitants of Man and their Migrations ”’ is the bject of Dr. Leiper’ s lecture, which will be read th all the more interest in view of his own sent researches on Bilharzia. In ‘Our Food am the Sea’’ Prof. Herdman emphasises the fal importance of sea fisheries, while “Tsetse- NO. 2602, VOL. 104] not only on their courage and public spirit in | euch of our esthetic sense is founded.on insect | ”? Flies and Colonisation ’’ receives exposition from Prof. Newstead. “TI saw before me a great place where men and women wére making and imparting know- ledge.’’ Thus begins Prof. Punnett’s “dream *’ at the end of his most readable lecture on “The Future of the Science of Breeding.’? May the dream~come true for every branch of zoological science. Meantime we find emphasised, over and over again, in the work before us a sad dispropor- tion between the public support given to the study of animal life and the splendid results this study has achieved and can yet achieve for the further- ance of human progress. J. F. Geni. . WAR GLEANINGS. A. Vision of the Possible: What the R.A.M.C. Might Become: An Account of some of the Medical Work in Egypt; together with a Con- structive Criticism of the R.A.M.C. By Sir James W. Barrett. Pp. xx+182. (London: K. Lewis and Co., Ltd., 1919.) Price gs. IR JAMES BARRETT has added another vigorous and stimulating book to those he has already published dealing with military medical matters in the past war. The book treats mainly of questions which came under his notice whilst serving in Egypt, where he held posts which enabled him to gain a broad outlook, as they gave him an insight into the workings of the military medical organisation, not only at its local centre, but also in many of its peripheral sections. His dicta have therefore the refreshing qualities of first-hand observations in many fields with which he was familiar. It must be added that they are not less dogmatic when relating to spheres with which he was less well acquainted ; but there is always a note of sincerity and con- viction which compels attention. The first section gives a general account of the author’s activities as an aural specialist, and describes, by means of actual instructions issued, the improvements in the treatment of ear diseases and in the disposal of the men suffering from them which were effected. In this connection stress is rightly laid on the advantages gained by “the educational means adopted. The whole service was taken into confidence, the problem, was explained, and the help of the medical officers was invited.”’ It may be asked why so much education in the treatment of ailments common in the civil population was required by medical men taken for the most part straight from civil practice. This the author explains in a later section of the book, where he says: ‘The training of the average medical man is intense and narrow; all his energies are concentrated on one problem, doing the best for the sick man professionally. He consequently speculates on remote risks. Cc BS)? NA TURE [SEPTEMBER II, 1919 With obligation to the State he is not concerned. In the Army, on the other hand, everything must be done for the good of the Service.’’ In other words, a man engaged in a desperate enterprise, such as war, may be allowed in the common interest to take risks, often small, which his medical attendant would not sanction at ordinary times, and some education is required to alter the civil point of view. With the writer’s advocacy of professional conferences and instruction there can be nothing but sympathy; he does not appear to be aware of the developments on these lines, which were so great a feature in other theatres of war, and have assuredly come to stay. Some 100 pages are taken up in considering the question of boards and the physical classification of recruits and soldiers. They form interesting and instructive reading. The author states: “In general, about one-third of the B class personnel who arrived in Egypt were immediately placed in the A category.’’ They were sent to the front and made good. He roundly accuses the boards at home of classifying men too low and of de- pleting the reserves by an undue number of rejec- tions. It is interesting to recall that a Parlia- mentary Committee sat to investigate the wide- spread allegations in this country that home boards had classified the men too high. But it is in the concluding part of the book, dealing with the organisation of the military medical service and the modifications suggested, that the main interest lies. There is common agreement as to- several of the desiderata men- tioned. Some are on their way to attainment, whilst others have already been attained. Allowing for a certain amount of special pleading, the book raises many points of cardinal interest, lucidly, if forcibly, expressed, and there are not many connected with the medical services, either as clinicians or adminis- trators, who will not glean some profit from a perusal of its pages, whilst the general reader will not find it too technical for his enjoyment. NERVOUS DISORDERS; TWO POINTS OF VIEW. (1) What is Psychoanalysis? By Dr. I. H. Coriat. Pp. 124. (London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Tritbner, and Co., Ltd., 1919.) Price 3s. 6d. net. (2) Traitement des Psychonévroses de Guerre. Par G. Roussy, J. Boisseau, M. d’élsnitz. (Collection Horizon.) Pp. 191. (Paris: Masson et Cie, 1918.) Price 4 francs. (1) R. CORIAT’S attempt to collect into one small volume the chief articles of the psychoanalytic faith, and, moreover, to lay them out along the rigid scaffolding of a shorter cate- chism, is certainly an act of bravery or temerity. The reader is asked to defer his decision between these two descriptions until he has finished this NO. 2602, VOL. 104] very interesting and challenging small book. For the concreteness—one had almost written the ferro-concreteness—of this exposition cannot fail to delight, at one stroke, the erudite student of - Freud, who has long been yearning for some psychoanalytic Baedeker to indicate with a judicious distribution of asterisks the really im-— portant halting-places on this perilous journey; the implacable enemy of the new movement, who will surely regard the pages of this book as a conveniently bound packet of targets; and the teacher of psychology, who can now prepare three full lectures on what someone has assured him Freud really means. ce eee oe Most people must have felt that such a book ought to appear some day, though, perhaps, not everyone would have regarded the present time as suitable. But Dr. Coriat might immediately point out, and with justice, that the procrastinator is a person upon whose mentality more light has been thrown from Vienna than from any other quarter in recent years, and certainly there is — little that can be called undecided in the way the present book is written. ae of The answer to the question “What is Psyciao- | analysis? ’’ occupies 118 pages, at which stage Dr. Coriat ends, and, one presumes, Dr. Adler and Dr. Jung would desire to begin. For it seems clear that the present answer is the answer of Freud alone. And this is, we think, a pleasing | feature, if one could ensure that the book did not fall into the eager hands of the entirely uninitiated. The book is, so to speak, a diagram of Freud’s teaching. When we can place by it similar diagrams of Adler’s and Jung’s theories } (drawn very strictly to scale, with the congruent portions clearly indicated) and get them well into our heads, discussions on psychoanalysis raay gain in clarity what they will assuredly lose i heat. a: | But, like many diagrams, the present one often seems to err on the side of too great simplicity, and it is too-heavily outlined. The book reads in fact, far too glibly. It seems scarcely f to Freud to write without ‘further explanation « the “way that a normal individual conveniently “ forgets’ the unpleasant experiences of his lif (p. 14), and to say dogmatically: “If the nervou symptoms grow worse during the course of analysis, this must be interpreted as due either to the resistances or to the course of the disease, | and not to the treatment ’’ (p. 70); or to ask the} question of questions “Can psychoanalysis be} harmful?’ and to “answer’’ it by merely) remarking that “wild’’ psychoanalysis can, and that the analyst may fall into errors. What average man presumably wants to know is whether, in any circumstances, orthodox, thorough-going, complete psychoanalysis can be) harmful, and, if so, why? Especially, perhaps, | does the average English reader, who has seen the course of the thread linking the writings of McDougall, Shand, and Trotter on one hané with those of Freud and Jung on the other, ask . apt SEPTEMBER ITI, 1919] NATURE | 23 this question. answered. : : _ (2) A conception of quite a different nature is presented in the book by Dr. Roussy and his colleagues on the treatment of the psychoneuroses o9§ war. ‘Their work deals chiefly with those “accidents d’ordre_ hystérique’’ which they describe as the most important of the psycho- neuroses observed during this war.. A com- parison of their book with such a treatment as Dr. MacCurdy’s in “ War Neuroses ”’ (recently re- viewed in these columns) provokes the reflection that a wider conception of the war psychoneuroses than that held by these French authors seems to be necessary if medical science is to learn all it can from the experiences of war psychotherapy. The book deals with the causation, treatment, and prophylaxis of these hysterical disorders, and discusses the recent “reflex,’’ “dynamogenic,’’ and “dyskinetic’’ theories of their nature. It ‘is clearly written and excellently illustrated. And, so far, it has not been \OUR BOOKSHELF. emoirs of the Boston Society of Natural History. Vol. viii. No. 3. Monographs on the Natural | History of New England. The Turtles of New England. By Dr. Harold L. Babcock. Pp. _ 327-431+16 pls. (Boston, Mass. : 1919.) Tuis is a very interesting and excellently pro- uced monograph dealing with seventeen species ut of sixty-one now recognised by American authors. Considering that New England includes the northern limit of distribution of the Chelonians of eastern North America, this is a good number. e author has collected most of the observations /published on the life-histories of these species, and ch a compilation is a valuable addition to the lescriptive and iconographic part of the work. Objection may be taken to the title of the honograph, as the term “turtle’’ is usually ken to apply to thoroughly aquatic Chelonians nly. As the author tells us, it has been sug- rested that (1) all Chelonians of the land only hould be called tortoises; (2) all Chelonians of tesh water should be termed terrapins; and (3) all helonians of the sea should be called turtles. It ; somewhat difficult to draw a limit between the Wo first categories, and one does not quite like name “‘ terrapin ’’ to be bestowed on the soft- helled or river Chelonians, the Trionychide. erhaps these might be termed river-turtles in pposition to sea-turtles. The descriptive part is preceded by’ an intro- uction, in which the author deals with Chelonians snerally. Three statements call for criticism. !) The skull is stated to be more solid and com- t than in other reptilian orders; but what out crocodiles? (2) Some marine turtles are said NO. 2602, VOL. 104] exclusively, so; and further on (p. 340) we are told of a specimen in captivity greedily taking large pieces of raw fish. Among the terrapins, Batagur and Dermatemys are also chiefly herbivorous. (3) Speaking of the longevity of land tortoises, instances of existence for much more than a century might have been given; and to the statement that Gilbert White’s famous tor- toise (Testudo ibera) lived nearly sixty years, ‘‘ in capitivity ’’ should have been added. A still better record for the same species is furnished by an individual, on which the writer of this notice has reported, that has been kept in Cornwall for ninety-six years, G. A. B. LETTERS TO THE EDITOR. [The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed by his correspondents. Neither can be undertake to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manuscripts intended for this or any other part of NaturE. No notice is taken of anonymous communications.] Luminous Worms. Tue Rev. Hitperic Frienp in his letter to NATURE of August 7 (p. 446) asks: “Is it possible that light can influence Annelids in some way, and so facilitate sexual. processes?” He cites the affirmation of Flaugergues made in 1771 that luminosity disappears in certain cases after copulation. . There is the other way of approaching the subject. We know that the luminous earthworms, with which Dr. Gilchrist has dealt in his recent paper, can be stimulated to luminesce; so may we not ask: Is it possible that sexual processes may facilitate the excretion of the substance or substances to which luminosity is due? We are acquainted with the fact that in other in- vertebrate groups muscular contraction, due to a stimulus to the nervous system, will expel the con- tents of glands secreting the substances essential for the production of light. For example, we know that sometimes excitement due to the attack ‘of enemies will cause phosphorescence in centipedes (Thomas, cited by Dahlgren, Journal of the Franklin Institute, January, 1917, p. 85 of reprint). In a forthcoming paper Dr. Brade-Birks and I shall indicate several other ways in which the same-result can be brought about among the Chilopoda. A careful reading between the lines may show that fear, shock, and sexual processes each provide. the stimulus to the nervous system which results in the expulsion of the essentials of luminosity by a con- traction of the muscles in the case cited by Mr. Friend, and that if that stimulus were sufficient to exhaust the store of secretion the animal mentioned by Flaugergues would, of course, fail to exhibit luminosity a until the secretion had had time to re-accumulate. S. Granam Brapr-Birxs. 16 Bank Street, Darwen, Lancashire. The National Union of Scientific Workers and Research. One of the chief aims of the National Union of Scientific Workers is “to secure adequate endowment for research and to advise as to the administration of such endowment.’’ A committee of active workers in all the principal subjects has been appointed to con- sider methods of carrying out this object. While the committee is agreed upon the general aim of making 24 NATURE [SEPTEMBER I1, 1919 it possible for the scientific worker to make research his profession (subject, of course, to efficiency), con- crete suggestions regarding methods of achieving this are essential; and as the committee is a comparativel small body it cannot expect to be acquainted with all the relevant facts concerning the conditions under which research is conducted at present. To overcome this difficulty it is proposed to associate with the com- mittee a number of advisory panels consisting of per- sons in the principal research centres in the British Isles. Will those workers (whether already members of the Union or not) who would be willing to supply the information required, or to make definite sugges- tions concerning possible methods of improving these conditions, please communicate with the undersigned or some other member of the committee? The present committee consists of the following :— Dr. O. L. Brady (Chemistry, Imperial College), Dr. J. W. Evans, F.R.S. (Geology, Imperial College), Mr. W. F. Higgins (Experimental Physics, National Physi- cal Laboratory), Dr. A. Holmes (Geology, Imperial College), Dr. H. Jeffreys (Mathematical Physics, Cambridge), Dr. F. Kidd (Plant Physiology, Cam- bridge), Dr. M. C. Rayner (Botany, General Branch), Dr. C. Shearer, F.R.S. (Zoology, Cambridge), Mr, E. Sinkinson (Chemistry, Imperial College), Dr. C. West (Plant -Physiology, Imperial College), Miss D. M. Winch (Pure Mathematics,. Cambridge). HaROLD JEFFREYS. St. John’s College, Cambridge. WIRELESS NAVIGATION FOR AIRCRAFT. eee determination of the position of ships at sea involves dead reckoning and the use of sights on terrestrial or celestial bodies. Dead reckoning methods often give fairly accurate results, even when no sights can be taken. With aircraft, however, drift plays so large a part that dead reckoning methods are not sufficiently trust- worthy. Hence the necessity for other methods for determining position. Directional wireless gives a means of. finding one’s position under almost any conditions, and thus enables navigation to proceed in cases where it would otherwise be dangerous, such as in fog. It uses chiefly the well-known property of loops, that if the plane of a loop makes an angle @ with the direction of propagation of the waves, the E.M.F. produced in the loop is Ej cos@. The rate of variation of this with # is greatest when §=g0°, i.e. when the signal strength is a minimum, and bearings have hitherto been obtained by turning the loop until the minimum is obtained. There are two distinct ways in which this navi- gation might be effected :— (1) The aircraft should emit ordinary wire- less signals and directional stations on the ground determine various directions of the aircraft, the central ground station working out the position of the aircraft and.re-transmitting it to the aircraft. This method has been used considerably by the Germans. (2) There should be ordinary transmitting stations on the ground’ which should transmit ordinary wireless signals, and the aircraft should determine bearings of each of these known NO, 2602, VOL. 104] ground stations, the navigator working out his position from these bearings. This method has very many obvious advantages over the first method, such as the fact that an unlimited number of aircraft can work out their own positions at the same time, and also the fact that in case of warfare the position of the aircraft need not be disclosed to the enemy. This second method was — adopted in the R.A.F. to a great extent. Ae In attempting to place directional gear on air-— craft there were considerable difficulties :—(1) There is much extraneous noise on aircraft; {i} the space available on aircraft is not abundant, and in any case it is not easy to get large loops; (3) the possibility that the waves would be deviated in the neighbourhood of the aircraft, thus producing errors which would have to be determined. : 4 It was obvious that the best amplification of signals that could be obtained would have to be used. Even with the best amplification known it was found that the extraneous noise was so considerable that the ordinary minimum method of using a loop aerial to find direction was of very little use. Because of the extraneous noise the) minimum was considerably widened, and even with powerful signals there might be a region as | large as 40° to 60° where no signals at obtained. It was hence necessary to devise some method by which signals could be heard whils the bearing was taken. For this purpose th following method was devised :— d Two loops at right angles are used. These} loops are rigidly fixed together and rotate roun the same vertical axis. When one of these loops) is on its maximum the other will be on the mini- mum. When the maximum or main coil is used alone, the maximum of the signals is first roughly obtained, and then the second or auxiliary coil is introduced, the connections of this second coi being reversed from time to time. If the main coil is on its maximum the reversal of auxiliary coil will not alter the strength of signals, but if the main coil is not correctly on the maximum the reversal of the auxiliary coil wil give signals of different intensity; hence the method to employ is to rotate the coils, using the main coil alone until somewhere near the maxi- SEPTEMBER II, 1919] NATURE 25 magneto leads were made of braided wire, the braiding being earthed every 18 or 24 in. It was also necessary in cases where the engine is not completely cowled to enclose the magnetos and their distributors in metal shields. - A large number of results of determinations of position by wireless bearings have been obtained. The beacon stations used were principally long- wave spark stations (wave-lengths of 2000 metres and upwards), the distances of the beacons being from 10 to 500 miles, and occasionally more distant. Some of the stations used were Poldhu, Paris, and Nauen. On the ground, when two mum, and then to introduce the auxiliary coil, making the final adjustment so that on re- versing the auxiliary coil there is no change in the intensity of the signals. The sensitiveness that can be obtained by this method is under ‘control and depends on the ratio of the area turns of the auxiliary and the main coils. By ‘‘ area turns ’’ is meant the summation of the areas of ‘the various turns of a loop. If this ratio is of the order of 3 to 1, a bearing can be determined ‘quite easily to within 1°. If this ratio is 10 to 1, the coils are accurate to less than 4°. It is quite simple to show the reason for this theoretically. There are two distinct methods of or more of these applying this method to aeroplanes :— - (1) The coils are rigidly attached to the aeroplane and the aeroplane rotated until he correct bearing is obtained. This is alled the wing coil system. The main oil is fixed in the fore-and-aft direction on the struts and the wings. The auxi- liary coil is athwart-ships on the struts and the wings. Fig. 1 shows diagram- ‘matically how this is done. (2) The coils are placed in the fuselage of the machine and are rotated inde- xendently of the machine. Method (1) has the advantage that stronger signals re obtained and can hence. be used for ng distances, such as for the cross- Atlantic flight. This method has the dis- advantage that it is necessary to deviate "the machine from its course to determine | any bearing. It has also the advantage ; LONDON Ipswich Q Colche: Kauss Poldhu that there are no errors due to the devia- tion of waves. _ Method (2) has the advantage that the machine can carry on on a steady course ' whilst bearings are being taken. It has, “however, disadvantages that signals are nuch weaker and that errors are intro- luced in the bearings. Such errors are uadrantal in nature and can be deter- mined by swinging the machine and ing bearings on the same station for lifferent directions of the head of the nachine. On aeroplanes the extraneous noise * 2 be divided into two _ distinct lasses: (1) The noise of the engine ind the rushing of the wind; (2) the disturbance broduced by the magneto. _ The noise of the engines can be minimised by jincreasing the amplification of signals, put agneto noise cannot be eliminated in such a way cause, as the amplification is increased, the ffect of the magneto disturbance also increases. was absolutely necessary to determine methods > cut out this magneto disturbance. It was pally due to the emission of very short waves of le order of 5 to 30 metres. The most effective lethod for cutting out these disturbances was ympletely to shield the magneto system. The NO. 2602, VOL. 104] Fic. 2.—Outward journey. d that the magneto disturbance was _prin-: Dotted line, thus — + — +. — indicates actual track of machine as followed by map reader. beacons were used, the mean error in the deter- mination of position was two miles. In aero- planes the accuracy was not so good owing to the compass errors, due to the swinging of the com- pass. The mean error in bearing in the air was 13°, and the mean error in position when two or — more beacons were used was seven miles. Long-distance flights have been made in which, under adverse Weather conditions and without reference to the ground, by the sole use of directional wireless the machine was navigated with extraordinary accuracy. The details of a flight from Biggin Hill to Paris and back to Brighton are shown in Figs. 2 and 3. The aero- 26 NATURE | SEPTEMBER ITI, 1919 plane was above the clouds half the time, and the navigator was in a position which precluded any possibility of seeing out of the machine. He was, nevertheless, able to direct the course of the machine, forecast the time of arrival half an hour in advance with an error of less than two minutes, and find the force and direction of the wind de- flecting the machine from her course from time to time, such predictions being found to be accurate when compared with the meteorological report later in the day. In certain circumstances excellent results can be last fifty-nine years—for he had qualified to prac- tise medicine, and had become a demonstrator of anatomy in the Royal College of Surgeons in Dublin before he was seventeen years of age!-— _ and upon the development of the medical school — where he was professor of — in Cambridge, anatomy for thirty-six years. While acting as demonstrator in anatomy at the Royal College of Surgeons he was a student at Trinity College; — at the age of twenty-five he became professor of | zoology there, and eight years later succeeded to the chair of anatomy and chirurgery. At Trinity College he developed that craving for encyclopedic knowledge which through- WO Est. Pos. eo Arras study of Celtic archeology and ancient Egyptian literature, and in his own sub- ject his wonderful powers of memory and his persistent accumulation of facts by personal observation gave him a know- ledge of the details of anatomy and the literature relating to it which was almost uncanny and at times disconcerting 10 those who sought his advice. For, with- out intending to discourage youthful ad- venturers in anatomical research, the formidable record of what had already — been accomplished, which he was able to give quite impromptu to one who was not a few budding aspirations. Prof. — Macalister never seemed to realise the crushing effects of his vast erudition, In oCan Fic. 3.—Return journey. Dotted line, thus — :: machine as followed by map readers. obtained when only one beacon station is avail- able. This is especially useful when the beacon is at one’s destination, when head bearings alone are used. J. Rogpinson. PROF, ALEXANDER MACALISTER, F.R.S. N the death of Prof. Macalister, at the age of seventy-five, British anatomy loses a singu- larly gentle and kindly master, who, in a quiet and unobtrusive way, exerted a great influ- ence upon the teaching of his subject during the NO, 2602, VOL. 104] 1S Estimated Track ¢ per” and his difficulty in understanding why . cas so little came of it. r iy a Bi When he succeeded to the chair of cs O-eof| anatomy in Dublin he took Sir George un Humphry, of Cambridge, as his guide and master, and began a series of detailed” ie investigations in comparative anatomy and Meaux especially myology; but when he became Humphry’s successor he devoted himself ‘more and more to osteology, and to the . end of his life he continued to collect data +» — indicates actual track of the latter years of his life he often dis- cussed with the writer the efforts he had made to encourage men to do research, or and fill note-book after note-book with the records of his observations and admirable pencil drawings. Unfor- tunately, only a relatively small proportion of these results have been published. When, from time to time, his friends pressed him to make his. work available’ for other anatomists, he would modestly disclaim that any journal would find space for the contents of his voluminous note- books, or urge that they were always available for anyone to use; and, in fact, he was ever generously ready to give the results of his work to anyone who asked for them. Prof. Macalister spent his life in amassing facts, and avoided generalisation and the formulation of explanations ia ln seni out his life he was continually striving to satisfy. He was‘€specially devoted to the — contemplating some original investigation, — was responsible for bringing to nought — ec a or theories. interest in their interpretation is nowhere more clearly displayed than in his choice of subjects over stiles critical acumen. SEPTEMBER II, 1919] NATURE 127 This thirst for facts and lack of for investigation. Perhaps the most striking in- stance of this is his monograph on the lachrymal bone. In spite of this curious trait, Prof. Macalister was mainly responsible in this country _ for maintaining an interest in morphology at a time when anatomy was threatened with the fate of being reduced to the mere mechanical craft of the dissecting-room. His text-book on anatomy was the instrument by means of which his influ- - ence was extended far and wide, especially among teachers of the subject. The great anthropological collection which he»made in Cambridge will always remain as a memorial of his zeal and - energy. associated with Prof. But to those who have been closely Macalister either as students or colleagues the recollection that has _ been imprinted most deeply in their memories is that of a generous and kindly soul who throughout the whole of his long career as a teacher of anatomy continued to perform the duties of a junior demonstrator gently “helping lame dogs ” in the dissecting room. PROF. L. W. KING. ey He death of Prof. Leonard W. King on August 20 is a serious blow to archeology and to the British Museum. Prof. King had made himself one of eof. the the foremost Assyriologists day, and his comparatively recent appointment to the chair of Assyriology in the _ University of London was a recognition of his _ work that was much appreciated by him, and com- - mended itself wholly to all students of the subject. From the time when, a few years after his appointment to the British Museum in 1893, Mr. _ King published his first studies in Assyriology, his work has been known by its clarity, sanity, and “Prove all things; hold fast that which is good,” may be said to have been his - guiding principle in his work. All scientific work was to be criticised fearlessly, and what seemed to his clearly distinguishing mind the true solution of a problem was to be upheld without hesitation. All he sought was the truth, as it seemed probable to him. And no other consideration moved him. _ He was a fine type of the modern scientific worker in the field of archeology, and the loss to science ~ of such a man in the flower of his age and activity can scarcely be estimated. Prof. King was born in the year 1869. He was therefore only forty-nine years of age when pre- mature death overtook him, largely as the result of heavy double labour during the war as an official attached to the Intelligence Department of the Admiralty and as student of Assyriology, which adversely affected a system already, as we ean see now, severely tried by illness contracted ‘in the course of his excavations for the British Museum at Kuyunjik (Nineveh) several years ago. To outward seeming Prof. King was a man of No. 2602, VOL. 104] robust health and physique, but in reality the rigours of archeological work in Assyria under the conditions of fifteen years since had under- mined his constitution, and when, in the present year, the results of severe war labour coincided with a recrudescence of old illness, he fell. Prof. King was a Rugbeian and a King’s man. The book in which he first made his mark was “The Life and Letters of Hammurabi,” the great law-giver-king of Babylon. His works on the Assyrian language are well known, and as a proficient Semitic scholar his pronouncements on this subject were always worthy of great respect. His real interest, however, lay rather in the elucidation of ancient history by means of the cuneiform inscriptions than in the ancient lan- guages themselves, and a notable contribution to this end is his edition’ of the Inscriptions of Darius on the Rock of Bisitun (Bebistun), which he re-copied and edited, in conjunction with Mr. R. Campbell Thompson, after their joint expedis tion to the spot on behalf of the British Museum, which was carried out in circumstances of con- siderable difficulty and hardship. His two more recent works, “The History of Sumer and Akkad ” and “The History of Babylon,” are the standard histories of those lands in English. It is ever to be regretted that he was. not able to bring out the third work of the trilogy he had planned, “The History of Assyria,” but the war compelled him to put it by for the time, and then illness stopped all further work. . It is to be hoped, however, that he will be found to have left his manuscript sufficiently complete for his publishers to produce the result of his labours. In his historical books the same clean-cut critical faculty is shown as in his other work. This criticism was welcomed by his friends and fellow-workers in the same and kindred fields, for King’s interests were by no means confined to the Land of the Two Rivers. He was keenly inte- rested in Egyptian archeology, but for the study of the hieroglyphs or of Coptic he had no time; the demands of cuneiform were enough for him, for he did all things thoroughly, and never dabbled. In a minor degree the work of his colleagues in the museum on Mycenzan archeo- logy also interested him. His Cambridge train- ing made him somewhat suspicious of the so- called ‘“‘all-round man”; but he had an interest in all Branches of archeology, and read every- thing that others had written on their several subjects, and his remarks on their work were always of value, and inspired by sound common sense; his comments were always conspicuous for balance and sense of proportion. To other workers in his own field he was always scrupu- lously courteous and anxious to give credit where it was due; his juniors were always sure to receive their due meed of appreciation and in addition energetic support. He will leaye among them a name of happy and grateful memory, while his personal friends feel a very deep and grievous loss. It is always to be regretted that 28. NATURE [SEPTEMBER II, 1919 he did not survive to receive the honour of admis- sion to the British Academy, to mark his signal services to his science in this’ country. Rugby, King’s College, Cambridge, and the British Museum, not to speak of the University of London, have lost in him one of their most distinguished members. H.R: Harr, THE BOURNEMOUTH MEETING OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION. RITING on the day before the opening of the meeting at Bournemouth, it is not pos- sible to give exact figures of the number of members and associates enrolled. The number is approximately one thousand, and steadily in- creasing. All day the Municipal College has been the scene of great activity, and the officials have had hard work to cope with the rush of applica- tions and inquiries. The figures compare very favourably with those of previous years, and, while no new records are likely to be established, it is believed that the attendance will be in excess of that at any meeting held during the war. Local enthusiasm has been late in manifesting itself, but has now reached a high pitch. The town’s privilege in being the scene of so import- ant and in many respects unique a meeting is at last fully appreciated. The greatest interest is being shown in the proceedings of the Association, and a most cordial welcome extended to the dis- tinguished men of science visiting the town. The citizens’ lectures arranged in co-operation with the Workers’ Educational Association are also likely to be exceptionally well attended. The great difficulties of securing accommoda- tion have been successfully met, and the many visitors find the arrangements in every way ex- cellent. The careful organisation of the local executive committee in other directions is in evi- dence on all sides, and its results meet with the keen appreciation of members and associates, The weather is fine and warm, a fortunate circumstance in view of the numerous sectional excursions to points of interest in the neighbour- hood taking place during the week. Even at this early hour it is possible to pro- nounce the Bournemouth meeting a decided success. (Tuesday evening.) The weather to-day has been brilliantly fine, and with Bournemouth looking its best the meet- ing has opened under the happiest conditions. More than 1200 tickets have been issued, and many fresh applications are still being received. The section lectures and discussions and the excursions to-day were exceedingly well attended. This evening the Winter Gardens Pavilion was crowded by a keenly appreciative audience on the occasion of the president’s inaugural address. The attendances are not so large as at certain meet- NO. 2602, VOL, 104] ings held before the war, but they are regarded a here as most gratifying and quite equal to expecta-. tions. ; } The interest displayed in the citizens’ lectures — exceeds all anticipation, and the accommodation — provided, based on the experience of previous years, has proved quite inadequate. All the tickets have been disposed of, and large numbers of intending auditors have been disappointed. — This points to a useful development of the work _ of the Association in the future. j All the conditions are exceptionally favourable, and the “Peace” meeting is proving eminently successful in every way. ree Prof. W. A. Herdman o has been general _ | secretary of the Associations elected to fill the office of president for the year ince 1903, has been 1920-21, beginning with the Cardiff meeting. INAUGURAL ADDRESS BY THE Hon. Sir CnHaries A. Parsons, K.C.B.,°M.A:, LU.Ds DiSt5 ee RS : PRESIDENT. = THREE years of anxiety and stress have passed since the last meeting of the British Association. The weight of the struggle which pressed heavily upon us at the time of the Newcastle meeting in 1916 had ‘increased so much in intensity by the sprin that the council, after consultation with the local com- mittee at Bournemouth, finally decided to cancel the summer meeting of that year. This was the first time in the history of the association that an annual — - meeting was not held. i We all rejoice to feel that the terrible ordeal through which the whole Empire has been passing has now reached its final phases, and that during the period of reorganisation, social and industrial, it is possible to resume the annual meetings of the association under happier conditions. We have gladly and with much appreciation accepted the renewed invitation of our friends and colleagues at Bournemouth. aS We are gathered together at a time when, after a great upheaval, the elemental conditions of organisa- tion of the world are still in flux, and we have to- consider how to influence and mould the recrystallisa-° tion of these elements into the best forms and most — economic rearrangements for the benefit of civilisa- — That the British Association is capable of — exerting a great influence in guiding the nation ~ tion. towards advancement in the sciences and arts in the. most general sense there can be no question, and of “a this we may be assured by a study of its proceedings in conjunction with the history of contemporary pro- gress. Although the British Association cannot claim any paramount prerogative in this good work, yet it can certainly claim to provide a free arena for dis- cussion where in the past new theories in science, new propositions for beneficial change, new sugges- tions for casting aside fetters to the advancement in — science, art, and economics have first seen the light of publication and discussion. ot For more than half a century it has pleaded strongly for the advancement of science and its application to the arts. In the yearly volume for 1855 will be found a report in which it is stated that :—‘ The objects for which the association was established have been carried out in three ways: First, by requisitioning and printing reports on the present state of different branches of science; secondly, by granting sums of of 1917 by i q a 4 if _ SEPTEMBER II, 1919] NATURE =9 _ money to ‘small committees or individuals, to enable _ them to carry on new researches; and thirdly, by _ recommending the Government to undertake expedi- tions of discovery, or to make grants of money for certain ‘and national purposes, which were beyond the means of the association.”” As a matter of fact it has, since its commencement, paid out of its own funds upwards of 80,0001. in grants of this kind. Developments Prior to the War. It is twenty-nine years since an engineer, Sir Frederick Bramwell, occupied this chair and dis- coursed so charmingly on the great importance of the next-to-nothing, the importance of locking after little things which, in engineering, as in other walks of life, are often too lightly considered. The advances in engineering during the last twenty _ years are too many and complex to allow of their _ description, however short, being included in one address, and, following the example of some of my _ predecessors in this chair, I shall refer only to some of the most important features of this wide subject. I feel that I cannot do better than begin by quoting from a speech made recently by Lord Inchcape, when speaking on the question of the nationalisation of coal :—“It is no exaggeration to say that coal has _ been the maker of modern. Britain, and that those _ who discovered and developed the methods of working it have done more to determine the bent of British activities and the form of British society than all the Parliaments of the past hundred and twenty years.”’ James Watt.—No excuse is necessary for entering upon this theme, because this year marks the hundredth anniversary of the death of James Watt, and in reviewing the past it appears that England has gained her present proud position by her early enterprise and by the success of the Watt steam- _ engine, which enabled her to become the first country to develop her resources in coal, and led to the estab- lishment of her great manufactures and her immense mercantile marine. z _ The laws of steam which James Watt discovered are simply these :—That the latent heat is nearly con- stant for different pressures within the ranges used in steam-engines, and that, consequently, the greater the steam pressure and the greater the range of a given amount of steam. Secondly, as may now -seem to us obvious, that steam from its expansive force will rush into a vacuum. Having regard to the state of knowledge at the time, his conclusions appear to have been the result of close and patient reasoning by a mind endowed with extraordinary powers of ‘insight into physical questions, and with the faculty -of drawing sound practical conclusions from numerous experiments devised to throw light on the subject under ~investigation. His resource, courage, and devotion were extraordinary. In commencing his investigations on the steam- engine he soon discovered that there was a tremendous loss in the Newcomen engine, which he thought might be remedied. This was the loss caused by condensa- tion of the steam on the cold metal walls of the cvlinder. He first commenced by lining the walls “with wood, a material of low thermal conductivitv. Though this improved matters, he was not satisfied; his intuition probably told him that there should be some better solution of the problem, and doubtless made many experiments before he realised that the true solution lav in a condenser separate from the cylinder of the engine. It is easy after discovery to say, ‘“‘How obvious and how simple,’”’ but many of us here know how difficult is any step of advance NO. 2602, VOL. 104] expansion, the greater will be the work obtained from’ when shrouded by unknown surroundings, and we can well appreciate the courage and the amount of inves- tigation necessary before James Watt thought himself ’ justified in trying the separate condenser, But to us now, and to the youngest student who knows the laws of steam as formulated by Carnot, Joule, and Kelvin, the separate condenser is the obvious means of con- structing an economical condensing engine. Watt’s experiments led him to a clear view of the great importance of securing as much expansion as possible in his engines. The materials and appliances for boiler and machine construction were at that time so undeveloped that steam pressures were practically limited to a few pounds above atmospheric pressure. The cylinders and pistons of his engines were not con- structed with the facility and accuracy to which we are now accustomed, and. chiefly for these reasons expansion ratios of from twofold to threefold were the usual practice. Watt had given to the world an engine which consumed from five to seven pounds of coal per horse-power hour, or one-quarter of the fuel previously used by any engine. With this consump- tion of fuel its field under the conditions prevailing at the time was practically unlimited. What need was there, therefore, for commercial reasons, to endeavour still further to improve the engine at the risk of encountering fresh difficulties and greater commercial embarrassments? The course was rather for him and his partners to devote all their energy to extend the adoption of the engine as it stood, and this they: did, and to the Watt engine, consuming from five to seven pounds of coal per horse-power, mankind owes the greatest permanent advances in material welfare recorded in history. With secondary modifications, it was the prime mover in most general use for eighty years, i.e. until the middle of last century. It remained for others to carry the expansion of steam still further in the com- pound, triple, and, lastly, in the quadruple expansion engine, which is the most economical reciprocating engine of to-day. Watt had considered the practicability of the tur- bine. He writes to his partner, Boulton, iri 1784 :— “The whole success of the machine depends on the possibility of prodigious velocities. In short, without God makes it possible for things to move them one thousand feet per second, it cannot do us much harm.’? The advance in tools of precision, and a clearer knowledge of the dynamics of rotating bodies, have now made the speeds mentioned by Watt feasible, and, indeed, common, everyday practice. Turbines.—The turbine of to-day carries the expan- sion of steam much further than has been found possible in any reciprocating engine, and owing to this property it has surpassed it in the economy of coal, and it realises to the fullest extent Watt’s ideal of the expansion of steam from the boiler to the lowest vapour pressure obtainable in the condenser. Among the minor improvements which in recent years have conduced to a higher efficiency in turbines are the more accurate curvature of the blades to avoid eddy losses in the steam, the raising of the peri- pheral velocities of the blades to nearly the velocity of the steam impinging upon them, and details of construction to reduce leakages to a minimum. In turbines of 20,000-30,000 h.p., 82 per cent. of the avail- able energy in the steam is now obtainable as brake- horse-power; and with a boiler efficiency of 85 per cent. the thermodynamic efficiency from the fuel to the electrical output of the alternator has reached 23 per cent., and shortly may reach 28 per cent., a result rivalling the efficiency of internal-combustion . engines worked by producer-gas. During the twenty vears immediately preceding the war turbo-generators had increased in size from 30 ‘NATURE [SEPTEMBER 11, 1919 500 kilowatts to 25,000 kilowatts, and the consumption of steam had fallen from 17 1b. per kw.-hour to io3 Ib. per kw.-hour. recognised means of generating electricity from steam on a large scale, although they have not superseded the Watt engine for pumping mines or the drawing of coal, except in so far as.it is a means for generating electricity for these purposes. In the same period the engine-power in the mercantile marine had risen from 3900 of the King Edward to 75,000 of the Mauretania. As regards the Royal Navy, the engine-power of battleships prior to the war had increased from 12,000 i.h.p. to 30,000 s.h.p., while the speed ad- vanced from 17 knots to 23 knots, and during the war, in ships of the Queen Elizabeth class, the power amounted to 75,000 s.h.p., with a speed of 25 knots. In cruisers similar advances were made The i.h.p. of the Powerful was 25,000, while the s.h.p. of the Queen Mary was 78,000, with a speed of 28 knots. During the war the power obtained with geared tur- bines in the Courageous class was 100,000 s.h.p., with a speed of 32 knots, the maximum power transmitted through one gear-wheel being 25,000 h.p., and through one pinion 15,500 h.p.; while in destroyers speeds up to 39 knots have been obtained. The aggregate horse- power of war and mercantile turbined vessels through- out the world is now about 35,000,000. These advances in power and speed have been made possible mainly by the successive increase in economy and diminution of weight derived from the replace- ment of reciprocating engines by turbines direct- coupled to the propellers, and later by the introduction of reduction gearing between the turbines and the propellers; also by the adoption of water-tube boilers and of oil-fuel. With these advances the names of Lord Fisher, Sir William White, and Sir Henry Oram will always be associated. The Work of Sir William White.-—With the great work of the Royal Navy fresh in our minds, we can- not but recall the prominent part taken by the late Sir William White in its construction. His sudden death, when president-elect for 1913,. lost to the nation and to the association the services of a great naval architect who possessed remarkable powers of pre- vision and dialectic. He was Chief Constructor to the Admiralty from 1885 to 1go01, and largely to; him was due the efficiency of our vessels in the great war. White often referred to the work of Brunel as the designer of the Great Eastern, and spoke of him as the originator of the cellular construction of fhe bottoms of ships, since universally adopted, as a means of Strengthening the hull and for obtaining additional safety in case of damage. Scott Russell was the builder of this great pioneer vessel, the fore- runner of the Atlantic liners; and the British Associa- tion may rightly feel satisfaction in having aided him when a young man by pecuniary grants to develop his researches into the design and construction of ships and the wave-line form of hull which he originated, a form of special importance in paddle- wheel vessels. So much discussion has taken place in the last- four years as to the best construction of ship to resist torpedo attacks that it is interesting to recall briefly at the present time what was said by White in ‘his Cantor lectures to the Royal Society of Arts in 1906 :-—‘‘Great attention has been bestowed upon means of defence against underwater torpedo attacks. From the first introduction of torpedoes it was recog- nised that extreme watertight subdivision in the interior of warships would be the most important means of defence. Experiments have been made with triple watertight skins forming double cellular: sides, the compartments nearest the outer bottom being NO. 2602, VOL, 104] Turbines have become the filled, in some cases, with water, coal, cellulose, or other materials. Armour-plating has been used both on the outer bottom and on inner skins.”? He also alludes to several Russian ships which were torpedoed by the Japanese, and he concludes by saying :—“ Up to date the balance cf opinion has favoured minute watertight subdivisions and comparatively thin water- tight compartments, rather than the use of internal armour, the use of which, of course, involves large expenditure of weight and cost.’’ - : The present war has most amply confirmed his views and conclusions, then so lucidly and concisely expressed. While on the subject of steamships, it may per be opportune to say one word as to their. further development. The sizé of ships had been steadily increasing up to the time of the war, resulting in a reduction of power required to propel them per ton — of displacement. On the other hand, thanks to their greater size and more economical machinery, speeds have been increased when the traffic has justified the greater cost. The limiting factor to further increase in size is the depth of water in the harbours. With this restriction removed there is no obstacle to build. ing ships up to.1000 ft. in length or more, provided the volume and character of the traffic are such as to justify the Si iy outlay. ne Tungsten Steel.—Among ‘other important pre-war developments that have had a direct bearing upon the . war, mention should be made of the discov and extensive use of alloys of steel. The wonderful pro- perties conferred upon steel by the addition of tungsten were discovered by Muschet in 1868, who has not been sufficiently credited with his share in making the Bessemer process a practical success, and later this alloy was investigated and improved by Maunsel White and Taylor, of Philadelphia. The latter showed that the addition of tungsten to steel has the fol- lowing effect :-—That after the steel has been quenched at a very high temperature near its melting point, it _ can be raised .to a much higher temperature than is — possible with ordinary carbon tool-steel without losinss its hardness and power. of cutting metal. In othe words, it holds the carbon more tenaciously in the hardened state, and hence tungsten-steel tools, even when red-hot, can cut ordinary mild steel. It : revolutionised the design of machine tools, and has increased the output on heavy munition work by 100 per cent., and in ordinary engineering by 50 per cent. The allovs of steel and manganese with which Sir — Robert Hadfield’s name is associated have proved of — utility in immensely increasing the durability of rail- — way and tramway points and crossings, and for the — hard teeth of machinery for the crushing of stone — and other materials, and, in fact, for any purposes where great hardness and strength are essential. ; Investigation of Gaseous Explosions.—Brief refer- ence must also be made—and it will be gratifying to do so—to the important work of one of the com- mittees of the British Association appointed in 1908, under the chairmanship of the late Sir William Preece, for the investigation of gaseous explosions, — with special reference to temperature. The investiga- — tions of the committee are contained in seven yearly — reports up to 1914. Of the very important work of the committee I wish to refer to one investigation in particular, which has proved to be a guiding star to the designers and manufacturers of internal-combus- tion engines in this country. The members of the committee more directly associated with this particular investigation were Sir Dugald Clerk, Prof. Callendar, and the late Prof. Bertram Hopkinson. The investigation showed that the intensity of the SEPTEMBER II, 1919] NATURE 3t heat radiated by the incandescent gases to the walls ‘of the cylinder of a gas-engine increases with the size of the cylinder, the actual rate of this increase being approximately proportional to the square root of the depth of the radiating incandescent. gas; the intensity was also shown to increase rapidly with the richness of the gas. It suffices now to say that the heat in a large cylinder with .a rich explosive mixture is so intense that the metal eventually cracks. The inves- tigation shows why this occurs, and by doing so has saved enormous sums to the makers of gas- and oil- engines in this country, and has led them to avoid the large cylinder, so common in Germany before the war, in favour of a multiplicity of smaller cylinders. Science and the War. In coming to this section of my address I am reminded that in the course of his presidential address to Section G, in 1858, Lord Rosse said :—‘ Another object of the Mechanical Section of the association has been effected—the importance of engineering science in the service of the State has been brought more prominently forward. There seems, however, something still wanting. Science may yet do more for the Navy and Army if more called upon.” Comparatively recently, too, Lord French remarked : “We have failed during the past to read accurately the lessons as regards the fighting of the future which modern science and invention’ should have taught us.” In view of the eminent. services which men of science have rendered during the war, I think that we may be justified in regarding the requirement stated by Lord Rosse as having at last been satisfied, and also in believing that such a criticism as Lord French rightly uttered will not be levelled against the country in the future. Though British men of science had not formerly been adequately recognised in relation to war and the safety of their country, yet at the call of the sailors and the soldiers they whole-heartedly, and with intense zeal, devoted themselves to repair the negligence of the past, and to apply their unrivalled powers and skill to ercounter and overcome the long-standing machinations of the enemy. They worked in close collaboration with the men of science of the Allied nations, and eventually produced better war material; chemicals, and apparatus of all kinds for vanquishing the enemy and the saving of our own men than had been devised by the enemy during many years of pre- paration planned on the basis of a total disregard of treaties and the conventions of war. Four years is too short a time for much scientific invention to blossom to useful maturity, even under the forced exigencies of war and Government control. It must be remembered that in the past the great majority of new discoveries and inventions of merit have taken many years-—-sometimes generations—to bring them into general use. It must also be men- tioned that in some instances discoveries and inven- tions are attributable to the general advance in science and the arts which has brought within the region of practical politics an attack on some particular problem. So the work of the men of science during the war has perforce been directed more to the application of known principles, trade knowledge, and properties of matter to the waging of war than to the making of new and laborious discoveries; though, in effecting such applications, inventions of a high order have been achieved some of which promise to be of great usefulness in time of peace. The advance of science. and the arts in the last century had, however, wrought a great change in the implements of war. .The steam-engine, the internal- combustion engine, electricity, and the advances in NO, 2602, VOL. 104] metallurgy and chemistry had led to the building up of immense industries which, when diverted from their normal uses, have produced unprecedented quantities of war material for the purposes of the enormous armies, and also for the greatest Navy which the world has ever seen. The destructive energy in the field and afloat has multiplied many hundredfold since the time of the Napoleonic wars; both before and during the war the size of guns and.the efficiency of explosives and shell increased immensely, and many new implements of destruction were added. Modern science and engineering enabled armies unprecedented in_ size, efficiency, and equipment to be drawn from all parts of the world and to be concentrated rapidly in the fighting line. ; To build up the stupendous. fighting organisation, ships have been taken from their normal trade routes, locomotives and material from the home. railways, the normal manufactures of the country have been largely diverted to munitions of war; the home rail- ways, tramways, roads, buildings and constructions, and material of all kinds have been allowed to depreciate. The amount of depreciation in roads and railways alone has been estimated at 400,000,000l. per annum at present prices. Upon the community at home a very great and abnormal strain has been thrown, notwithstanding the increased output per head of the workers derived from modern methods and improved machinery. In short, we have seen for the first time in history nearly the whole popula- tions of the principal contending nations enlisted in intense personal and collective effort in the contest, resulting in unprecedented loss of life and destruction of capital. A few figures will assist us to realise the great difference between this war and all preceding wars. At Waterloo, in 1815, 9044 artillery rounds were fired, having a total weight of 37:3 tons, while on one day during the last offensive in France, on the British front .alone. 643,837 artillery rounds were fired, weighing 18,080 tons—more than 100 times the number of rounds, and nearly 540 times the weight of projectiles. Again, in the whole of the South African War 273,000 artillery rounds were fired, weighing approximately 2800 tons; while during the whole war in France, on the British front alone, more than 170,000,000 artillery rounds were fired, weighing nearly 3,500,000 tons—622 times the number of rounds, and about 1250 times the weight of pro- jectiles. However great these figures in connection with modern land artillery may be, they become almost insignificant when compared with those in respect of a modern naval battle squadron. The Queen Fliza- beth when firing all her guns discharges 18 tons of metal and develops 1,870,000 foot-tons of energy. She is capable of repeating, this discharge once every minute, and when doing so develops by her guns an average of 127,000 effective h.p., or more than one-and-a-half times the power of her propelling machinery; and this energy is five times greater than the maximum average energy developed on the Western Front by British guns. Furthermore, if all her guns were fired simultaneously, they would for the instant be developing energy at the rate of 13,132,000 h.p. From these figures we can form some conception of the vast destructive energy developed in a modern naval battle. Engineering and the War. With regard to the many important engineering developments made during the war, several papers by authorities are announced in the syllabus of papers 32 NATURE | SEPTEMBER II, 1919 constituting the sectional proceedings of this year’s meeting. Among them are “ Tanks,” by Sir Eustace d’Eyncourt; ‘‘ Scientific Progress of Aviation during the War,’’ by L. Bairstow; ‘‘Airships,’’ by Lt.-Col. Cave-Brown-Cave; ‘‘Directional Wireless, with Special Reference to Aircraft,’’ by Capt. Robinson; ‘Wireless in Aircraft,’ by Major Erskine Murray; “Wireless Telegraphy during the First Three Years. of the War,’’ by Major Vincent Smith; ‘‘ Submarine Mining,’’ by Comdr. Gwynne; ‘Emergency Bridge Construction,’’ by Prof. Ingles; and ‘The Paravane,”’ by Comdr. Burney. . Accordingly, it is quite unneces- sary here to particularise further except in the few following instances :— Sound-ranging and Listening Devices.—Probably the most interesting development during the war has been the extensive application of sound-listening devices for detecting and localising the enemy. The Indian hunter puts his ear to the ground to listen for the sound of the footsteps of his enemy. So in modern warfare science has placed in the hands of the sailor and soldier elaborate instruments to aid the ear in the detection of noises transmitted through earth, water, air, or wether, and also in some cases to record these sounds graphically or photo- graphically, so that their character and the time of their occurrence. may be tabulated. The sound-ranging apparatus developed by Prof. Bragg and his son, by which the position of an enemy gun can be determined from electrically recorded times at which the sound-wave from the gun passes over a number of receiving stations, has enabled our artillery to. concentrate their fire on the enemy’s guns, and often to destroy them. The French began experimenting in September, 1914, with methods of locating enemy guns by sound. The English section began work in October, rgrs, adopting -the French methods in the first instance. By the end of 1916 the. whole front was covered, and sound-ranging began to play an important part in. the location of enemy batteries. During 1917 loca- tions by sound-ranging reached about 30,ov0 for the whole Army, this number being greater than that given by any other means of location. A single good set of observations could be relied upon to give the position of an enemy gun to about 50 yards at 7ooo yards’ range. It could also be carried on during considerable artillery activity. The apparatus for localising noises transmitted . through the ground has been much used for the detection of enemy mining and counter-mining opera- tions. Acoustic tubes, microphones, and amplifying valves have been employed to increase the volume of very faint noises. For many years before the war the Bell Submarine Signalling Co., of which Sir William White was one of the early directors, used submerged microphones for detecting sound transmitted through the water, and a submerged bell for sending signals to distances up to one mile. With this apparatus passing ships could be heard at a distance of nearly a mile when the sea was calm and the listening vessel stationary. Of all the physical disturbances emitted or pro- duced by a moving submarine, those most easily detected, and at the greatest distance, are the pressure-waves set up in the water by vibrations pro- duced by the vessel and her machinery. A _ great varietv of instruments have been devised during the war for detecting these noises, depending on micro- phones and magnetophones of exceedingly high sensi- tivity. Among them may be particularly mentioned the hydrophones devised by Capt. Ryan and Prof. Bragg, being adaptations of the telephone transmitter to work in water instead of air. These instruments, NO. 2602, VOL. 104] when mounted so as to rotate, are directional, being insensitive to sound-waves the front of which is pers pendicular to the plane of the diaphragm, and givi the loudest sound when the diaphragm is parall to the wave-front. Another preferable method for determining direc- tion is to use two hydrophones coupled to two receivers, one held to each ear. This is called the biaural method, and enables the listener to recognise the direction. from which the sound emanates. When the vessel. is, in motion or the sea is rough, © the water noises from the dragging of the instrument through the water and from the waves striking the ship drown the noises from the enemy vessel, and under ‘such conditions the instruments are useless. The assistance of eminent biologists was of invaluable help at this juncture. Experiments were made with sea-lions by Sir Richard Paget, who found that they have directional hearing under water up to speeds of six knots. Also Prof. Keith explained the construc- tion of the hearing organs of the whale, the ear proper ° being a capillary tube, too small to be capable of per- forming any useful function in transmitting hk the relatively large aural organs, which are deep set in the head. The whale therefore hears by means of the sound-waves transmitted through the substance of the head. It was further seen that the organs of hearing of the whale to some degree resembled the hydrophone. ‘ The course now became clear. Hollow towin bodies in the form of fish or porpoises were made o celluloid, varnished canvas, or very thin metal, and the hydrophone suitably fixed in the centre of the head. The body is filled with water, and the cable towing the fish contains the insulated leads to the . observer on board the vessel. When towed at some distance behind the chasing ship disturbing noises are small, and enemy noises can be heard up to speeds of fourteen knots, and at considerable dis- tances. Thermionic amplifying valves have been extensively used, and have added much to the sensi- tiveness of the hydrophone in its many forms. : After the loss of the Titanic by collision with an iceberg, Lewis Richardson was granted two patents in 1912 for the detection of above-water objects by their echo in the air, and under-water objects by the echo transmitted through the water. The principles governing the production and the concentration of beams of sound are described in the specification, and he recommends frequencies ranging from 4786 to “00,000 complete vibrations per second, and also sug- gests that the rate of approach or recession from the object may be determined from the difference in the pitch of the echo from the pitch of the blast sent out. Sir Hiram Maxim also suggested similar apparatus a little later. 4 The echo method of detection was not, however, practically developed until French and English men of science, with whom was associated Prof. Langevin, ey + of the Collége de France, realising its importance for — submarine detection, brought the apparatus to a high ~ degree of perfection and utility shortly before the armistice. Now with beams of high-frequency sound- waves it is possible to sweep the seas for the detec- tion of any submerged object, such as icebergs, sub- marines, surface vessels, and rocks; they may also be used to make soundings. It enables a chasing ship to pick up and close in on a submarine situated more than a mile away. The successful development of sound-ranging ap- paratus on land led to the suggestion by Prof. Bragg | that a modified form could be used to locate under- water explosions. It has been found that the shock of an explosion can be detected hundreds of miles oh Nl be hati a ie ie SEPTEMBER IT, 1919] NATURE 33 from its source by means of a submerged hydrophone, and that the time of the arrival of the sound-wave can be recorded with great precision. At the end of the war the sound-ranging stations were being used for the detection of positions at sea required for strategical purposes. The same stations are now being used extensively for the determination of such positions at sea as light-vessels, buoys which indicate channels, and obstructions such as sunken ships. By this means ships steaming in fog can be given their positions with accuracy for ranges up to 500 miles. Among the many other important technical systems und devices brought out during the war which will find useful application under peace conditions as aids to navigation I may mention directional wireless, by which ships and aircraft can be given their positions and directed, and on this subject we are to have a paper in Section G. ader-gear, -first used by the Germans to direct their ships through their minefields, and afterwards used by the Allies, consists of an insulated cable laid on the bottom of the sea, earthed at the further end, through which an alternating current is passed. By means of delicate devices installed on a ship, she is able to follow the cable at any speed with as much precision as a railless electric “bus can follow its trolley-wire. Cables up to fifty miles long have been used, and this device promises to be invaluable to ships navigating narrow and tortuous channels and entering or leaving harbours in a fog. Aireraft.—It may be justly said that the develop- ment in aircraft design. and manufacture is one of the astonishing engineering feats of the war. In August, 1914, the British Air Services possessed a total of 272 machines, whereas in October, 1918, just prior to the armistice, the Royal Air Force possessed more than 22,000 effective machines. During the first twelve months of the war the average monthly delivery of aeroplanes to our Flying Service was 50, while during the last twelve months of the war the average deliveries were 27060 per month. So far as aero-engines are concerned, our position in 1914 was by no means satisfactory. We depended for a large proportion of our supplies on other countries. In the Aerial Derby of 1913, of the eleven machines that started, not one had a British engine. By the end of the war, however, British aero-engines had gained the foremost place in design and manufacture, and were well up to requirements as regards supply. The total horse-power produced in the last twelve months of the war approximated to eight millions -of brake- horse-power, a figure quite comparable with the total horse-power of* the marine-engine output of the country.* Much might be written on the progress in aircraft, but the ‘subject will be treated at length in the sec- tional papers. In view of the recent trans-Atlantic flight, however, I feel that it may be opportune to _ make the following observations on the comparative utility of aeroplanes and airships for commercial pur- oses. In the case of the aeroplane, the weight per rse-power increases with the size, other things being equal. This increase, however, is met to some extent by a multiplicity of engines, though in the fuselage the increase remains. On the other hand, with the airship the advantage increases with the size, as in all ships. The tractive effort per ton of displacement diminishes in inverse proportion to the dimensions, other things, including the speed, being the same. Thus an airship of 750 ft. length and 60 tons displacement may require a trac- tive force of 5 per cent., or 3 tons, at 60 miles per 1 See Lord Weir's Paper read at the Victory Meeting of the North-East Coast Institution of Engineers and Shipbuilders, July, 1919. : NO. 2602, VOL. 104] hour; and one of 1500 ft. in length and 8 x60=480 tons displacement would require only 2} per cent. x 480=12 tons at the same speed, and would carry fuel for double the distance. With the same proportion of weight of hull to dis- placement, the larger airship would stand double the wind-pressure, and would weather storms of greater violence and hailstones of greater size. It would te more durable, the proportional upkeep would be less, and the proportional loss of gas considerably less. In other words, it would lose a less proportion of its buoyancy per day. It is a development in which success depends upon the project being well thought out and the job being thoroughly well done. The equipment of the airsheds with numerous electric haulage winches, and all other appliances to make egress and ingress to the sheds safe from danger and accident, must be ample and efficient. The airship appears to have a great future for special commerce where time is a dominant factor and the demand is sufficient to justify a large air- ship. It has also a great field in the opening up of new countries where other means of communication are difficult. The only limitation to size will be the cost of the airship and its sheds, just as in steam- vessels it is the cost of the vessels and the cost of deepening the harbours that limit the size of Atlantic liners. : Such developments generally take place slowly, otherwise failures occur—as in the, case of the Great Eastern—and it may be many years before the air- ship is increased from the present maximum of 750 fe. - to 1500 ft. with success, but it will assuredly come. If, however, the development is subsidised or assisted by the Government, incidental failures may be faced with equanimity and very rapid development accom- plished.* In peace-time the seaplane, aeroplane, and airship will most certainly have their uses. But, except for special services of high utility, it is ques- tionable whether they will play more than a minor part as compared with the steamship, railway, .and motor transport. Electricity.—The supply and use of electricity -has developed rapidly in recent years. For lighting it is the rival of gas, though ea¢h has its advantages. As a means of transmitting power over Iong distances it has no rival, and its efficiency is so high that, when generated on a large scale and distributed over large areas, it is a cheap and trustworthy source of power for working factories, tramways, suburban railways, and innumerable other purposes, including metal- lurgical and chemical processes. It is rapidly super- seding locally generated steam-power, and is a rival to the small- and moderate-sized gas and oil engines. It has made practicable the use of water-power through the generation of electricity in bulk at the natural falls, from which the power is transmitted to the consumers, sometimes at great distances. Fifteen years ago electricity was generated chiefly by large reciprocating steam-engines, direct-coupled to dynamos or alternators, but of late years steam tur- bines have in most instances replaced them, and are now exclusively used in large generating stations because of their smaller cost and greater economy in fuel. The size of the turbines may vary from a few thousand horse-power up to about 50,000 h.p. At the end of last year the central electric stations in the United Kingdom contained plant aggregating 2,750,000 kilowatts, 79 per cent. of which was driven by steam turbines. : Much discussion has taken place as to the most economical size of generating stations, their number, 2 The literature on this subject includes an article which appeared in Engineering on January 3, 1919. , 34 NATURE the size of the generating units, and the size of the area to be supplied. On one hand, a comparatively small number of very large or super-stations, instead of a large number of moderate-sized stations dotted over the area, results in a small decrease in the cost of production of the electricity, because in the super- stations larger and slightly more economical engines are employed, while the larger stations permit of higher organisation and more elaborate labour-saving appliances. Further, if in the future the recovery of the by-products of coal should become a_ practical realisation as part of the process in the manufacture of the electric current, the larger super-stations present greater facilities than the smaller stations. On the other, super-stations involve the transmission of the electricity over greater distances, and con- sequently greater capital expenditure and cost of maintenance of mains and transmission apparatus, and greater electrical transmission losses, while the larger generating unit takes longer to overhaul or repair, and consequently a larger percentage of spare plant is necessary. ; The greatest element in reducing the cost of elec- tricity is the provision of a good load factor; in other words, the utilisation of the generating plant and mains to the greatest extent during the twenty-four hours of each day throughout the year. This is a far more important consideration than the size of the station, and it is secured’ to the best advantage in most cases by a widespread network of mains, supply- ing a diversity of consumers and users, each requiring current at different times of the day. The total load of each station being thus an average of the individual loads of a number of consumers is, in general, far less fluctuating than in the case of small generating and distributing systems, which supply principally one class of consumer-—a state of affairs that exists in London, for instance, at the present time. It is true that there may be exceptional cases, such as at Kil- | marnock, where a good Joad factor may be found in a small area, but in this case the consumers are chiefly. mills, which require current for many hours daily. There is no golden rule to secure cheap electricity. The most favourable size, locality, and number of generating stations in each area can only be arrived at by a close study of the local conditions, but there is no doubt that, generally speaking, to secure cheap electricity a widespread network of mains is in most cases a very important, if not an essential, factor. The electrification of tramways and suburban rail- ways has been an undoubted success where the volume of traffic has justified a frequent service, and it has been remarkable that where suburban lines have been worked by frequent and fast electrical trains there has resulted a creat growth of passenger traffic. The electrification of main-line railwavs would no doubt result in a saving of coal; at the same time, ‘the economical success would largely depend on_ the broader question as to whether the volume of the traffic would suffice to pay the working expenses and provide a satisfactory return on the capital. Municipal and company. generating stations have been nearly doubled in capacity during the war to meet the demand from munition works, steel works, chemical works, and for many other purposes, The provision of this increased supply was an enormous help in the production of adequate munitions. At the commencement of the war there were few steel electric furnaces in the country; at the end. of last year 117 were at work, producing 20,000 tons of steel | per month, consisting chiefly of high-grade ferro allovs used in munitions. No. 2602, VOL. 104] [SEPTEMBER II, 1919 The Future. _ The nations which have exerted the most influence in the war have been those which haye developed to the greatest extent their resources, their manufactures, and their commerce. As in the war, so in the civilisa- tion of mankind. But, viewing the present trend of developments in harnessing water-power and usi up the fuel resources of the world for the use ar convenience of man, one cannot but realise that, failing new and unexpected discoveries in science, such as the harnessing of the latent molecular and atomic energy in matter, as foreshadowed by Clerk Maxwel Kelvin, Rutherford, and others, the great position af England cannot be maintained for an indefinite period. At some time more or less remote—long hefore the exhaustion of our coal—the population will gradually migrate to those countries where the ratte sources of energy are the most abundant. Water-power and Coal.—The amount of available water-power in the British Isles is very small as compared with the total in other countries. Accord- mg to the latest estimates, the total in the British Isles is less than 1,500,009 h.p., whereas Canada alone possesses more than 20,000,000 h.p., of which more than 2,000,000 h.p. have already been harnessed. In the rest of the British Empire there are upwards of 30,000,000 h.p., and in the remainder of the world at least 150,000,000 h.p., so that England herself possesses less than 1 per cent. of the water-power of the world. . Further, it has been estimated that she only pos- sesses 2} per cent. of the whole coal of the world. To this question I would wish to direct our attention for a few minutes. : I have said that England owes her modern great- ness to the early development of her coal: U, she must continue to depend almost exclusively for her heat and source of power, including that required for propelling her vast mercantile marine. Neverthe- less, she is using up her resources in coal much more rapidly than most other countries are consuming theirs, and long before any near approach to exhaus- tion is reached her richer seams will have become im- poverished, and the cost of mining so much increased that, given cheap transport, it might pay her better to import coal from richer fields of almost limitless extent belonging to foreign countries, and workablé at a much lower cost than her own. Weed Let us endeavour to arrive at some approximate estimate of the economic value of the principal sources of power. The present average value of the royalties on coal in England is about 6d. per ton, but to this must be added the profit derived from mining opera- tions after paying royalties and providing for interest on the capital expended and for its redemption as wasting capital. After consultation with several leading experts in these matters, I have come to the conclusion that about rs. per ton represents the pre- war market value of coal in the seams in England. It must, however, be remembered that, in addition, coal has a considerable value as a national asset, for on it depends the prosperity of the great industrial interests of the country, which contribute a lar portion of the ‘wealth and revenue. From this pot of view the present value of unmined coal seems not to have been sufficiently appreciated in. the past, and that in the future it should be better appraised at its true value to the nation. This question may be viewed from another aspect by making a comparison of the cost of producing a given amount of electrical power from coal and from water-power. Assuming that 1 h.p. of electrical energy maintained for one year had a pre-war value of 5l., and that it requires about eight tons of average eT h y ee ee . SEPTEMBER 11, 1919] NATURE 35 coal to produce it, we arrive at the price of 6s. 3d. - ton, i.e. crediting the coal with half the cost. he capital required to mine eight tons of coal a year in England is difficult to estimate, but it may be taken approximately to be 5]., and the capital for plant and machinery to convert it into electricity at tol., making a total of 151. In the case of water- power the average capital cost on the above basis is 4ol., including water rights (though in exceptionally favoured districts much lower costs are recorded). From these figures it appears that the average capital required to produce electrical power from coal is less than half the amount that is required in the case of water-power. The running costs, however, in connection with water-power are much less than those in respect of coal. Another interesting con- sideration is that the cost of harnessing all the water- power of the world would be about 8,000,000,000l., or equal to the cost of the war to England. Dowling has estimated the total coal of the world as more than seven million million tons, and whether ‘We appraise it at Is. or more per ton its present and prospective value is prodigious. For instance, at 6s. 3d. per ton it amounts to nearly one hundred times the cost of the war to all the belligerents. In some foreign countries the capital costs of mining are far below the figures I have taken, and, as coal is transportable long distances and, generally speaking, electricity is not so at present, therefore it seems probable that capital will in the immediate future flow in increasing quentity to mining cperations in foreign countries rather than to the development of, at any rate the more difficult and costly, water-power schemes. When, however, capital becomes more plentiful the lower running costs of water-power will prevail, with the result that water-power will then be rapidly developed. As to the possible new sources of power, I have already mentioned molecular energy, but there is another alternative which appears to merit attention. Bore Hole.—In my address to Section B in 1904 I discussed the question of sinking a shaft to a depth of twelve miles, which is about ten times the depth of any shaft in existence. The estimated cost was 5,000,0001., and the time required about eighty-five ears. : The method of cooling the air-locks to limit the barometric pressure on the miners and other pre- cautions were described, and the project appeared feasible. One essential factor has, however, been queried by some persons: Would the rock at the great depth crush in and destroy the shaft? Sub- sequent to my address J] wrote a letter to NaTuRE, suggesting that the question might be tested experi- mentally. Prof. Frank D. Adams, of McGill Univer- sity, Montreal, acting on the suggestion, has since carried out exhaustive experiments, published in the Journal of Geology for February, 1912, showing that in limestone a depth of fifteen miles is probably prac- -ticable, and that in granite a depth of thirty miles might be reached. Little is at present known of the earth’s interior, except by inference from a study of its surface, up- turned strata, shallow shafts, the velocity of trans- mission. of seismic disturbances, its rigidity and specific gravity, and it seems reasonable to suggest: that some attempt should be made to sink a shaft as deep as may be found practicable and at some localitv selected by geologists as the most likely to afford useful information. _ When we consider that the estimated cost of sinking a shaft to a depth of twelve miles, at present-day _. prices, is not much more than the cost of one day of the war to Great Britain alone, the expense seems NO. 2602, VOL. 104] trivial as compared with the possible knowledge that might be gained by an investigation into this un- explored region of the earth. It might, indeed, prove of inestimable value to science, and also throw addi- tional light on the internal constitution of the earth in relation to minerals of high specific gravity. ; In Italy, at Lardarello, bore-holes have been sunk which discharge large volumes of high-pressure steam, which is being utilised.to generate about 10,000 h.p. by turbines. At Solfatara, near Naples, a similar pro- ject is on foot to supply power to the great works in the district. It seems, indeed, probable that in volcanic regions a very large amount of power may be, in the future, obtained directly or indirectly by boring into the earth, and that the whole subject merits the most careful consideration. ; While on the subject of obtaining power, may I digress for a few moments and describe an interesting phenomenon of a somewhat converse nature, i.e, that of intense pressure produced by moderate forces closing up cavities in water? A Committee was appointed by the Admiralty in 1916 to investigate the cause of the rapid erosion of the propellers of some of the ships doing arduous, duties. This was the first time that the problem had. been systematically considered. The Committee found that! the erosion was due to the intense blows struck, upon the blades of the propellérs by the nuclei of vacuous cavities closing up against them. Though the pressure bringing the water together was only. that of the atmosphere, yet it was proved that at the nucleus 20,000 atm®spheres might be produced. The phenomenon may be described as_ being analogous to the well-known fact that nearly all the energy of the arm that swings it is concentrated in the tag of a whip. It was shown that when water flowed into a conical tube which had been evacuated a pressure of more than 140 tons per square inch was recorded at the apex, which was capable of eroding brass, steel, and, in time, even the hardest steel. The phenomenon may occur under some conditions in rivers and waterfalls where the velocity exceeds 50 ft. per second, and it is probably as great a source of erosion as by the washing down of boulders and pebbles Then again, when waves beat on a rocky shore, under some conditions, intense hydraulic pres- sures will occur, quite sufficient of themselves to crush the rock and to open out narrow fissures into caves. Research.—The whole question of the future resources of the Empire is, I venture to think, one which demands the serious attention of all men of science. It should be attacked in a comprehensive manner, and with that insistence which has been so notable in connection with the efforts of British inves- tigators in the past. In such a task some people might suggest we need encouragement and assistance from the Government of the country. Surely we have it. As many here know, a great experimental step towards the practical realisation of Solomon’s House as prefigured by Francis Bacon in the New Atlantis is being made by the Government at. the present time. The inception, constitution, and methods. of procedure of the Department, which was constituted in 1915, were fully described by Sic Frank Heath in his paper to the Royal Society of Arts last February, and it was there stated by Lord Crewe that, so far as he knew, this was the only country in which a Government Department of Research existed.* It is obvious that the work of a Department of this kind must be one of gradual development with small beginnings in order that it may be sound and 3 The Italian Government are now establishing a National Council for Research, and a Bill is before the French Chamber for the establishment of a National Office of Scientific, Industrial, and Agricultural Research and Inventions, 36 _ NATURE [SEPTEMBER II, 1919 | lasting. The work commenced by assisting a number of researches conducted by scientific and professional societies which were languishing as a result of the war, and grants were also made. to the National Physical Laboratory and to the Central School of Pottery at Stoke-on-Trent. The grants for investiga- tion and research for the year 1916-17 totalled 11,0551., and for the present year are anticipated to be 93,57ol. The total income of the National Physical Laboratory in 1913-14 was 43,713/., and, owing to the great en- largement of the laboratory, the total estimate of the Research Department for this service during the cur- rent year is 154,65ol. Another important part of the work of the Depart- ment has been to foster and to aid financiaily associa- tions of the trades for the purpose of research. Nine of these associations are already at work; eight more are approved, and will probably be at work within the next two months; and another twelve are in the earlier stage of formation. There are also signs of great increase of iesearch by individual factories. Whether this is due to the indirect influence of the Research Department or to a change in public opinion and a more general recognition of the importance of scientific industrial research it is difficult to say. The possibility of the uncontrolled use on the part of a nation of the power which science has placed within its reach is so great a menace to civilisation * that the ardent wish of all reasonable people is to possess some radical means of prevention through the establishment of some form of wide and powerful control. Has not science forged the remedy by making the world a smaller arena for the activities of civilisa- tion, by reducing distance in terms of time? Alliances and unions, which have successfully controlled and stimulated republics of heterogeneous races during the last century, will therefore have become. possible on a wider and grander scale, thus uniting all civilised nations in a great league to maintain order, security, and freedom for every individual and for every State and nation liberty to devote their energies to the con- trolling of the great forces of Nature for the use and convenience of man, instead: of applying them to the killing of each other. Many of us remember the president’s banner at the Manchester meeting in 1915, where Science is allegorically represented by a sorrowful figure cover- ing her eves from the sight of the guns in the fore- ground. This year Science is represented in her more joyful mien, encouraging the arts and industries. It is to be sincerely hoped that the future will justify our present optimism. SUMMARIES OF ADDRESSES OF PRESIDENTS OF SECTIONS. AGRICULTURE. i his address to Section M, Prof. Somerville pointed out that during the war the area of landin the United Kingdom under grass was reduced by more than three million acres, with a corresponding increase of the area under tillage crops. Even were this increase of cultivated land maintained there would still remain more than 30 million acres under permanent and tem- porary grass, exclusive of about 16 million acres of mountain land used for grazing. Several attempts have been made to discover a relationship between the botani- cal composition and the feeding properties of perman- ent pastures, but the results have been largely negative ; neither has it been possible by chemical analysis to differentiate between grass of poor and of high quality. 4 For instance, it might some dav be discovered how to liberate instan- taneously the energy in radium, and radium contains 2,500,c00 times the energy of the same weight of T.N.T. NO. 2602, VOL. 104] The only trustworthy test of quality that can be applied would appear to be through the agency: of animals consuming the produce of the meadows or pasturing the fields. This work was initiated at Cockle Park in Northumberland in 1897, and has been extended to some twenty other experimental stations in various parts of the United Kingdom and in New Zealand. It has been conclusively proved that poor grass land is susceptible of rapid and profitable improvement, especially through the agency of phos- phates. In many cases the stock-carrying capacity of land has been more than doubled, while the progress of the individual animals has also been: largely in- creased, so that the output of meat or milk from land suitably manured has often been trebled or quadrupled with advantage to the nation and substantial profit to the farmer. One conspicuous result of experiments on manuring-for-meat has been the long-continued action of dressings of phosphate, 200 lb. per acre of phos- phoric acid in the form of basic slag still producing very marked effects at the end of nine years. Nitro- gen, potash, and lime as an addition to phosphates have been tried at several stations, but in most cases with comparatively little effect. Indirect manuring through feeding stock with cake has. also given un- satisfactory results. ; Research during recent years has been directed towards discovering how the marked improvement secured by an initial dressing of phosphate can be maintained, and it has been found that in no wa the maintenance of fertility of pasture be better phosphate. ANTHROPOLOGY _ Prof. Arthur Keith, as president’ of Section H, devoted his address to ‘The Differentiation of Man- kind into Racial Types.” It was maintained that an overwhelming majority ‘of anthropologists were con- vinced that all varieties of living human races were descendants of a common ancestral stock, and that some varieties had departed less from the original pattern than others. There was no agreement, how- ever, as to how the differentiation had come about. Natural and sexual selection were certainly parts of the evolutionary machinery which had given the Negro, the Chinaman, and the European their distinc- tive features of face, skull, and body, and also certain characteristics of mind, but it was clear that they did not constitute the whole of the ping Nothing was more desired by anthropologists at t present time than a rational explanation of how man- kind has come by its racial characteristics. | There were many indications that the key to such problems was to be obtained by a close study of the disturbances or disorders which occasionally aflect development and growth of the human body. The disorders of growth are of many kinds; some are definitely proved to result from a functional derange- ment of one or more of the glands of internal secre- tion—the artes fs thyroid, pineal, adrenal, and genital glands. In a manner which we are only these glands regulate, not only the dimensions of the body, but also the shape and size of each individual ‘part. : ; , The machinery of race differentiation is resident in the growth-controlling glands of the body. The mis- take is sometimes made of regarding each gland as carrying on a simple function, whereas each carried on a multitude of functions. Substances contained in the secretion of the pituitary gland not only could affect the size and proportion of the body, but also | might pick out and emphasise the growth of one or can. secured than by means of supplementary dressings of a en beginning to perceive, the functions carried on in ee ee ee eat Ve ee SoS SEPTEMBER I1, 1919 | NATURE | 37 more physiological systems. The same was true of the thyroid. e racial features of the Mongolian type were simulated by growing Europeans who were affected by deficiency disorders of the ‘thyroid gland. The features of the Negro could best be accounted for by the nature of the growth-regulating mechanism centred in the thyroid and suprarenal glands. European features were connected with a dominance in the functions of the pituitary. As we came to understand the machinery of growth, matters which now puzzle us about the differentiation of varieties and species of mankind would disappear. Botany. Sir Daniel Morris began his address to Section K by remarking that since the Association met at Newcastle in 1916 there has been decided progress in every branch of science, and also.a fuller recognition of the value of science and education as means whereby the material interests of the world may be enlarged. A new branch of botany has lately come into prominence as one of the results of the devotion to nature study and the contemplation of the characteristic features of vegetation as we find it distributed over the world’s surface. Ecology is capable of enormously extending the outlook of botany, and it has so largely added to the interest of field work that we may wonder that the phenomenon of vegetation so long displayed before our eyes had not suggested its sociological aspects long ago. It is hoped ecology will mitigate some of the admitted drawbacks of purely laboratory work and revive the old natural history spirit of former days. ravelling somewhat outside the scope of previous addresses, an attempt was made to summarise the results of the many efforts to promote not only the interests of the homeland, but of the Empire as a whole. The establishment of an Imperial Department of Agriculture in the West Indies, followed by similar highly equipped departments in India and in such tropical colonies as Ceylon, Mauritius, Federated Malay States, Fiji, and in East and West Africa, has reatly advanced scientific research on the applied side in connection with sugar, cotton, indigo, rice, india- rubber, and other important industries. The admir- able work done by Biffen at Cambridge and _ the Howards in India in raising new and improved varie- ties of wheats clearly demonstrates the value of thorough acquaintance with pure botany as a quali- fication for grappling with questions of economic im- portance. As the result of Biffen’s plant-breeding work at Cambridge, new wheats have been produced and grown over extensive areas in the eastern counties that have yielded crops at the rate of 50 to 60 bushels per acre. In one instance an area of a little over twenty-seven acres has yielded 2072 bushels, or an average of 77 bushels per acre. This is to be com- pared with the average yield of wheat in this country at about 32 bushels per acre. The new wheats are not only more productive, but are less liable to disease, and the quality of the flour is superior to that of ordinary English wheats. In regard to India it is estimated that the Pusa wheats raised by the Howards will shortly be established over five million acres, and it is anticipated that they will bring in an increase in the value of the agricultural produce of India, in oné crop only, of 75 lakhs of rupees or five millions sterling. Henry’s researches in regard to hybrid trees and his elaborate investigation into the history: of the London plane were generally regarded as valuable contribu- tions to science. It was claimed in the case of many trees that it is possible to produce much greater bulk NO. 2602, VOL. 104]. of timber in a given time; while, according to Dawson, the common belief that quickly grown timbers are of an inferior quality is said not to hold good in respect of any quality in ash, oak, and walnut. It is widely felt that the most pressing of all investi- gations at the present time is the study of plant dis- eases. The recently established Institute for Plant Pathology at Rothamsted may be the means of intro- ducing entirely new methods in mycological investiga- ticns. It was further suggested that. all research work should be organised on the broadest possible lines and combine the biological services of the whole Empire. We have a first step in this direction in the Imperial Bureau of Entomology with its headquarters at the British Museum. Those acquainted with the efficient work done by this bureau, and the valuable publica- tions issued by it, will heartily welcome the establish- ment of the proposed Imperial Bureau of Mycology, at Kew, to carry on work on similar lines. CHEMISTRY. ' The periodic law, of which this year may be regarded as the jubilee of its. announcement by Mendeléeff, formed the chief. subject of the address in Section B by Prof. P. P. Bedson. After dealing with the inception of this law, its utility as a means of classifying the elements, and the revision of the atomic weights demanded by it, the influence of the discovery of argon, helium, and the allied elements was reviewed, as also the important part that the knowledge of the properties of helium has played in the elucidation of the remarkable properties of radium and other radio-active elements. Some of the speculations as to the composite nature of the elements were described, and allusion was made to the confirmation of such conceptions provided by the investigations of Sir J. J. Thomson on the discharge of electricity through gases. Amongst other matters relating to the elements dealt with in the address are the deductions drawn by the late Lieut. Moseley from the examination of the X-ray spectra of the elements, which make it possible to assign a number to an element, the atomic number, which corresponds with its position in the table of the elements based upon their arrangement in the order of the atomic weights. Further,’ attention was directed to the remarkable facts brought to light by the investigations in radio- activity, especially the existence of elements which are indistinguishable by chemical properties, yet possess slightly different atomic weights. The concluding section of the address was concerned with some points arising from the work of chemists during the war and the awakening of the public and the Government to the importance of the chemical industries. Economic SCIENCE AND. STATISTICs. In the presidential address to Section F, Sir Hugh Bell reviewed the economic situation brought about by the war. Attention was directed to the extent and nature of the devastation the war has produced and the extinction of vast quantities of the wealth accumulated in the past. He commented upon the light-hearted way in which, not only during the war, but also before its outbreak, the national expenditure had been increased. . senting different branches of the Service. Everything received careful attention, and for the ability and fair- ° ness with which the initial examination was made by the corps of examiners, and the précis of the inven- tion presented, I ‘have great admiration. Much has been said about the inefficiency and the mistakes of SEPTEMBER 18, 19 19] NATURE. 55 various, Government Departments during the war. The Ministry of Munitions Inventions Department _ was, so far as I could see, eminently well managed. ' Many of the so-called inventions were not inven- _ tions at all. Some were not at all new; in other cases an idea only was mooted. Could so-and-so not _be done? and so on, and the Department was sup- 3 aay to be. grateful for the idea, and to do the rest, _ besides rewarding the proposer. A favourite notion, _ which illustrates the diffusion of scientific knowledge _ among different classes of people, was that of taking a magnet—any magnet—up on an aeroplane, and using it to attract Zeppelins and other aircraft. _ Others suggested electromagnets fed by machines _ which would have involved carrying into the air on an aeroplane a fully equipped power-house ! favourite notion,. inspired, no doubt, by a certain _ sensational type of article in the fiction magazines, was that of rays charged in some way with elec- _ tricity, or some other mysterious agency, and _ there- fore intensely destructive. — But there was a residuum of valuable inventions - which fully justified the existence of the Department. [hese were recommended for further consideration by the various departments of the Services or by General Headquarters. It by no means followed that all that came to this stage received careful further consideration. Everybody was very hard worked, and Many were overdriven. And it was by no means certain that when important approved appliances were sent to G.H.Q. a ‘thoroughly well-informed and capable officer would in all cases have the duty of plaining and showing their action. The absence of such an officer, I am sure, often resulted in delay and serious error, and, I fear, also in the rejection _ of what was in itself exceedingly good, but was not understood. People who knew nothing about the matter took charge, and ordered things to be done which brought disaster to the apparatus. I know of one very important machine which was ruined, with much resulting delay. A brigadier or major-general with a confidence born of blank ignorance ordered a _ motor-generator to be put on town electric mains, _ and, of course, burnt it out. _. Then, again, we were told that G.H.Q. did not want this or that, and here, as in all human affairs, mental inertia certainly played a considerable part. ‘The willingness, however, of some Departments to _ adopt at once a device captured from the enemy was pathetic. Often quite clumsy and relatively inferior contrivances were adopted in the midst of hesitation about our own. Anything German of this sort some people assumed must be good—a foolish idea, the result of want of confidence, often well founded, I am afraid, in their own judgment. It is legitimate to _ copy from the enemy, and in several important things _ we have not been slow to do so. _. The delays ,that occurred were to some of us at _ home, who were anxiously dealing with all kinds of ' contrivances, exceedingly exasperating. Some were _ undoubtedly unavoidable, but others were, as I have ' indicated, far otherwise. Deficiency in scientific _ education was the cause. It is to enforce the need for such education that I refer to such matters at all. The ‘playing fields of Eton ’’ are all very well. I for one do not scoff at what the old saying stands for, but scientific laboratories and good intelligent work in them are indispensable. A man who directs ‘in whole or in part a great machine must know something of its structure and capabilities.- I feel bound to allude to another aspect of the inventions business which, to my mind, ‘was very serious. In doins so, however, I wish it to be clearly understood that I am criticising a system, and in no NO. 2603, VOL. 104] Another’ way here referring to particular individuals con- cerned in its administration. Various inventions which had passed satisfactorily the first examinations by responsible judges were submitted to technical departments at home to be subjected to practical tests. These inventions were frequently proposed solu- tions of problems on which technical officers, of the departments required to conduct the tests, had long been engaged.’ Mt was natural, indeed inevitable, that some of these officers should have come to regard the solving of these problems as their own special job, and so did not much welcome the coming of the out- side inventor. Then, no doubt, they often felt that they were just on the point of arriving at a solution —a feeling that certainly could not facilitate the avoid. ance of delay. It was manifestly most unfair to ask them to judge the work of the outside inventor, or to place in their hands details of his proposals,. for exactly the same reason which in civil life restrains a man from acting as a juror in a case in which he is personally interested.. Nobody of good sense feels offended when attention is directed to such a rule in practice. : Thus I have no hesitation in’ expressing the opinion that a testing board of practical, well-qualified physicists and other experts, with a properly qualified staff, should be formed for the purpose of carrying out all tests of inventions. No insuperable difficulty would, I believe, be experienced in forming such~a board. It should be formed carefully, not by more or ‘less casual nomination of one another by a few persons. Expert knowledge of a subject should be a necessary qualification; the ‘so-called ‘‘open mind”? of the much-lauded buts untrained practical man is not worth having. But on that board neither inside nor outside inventors of the same kind of appliances should have any place, though, of course, consultation with the author of an invention under test would be absolutely necessary. Also those actually carrying out the tests and those collating the results should not be men in any way in the employment of, or under the supervision of, inventors, whether ‘outside ’’ or “inside.’? It is’ imperative in the interests of the country that delay in such matters should be avoided, and that all such work should be done without fear or favour. - The value of university and college men trained in science has been thoroughly proved in ‘the Artillery, the Engineers, and in their offshoots, the Special Sound-ranging and Survey Corps, though its recogni- tion by the authorities of Whitehall has been scanty and grudging. Some of the old-fashioned. generals and staff officers could not be got to see the use of men who had not been trained to field exercises by a long course of drill. What is the good of officers, they said, who are not skilled leaders of men? This is the old crude idea again of destroying Germans with rifles, bayonets, and hand-grenades. The falsity of these antiquated notions has now, I believe, been amply demonstrated. The objection to these men, however, lies a good deal deeper. Even those scientifically educated officers who came into the new armies when they were formed, and were trained by the service of vears of warfare superadded to the initial course of drill, have been demobilised in a nearly wholesale manner, with- out the least regard to even very exceptional qualifica- tions. Many of these were, it seems to me, the very men who ought, above all, to have been retained in the Service. Now (though, as I write, im- proved regulations are being issued) they are to a great extent to be replaced by the public school- cum-Sandhurst voung gentlemen, who, it appears, are the “pukka” officers par excellence. 56 NATURE [SEPTEMBER 18, 1919 The old system of the rule of politician chiefs whose only or main function is to sign the edicts of heads of departments seems to have returned in’ full force, and the coming of the cleansing Hercules that many people desire for the War Office does not seem to be within the bounds of possibility. The real cause of the prevailing neglect of science, with all its pernicious results, is that almost all our political leaders have received the most favoured and fashionable form of public school education, and are without any scientific education. An education in classics and dialectics, the education of a lawyer, may Be a good thing—for lawyers; though even that is doubtful. For the training of men who are to govern a State the very existence of which depends on applications of science, and on the proper utilisation of available stores of energy, it is ludicrously unsuit- able.. We hear of the judicial frame of mind which lawyers bring to the discussion of matters of high policy, but in the majority of scientific cases it is the open mind of crass ignorance.. The result is lament- table; I myself heard a very eminent counsel declare in a case of some importance, involving practical applications of science, that one of Newton’s laws of motion was that. ‘‘friction is the cause of oscilla- tions’?! And the helplessness of some eminent counsel and judges in patent cases is a byword. As things are, eminence in science is no qualifica- tion; it would even seem to be a positive disqualifica- tion for any share in the conduct of the affairs of this great industrial country. The scientific sides of public questions are ignored—nay, in many cases our rulers are unconscious of their existence. Recently in a discussion on the Forestry Bill in the House of Lords a member of that illustrious body made the foolish assertion that forestry had nothing to do with science; all that was needed was to dig holes and stick young trees into them. Could fatuity go further? This hereditary legislator who, as things are, has it in his power to manage, or mismanage, the conver- sion into available energy of the radiation beneficently showered on a certain area (his area) of this country of ours does not seem to be aware that the growing of trees is a highly scientific industry; that there are habits and diseases of trees which have been pro- foundly studied; that, in short, the whole. subject of sylviculture bristles with scientific problems, the solu- tions of which have by patient labour been to a con- siderable extent obtained. Take also the case of the dyes industries. The publicists and the good business men—the supermen of the present age—who wish to control and foster an industry which owes its very existence to an English chemist, refuse to have on the committee which is to manage this important affair any man of scientific eminence, and no remonstrance has «ny effect. These great business men are, as a rule, not scientific at all. They are all very well for finance; in other respects their businesses are run by their works-managers, and, in general, they are not remarkable for paying handsomely their scientific assistants. I myself once heard it suggested by an eminent statesman that an electrical efficiency of 98 per cent. might by the progress of electrical science be increased fourfold. This, I am afraid, is more or less typical of the highly educated classical man’s appreciation of the law of conservation of energy; and he is—save the mark!—to be cur Minister or Proconsul and the conservator of our national resources. It is not sur- prising, therefore, that in connection with a subject which for several weeks occupied a great space in the newspapers, and is now agitating a large section of the community, the nationalisation of our coal-mines, there was not a single word, except perhaps a casual NO. 2603, VOL. 104] vague reference in the report of the chairman, to the question which is intimately bound up with any. solu- tion of the problem which statesmen may adopt-—l. mean the question of the economic utilisation, in the interests of-the country at large, of this great inherit- — ance which Nature has bestowed upon us. In short, — are Tom, Dick, and Harry, if we may so refer to noble and other coalowners, and to our masters the miners, to remain free to waste or to conserve at their own sweet will, or to exploit as they please, this necessity of the country’s existence? i The fact is that until scientific education has gone forward far beyond the point it has yet reached, until it has become a living force in the world of politics and statesmanship, we shall scarcely escape the ruin of our country. The.business men will not save us; as has been said with much truth, the products of modern business methods are, to a great extent, slums and millionaires. It lies to a great extent with scientific men themselves to see that reform is forth- coming; and more power to the British Science Guild and to any other agency which can help to bring about this much-needed result. : While scientifically educated men, whether doin special work or acting as officers, have been held ot far slighter account in the Services than they ought to have been, for physicists as such there has been little or no recognition, except, I believe, when they happened to be ranked as research chemists! How did this happen? Why, the various trades asserted themselves, and the result was a sufficiently long list of ‘reserved occupations ’’—a list remarkab’ both for its inclusions and for its exclusions. There was, for example, a class of ‘‘ opticians,’? many of whom have no knowledge of optics worth mentioning. They are merely traders. One of these, for example, the pro- prietor of a business, made a plaintive appeal to myself as to how he could determine the magnifying powers of certain field-glasses which he wished the Ministry of Munitions to purchase. But for a young scientific man, even if he were an eminent authority. on theoretical and practical optics, but who was not | in the trade, there was no place. Research chemists received their recognition in consequence of the existence of the Institute of Chemistry. I am extremely glad to find that some- thing is now being done to found an Institute of Physics. I hope this movement will be successful, and that it will be thoroughly practical and efficient. I hope its president and council, its members and its associates, will be jealous for science, and especially for physics. It ought to be a thoroughly hard-working body, without any frills, destitute of work value. They have an example in the General Medical Council, which has so effectively cared for the interests of the medical profession. Hopes { am glad that something is being done at last fen the organisation. of. scientific research. is move- ment has started well in several, if not in all, respects, and I wish it all success. There are, however, one or two dangers to be avoided, and I am not sure——~ I may be much too timid and suspicious—that they are fully recognised, and that the result will not be too much of a bureaucracy. Somehow or other I am reminded by the papers I have seen of the remark of a poor man who, asking charity gf someone in Glas- gow, was referred to the Charity Organisation Society of that city. ‘No, thank you,” he said; ‘‘there is a good deal more organisation than charity about that institution.”? So I hope that in the movement on foot the organisation will not be more prominent than the science, and the organisers than the scientific workers, : There is, to my mind, too much centralisation aimed at. Everything is to be done from London; a SEPTEMBER 18, 1919 | NATURE 57 _body sitting there is to decide the subjects. of a good deal.to be said for that im the case of funds obtained in London. But apparently already existing local incentives to research work, are to be. trans- erred to London. The Carnegie Trust for the Uni- versities of Scotland, soon after its work began, naugurated a scheme for research work in connec- ion with these universities. The beneficiaries of the ‘Trust, it is well known, must be students of Scottish nationality. The action of the Trust has been most excellent, and much good work has been done. Now, ‘so far as chemistry and physics are concerned, it has been proposed, if not decided, to hand over to the organisation in London the making of the awards, a process of centralisation that will probably not end ith these subjects. I venture to protest against any such proceeding. The more incentives and endow- ments of research that exist and are administered in ‘the provinces the better. Moreover, this is a bene- faction to Scottish students which ought not to be withdrawn and merged in any provision made for the hole country, and administered in London by a bureau which may know little of the Scottish uni- yersities or of Scottish students. The bureau might, with equal justice or injustice, be given command of the special research scholarships of all the universities ‘both in England and Scotland, and administer them in the name of the fetish of unification of effort. I ‘do not know, but can imagine, what Oxford and Cambridge and Manchester and Liverpool would say to that. But even Scotland, where of course we know ‘little or nothing about education of any kind, may also have something to say before this ultra-centralisa- tion becomes an accomplished fact. _ Yhere is, it seems to me, another danger to be avoided besides that of undue centralisation in London. In most of the statements I have seen ‘regarding the promotion of research work, the mphasis seems to be on industrial research—that is, _ in applied science. This kind of research includes the investigation of physical and chemical products of various kinds which may be used in arts and manu- factures, and its deliberate organised promotion ought to be a commercial affair. I observed, by the way, ‘with some amusement, that according to the pro- ‘posals of one committee for applied science, which is prepared to give grants and premiums for researches ‘and results, the professor or head of a department, om whom will generally come what are most im- portant, the ideas, is to have no payment. He is supposed to be so well paid by the institution he belongs to as to require no remuneration for his super- vision of the committee’s researches. And the results are to be the sole property of the committee ! _ There is in this delightfully calm proposal at least a suggestion of compulsion and of interference with ‘institutions and their staffs which ought to be well examined. Also some light is thrown on the ideas of such people’ as managing directors. of limited liability companies, who are members of such a com- mittee, as to what might reasonably be expected of ‘men of high attainments and skill whose emoluments ‘taken all round are, on the whole, miserably in- sufficient. I think that it is in danger of being forgotten that, after all, pure science is by far the most important thing. Most of the great applications of science have heen the products of discoveries which were made without any notion of such an outcome. Witness the : endous ‘series of results in electricity of which ‘the beginning was Faraday’s and Henry’s researches on induction of currents, and the conclusion was the work of Hertz on electric waves. From the first came the production and transmission of power by NO. 2603, VOL. 104] earch and to allocate the grants. There may ‘be > electricity; from the last the world has received the gift. of wireless telegraphy: 1 am not at all sure whether the great men who worked in the sixty or seventy years which I have indicated would have always received grants for proposed researches, which to many of the good business directors and other super- men serving on a great bureau of investigation, had such then existed, would have appeared fantastic and visionary. In research, in pure science at least, con- trol will inevitably defeat itself. The. scientific dis- coverer scarcely knows whither he is being led; by a path he knows not he comes to his own. He should be free as the wind. But I must not be misunder- stood. Most certainly it is right to encourage re- search in applied science by all available and legiti- mate means. But beware of attempting to coritrol or ‘“‘capture’’ the laboratories of pure science in the universities and colleges of the country. Let there pe also ample provision for the-pursuit of science for its own sake; the return will, in the future as in the past, surpass all expectation. I had intended to say something about scientific education as exemplified by the teaching of physics. I have left myself little time or space for this. I cannot quite pass the matter over, but I shall com- press my remarks. In the first place, I regard dynamics, especially rotational dynamics, as_ the foundation of all physics, and it is axiomatic that the - foundation of a great structure should be soundly and solidly laid. The implications of dynamics are at present undergoing a very strict and searching examination, and now we may say that a step in advance has been taken from the Newtonian point of view, and that a new and important development of dynamics has come into being. I refer, of course, to the new theories of relativity which are now attracting so much attention. I hope to learn from the dis- cussions, which we may possibly have, something of the latest ideas on this very fundamental subject of research. It is a matter for congratulation that so many excellent accounts of relativity are now avail- able in English. Some earlier discussions are so very general in their mathematical treatment and notation as to be exceedingly difficult to master completely. 1 have attacked Minkowski’s paper more ‘than once, but have felt’ repelled, not by the difficulties of his analysis, but by 'that of marshalling and keeping track of all his results. Einstein’s papers I have not yet been able to obtain. Hence it is a source of gratification to have Prof.. Eddington’s interesting report to the Physical Society and the other excellent treatises which we have in English. But continual thought and envisaging of the. subject is still required to give anything approaching to instinctive apprecia- tion such as’ we have in ordinary Newtonian dynamics. I venture to say that the subject is pre-eminently one for physicists and physical mathematicians. In some ways the new ideas bring us back to Newton’s point of view as regards so-called absolute rotation—a sub- ject on which I have never thought that discussions of the foundations of dynamics had said absolutely the last word. I, for one, still cling to the ether, and am strongly of opinion that the whole subject of zther and matter and electrons require much more complete physical treatment than it has vet received from relativists. The better the student of phvsics is grounded in the older dynamics, and especially in the dynamics of rotation, the sooner will he be able to place himself at the new point of view, and the sooner will his way of looking at things begin to: become instructive. With regard to the study of physics in our universi- ties and colleges, I had written a good deal. I have put that aside for the present, and will content myself with only a few general observations. First, then, Baicy ify cain: ae ee \ 58 NATURE [SEPTEMBER 18, 1919 it would, I think, be conducive to progress if it were more generally recognised that dynamics is a physical subject, and only secondarily a mathematical one. Its study should be carried on in the departments of physics, not in those of mathematics or in separate: departments of applied mathematics, It is, or ought to be, essentially a subject of the physical lecture- room and the physical laboratory. The student should be able to handle rotating bodies, to observe and test the laws of precession and nutation—to work himself, in a word, into an instinctive appreciation of at least the simpler results of rotational theory. He should learn to think in vectors, without neces- sarily referring either to Hamilton or to Grassmann. Some people appear to censure the use of vector ideas without the introduction at the same time of some form of vector notation. I do not feel drawn to anv system of vectors in particular—all have their good points, and in some ways for three-dimensional work the quaternion analysis is very attractive—but vector ideas are of the very utmost importance. Hence I deprecate the teaching, however elemen- tary, which as a beginning contents itself with recti- lineal motion. The true meaning of rate of change of a directed quantity, even of velocity and accelera- tion, is missed, and instead of having laid a founda- tion for further progress the teacher, when he desires to go beyond the mere elements, has practically to re- lay his foundations; has, in fact, to extract imper- fect ideas from his pupils’ minds and substitute new ones, with the result that a great deal of avoidable perplexity and vexation- is produced. The considera- tion of the manner of growth of vectors—the resultant vector or it may be component vectors, according to convenience-—is the whole affair. As an illustration of what I mean, take this :—A vector quantity has a certain direction, and also a magnitude L, It is turning in a certain plane with angular speed w. This turning causes a rate of production of the vector quantity about a line in that plane and perpendicular to the former, and towards which the former is turning, of amount Lw. _Thus a particle moving in a curve with speed v has momentum mv forwards along the tangent at the position of the particle. The vector is turning towards the principal radius (length R) of curvature at the point at rate v/R. Hence towards the centre of curvature momentum is growing up at time-rate mv*/R. Dealt with in this way, with angular momentum instead of simple momentum, the motions of the principal axes of a rigid body give the equations of Euler instantly and intuitively, and all the mind- stupefying notions of centrifugal couples and the like are swept away. With regard to mathematics, the more the physicist knows the better, and he should continually add to his store by making each physical subject he takes up a starting-point for further acquisition. Some very philistine notions as to mathematics prevail, and are very mischievous. For example, I once heard an eminent practical engineer declare that all the calculus an engineering student requires could be learned in an hour or two. This is simply not true, nor is it true, as some exponents of ultra-simplicity seem to suggest, that the professional mathematical teacher wilfully makes his subject difficult in order’ to pre- serve its esoteric character. Like the engineer or physicist himself, he is not always so simple as he might be; but the plain truth is that no good, pro- gressive mathematical study can be carried out with- out hard and continued application of the mind of the student to the subject. And why should he depend on the mathematical reader? Let him be his own teacher!. There are plenty of excellent NO. 2603, VOL. 104] books. If he has a determination to help himself he will, if he makes a practice of reserving difficulties ent returning to them, find them vanish from his th, ks I have said, I am. specially interested in rota- tional dynamics. In the course of the war I have been appalled by the want of appreciation of the principles of this subject which, in -spite of consider- able acquaintance with the formal theory, seemed to — prevail in some quarters. I do not refer to mistakes made by competent people—it is human to err—but to the want of appreciation of the true physical meaning of the results expressed by equations. A gyrostat, as ordinarily considered, is a closed system, and its dynamical theory is of a certain kind, But — do away with the closedness, and the dynamical — theory is quite a different affair. Take, as. an example, the case of two interlinked systems which are separately unstable. This compound system can be made stable even in the presence of dissipative — forces. A certain product of terms must be positive, so that the roots of a certain determinantal tion ss Sc a ip etl of the fourth degree may all be positive. The result — shows that there must be angular acceleration, not retardation, of the gyrostat frame. This acceleration is a means of supplying energy from without to the — system, the energy necessary to preserve in operation the functions of the system, I have ventured to think this stabilising action by : acceleration of the compound motion very im nt. It is lost sight of by those who consider and criticise 4 gyrostatic appliances from the usual and erroneous point of view. Also, I believe that it is by analogy a guide to the explanation of more complicated systems in the presence of energy-dissipating in- fluences, and that the breaking down of stability or death of the system is due to the fact that energy can no longer be supplied from without in the manner prescribed for the system by its constitution. I had just concluded this somewhat fragmentary address when the issue of Nature for July 2 to hand, containing a report of Sir Ernest Ruther. ford’s lecture at the Royal Institution on June 6. The general result of Sir Ernest’s experiments on canie — the collision of a-particles with atoms of small mass — is, it seems to me, a discovery of great im whatever may be its final interpretation. clusion that ‘‘the long-range atoms arising from the collision of a-particles with nitrogen are not nitrogen atoms, but probably charged atoms of hydrogen or ance, atoms of mass 2,” is of the utmost possible interest. The a-particle (the helium atom, as Rutherford sup- poses it to be) is extraordinarily stable in its constitu- tion, and probably consists of three helium nuclei each of mass 4, with two attached nuclei of hydrogen, or one attached nucleus of mass 2. The intensely violent convulsion of the nitrogen atom produced by the collision causes the attached nuclei, or nucleus, to part company with the helium nuclei, and the ~ nitrogen is resolved into helium and hydrogen. It seems that, in order that atoms may be broken down into some primordial constituents, it is only necessary to strike the more complex atom with the proper kind of hammer. Of course, we are already familiar with the fact that radio-active forces pro- duce changes that are never produced by so-called chemical action; but we seem now to be beginning to get'a clearer notion of the rationale of radio-action. It seems to me that it might be interesting to observe whether any, or what a of, radiation is produced by the great tribulation of the disturbed atoms and continued during its dying away. If there is such radiation, determinations of wave-lengths would be of much importance in many respects. con- = Ln nari aa ae eB D et oe: ¢ SEPTEMBER 18, 1919] NATURE 59 I may ‘perhaps mention here that long ago, when ‘the cause of X-rays was a subject of speculation and the doctrine that mainly found acceptance was that ‘they were not light-waves at all, I suggested to the tate Prof. Viriamu Jones that radiation of ‘extremely mall wave-length would be produced if atomic or “molecular vibration, as distinguished from what in comparison might be called molar vibration, could ‘be excited. An illustration that suggested itself was ‘this :—Take a vibrator composed of a series of small masses with spring connections. If these masses are ‘of atomic or molecular’ dimensions any ordinary ‘impulse or impact would leave them unaffected, while vibrations of groups of them; depending on the con- “nections, would result. But the impact on one of the masses of a hammer of sufficiently’ small dimen- ‘sions and mass would give vibrations depending on ‘the structure of the mass struck, and independent of “ring, while the suspended series of bars, if it swings -at all, does so without emitting any audible sound. “This is, I believe, in accordance with the theory now hheld as to X-rays. We now have some information -as to the mode of producing a local excitement so “intense as to cause, not merely atomic disturbance, but actual disruption of the atomic structure. Further developments of Sir Ernest Rutherford’s experiments and of his theory of their explanation will be eagerly awaited. ; SECTION B. CHEMISTRY. Appress BY Pror. P. Puitiips BEpson, D.Sc., PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION. In again taking up the work of this section, after an interval of three years, a discontinuity without parallel in the annals of the association, it is natural hat our thoughts should turn to the past, and in so _ doing we are reminded of the gaps in the ranks of those wh> were accustomed to contribute to the work of our section. In. i916 we met under a shadow _ caused by the death of Sir W. Ramsay, whose genius added-in so many ways to our science. And to-day we have to record the loss of one who in his ‘long life contributed in a variety of ways to the advancement of chemistry, and to whom we owe an addition to the number of elementary substances in ‘the discovery of thallium, one of the early fruits of the use of the spectroscope. The chemistry of the 'rare earths has been. especially illumined by the re- searches of Sir William Crookes.. With physicists we would join in a tribute to the memory of Lord Ray- leigh, amongst whose experimental résearches is one _ of special interest to chemists, namely, the revelation of the existence of argon, of which discovery Sir J. J. Thomson has recently written that it was not made “by a happy accident, or by the application of new and more powerful methods than those at the dis- posal of his predecessors,.but by that of the oldest of chemical methods: the use of the balance.” _..In this connection it is but right that, despite the feelings engendered by the war, I should refer to the passing of two great chemists—Baeyer and Fischer. he former died some two years ago, and the latter ‘within the past two months. Each of them ad- ‘vanced by his experimental researches the progress of organic chemistry, and brought illumination into many. of the. obscure departments of this branch of science. The field of investigation latterly cul- tivated. by Fischer has revived an interest in the ‘vital? side of organic chemistry as distinguished from the study of, chemistry. of the carbon. compounds. Moreover, there are many British chemists, amongst No. 2603, VOL. 104] OPENING the connections, just as the bars of a xylophone | ‘them ‘some of the most distinguished, Who, < as students, received guidance and inspiration from’ the teaching of Baeyer or of Fischer, and with them we gratefully acknowledge our indebtedness. : ' Fifty years ago Mendeléeff communicated to: the Russian Chemical Society a memoir which has exer- cised a profound influence’ on chemical philosophy, and continues to serve as a guide in the interpreta- ‘tion of research and speculations on the nature of the elements. Without entering on the somewhat vexed question as to whom: should be assigned ‘the credit of the discovery of the periodic law, I trust I shall not be considered unmindful of the claims of Newlands by adopting the traditional history, and, «as is usual, associate this discovery with the name of Mendeléeff, and consequently we may look on this year as the jubilee of the periodic law. Although there is already abundant special literature dealing with this subject,-and the periodic system has been assimilated into the teaching of. the science, and’ js ‘dealt with in the text-books of chemistry, in some of which it forms the basis of the system employed in the exposition of the facts and theories of inorganic chemistry, still it appeared to me that I might utilise this as an opportunity of passing in brief review some of the features of the rise and development /of the . “periodic law.’? . The memoir, made known to’ the non-Russian reader by the abstract in German, shows the prin- ciple of periodicity, viz. the recurrence of similar pro- perties at regular intervals with increase in the magni- tude of atomic weights, the possibility of utilising the atomic weights as a basis of the classification of the elements, the necessity for’ the revision of the values thus assigned to the atomic weights of’ certain elements, and finally that the scheme demanded for its completeness the existence of many new elements. The later writings of Mendeléeff contain the mode of tabulating the. elements in the form usually adopted in chemical text-books, portraying the prin- ciple of periodicity and showing the grouping of the elements into natural families. But undoubtedly the clearest demonstration of the association between the atomic weights and the physical properties of the ‘elements is that exhibited by the curve of atomic weights and atomic volumes, which is an outcome of the independent studies of these relationships by Lothar Meyer, and, as’ is well known, shows the members. of the natural families of elements occupy- ing corresponding positions on the curve. This curve, with its undulations, corresponding with the series of the elements, has contributed to impress on the mind of the student the relationship between. the properties of the elements and their atomic weights, and may have exercised an influence in directing attention to these relationships which the attempts of the earlier workers in this field were not successful in doing. Mendeléeff’s table of the elements was just beginning to figure in the teaching of chemistry in my undergraduate days, and, together with the speculations underlying it, aroused considerable interest and proved an incentive and inspiration for experimental ingUiry. Foremost in this country amongst those who by their writings have contributed to spread a knowledge of Mendeléeff’s speculations was my fellow-student, Carnelley. His experimental investigations added materially to our knowledge and definition of the physical properties of elements and compounds, which further emphasised the periodicity in the relation of the atomic weights to the properties of the elements, and have provided data from which curvés, resembling in contour the dtomic volume curve, have been set up. A valuable guide in fixing the atomic weights of 60 NATURE [SEPTEMBER 18, 19 19 the elements has been the specific heat which, as the discovery of Dulong and Petit showed a hundred years ago, varies in the case of solid elementary bodies inversely with their atomic weights; or, as it is more usually expressed, the solid elements have the same atomic heat. The investigation of the exceptions to this empirical rule brought out the fact that the specific heat is influenced by temperature, and the study of the influence of low temperatures led Sir James Dewar to the discovery that at about 50° Absolute the atomic heats of the elements are a periodic function of the atomic weights. Further, the graphic representation of this relation gives a curve very similar in its course to that of the atomic volume curve. So that the specific heat is another of the physical properties to fit into the periodic scheme. The necessity for a revision of the atomic weights of certain elements, as pointed out by Mendeléeff, has induced several workers to direct their energies to the solution of the problems indicated, so that in our present-day tables many of the anomalies of position and sequence which existed in the earlier schemes have disappeared. Tellurium has still resisted all attempts to bring it into order, with an atomic weight less than that of iodine, which its association with sulphur and selenium demands. The _ interesting attempts to decompound tellurium have ‘so far re- mained unfruitful. But undoubtedly the most fascinating feature of the periodic system is that ‘‘it allows the discovery of many new elements to be foreseen.’? This and the manner in which Mendeléeff, in full conviction of the truth of the ‘periodic law,” boldly assigned properties to those elements required to fill the blank spaces in the table of the elements, and the verification within twenty years in three instances of these prophetic specifications have contributed to the recognition and firm establishment of the “periodic law’? as an article of belief in chemical philosophy, and to make it the mainspring and inspiration of the greater part of modern inorganic research. The discovery of argon, the announcement of which formed a notable feature in the proceedings of the association at the Oxford meeting in 1894, and the recognition in it of an element with an atomic weight of 40, raised doubts in the minds of some as to the validity of the scheme of the elements based upon the periodic law. It was indeed a time of testing the faith. The suggestion that argon would prove to be a modified form of nitrogen was brushed aside by the incontrovertible establishment of it as an element, endowed only with specific physical pro- perties and distinguished from all known elements by its lack of any of those activities which charac- terise the remaining elements. But argon was not destined to enjoy a splendid isolation for long. The researches of Sir W. Ramsay soon brought helium to earth, and he and his colleagues provided a number of companions for argon. So, in a very short period, was recognised the existence of a group of gaseous elements forming a natural family, the molecules of which are monatomic, the members of which are dis- tinguishable by their spectra and atomic weights, but are all in agreement in their unreadiness to take part in any chemical change. This inertness or nonvalence provided a simple means of reconciliation with the periodic scheme of the elements, as all that was required was simply to add to the eight groups of the table of elements a zero group containing helium, neon, argon, krypton, and xenon, and with niton, the emanation from radium, as a recent addition. If we are to accept Mendeléeff’s suggestion, the zero group should contain a member lighter than hydrogen in series i., and in a zero series a still lighter repre- NO. 2603, VOL. 104] sentative of the elements of the zero roup, which he has postulated as the ‘‘ather’? of the physicist.) Thus the discovery of argon has formed a starting- point in the development and a justification of the natural system of the elements, but it still remains, to make the tabulation complete, that provision should — be made for the accommodation of the rare earths. — The paper published by Werner in 1905, under the — title ““A Contribution to the Development of the — Periodic System,’’ shows how this can be torily accomplished. ; The elements of the argon group form a valuable extension to the periodic system, and the knowledge — acquired in the investigation of these substances has proved serviceable in the solution of problems in the realms of science and of industry. The knowledge of the properties and behaviour of helium was destined soon to play a part in the solution of the riddle of the radio-active elements, whilst it is specially noteworthy — that argon, the ‘idle one,’’ should have been pressed into industrial service. ; t This fact suggests the thought that idleness has its uses, and at the present time how satisfactory would it be were we able to find useful application for a quality which appears to be plentifully and widely distributed in this country. : ele “ah The history of helium is still more astonishing, for not until thirty years after its existence had been surmised from spectroscopic observations of the sun was this element found to have a terrestrial existence, and now, as one of the achievements of science during the war, we may look on its production in bulk as a commercial proposition. satisfac- eta ie a Moreover, we are told “‘that — the advances made in the production of helium war- — rant the opinion that, had the war continued after November 11, 1918, supplies of helium at the rate of — 2,000,000 cub. ft. per month would have been pro- duced within the Empire and the United States, and helium-filled aircraft would have been in’ service” — (NaturE, July 17, 1919). Some of the speculations to which the perioclic system of the elements has given rise have been the subjects of communications to this section. At the Aberdeen meeting Carnellev, whom I have already mentioned as an ardent worker in this field, — gave an account of a scheme based on the conception — relations | similar to those exhibited by the paraffin hydrocarbons _ and the isologous series of radicals derived from them, — He regarded the elemnents, other than hydrogen, as — that the elements are composite, havin. made up of two simple elements, A and B. A he identified with carbon, with the atomic weight of 12, and B was assumed to have a negative atomic weight — rey Oh Pad : In the following year, at Birmingham, Sir W. Crookes devoted his address to this section to an — exposition of his ideas of the “genesis of the ele- ments,’? a subject to which he on many subsequent occasions returned, and amplified in the light of recent discovery. The process of evolution of the — elements from a primal ‘“‘protyle’’ is depicted as taking place in cycle after cycle, in each cycle the “‘unknown formative cause’’ scattering alon, journey clusters of particles corresponding wi atoms of the ‘‘elements,’’ series such as that beginning with hydrogen and the ending with chlorine; a repetition of the movement under somewhat altered conditions giving rise to a — series of similarly related elements, and thus homo- logy, which is shown by the members of the natural families, is provided for. The investigations of Sir J. J. Thomson on the © discharge of electricity through gases have established the divisibility of the atoms, and in his “ Corpuscular its forming in this way a _ SEPTEMBER 18, 1919] NATURE 61 heory of Matter’? he has given us conceptions of how atoms may be constituted to provide a series so related that they reflect, if not reproduce, many of the chemical characters of the elements and their periodic relation to atomic weights. : ~ With the discov of radium and its remarkable operties we have nm brought in contact with an element undreamt of in our philosophy. The inter- pretation of the results of the investigation of this element has called for drastic changes in our con- ception of an element. The pursuit of the-researches of the radio-active elements, guided by the theory of ‘the spontaneously disintegrating atom propounded ty Rutherford and Soddy, has served to reveal facts which lend a special emphasis to many passages in the address of Sir W. Crookes to which I have already ‘erred. For instance, the passage in which he said: ‘‘ Should it not sometimes strike us, chemists of the present day, that after all we are in a position unpleasantly akin to that of our forerunners, the alchemists of the Middle Ages? The necromancers of a time long past did not, indeed, draw so sharp a line as do we between bodies simple and compound; yet their life-task was ‘devoted to the formation of new combinations, and to the attempt to transmute bodies which we commonly i _ consider as simple and ultimate—that is, themetals. In the department of synthesis they achieved very con- siderable successes; in the transmutation of metals their failure is a matter of history.” _ Or again, when he propounded the question: ‘Is there, then, in the first place, any direct evidence of the transmutation cf any supposed ‘element’ of our existing list into another, or of its resolution into anything simpler?’”—a question to which he, Sir William Crookes, was at that time forced to reply in the negative, whereas to-day many instances might _be cited in support of an affirmative answer to this _ question. Radio-activity has supplied a method of _ analysis—radio-active analysis—surpassing in delicacy any of the previously known methods for the _ examination of material substance; the application of these methods has not only added to the list of elements, but also new classes of elements. First, elements indistinguishable and inseparable by chemical means, yet differing slightly but definitely in their atomic weights. The existence of these ‘‘isotopes,’’ as Soddy styles them (a name giving prominence to ‘the fact that such elements occupy the same place in ‘the table of the elements), demonstrates that absolute ‘uniformity in the mass of every ultimate atom of the same chemical element is not an essential, but that “our atomic weights merely represent a mean value around which the actual atomic weights of the atoms vary within certain narrow limits ’’ (Crookes, Address to Section B, 1886). _ Whether the possibility of separating isotopes, recently suggested by Dr. Lindemann and Dr. Chap- man, will be found capable of experimental realisation, must be left to the future to decide; in fact, in this “matter wé must adopt the attitude, prevalent in other than scientific circles, of ‘“‘ wait and see.’’ __ The investigations in the field of radio-activity have further brought to light that identity in atomic weight ‘may be associated with difference in chemical pro- perties, revealing the existence of a further class of lements for which Dr. Stewart suggests the name -‘isobares.’’ Further, Dr. Stewart considers that iso- baric elements are to be found, not alone amongst the radio-active, but some of the normal elements exhibit properties which may be explained on the assumption that they are isobarics. Thus the compounds formed ‘from iron are regarded as indicating the existence of ‘thtee irons, all having the same atomic weight. One NO. 2603, VOL. 104] of these, termed ferricum, is tervalent; one, ferrosum, is divalent; whilst the third, ferron, is inert and takes no part in chemical changes. The three are, under certain conditions, mutually interconvertible. This last condition does not apply in the case of the radio- active isobares. ; ; The elements are to be regarded as divisible into three classes:—(1) Isotopic elements, each set of which have different atomic weights but identical chemical properties; (2) isobaric elements which have identical atomic weights but different chemical. pro- perties; and (3) normal elements which differ from each other both in atomic weights and chemical pro- perties. The discovery of X-rays may be acclaimed as having added a new sense to aid us in our investigation of material objects, and among their innumerable services may be reckoned the results which have followed from the investigations of the X-ray spectra of the elements by the late Lieut. Moseley, whose death in Gallipoli in 1915 is one of the many tragedies of the war specially deplored in the scientific world. From. the analysis of the X-ray spectra Moseley has shown that for each element a value can be deduced, which is styled the atomic number and represents the space in the atomic table the element should occupy. The researches of Rutherford and Andrade on lead and radium B have proved that ‘‘isotopes ’? have the same atomic number. Whatever may be the ultimate explanation of the meaning of the atomic numbers, their experimental determination has. already proved valuable in the solution of some of the anomalies of the periodic table. In addition to the case of isotopes, just referred to, the number of elements between hydrogen and uranium is fixed by finding 92 as the atomic number for uranium, and, further, Moseley’s work has revealed that the atomic numbers are in agreement with the order .of the chemical sequence, rather than the order of the atomic weights, which is of special interest and value in the cases of tel- lurium and iodine, and of potassium and argon, the decision in each case proving a welcome support to the position in the table assigned to these elements on chemical considerations. : Again, Moseley’s atomic numbers remind us of the arrangement of the elements adopted by Newlands in his communication to the Chemical Society of 1866, in which he set: forth the ‘‘law of octaves,” the pre- cursor of the periodic law. In concluding this brief sketch, cognisance should be taken of the speculations of physicists as to the structure of the atom. Already several models of the atom are in the field which leave the uncuttable Dal- tonian atom far out of view; still, in a measure they help to an understanding of some of those regularities exhibited by the elements, and set forth in the natural system. Valency and its vagaries, which we are accustomed to describe by phrases such as “variable valency,’’ ‘‘selective valency,” and the like, still call for a full explanation. I’ purpose now to direct attention to matters cf another nature, which appear to me of interest to chemists, and to that extent have a bearing on the welfare of chemistry in this country. : Among the numerous revelations and surprises cf the past five years has been the realisation on the part of the public and the Government of the import- ance of the chemical industries to the national well- being. The apathy and indifference of pre-war times were replaced by an apparently lively interest in things chemical, and there was what in the religious world would be styled a revival. Politicians, the Press in all its varied forms, daily, weekly, monthly, and quarterly, took up-the subject 62 ‘NATURE [SEPTEMBER 18, 1919. of our industrial insufficiencies and emphasised: in various ways the importance of research in;connection with our industries. — Again, the coal-tar colour industry. furnished, as it had done.again and.again, some thirty to forty years ago, the text from which research and its importance was preached. This time the reitera- tion had the effect that the ‘aniline phantasm,” as I have seen it described, was recognised as a “key industry,”’? important to the vitality of the manufac- ture of textiles; with the result that the Govern- ment, discarding its fiscal policy, was induced to sub- sidise the enterprise for the manufacture of dyes and other coal-tar products. The negotiations preceding the formation of British Dyes, Ltd., have been remarkable as revealing that, in the eyes of some at any rate, special knowledge is a ‘‘dangerous thing,’’ and, in fact, was deemed sufficient to exclude its possessors from a seat on the directorate. This is all the more remarkable, as the history of similar enterprises in Germany shows the personnel of the directorates to be made up of university trained men and, in not a few instances, of professors. So that in Germany academic distinction and theoretic learn- ing are not considered as excluding the possession’ of commercial acumen and those other qualities needed in’ a successful man of business. In the early stages of the war the demand for explosives was met by the expansion of already existing factories, the increase in staff of which called for many additional men with chemical training, a call which become unprecedented and insistent when the national factories were founded, so that men and women with a chemical training found an opportunity of putting their knowledge at the service of their country. And in not a few instances those who, for financial reasons, had at the close of their college career taken up a less congenial employment were able to return to the practice of chemistry, for which in their student days they had specially fitted them- selves. In the foreword of the publication ‘‘ Reports on Costs and Efficiencies for H.M. Factories,’’ issued by the Ministry of Munitions, we are told that only ‘‘ when it was decided to commence the erection of new and national factories, and an attempt was made to col- lect from existing factories the necessary technical data and assistance, did it become evident that, due to the extraordinary demands of the war, there was —practically throughout the entire country—a regret- table lack of available accurate technical data, and an even greater lack of trained technical men, more particularly chemical engineers,’’ To anyone acquainted with the conditions existing in this country in pre-war days, the lack of ‘‘trained technical men ”’ is no matter of surprise. In fact, one cannot fail to be astonished at the remarkable de- velopment of chemical manufacture which has taken place under the directing influence of Lord Moulton in response to the call from Army and Navy. That men were found capable of taking a part in these varied undertakings cannot, at any rate, be credited to the encouragement which the teaching of chemistry or the students of the science had received from those directing industries which employ or should employ the services of chemists. It is no uncommon experience to find the chemist employed simply in the analytical testing of raw materials and manu- factured products, and even in the working of pro- cesses under their control the potentiality of the chemist is not utilised’ to the full, as is evident from the following, which is a quotation from the preface to the brochure issued by the Ministry of Munitions to which I have already referred: ‘Since the to our national factories has been to aim at maximum efficiency in. respect of cost and usage of materials. “For, this purpose the. greatest efforts have been made to place before all those who are in any way responsible for control full details concerning the working and costs of the factories. This was rather an innovation in the field of chemical manufacture, as until comparatively recently, either intentionally or through negligence, it was customary at many chemical plants to keep the chemists in complete ignorance, not only of the cost at their plants, but also even of the efficiencies. i Lig “Tt is amazing that manufacturers can expect im- provements in chemical processes when their chemists are kept in ignorance of such vital facts. “It has happened very often that as soon as detailed figures were seen by chemists at a plant, important alterations and improvements have at once been sug- ) _ gested, the need for which would otherwise never | have been noticed.’’ - : The condition of service indicated in the passage q quoted, together with the low scale of remuneration which obtained hitherto in chemical industries, help to explain the scarcity of the kind of scientific labour | referred to in the quotation I have made from the ‘* Foreword.?’ apn i But are we not told and invited to believe that all this is changed, that the records of the magnificent achievements of British chemists in, the war have so educated the people, and may we say, the Govern- ment also, that the practitioners in chemistry will no — longer find it essential that in describing their voca- tion they should be required to add, unless for special reasons, such prefixes as ‘‘analytical,’? “research,” “scientific,” or ‘‘engineering ’? to the word chemist, _ secure in the feeling that by describing themselves as — ‘chemists ’ their standing, training, and profession — will be correctly understood ? Still, a feeling akin to despondency, if nothing worse, is pardonable when, realising the fundamente importance of chemistry to our industries, and the thousand and one ways chemical research has minis- tered to the amenities of our everyday life, there should exist, not alone in the mind of the general public, but of the educated also, such a lack of information as has been revealed during the past few years—to wit, the myth woven into the history of — the production of glycerine, the confusion in the minds of legislators between phosphates and phos- gene. More serious, however, is the fact that the method of investigation employed by the chemist is so little appreciated or understood as to lead one to imagine that the discoveries and achievements are the results of a species of legerdemain. The produc- tion of new colours, a succession of happy thoughts, and that “by an accident the secret of synthetic indigo was unlocked.”’ review entitled ‘‘The Value of Scientific Research,’ published some three years ago, and is cal of much that passes muster in appraising the value of chemical research. That the unravelling of the con- stitution of indigo which occupied Baeyer and his pupils some thirteen years—the account of these inves- tigations covers some 180 pages of Baeyer’s collected works—should be summarised in this way appeared to me to call for a protest. My protest was made, and I attempted to put the matter in the correct light, showing the synthesis of indigo to be, indeed, a brilliant example of the value of theorv and of a practical illustration of the importance of the chemist’s conception of the architecture of molecules, as exem- plified by Kekulé’s theory of the constitution of benzene. The protestation evoked a reply from a cor- beginning the policy of the Department with regard | respondent signing himself D.Sc., Ph.D., who sought NO. 2603, VOL. 104] This last is a quotation from a iy + Neier i ch ate is SEPTEMBER 18, 1919] ; which occurred in the investigation of the processes for the manufacture of phthalic acid and_ cer- inly greatly facilitated the production of this sub- Stance—an intermediate in the manufacture of arti- ficial indigo. So, if the initiated emphasise the unessential, why should we blame the layrhan and be urprised that well-ordered and planned. design should appear to be but the workings of chance, for every such achievement is a witness to the conquest of well- founded theoretical speculation ? _ But I do not wish to conclude on a despondent note, nor is it right that I should do so in view of the many activities operating for the promotion of Scientific research, and of such evidence as that sup- plied by the magnificent endowment of the chemical department of the University of Cambridge, all of vhich are evidences of what we may reasonably hope to be a happy augury for the future of chemistry and chemists in this country. NOTES. _ Tue James Watt centenary celebrations in Birming- ham were opened with lectures by Prof. F. W. Burstall and Prof. Hele-Shaw on Tuesday morning {September 16). In. the afternoon there was a Memorial service at Handsworth Parish Church, in ich Watt, Boulton, and Murdoch were buried, an ddress being delivered by Canon E. W. Barnes, aster of the Temple. This was followed by a arden-party at Heathfield Hall, and a reception by Lord Mayor at the Council House. On Wednes- morning, as we go to press, lectures are to be cs by Sir Oliver Lodge, Prof. Alex. Barr, and Prof. J. D. Cormack, and in the afternoon visits will be made to some of Watt’s engines. In the evening will be held the centenary dinner. On Thursday the University will hold a special Degree Congregation -to confer honorary degrees on the American Ambassador ‘(the Hon. J. W.° Davies), Sir Charles Parsons, Vice- Admiral Goodwin, M. Rateau (of Paris), Sir George Beilby, Col. Blackett, Prof. Barr, and Mr. F. W. Lanchester. The response to the appeal for the memorial fund has up to the present been very Meagre, and unless large additions are made to the subscription list the realisation of even one of the objects of the fund will not be possible. It is to be hoped that a marked improvement may be made during the week,» _ SUMMER time is to end this year at 2 a.m. on September 29. Each year the terminal dates of summer time have varied, and, though the dates will, of course, be known to our future compilers of natural phenomena, the use of summer time can scarcely fail to result in some errors. Even so simple a change as that of the Gregorian calendar has been attended by mistakes. Some years ago, for instance, the late Sir Edward Fry referred to some entries on British earthquakes in the diary of John Wesley (Nature, ol,” Ixxix., 1898, p. 08), He remarked that the London earthquakes of February 8 and March 8, 1750, which Wesley describes, are not mentioned in ‘Mallet’s Catalogue. Wesley’s dates are correctly given, for the Gregorian calendar came into force fatter September 2, 1752. Mallet, however, gives the ‘days in new style as February 19 and March. 19. ‘The. error in this case is easy to detect; but, unless ‘the letters ‘‘G.M.T.” or the words ‘‘summer time.”’ are added, it may be difficult to decide whether records of an earthquake at, say, 2.12 and 3.8 relate. to the same shock at about 2.10 G.M.T.,or to different shocks. ; NO. 2603, VOL. 104] NATURE 63 ) justify the description of the revelation’ of the We regret to learn from Dr. G. C. Simpson, ecret ‘of synthetic indigo by reference to an accident | Director-General of ‘Observatories, Simla, that Mr. W. L. Dallas, who was Scientific Assistant to the Meteorological Reporter to the Government of India from 1882 to 1906, passed away at Simla on August 5. Mr. Dallas’s original meteorological work was devoted almost entirely to a study of the weather conditions over the Indian seas, although he published a few papers on more general subjects. He discussed for the Government of India the marine observations of the Indian seas collected by the London Meteorological Office during twenty years—1856-75. He also inves- tigated the nature and causes of storms in the Arabian Sea, using all records available for the period. 1648- 1889, on which inquiry all later work undertaken by the India Meteorological Department for warning ships approaching India from ‘the west was based. Mr. Dallas fittingly closed his long official connection with the India Meteorological Department by the com- pilation of a meteorological atlas of the Indian seas, which will be found in use on most ships visiting the Hast Mr. Epwin O. Sacus, whose death we announced last week, will be remembered mainly by his keen interest and untiring activity in relation to all ques- tions regarding fire protection and fire prevention. The terrible holocaust of the Paris Charity Bazaar fire in 1887 led Mr. Sachs to form the British Fire Prevention Committee, of which he was the chair- man and guiding spirit up to the time of his death. In his work with the committee Mr. Sachs was sup- ported by.a number of public men and rofessional friends. . Thanks to his energy and devotion and his able leadership, the committee’s work, from _very. small beginnings, soon covered a vast field of activity, which widened from time to time until the founda- tions of a comprehensive organisation were firmly laid. The large number of tests undertaken by the committee were’ made in a_ specially constructed testing station which Mr. Sachs designed, and to | which he not only gave unstinted and devoted labour, but also largely financed. This testing station, which has been enlarged and improved from time to time, was the first of its kind, and has served as a model for similar centres of investigation throughout the world. The numerous activities of the committee— which during the war were greatly increased, and included arrangements for a voluntary fire survey force for more than two thousand war hospitals, camps, and factories, also research work of’ the highest importance to the nation—were initiated and guided by Mr. Sachs’s unceasing energies, even during his latter years. All this work on the com- mittee, as well as his other public activities, were rendered entirely voluntarily, and in all he did he was inspired by the highest, ideals. . Durinc the evening of September 11 an earthquake shock, causing considerable damage, was felt in. the region of Monte Amiata, near Siena. At San Casciano several houses were wrecked. A. slighter earthquake was also felt on September 12 at Ebingen (Wiirtemberg). Tue Times correspondent at New York reports that on September 13 Mr. Roland Rohlfs, a testing pilot with the Curtiss Aeroplane Corporation, rose from Roosevelt Field, Long Island, to a height. of 34,200 ft. This ‘record’? is not officially confirmed, but Mr. Rohlfs will try: on the first favourable, day to make-an authenticated attempt to exceed. the altitude believed ‘to have been reached by him. On May 20 the volcano Kloet, in Java, discharged suddenly a great quantity of hot mud, which, spread- 64 NATURE. [SEPTEMBER 18, 1919, ing out in three streams, destroyed the town of Blitar and about thirty villages, and caused the death of several thousand persons, The place was visited by an exploring party two days later, and an interesting two-page reproduction of one of the photographs of the mud-stream is given in the Illustrated London News for September 13 (pp. 396-97). At a joint meeting of the Royal Asiatic Society, Société Asiatique, American Oriental Society, and Scuola Orientale of the University of Rome, recently held in London, Prof. A. T. Clay, of Yale University, described the efforts of American scholars to free them- selves from dependence on Germany for research work in Asia. Several young Assyriologists in America are now devoting themselves to research work. Yale Uni- versity has taken over the work of Sir W. Ramsay at Antioch, and the American School of Oriental Re- search in Palestine, which was closed on account of the war, is now to be re-opened on a more extensive scale. At least one professor and several students will be sent annually from Yale to direct operations, which will be carried out in co-operation with the British se ge which will be founded on a more important asis. SrupDENts of the mygalomorph spiders will do well to consult a critical systematic paper on South African species by John Hewitt in the Annals of the Transvaal Museum (vol. vi., pt. 3). SomE results of a collecting expedition to Korinchi Peak, Sumatra, are published in the Journal of the Federated Malay States Museums (vol. vii., pt. 3, 1g1g). Descriptions, with excellent figures, of a num- ber of Diptera, by F. W. Edwards, of the British Museum, are especially noteworthy. We have received the seventeenth Report of the State Entomologist of Minnesota. In addition to articles of economic interest, it contains several papers of systematic value, such as O. W. Oestlund’s contri- bution to the classification of aphids and F. L. Wash- burn’s summary of the Hymenoptera of the State. The illustrations in this Report are exceptionally praise- worthy. Drs. S. Hapwen and A. E. Cameron, working for the Canadian Department of Agriculture, have made a definite contribution to our knowledge of horse bot-flies (Bull. Entom. Research, vol. ix., pt. 2) by their observations on the eggs and early larve of Gas- trophilus haemorrhoidalis and G. nasalis as compared with G. intestinalis (equinus). The first-named’ species has stalked eggs which are laid on the hairs of horse’s lips, while ‘the second lays on the hairs of the inter- maxillary space. It is possible that the newly-hatched larvee may penetrate the horse’s skin in these regions, as they were found to bore into the mucous lining of ase and also into the tongue of a recently killed calf. THE possibilities of the manufacture of paper-pulp in Australia is the subject of a Bulletin (No. 11) issued by the Advisory Council of Science and Industry of the Commonwealth of Australia. The bulletin describes the results of some preliminary investigations of the native sources of wood-pulp and pulp from fibre-plants. The most satisfactory results have been obtained with karri and other species of eucalypts, and it is sug- gested that a thorough survey of the resources might indicate the possibility of building up a wood-pulp industry in Australia. As regards the fibre-plants, a number were found on testing to be unsuitable for ‘paper-making. It is unlikely that either of the grasses Lalang or Marram, which have been used for pulping NO. 2603, VOL. 104] purposes, could be employed profitably in Australia, and negative results have also been obfained with — prickly pear. A blend of 20 per cent. of a sedge (Gahnia decomposita) and 80 per cent. karri-pulp is reported as very satisfactory. The conclusion is that if Australia’s demands for paper are to be supplied from native sources, the principal material to’ be used for some years to come must be straw, of which large quantities are produced within a hundred miles’ radius of Adelaide. Meet x tte Various memoranda and letters on ‘*The Recon- struction of Elementary Botanical Teaching,’ which appeared in the New Phytologist during 1917-18-19, have been brought together in pamphlet form. As indicated by the letters, the teaching refers almost exclusively to the elementary university course, and the participants in the discussion are, with few excep- tions, engaged in teaching of a university standard. The discussion originated from a memorandum by — five botanists who pleaded for a more important place for plant physiology as compared with morphology in the elementary course. eminent morphologists as a challenge, to which they replied with some vigour. The discussion brings out the fact that botany is a wide subject, attracting students of widely differing temperaments, and there is real difficulty in planning an elementary course which shall form an adequate introduction to the | different branches in one or more of which the student may subsequently specialise. As regards the motif of the elementary course, it is important that the plant should be studied as-a living organism and as part — of a larger organisation which is closely associated — with its environment. But present-day plant-life is not merely the expression of present-day environment, but largely the outcome of past history; and the neglect of the study of history may be disastrous. There is a considerable amount of elementary botanical teaching outside the universities, and the point of — view and methods suitable for the university student are not necessarily those suited to boys and girls at school. _ AtHoucH the statement is made quite definitely in many text-books that formic acid occurs in the stinging hairs of the common nettle (Urtica dioica), the proof has not hitherto been very satisfactory. early experiments the nettles were cut up, distilled with water, and reactions of formic acid obtained on ~ Later observers, however, have testing the distillate. E v found that various parts of plants yield formic acid when tested in a similar manner. come from the stinging hairs; it might have been derived from the general plant tissues. one of the chief chemical reactions of formic aci namely, its power of reducing salts of silver an mercury, is not necessarily a conclusive proof of the presence of the acid under the particular conditions of these earlier experiments, since other ‘‘ reducing” substances might also have been present. The ee tion, however, appears to have now been definitely This was regarded by some — Jn 4 Hence it was not — certain that the acid in the earlier experiments had — Moreover, — settled through some ingenious experiments devised a by Dr. Leonard Dobbin (Proceedings of teeny Society of Edinburgh, vol. xxxix., ii., No, 11), By pressing the leaves of growing nettles between dry filter-paper impregnated with barium carbonate, the contents of many thousands of hairs were absorbed without contamination by juices from any other part of the plant. After appropriate treatment the product yielded barium and lead salts, which were crystallised on glass slides, and the two formates identified under the microscope. Whether or not formic acid is the main cause of the intense irritation produced by nettle- ae en en i Ae ‘ SEPTEMBER 18, 1919] NATURE 65 ‘stin s is a further question ; the active irritant has _ been regarded by one investigator as being probably not formic acid, but an enzyme. y _ Tue cause of the colours of ‘‘Blue John” and other varieties of fluorite has long been a matter of doubt and controversy. During the last two years Messrs. _ B. Blount and J. H. Sequeira have carried out an interesting investigation of the problem, and their results are now briefly described in the Transactions of the Chemical Society (vol. cxv., p. 705, 1919). .. gs Bgatle carefully analysed blue and white varieties of mineral, tested the powdered material by ex- traction with organic solvents, examined the gases occluded by ‘‘ Blue John,” and subjected several types of fluorite to ‘‘raying” by exposure to radium and X-rays. They conclude from their experiments that _ there is no substantial difference between white flyorite _and the blue, green, and amethystine varieties, except in the presence of a small amount of organic matter to which the colours are ascribed. The state of dis- on of the organic matter is not discussed. It is already ascertained that the blue colour of certain varieties of rock-salt is due to a colloidal dispersion of sodium in sodium chloride, and the blue colours _ of sodalite and ultramarine are almost certainly due - to a similar cause. To correlate the colours of fluorite ' with the presence of different amounts of organic _ matter therefore still leaves the core of the problem unsettled; and it is to be hoped that the authors _ will continue their work by applying methods of X-ray analysis and ultra-microscopy in the hope of demonstrating the degree of dispersion of the organic matter, molecular or colloidal, in each of the varieties .of fluorite on which their present work has been conducted. Tue Union of Technical Men (Bund technischer Berufssténde), which has recently changed its name to the Imperial League for German Technology (Reichs- bund deutscher Technik) is now publishing a regular weekly periodical, which reflects the opinions of the _ leaders of technical cg in the country. Questions _ affecting, in particular, the work of reconstruction find an important place in the journal. It is interesting to note that already more than one great conference or Technical Parffament has been held, and energetic measures are being taken with a view to ensure the adequate representation of scientific and technical ‘thought on all public bodies. An announcement in the _ publications of the League states that a daily paper Die Arbeit) will make its appearance as soon as the ' difficulties connected with the release of paper supplies are overcome. WE have received recently a copy of The Chemical _ Technology, a monthly journal devoted to chemistry and chemical technology, published in Tokyo. It is ' printed chiefly in the Japanese language, but contains a section of about eight pages in English. This con- sists mainly of commercial notes upon chemical pro- ducts, such as dyestuffs, alkaloids, wax, menthol, and peppermint oil. The Japanese columns contain a number of articles upon branches of technological chemistry, and some of a more general nature, includ- ing one on ‘Science and its Future,’? by Mr. S. Oguri. Judging by their titles, the articles cover a wide range of subjects, and indicate that chemists in Japan are quite awake to the importance of their science to the nation’s industries. It may be noted, ‘in passing, that the journal contains several American dvertisements, but not a solitary British one. _ From the director of the Wellcome chemical “research laboratories we have received copies of sixteen scientific papers published during the last few NO. 2603, VOL. 104] as the amount of combustible ¢as increases. years by the institution in: question. They are chiefly accounts of investigations upon materials. likely to. be of value in medicine. On one hand, plants used as official or domestic remiedies have been examined more thoroughly than hitherto; and, on the other, active constituents of drugs, such as alkaloids, have been investigated with the view of determining their con- stitution and facilitating the possible synthesis of similar therapeutic agents. The distribution of these memoirs to scientific institutions, formerly made periodically, was suspended during the period of the war, and is now being resumed. The results of the investigations, however, have already appeared in the Transactions of the Chemical Society and the Pharma- ceutical Journal, so that they need not be mentioned here in detail. It will suffice to say that they form an important contribution to our knowledge of the medicinal plants examined, and are a testimony to the excellence of the work done at the laboratories. Tue importance of having a thoroughly trustworthy instrument for detecting and measuring the amount of any combustible gas present in the air at any time has led the Bureau of Standards at Washington to investigate the working of existing instruments and to design a further instrument depending on a new principle, which appears to have a great future before it. It depends on the combustion which takes place about a platinum wire in the mixture when an elec- tric current is sent through the wire so as to heat it sufficiently. Three methods of measurement are adopted. “The wire may form one arm of a resistance bridge and indicate the amount of gas by the rise cf temperature, and therefore of resistance of the wire. Or the current in the wire may be increased until the wire just glows, the increase required being less Or the heat generated by the combustion may be used to heat a bimetallic strip, the bending of which increases as the heat generated, and therefore as the amount of gas present. Full details of the instruments, with drawings, are contained in Scientific Paper No. 334, by Messrs. E. R. Weaver and E. E. Weibel, of the Bureau. Vou. iii. of the Memoirs of the College of Science, Kyoto Imperial University, contains an account of a” series of researches on the electrical resolution of spectral lines (Stark effect). The method employed was that originated by Lo Surdo,’ in which the intense electric field in the cathode dark space of a vacuum tube is utilised. The elements studied include H, He, Li, Ca, Mg, A, N, and O, and a number of new and interesting results have been obtained. The observations on the helium spectrum are particularly complete, and are summarised diagrammatically in a manner which brings out clearly most of the charac- teristic features of the effect. Special attention is given to the phenomenon of ‘isolated components, ’’ which only exist in sufficiently strong fields, and seem to be exclusively associated with a diffuse type of series. This latter property, together with other features of their observed behaviour, would suggest that it may be legitimate to regard them as a special class of satellite. Another observation of much interest refers to certain combination series lines which make their appearance only in intense electric fields. The examination of the secondary spectrum of hydrogen yielded fifty-four affected lines; these results, in con- junction with the Zeeman effects already on record, should be of material assistance in elucidating the structure of this spectrum. Among other conclusions of general interest may be mentioned the confirmation of the view, which previously rested on somewhat fragmentary evidence, that arc lines are affected by 66 NATURE [SepTempeR 18, 1919 i electric fields to a much, greater extent than enhanced lines of the same element. eee ALTHOUGH there is a general belief that underfed individuals. are more susceptible to infection than well- fed persons, and that when the former contract a} disease they show less resistance and are more prone to succumb to it, there is no definite scientific evidence even of a general character to support the theory. The study of the interesting question whether the immunity of an animal to disease is affected by a rigorous and prolonged dietetic deficiency is a natural outcome of the work on accessory food factors which has recently been carried out at the Lister Institute, and the current issue of the Biochemical Journal con- tains a suggestive paper on the subject by Dr. S. S, Zilva. Immunity is a complicated biological pheno- menon which does not lend itself to quantitative estimation, but certain phenomena which accompany it, such as- phagocytosis, complement fixation, and agglutination, can be estimated quantitatively for com- parative purposes. Dr. Zilva has studied the effect on amboceptor and agglutinin formation and the comple- ment content of the blood of rats, of diets deficient in (a) .the elements calcium, iron, potassium, chlorine, hosphorus, and sodium; (b) certain amino-acids; and (c) the antiscorbutic, antineuritic, and fat soluble A accessory factors, the rat being the animal employed. The diets investigated were (1) those low in the elements mentioned; (2) those containing 12 per cent. and 8 per cent. of caseinogen as a source of protein ; (3) those containing 18 per cent. of gliadin as the sole source of protein; and (4) those deficient in each of the three accessory food factors. As a result of several of the deficiencies the animals exhibited restricted growth and poor condition, but, except when the diet was deficient in phosphorus, no differentiation in the titres of the agglutinins and amboceptor could be recorded. Guinea-pigs, whether fed on an un- restricted mixed diet, quantitatively restricted mixed diet, or a scorbutic diet, showed no difference in the amboceptor and agglutinin titres or in the complement activity of their blood. Tue useful select list of scientific and technical books published in the Descriptive Catalogue. of the British Scientific Products. Exhibition, 1919, has, with the permission of’ the British Science Guild, been issued separately in pamphlet form by Messrs. A. and F. Denny, 147 Strand, London, W.C.2. The list gives in sixty pages the bibliographic particulars of standard books in the English language in sixteen branches of applied science, from aeronautics to wire- less telegraphy. The date and price of the existing edition are shown in each case, and every volume in the list is on sale, so that any of the books ordered can be obtained without difficulty. Messrs. Denny will be glad to send a copy of the list to anyone who will apply to them for it. Tue following volumes are in active preparation for publication by the Hakluyt Society :—‘‘ The Chronicles of Muntaner,’’ translated and ‘edited by Lady Goodenough; ‘'Jons Olafssonar Indiafara,” translated by Miss B. Phillpotts, edited by. Sir R. C. Temple, Bart., 2 vols.; ‘‘ William Lockerby’s Journal in Fiji, 1808,” edited by Sir E. F. im Thurn and L. C. Wharton; ‘A Description of the Coasts of East Africa’ and Malabar in the Beginning of the Sixteenth Century,’’ by D. Barbosa, translated by L. Dames, vol. ii-; and ‘‘ Anales del Peru,” by L. F. Montesinos, translated and. edited by P. A. Means. A LeNncthy and interesting catalogue (No. 181) has just been circulated by Messrs. W. Heffer and Sons, 4td., Cambridge. The books (more than 1600 in NO. 2603, VOL. 104] number) are of a miscellaneous’ character, but there are sections devoted to archeology, follx-lore, anthropology, and kindred subjects; Irish literature, folk-lore, and archeology; and science and mathe- matics. In addition, Messrs. Heffer direct attention to collections of flint and bronze implement and of . pottery which they have for disposa Messrs. George Bell and Sons, Ltd., have com leted arrangements with Prof. Moureu for the publication of a translation of “‘ Notions fondamentales de chimie organique.”’ The translation is being made of the ‘fifth French edition, in which additional space ‘is devoted to a more extensive treatment of stereo. chemistry, and of the relations between chemical con- stitution and physical properties. There will also be an additional chapter on dyestuffs. et : OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN. Comets.—Miss Vinter Hansen and Mr. Fischer Petersen have deduced elliptical elements for the comet 1919b (Brorsen-Metcalf), and give the following ephemeris :— ot Mee For Greenwich Midnight, taf ay > R.A. N. Decl. Logr Log a os MO. Re > iy Fis SP eh Sept. 19 127 43 42 46 98967 © 95175, 21 12 TOA 2738 eas +i | 23 + 11:56 36 35 30° «698577 - 95035 25 II 52 52. 32.28 3 aes Se 27 11 50 0 29 43 98168 96647 . 29 1X47 30°27. 11 teeny Prof. Wolf noted that at the end of August the comet was easily visible to the naked eye as a large, round nebula, with central condensation,.and a tail. The theoretical brightness is now diminishing, but _ there is likely to be an increase in physical brightness as perihelion is approached. (about October 17). The comet is in conjunction with the sun on September 22; after that date it may be observed to most advantage in the morning sky. . M. Ebell gives the following continuation of th: ephemeris of Kopff’s periodic comet 1919a :— For Greenwich Midnight, Rae S. Decl, R.A, S, Decl. : bs an. “8: O28 h. een oat oie k Sept. 18 19 52 18 7 50,| Sept. 26 20 2 12° 7 45 20 19 54 49 7.49 28 20 451 7 43 22 19 57 7 48 30 20 7 34. 7 4t 24. 19 59 37. 7 46! Oct. “2 20 10 21 7 38 On_ September 24, logr=o-2755, log A=o-0740, magnitude 11-7. pot a Continuation of the ephemeris of comet 1919¢ :— For Greenwich Midnight. R.A. N. Decl. RA. N. Decl. Be Tihs hogs caer Die ieee ae a Sept. 18 1449 5 16 0| Sept, 30 151247 10 44 es 22 145046 14 16| Oct,, 4 1521 8 +) 8 5” 26 15 440 12 3c 8.152942. 7 10 The comet is brightening slowly, its magnitude on October 8 being 85. AP arte Tue Brink Microscopr.—Mr. R. T. A. Innes has an article on this subject in Scientia for September.’ He is one of the chief workers with this instrument, so he speaks ‘with authority. It is unrivalled as the readiest means of picking out all the large proper motions on a pair of plates. Taking the smallest proper motion that can be detected in the case of plates’ taken twenty-five years apart as 13" in. this interval, or 5” per century, Mr. Innes states that there are about three such stars ‘in each square. ae. ee ee eee ee _— _ SEPTEMBER 18, 1919] NATURE - 67 ‘degree, or 120,000 in the whole sky. He estimates that the number of stars with sensible proper, motion would increase as the square of the time-interval, so that with a century interval there would be 2,000,000 proper motions. _. It is explained in the article that the proper motions found by photography are not absolute, since they take no account of the systematic drift of the region of the sky, due. to the solar motion. At present photography does not appear to be capable of giving absolute proper motions without the aid of the transit circle, It is necessary to determine absolute places ‘and proper motions of a, sufficient number of refer- ence stars on each plate to enable them to be deduced for the remaining stars. IRRIGATION-IN EGYPT AND THE SUDAN. fe, HE admirable. record of agricultural progress # achieved under British control in Egypt offers “every incentive to further exertions, with a view to ‘increase the productivity of a country so rich in latent possibilities. It is interesting, therefore, to ote the resumption of irrigation undertakings, which have been temporarily suspended during the war. During the last generation the Nile has. undergone drastic engineering treatment, and now, no longer free to give vent to irregular and wasteful discharges, ‘its valuable waters, conserved and controlled by artificial works, are increasingly’. administered on “systematic lines and directed to those localities where ir beneficial influence can be most effectively cised. ioneer dam of Mougel Bey, just below Cairo, restored and raised to a higher degree of utility by ‘the late Sir Colin Scott-Moncrieff; the barrages at “Asyit, Esna, and Zifta, and the bolder and more imposing structure at Asw4n, are now being followed by other works which will, no doubt, produce results as noteworthy and important. : The schemes at present in hand include three separate projects relating to different sections of the ‘river. There is a scheme for the development of the » Gezirah plain of the Sudan on the Blue Nile, just ‘south of Khartoum; ancther for the benefit of Egypt proper by utilising the fiood-waters of the White Nile; and a third scheme of drainage improvement or the deltaic region included in the provinces of harbieh and Beheira, lying below Cairo. The Blue Nile scheme consists of a dam at “Makwar, about five miles south of Sennar and 175 miles south of Khartoum, with. a canal, some forty miles in length, leading from just above the dam to the district to be irrigated, which is a remarl- ably level and treeless plain some 300,000 fedd4ns in extent (a fedd4n is 1-04 acre). The cotton, which it is capable of producing, will be raised.as a winter crop, absorbing the river winter supply without inter- fering with the summer discharge. The dam will be a work of some magnitude, withstanding, when completed, a head of 40 ft. of water, and capable of ‘coping with a discharge of some 1,250,000 gallons fluctuations. The White Nile scheme is, fundamentally, a development of the Aswan undertaking, which has mow reached the limit of its effective utility. In 31916 the demands of the area under cultivation ex- ceeded the available supply. It is, accordingly, pro- ‘posed to construct an auxiliary reservoir dam_at Gebel-el-Auli, or Gebel Aoli, on the White Nile. capable of impounding an adequate summer supply of water for Egvpt, and at the same time reducing the excessive flood-waters of the main Nile. This scheme thas been the subject of certain criticisms by Sir WO. 2603, VOL. 104] per second in a river subject to sudden and extreme, William Willcocks, whose own proposal was briefly referred to in the Notes column of Nature for May 22 last. A subsidiary work is the formation of a, channel from the Blue Nile above Sennar, so that the superfluous water from that reservoir may be con- veyed to the Gebel-el-Auli reservoir. The Gebel-el- Auli dam will have a pressure-head of 23 ft. The increased water supply to Lower Egypt, due to the Aswan reservoir, has severely taxed the drainage channels of the provinces of Gharbieh and Beheira, ' forming. the alluvial plain between Cairo and the sea. It is-necessary to find some measure of relief, and a solution of the problem is sought in the construction of large pumping installations on the borders of Lake Mareotis and Lake Borollos. : ‘ Interesting details. of the engineering features of the various projects are given in a series of articles recently published in the Engineer, from. which most _of the foregoing particulars are taken. BryssOn CUNNINGHAM. UNIVERSITY AND: EDUCATIONAL INTELLIGENCE. Srock of the value of 300,000l. has been presented to the University of California by Mr. E. F. Searles, of San Francisco. Ir is announced that: Yale University. will receive from the estate of the late Mr. J. W.~° Sterling approximately 3,600,000l., or about 600,000l. more than had been anticipated. . ANNOUNCEMENT is made in the Times that Mr. ' Balfour is to be nominated for election as Chancellor of Cambridge University, in succession to his brother- _ in-law, the late Lord Rayleigh. if Dr. T. Sruart, formerly professor of mathematics in Hongkong University, has been appointed lecturer in mathematics, and Mr. G. Mavor, formerly of the Gillingham Technical Institute, lecturer in mechanical engineering at the Loughborough Technical College. THE sum of ioool. has been given to the applied science department of Sheffield University by Mr. J. D. Brunton, of Musselburgh, for the annual award of a medal and premium for the best metallurgical research work done at the University during the year. Dr. J. F. Gemmiit, lecturer in embryology, Uni- versity of Glasgow, and in zoology at Glasgow Pro- vincial Training College, has been appointed to the chair of natural history at University College, Dundee, in succession to Prof. D’Arcy W. Thompson. Tue. Edith Barnard memorial fellowship in chemistry in the University of Chicago has been endowed through the gift of 6001. by the mother, brother, colleagues, and frjends of Edith E.. Barnard, a former instructor in chemistry in the University, The fellowship has been temporarily maintained since 1916, but it has now. been placed upon a permanent basis. ’ Tue.Commission for the’ Relief of Belgium is placing at the disposal of the country the sum of 6,000,0001., which is to be devoted to university educa- tion, and will facilitate access to the universities. for children of the poorer classes. The Universities of Brussels, Louvain, Ghent, and Liége are each to receive 13 per cent. of the money, the School of Mines at Mons 3 per cent., and the Colonial School 6 per cent, A course of training in industrial chemistry will begin at the Northern Polytechnic Institute, Hol- loway, N.7, on September 22. The course is open to the general public, and is adapted to the requirements of demobilised men who desire to qualify for positions 68 NATURE [SEPTEMBER 18, 1919. as analytical and works chemists. In addition to the usual training in chemistry and allied subjects, glass- working, instrument-making, and plumbing are also to receive attention. Detailed information may be obtained from the Principal. UnverR the Government scheme of financial assist- ance for the higher education: of ex-Service officers and men, the total number of grants awarded by the Board of Education now. amounts to 9500, including 4000 officers and 5500 men. ‘The courses in respect of which grants have been awarded include more than 2500 for engineering and technological subjects, between 800 and goo for classics, philosophy, and literature, and about 1200 fer pure science and mathe. matics. Applications are still being received in large numbers, and are being dealt with at the rate of more than 100 a day. THE new session of the Sir John Cass Technical Institute will commence on Thursday, September 2s. The courses of instruction provided are specially directed to the technical training of those engaged in chemical, metallurgical, and electrical industries and in trades associated therewith. Full facilities are provided for those wishing to carry out work asso- ciated with the industries in which they are engaged or to undertake special investigations and research. Special courses of higher technological instruction form a distinctive feature of the work of the. institute. The curriculum in connection with the fermentation industries includes courses of instruction on brewing and malting, bottling and cellar management, and on the microbiology oi the fermentation industries. A connected series of lectures in fuel and power, com- prising liquid, solid, and gaseous fuels and_ their application, electrical supply and control, the trans- mission of power in works, fuel analysis and technical gas analysis is also included in the syllabus of the chemistry department for the forthcoming session. Full details of the courses are given in the syllabus of the institute, which can be had on application at the office or by letter to the Principal. SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES. Paris. -Academy of Sciences, September 1.—M. Léon Guig- nard in the chair.—A. Lage: The mineralogical and chemical constitution of the volcanic lavas of Tibesti. Fourteen complete rock analyses are given, together with a general account of the minerals present.—G. Humbert: The measurement of the ensemble of the positive classes of Hermite, of given discriminant, in an imaginary quadratic body.—E. Cosserat : Some stars possessing a total annual proper motion of more than 0-5". The movements of stars mentioned by A. van Maanen in 1915 and 1917, and one pointed out by Wolf in 1916, have been studied by means of the photographic catalogue of the Toulouse Observatory. The positions of seven stars are provisionally given possessing a proper motion of more than 0-5”.—-M. Tilho: The raw materials and railways of tropical Africa north of the equator. A discussion of the best railway scheme, taken in con- junction with existing railways, for opening up northern Africa.—E. Kogbetliantz: New observations on ultra-spherical series.—G. Guillaumin: Contact forces in heterogeneous solids, with special reference to reinforced concrete.—B. Jekhowsky: Orbit. of Metcalf’s comet t919b. The calculations , are based on observations made on August -21, 22, and 23.—C. L. Charlier: The spiral nebulae. As a working hypothesis it is supposed that spiral nebulze are formed by the collision of an extra-galactic body NO. 2603, VOL. 104] with the solar- system. This’ hypothesis explains’ simply two well-established facts.—A. Soret and R.’ Couespel: A multiple-valve microphone.—A. Boutaric ; The calculation between the ratio of the vapour- pressure of a solid and that of the surfused liquid at varying temperatures.—J. Guyot and L. J. Simon: The action of dimethylsulphate and the alkaline dimethylsulphates on dry alkaline bromides and chlorides.—J. _Delpech: The pure “B” powders.’ These specimens were prepared by complete solution of the nitrocellulose, followed by a filtration through cotton-wool under pressure. The powder thus: pro- duced is transparent, and doubtful portions can be detected by inspection.—MM. Vermorel and Dantony ; The comparative usefulness of ordinary Bordeaux mixtures and mixtures prepared with the addition of casein for the preservation of grapes. The addition, of casein is very advantageous.—MM. G. Bertrand Brocq-Rousseau, and Dassonyille: The destruction of bed-lice by chloropicrin. c e | u chloropicrin suffice for the practical disinfection of beds. BOOKS RECEIVED. The Exact Diagnosis of Latent Cancer: An Enquiry into the True Significance of the Morphological Changes in the Blood. By Dr. O. C. Gruner. Pp. viit+79.. (London: H. K, Lewis and Co., Ltd., 1919.) 7S. 6d. net. e erty be The Planting, Cultivation, and Expression of Coco-. nuts, Kernels, Cacao, and Edible Vegetable Oils and Seeds of Commerce. A Practical Handbook’ for, Planters, Financiers, Scientists, and others. H. Osman Newland. (Griffin’s Technological Hand- books.) Pp. vi+111+xi plates. (London: Charles Griffin and Co., Ltd., 1919.) 6s. net. CONTENTS. PAGE Science and Sociality, By Sir Arch, Geikie,O.M., KC.B RR, 8250 cae ka ee ee arr 3 Botany of Cultivated Plants, ByF.K. ...... 46 Our Bookshelf. 3i5 6k Sa eee Pi 2 0 a7 Letters to the Editor :— ¢ : Sea-fishery Investigations and the Balagce of Life— - Prof, Walter Garstang ; Prof. W. C. McIntosh, ‘ i BiB is aur atiaoin tas si Bide bis se hentgiee cen oaetl Dr. A. G. Vernon Harcourt, F,R.S. By H. B.D. . 49 Dr. Charles A, Mercier.» . 2: -°.: 2 000gane ae The British Association at Bournemouth ..... 51 Section A—Mathematical and Physical-Science—Open- ing Address by Prof. A. Gray, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., President of the Section Petia © Section B—Chemistry—Opening Address by Prof. P. Phillips Bedson, D.Sc., President oftheSection 59: — Notes ..... Geer yee ai Wate ae Matiels OSH Our Astronomical Column :— Comets ose ee ei) co. A 66 The Blink Microscope ..... 2... - oie ie 9 ON 2 Irrigation in Egypt andthe Sudan. By Dr. B Ones) Cuaninglamariis iy jos) hs “a he Sit age aE University and Educational Intelligence ...... oe Societies and Academies .........-. rer i. Books Received i+. 5... 64. sss st Editorial and Publishing Offices: _ MACMILLAN AND CO., Lrp., ST. MARTIN’S STREET, LONDON, W.C.2. — Advertisements and business letters to be addressed to the’ Publishers. f + cs Editorial Communications to the Editor. Telegraphic Address: Puusis, LONDON. . Telephone. Number: GERRARD 8830. ° ; Quite moderate amounts of ‘By Pet ass ate. ee oc. NATURE 69 THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 25, 1919. THE MISSING THEME. Wild Life of the World: A Descriptive Survey of the Geographical Distribution of Animals. In three volumes. By R. Lydekker. Vol. i., | pp. xiv+472; vol. ii., pp. xii+440; vol. iii., pp. xi+457. (London: F. Warne and Co., 1916.) Price 4l. 4s. three vols. i aye doubtful whether any modern naturalist other than the late Mr. Richard Lydekker _ could have written such a book as this. Endowed _ with a remarkable memory, boundless energy, and a facile pen, he spent his days in acquiring a _ perfectly unrivalled knowledge of natural history and in writing about it. No matter what aspect _ presented itself for discussion, it found Lydekker and his pen both ready and willing. A friend in common, writing for a newspaper, once confessed to Lydekker that he had great difficulty in finding themes for his weekly articles. ‘Pooh! I find ‘no difficulty,’’ said Lydekker. “I do not require a theme—J think of a word.’’ Using every pos- sible moment and opportunity, and writing at incredible speed, Lydekker’s literary output was enormous; it covered, moreover, the whole wide field between comparative anatomy, paleontology, and systematic work on one hand, and field natural history and sport on the other. “While “writing, at least, he was never filled with doubts or tormented by vain cares; whatever came into his head first he wrote, and what he wrote he _ printed light-heartedly as soon as possible. One scarcely likes to apply that harsh epithet ‘“‘care- less ’’ to writing with so much good, solid work | as its foundation, but the dangers of Lydekker’s methods are obvious, and as a result one cannot ‘place the normal degree of trust in any book that : Nevertheless, the fact that his books ‘contain a huge store of real and valuable informa- tion is beyond all dispute and a testimony to the industry and genius of the author. The three stately volumes now before us repre- sent Lydekker’s last effort. Well printed~and beautifully illustrated, they appear unusually attractive. Opening them and reading at random, one is usually pleased and sometimes delighted ‘with the text, and no doubt to many persons the book will be not only useful, but also a precious mine of information. Casual reading, however, is not the purpose of the book; it aims at being a descriptive survey of the geographical. distribu- tion of animals; but an attempt to read it as a whole proves to be a formidable and wearisome task, which one leaves sooner or later with a eeling of disappointment. From the title one pects a connected narrative in which there will be an attempt to expound, albeit in a popular manner, some of the principles underlying geo- graphical distribution, to show how the present depends upon. the past, and to bring home to the reader, however ignorant of zoology, the funda- mental importance of such things as. isolation— NO. 2604, VOL. 104] re in its numerous forms—in the great scheme of evolution, It would not matter at all what sort of view er theory the author developed in his narrative; he might have proceeded, with equal advantage, along the lines of his own “Geographical History of Mammals,’’ or pursued the attractive, though totally divergent, courses of Scharff on one hand, or of Matthew on the other. Books with an endo- skeleton are generally far better than those with a mere exo-skeleton. In one case the reader has something definite and more or iess fascinating to follow; even when the writer’s style is harsh and his phrasing none too happy, there is a plot which holds one fast while it gradually reveals itself in a well-connected stream of facts. In the other, the facts are disjointed and scattered —interesting and important in themselves, per- haps, but with little or no apparent bearing upon one another; in such a case the author may be endowed with superlative gifts of language and expression, enabling him to charm us. on every page, perhaps, when taken in small doses, but he can never succeed in holding the attention of the reader from cover to cover. “Wild Life of the World’’ is in all essential respects a distin- guished example of the books without endo- skeletons. In this case, too, alas! Lydekker did not trouble to think of a theme—though he thought of a great many. words. The work calls for little more in the way of general criticism, but it may be worth while to direct attention to one or two specific matters. As an instance of the hasty selection of the facts dealt with, we may mention that, while more than two pages (vol. i., pp. 212-14) are devoted to a discussion of European field-mice (Microtus), no mention is made of the Orkney vole (M. orca- densis), which from the point of view of geo- graphical distribution is one of the most interest- ing and important species; nevertheless, room is found for a whole paragraph dealing with the characters and habits of a phantom species, M. campestris, described from Brunswick long ago by Blasius, but generally admitted now for many years to be nothing more than’a mis- identification. of the common’ Continental vole, M. arvalis. : In reading the book we have noticed few mis- prints. There is, however, an unfortunate trans- position in the account of the cuckoo (vol. f., pp. 90-96) which may bewilder the reader. The matter from the word “moreover’’ in line 2 of p. 93 down to the end of the paragraph seems to be a misplaced continuation of paragraph 2 of p- 91, dealing with the colour and markings of the eggs. The name of the inventor of the harpoon-gun, Svend Foyn, has been converted into “Sven Foyle ’’ (vol. iii., p. 310). It is with considerable satisfaction that we notice that Lydekker endorsed the view that whales and seals in southern latitudes are now in need of a measure of protection, and that our own Government has to bear the weight of direct responsibility in this matter. The quite indiscriminate and unscientific, E 7O NATURE [SEPTEMBER 25, 1919 though lucrative, slaughter which is at present happening in the southern hemisphere and else- where is rapidly leading both the larger Cetacea and a valuable industry to extinction. Lydekker’s remark. that the Addo Bush elephants “are specially protected’’ causes. a pang when we recollect that the statement is no longer true. No naturalist could hear of the recent decision to exterminate this most interest- ing herd without grief. One may be pardoned for wondering whether much more would be heard either of the damage done by these elephants or of the project to exterminate them if the authorities, in granting the licence to kill, were to stipulate that the whole of the profits of the chase should be expended upon obtaining such a series of specimens, photographs, and casts as would form an adequate memorial of the threat- ened race for the use of zoologists and compara- tive anatomists, and that the balance, if any, should be applied for the purposes of zoological research in Africa. To conclude, we would reiterate that this book contains a vast amount of most interesting and valuable information brought together by a man of unrivalled experience and ability; this informa- fion is most lucidly conveyed throughout, ‘and many passages in the work are quite charming. The illustrations, on the whole, are very good, and some of the coloured plates may fairly be called magnificent. Our sole regret is that Mr. Lydekker did not require a theme. M.A. CoH, WATER IN ACTION—CONTROLLED AND FREE. (1) Irrigation Engineering. By Dr. A. P. Davis and H. M. Wilson. Seventh edition, revised and enlarged. Pp. xxiii+640. (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc. ; London: Chapman and Hall, Ltd., 1919.) Price 21s. net. (2) Shore Processes and Shoreline Development. By Prof. D. W. Johnson. Pp. xvii+ 584. (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc. ; Lon- don: Chapman and Hall, Ltd., 1919.) ’ Price 235. net. 1) FW eb segs passing through six editions, this work, originally composed by Mr. Wilson in 1896, has been recast and largely ‘re- written with extensive additions by Dr. A. P. Davis, whose own book’ on “ Irrigation Works in the United States ’’ was reviewed in Nature for June 20, 1918. It speaks much for the merits of a technical work that it should reach a seventh edition, and the present issue will undoubtedly maintain the reputation gained by its predecessors. The scope of the treatise is wide—admittedly too wide for complete treatment—and the object kept in view, and that very successfully, has been to present a general outline of the whole. field of irrigation. work, including its history, the chemistry of soils and soil treatment, sources of water supply, methods of application and NO. 2604. VOL. to041 measurement, construction of canals and dams, drainage and sewage disposal, water rights, surveys and preliminary investigations, and systems of operation and maintenance. It is obvious that, even in a volume of 600 odd pages, matters so many and so varied could not be treated exhaustively, and that some must receive less attention than, perhaps, is their due. The chapter on masonry dams, for instance, would, in our opinion, have admitted with advantage of some amplification in respect of the fundamental law of the middle third, and some account of the theory of vertical shearing stresses, especially as the book is intended primarily as a manual ca engineers. gtiee On the other hand, there are to be found on nearly every page practical notes of considerable utility. Moreover, at the end of the volume is the complete specification, running to fifty-six pages of small print, of the contract for the con- struction of the Arrowrock dam in Idaho. This, in itself, will prove of inestimable value to the practising engineer for reference purposes. There are also a number of tables with useful data, and al computed results of various formule. Another restriction, which must be noted and, perhaps, is inevitable, is that, with one or two rare exceptions, all the examples illustrated are chosen from American practice. It is true that the Assuan dam is mentioned, and that Indian irrigation is not without notice, but the book is written almost entirely from the American point of view. Possibly it gains in interest and value in this way, since the authors thus confine them- selves to cases in which they speak with experi- ence and authority. The illustrations, both photographs and dia- grams, are excellent throughout. It is a most valuable and informative book, in a compre- hensive way, on a subject which ‘materially affects: farmers, geologists, meteorologists, engineers, chemists, and business men, as well as the highest interests of the State. (2) A work of some is given of 416 dathoriies cited, and the refer- ences in one chapter alone amount to 187, cannot fail to impress the reader with the erudition of its author and the immense labour he must have taken to collect his data. We pay a tribute, in passing, to the unremitting zeal and perseverance which have produced so concise a compendium of opinion on a subject which, on account of its complexity, is little understood and yet is of the greatest scientific interest. The book is compiled on methodical lines. “Advance Sum- — Each chapter opens with an mary ’’ and closes with a “Résumé.”’ The first and second chapters deal with waves and their — work, the third with currents, and the fourth with shore classification. The ensuing six chapters contain an exposition. of theories of shoreline © development. The earlier part of the volume is largely his- torical and retrospective; it reviews the data obtained’ by experimentalists in the past, with the 50 pages, in which a list a ee i | a ¥ ] SEPTEMBER 25, 1919 | NATURE 71 - a conclusions based upon them. That there is a radical divergence of testimony ‘is evident from _ the fact that by one school of thought coastal drift is attributed entirely to wave action, and _by another to current flow. By the author no _ doubt is entertained that, as a whole, waves are the more important agency, and in this view of _ joint action we are disposed to concur. In dealing with shorelines, the author rejects the German system of numerical notation, and _ classifies them broadly as submergent, emergent, - neutral, and compound, with a cycle of develop- ment passing from young to mature and old. _ Each of the four classes is dealt with at length, and there are apposite examples, illustrated by _ photographs, charts, maps, and diagrams, which _ will repay study. Fjords are not recognised as an indication of land subsidence, but are attri- _ buted to glacial action, and it is interesting to note the author’s opinion that “any careful _ analysis of the process of marine erosion must lead to the conclusion that marine planation is possible without coastal subsidence.’’ : _ The book covers a fairly wide area, and is _written with the intention of assisting the engin- eer, the geologist, and the geographer. As affect- ing the first-named profession, the difficulty of reconciling the conflicting views of so many eminent authorities seems to us almost insuper- _ able. There is scarcely any problem which causes _ the harbour engineer more perplexity and anxiety than that of forecasting the effect on the shore- line of a structure projecting into the sea, and in the present state of our knowledge—or ignorance —the evidence available is often capable of quite contradictory interpretations. No doubt further nvestigation will throw more light on_ this affling question, but, for the present, it is beset | with obscurity. _ The volume is an excellent addition to the literature of physiography, and it fulfils a special function in classifying much fragmentary and “detached information not readily accessible. Brysson CUNNINGHAM. MAMMALIAN PHYSIOLOGY. Mammalian Physiology: A Course of Practical Exercises. By Prof. C. S. Sherrington. _ Pp. xi+156+ix plates. (Oxford: At the Clarendon Press, 1919.) Price 12s. 6d. net. HE publication of Prof. Sherrington’s prac- tical course of mammalian physiology will | surely be recognised as an event of first-rate ‘importance for the teaching of physiology and for medical education. _ Many teachers must long have felt the limita- fon imposed by the use of the frog for practically ill class-work on living animal organs. The experiments possible to students were re- Stricted to certain aspects of the subject; some were liable to be retained in the course which had mainly historical interest, and others were apt, in unpractised hands, to degenerate into exercises in fine dissection. Nor had the tech- NO. 2604, VOL. 104] nical facility thus acquired much relation to the later requirements of the medical equipment. The introduction into class teaching of the sur- viving carcass of the decerebrated or decapitated cat effects a great liberation. The student .can observe for himself the main phenomena of mam- malian function. The technique is in most cases relatively so simple that attention is concentrated on the observation of the result; at the same time, it has real value as. an introduction to _ surgical manipulations. The course opens with exercises on isolated mammalian plain muscle—intestine, spleen, and artery—and on the perfused heart of the rabbit. | They involve no very new departure, but the methods given require simple apparatus only, and are admirably adapted to give successful results in the hands of students. Here, too, as through- out the book, each exercise is given the maximum educational value by the explanatory and historical comments. From Exercise IV. onwards the decerebrated or decapitated carcass is used. Starting with rela- _tively simple experiments on the arterial blood- pressure, the course leads to more. elaborate 'demonstrations of the effect of nerve-stimulation on the vascular mechanism and the activity of the respiratory centre, of vascular and somatic reflexes, and ultimately, when the requisite dex- terity has been acquired, to such relatively exact- ing experiments as that on the stimulation of pan- creatic secretion by secretin. In each exercise the opportunities are fully used for incidental observation of important phenomena, not directly connected with the main object of the experiment. The student who conscientiously follows this course must emerge with a wealth of experience in the methods of physiological observation, and a vivid apprehension of vital phenomena, which no amount of reading or even of witnessing pre- pared demonstrations could give. Prof. Sherring- ton himself points out that the method leaves to the individual teacher a wide choice of valuable exercises, beyond the representative series which he has been able to accommodate within the limits of his course. He opens, indeed, a new vista of possibilities to student and teacher alike. The value of the book is greatly enhanced by ,the admirably clear drawings of dissections and apparatus. The records reproduced, nearly all taken from experiments made in the class, give convincing evidence that the exercises are well within the compass of the keen student. The last exercise of all, that on the determination of the opsonic index, seems to lie curiously outside the general scope of the course, and to have no clear connection with the opportunities offered by the brainless mammal. Doubtless experience has shown that its inclusion has some special advantage. Not only students and teachers, but also those engaged in original investigation, have abundant cause for gratitude to Prof. Sherrington for the care and labour which he has expended on putting his methods and experience at their disposal. i HAD, 72 NATURE [SEPTEMBER 25, 1919 OUR BOOKSHELF. Birds Beneficial to Agriculture: Economic Series No. 9, British Museum (Natural History). By F.. W. Frohawk. Pp. vi+47. (London: British Museum (Natural History), 1919.) Price 2s. Ir is important that attention should be focussed now and again on the benefits that accrue to farmer and gardener from the activities of birds, for too frequent reiteration of misdemeanours tends to produce an antagonism which the facts do not warrant; and there is greater danger in -indiscriminate destruction than in indiscriminate protection. Recognising these facts, the Trustees of the British Museum have done good service, at once to the farmer and to the naturalist, in publishing this pamphlet, and in preparing the special exhibit to which it makes an efficient and attractive guide. Of the birds the presence of which in Britain is of any importance in this connection, ‘120 species may be regarded as decidedly beneficial to agriculture generally,” and of these Mr. Frohawk describes in detail a very fair sample of forty-four species, and adds besides two short general notices, necessarily somewhat perfunctory in treatment, on birds in their relation to injurious insects and to agriculture. Careful illustrations by the author make easy the task of identifying a large proportion of the species described. _ It is to be regretted, however, in a work dealing primarily with economic values that more space could not have been given to feeding habits and food statistics, even at the expense of specific characters and of habits of less immediate import- ance. Nevertheless, this latest addition to the “Economic Series” of British Museum Publica- tions should help to awaken and broaden interest in the valuable heritage which Britain possesses in its birds. Rudiments of Handicraft. By W. A. S. Benson. Pp. 40. (London: John Murray, 1919.) Price Is. net. Tuis is a forty-page pamphlet, illustrated by fourteen pages of sketches, which attempts to set forth the principles and practice of manual train- ing for children between the ages of eight and twelve, taking wood in the form of sawn laths 1% in. wide and } in. thick as the material to be used. The idea of the use of strip wood manipulated by quite simple tools is by no means new, having been adopted in certain important educational centres more than twenty years ago. cult to realise how some of the exercises figured | in the book can be made into the substantial structures for which they are designed on the methods described, and many of the drawings leave_much to be desired from both the technical and artistic points of view. It is just as important for the pupil to be taught to make an accurate drawing in plan elevation and section of the object NO. 2604, VOL. 104] It is diffi- | he purposes to produce as it is for him to execute it. The well-trained manual instructor who ought to find an honoured place in every school will search in vain for much that is really helpful to him in the pamphlet. The principle of hand and eye training and of its high and necessary educa- tional value is now fully admitted by educationists and is well established, and a large body of capable men.fully trained in teaching methods are. now available who have formed themselves into an association and assemble in annual conference with the view of promoting the efficiency of their work. STi LETTERS TO THE EDITOR. [The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed by his correspondents. Neither can be undertake to return, or to correspi with the writers of, rejected manuscripts intended for this or any other part of Nature. No notice is taken of anonymous communications.] National Representation upon International Councils. In the account of the meeting of the International Research Council (Nature, August 14, p. 464) it is stated that “the United Kingdom” was “repre- sented ’’ on the council by ‘‘ delegates.”” The explana- tion in the first paragraph of your Notes rg: Sep- tember 4 of how the ‘‘delegates’’ were appointed — j shows that the words are the expression of an inten- tion rather than of a fact. The council apparently wished that its decisions should have some authority. other than that derived from the personal distinction of its members, but their wishes remained unfulfilled because there is in existence no machinery for select- ing a delegation representative of the scientific workers of this country. It seems worth while, there- fore, to inquire what characteristics such machinery must have in order that it should fulfil this purpose, and how such machinery could be set in action. _ I suggest that the machinery necessary and suffi- cient would be such as secures that every professional scientific worker is informed of any action that it is — proposed to take which may affect his work and that — he has a constitutional means of expressing his opinion, — upon the proposal. It does not appear to be necessary that any attempt should be made to obtain the equality — of voting power which is important in a representative body concerned with political and economic questions —so long, of course, as such questions are excluded — from the domain of the body and its attention is con- fined to purely scientific matters. . The chief difficulty in establishins such machinery — is that of defining the class of professional scientific — _ workers. It ought to be overcome by the method used in defining the members of other professions. — Lawyers, architects, actuaries, and medical practi- tioners are defined by membership of certain fes- sional societies, of which the distinctive feature is that | | they admit to membership all who have undergone — certain training and acquired certain experience. — Societies having this feature already exist in the — profession of science; the various scientific and — engineering institutions and institutes are examples. | They do not at present cover the whole field, but it — will probably be agreed that it is desirable that they — should. The best way of securing the representation — of science would be to set up institutes for those branches of science which do not already possess: NATURE 73 SEPTEMBER 25, 1919] them; to organise a small permanent secretariat sup- ported by them all; and to charge this secretariat with the duty of bringing before the institutes any scientific matters likely to interest them. It should _ be made clear that this secretariat should be the _ means of communication between the scientific pro- _ fession of this country and all outside bodies (foreign scientific bodies, Governments, commercial organisa- tions, and so on); to discuss the questions submitted to it, the institutes would appoint delegates appropriate to the nature of each question. _. But it is always desirable, if possible, to use exist- _ ing machinery for such a purpose. It is possible that _ such an organisation as is required might be developed out of the Conjoint Board of Scientific Societies. The _ societies represented on it do not all conform to the _ type of institutes; some are barely scientific; some _have no professional test for membership; some of _ them overlap and represent practically identical in- _-terests. But it is probably better to have some » Machinery at once rather than a perfect machine which will take long to get into action; probably also the machine will improve as it works; its defects will be apparent, and there will be a demand for their cure. I venture, therefore, to suggest respectfully _ that, unless anybody has a better plan’ to propose, _ the Conjoint Board should consider early and earnestly whether they cannot take upon themselves, per- ' manently and consistently, the functions of a body representative of scientific workers in all purely scientific matters. _ Hitherto these functions, in so far as they have been exercised at all, have been exercised by the Royal _ Society. While it was held that the proper spokes- men for science were its most eminent students, no - body could have been more suitable for selecting them than that which annually selects for the coveted dis- tinction of its membership the fifteen most eminent men of science still outside its ranks. (For it is obvious that no woman could be included in that number.) But if the spokesmen are to be representa- tive delegates, no body could be less suitable. If the character of the society is to be maintained, -exclusiveness must be as essential a part of its con- stitution as inclusiveness must be of any representa- ‘tive body. By its very nature the Royal Society can mever represent any but a small fraction of scientific orkers; it cannot represent the fraction which, because its work lies in the future rather than in the past, is most likely to be affected by any proposals change. We all thank the society for what it done; we can express our gratitude best by liberating its energies for those more important tasks « which its constitution is adapted. Norman R. CampBeELt. _ Kettlewell, September 20. travenous Injections of Gum Solutions in Cholera. _ In Nature for June 5 Prof. Bayliss advocates, with good reason, in view of his valuable work on gum solutions in shock, that a trial should be made of heir intravenous injection in cholera with a view to btain a more prolonged maintenance of the blood- ssure than sometimes follows the use of hypertonic alines. Last year Prof. Bayliss kindly sent me a opy of his paper on gum solutions in shock, and in nowledging it I informed him that I had previously read it, and been so struck with the possibilities of 1e method being of great value in the very severe ses of cholera which repeatedly collapse, and are metimes lost in spite of hypertonic salines, that I id lost no time in trying it, but, unfortunately, with ery disappointing results. This letter apparently did NO. 2604, VOL. 104] not reach Prof. Bayliss, probably on account of ‘““enemy action.”’ : With one exception, the cases in which I tried the gum solution were rather below the average severity, as is commonly the case in the rainy season, when the trial took place; yet several were lost which I should have expected to have recovered under hyper- tonic salines Still more striking was the fact that, instead of the great relief, often resulting in sleep before the hypertonic saline injection is finished, the gum solutions were followed by increasing distress difficulty. of breathing, and cyanosis, which soon com- pelled me to abandon their use. In view of the short- ness of my trial, I decided not to publish my results at once, in the hope that others might be more suc- cessful, but I have now learned that my friend, Lt.-Col. A. Leventon, I.M.S., has extensively tried gum solutions in accordance with Prof. Bayliss’s method at the Campbell Medical School Hospital, Calcutta, where well over one thousand cases have been treated in the first half of this year, and Lt.-Col. Leventon has authorised me to state that, with various strengths of the purest gum arabic up to 7 per cent., his results have been in entire agreement with mine, and he has also had to abandon the metho1. He, too, noted the same distress and cyanosis which I saw, and the unexpected loss of not very serious cases under the treatment—clearly indicating that gum solutions do not meet the physio- logical needs of cholera cases. I confess that this failure has been a great dis- appointment to me, but I believe the explanation to be that the gum solutions lead to the retention in the circulation of the deadly cholera toxins, which are absorbed from the bowel in increasing quantities with the restoration of the circulation by intravenous injections of large quantities of salt solution, with or without gum, but which are usually sufficiently rapidly re-excreted through the kidneys and bowels after hypertonic saline to avoid dangerous accumulation in the blood. The fact that I found salines made up with freshly distilled water produced febrile reactions, indicating that the fever was due to toxin absorption, lends support to this view. There is still room for considerable improvement in the treatment of the most severe toxic cases of cholera, but the hopes which Prof. Bayliss’s researches in shock led me to expect from gum solutions in cholera have been dis- appointed. I have for long thought that the most promising line of advance is the use of anticholeraic serums, such as those formerly made by Salimbeni in Paris and Schurupow in Russia, but which I have not yet been able to obtain facilities for making in Calcutta owing to the war. Perhaps one of the hill laboratories of India could take up this important. line of work, and send the serum to be tested in Calcutta, in addition to my system of treating cholera. LEONARD ROGERs. I Bec to thank you for your courtesy in permitting me to see the above communication from Sir Leonard Rogers. It is unfortunate that the letter to which he refers did not reach me, because it is evident that the effect of gum saline in states similar to that of cholera requires investigation. If the cases to which reference is made had been very severe, one might have supposed that an excessive viscosity wa§ conferred on the blood by the addition of gum. I have made some experiments on this point, but have been unable to detect any serious result when gum saline has been injected after the blood has been con- centrated by various means. It is possible that the retention of toxins may be the explanation, and, of course, the object of any 74 NATURE [SEPTEMBER 25, 1919 simple intravenous injection is merely to keep up a normal circulation until the remedial agents, such as the specific sera to which Sir Leonard Rogers refers, may be able to produce their effect. The symptoms mentioned, however, suggest to my mind rather some mechanical action of the gum, and it might perhaps be worth making a trial of a preliminary saline injection, followed later by one of gum saline, to avoid too. rapid a loss of the fluid injected. In any case, I hope that the experiments now in hand may throw further light on the problem and lead to a means of avoiding the serious disadvantage. I may mention that in my experiments gum saline was found very effective in restoring the renal secretion, and I am convinced that if it should be found possible -to use such solutions they would be more permanent in their results and lead to the more rapid elimination of the toxins, if this takes place through the kidney. W.. M. Baytiss. A Photoelectric Theory of Colour Vision. Reapinc in the Irish Times of to-day (September 11) a very brief reference to a paper communicated by Sir Oliver Lodge to the British Association, in which Sir Oliver suggests that light absorbed in the black pig- ment may stimulate certain atoms into radioactivity and so cause the sensation of light, I am reminded of a theory of colour vision which I endeavoured to in- vestigate some years ago. The theory is that the emission of electrons, probably by the pigment layer under light stimulus, is responsible for light-sensation, and that where these electrons act upon the cones they excite colour vision. It is known that, in the photo- electric expulsion of electrons by light, the range of the electron increases with the frequency. Hence for violet light the cone would experience a different. dis- tribution of the stimulus from that for red light, and so on. ‘I endeavoured to detect a photoelectric effect by ex- periments of the usual sort, using a bullock’s eye in which the pigment layer had been exposed. Although a fairly sensitive arrangement was ultimately arrived at, I failed to detect the sought-for effect. I put the matter aside, although urged by some physiologists to continue it. That the photographic image is initiated in a some- what similar manner seems very probable. On this view much has already been written. J. Jory. Trinity College, September 11. Mathematics at the University of Strasbourg. I HAVE received the programme of the courses in mathematics at Strasbourg, which will undoubtedly stand second only to Paris among the French universi- ties. The Institut de Mathématiques, which forms part of the Faculté des Sciences, is to have five titular professors and three ‘‘maitres de conférences,’’ and offers complete graduate and post-graduate courses. The professor of analyse supérieure and director of the Institut is M. Maurice Fréchet. MM. Valiron, Villat, and Esclangon occupy respectively the chairs of calculus, rational mechanics, .and astronomy; the chair of geometry has not yet been filled. ‘ While English mathematicians are fully appreciative of the work of their French confréres, the French universities, where students of the other nations of the world have flocked, have in the past been a little neglected by English mathematical students. An English student could not do better than spend one of his post-graduate years in France, where he will: find every facility and encouragement, and a very warm welcome, H. Bryon Heywoop. NO. 2604, VoL. 104] ‘posals as to the form which the memorial should F \ The Magnetic Storm of August 11-12, 1919. — I opseRvE in the issue of Nature for August 2 an account of the magnetic storm of August 11-12, 1919, by Father Cortie, of Stonyhurst College Ob- servatory, and note that he looked out for a possible display of aurora on the night of August 11. ‘* But,’’ he says, ‘‘the brightness of the moon effectuall veiled any such appearance, even if it were present.’’ In these’ circumstances it may be well to record that a fine display of the Aurora Borealis was observed here, Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia, on the night of August 11. The affected area extended far into the southern sky. Pulsations of light swept upwards to the zenith, resembling clouds driven before a heavy wind. ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL. Beinn Bhreagh, near Baddeck, N.S. September. 5.°7°"" tity THE WATT CENTENARY CELEBRATIONS. Ae Watt Centenary Celebrations in Birming- ham last week were full of interest, and the presence of representatives from the United States of America, Australia, France, Japan, and Sweden, as well as a cordial message from Norway, bore testimony to the honour in which the memory of James Watt is held throughout the world. At the — inaugural meeting on Tuesday, September 16, the Lord Mayor (Sir David Brooks), in welcoming the visitors (among whom were Mrs. Gibson Watt and Miss Boulton, direct descendants of James Watt and Matthew Boulton), said that it was . fitting that Birmingham should wish to establish a permanent memorial to the man whose dis- — coveries and inventions had done so much for the — city of his adoption. He thought that the pro- take would commend themselves not only to Bir- mingham citizens, but to all who really appreciated the work which James Watt and his associates had accomplished. It was proposed to endow a “James Watt Chair of Engineering” at the University of Birmingham, for the prosecution of — research in the fundamental principles underlying — the production of power. He hoped that the success of this part of the scheme would early be placed beyond doubt. In addition to this it was very desirable to have in the city a suitable build-— ing to house examples of the work of Watt, — Boulton, and Murdock, and the relics which these — men had left behind—a building which might also be a suitable meeting place for scientific and technical societies. : ' An address on “The Rise of Engineering Manu-— facture” was then delivered by Prof. F. W. Burstall (professor of mechanical engineering in the University of Birmingham). Before the middle — of the eighteenth century a high degree of skill — in metal work had been attained, but lack of — power restricted the scale on which work could — be done. Prof. Burstall directed attention to the fact that Boulton and Watt were looked upon as_ the first builders of steam engines, but their work — in starting a system of co-ordinated manufacture had generally been overlooked. He believed that — both the conditions of work and the quality of the workmen to-day were considerably in advance of a ee ee ——— ‘SEPTEMBER 25, 1919 | NATURE 75 __ those of one hundred years ago. There was no likelihood that the highly-skilled worker would ever be replaced by a machine, but for the vast number of unskilled workers machinery meant monotonous work. For the latter the provision of means of healthy recreation was of vital import- ance. Then followed a lecture by Prof. Hele-Shaw on “James Watt and Invention.” The lecturer emphasised the importance of inventions, and remarked that in the late war the country was many times saved by our own inventions, which were brought into being under the stimulus of patriotism and the encouragement given by timely - organisation. He made the suggestion that, as - Watt was so pre-eminent as an inventor, the roposed James Watt chair should be a chair of invention instead of one of engineering. Such a _ chair would be unique and worthy of James Watt as a new and original departure. In the afternoon an impressive memorial service - was held at Handsworth Parish Church, where Watt and his associates worshipped and were buried. Adjoining the church is the memorial chapel in which stands the famous Chantrey statue of James Watt, and there, after the singing of _ the anthem ‘Let us now praise famous men,” the Lord Mayor of Birmingham laid a laurel wreath _ at the foot of this statue. The address was ‘delivered by the Rev. Dr. E. W. Barnes, Canon of _ Westminster, who claimed that ‘it was especially fitting that Birmingham should honour James Watt, for it was there that he perfected his steam- engine; there he found workmen of sufficient skill to carry out his designs; there he found in Boulton the friendly capitalist of whom he was in need; there his fortune was made; and there he ied in honourable old age. Throughont his life Watt was a religious man. He had not the temper or interests of a theological partisan. His ttitude was that of a philosopher, conscious of the complexities of social organisation and of the inherent difficulties of government—a man of ‘science, fully understanding how immense were the distances that shut us in, and not unconscious of the danger of unduly dogmatic speculation as to the unknown.”” Dr. Barnes compared the good and evil resulting from Watt’s genius: “We were, owing to Watt’s inventions, using up coal -at a dangerously rapid rate, and when it was ' gone the industry and the workers which the coal sustained must pass to other lands. The desire -for more motion and for barren luxuries had crowded life and wasted toil, taking largely from man’s mental freedom and physical rest. barren luxuries by which man wasted Watt’s legacy the worst was war. We could. thank God sincerely for Watt’s discoveries and the mechanical revolution to which they led, if ve remembered that it was the political Sagacity. and moral wisdom of men that had been fault. In the last century mechanical progress outstripped spiritual growth that disaster esulted. In default of security gained by reé- NO, 2604, VOL. 104] .Regius And of ligious idealism, the better men and the best races would be eliminated by war, and we should be left with moral degenerates, clever, indeed, in the invention and control of machines, but destitute, and even contemptuous, of spiritual energy.” After the service the visitors were entertained at a garden party at Heathfield Hall by Mr. George Tangye, and much interest was shown in Watt’s famous garret-workshop, which has been preserved in the condition in which he left it a century ago. ; On Wednesday morning, September 17, the proceedings were presided over by the United States Ambassador (the Hon. J. W. Davies), and an address was given by Sir Oliver Lodge on “Sources of Energy.” The lecturer, in his most attractive and vigorous style, dealt mainly with the possibilities of intra-atomic energy. The stock of energy of this kind is prodigious, but it is at present almost entirely inaccessible, and the lecturer speculated on the possibilities of its use in the future. - This was followed by Prof. J.. D. Cormack, Professor. of Engineering in the University of Glasgow, with a paper (written in collaboration with Prof. Barr) on ‘‘The Model of the Newcomen Engine repaired by James Watt.” In the afternoon, visits were paid to some James Watt engines, one at Ocker Hill being shown in action. Here Watt’s original indicator was seen ' at work, and indicator-diagrams taken on it were distributed among the visitors. The occasion was one of unique interest, vividly impressing the mind with the genius of the great engineer, and at the same time bringing home the vast developments : which a century has seen in the applications of steam-power. In the. evening about 300 guests assembled for the centenary dinner at the Grand Hotel, the Lord Mayor presiding, and the American Ambas- sador and the Chancellor of the Exchequer being prominent in a gathering of distinguished men. In proposing the toast of the “Houses of Parlia- ment,” Sir Oliver Lodge insisted on the vital need of the encouragement of scientific research, not by an ad hoc bureau in London, but through the universities throughout the country. He coupled with the toast the name of the Chancellor of the Exchequer. “They in Birmingham had an affec- tion for Mr. Austen Chamberlain, and they in the University of Birmingham regarded him with affection ‘because when he last held his present office he increased to them a Government grant which subsequent occupants of the office had followed up. It would be wisdom for this country to lavish money upon the universities. Economy was necessary, but it did not pay to cut off the best part of the money granted to the uni- versities.”” Mr. Austen Chamberlain, in replying, spoke of the difficulties of a Chancellor of the Exchequer, especially at the present crisis; but he was sym- pathetic. University education was one of the things that seemed to him to require generous 76 NATURE [SEPTEMBER 25, 1919 treatment, and he had endeavoured to ensure that university grants should be increased—not merely by a temporary increase which was given to repair the injury done by the war, but by a permanent increase. That expenditure would grow as they could afford it, but they must not expect the Government to move too far. People might be enthusiastic men of science and devoted sons of universities on Monday, but on Tuesday, when he Sige the budget, they were taxpayers. The Government would do its share on one condition only—that the towns did their share also.” The toast of ‘The Navy, Army, and Air Force,” proposed by Mr. Gilbert C. Vyle, was replied to by Admiral Sir G. G. Goodwin, who acknowledged the debt of the Navy to Watt, and by Colonel Barraclough (professor of engineering in Sydney University), the latter expressing the opinion that “if the agitator, the profiteer, the man who was inclined to relax his labours, could all come to Soho and live, as the visitors to that commemora- tion had done, with the memories of Watt and his co-workers, they would go away with a higher- sense of their responsibilities to themselves and to the community of which they formed a part.” The American Ambassador proposed the toast of “The City of Birmingham” in an admirable speech, in the course of which he said that one date in the summary of the important events in the life of James Watt was that of the American Revolution. “The ideas that the revolution embodied had not lost their force. But, great as that revolution was, and important as Americans believed the date to be, he was reminded that it was the year of an even greater revolution—the year when James Watt made his invention a prac- tical success. The toast of “The Memory of tabaci Watt” was proposed by Prof. Burstall, who emphasised the value to James Watt of the strength and co- operation of Boulton. Prof. Rateau brought ‘‘a tribute of honour and appreciation from science and labour in France to the memory of the great man in whose honour they were met that day.” On Thursday, at a special degree congregation, honorary degrees were conferred by the University on the American Ambassador, M. Auguste Rateau, Prof. Archibald Barr, Sir George Beilby, Colonel Blackett, Engineer Vice-Admiral Sir George Goodwin, and Mr. F. W. Lanchester. It was much regretted that Sir Charles Parsons was unable to be present. On Saturday representatives of the Chamber of Commerce, the University, and engineering workers in Birmingham formed an impressive pro- cession headed, by a model of a James Watt engine. The interest taken by the workers them- selves in the memory of Watt is perhaps the most encouraging feature of the commemoration, for the future depends very largely on the attitude of organised labour, and there is no. doubt that many of the leaders of labour take an enlightened view of the educational needs of the country. NO. 2604, VOL. 104] PROF, J. W. H. TRAIL, F.R.S: WE regret to record the death on ‘Sep- tember 18 of Prof. Trail, who for forty-two years held the Regius chair of botany i in the Uni- versity of Aberdeen. Carrying his eel years with uncommon vigour, he lectured tw daily to the overcrowded classes of the past summer, and he seemed in July to be in the enjoy- ment of his usual health, so that it was with a shock that his friends heard of a serious opera- . tion. At first he rallied, but then rapidly sank. Those who knew him could hardly imagine for him any other end than that he should thus die in harness. Prof. Trail was a ciated figure in Aberdeen. Orcadian by birth, he was the son of Dr. S‘ Trail, professor of systematic theology in Aberdeen, and moderator of the General Assembly in 1874. He » graduated with highest honours in natural science in 1876, and took his M.D. in 1879. In 1873-75 he travelled. in Northern Brazil as naturalist to an exploring expedition, and used this opportunity for making a special study of Palms, of which family he had an expert knowledge. His results were published in a series of papers “On the Palms of the Amazon Valley,” contributed to the Journal of Botany. On his return at the age of twenty-six he was appointed to the chair of botany in succession to Dr. Dickie. He held that post — till his death. 5 Prof. Trail’s work was marked by extreme — accuracy, and guided by a keen sense of duty. Once a specimen was collected, he felt the obliga- tion to make the most of it. The result of such work, extending over so long a period, has been the amassing of an enormous record of facts relat- ing especially to the native flora. The Scottish Naturalist was one of the chief channels of his publication. There he produced a series of papers on Scottish galls and on leaf-diseases, which will — provide rich material for those who follow. His — mind was attracted by fact rather than by theo- retical construction. His knowledge of those details which he studied was singularly wide and exact. For instance, having noted the inconstancy — of floral construction in Polygonum aviculare, he monographed a single plant, and found as many ~ as 120 distinct variations in number and relation of the floral parts borne upon it. He was rather reluctant in publication, but he was most generous in imparting his knowledge by correspondence, — thus suggesting the stores that lay behind. These — were most readily revealed to the botanical visitor — to his house. ; Prof. Trail was thoroughly typical of Aberdeen, | vigorous, self-reliant, with a strong sense of duty, | and a touch of austerity in its performance. — Brought up in the granite city, he took a large hand in the guidance of education there. Not only | was he a leader in the University itself, but he also | took part locally in directing that secondary educa- | tion which forms the natural foundation for the higher learning. Himself son of a professor and — moderator, he married a daughter of the late | SEPTEMBER 2 5, 1919 | NATURE 77 Prof. Milligan, who was also moderator of the General Assembly, and clerk of senate in Aber- deen, and he leaves a son and three daughters. _ Thus truly the spirit of Aberdeen University was _ bred in his bones, and inspired him throughout his life. KO ';B: NOTES. _ $ir Ricuarp GLaAzEBROOK’s appointment as Director of the National Physical Laboratory expired on September 17 on his attaining the age ‘of sixty-five. Sir Richard had held the post with distinction for twenty years, having been appointed on the founda- _ tion of the laboratory:.by the Royal Society in 1899. _ For the first two years the work of the laboratory was carried out at Kew.) Observatory by the staff of the observatory with the addition of three scientific assistants. The income was approximately 5oool. _ per annum. Soon afterwards Bushy House became _ the home of the laboratory, and as its work extended additional buildings were erected in the grounds. At the present time these buildings probably provide a space twenty times that of Bushy House, and the staff now numbers about five hundred, nearly two hundred of whom are women. The ordinary expendi- - ture of the laboratory just before the war was about 40,0001. per annum. During the war it rose to 10,0001, per annum. ‘The rapid growth of ‘the in- stitution is the best proof that it met a real need, and that it met it efficiently. It owes its success to the administrative powers of the director and to the skill he exercised in his choice of the men to fill the earlier appointments. Without exception, these men have _ distinguished themselves by their scientific work and _ have contributed largely to the reputation the labora- ' tory now enjoys. Eighteen months ago the labora- ' tory was taken over by the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, and, according to the report of that Department for 1918-19 just issued, 154,o00l. is allocated to it for the current financial year Although the laboratory does not attain its majority under Sir Richard’s directorship, he has had the _ satisfaction of rearing it to a vigorous manhood, and he will from his Cambridge home watch its growth under Government suspices with interest. He is suc- _ ceeded by Dr. J. E. Petavel, professor of engineering in the Victoria University of Manchester. _ Crrcutar No. 39, dated September 1, issued by the Meteorological Office, mentions the retirement of - Rear-Admiral Sir John F. Parry and the appointment of Rear-Admiral F. C. Learmonth, C.B., who suc- - ceeds as Hydrographer of the Navy, and consequently as an ex-officio member of the Meteorological Com- mittee. A conferénce of meteorologists will be held _ in Paris on September 30 and subsequent days, fol- _ lowing the conference in London of the meteorologists - of the British Dominions from September 23 to 27. A note is given relative to the time of occurrence of “minimum air-temperature on the grass. The observa- tions at Cahirciveen have been handled to test a sug- estion made that the grass minimum for the night is frequently reached between sunset and 2th. Since April 1, 1917, the grass minimum at Valencia has been set at 18h., and read daily without disturbance at 2th. Out of 850 observations made to June, 1919, ‘the number of occasions on which the phenomenon as observed was 101, which seems to be accounted for by a cloudy to overcast sky setting in during the / evening, followed by rain, mist, or drizzle, with a | wind of moderate force having a southerly component, ‘the sky previously, between 18h. and 2th., being com- NO. 2604, VOL. 104] paratively clear. The effect of terrestrial radiation is- clearly to be traced in the foregoing explanation. From the September issue the Technical Supple- ment to the Review of the Foreign Press, formerly issued by the General Staff of the War Office, is to be known as the Technical Review. With the same organisation and staff it will continue to provide a digest of the technical Press of the whole world for the benefit of engineers and manufacturers. At present the articles in it consist either of abstracts or of titles, with occasional short accounts arranged under the heads :—Engineering construction | and transportation, mechanical. engineering, mining and metals, shipbuilding and marine engineering, elec- trical engineering, aeronautics, chemical. engineering and industry, miscellaneous, recent publications, and engineering index. The review provides for én- gineering in general the information as to recent progress which has keen available for electrical €n- gineering for some years in Science Abstracts, and for chemical engineering in Chemical Abstracts, as well as in the abstracts published by the Chemical Society and the Society of Chemical Industry. AN important collection of Lyceenide and Hes- peride has recently come into the possession of Mr. J. J. Joicey, and is now at the Hill Museum, Witley. This collection was made by Mr. Hamilton H. Druce, who is well known as one of our greatest authorities on the Lycenide and Hesveride. A great many types of species described by Mr. Druce, as well as many of the types of Semper, are contained in the collection. Entomologists desirous of comparing any specimens in this collection are invited to write to the Curator, the Hill Museum, Witley, Surrey. THRouGH the courtesy of the Corporation cf London, a series of fortnightly lectures on industrial problems will be delivered at the Guildhall at 4-30 p.m., commencing on October 7. The speakers will include Mr. E. J. P. Benn, Prof. Ripper, Dr. Russell Wells, the: Right Hon. Sir Auckland Geddes, Sir George Paish, and the Right Hon. Lord Emmott. Tickets for this series can be had on application to the Secretary, Industrial League and Council, 66 Vic- toria Street, S.W.1. Tue New York correspondent of the Daily Mail announces that, on September 18, Mr. Roland Rohlfs reached an altitude of 34,610 ft. in seventy-eight minutes in a 4o0-h.p. Curtiss triplane. The flight was observed by officials of the Aero Club, who sealed Mr. Rohlfs’s instruments, and, when he landed, sent them to Washington for verification. The previous record for altitude was that of 30,500 ft. attained by Capt. Lang and Lieut. Blowes in January last. (See Naturg, January 9, p. 369.) It was announced by Sir Robert Hadfield at the autumn meeting of the Iron and Steel Institute, which opened on September 18, that the Prince of Wales had consented to become an honorary member of the institute. Dr. Federico Giolitti, formerly professor of metallurgical chemistry and metallography at Turin, was presented with the Bessemer medal for Ig1g in recognition of his services to the science of metallurgy. _A LarGE neolithic graveyard, of the La Téne period, has been found by Dr. B. Schnittger at Gestilren, in Vestrogothia. Two quadrangular and ten circular stone enclosures were set on a gravel esker and covered by smooth slabs. The bones were burned, and in hollows or urns. Similar graves are known ‘at Halleby and other places in Ostrogothia, but these are the first discovered in Vestrogothia. 78 NATURE [SEPTEMBER 25, I9I1Q- Tue Scandinavian Association for a Tropical Bio- logical Station has decided to send an expedition this autumn to select a site for a research station to study marine biology. Dr. Th. Mortensen, who is chair- man and founder of the association, will lead a small arty including probably Dr. Nils Holmgren and a otanist. They will visit Celebes, North Borneo, Amboina, and New Guinea. Pror. G, T. Morcan will deliver the Streatfeild memorial lecture at the Finsbury Technical College at four o’clock on Thursday, October 2, taking as his subject ‘‘ Applied Chemistry in Relation to University Training.’’ Admission will be free. i In the Canadian Field-Naturalist (vol. xxxiii., No. 2, May, 1919), Mr. F. W. Waugh, of the Geological Survey, Ottawa, gives a careful account of Canadian aboriginal canoes. The types of these are found in separate regions—the Eskimo kayak and umiak in the north, and to the south that of the birch-bark canoe. The latter apparently reached its perfection in the Algonquian area, a region extending from round the Great Lakes and some distance westward, to the mari- time provinces and the New England States. This dis- tribution was largely determined by the range of the canoe birch (Vetura papyrifera), which extends prac- tically from the Atlantic coast to the Rockies. The disappearance of the birch southward is indicated by the inferior canoes of elm, buttonwood, and basswood bark built by the Iroquois of Central New York State. This latter type was heavy, inconvenient for portaging, and usually short-lived. Practically everywhere within the region of Algonquian influence proper the birch- bark canoe was essentially the same, such differences as occur concerning mostly the shape of bow and stern, which has evidently been derived almost exclusively from a single pattern, with local variations in the amount of curvature or recurvature, and the method of decking over at the ends, where such a device was employed, Pror. CuILton has published some notes of interest on destructive boring crustacea in New Zealand (N.Z. Journ, Sci. and Techn., vol. ii., no. 1). The well- known European Chelura terebrans.(an amphipod) and Limnoria lignorum (the ‘‘gribble,’? an isopod) are active destroyers of pier-timber in the southern seas, and the latter devours also the insulating material of submarine telegraph cables. In addition, an Austra- lian isopod, Sphaeroma quoyana, burrows into sand- stone rock as well as into timber, In the Annals of the Natal Museum (vol. iv., pt. 1), among several interesting zoological papers, one on the wing venation and respiratory system of certain South African termites by Claude Fuller is worthy of special notice. Details are given of the relation be- tween wing nervures and primitive air tubes in several genera of termites, and the student of insect trans- formations may obtain much instruction from Mr. Fuller’s demonstration of the development and unfold. ing of the wings from the larval and nymphal rudi- ments, Dr. Victor E. SHELFORD writes in the Scientific Monthly of August last on the general question of the waste involved in the discharge of domestic and in- dustrial sewage into the sea and rivers. Experimental methods for testing the effect on fishes of various substances in solution have been devised. The reaction employed was the turning away of various kinds of fish from the part of a large tank where the contents of the water in the toxic substance was above or below the normal amount. The sensibility, NO. 2604, VOL. 104] of fish to such compounds as occur in waste material is thus shown to be greater than has hitherto been supposed, thus an increase in carbon dioxide of 2 c.c. in one litre above the normal caused the turning- away reaction. A low oxygen content was also detri- mental, and this was usually found to accompany a high carbon dioxide content. The waste substances resulting from gas-production works and from muni- tions processes were also studied, and it was shown that these substances, though almost insoluble, had very marked effects on fish-life. References to papers published by the author and his colleagues are given. - VoL. xxv. of the ‘‘Rapports et Procés-Verbaux ”’ issued by the International Council for the Explora- tion of the Sea deals with the administration for the years 1916-18. The usual fi ial contributions were made by the neutral cou Denmark, Holland, Norway, and Sweden, and™ reat Britain for the years 1916-17 and for 1918-19. Some fishery investiga- tions were carried on in Scandinavian waters, and a hydrographical bulletin summarising the results so far obtained is being prepared. The influence of the war on the fish population of the North Sea is dis- cussed, and the opinion expressed that the stock of certain ‘kinds of fish is undergoing considerable changes. “It is even within the’ bounds of possibility that the previous indications of ‘ over-fishing’ may be replaced by indications of ‘ over-population ’ of fish.” The testing of such opinions is regarded as a matter of much importance. ‘‘New points of view even as to restrictive laws may be expected as a result of such investigations.’’? There is, however, no indication that such work is being seriously undertaken, and the “accumulated stock,’’ if it exists, must soon be seriously diminished by the intensive trawling which may be expected very soon. A DETAILED report on fruit culture in Malaya ky : J. N. Milsum (Bull. Dept. Agr., Fed. Malay States, No. 29, Kuala Lumpur, 1919) has recently appeared. The story that is told here or written between the lines might be told of most countries of the eastern tropics, or, indeéd, population that is likely to consume such fruit is small and migratory. The native of the ipesrces is content with the fruit that is: easily produced there and already well known (in this case the durian, mango, sapodilla, mangosteen, jak, etc.), and has no desire for others. The migratory European planter — does not think it worth his while to grow fruit that he may not remain to consume. And, lastly, and most important of all, the profits of the established industries (here largely rubber) are greater and more certain than those of fruit culture, so that no one is tempted to grow fruit commercially. The result is that the resident in the country is reduced in general to bananas, pineapples, mangoes, and a few more, and these usually not of the best quality. What is really required, and shows real possibilities, is the improvement of those fruits that are already cul- tivated rather than the introduction of new ones. The resident, too, must be prepared to pay a good price for a good article. A detailed account is given of many different fruits and how to cultivate them, but little attempt is made to discriminate between really first-class fruits, such as banana, mango, or pineapple, and inferior fruits. such as rambutan cr rose-apple—interesting fruit to taste once in a while, but not fruit that anyone is likely to wish to cultivate. Tue Memoirs of the Indian Museum (vol. vii., No. 2, July, 1919) contains an interesting paper entitled ‘‘ Observations on the Shells of the Family Doliide,” by. E. W. Vredenburg. The memoir is— of most countries where the ea! AST Ba eA ee es pine j ; j | i { SEPTEMBER 25, 1919]. NATURE 79 illustrated by seven excellent plates reproduced from photographs, in which the features of four of the principal species of Dolium are well shown. The material dealt with is largely contained in the Indian Museum, and includes several species of Dolium and of Pirula... A-very welcome and important feature is a review of the fossil occurrences of species belonging to these two genera, from which it appears that the nus Dolium is not known in formations older than Oligocene, the greater number of fossil representa- tives being Upper Miocene and Pliocene; it. seems to have reached the climax of its’ development at the esent day. The genus Pirula, on the other hand, is known from’ Cretaceous times, and the fossil species are more numerous than the recent.ones. In discussing the synonymy of certain of the species of Dolium, the author brings forward some excellent arguments in favour of the selection of specific names of long-established usage and tradition instead of the adoption of names which, though earlier, are not always to be trusted; for, as the author. points out, ‘there is always the risk of an industrious’ biblio- grapher discovering some forgotten monograph of earlier date than the one relied upon as final. This ‘is only one of many cases, both of generic and specific names, which can be cited to show that a rigid application of the law of priority is not always to the benefit of science. As has been pointed out y others, it is for the International Zoological Con- gress to consider the adoption of a list of nomina conservanda, 4 - Canapa and the Colonies of Bermuda and New- oundland issue regularly a ‘Monthly record of ‘meteorological observations’’ under the directorship of Sir Frederic Stupart. The record for March has “just reached us, and it contains a mass of means for arometer, temperature, relative humidity, precipita- _ tion, wind direction and-velocity, and cloudiness. For _ chosen stations the hourly readings are given which allow of minute examination of the climate. The detailed observations are ‘“‘boiled down’”’ to give a general mi at of temperature and precipitation for _ the several districts and provinces. It is stated that under ideal conditions the means should be derived from stations uniformly distributed, but such ideal conditions are not only wanting in Canada, and it is a common failing elsewhere, if not everywhere. Maps are given showing difference of temperature from average, and total precipitation in inches. The tem- perature-map shows a deficiency of 14° F. around Alberta and an excess of 6° to the south of Hudson a The precipitation is indicated by degrees of shading, the heavier falls being well shown over the parts bordering the Pacific and the Atlantic Oceans. _ A more than usually interesting discussion of a phoon in the Eastern seas by the Rev. José Coronas, , the chief of the Meteorological Division of the Weather Bureau of the Philippine Islands, has been recently issued. The storm is called the ‘‘ Quantico” yphoon, as it caused the total wreck of a large steamer of that name on the northern shore of Tablas Island. The storm is also known as ‘‘the Christmas typhoon of 1918,” as it occurred on Christmas Day. the typhoon is carefully tracked throughout its course ind maps are given at frequent intervals. Detailed servations are also given of the movement of the arometer and the direction and force of the wind. Several plates are given showing the damage caused the typhoon. The track of the typhoon is said to altogether abnormal, and this is probably the most nteresting feature, as it contains a warning for both he seaman and the forecaster. The typhoon is shown NO, 2604, VOL. 104] Bay. to have first moved towards the west: by north, then to have inclined northwards whilst to the east of the central part of the Philippines, and finally recurving backward not only to west by north, but to west by south, and even to west-south-west. The slow move- ‘ment of the typhoon on December 23-24 is said, in 99 per cent. of the cases, to be a sign that the typhoon was recurving north-eastward, especially at the end of. December, and to the east of the Philippines. Observations, however, prove most conclusively that the movement was in the. opposite direction. The rate of progress of the typhoon was at first about 11 miles.an hour, the rate afterwards decreasing to 4 miles an hour or less, whilst after recurving to the west-south-west the typhoon attained its former rate of progress. The vortical calm was probably 15-25 miles in diameter. The area of destruction whilst it was. raging in or near Luzon was about 80-100 miles in diameter. Tue ‘Algebraic Cube”’ is a model illustrating the formula (a+ b)°’=a*+3a°b+3ab7+b*. Imagine a cube of edge equal to a+b cut by three mutually per- pendicular planes each distant a from one of the sides. The se a pieces into which the cube is divided will consist of a cube of edge equal to a, a cube of edge equal to b, three blocks of base a* and height b, and three blocks of base b? and height a. Thus each piece represents a single algebraic term, which is engraved on the face of the block. The block a’ is coloured: blue, the three blocks a*b are yellow, the three blocks ab? red, and the cube b* black. The model is the three-dimensional analogue of the well- known Euclidean construction showing the relation (a+b)*=a?+2ab+b*, and should prove a very useful aid in teaching young pupils the foundation of the rule for the extraction of cube roots. The blocks are supplied in a neat cubical box, 10 cm. to the edge, by Messrs. Barnes and Morris, Ltd., scientific instru- ment makers, Audrey House, Ely Place, London, E.C.1. WE learn from the British Journal of Photography of September 12 that Mr. Herbert A. Lubs, of the colour laboratory of the United States Bureau cf Chemistry, has investigated the preparation of p-aminocarvacrol and its use as a developing agent in photography. It is conveniently prepared from carvacrol by the production of nitrosocarvacrol, and the reduction of this by ammonium sulphide. Five grams of the pure- derivative were obtained from 1o grams of carvacrol. As a developer for prints p-aminocarvacrol was found to be as good as metol, p-aminophenol, or p-aminocresol, and the lasting quality of the mixed developer was superior to that of p-aminophenol, but not quite. so good as that of the others. This work has been done particularly with the view of utilising the abundant source of carvacrol that may be prepared from. cymene. Thymoquinol and p-aminothymol were also prepared, but they proved to be less satisfactory both with regard to yield and their behaviour as developing agents. In Engineering for September 12 Dr. W. C. Unwin gives an account of an investigation he has made cn the results of notched-bar tests. Dr. Unwin has applied Prof. Martens’s method of calculating the ‘“mean error,’’ which differs little from the probable error and is easier to calculate, and has taken the test results given in the paper on shock tests ky MM. Charpy and Thenard (Iron and Steel Institute, 1917), and also those in the British Association report for 1918. Dr. Unwin finds that an empirical formula 80 NATURE [ SEPTEMBER 25, 1919 of the form :. Work of rupture/area of fracture raised to a power n, gives closer agreement with the experi- mental results than other formule which have been employed. mn ranges from 1-17 to 1-41 for the Charpy and Thenard results. Dr. Unwin considers, however, that the results are too few for a safe generalisation, and that further progress cannot bé made until a greater number of careful tests have been made with bars of different sizes, the results of which are as consistent with each other as those of Charpy and Thenard, the value of whose 1917 paper it would be difficult to overrate. AN interesting description, with working drawings, ‘ of a Michell thrust bearing appears in the Engineer for August 29. This bearing has been made by Messrs. Cammell Laird for H.M. destroyer Mackay, and was fitted to the port turbine, whilst the star- board turbine had a thrust bearing of the ordinary type. The pressures on these bearings were 549 Ib. and 120 lb. per sq. in. respectively, and it is interest- ing to note that the oil discharged from the Michell bearing was about 18° cooler than that from the ordinary type. Another valuable point about. the Cammell Laird design is in the form of a thrust- indicating device fitted to the bearing. This consists of a number of small hydraulic cylinders having rams which bear against the abutment ring which carries the thrust pads. By pumping oil into these cylinders the rams force the abutment ring off its seat, and the whole of the propeller thrust is then carried by the rams. Thus the pressure in the cylinders is a measure of the thrust. On the trials of the Mackay the thrusts registered were 59 tons and 56 tons respectively for the port and starboard engines, and varied to 61 tons and 47 tons when turning. Variations in speed were also recorded by the thrust indicator, and give fair curves on a graph. This device is likely to be extremely valuable in solving problems of propeller efficiency and resistance of ships by enabling experi- ments to be carried out on the ship itself as well as on tank models. Messrs. George Bell and Sons, Ltd., announce for early publication a new ‘Card Test for Colour- Blindness,’’ consisting of twenty-four cards devised by Dr. F. W. Edridge-Green. Mr. J. Reid Moir is publishing through Mr. W. E. Harrison, the Ancient House Press, Ipswich, a volume entitled ‘‘ Pre-Palzo- lithic Man,’’ in which will be given an account of the flint-implements discovered in certain Pliocene deposits in East Anglia. The book will also contain chapters dealing respectively with flint fracture, the ancestry of the Mousterian palzolithic artefacts, and the Piltdown remains. Messrs. Hodder and Stoughton announce for appearance in their New ‘Teaching Series of Practical Text-Books ‘‘Chemistry from the Industrial Standpoint,’’ P. C. L. Thorne; ‘The Natural Wealth of Britain: Its Origin and Exploita- tion,’ S. J. Duly; ‘‘Foundations of Engineering,’ W. H. Spikes; ‘‘Chemistry and Bacteriology of Agriculture,’? E. J. Holmyard; ‘Applied Botany,” G. S. M. Ellis; “* Everyday Mathematics,”’ F. Sandon; “The Mathematics of Engineering,’ S. B. Gates; ‘‘Mathematics of Business and Commerce,’ O. H. Cocks and E. P. Glover; and ‘Geography of Commerce and Industry,’? R. S. Bridge. The list of announcements of the Oxford University Press (Mr. Humphrey Milford) has just been issued, and contains, among others, the following works :— ‘Medical Science : Abstracts and Reviews ’’; ‘‘ Patho- logy of War Gases,’’ Dr. M. C. Winternitz; ‘* United States Forest Policy,’”’ J. Ise; ‘‘Fungal Diseases of the Common Larch,”? W. E. Hiley; ‘‘ Effects of the NO. 2604, VOL. 104] Great War upon Agriculture in the United States and Great Britain,’’ Prof. B. H. Hibbard; ‘ Aris- totelis Meteorologicorum Libri Quattuor,’”? Recensuit Indicem Verborum Addidit, F. H. Fobes; ‘ James Tod’s Annals and Antiquities of Rajasthan,’’ edited, with an introduction and notes, by Dr. W. Crooke; and ‘‘The Heart and the Aorta,’’ Drs. Waquez and Bordet, translated by Dr. Honeij. A new series cf books is to be brought out by the University of London Press, Ltd., entitled ‘‘The Education of the Future.’’ It will be edited by Mr. Benchara Bran- ford, who is writing an introductory volume on ‘‘ The Modern Philosophical Basis of Education.’? Other volumes of the series will be ‘Psychology of the Class,’’ F. Watts, and ‘“‘ The Teaching of Geography,”’ Miss A. Booker. : ReEaDERS of NaTuRE interested in geology should see the latest catalogue (No. 88, new coried): of Messrs. John Wheldon and Co., 38 Great Queen Street, W.C.2, which contains the titles of upwards of two thousand publications relating to geology and mineralogy, conveniently classified under the main headings of Geographical, General Geology, and Economic (Mineralogy, Metallurgy, and Mining). The catalogue is particularly strong in French ard German works. OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN. Comets.—Mr. H. Vanderlinden has comptes i 2 -Borrelly) following orbit of comet 1919¢ (Metcal from observations on August 24 and 30 and Sep- tember 5. published, but is evidently more accurate :— T=1919 Dec. 7°2721 G.M.T. w =185° 49’ re} Q=120° 59’ 14” F1gI9'0 fis 46° 23/ 30” log g =0'046698 Ephemeris for Greenwich Midnight. 5 ee N. Decl. Log Log a. a ie, ie ie Sept. 28 "5.12 8. 20 SO O1043) Dagar Oct, 2.0.6. 15 21.18 + 8 50... 01829. | geares Oe as RG 30149 6 48 O-I7II 0-3127 IO... I5 40 41 4 43. ols 0°3083 14 15 5° 55 237 = O147 03041 The magnitude is 8-8 on October 2; brightening slowly. Many naked-eye observations of comet 1919b (Metcalf-Brorsen) are reported, so the brightness evidently exceeds the tabular value. No revised elliptical elements have yet been published. The errors of the Copenhagen ephemeris are now quite appreciable, so a little sweeping may be necessary to find the object. Tur Furure of THE Transit Crrcte.—Mr. J. E. de — Vos Van Steenwijk has a paper on this subject in the September Observatory. Some ardent supporte rs of photography think that our transit circles ar u t be scrapped altogether. The paper reminds us t fundamental places of the sun and principal fixed stars are still needed, but they may safely be left in the hands of a few observatories. Reference stars for photographic plates must also be observed, but the number required may be greatly diminished if por- trait lenses with a large field are used for the photo- graphs. The paper suggests two other useful fields: (1) A meridian parallax Durchmusterung; while the individual results might not be very accurate, probably a good many stars: would be found that would repay It differs considerably from that already — Wee i ae eS EE | SEPTEMBER 25, 1919] NATURE SI further research. (2) It is desirable to obtain accurate ~ positions and proper motions of as many stars as possible of types M and N. Owing to their non- - actinic colour, these stars are more suitable for visual _ than for photographic research. - HEREDITY AND EVOLUTION. $N recent investigations on the subject of heredity _~* much interest has centred around the question of _ the determination of sex. In this connection attention _ may be directed to a short but important paper by _ Prof. Jacques Loeb (Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., Washing- ton, vol. iv., 1918, pp. 60-2), in which he describes observations on the sex of frogs developed from parthenogenetic eggs incited to segmentation by the mechanical stimulus of puncture. Twenty of these _ creatures reached ages of from ten to eighteen months, _ several attaining the size of the full-grown, normal _ adult male, to which sex belonged seven of the nine the gonads of which were examined, the other two _ being females. Hence it appears that frogs of either _ sex may arise as the result of ‘artificial partheno- _ genesis.’’ Cytological study demonstrated the presence _ of the full (diploid) number of chromosomes in these males, and Prof. Loeb infers that the female is _ probably heterozygous for the sex-character. But _ there seems to be good evidence for an ‘indifferent ” condition as to sex in some immature frogs at least, as shown by the well-known researches of Prof. R. _ Hertwig ana suggested by observations of Prof. Loeb m a former paper of his that the testes of a male just after transformation may contain a few eggs. It is doubtful, therefore, whether sex in frogs is absolutely determined by the nature of the germ- chromosomes. Individual animals in which the secondary charac- ters of the two sexes are combined afford a curious puzzle to students of this question. In the Journal _ of Genetics (vol. vii., No. 3) the Rev. J. E. Hull gives _ details of a few cases of such “ gynandry ’? among spiders. In one case (Gidothorax fuscus) the speci- _ men externally was ‘‘completely male on the left side and female on the right’; in another (Maso sun- _ devallit) it was ‘‘male on the left side, but not quite female on the right,’’ the apex of the right palp being somewhat swollen. A third spider (Lophomma herbi- gradwm) was perfectly male on the right of the _cephalothorax, with modified. falx and palp, and female on the left, but the abdomen showed the characteristic female epigyne half-developed on the right, the left half of the abdomen being male. Such abnormalities, though highly interesting, are so rare that it will probably be long before they will yield much enlightenment on fundamental problems of sex. In the same issue of the Journal of Genetics Mr. -D. W. Cutler describes the spermatogenesis of infer- tile hybrids between pheasant. and Gold. Campine fowl, and finds that the process is abnormal : failure of the synaptic threads to form bivalent chromosomes is evidently the cause of sterility in the hybrids.’? This result is compared with those derived from the study of the germ-cells of other sterile hybrids, in some of which the sex. is apparently deter- mined by the sex of one of the parent species. A short but noteworthy contribution to this subject is Drs. L. J. Cole and W. A. Lippincott’s paper on the relation of plumage to ovarian condition in a Barred Plymouth Rock pullet (Biol. Bull., vol. xxxvi., No. 3). This bird assumed- partially the male plumage, and the change was found to be due to a Rirce ovarian tumour; though the abnormal feathers were like those of a male in shape and structure, they resembled hen feathers as regards ‘‘barring.’’ This, No. 2604, VOL. 104] the authors believe, differentiates ‘“‘secondary sexual ‘dimorphism from dimorphism caused through sex- linkage as illustrated by the barring.” After an implantation of normal ovarian tissue, new feathers which were definitely female grew in a few weeks. New subjects for hybridising experiments are afforded by the northern’ and southern forms. of African ostrich, the results of crossing which are described by Prof. J. E. Duerden (Journal cf Genetics, vol. viii., No. 3). These two species (or sub- species) interbreed freely, and the offspring are fertile among themselves and with ‘the parent forms. “Everything points to the distinctive characteristics of the two species as having separate factorial repre- sentation in the germ plasm.’’ The bald patch on the head of the northern race is dominant to the feathered condition ot the southern, but in most features “blended”? inheritance is apparent. None of the specific characters appear to have any adaptive value. The application of Mendelian analysis to economic plant-breeding is well exemplified by A. St. Clair Caporn’s studies (Journal of Genetics, vol. vii., No. 4) on early and late ripening in an oat-cross and on variation in glume-lengths of extracted parental types and the inheritance of purple colour in a wheat- cross (Triticum polonicumxeloboni). ‘ Earliness ”’ and “‘lateness’’ in oats are not sharply defined characters; they are spread over a. period, though ‘the ripening times of the parents used did not over- lap.” The hybrids were more or less intermediate, while in the F, generation there was ‘evidence of early, late, and many intermediate forms.’? Some remarkable results were obtained from the wheat- crossing experiments. In the F, generation a marked change in the average length of the glumes in homozygous long-glumed plants ‘‘as compared with the average of the parent T. polonicum, under equal conditions, persists right through into the F, genera- tion.” The inheritance of purple pericarp colour ‘is distinguished by one cardinal and unaccounted for anomaly; segregations analogous to the F, segrega- tion have not been found in the F, generation.’ Most students of ‘‘Mendelism’? would probably hold the opinion that little remains to be added to our knowledge of the classical case of the blue Anda- lusian fowl But Dr. W. A. Lippincott (Amer. Nat., vol. lii., No. 614) gives reasons for believing that ‘the 1: 2:1 ratio is in reality a combination of two 3:1 ratios,” and that the condition in the blues is due to the combined action of two factors, one of which restricts the distribution of the black pigment within the feathers in such a way that it gives the characteristic blue-grey appearance, while the other extends the black pigment to every feather of the bird. Somewhat similar suggestions had previously been made by R. Goldschmidt and by A. L. and A. C. Hagedoorn. According to Dr. Lippincott, the birds usually defined as ‘‘ white splashed with black” would be more correctly described as ‘‘blue-splashed.’’ His theory seems largely dependent on the possibility of ““crossing-over ’* of determinants in the chromosomes, for which no evidence is yet forthcoming, and he admits that ‘tif these cross-overs should not be found, it might at first appear that the interpretation of the case of the blue Andalusian is in all probability exactly what has been suggested from the first, namely, that blue is a heterozygote intermediate between the parental types.’’ A noteworthy critical discussion on the factors of organic evolution has been contributed by Prof. L. B. Walton to the American Naturalist (vol. lii. Nos. 622- 23). He believes that heritable characters in general arise from preformed unit factors that may have been in existence during long geological periods; the 82 NATURE [SEPTEMBER 25, 1919 modern study of genetics gives no means of distin- guishing a new factor from one long in existence, He suggests that the mutations studied by De Vries in plants, and the modifications obtained by Castle in mammals, are due to the combination’ of pre- existing factors, while the famous mutations in flies elucidated by Morgan ‘‘are in the nature of modal fluctuations having no definite cumulative value.” Prof. Walton’s own definite contribution in this paper is found in his summary of the direction of axial rotation in Euglena and other Protozoa which ‘is best explainable on the basis of the apparent east- west motion of the sun having influenced the move- ment of the organs of locomotion.’? This seems an insecure foundation for such a generalisation as the author’s statement that ‘the primary factors in evolu- tion are environmental, and thus dynamic.’ G. H. Carpenter. CHEMISTRY OF “BURGUNDY MIXTURE.” HE chemistry of ‘Burgundy mixture” is prac- tically important, because to give it the greatest efficiency it should possess a maximum fungicidal power and a minimum potentiality for injuring foliage, The reaction of sodium carbonate and copper sulphate solutions has been studied by Pickering and by Ravaz, but, according to a paper contributed to the August Journal of the Chemical Society by Messrs. Robert L. Mond and C: Heberlein, the problem is more complex than they considered. The latter authors have studied the reactions of copper sulphate with varying propor- tions of sodium carbonate and of sodium hydrogen carbonate; have determined the amount of absorbed sodium carbonate and the ratio of copper oxide to carbon dioxide in the various precipitates and the amount of basic copper sulphate in the mixtures; and have studied the solvent action of carbon dioxide and the change of the colloidal precipitate to a crystalline form. As a result of their experiments Messrs. Mond and Heberlein conclude that three distinct copper compounds are formed when sodium carbonate and copper sulphate solutions are mixed :—(1) Insoluble hydrated basic copper carbonate (the bulk of the pre- cipitate); (2) insoluble hydrated basic copper sulphate; and (3) soluble basic copper sulphate in the form of a hydrosol; the proportions of which vary with the conditions of precipitation. One molecule of copper sulphate is completely transformed by 0-93 molecule of sodium carbonate instead of the one molecule theoretically necessary. In a 1 per cent. mixture of copper sulphate and sodium carbonate (in the propor- tion 1: 0-93 mol.) made at 15°, 96 per cent. of the copper is present as soluble basic sulphate, the basic carbonate contains copper oxide and carbon dioxide in the ratio 22:1, the insoluble basic sulphate con- tains copper oxide and sulphur trioxide in the ratio 15:1, the precipitate contains absorbed sodium car- bonate in the proportion of 1 part to 74 of copper oxide, and 52-4 per cent. of the carbon dioxide is evolved. At higher temperatures more carbon dioxide is evolved, all being expelled on boiling. The amount of basic sulphate formed decreases as the proportion of sodium carbonate increases, the proportion in solu- tion (but not that of the basic carbonate) increasing with the amount of free carbon dioxide. At first the precipitate is whollv colloidal, but eventually it becomes crystalline, the colloidal condition apparently being conditional on the absorbed sodium carbonate. The transformation is accelerated by free copper sul- phate, carbon dioxide, or sodium hydrogen carbonate, but retarded by sodium carbonate or 0-02 per cent. of glue. NO. 2604, VOL. 104] 4ETHER AND MATTER: BEING REMARKS ON INERTIA, AND ON RADIATION, AND ON THE POSSIBLE STRUCTURE OF ATOMS.1 Pee Part IJ.—Tue Possiste Srrucrure or ATOMS AND THEIR RapiaTION. How: then, are we to explain the different kinds of matter? Here we enter upon territory so recently annexed as to be still very debatable; but progress has been and is still being made, and it is | only through the work of recent explorers that we can attempt to answer the question at all. It is invidious to select names, but I must mention Rutherford, Soddy, Barkla, Bragg, Moseley, Nichol- son, and Bohr, among many others. Moseley—as brilliant as any of them, and _patriotically self- sacrificing like all our splendid -youth—was killed, alas! by a Turkish bullet at Gallipoli; though not before he had made an immortal discovery. How much more might he not have accomplished had it not seemed good to evil Powers to impose by force their dominance on the world! To give a certain and definite answer to questions about the structure of the atom is premature. I can only state the answer which at present tentativelv appeals to me and, I think, to others. Your professor of natural philosophy (Sir J. J. Thomson) is lecturing, I, see, on Saturday afternoons concerning spectro- scopic evidence on this great subject, and he will, no doubt, carry the matter further, : Meanwhile, and very briefly, the idea about the atom which at present seems most likely to be on the path towards truth is a central positive nucleus surrounded by a system of negative electrons—so much is pretty certain—while according to one theory the system is composed of revolving electrons moving under an inverse-square law in regular orbits, very like the sun and planets. The orbital move. ment is governed by electric force instead of by gravitation, but the laws of motion, and the per- turbations which may be caused by outside forces, are very like those familiar to astronomers. According to Moseley’s experimental counting and Bohr’s theory, hydrogen seems to be like a sun with one planet, just a positive and a negative electron, the two being equal electrically, but differing in inertia, the positive being the more massive, though probably for that reason the smaller or more concen- trated of the two. Helium.seems to have two central unbalanced positive charges and two revolving nega- tive; lithium, three of each; beryllium, four; boron, five; carbon, six; nitrogen, seven; oxygen, eight, and so on, according to the number of the element in Mendeléeff’s series—a number something like half the number expressing its atomic weight. i The number of positive atoms in the nucleus was counted for several elements by Rutherford; and the number of negative corpuscles in the orbit was counted by Moseley; the two numbers agree. Normal atoms are therefore electrically neutral, so that — their external electric attraction at any reasonable distance is nil; but it is supposed that at atomic or molecular distances the outer or orbital electrons which can interlock with those of others determine the atom’s chemical affinity and all the chemical behaviour of the substance. An atom with one or two outlving planets—let us surmise—would be an active chemical element, a monad or dyad. perhaps. An atom with a close-grouped, self-contained system would be an inert element of the argon-neon-helium series. These 1 Amplified from a discourse delivered at the Royal Institution on Friday, February 28, 1919, by Sir Oliver J. Lodge, F.R.S. Continued from |p. 19 (September 4). _ SEPTEMBER 25, 1919] NATURE 83 _ might exhibit chemical properties, perhaps, under _ enormous pressure... The heavier atoms contain the most particles, and must have. the most complicated structure. There is every grade, from the simplest, _ hydrogen, with one electron, to the most complex, _ uranium, with ninety-two. There is room for ninety- two elements in the series, and no more. All these _ are actually known except five or six. There are only these few unfilled gaps in the chemical series of _ elements ‘as thus planned. Radio-activity. A complicated atom has a certain amount of in- stability, and may fall down occasionally into the next simple x ga , flinging away one or more of its units. hen this happens there is a sort of atomic cataclysm or explosion; a projectile and some _ quanta of energy are emitted. This is the pheno- - menon of radio-activity. Uranium after three (or possibly four) such eruptions becomes the element three (or four) steps down the series, viz, radium. Radium after five more explosions becomes apparently the well-known and stable element lead, or at least something chemically indistinguishable from it, though perhaps of sey different atomic weight,—what has recently been called an ‘“‘isotope’’ of lead. That is the kind of statement that without too much rash- ness can be cautiously and tentatively made. At every serious cataclysm an a-particle or atom _ of helium is emitted from the nucleus, accompanied _ by a f-particle or negative corpuscle from somewhere, usually from the planetary system. A sympathetic _ gwethereal gush of y-rays accompanies the eruption. A definite unit of energy—a quantum or a_ simple multiple of it—is emitted at each explosion; and the _ remaining electrons then settle down into their new orbits, the element changing in character and chemical properties accordingly. ‘ A catastrophe of this kind can be produced by a sufficiently rapid projectile, an a- or B-particle shot _ off, say, by radium; and a minor catastrophe or emission of a f-particle can also be produced by the _ accumulated energy of properly attuned X-rays. When an X-rav or ray of ultra-violet light agrees in frequency with the orbital frequency of an electron, we can suppose (not without a little difficulty) that its energy is absorbed until a quantum has been accumulatéd, and then a f-ray or excessively rapid électron is emitted. Remarks on the Quantum. _ In my view, it should not be thought that energy exists in numerical bundles or quanta; the discon- _ tinuity is not really in energy. but in the atom. _ Atomic properties are essentially numerical and dis- - continuous, and we ought not to be surprised at an _ equilibrium which needs a specific amount. of energy to upset it.' The energy must be supplied by the disturbing impulse; but in the case of ultra-violet or X-ray radiation the energy can only be attributed to the disturbing impulse on the principle of resonant _ or syntonic accumulation; for its intensity does not ' matter. Nor ought it to matter so long as the tuned ‘impulse is repeated often enough—a repetition for which an extremely minute fraction of a second is ample. What matters is not the brightness or energy of the incident radiation therefore, but its frequency. On the other hand, a f-projectile cannot effect a real disturbance unless it possesses a minimum quantum _ of energy; for in that case there is no accumulation. _ The quantum, considered merely as a finite store of energy, is susceptible of exceedingly elementary illus- tration. Here is a case of stable equilibrium (a simple pendulum or a round-bottomed flask loaded so as to oscillate stably) which responds to the slightest touch NO. 2604, VOL. 104 | and returns to equilibrium. There is no quantum about that. But here is another case of stable equili- brium (a brick or block or pillar standing on end) which takes no notice of any but a finite force, and requires a finite amount of energy to upset it, viz. its weight multiplied by the elevation of its centre of gravity as it revolves round its lower edge;' this being also the amount of energy emitted when it falls. Or there may be a union of the two kinds of equili- brium. This rounded rocking flask, for instance, or a rocking-horse, may accumulate oscillations until the energy reaches a sort of quantum, when it upsets and breaks or causes an accident. This last is the kind of stable equilibrium which we meet with in an atom. A flying particle below a certain limit of energy can alter the eccentricity of an orbit, and may thus excite some simple radiations which continue until the orbit becomes circular again; but a synchronous X-ray dis- turbance, however intrinsically feeble, may precipitate a catastrophe; and simple facts of this kind seem to be, in the main, responsible for the general notion of quanta of energy. The really remarkable thing about a quantum, the thing which makes it so essentially worthy of attention, is the fact that it is a universal constant; the same amount of energy is found asso- ciated with every kind of matter—the same, or differ- ing only by simple multiplication. Hence the notion at one time put forward that energy itself might be atomic and exist in indivisible packets, like cartridges. '. Hypothetical Structure of Atoms. The real facts concerning the quantum, which are the result of observation, suggest, when interpreted properly, that there are stable electronic orbits in an atom, and that these follow a regular law of succes- sion, analogous perhaps to Bode’s law of planetary distances in the solar system. Spectroscopic evidence —the so-called Balmer’s series of lines—strongly bears out this idea. For there is what is called K radia- tion, of highest frequency, apparently due to per- turbations of the innermost, the most rapid, ring; L radiation of lower frequency from the next outer ring; M radiation from a ring outside this; and recently there is tallk of a J radiation of extra high frequency from a ring still closer to the nucleus— perhaps quite close to it, part of it perhaps—and, anyway, well within the K ring. The frequencies adapted to bring about an atomic catastrophe, or which are emitted during perturba- tions, are usually high up in the series of X-ray series of vibrations, far above visible light. I assume that these frequencies correspond with the frequency of orbital revolution, and that the inverse-square law holds good. The more massive the nucleus, the greater must be the frequency of orbital revolution at a given distance, in accordance with Kepler’s third law. The square of the frequency multiplied by the cube of the radius of the orbit will be constant for all the orbits of all the atoms of any given substance, and will give the attracting force of the nuclear centre for that substance. In other words, this product (or, what comes to the same thing, the radius multiplied by the square of the speed) will correspond with the number of un- neutralised positive charges which go to make up the nucleus. It will give, in fact, the number of the element’ in the Mendeléeff series. The K radiation frequency from uranium, therefore, must be excep- tionally rapid, because the nucleus is so strong. For hydrogen, the nucleus of which is only 1/92nd_ of that of uranium, the orbital frequency might be com- paratively slow, not higher than the ultra-violet ; while the L radiation from hydrogen, it is now thought, 84 NATURE [SEPTEMBER 25, 1919 may be within the limits of the visible spectrum, an M series being, perhaps, in the infra-red. But how comes it that hydrogen, with only one electron, can have a K series and an L series and an M series at all? Bohr’s theory suggests that even a single electron may have alternative orbits—not necessarily occupied; and the spectroscope strongly suggests that the radii of these alternative orbits run as the squares of the natural numbers 14) fo! TO) 26) eto, The frequencies, or reciprocals of periodic times, would then be as the inverse cube of the natural numbers a 4 zy ea etc. and this is, approximately and roughly, what the K, L, M series of spectrum lines correspond with— with some exceptions. When a cataclysm occurs and an electron’ is expelled, it is expelled, as I think, with the velocity which it possessed in the atom just before it burst its bonds and flew off. For the energy required to fling a planet to infinity, under an inverse-square law, is just double the energy with which it was already moving in its circular orbit. Its own orbital energy is, therefore, the quantum of energy that has to be supplied in order to get a satisfactory ejection. Some of it might be supplied by the falling in of other particles from their original orbits; for their kinetic energy therein would be inversely as the distance from the nucleus. Hence if K, L, M orbits have the radii I, 4, 9, three units of L energy would represent the fall from L to K, and this added to the original L energy would give the quadruple L energy which is equal to the K energy, and able to eject a K particle. Similarly, a ninefold multiple of the M energy, eight units of which would be acquired by falling to K, would supply that particle with the ejection energy equally well. Would an M particle falling to L be able to eject an L particle? }—j=3% of a K unit of energy would be acquired in the fall from M to L—that is, ? M units,—so altogether ? of M energy would be transmitted, and that, being equal to a unit of L energy, ought to be sufficient. Hence, in general, particles may be ejected from any ring, either by direct impact from outside, or by accumulated disturbance of X-rays, or by a col- lapse of particles from one orbit to the next; and from an immense group of atoms, as in a_ visible speck of substance, all kinds of radiation can be emitted simultaneously. Are we to suppose that there is only one electron in each orbit, or may several of them distribute them- selves over a ring in accordance with some law of stability? Both alternatives are possible, and both are likely to be found in Nature. It’ seems scarcely likely that a uranium atom should possess ninety-two different orbits, although it does contain ninety-two electrons. Yet even this number of orbits is possible within the dimensions of an atom. We need not exclude the possibility as taking up too much room. For, given the size of the ultra-innermost or J orbit as 1, the outer orbit would, on Bohr’s law pressed to extremes, be (92)? times that radius—say, 8464 times the size of the innermost orbit; but if this innermost orbit is near the uranium nucleus, which may be ~/92, or, say, 5 times the radius of the hydrogen nucleus, the boundary or confine of the atom is some 10,000 times as far away; leaving, therefore, just room enough for the ninety-two Bohr orbits, though not much more than is required. ~ Hence, if there were any reason to desire them separate, they could be_made room for, without! endowing the atom with outlying or ever-ready elec- NO. 2604, VOL, 104] trons likely to confer upon it very active chemical properties. But, so far as I see, so many separate orbits are not likely; for there is every probability that periodically, as you ascend the series, the outer ring is not occupied by a single electron, but by a closed, compact sort of structure of many electrons, with very. little outside affinity; so that we reach periodically an atom which is chemically inactive— helium, neon, argon, krypton, etc.—up to emanation, or what Ramsay called niton. So little cohesion holds between such atoms that they are able to exist as permanent gases, in spite of the high density of some of them. This, at least, appears to be the view of Rutherford and Soddy. Helium only condenses to a liquid when cooled down to near the absolute zero of temperature. Its cohesion or intermolecular attrac- tion is nearly nil. f A Fanciful Analogy. If I attempt to compare the supposed alternative orbits in an atom with the known orbits of the solar system, it is mainly to emphasise, provisionally and tentatively, and perhaps semi-humorously, the astro- nomical view of the atom, and to bring out still more strongly the resemblances whatever thorough differ- ences there may be as well.’ k I write down the squares of the natural numbers, therefore, and underneath put the initial letters of the names of planets, with its. real distance written under each in the same units. Radii of Bohr'satomic +1 4 9 16 Too 121 144 169 196 orbits m f E M Asteroids J Ss wv 25 36 49 64 8t Planetary distances ; The obvious suggestion is that asteroids should be looked for between Jupiter and Saturn, and between Saturn and Uranus; but I would not venture to predict the existence of any such bodies on the strength of this analogy, because you will doubtless have noticed that no analogue of the planet Venus appears in the list of atomic orbits; the scheme pro- vides no place for her—a lamentable omission which must discredit and, I expect, condemn ‘even the analogy. Nevertheless, I make no apology for intro- ducing it in order to emphasise astronomical similari- ties in the possible structure of an atom. } 3°99 7'2 YO 15'2 20-35 52 95-4 192 QUANTITATIVE INTERPOLATION. On Atomic Radiation. Permitting, ourselves this view of the atom as a working hypothesis, we have to picture each ator as an attracting centre or nucleus, with a number of alternative orbits in regular succession round it, but not all necessarily occupied. by revolving electrons. The atoms of different elements differ in the number of positive units in the nucleus, and in the corre- sponding number of revolving negative units; in fact, the diverse chemical elements in their atomic con- stitution form a definite arithmetical series with common difference 1. There is a discontinuity or finite step in passing from one element to the next in the series; there is no continuous passage from one to another; hence if the physical transition or mutation ever occurs, it must be by some sort of sudden convulsion. To extract laws for this hypothetical structure, sug- gested by the labours of many workers, we may attend to the different rings of one kind of atom, or we may attend to the corresponding rings in different kinds . of atom. Each, for instance, has an innermost ring, which it is convenient at present to call the K ring Me ee ee PRS Sa MS en, SEPTEMBER 25, 1919] NATURE 85 because of the shortest wave-lengths, or so-called _K spectrum, which its perturbations emit. And in ascending the series of elements, as the nucleus gets stronger by addition of units, the electron in this innermost or K ring must revolve faster and faster to counterbalance the greater attracting force. Its orbit will accordingly get smaller and smaller, in the proportion proper to the law of inverse square. And the frequency will increase for both reasons, i.e. for both the greater speed and the shorter journey. The spectrum accordingly, while preserving the same type, ascends the ladder of frequency. Suppose the atomic number, or strength of the nucleus in atoms of successive elements, increases in arithmetical progression N-—1, N, N+1, etc., then the radius of the given type of orbit may shrink in _ the same proportion, so that rN is constant; and the _ velocity v may increase in the same proportion, so _ that rv is constant; or, in other words, so that the moment of momentum in corresponding rings ’ of different atoms is the same. There is good evidence that such is the case. The law, so far as it is a law, is styled by Prof. Millikan the atomicity of angular _momentum. If the value of mvr or mr’w differs in different rings, it differs by finite steps. _ The frequency of orbital revolution will depend on _v directly and on rf inversely, so the frequency (v/2rr) will increase in the proportion of N*; and ne: in some form of other, is known as Moseley’s law. _ The energy, 3mv’ in a given type of ring, will also depend upon N* in different atoms, and is therefore ‘simply proportional to the frequency. The orbital energy is half the energy with which a particle breaks loose (or is driven to infinity) whenever a convulsion occurs. The convulsion can be stimulated by X-rays or ultra-violet light of the right frequency; their critical breaking-up point is reached. The ratio of ‘emission energy to frequency is a remarkable uni- ersal constant, and is called h, the quantum. It is _ not energy, but the accumulation or integral of energy for a certain time; and-it is permissible to write -mv*=2mu?=hn; because the emission velocity u (the velocity from infinity) is /2 times the orbital velo- city v. But h, or rather h/27, may also be taken as representing the orbital angular momentum mur more strictly, if the orbit is at all elliptical, mvp) for the ring whence the particle came. It would be ‘rather convenient if the designation h were transferred to h/2m before it is too late; but I must leave this minor change to the approval of leaders in this subject. I may point out that this constancy of angular omentum in different: orbits bears a curious analogy to Kepler’s second law about rate of description of areas in the same orbit. And, if a coincidence, it is odd that the symbol h should have been used both for Kepler’s r*d6/dt and for an atomic quantity which is also r’d6/dt multiplied by 27m. '. Within each atom Kepler’s laws must presumably hold; so 7°*/#?, or rv’, is constant for the different circular orbits in each atom; whence the energy in Successive rings of one atom is inversely as their radii; hence the ring most likely to eject a particle s the innermost or K ring. _ This characteristic constant rv* of an element is ore proportional to N. Hence it goes up step by tep in the series of atoms, as N does. Summary. number of orbital electrons, or the number of un- alanced positive charges in the nucleus. The con- NO. 2604, VOL. 104 | _ energy appears to be stored by resonance until the yroportional to the central attracting force, and there- . . oN is Moseley’s atomic number, and equals the. stant rv* is characteristic of all the rings in one atom (N being constant). The product rv is a constant characteristic of a given type of ring in the whole series of atoms (N going up step by step); but in any one atom this product rv ascends from ring to ring in regular arithmetical stages, the same stages as Vf. he product rv? is constant inside each atom, and proceeds by steps from atom to atom; while the pro- duct rv is the same for different atoms, but changes inside each atom and proceeds by steps from ring to ring. In fact, we may write :— For all the Rings in One Atom. Central force rv? is constant. Angular momentum for the rings in one atom... ru «x Ar Energy for the same... v? « 1/r For any Ring in any Atom. Central force for any ring in any atom « N ru For the same Type of Ring in Different Atoms. Radius of given type of ring in any atom Ais Orbital velocity in ring of that type oe abe Moment of momentum in given type of ring ; Frequency in that type of ring ee sy a Energy in same ... cag eee r oc 1/N Uv « N rv is const. as regards N. ite son) ING oc N? So for a given type of ring in different atoms the orbital energy is proportional to the frequency; which is a curious result thoroughly consistent with Moseley’s, law, ascertained by experiments on emission, and true, at-any rate, for emission energy. The ratio emission energy _ mv? -=2nmMvr=2nmr.2nr=20lw frequency v[2nr So if we call this h, or a multiple of h, then on our hypothesis h/2r is the indivisible unit of angular momentum for an orbital electron. The speed with which an electron is ejected is very high, something like o-9 of light, so the increase of mass at high speeds must be taken into account in propounding a reason for the emission of corpuscles. Radiation Heterodoxy. In considering the radiation from an atom, I have virtually made the hypothesis that so long as orbits are circular they do not radiate, but that if perturbed into ellipses, with corresponding fluctuation of speed —as they would be by the influence of a flying charge passing through or near them—then they would radiate, with the proper orbital frequency, until the eccentricity disappears again and they resume their stable circular orbit once more, though, of course, they might be so much perturbed as to eject a particle. Any one of the rings, if perturbed at all, may radiate and give appropriate spectral lines. An external synchronous alternating field will also cause them to absorb energy, even though they were not radiating any until the extra energy arrived. This hypothesis, if at all regarded, is equivalent to a request to mathematicians to veconsider their theory of electronic radiation. Radiation intensity is known to be proportional to the square of acceleration (Sir Joseph Larmor, and to some extent FitzGerald and Hertz, established this), and I must admit that the reasoning seems to make this law applicable to every kind of acceleration; but my rash suggestion is that 86 NATURE [SEPTEMBER 25, 1919 it may be only speed-acceleration that is really effec- tive, and not transverse or curvature-acceleration at. constant speed. For this will not perturb the lines of force holding the electron to the nucleus, but will leave them ina constant condition so long as the orbit is circular and the speed therefore constant. There is a recognised difference of the same sort in connection with varying inertia; its value is not affected by transverse acceleration, with the speed left constant, but it is affected by longitudinal. accelera- tion, which alters the speed. : So I am in hopes that it may be found that this latter or speed-acceleration is what is responsible for radiation, and that mere curvature at constant speed in a circular orbit need not radiate at all, provided always that the superposition of an external alter- nating field of the right frequency may cause absorp- tion. Many of the difficulties connected with the stability of the astronomical atom would be evaded if the theory. of radiation could be modified in this way, and the excitation of characteristic radiation by almost any kind of perturbation of the orbit would be intelligible. Speculations on Radiation and Atomic Structure. Bohr’s remarkable theory of atomic structure does not pretend to be strictly dynamical; it is partly empirical, being based on the discontinuity. signalised by Planck’s constant, but it is very brilliant, and extensively justifies itself by agreement with facts. His expression for the frequency. of radiation emitted by any element is virtually, to a fair approxi- _ 2n*me4 mation, ; E\? ( ay naa Ce) (gag) where E is Moseley’s atomic number N, the number é of unbalanced charges in the nucleus or the number of electrons in the atom, and where p and q are integers, of which p changes. from series to series, while the lines in each series are given by the muta- tions of gq. For heavy atoms the E in the above formula should be E minus a geometrical function of all the other electrons inside the radiating orbit, because they will affect the central attracting force. In this way outstanding discrepancies may plausibly be explained. But the remarkable thing is that the formula gives the frequencies, not merely relatively, but absolutely. For if the experimental values other- wise obtained for e, m, and h are inserted, the con- stant outside the brackets, called Rydberg’s constant, which is spectroscopically determined and known to be the same for all elements, comes out right. A very notable fact! The above expression for spectral lines not only agrees with the Rydberg-Balmer known spectroscopic series, and with the kind of formula given by many pioneer workers, but has been able to predict other series which have been afterwards observed. It also accounts for many extra-low-frequency lines which, though not obtainable in the laboratory, are observable astronomically by suggesting that they come from very large masses7of highly rarefied gas. For) under such conditions the atoms would have more room and could possess far outlying or ultra-Neptunian electrons, and yet have total substance enough to display their spectra. To contemplate the emission of radiation, both waves and particles, we may picture one of the satellite electrons in a many-orbited atom struck or so thoroughly perturbed by the sudden arrival of a foreign charge as to precipitate it into thé next inner ring, ejecting the constituent of that ring into the, NO. 2604, VOL. 104] one below, and so on, after the manner of the “jack ' for mustard’? game with a series of wooden bricks set up on end.. ‘Wave-emission should accompany each transition. ' The effect of precipitating the innermost electron on _the body of the nucleus is not clear; but a compound - nucleus must be a strangely interlocked conglomerate, and an explosion seems not unlikely, especially if one of the supposed binding negative electrons were ejected. The potential. gradient close to a nucleus is prodigious. kc. The effect of the arrival or departure of a charged ‘particle at the nucleus would be suddenly to ai uld its intrinsic attracting force; and this of itself wo render all the orbits elliptical for a time, with eccen- tricity Ney. thus exciting radiation of several fre- ‘quencies. If the radiation ceased when the eccentricity was got rid of, a new circular orbit would be taken up; and thus perhaps discontinuities might be accounted for in a dynamical manner. The effect of properly attuned X-rays or ultra- violet light, if it is to be accomplished through reson- ance—and it is difficult to account for its independence of intensity otherwise—seems to require a fair range of. frequency in those rays; for their effect on aa revolving electron would naturally be to increase its angular speed and so throw it out of tune with the particular disturbance to which it initially responded. The sectorial area swept out would increase, radius vector would increase, the linear speed would therefore diminish in spite of the resonant effort to increase it—unless, indeed, under the peculiar condi- tions in an atom, there may be some compromise. The alternative would be for the electron to be con- strained, under conditions of stability, to maintain its — frequency unaltered, either proceeding in an outward. — ‘spiral towards a position of Planckian instability, or. trying still to obey the law of inverse squares by. increasing the eccentricity of its orbit with given axis major until it becomes practically parabolic. This could represent an inversion of the process by which the electron may have been originally bound, according ‘to Bohr’s theory of what happened before the atom became neutral. For it is to be presumed. that a positively charged a-particle, after ejectment, neutralises itself by accretion and settles down. ; CONCLUSION. I have led you over a great deal of territory in a hurried manner, and cccasionally have entered on regions where the ground is not yet solid and secure. Let it be granted that the chemist may naturally object to an astronomical atom and may prefer a more static or geometrical structure, although such a structure would have less clear and explicable properties. The static or Boscovich atom, with purely hypothetical interior fluctuations of force, leaves every- 2 This can be proved as follows :— ‘ For a circular orbit rrtae and rt=[=pr. When p suddenly changes to tu( where & may be Be) the velocity does not instantly change, but the orbit acquires an a@ and ane, such that ch yay ae a(t salary we Me a Hoya m des also Es v2 iu (2- ) This last gives Toe-hy a, oR a ‘ RO foe t pide 7h #=1-7 (9-5) a(: - k es And the place where the sudden i Ise occurred, b an apse of the new orbit, because »=a(r-be). PI ; (See also Appendix I. in Proc. R.1.) _ SEPTEMBER 25, 1919] NATURE 87 thing in the dark, and is therefore less tempting to a physicist, until some physical explanation of | those ‘fluctuations can be given. At present they seem to be ‘postulated ‘merely in order to secure positions of equilibrium in which an electron can settle down. Orbital revolution achieves the same end, in apparently a more complicated -but really a more tractable ‘manner. Moreover,-it confers upon an atom: the sort of energy and structural velocities which are con- spicuous in the various types of radio-activity. True, it is a working hypothesis at present, and nothin more, but it seems likely to be a fruitful one; an that is its present justification. 3 The subject is in the nascent or rapidly growing if i _ stage; and, provided we refrain from dogmatism, it _ is legitimate thus tentatively to survey and explore _ the boundary between ppchinga _ to speculate as to what may _ the exhilarating pursuit. The apparent resemblance between an atom and _ the solar system opens up extraordinary vistas for further inquiry. Optics and. gravitation still have many secrets. The interactions between zwther and _ matter are as yet barely understood. We know that _ the energy of an electric current is really in the _ ether, i.e. in the magnetic field surrounding the _ current; but we must admit that the electromagnetic explanation of inertia is no ultimate explanation; it _is but relegating the property to some fundamental _ property of_the zther, of which substance presumably matter itself may in seme way be composed. __ Evidence suggests that the ether is an excessively dense substance. and that it circulates slowly along lines of magnetic force.* But though so dense we have no means of apprehending it directly. Matter, though so comparatively filmy and fragmentary, yet _ looms large in our estimation because of oyr material _ sense-organs; its properties force themselves on our and ignorance, and e the next stages in attention, because, in fact, our bodies are composed 1 _ of matter. But underneath and behind all the known _ properties of matter lie the unknown properties of _ the zther of space; and if we are to create a true _ philosophy we must attend continually to 2zther as _ well as to matter in the physical universe. The zther _ makes no appeal to our senses, but it is none the less _realforthat. Sensation is no test of reality—many of the _ most important things are in the insensible universe; and he is the wisest man who shuts the door on no _ opportunity for investigation, but keeps his mind on and is ready to explore every avenue towards truth. . UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL INTELLIGENCE. EprInpurGH.—Considerabie developments have re- cently taken place in the departments’ of pure and applied mathematics of the University. Since 1914, the department of pure mathematics has occupied a separate building, the Mathematical Institute, in ‘ground adjacent to the Arts Quadrangle. This build- \ contains lecture-rooms large and small, mathe- matical laboratory, reading-room with students’ library, research-room with a library of mathematical ' periodicals and advanced works, and rooms for the staff. The laboratory course comprises interpolation, construction of mathematical tables. numerical solu- tion of algebraic and transcendental equations, “numerical integration. least squares, graduation or adjustment, fitting of normal and skew frequency 3 This view of the energy of a magnetic field, that it is direct kinetic energy of the zether moving longitrdinally, suggests a noscible (or nea: ly im- le) experimental means of determining the real density of the ether ‘of space—a subject on which I have much more tosay. See Phil. Mag. for ay, 1919. seats ; NO. 2604, VoL. 104] i: curves, correlation, practical Fourier analysis, spherical harmonic analysis, periodogram analysis, with drawing-board work in nomography, descriptive geometry, and cartography. } The most recent development is the institution of a diploma in actuarial mathematics. This is intended for students who are employed in the numerous life insurance offices in the city of Edinburgh, and are, therefore, only part-time students of the University, attending, however, day, not night, classes. The course, which covers two years, is conducted on the mathematical side by Prof. E. T. Whittaker, F.R.S., and on the actuarial side by Dr. A. E. Sprague, presi- dent of the faculty of actuaries. Students who. obtain the diploma will be exempted from Part I. and Part II. of the faculty’s examinations for fellowship. The Mathematical Institute is the meeting-place of the Edinburgh Mathematical Society, and houses the ‘library of the society. In the department of applied mathematics, which is under the charge of Dr. C. G. Knott, arrange- ments have been made for the inclusion of special honours courses on wave-motion in matter and zther, kinetic theory of gases, and radiation. The former courses on dynamics, hydrodynamics, and elasticity have also been extended, one of the full-year courses being specially adapted to the needs of the student of engineering. There is also a post-graduate course on quaternion vector analysis. Mr. J. S. W. Boyte has been appointed lecturer and assistant in chemistry in University College, Dundee, in succession to Dr. J. K. Wood. Tue Right. Hon. Christopher Addison, Minister of Health, will deliver the introductory address at the opening of. the winter session of-the London (Royal Free Hospital) School of Medicine for Women, Uni- versity of London, on Wednesday, October 1, at 3 p.m. : ae Tue ninety-seventh session at Birkbeck’ College, Breams Buildings, London, E.C.4, will commence on Monday next, September 29. Courses, day and evening, in the faculties of arts, science, laws, and economics for the examinations of the University of London begin on the following Tuesday. Full details of the courses are given in the syllabus of the col- lege, which can be obtained on application to the secretary. SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES. Paris. Academy of Sciences, September 8.—M. Léon Guignard in the chair.—L. Mangin: Notice on the work of the late William Gilson Farlow.—G. Humbert: The measurement of the classes of Her- mite of given discriminant in an imaginary quadratic body, and on certain non-Euclidean volumes.—G. Bigourdan: The work of La Caille (conclusion) and his successors at the Mazarin College.—M. Stuyvaert : The elimination of one unknown between’ three alge- braic equations.—_N. E. Nérlund: The principal ‘solu- tion of a certain equation of finite differences.—G. Guillaumin ; The transversal effects of contraction: in reinforced concrete structures.—P. Chofardet: “Ob- servations of Borrelly’s comet (1919c¢) made with the coudé equatorial at the Observatory of Besancon. - Observations, with positions of comparison stars, are given for August 25, 27, and 28. The comet is of the roth magnitude, is round, about 2’ diameter, with a central condensation. There is no tail.—J. Guillaume: Observations of Borrelly’s, Kopff’s, and 88 NATURE [SEPTEMBER 25, 1919: Metcalf’s comets made with the coudé equatorial at the Observatory of Lyons. Observations of each comet were made on August 28.—G, Sagnac:.- The zther and the absolute mechanics of waves.—J. Rey: A lighthouse of great power, arranged with metallic mirrors. A description of the optical arrange- ments adopted at a lighthouse erected off the coast of Tunis. Metal reflectors only were used, without glass. Details of the photometric measurements and range are given.—Ch. Mauguin and L. J. Simon: Cyanogen chloride. A review of the methods sug- gested for the preparation of cyanogen chloride, including three new electrolytic methods, based on the electrolysis of a mixture of hydrochloric and hydro- eyanic acids. The pure liquid chloride solidified at —6:5° C., and boiled at 12-5° C. The only other cyanogen chloride is the solid polymer melting at 145° C.—Ch. Pussenot : New observations concerning a recent submersion of the coasts of Morbihan.—M. Leriche : The fossil fishes of the coast region of the Congo, and on the presence of the Eocene in this region.—L. Blaringhem; Vigour of growth, com- pensating sterility, -in the hybrids of species of Digitalis (Digitalis purpurea: D. lutea), The hybrids between species of Digitalis are absolutely sterile, but there is an excessive development of the plant- tissues with all the characters of young, super- nourished organs.—E. Roubaud: The antagonism of cattle and man in the blood nutrition of Anopheles maculipennis. The anti-paludic réle of domestic cattle. _When the mosquito has choice of man or domestic animals, it attacks the latter for preference. In order of preference, mosquitoes go first to nigs, then cattle and horses, then sheep, rabbits, and dogs. Fowls are not touched. When there are plenty of cattle adjacent to a house, the mosquito is not found in the house.—G, Bertrand and M. Dassonville: The treatment of scab in horses by the vapours of chloro- picrin. Chloropicrin has been successfully applied to the’ cure of scab in horses; it possesses advantages over the sulphur dioxide treatment. BOOKS RECEIVED, Mind and its Disorders: A Text-book for Students and Practitioners of Medicine. By Dr. W. H. B. Stoddart. Third edition. (Lewis’s Practical Series.) Pp. xx+580. (London: H. K. Lewis and Co., Ltd., IgIg.) 185. net. _An Elementary Course of Infinitesimal Calculus. By Prof. Horace Lamb. ° Third edition, revised. Pp. xiv+530. (Cambridge: At the University Press, Ig19.) 20S. net. The Study of the Weather. By E. H. Chapman. (The Cambridge Nature Study Series.) Pp. xii+131. (Cambridge: At the University Press, 1919.) 38: 6d. net. An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Natural Knowledge. By Prof. A. N. Whitehead. Pp. xii+ 200. (Cambridge: At the University Press, 1919.) 12s, 6d. net. Aeroplane Structures. By A. J. Sutton Pippard and Capt. J. Laurence Pritchard. With an introduc- tion by L. Bairstow. Pp. xii+359+xxi plates. (London: Longmans, Green, and Co., 1919.) 21s. het. The Natural History of South Africa. By F. W. Fitzsimons. ‘Mammals. Vol. i., pp. xix+178. * Vol. ii., pp. xit+195. (London: Longmans, Green, and Co., 1919.) 9s. each yol. Principles of Electric Spark Ignition in Internal Combustion Engines. By J. D. Morgan. Pp. vii+88, (London: Crosby Lockwood and Son, 1920.) 8s. 6d. net. NO. 2604, VOL. 104] Ireland: The Outpost. By Prof. G. A. J. Cole. Pp... 78. (London: Oxford University Press, Hum- phrey Milford, 1919.) 3s. 6d. net. The Stanton Drew Stones. By E. Sibree. Pp. 20. (Bristol: J. W. Arrowsmith, Ltd., 1919.) 1s, : Geology of India for Students. By D. N. Wadia. Pp. xx+398+xx plates. (London: Macmillan and’ Co., Ltd., 1919.) 18s. net. : Mendelism. By Prof. R. C. Punnett. Fifth edi- tion. Pp. xv+219+vii plates. (London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd., 1919.) 7s. 6d. net. ERR Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society. New series. Vol. xix. Containing the Papers read before the Society during the Fortieth’ Session, 1918-19. Pp. iii+311. (London: Williams and Norgate, 1919.) 20s. net. ae Aristotelian Society. Supplementary vol. ii. Problems of Science and Philosophy. The’ Papers read at the Joint Session of the Aristotelian Society, the British Psychological Society, and the Mind Asso- ciation, held at Bedford College, London, July 11-14, 1919. Pp. iiit+220. (London: Williams and Norgate, 191g.) 12s. 6d. net. ; Guide to the Study of the Tonic Valve: Showin ifs Development and Application to Wireless Tele- graphy and Telephony. By W. D. Owen. Pp. vii-+ 59: 2s. 6d, net. . The Essentials of Chemical Physiology for the U of Students. By Prof. W. D. Halliburton. Tenth edition. Pp. xi+324. (London: Longmans, Green, and Co., 1919.) 7S. 6d. net. CONTENTS. The Missing Theme. ByM.A.C.H. .. Water in Action—Controlled and Free. Brysson Cunningham .. ..2 2... i290) Mammalian Physiology. ByH.H.D........ 71 Our Bookshelf : erkon 4 “4 pir Letters to the Editor :— National Representation upon International Councils. — Dr. Norman R. Campbell ee Intravenous Injections of Gum Solutions in Cholera.— Sir .Leonard Rogers, C.LE., F.R.S.; Prof. W. M. Bayliss, F.R.S. ors Bate ey el cee) A Photoelectric Theory of Colour Vision.—Prof. J. PEM WS ae ya he ie, 72 Joly, F.R.S. . . meas Sere Pi Ye eye Mathematics at the University of Strasbourg.—H. t Bryon Heywood. .... ana a eee ue 7s The Magnetic Storm of August 11-12, 1919.—Alex- ander Graham Bell =... i. Saye Metre yp The Watt Centenary Celebrations ....... s(el7e Prof. J. W. H. Trail, F.R.S, By F. 0, B, 2 76 Notes... 5 555" : as wie Sas gee ag Be Our Astronomical Column :— Gomets ers biel 28 pia ee eee 80 The Future of the Transit Circle. .... ... 80 Heredity and Evolution. By Prof. G. H. Carpenter. 81 9 ete Leds otop, University and Educational Intelligence ..... Rar hh et Meee Ree SE ee cet me eee "Editorial and Publishing Offices: MACMILLAN AND CO., Ltp., ST. MARTIN’S STREET, LONDON, W.C.2. Advertisements and business letters to be addressed to the Publishers. Editorial Communications to the Editor. Telegraphic Address: Puusts, LONDON. Telephone Number: Grrrarp 8830. (London : Sir Isaac Pitman and Sons, Ltd., n.d.) — PAGE — era 45 Siteopt oh i-hy 72. x NATURE 89 THURSDAY, OCTOBER 2, 1919. THE WASTE OF YOUTH. | Problems of National Education. By Twelve Scottish Educationists. With Prefatory Note by the Right Hon. Robert Munro. Edited by John Clarke. Pp. xxvi+368. (London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd., 1919.) Price, 12s. net. a ieee extension of the school age from fourteen to fifteen, with,,compulsory education in continuation classes ‘to eighteen years of age, _which is the main provision of recent educational “legislation, adds four additional years of schooling at the most critical and formative period of life. It is to be hoped rather than expected that better “use may be made in the future than has been -made in this country of the school period in the past. One opens this book on ‘‘ Problems of National Education,’’ a collection of twelve essays by Scottish educationists, expecting some. assur- _ ance at least that the stale old stock-in-trade of the schoolmaster derived from the Middle Ages had, in public education at least, been’ finally dis- ‘credited. Then Latin was the universal written language, and it has been handed on as a ready- ade means of disciplining youth to distasteful asks, after all intelligible reason has ceased and he manifold activities of a rapidly expanding and Xuriant scientific civilisation have made it un- Suitable. But, alas! in education the vicious sircle besets one at every turn. It is idle to expect the child to be put aw fait with the modern world, of which already he probably knows far “more in certain ways than his teachers, until the 1 Jetter have caught up with it and the subjects of | their training in the ancient universities and the training institutions been fundamentally recast. But in this book every and any aspect of educa- Hon is discussed exhaustively rather than this sentral problem. The work of building up more and more aborate superstructures on such false foun- da tions meanwhile goes merrily on. Physical raining, ethical, moral, religious, esthetic, and sivic education, anything rather than the intel- lectual foundations, are all explored in these sentrifugal essays by experts in the vain hope of /disguising the rottenness of the core. For, excel- ent and informative as are many of these iscussions on the outriders and secondary con- equences of national education, on the main meme, which is engaging the attention of the aught, if not the teachers, this volume is singu- tly vacuous. Thus we read: “The new movement regards he purpose Of education as primarily social ficiency and social progress rather than in- ividual development and personal success,”’ lowed by the inevitable reference to Plato and ristotle, which with unconscious and monotonous Ony reiterates the fatal retrospective habit of NO. 2605, VOL. 104] mind. The future, if.it learns from the past, will see to it that this type is put in charge of museums and cemeteries rather than of the growing child. The main primary, as it was the original, pur- pose of the school is still to provide the child with a suitable intellectual equipment with which 10 face the world of the twentieth century. That is the weak spot, and it does not solve the problem to pretend that intellectual efficiency is Prussian and therefore to be shunned, or that preparation for the world of to-day is vocational and there- fore no proper part of school work. Principal Laurie contributes the most valuable and satisfying exposition of the position in his essay on ‘‘ Technical Education.’ His state- ment—‘‘ To deal with the promotion of scientific research, I draw no distinction between pure and applied science, as no distinction can be drawn in practice. The first essential is the pursuit of science for its own sake as a pure branch of know- ledge’? (p. 249)—may be generalised. With regard to intellectual training, no distinction can be drawn between cultural and vocational training. The first essential is that the intellect must be trained for its own sake. The culture of a work- man is the vocation of a scholar, and vice versa, though the scholar might not be sufficiently cul- tured to admit it. The educationist surely should use €very means most calculated to develop the growing intelligence of a child and not scorn the new because they are, or may be, vocational. Another remark from this essayist needs no comment :—‘‘ The love of knowledge for the sake of knowledge, which inspired the Greek civilisa- tion, is not understood by the very men who have received a classical education. They do not see that the man of science is carrying on the tradition of Greek culture to-day.’’ As an example of how completely cut of touch a teacher may be with the psychology of modern youth, a passage from the essay on ‘‘ Moral and Meade, Elements in the School ’’ may be quoted (p. 148):—‘‘ There seems to be no good reason why the Spaeenieres of the miracles in the Old Testament should be excluded. The wonderful and the miraculous are a source of great delight to young children and may be turned to good moral purpose. Provided that at some stage in the pupils’ school career they are exhibited in their proper light, there is no reason to debar children | from reading and enjoying these narratives.’’ Possibly this may throw some light on the com- plaint (p. 110): ‘‘ Little or no respect or con- sideration for older people is exacted from the young. It is not easy to detect in them the spirit of reverence either for institutions or individuals.’’ Classical education, according to Prof. Burnet, is about to achieve fresh laurels in the new era. ‘“ Humanity ’’ its exponents call it—‘‘ that is to say, the literature, institutions, and thought of antiquity,’’ thereby subtly suggesting that modern man is not humane, or humane by descent rather than by ascent, in conformity with the ancient, exploded Biblical myth, so harking ever back- wards to the past rather than reaching out F go NATURE [OcToBER 2, 1919 towards and apprehending the more glorious future. : ‘Now. the first thing,’’? he says (pp. 183-85), “we have to realise is that we are witnessing the dawn of a renaissance of humanism in Europe comparable only to that of the fifteenth century or to the magni- ficent expansion of science in the nineteenth... . Excavation, especially in Crete, and the recovery of papyri from the sands of Egypt have not only trans- formed our outlook upon the Mediterranean civilisa- tion, of which our: own is the lineal descendant, but has given us the inspiring feeling that some new truth of first-rate importance may come to light any day. ...It is becoming plain that what we call science may be best described as thinking about the world in the Greek way.”. (Dr. Laurie’s way of putting this has already been quoted.) ‘‘ But there is another, and perhaps a deeper, reason for believing that a humanist renaissance is at hand ... In the hard times ahead of us the greater number will turn rather to the poets, historians, and philosophers for solace and edification than to the austerer discipline of the exact sciences. That is for the few; the mass of men can hardly penetrate beyond: its outer courts.” So, the classics are still for the many and science for the few! Nothing is incredible, not even that this and much more like it should actually be written as a contribution to ‘‘ Problems of National Education ’’ at the close of the great war. If these are the people to whom their children’s educational destinies are to be ,com- mitted for four further years, the Labour Party will do well to expedite its attainment of a minimum’ State subsistence. For, be they turned out from school with their physique, morals, and manners, religious and zsthetic perceptions, civic ideals, and use of the subjunctive mood in sub- ordinate clauses in the ancient languages never so perfect, it is difficult to see what else can save them from starvation in the hard times ahead. Until something more in keeping with the age is substituted for. the intellectual training of the school, the words in the opening essay (p. 39) will continue to be true: ‘‘ They begin their course with keen interest and lively curiosity. Then shades of the prison-house seem gradually to close upon the growing boy.”’ FREDERICK Soppy. BIOLOGICAL. PROBLEMS. Life and its Maintenance: A Symposium on Bio- logical Problems of the Day. Pp. viii+297- (London: Blackie and Son, Ltd., 1919.) Price 5s. net. ESIRE, want, pain, disease, and death, the tools used by Nature for fashioning the race, are equally efficacious for awakening the mental and bodily faculties of the individual. Under their goad the soldier has not only shown himself gifted with an unsuspected degree of in- telligence, but, what is more important, has dis- covered how to use the intelligence of others, so that at the close of the war our scientific arms, creations of the war itself, were more efficient than the corresponding formations in the Army of a nation which had long prided itself on_ its NO. 2605, VOL, 104] thorough utilisation of all the means science placed at its disposal. Even among those com- pelled by age or infirmity to carry on their normal vocations at home, the trifling discomforts and privations to which they were subjected under war’s constraints acted as hormones, as adequate stimuli for arousing their slumbering mental faculties, and disturbing for a while the hopeless. incuria with which, to the detriment of the body politic, our upper and middle classes are afflicted. Any discomfort, whether it be the presence of a flea or the necessity of absorbing war bread, rouses an appropriate reaction and interest in its removal. Thus it came about that a sufficient number of persons, anxious to devote a certain time to learning about the World around them with special reference to the discomforts under which they were suffering, and willing to devote an hour in the week to this purpose, were found to justify the delivery at University College of a course of lectures which are reproduced in this volume under the general title of ‘Life and its Main- tenance.” The first object of interest to every man is him- self, and since at the time of the delivery of these lectures there was a certain amount of food short- age and a reasonable doubt as to the prospects of food supplies in the future, it is natural that most of these lectures are devoted to the subject of food, its effects on man, and the methods of increasing its production in this country. Prof. Bayliss leads oft with a clear, elementary ' account of the significance of food for the body. — This is followed by a reassuring lecture on war bread by Prof. Hopkins. The third lecture, by Miss Hume, deals with accessory food factors, the importance of which was brought into unwel- come prominence by the outbreaks of beri-beri and scurvy among our forces abroad, and the con-. sideration of which, in their relation to infant feed-_ ing, must always take an important place in our measures for ensuring the health of the com-_ munity. Prof. Cushny contributes a judicious and well-balanced lecture on the subject of alcohol, — and the various questions relating to the pro-_ duction of food by the improvements of farming | methods are dealt with by Dr. Russell, Mr. Staple- don, Dr. Horne, and Profs. Hickson and Tansley. The last five lectures are of a more miscellane- ous import. The shortage of paper prompts Prof. Oliver, who was responsible for editing the whole series, to give a useful summary of the various materials used in the manufacture of paper and to describe certain new plants, notably a grass” * (Spartina Townsendii) growing on the mud flats of Southampton Water, which had been tried for this purpose. Dr. Vernon deals with the relations of industrial efficiency and fatigue. ‘This subject is so closely connected with the question of hours of labour that no one possessed of a vote has a right to say that it does not concern him. This lecture, as indeed the whole collec- tion, is an attempt to rouse the man in the street to take an interest and a part in the search for OcToBER 2, 1919] NATURE 91 ‘such knowledge and methods as by their general- _isation may increase the efficiency and thereby the prosperity of the nation as a whole. The next _ few years will be marked by the introduction of one legislative measure after another directed to this end, but probably in many cases ill-conceived from lack of acquaintance among law-givers and people with the intimate character of the problems involved. To those problems which affect the life of the individual this series of lectures will serve -as an interesting and authoritative introduction. 4 SOUTH AUSTRALIAN GEOLOGY. ~The Geology of South : Australia. (In two - divisions.) Division 1, An Introduction to the Australian Standpoint. Division 2, The Geology of South Australia, with Notes on the Chief Geological Systems and Occurrences in the other Australian States. By Walter How- chin. Pp. xvi+543. (Adelaide: The Education Department, 1918.) Price tos. OLLOWING the example of Mr. Chapman’s Australian fossils—an outline of paleonto- based on Australian examples for Australian tudents—Mr. Howchin, of the ‘University of geology based on Australian illustrations, followed by an account of the geology of South Australia, with shorter summaries of that of the other Aus- alian States. The book should be very useful, as it fills a gap in Australian educational literature, while it supplies geologists in general with jan excellent and up-to-date compendium of the geo- logy of South Australia. Mr.. Howchin is excep- tionally qualified for the work; he is well known for his discovery of the Australian Cambrian elacial deposits, his researches on fossil foramini- fera, and his text-book on the geography of South Australia. The first division of the work gives a clear summary of the general outlines of geo- logy; it is especially good in the physiographic portions. The petrology is comparatively ele- nentary, since the book, being published by he South Australian Education Department, s probably intended more for secondary schools than for university students. Aus- tralian petrologists may consider that there is nadequate notice of the alkaline igneous rocks; and in an effort at simplification ‘“ pyroxene augite) ’’ is included in the hornblende group, a step which would lead students to overlook the mportant distinction between the pyroxenes and [the amphiboles. The parallelism of these series is Iso not indicated in the statement as to the com- dsition of augite. There is not much informa- mn about econdmic geology; for example, the ithor tells us nothing about the oil-fields of uth Australia and their prospects. He follows iose who extend the petrographic use of the ord “mineral ’’ for mineral species into general tology, although mineralogists, such as Miers, opt the more commonsense practice which does NO. 2605, VoL. 104] ; _ Geology, Physiographical and Structural, from, Adelaide, has prepared a general text-book of not refuse the term “mineral ’’ to most economic minerals. The author, of course, cannot be con- sistent, for the term is not used in the latter part of the book in accordance with the restricted definition. In regard to the Australian artesian water, the author adduces evidence that the supply is dwindling from the reduction in size of the mound springs; but those who hold that plutonic water is largely influential in the uplift of the water in the wells do not consider, as is twice stated, that most of the water is plutonic in origin. Mr. Howchin makes the interesting suggestion that the word “scree,’’ of which the etymology is doubtful, comes from “‘screed,’’ a fragment; but is it not more probably from “‘screen,’’ owing to the resemblance to the sloping. sheet of angular fragments on a road metal screen? The most important chapter is that on the Lower Cambrian glacial deposits, which extend northward from Adelaide for about 450 miles to a latitude as low as 294. The author, to whom is due most of the existing knowledge of these beds, shows that they were probably laid down at sea-level. The occurrence of this great sheet of subtropical low- level glacial deposits at the very beginning of the fossiliferous rocks is one of the most significant facts in geological history. Mr. Howchin also tells us the latest information from the trans- continental railway bores as to the extension into Australia of the Cretaceous sea, and shows that in all probability it did not extend across the continent. The book is jllustrated by numerous well-selected and excellent illustrations. J. W. G. OUR BOOKSHELF. Annual Reports on the Progress of Chemistry for 1918, issued by the Chemical Society. Vol. xv. Pp. ix+240. (London: Gurney and Jackson, 1919.) Price 4s. 6d. net. THESE important volumes have been issued annually by the Chemical Society since 1905. Their object is to present an epitome of the principal definite steps in advance which have been accomplished in the preceding year for the benefit of workers or. students in pure or applied science. They are not popular in any sense of the word. During the war there was _neces- sarily some slackening in the production of results bearing chiefly on purely scientific problems, and the volume for 1918 is somewhat thinner than the volumes issued in previous years. Neverthe- less, some advances can be recorded. For very many years the mass of the atom has been re- garded as determining its chief properties. This is embodied in “Mendeléeff’s periodic scheme familiar to every chemist. It is therefore not surprising to find that the new doctrine which assumes some knowledge of the internal constitu- tion of the atom should be rather slowly accepted. But chemical physics or physical chemistry is a department of knowledge which is undergoing 92 NATURE [OcToBER 2, 1919 rather rapid and bewildering change consequent on advances in positive knowledge. Absorption spectra, the properties of colloids, ionisation and the nature of ions, the nature and source of osmotic pressure, and the relations of isotopes are all subjects of supreme interest, many of which have assumed a totally new form, or have even been recognised only within the last twenty years. The chemical student of the future will need to be a fairly good mathematician if he hopes to follow all that is going on in these several direc- tions. Fortunately there are other large fields of work still open in which this is not an essential condition and where great successes continue to be scored, especially in -constitutional and syn- thetic organic chemistry and its applications to problems in physiology, animal and vegetable. These are all dealt with under appropriate heads | ‘in this volume of reports. Heredity. By Prof. J. Arthur. Thomson. Third edition. (The Progressive Science Series.) Pp. xvi+627. (London: John Murray, 1919.) Price 15s. net. Tue first edition of Prof. Thomson’s ‘“ Heredity,” which appeared in 1908, was reviewed at some length in Nature (vol. Ixxviii., pp. 361-63). The book quickly became established as an introduc- tion---at once trustworthy, impartial, and com- prehensive—to the many problems that are pre- sented to students of inheritance, and a second edition with some additions and revisions was published in 1912. The third edition is now before us, and the author has taken the opportunity of directing the reader’s attention to some of the important advances that have been made by in- vestigators during the last seven years. The size of the book has not been increased from the second edition, so that room for additions has been found by condensing the type-setting on certain pages; this involves a brevity of treatment disappointing to those who would have valued Prof. Thomson’s judicious criticism of several recent theories. For example, the studies by T. H. Morgan and his fellow-workers on the inheritance of linked factors in the fruit-flies (Drosophila), and W. E. Castle’s work on the relation between heredity and selec- tion in hooded rats, are barely mentioned. A short list of some important books and papers of the last few years has been added to the biblio- graphy, but the Subject and general indexes appear to have escaped a revision which would have greatly increased their value. The paragraph on “Militarism ” in the concluding chapter has heen rewritten in the light of the experiences of the last five years, and the author emphasises Dr. Chalmers Mitchell’s contention that “the struggle for existence as propounded by Charles Darwin and as it can be followed in Nature has no resem- blance with human warfare.” Again, as one turns the pages of Prof. Thomson’s familiar volume, one realises how the study of biology, wisely applied, may become an aid rather than a rival to that of “the humanities.” Ge. Ho. €. NO. 2605, VOL. 104] - quartz filament, with a minimum of attachments, in LETTERS TO THE EDITOR. [The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed by his correspondents. Neither can be undertake to return, ‘or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manuscripts intended for this or any other part of Nature. No notice is taken of anonymous communications.] A Photoelectric Theory of Colour Vision. REFERRING to his letter under the above heading on p. 74 of Nature of September 25, I perceive that Prof. Joly has had ideas similar to mine about an — electric stimulation of the terminals of the optic nerve through bombardment of corpuscles flung off under — the stimulus of ordinary light. E My argument is strengthened by reflecting that this — utilisation of atomic energy;“emitted in quanta under — the stimulation of accumulated almost infinitesimal — vibrations of the right frequency, can account for the extreme sensitiveness of the eye and of the sensitive — pigments known very low down in the scale of animal — life. The great variation of brightness permissible, — between wide limits, without much differential physio- logical result is also natural on this view; so is the — fatigue of colour-sensation by temporary exhaustion of a specific potentially radio-active material, until renewed by living tissue. I should suppose that on this trigger-like basis the eye can form very little estimate of absolute brigsht- ness inside the limits above spoken of, though — the ear, having no explosive mechanism, might be able to form a scale of loudness. In the main, photo- metric observations must be comparative. | A pathological condition of the retina, when flashes _ are perceived without objective stimulus, may be accounted for by overinstability of material and con-_ sequent spontaneous emission of corpuscles. Ea The experiments which Prof. Joly began to try seem to have been just in the general direction which I wished to encourage some young physiological physicist to pursue, only he must be prepared to design or adjust his electrical detecting instrument for extreme sensitiveness. A frog’s merve-muscle preparation could scarcely be responsive without something analogous to rods and cones, or some- thing like an electric organ, and without access to unsheathed terminals. If a mechanical electroscope is employed it must have minute capacity; a silvered | the field of a microscope may be suggested. a Ottver Lopce. — Reversed Pleochroic Haloes. : In a paper on ‘The Genesis of Pleochroic Haloes ”” (Phil. Trans. R.S., vol. ccxvii.) by J. Joly, a theory is advanced accounting for certain structural features of the halo on the assumption that reversal of the halo-image is possible, and may take place under conditions defined in the paper. In support of this a drawing of a halo is given in which an evident inversion or change from positive to negative has occurred, the inner region being light, the outer dark. in examining the brown mica extracted from a granite, we have found quite a large number All internal features are’ gone, solarised out of existence; the wide outer band alone remains. exposed halo. i possess uranium-charged nuclei. is very minute there is no sign of reversal ; is normal. ae It is possible that the frequency of reversal in thi OcToBER 2, 1919], NATURE ‘ 93 mica is to be ascribed more to special uranium- richness of the nucleus rather than to the antiquity of the rock. The rock is a biotite granite with a white and a yellow felspar. It is said to be from ‘Sinai. One side of the specimen has been exposed to the weather, and the appearance of this side Suggests desert conditions. 4 : J. Jory. T7272 J} i Poots. ee» by Trinity College, Dublin. The Spectra of Isotopes. Some years ago I made an investigation of the ectra of ordinary lead and lead from pitchblende esidues, but I was not able to detect any difference in the spectra. More recently Aronberg (Astrophys. Journal, February, 1918) has found a difference in the wave-lengths of the principal line in the spectra of ordinary lead and lead from Australian carnotite amounting to 0-0043 A. I have made a fuller investi- vation of the. problem by a method of experiment greatly superior to that which I had _ previously adopted, and the results show that there is a small t real difference in the spectra, which agrees closely with the value found by Aronberg. A difference has also been found between the wave-length of the prin- cipal line in ordinary lead and lead from Ceylon horite. These results at once suggest that the spectroscope ill furnish a simple and comparatively rapid method distinguishing isotopes, and some measurements have been made of the wave-lengths of the principal ne in ordinary thallium and in thallium from pitch- jlende residues. It has long been suspected that, in ddition to lead, some of the metals found in pitch- lende may be of radioactive origin, and the results of e wave-length measurements, though for certain easons they cannot be given the same weight as those ating to lead, suggest that the thallium in pitch- lende is an isotope of ordinary thallium and more obably of greater atomic weight. It is hoped to pub- ish shortly an account of the investigation. ‘aN Tuomas R. MERTON. Balliol College, Oxford, September 15. ee oe ere A British Imperial Antarctic Expedition. May I, through the columns of Nature, direct ention to the British expedition which I am at sent organising and propose to lead to the Ant- rctic in June next year? The’objects of the expedi- on are briefly as follows — 1) To ascertain the position and extent of the lineral and other deposits of economic value already mown to exist in Antarctica (vide scientific reports [ Bruce, Mawson, Scott, and Shackleton), and obtain ta for the practical development as a further source Imperial wealth. (2) To obtain further evidence of the localities of ales of economic. value, and to create British indus- ss in this trade, (3) To investigate the meteorological and magnetic iditions in the Ross Sea area and at Cape Ann nderby Land) in connection with their influence der similar conditions in Australasia and South ‘ica respectively. That such results are of great ic value has been proved by the station estab- hed by the Argentine Government for similar pur- ses in the South Orkneys. }) To circumnavigate the Antarctic continent. 5) Generally to extend our knowledge of Antarc- NO. 2605, VOL. 104] tica, especially with the view of obtaining further scientific data of economic importance. The expedition proposes to leave England in June, 1920, and to be away for a period of five years. During this period important scientific research will be undertaken on the lines briefly given above. Applications are invited from fully qualified men in the following branches of scientific knowledge :— Geology, meteorology, biology, surgery and_physio- logy, photography, cartography, and hydrography. The expedition has been well and strongly sup- ported, and I shall be glad if all who are interested will communicate with me at the address given below. Joun L. Cope. 66 Victoria Street, London, S.W.1, September 20. Luminous Worms. WueENn I wrote the letter which appeared in NATURE of September 11 (p. 23), I made no reference to my impression that a friend had seen luminous earth- ‘worms in Great Britain because I was not aware that he was still in England, and was consequently unable to give accurate details. I found afterwards that this friend, Dr. Edgar Newbery, recently appointed professor of physical chemistry in the University of Cape Town, had not yet left this country, and I was able to write to him for confirmation of the impression in my mind, and I have now received a reply. Writing from Byton Rectory, Presteign, Radnor, Prof. Newbery says :— xy have seen luminous earthworms on more than one occasion on the grass of our lawn here. (We are really in Herefordshire, though our post town is in Radnor). The soil from which they emerged is a mixture of clay and gravel, but is very fertile. The luminosity was very weak, and gathered in spots or blotches over the body. Small luminous patches were left behind on the grass in the track of the worm, but these faded in a very short time (30 seconds or so). I have seen them both in warm weather and when a slight frost was on the ground, but a very dark night is necessary to render them at all conspicuous, as the luminosity is so weak.’’ That Prof. Newbery is not confusing luminous earth- worms with luminous centipedes is concluded from the next paragraph in his letter :— “On Tuesday, September 2, I saw a remarkably brilliant luminous centipede in a barley field 100 yards from here. The light was so vivid that it caught my attention at a distance of 12 yards, and the luminous trail left behind it was quite 12 in. longi. Suggesting the cause of luminosity, Prof. Newbery says: — “Tam inclined to believe that the luminosity of these centipedes and worms is due to slow oxidation of some excretion from the body which may well be affected in quantity and quality by the food available.’’ So far as centipedes are concerned, I think Dr. Brade-Birks and I shall be able to show, in a forth- coming paper on luminous Chilopoda, that atmospheric oxygen is not necessary for the production of light in the centipedes we have studied, but Prof. Newbery’s suggestion about food supply may explain why some individuals of a species are luminous while others are not. In Verhoeff’s ‘‘Chilopoda’’ (Bronn’s “Klassen und Ordnungen des Thier-Reichs ’’) there is no reference in the bibliography to Dr. T. L. Phipson’s ‘t Phosphores- cence, or the Emission of Light by Minerals, Plants, and Animals ’”’ (London : Lovell Reeve, 1862); I there- Eee 94 NATURE |OcToBER 2, 1919 fore conclude that this useful. worl: is little known. Phipson cites the experience of Audouin in 1814. In August that year some persons came to him at Choissy- le-Roi, near Paris, where he was on holiday, and told him they had seen an immense number of luminous earthworms in a chicory field not far away. These earthworms turned out to be centipedes. In another chapter Phipson tells us that in 1840 Forester wrote to the Academy of Sciences recording luminous earth- worms. When this letter was communicated to the Academy, M. Audouin rose and said that he knew of no authentic case of luminous earthworms, but that he could cite numerous cases where luminous centipedes and worms had been confused. Whereupon Duméril, to prove that earthworms sometimes are phosphores- cent, quoted the experience of Flaugergues and that of the naturalist Bruguiére. It seems that M. Audouin was afterwards convinced of the fact that earthworms were sometimes luminous by the experience of Saigey and Mogquin-Tandon, who found them so at Toulouse in 1837. Phipson quotes other evidence, and closes an interesting chapter with words which may confirm Prof. Newbery’s suggestion about the relation between the quantity and quality of phosphorescence and the food supply :— “T may add here,’’ says Phipson, “that I distinctly remember witnessing, when quite a child, the phos- phorescence of the earthworm; the light appeared con- nected with the slimy matter that covers the animal’s body. It was whilst digging at night, in a large dung- hill, for worms to supply baits for a fishing excursion that my schoolfellows and myself turned up many hun- dred Lumbrics in a highly luminous condition; but I cannot recollect in what month this happened.’’ S. GraHaM Brabe-Birks. 16 Bank Street, Darwen, Lancashire, September 13, CATALYSIS IN CHEMICAL INDUSTRY. a HE catalytic agent is penetrating peacefully, yet effectively, into modern chemical in- dustry. In explanation, to the lay mind, of the réle of a catalyst in chemical reaction, comparison was recently cleverly drawn between the catalyst and the matrimonial agency. Both serve to bring together and to facilitate the union of others. Both are free after the consummation of the one process to renew their activities in like manner. The catalytic substance has played an important part in the many industries which have been neces- sary to the maintenance and equipment of the fighting Services with munitions of war. Not less distinctive a part has it played on the home front in the work of victory. The catalyst has been largely employed in the supply of margarine, to which we have grown accustomed. The. soap with which we have been cleansed calls, in the process of its manufacture, for the assistance of the catalyst. The glucose which has helped to sweeten our lives, in time of a sugar shortage, is thé. resultant of yet another catalytic process. Let us survey a few of the more striking appli- cations of catalysis in industry. Glycerine for dynamite and nitroglycerine is obtained from fats by. catalytic hydrolysis, using alkalis or acids as splitting agents. In the modern developments of fat-splitting the discovery of the Twitchell cata- lyst facilitated, owing to its.combined acidic and NO. 2605, VOL, 104] fatty nature, the rapid working-up of low-grade. fats and greases for glycerine and soaps. Sul- phuric acid is made by one or other of two cata-. lytic processes. The old or “lead chamber ’’ pro- cess uses oxides of nitrogen to assist the process of oxidation of sulphur dioxide. For the stronger acid, the “oleum’’ or fuming sulphuric acid re- quired in the nitration of toluene and phenol for high explosive, the modern “contact ’’ process is more suitable. The sulphur dioxide and oxygen are caused to combine in the presence of solid contact agents such as platinum or oxide of iron. Chlorine, as well for poison-gas as for the more peaceful requirements of bleaching-powder of sanitation and water purification, is generated’ — from hydrochloric acid by’ oxidation in the pres- — ence of copper chloride as catalyst. That very inert but plentiful constituent of the atmosphere, — nitrogen, may now, with the assistance of a suit- able catalyst, be caused to combine with hydrogen. directly to form ammonia. This may be used for the production of ammonium sulphate for _ fertiliser, or oxidised in contact with a hot platinum gauze to form oxides of nitrogen, and” thus lead to the manufacture of nitric acid. or ammonium nitrate. The hydrogen which is neces- sary for ammonia synthesis is obtained most cheaply and effectively by another catalytic re- action, using water-gas and steam as the raw materials. Town gas and fuel gases generally are’ freed from obnoxious sulphur compounds present — as impurities by catalytic processes of sulphur — removal. . S| It is a matter of difficulty fully to characterise — the developments which have attended in several — instances the discovery of successful catalytic — processes.. Perhaps, however, an illustration in- volving the application of the researches of the brilliant French chemist, M. Paul Sabatier, will serve to demonstrate potentialities and possibili- ties inherent in academic research. M. Sabatier is the discoverer of the principle of catalytic hydro- — genation, and has conducted an exhaustive series — of researches into the phenomenon. The applica- | tion of his results to industry has solved the — century-old problem of the economic utilisation of © liquid fats. During the last ten years, in ever-— increasing measure, liquid fats and oils have been. catalytically hydrogenated in presence of reduced } nickel as catalyst to yield the more valuable hard-- ened fats which are used in the soap and candle industry, as well as for purposes of food. The economic results of such application are tremen- dous. Whole tracts of tropical country are being opened up for the production of palm nut and — other nut oils. Fish oils are being hardened and deodorised for use in the industry. New uses are } being found for hardened cotton-seed, linseed, and — similar largely available oils. i Catalytic hydrogenation has also been applied } to the enrichment of gaseous fuels. The carbon 7 monoxide of water-gas may be hydrogenated in presence of reduced nickel to give methane with consequent production of a gas of high calorific value and illuminating power. The production of © —s i ee OcToBER 2, 1919] NATURE 95 hexahydro-benzol in bulk, by hydrogenation of benzene, is as yet in its infancy, but has a certain: future owing to the utility of the product as a volatile fuel for internal-combustion engines. The fact that it is a single compound gives it marked advantages over petrol as a fuel for air transit, since the variability of petrol is a distinct draw- back in the case of a fuel upon which such rigo- rous demands are necessary. The development of the fine chemical industry in this country involves also an extended use of catalytic reactions. The successful production of synthetic indigo was facilitated by the discovery of the catalytic acceleration of the oxidation of naphthalene by mercuric. sulphate, discovered owing to the breakage of a thermometer bulb in the reaction mixture. The production of dye intermediates involves, more and more, the aid of catalysis. Especially, however, in the large- scale preparation of solvents will catalysis con- tribute convincingly to success. Industrial alcohol may be cited in illustration. Every method by which this important solvent is produced is cata- lytic. The ordinary process of fermentation and distillation involves the participation of the living catalysts, the enzymes and ferments. The pro- duction of alcohol from potato and rice starch is a combined process of hydrolysis and fermenta- tion with the catalytic action of acids followed by enzymes. Similarly, alcohol of the future will be obtained by catalytic degradation of the cellulose content of wood waste, or, synthetically, from acetylene and ethylene, by processes of catalytic hydration and hydrogenation. The potentialities of alcohol as a fuel in the future must not be forgotten, in view of the increasing consumption and prospective exhaustion of oil-fuel reserves. - In the meantime these latter, as a result of more rigid scientific control, are being more economi- cally utilised. The “cracking ’’ of oils to yield the more volatile fractions usable in motor-engines is a modern development, the catalytic features of which have not, as yet, been completely realised. From alcohol as starting-point, catalysis is _ involved in the production of acetic acid and acetone, the solvents largely required in the pre- _ paration of aeroplane dopes and varnishes. From methyl alcohol, a distillation product of wood, catalytic oxidation or dehydrogenation in presence of metallic copper yields formaldehyde, a power- _ ful germicide and disinfectant, and itself the start- ing-point in the manufacture of bakelite, the arti- ficial vulcanite or amber, a polymerised product formed under the influence of catalytic agents, and increasingly produced for use in electrical insulators and for fancy articles. The demand for formaldehyde is already so great that investiga- _ tions are in progress with the object of production from sources other) than methyl alcohol. The hydrocarbon methane has been suggested in this connection. A process of fractional oxidation of methane should yield formaldehyde. Alcohols and “organic acids of varied complexity may be largely utilised. in the production of synthetic essential NO. 2605, VOL. 104] oils and perfumes by processes of catalytic con-- densation. The catalogue is not exhaustive, but sufficient has been said to show the paramount importance: of catalysis in modern chemical industry. It is: evident, therefore, that the modern curriculum of theoretical chemistry should concern itself largely with the scientific principles involved: in catalytic reactions. An extended experience with catalysis, both pure and applied, has demonstrated that, from a complete realisation of the theoretical aspects of the problem, progress in the application follows the more rapidly and the more certainly. It is astonishing to note the facility with which new progress is attained by the employment of the scientific principles which have been acquired in a totally different application of catalysis to industrial progress. The records of certain of the Government Departments of investigative work, during the last few years, would be instructive in this regard. The need, therefore, is urgent for a well-trained force of young students, versed in the fundamentals of this modern branch of chemistry, and equipped to take their place in the further developments which lie so close at hand. There are manifold possibilities ahead—numerous pro- cesses and agencies catalytic awaiting the facile brain and hand of the investigator. Hucu S. Tayor. FROSTS AND AGRICULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. Be ate United States Department of Agriculture has recently issued a publication on “ Frost and the Growing Season.” This consists of a series of maps in colours and some diagrams from which the probable date of the last frost in spring and the earliest in autumn may be seen at a glance. An article on a paper by Mr. W. G. Reed on this subject appeared in the issue of Nature for May 23, 1918, and the present pub- lication is also by the same author. Frosts are divided into three classes: “light,” “heavy,” and “killing.” The first two terms apply to the amount of the deposit in the form of hoar- frost; the last only is dealt with in the paper, and is defined on an occasion on which the screen temperature fell below 32° F. In a country like the United States there is naturally great varia- tion in the length of the period that is free from frost; not only is there variation in latitude from Florida to the Canadian border, but there is also much difference in the height above mean sea- level. The local topography is also important, for while, in general, frost is more prevalent at the greater altitudes, yet iocally a small elevation will prevent a frost, and in enclosed valleys the hill-sides and the hill-tops may be less subject to frosts than the valley bottoms. Frost records are available from about four thou- sand regular stations of the Weather Bureau, and of these about six hundred have a twenty years’ record. The most noteworthy feature of the 96 NATURE [OcToBER 2, 1919 critical frost dates is their extreme irregularity. Thus at Peoria, Ill., with a fifty-nine years’ record, the latest frost in spring covers a period of nearly fifty days, and the earliest in autumn a period of forty days. The maps are based upon the average dates. The mountainous character of the country in the western portion of the United States, and the fact that the stations are mostly situated on the lower slopes of the mountains, make mapping very difficult, and it is pointed out that only a general idea of the conditions can be given. For practical purposes this position of the stations should not matter, as they would naturally be in those parts where cultivation was most prevalent. It appears from the maps that’there is no part of the United States:except Key West where a frost may not occur, and the line showing a frost in half the years—that is, the line showing the position where a frost is just as likely to occur once. in the winter as not ‘to occur—excludes only a small part of Florida and reaches down to lati- ture 26° N. The line for the last frost before March 1 cuts. off the’ peninsula of Florida» and fringes the southern coast:as far as New Orleans. In the north frosts are common ‘until the middle of May or even June 1, and in the higher parts of the west, which are only used’ for grazing, they’ occur after June 1. The earliest frost in autumn does not occur until after December 1 in Florida and in parts of the south-west. On the north-western frontier frost may be expected about the: middle of September. About one-quarter to one-third: of the whole country has a period of 210 consecutive days free from frost, but in the mountainous regions of the west there is a good deal of country in which the period is barely half as long. Some smaller maps give information as to the frequency of frosts in the different districts one, two, or more weeks before or after the average dates. The whole paper is most interesting, and should be very. useful to agriculturists in the United States. a Wee... D: THERE-Wwas a certain inevitableness in the nomina- tion of Mr: Arthur James Balfour for the Chancellor- ship of Cambridge University. The fact that Mr. Balfour has consented to be so nominated in suc- cession to his late brother-in-law has everywhere been. received with enthusiasm. In the history of .Cambridge, statesmen, administrators, literary men, and philosophers have succeeded one after another in the roll of Chancellors, but in Mr. Balfour, the most celebrated of living graduates of Cambridge University, all are combined! in» one. man. Mr. Balfour is one-of the two honorary. fellows of Trinity College, the other being the Right Hon. G. O. Trevelyan. Mr. Balfour was educated at Eton, and entered Trinity College in the late ’sixties. He took his degree in the Moral Sciences Tripos of 1896, in the same year as Dr. Percy Gardner, now the pro- fessor of archeology at Oxford. The Balfour family has been most intimately associated with Cambridge ; his younger brother Francis, who unhappily perished in the Alps in 1882, was a man of the highest NO. 2605, VOL. 104] | with widespread sympathy and hope scientific distinction, one who was leading zoologists along new lines of thought; another brother, Gerald, was a fellow of Trinity; one of his sisters married - Prof. Henry Sidgwick, and was for many years Principal of Newnham College; and another sister married Lord Rayleigh, whose recent death has deprived the University of a generous Chancellor and a great pioneer in modern physics. A reference to *““Who’s Who” will show not only the list of honorary degrees, too long to be quoted here, which have been conferred upon Mr. Balfour, but also that he has constantly taken the lead on various boards and committees connected with education. He has been Lord Rector of St. Andrews University, Lord Rector of Glasgow University, and he is Chancellor of Edinburgh University. The announcement that so distinguished a man and ‘scholar has consented to be nominated for the post of Chancellor has met amongst the members of the Senate. ENTOMOLOGISTS, it appears, have not yet solved the problem of. what becomes of the house-fly in winter- time. The popular idea that when the cold season comes the house-flies, or such of them as do ‘not*die off, retire to some quiet nook or cranny in the house and, like dormice, sleep undisturbed through the winter is still entertained in some scientific and other respectable quarters, although no trustworthy evidence has been found to support it. | There are flies and flies; and, as Dr. L. O.. Howard. was, we believe, the first to suggest, no evidence relating to the hibernation of the house-fly:can be trusted until it has first been sub- mitted to expert’ examination. Since that suggestion was made, a large:amount of evidence has been sub- mitted to experts, and now they are almost unanimously, agreed thatthe hibernating houge-fly is a wholly mythical creature. But -the house-fly must get through the winter somehow,, and if not in its perfect state as a fly, then in some. other stage or stages of its life, or else we’ should not be troubled with the pestilent brood year after year in succession. Before the entomologist can tell us exactly how, it looks as if he will need the help of the sanitary officer, ‘the stable-boy, the farm labourer, or even of the Boy Scout, rather than that of the ordinary house- holder. -The search for larvae and pupz of the fly is not an easy one, and often involves a great amount of physical labour. In. summer-time the pupa are frequently to be found living at a depth of 2 ft. under the surface’ of the soil within half a yard of a manure heap. Dr. Gordon Hewitt has searched for them in such places, and in every other likely place, in winter- time, and has never succeeded in ‘finding any alive. But because he, and possibly-a few others, have made it and failed, it can scarcely be said that.a search of that kind has been exhausted, and that we must fall back upon the hibernating adult fly as the only” alternative. There may be no definite hibernating stage in the life of the fly. The’ insect may con- tinue to breed in the winter, not exactly as it does in the summer or autumn, but at a’ greatly retarded rate, each stage being more or less. prolonged. © This probably does not happen to any extent. under natural conditions in this country, but the number of places in which it can happen, and probably does happen, under special conditions may be’ quite sufficient to account for the perpetuation of the fly. Tue officers and other members of .council of the Réntgen Society for the session 1919-20 are as follows :—Pesident:. Dr. Sidney Russ. Hon. Secre- taries: Dr. Robert Knox and Dr. R. W. A. Sal- mond. Hon. Treasurer: Mr. Geoffrey Pearce. Hon. . OcTOBER 2, 1919] NATURE 97 q _ Editor: Major G. W. C. Kaye. Council: Mr. W. E. _ Schall, Dr. G. H. Rodman, Mr. C. Howard Head, _ Mr. C. R.-C. Lyster,; Dr. J; Metcalfe, Mr. E. P. _ Cumberbatch, Dr. A. E. Barclay, Mr. F. J. Harlow, Dr. W. Makower, Dr. E. A. Owen, Mr. J. Russell _ Reynolds, and Mr. R. S. Wright. __ A coNnGREss attended by 350 persons met at Mar- seilles in January last, under the auspices of the local _ Chamber of Commerce, to discuss and emphasise the rights of France over Syria. The discussions of the congress were divided into four sections :—Economics, _ archeology and history, education, and medicine and _ hygiene. A summary of the main papers of geo- _ graphical interest is given in La Géographie (vol, xxxii., No. 5). M. E. de Marbonne contributed a paper on the geographical unity of Syria, in which he showed that Syria cannot be divided latitudinally, but that the natural divisions of the country extend _ from north to south, and are separated approximately _ by meridians from the Mediterranean to the valley of _ the Euphrates. Various papers of considerable value, _ although from a distinctive point of view, dealt with _ the trade and ports of Syria. At the instigation of the Admiralty, the Royal Geo- graphical Society has taken steps to form a permanent committee on geographical names, on which the Admiralty, War ffice, Foreign Office, Colonial _ Office, India Office, Post Office, Board of Trade, Board of Agriculture, and the Royal Geographical _ Society are represented The chairman of the Com- - mittee is Major-Gen. Lord Edward Gleichen, and Mr. A. R. Hinks is acting povisionally as secretary. _ The Committee hopes eventually to examine all cases _ of doubtful nomenclature and spelling in the place- names of the British Empire, accepting, wherever possible, official name-lists such as those provided by the Gazetteer of India, the Board of . Geographic names of Canada, etc. Place-names of the British Isles are outside the scope of the Committee, as they are dealt with by the Ordnance Survey. Lists of - names will be published at intervals after they have ' been submitted for approval to the authorities of the _ country concerned. Correspondence regarding con- _ fused or doubtful placenames of which the writer _ has personal knowledge is invited, and should be ad- _ dressed to the Secretary, Committee on Place-Names, _ c/o Royal Geographical Society, Kensington Gore, London, S.W.7. : Tue Journal of the Royal Microscopical Society for June (part 2, 1919) contains an important paper by Mr. J. Bronté Gatenby on the identification of intra- cellular structures. Considerable difficulty is often experienced in distinguishing several categories of cell elements. The Golgi apparatus, mitochondria, yolk, and fat are, or contain, substances often iden- tical and generally chemically allied. For this reason _ care must be exercised in any attempt to identify a _ given cell body, and it is clearly recognised that the mixture of two or more of the above-mentioned _ elements may lead to confusion. ‘The characteristics _of the various elements of the cell which the zoologist may meet with, and the manner in which they may be distinguished by staining methods and micro- _ chemical tests, is indicated in tabular form. THE Review of Work in 1918 of the Rockefeller _ Foundation has recently been issued. The activities _ of the foundation include a campaign against tuber- culosis in France, which is mainly engaged in co- ordinating the various agencies already in existence for combating this disease. Demonstrations’ to test NO. 2605, VOL. 104| anti-mosquito measures have been carried out in Arkansas with considerable ‘success, and an epidemic of yellow fever in Guatemala has been stamped out. Measures for the control and prevention of hook- worm disease have been undertaken in many tropical countries. Medical education is also encouraged by the foundation; the Pekin Union Medical College is being built under its auspices, and grants are made to many missionary hospitals. The total disburse- ments of the foundation for 1918 amounted to more than 15,000,000 dollars, and war-work expenditure during the war totals nearly 22,500,000 dollars. In an article published in a recent issue of the North China Daily News Mr. Austin J. Clements estimates that to maintain the trade in musk which passes across the Szechuan-Tibetan border, about 100,000 musk-deer must be captured and killed each year. The quantity of musk brought into Tachienlu, the chief centre of the trade, shows no sign of diminution, so that apparently the annual drain, large as it is, has so far had no noticeable effect on the musk-deer population of Eastern Tibet. Mr. Clements thinks it may be feasible to rear musk- deer in semi-captivity, and to collect musk. from the animals without killing them. The wholesale slaughter which now goes on is largely unnecessary, since the snaring methods employed lead to the destruction of large numbers of females and im- mature males, whereas only male deer more than three years of age secrete musk. The article con- tains a good deal of information regarding the trade in musk, not the least interesting item. being the statement that one firm in Tachienlu devotes itself solely to the manufacture of an adulterant, which resembles true musk in all respects save smell, the latter being provided by the addition of a small quantity of genuine musk. In coping with this and other less ingenious forms of sophistication the Chinese merchant is accustomed to rely on his per- sonal judgment of the appearance, taste and smell, etc., of the article offered to him, so that it is not surprising that some authorities believe that all the muski exported from Tachienlu is more or less adulterated. In connection with the Rat Exhibition held a few months ago in the gardens of the Zoological Society of London, special investigations were made into the various methods of rat destruction. Mr. E. G. Boulenger was placed in charge of this research, and on September 26, in a lecture presided over by Prof. E. W. MacBride, and attended by a large gathering of medical officers of health, sanitary officers, and rat officers, he gave an account of the’ results obtained. He stated that in the course of his inves- tigations it was ascertained that, not only had the common brown rat very greatly increased in numbers in recent years, but also that the old English black rat, or ship’s rat, which was supposed to have been practically exterminated in this country by the commoner species, and to be restricted to ports and ships, had become much more abundant, and the two species of rats were now found in various parts of London living together in harmony. Where rats were present in large numbers, and where it was not practicable to use gas, poisoning was found to be the best and cheapest method to adopt for their destruction. Of all the poisons experimented with, squill, the extract of the bulb of the Mediterranean plant Scilla maritima, gave the greatest satisfaction. Good results were also obtained with barium car- borate. Both these poisons, Mr. Boulenger said, the possibility of ridding a community of malaria by | were; in the small quantities required to kill rats 98 NATURE [OcToBER 2, 1919 and mice, more.or less harmless to domestic animals. The destructive power of virus was found to be more untrustworthy than that of some poisons. The most suc- cessful form of trap consists of a tunnel-shaped cage with open doors at each end, which shut when the rat treads on a platform in the centre of the passage. The common steel gin-trap was specially successful when covered with wire tunnels. A large number of experiments were conducted in order to. ascertain whether there was any truth in the statement that rats are influenced by human odour. As a result cf these experiments it was found that it was superfluous to avoid handling traps on the assumption that rats are detracted’ by the odour of man. Sulphur dioxide was found to be the most effective gas, and was recommended for killing rats on ships and in con- fined spaces. When driven off under pressure, the gas could be used with success in fumigating rat- holes in the open. Details of the research will be found in a ‘‘ Report on Methods of Rat Destruction,’’ by Mr. E. G. Boulenger, shortly to be published’ by the Zoological Society, price 6d. Tue Proceedings of the United States National Museum (vol. lvi., No. 2288) contains an interesting paper entitled ‘‘ Descriptions of New Species of Mol- luscs of the Family. Turritida from the West Coast of America and Adjacent Regions’’ by Dr. W. H. Dall. In all, somewhat more than 200 species are considered, of which 181 are new. Of this large numbet 93 belong to the fauna of the western coast of the United States from the Arctic Ocean to San Diego, California, including one species from Hawaii. Eleven species appertain to the west coast of South America, including the Galapagos Islands; 89 belong to the Panamic fauna and its extension into the Gulf of California. The new species are well figured on twenty-four plates reproduced from excellent micro- photographs. Durinc the early days of rubber-planting, seed was put in regardless of its origin, whether from trees | yielding large or from trees yielding small quantities of latex. Now, however, so much rubber is planted that there is danger of over-production, and _ for further plantations (now that capital costs have increased) to have much chance of success they should be planted with seed from the best bearers. Selection of seed is already in progress in Ceylon and elsewhere, and a paper by Whitby (‘‘ Variation in Hevea brasiliensis,’’ Ann, of Bot., vol. xxxiii., 1919, p. 313) provides useful data which give an idea of the possibilities of improvement in average yield. A large number of trees were tapped on a uniform system (in Malaya), and it was found that nearly 10 per cent. yielded twice the mean or more. If, then, the method of selection indicated in Lock’s ‘‘ Rubber and Rubber- Planting’’ (p. tor) were adopted, there seems good reason to hope that new plantations might be made yielding much more rubber per acre than the old. Tue possibilities of camphor cultivation in the West Indies has recently been discussed in the Agricultural News for May 31 last. The decreasing amount of camphor available for export from Japan, which has hitherto been the main source of supply, has led to experimental growth of the camphor-tree in various West Indian Islands. It has been found that some varieties of the tree vield oil only, while others yield camphor and oil, and this important botanical aspect of the question is being investigated at Kew. With the right variety, the leaves and twigs, as well as the wood and roots, are found to yield camphor on distillation, and the trees will bear severe pruning with little apparent injury. Camphor production appears to be an industry which might profitably be No. 2605, VOL. 104] developed in. several West Indian islands, where climatic and soil conditions are suitable; for instance, Jamaica, Trinidad, Dominica, and others. Camphor hedges as wind-breaks to lime or cacao plantations. might be experimented with, even if extensive areas. were not devoted entirely to camphor plantations. AMONG recent publications of the Board of Agri- culture is the first annual report of the Flax Produc. tion Branch—a branch formed'in 1917 to arrange for the growth of at least 10,000 acres of flax in Great Britain. It is estimated that the 1918 crop will yield about 26,500 tons of straw and seed. ‘The cost of production has been enormous, chiefly owing to the great difficulty in obtaining the large amount of labour necessary for harvesting the crop. Pre-war experiment stations proved the possibility of flax pro- duction on‘a small scale in Great Britain, but it would’ be obviously unfair to take last year’s experience as a guide to the possibility of a large-scale flax industry. The latter will depend on foreign imports and prices, on the development of flax-growing in other countries, and also on the hitherto unattacked problem of the reduction of ‘costs in all the stages of production. Im- provements already in sight are the increased straw yield from selected strains, and the progress made- with the threshing attachment which makes de. seeding on the farm possible. Also, it must be re- membered that, failing the large-scale establishment of the flax industry, considerable loss will be sustained in the disposal of the machinery which has been put up during the past year. Tue recently issued volume of the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society (vol. Ixxix., 1918) contains several papers of great interest in connection with the food production campaign carried on during the war. Prof. Bryner Jones describes the results of breaking up grass-land in 1918. This will always rank as one of the most remarkable achievements of British agriculture, contributing as it did so largely to the- food-supply of the country in times of great need. It was fitting, therefore, that the technical problems should be recorded and discussed. Teachers and. experts will hope that an even fuller account may be: published eventually, giving details of soil formations. and conditions that will add to its usefulness. Mr, Garrad describes the work of the tractor on the farm. This implement is rapidly reyolutionising farm condi- tions, and is greatly increasing the efficiency of the farm-worker. The defects of present types are set out and suggestions made for the consideration of en- gineers. Unfortunately, the great enemy of the tractor is the weather; in Mr. Garrad’s opinion, it is essentially a fine-weather machine, and has to be laid up in winter. But it works so quickly that it enables: a farmer to do much of his work during the fine periods. Mr. J. R. Bond gives an aecount of modern haymaking machinery, and Mr. Arthur Amos discusses’ the difficulties of growing red clover. ; Tur Rev. M. Saperra Maso, who has studied the seismic and volcanic phenomena of the Philippine Islands for many years, has recently published the catalogue of earthquakes for the year 1918 (U.S. Weather Bulletin for December, 1918). Excluding after-shocks, the total number of earthquakes is 167, three of which were recorded all over the world. The most important earthquake was that which occurred in Southern Mindanao on August 15 at 12.20 p.m., G.M.T., its epicentre being in 5:5° N. lat. and 124:5° E. long. This shock, the intensity of which reached the highest degree (10) of the Rossi- Forel scale, was followed by thousands of after- shocks (some of them of degrees 7 and 8) during the months of August, September, and October. It was nl est ¥ - OcToBER 2, 1919] NATURE a _ followed by-a sea-wave, which swept over the southern coast of Catabato, causing great damage and loss of life. About a month later, on September 13, there ‘were two violent shocks in the Batanes Islands, the first of intensity 8 at 6.56 a.m., the second of inten- sity ? at 11.5 a.m., by which the towns of Sabtan and lyana were destroyed. ‘ Tue Bulusan volcano rises on the south-east end of the island of Luzon to a height of about sooo ft. For centuries—indeed, so far back as the historic record extends—it has been dormant, only occasionally ejecting small jets of steam from numerous vents around its breached and nearly filled-up crater. A few light outbursts with ejection of ashes are reported as having occurred in 1852, 1889, and 1894. Far more important were the eruptions which took place in January, 1916, and October, 1918, and are briefly described by the Rev. M. Saderra Masd in the U.S. Weather Bulletin for January last. The first began on January 16, 1916, and lasted five days, with numerous earth-tremors and rumbling noises and small explosions. The eruption of October, 1918, was more violent, and at the end of December incan- descent lava began to pour down a deep ravine on the south-south-west side of the mountain, continuing until the end of March, 1919. The damage caused by the eruptions is of little account; indeed, the planta- tions on the lower flanks of the volcano have been benefited by the small falls of ashes. Symons’s Meteorological Magazine for September inaugurates the passing of the magazine from the British Rainfall Organisation to the Meteorological Office as a part of the unification of the British atk Services. The Thames Valley. rain- fall map for August shows the general rains to have ranged during the month from 2 in. to 4 in., the rains being heaviest in the southern districts of Hampshire and Sussex. In London and over a large part of Middlesex the rains measured about 2-5 in., the least rains amounting to 2 in. and less over the estuary of. the Thames. Tue Monthly Meteorological Chart of the North Atlantic Ocean published by the Meteorological Office, in addition to the usual information dealing with matters of especial interest to the seaman, has on the face of the chart a note on the increasing storm tendency during the autumn. Attention’ is directed to the fact that during the winter half of the year both anticyclones and cyclones are of greater intensity than those of the quieter months of summer, the barometer during the winter season both rising higher and falling lower, which accounts for the greater severity of the wind. As an illustration of the ir- regular track of storms at times, attention is idirected to a storm experienced by H.M.S. Caesar in the neighbourhood of Bermuda during the early days of September, 1915, when the storm’s path seems to have nearly completed a circle and then to have doubled back over a considerable area. To confirm so erratic a path, a minute discussion of neighbour- ing and surrounding observations seems desirable. Autumn is referred to as the most stormy period for hurricanes in the tropical belt, but the accumulated data for many years show August as the most stormy month for West Indian hurricanes. Charts are given of the North Polar seas for the months from April to August inclusive, taken from the ‘State of the Ice in the Arctic Seas, 1918,’* published by the Danish Meteorological Institute. Tue developments of aerial photography during the war seem likely to be put into practical use in peace- time in connection with surveying and cartographic work. In La Nature for September 6, P. Dautriche NO. 2605, VOL. 104] expresses the opinion that the field of application for aero-photography seems to comprise (1) land carto- graphy (revision and explorations); (2) marine carto- graphy or charting; (3) the preparation of large-scale maps and plans for various public works enterprises; and (4) control work (forest sections, the traffic of ports, stations, etc.). His article develops the subject in an elementary way by simple examples of the method of procedure. A writer in La Nature (September 6) sketches the development of the French Ministry of Inventions from its inception in 1915. The Department has been responsible, like the British War Inventions Depart- ment, for carrying out numerous investigations re- lated to matters of artillery, small arms, lorries, tanks, aircraft, and shipping. One of the most useful inventions which was the outcome of much experiment by Prof. Perrin and his collaborators is a method of acoustic signalling by means of a compressed-air trumpet. The apparatus, which is quite portable, comprises two clarions or bugles having different notes and a compressed-air cylinder. It has a range of several kilometres. Much valuable work was done, too, on the photography of projectiles at extra high speeds. Mention is also made of Prof. Rothé’s method of recording wind velocity by means of small anemometers and mills attached to captive balloons, the anemometers closing an electric circuit at intervals of ro m. of change in wind force. AN interesting pamphlet has been issued by the Niagara Falls Chamber of Commerce relating to the electro-chemical industries established at the Falls. The power at present utilised amounts to 605,000 h.p.,. whilst schemes in process of development will absorb a further 420,000 h.p.. It is estimated that a total of 2,500,000 h.p., equivalent to more than 16,000,000 tons of coal per annum, may be obtained without impairing the natural beauty of the Falls. The sub- stances produced by the various companies cover a wide range, and include abrasives, refractories, fer- tilisers, metals and alloys, inorganic compounds, and a variety of organic substances such as chloroform, methyl alcohol, and formaldehyde. When cheap power is available, electro-chemical methods of pro- duction often prove cheaper than: alternative pro- cesses, and to this fact may be attributed the rapid ' development of hydro-electric schemes in all countries where water-power is available on a sufficiently large scale. The policy of the United States is to utilise water-power to the fullest extent, thereby conserving fuel; and it is. worth while considering whether the British Empire could not act as a whole in this con- nection, particularly in view of the present. situation in relation to coal supplies. Judging from the success already achieved at Niagara, it appears probable that a continuously increasing proportion .of chemical and. metallurgical products will emanate from water-power centres in the future. WE have received a copy of an interesting pamphlet (obtainable from. the editor of the British Baker, Messrs. MacLaren and Sons, Ltd., 38 Shoe Lane, E.C., price 1s.) by Capt. Robert Whymper on ‘“‘ The: Conditions that Govern Staleness in Bread.’’ For the greater part the report deals with work carried out by Capt. Whymper himself as Assistant Inspector of Bakeries with the Army in France, and it extends over far too large a field for complete abstraction here. The questions studied include the estimation and location of losses occurring in the manufacture of bread, the conditions that govern staleness in bread, changes cccurring in bread with age, and ‘the colloid nature of bread-crumb. The conclusions 100 NATURE [OcToBER 2, 1919 arrived at are as follows :—(1) The cooling of bread takes place in three stages: a steam period, a con- densation period, and a drying period, the rate of loss of moisture of the first being four times as great as that of the drying period and five times that of the condensation period. (2) No marked loss of mois- ture from the centre of the loaf occurs until after too hours, and within the latter period the zone of drying is a layer only 1 in. thick adjacent to the outer crust. (3) The loss of water from a loaf on keeping is not responsible for staleness. (4) As the loaf becomes stale there is a fall in the amount of soluble extract of the bread-crumb, followed by a rise, the soluble starch falling rapidly between six and twenty- four hours’ cooling. This supports Lindet’s view that staleness is due to the retrogression of soluble starch. A similar fall and rise of soluble extract has been observed with starch pastes. Capt. Whymper con- siders that staleness may be attributed to (i) deposi- tion of solid starch in the bread-crumb by change of temperature and accelerated by the pre-existence of solid starch particles; and (ii) partial polymerisation of starch independent of the deposition mentioned, which tends to crumble the gelatinous nature of the bread-crumb. Changes occurring in the proteins of the bread may also be a cause of staleness. Messrs. Bailliére, Tindall, and Cox have in the press for appearance in their Industrial Chemistry Series :—‘t Explosives,’’ E. de Barry Barnett; ‘‘ The Industrial Gases,’? Dr. H. C. Greenwood; ‘* Animal Proteids,’’ H. G. Bennett; and ‘‘ The Carbohydrates,”’ Dr. S. Rideal. The following volumes are in pre- paration for the same series :—‘‘Fats, Waxes, and Essential Oils,’’ W. H. Simmons; ‘Silica and the Silicates,”” J. A. Audley; ‘‘The Rare Earths and Metals,’? Dr. E. K. Rideal; ‘‘The Iron Industry,”’ A. E. Pratt; ‘‘The Steel Industry,’’ A. E. Pratt; “Gas-works Products,” H. H. Gray; .“* Organic Medicinal Chemicals,’? M. Barrowcliff and F. H. Carr; ‘‘The Petroleum Industry,’? D. A. Sutherland; ‘“Wood and Cellulose,’? R. W. Sindall and W. Bacon; ‘‘Rubber, Resins, Paints, and Varnishes,”’ Dr. S. Rideal; and ‘‘Economic Fuel Production in Chemical Industry,’? Dr. H. S$. Taylor. Erratum.—On p. 84 of Nature of September 25, in the Table in column two, 95-4 appeared under S(aturn) in some copies as 5-4, the 9 having been broken off during printing. OUR, ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN. THE TWENTY-FOUR-HOUR Day.—The spirit of standardisation and unification is abroad, and one of its latest manifestations is the attempt to reduce the various methods of time-reckoning to a single system. Astronomers have made an important contribution to this end in deciding to commence the astronomical day at midnight instead of noon. This reform will commence in the year 1925, an earlier date being in- convenient for the various nautical almanacs. While astronomers will gain, on the whole, by the change, yet in some respects, notably in the case of sets of observations extending on both sides of midnight, it will cause inconvenience; this gives them a certain claim to ask for some sacrifice on the part of the general public in order to achieve the further unifica- tion which is now desired; this is the substitution of 24-hour reckoning for the present system of a.m. and p.m. Twenty-four-hour time has long been used in Italy; it was introduced into the British Army last year, and a few railway companies already use it in their time-tables, where its convenience is so manifest that it is surprising that its intréduction has been so tardy. NO. 2605, VOL. 104] .for southern observers. The majority of social functions take place in the afternoon or evening, and it undoubtedly is somewhat more troublesome to say seventeen than five, or — twenty-one than nine. Punch made some amusing play on this subject when the reform was suggested in 1885; possibly this had something to do with the failure to carry it at that date. However, the fact that astronomers could not then agree to alter the astronomical day deprived the scheme of its driving- power. The auspices are now more favourable, and the report of the Committee, consisting of seven members, just appointed by the Home Secretary ‘vill be awaited with interest. . : Comets.—Using observations made on August 21, 29, and September 7, Messrs. Braae and Fischer- Petersen have deduced the following elliptical orbit of the comet 1919b :— T =1919 Oct. 16°861 G.M.T. @ =129° 32°11’ SL =310° #34" b9190 log g=9'68544 Z =-19° 11°45’ Period 72095 years The elements are extremely close (within about 5’ in each case) to Gould’s elements for 1847 when cor- rected for precession. The error of the middle place in longitude (great circle) is —o-50', in latitude -to-51/. The period adopted is simply the observed interval between the two perihelia, uncorrected for perturba- tions. log a= 1'23860 log e=9'98767 Ephemeris for Greenwich Midnight. ri kts ; N. Decl. Log r Logs Mag, Oct. 1 Ir 46 46 25 14 9°7836 97184 6-8 5 II 45 19 20 52 ihe 9 ++ 11.4613 16 46 97130 698392 7-3 13 iced EEE AG AL Saag 17 + 11 55 30 855. 96856 go440 7-9 The comet will be observable as a morning object in Europe until early in December; after that it will pass to the south of the sun, and will be better placed It is very desirable to observe it as long as possible, in order to place the elliptical character of its orbit beyond a doubt. The physical appearances of the three visible comets are discussed in L’Astronomie for September. 1919 (Kopff) appeared as a circular nebulosity some 3/ in diameter, gradually increasing in brightness towards the centre, where there was a nucleus of the t2th mag.; no trace of a tail. 1919b (Metcalf-Brorsen) was visible to the naked eye on September 5, in spite .of strong moonlight. In the telescope it ap- peared as a large nebulosity, with eccentric con- densation, and a short but broad tail pointing S.W. 1g19¢ (Metcalf-Borrelly) appeared early in September as a pale nebulosity, 2’ in diameter, with slight cen- tral condensation; observation difficult owing to moonlight. Minor Pianets.—A sixth member of the interest- ing Trojan group of planets (the mean motion of which is the same as that of Jupiter). was found in March last, and provisionally designated 1919 FD. Its mean longitude is 60° greater than that of Jupiter. . Prof. Cohn gives the following elements :— M,= 88 o = 78° 46 78") Q=336° 55’ 10's” 19190, Zs2 1210. 49°8" p= 4 55 43'4" H = 303190 log a=0°712194 1 Four of the Trojans have longitude 60° greater than Jupiter, and two 60° less. OcTosER 2, 1919| IOI FLORA OF MACQUARIE ISLAND. Ax HE recently issued part of the Scientific Reports of the Australasian Antarctic Expedition, 1911-14 (series iii., vol. vii., part 3), entitled ‘‘ The Vascular Flora of Macquarie Island,’ by T. F. Cheeseman, contains some important conclusions on the origin and distribution of the southern floras. Macquarie Island is situated on a narrow submarine ridge, surrounded by water more than 2000 fathoms deep, about 600 miles to the south-west of New Zealand. Its greatest length is barely twenty-one miles, _and its greatest breadth under four miles. The island is little more than a range of mountains, the exposed ridges bare and wind-swept, while in the hollows are numerous shallow lakes, and the coastal hills are deeply scored by ravines. The climate is marked by a low summer temperature, much cloud and fog, and constant high winds. Dr. J. H. Scott, who visited the island in 1880, describes the landscape as barren in the extreme. There is not a tree or shrub, but long stretches of yellow tussock are varied with prs of the bright green Stilbocarpa polaris, the Macquarie Island cabbage, a plant resembling very fine rhubarb in growth, and of Pleurophyllum, a hand- some Composite, with long, sage-green leaves and purple flowers. On the hillsides are globular masses of Azorella, forming dense, solid cushions often 4 ft. across. Near the hilltops is an abundant growth of rich brown mosses. Hooker (‘‘ Flora Antarctica’’) mentions seven species of flowering plants and one fern as known from the island. Mr. A. Hamilton, on whose collections the present account is based, spent nearly two years in the island, and Mr. Cheese- man now enumerates thirty flowering plants and four ferns. Of these, three grasses are endemic, while of the remaining thirty-one species eighteen extend to New Zealand, and eleven of these are found in no other country. A remarkable fact is that fifteen, or practically one-half of the non-endemic plants, are also found in Fuegia or the South Georgia to Ker- guelen groups of islands. [uegia lies 4600 miles east of Macquarie Island, with no trace of land between, and South Georgia, further east, at about 5800 miles. ‘Westward there is open sea until Kerguelen Island is reached, about 3250 miles distant. The extraordinarily scanty flora of the South Georgia-Kerguelen- Macquarie areas, which lie between parallels roughly corresponding with the north of England and the centre of France, is probably due mainly, as Prof. Rudmose Brown has suggested, to the short summer with its comparatively low temperature; but the almost con- tinuous westerly gales must also act adversely on plant growth. After a brief comparative review of the vegetation of the various land areas of the sub-Antarctic zone, Mr. Cheeseman concludes that during Tertiary times there have been only two directions in which the vegetation of the rest of the world can have approached the sub-Antarctic zone and Antarctica itself, or along which an interchange of species could take place, namely, the direction of New Zealand and that of South America. The rich and varied flora of New Zealand, in addition to its obvious Aus- tralian, Pacific, and Malayan alliances, has also an evident Andine and Fuegian affinity, which is still greater in the New Zealand sub-Antarctic islands. These islands in early Tertiary times were part of a greater New Zealand, and a northward extension of Antarctica might have reduced the distance between it and the New Zealand area to one capable of being passed by plants and animals. An indication of a former continuous or broken land connection between Antarctica and South America, presumably in Oligocene times, is found in the comparatively NO. 2605, VOL. 104] NATURE ‘tion of species in the southern flora. shallow bank which curves round by way of. the Falkland Islands and South Georgia. The fossil Tertiary flora discovered by Dr. Andersson in Graham Land, comprising species of well-known recent South American and New Zealand genera, is of interest from this point of view. It suggests an Antarctica largely free from ice and snow, and sup- porting a numerous flora along the shores of the continent. We may imagine a regular exchange of species between Antarctica and Fuegia, and also a passage of species between New Zealand and Antarc- tica. In this way we may account for the presence of a New Zealand element in the South American flora and a South American element in New Zealand. The subsequent Glacial epoch caused much extine- At its close Macquarie Island had lost its higher plants except the few grasses which now constitute its endemic flora, Kerguelen had suffered almost as badly, and in South Georgia the whole of the vascular flora had perished. With the advent of a milder climate only two sources of supply remained, Fuegia and the New Zealand area. South Georgia and the Kerguelen group, both favourably placed in the line of the constant westerly winds, received almost the whole of their new flora from Fuegia, while Macauarie Island obtained a large proportion from the comparatively close New Zealand sub-Antarctic islands. EDUCATION IN BRITISH INDIA. (PRE Bureau of Education, India, has issued an interesting quinquennial review of the progress of education in British India for the period 1912-17. The facts are set forth in a statistical abstract cover- ing 100 folio pages. They deal with all forms of education, primary, secondary, professional, and uni- versity, under various heads, such as the number of institutions public and private, the scholars in attend- ance, local and State expenditure, number and quali- fications of the teachers, and cost of education in elementary and secondary schools and in professional and university colleges. The statistics differentiate between the various races, together with Europeans and Anglo-Indians, and between the different creeds, in- cluding Hinduism, Mohammedanism, and Buddhism, The returns refer only to British India, with an area of 1,034,716 square miles and a_ population of about 244,000,000, of which number 124,747,805 are males and 119,273,295 females. The Hindus number 163,611,094, Mohammedans 57,419,309, Buddhists 10,642,812, Parsis 86,155, Europeans and Anglo- Indians 265,254, Indian Christians 2,226,464, others 9,989,185—figures of much interest in view of the present Indian unrest. Of this vast number only 7,851,946, in which is included 1,230,419 females, are under instruction in all types of educational institu-- tions, or about 3 per cent. of the population. In 1906-7 only 5,388,632 were under instruction, and in IgtI-12 6,780,721. The number of arts colleges in 1916-17 was 134 with 47,135 students; of professional colleges, 61 with 11,504 students; of special schools, inclusive of training, medical, agricultural, and other technical schools, 4861 with 143,604 students; of secondary schools, 7693 with 1,186,335 pupils; of primary schools, 142,203 with 5,818,730 pupils. In addition to these there were 37,803 private institutions, 3009 of which were advanced with 60,618 pupils, and 34,794 were elementary with 584,020 pupils. _ The total expenditure on public instruction in 1916-17 was 7,525,5371., of which sum there was spent on ad- ministration, inspection, scholarships, buildings, furni- ture, apparatus, etc., 2,239,749l. On the arts colleges 102 NATURE [OcrToBER 2, 1919 / there was spent 473,5831., on the professional colleges 239,9611., on the training schools 190,920l., on all other special schools 298,474l., on the secondary schools 2,128,6121., and on the’ primary schools 1,954,2361. There was a total income from fees in 1916-17 of universities, professional colleges, and special technical schools of 107,453l., and of secondary schools of 242,620l1. In 1917 14,799 students matricu- lated, 4209 qualified for the B.A. examination, 440 for B.Sc., 555 for M.A., and 152 for. M:Se. An elaborate census of education such as this for the United Kingdom would be a welcome contribution to our knowledge of educational affairs. THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION AT BOURNEMOUTH. SECTION C. GEOLOGY. OPENING ADDRESS (ABRIDGED) By J. W. Evans, D.Sc., LL.B., F.R.S., PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION. OnE of the most striking features of our science is the need in which it stands of a large and widely distributed body of workers, and the oppor- tunities it affords to every one of them of making important contributions to scientific knowledge. Everywhete someone is needed who will devote his spare time to the examination of the quarries and cliffs, where the materials that build up the solid earth are exposed to view, and who will record the changes that occur in them from’ time to time; for a quarry that is in work, or a cliff that is being undermined by the sea, constantly presents new faces, affording new information, which must be recorded if important links in the chain’ of evidence are not to be lost.. It is equally important that someone should always be on the look-out for new exposures, road or railway cuttings, for instance, or excavations for culverts: or foundations, which in too many instances are overgrown or covered up without receiving adequate attention. “It is, again, only the man on the spot who can obtain even an approximately com- plete collection of the fossils of each stratum, and thus enable us to obtain as full-a knowledge as is possible of the life that existed in the far-off days in which it was laid down. In his absence, many of the rarer forms which are of unique importance in tracing out the long story of the development of plants and animals, and even of man himself, never reach the hands of the specialist who is capable of interpreting them. It was an amateur geologist, a country solicitor, who saved from the road-mender’s hammer the Piltdown skull, that in its main features appears to represent an early human type, from which the present races of man are in all probability descended. ‘Another amateur, who was engaged in the brick-making industry near Peterborough, has provided our museums with their finest collections of Jurassic reptiles. A third, a hard-worked medical man, was the first to reveal the oldest relics of life that had at that time been recognised in the British Isles; and many more examples could be instanced of the services to geological science by those whose principal life-task lay in other directions. Such workers are, unfortunately, all “too few— fewer, I fancy, now than they were before the put- suit of sport, and especially of golf, had talen such a hold upon the middle classes and occupied so con- siderable a portion of their leisure hours and thoughts. One might hope that the extended hours now assured to the working classes for. recreation would lead to a general increase of interest in science among them, if it were not that the students of that admirable NO. 2605, VOL. 104] organisation, the Workers’ Educational Association, seem almost invariably to prefer economic or political subjects to the study of Nature. In a large county in which I am interested the number of those in every condition of life who are able and willing to take part in geological research might be told almost on the fingers of one hand, and, so far as I am aware, there has not been a single recruit in recent years from the ranks of the younger men or women. Be It might be suggested that the prevailing indiffer- ence to the attraction of geological research was due to a conviction that after eighty years of work by the Geological Survey, as well as by university teachers and amateurs, there was little left to be done, and that all the information that could be desired was to be found in the Survey publications. Such a belief can scarcely be very widespread, for, as a matter of fact, comparatively few of the, general public realise the value of the work of the Geological Survey, and still fewer make use of its publications. Municipal * libraries, other than. those of our largest provincial centres, are rarely provided with the official maps and memoirs relating to the surrounding areas, and in the absence of any demand the local booksellers do not stock them. This cannot be attributed to the cost, for, though most of the older maps are hand- coloured and therefore expensive, the later maps—at least, those on the smaller scales '—are remarkably cheap, and the memoirs are also issued at low prices. The true explanation appears to be that a geological map conveys very little information to the average man of fair education who has received no geological instruction. This is certainly not the fault of the Survey maps, which compare very favourably with those of other countries, and have been greatly im- proved in recent years. In particular, the introduc- tion of a longitudinal section on each map and_ the substitution of the vertical section drawn to scale for the old colour index must greatly assist those into whose hands it comes in obtaining a correct view of the succession of the strata and the structure of the country. Some of the maps are, it is true, so crowded with information—topographical and geo- logical—that it is frequently difficult, even for the trained geologist, to read them without a lens. This is largely due to the fact that they: are printed over the ordinary topographical maps in which there is a great amount of detail that is not required in geo- logical maps. In India the Trigonometrical Survey are always ready to supply, as a basis for special maps, copies of their own maps printed off plates from which a portion of the topographical features have been erased. The best remedy, however, would be to extend the publication of the maps on a scale of 6 in. to a mile (1: 10,560). For many years all geological survey work has been, in the first place, carried out cn maps of this scale, but they have not been published except in coal-mining areas. There the geological boundaries are printed, but the colouring is added by hand, which makes the maps comparatively expen- sive. In other localities manuscript copies of the geological lines and colouring on the Ordnance Survey maps can be obtained at the cost of produc-- tion, which is necessarily considerable. There is, I believe, a wide sphere of usefulness for cheap colour- printed 6-in. geological maps, especially in the case of ‘agricultural and building land, for which the 6-in. Ordnance mans are already in demand. They afford ample room for geological information, and, accom- panied. by longitudinal sections on the same scale without vertical exaggeration, their significance would 1. xin. to the mile, 1 : 63,3603 } in. tothe mile, 1 : 253,440, and x in. to 25 miles, 1 : 1,584,000. Sibi fimn Messin cou 20th - OcrToBER 2, 1919} NATURE 103 be more readily apprehended than that of maps on a smaller scale. It would be of great advantage if there were a uniform usage by which the position in the. strati- graphical series of rock outcrops were indicated by colour and their lithological character by stippling (in black or white or colour), following the ordinarily accepted conventions. This course has been pursued by Prof. Watts in the geological map prepared by - him to illustrate his ‘“Geography of Shropshire.”’ _ Some explanation, apart from the maps them- selves, is, however, needed if they are to be rendered, as they should be, intelligible to the general public. The official memoirs which deal with the same areas as the maps do not afford a solution of the difficulty. Excellent as they are from the technical point of view and full of valuable information, they convey little to the man who has not already a considerable acquaint- ance with the subject. What is needed is a short explanatory pamphlet for each map, presuming no previous geological knowledge, describing briefly and in simple popular language the meaning of the boundary lines and symbols employed, and the nature and composition of the different sedimentary or igneous rocks disclosed at the surface or known to exist below it in the area comprised in the map. A brief account of the fossils and minerals visible with- out the aid of a microscope should also be included. The probable mode of formation of the rocks and their relation to one another and the subsequent changes they have undergone should be discussed, and at the same time their influence on the agriculture value of the land and its suitability for building sites, as well as on the distribution and level of under- ground water, pointed out. Some account, too, should be given of the economic mineral products and their applications. These pamphlets, should be illustrated by simple geological sections, views of local quarries and cliffs showing the relative positions of the different rocks, figures of the commoner fossils at each horizon, and; where they would be useful, drawings of the forms assumed by the minerals. Each pamphlet would be complete in itself. This would involve a considerable amount of repetition, but it must be remembered that different pamphlets would have, as a rule, different readers. During the war publications containing desirable information were circulated widely and gratuitously by the authorities to all public bodies concerned, and there seems no reason why the information laboriously gathered by the Geological Survey in the national interests and paid for out of the public funds should not now receive the same treatment. All municipali- ties, district councils, public libraries, colleges and schools, both secondary and elementary, should re- ceive free copies of the Geological Survey publications dealing with the area where they are situated or with those immediately adjoining it. Every facility should, of course, be afforded to the public to make use of the Survey publications. They should not only be on sale at the post offices in the areas to which they relate, but it should also be possible to borrow folding mounted copies of the maps as well as bound copies of the explanations and _ memoirs, on making a deposit equal to their value. When: they were no longer required, the amount of the deposit, less a small charge for use, would Le _ repaid on their return te the same or any other post _ office and the production of the receipt for cancella- _ tion. It would thus be possible, when traversing any » of the country, to consult in succession all the Geological Survey publications of the districts passed - through. _ manent residents to refer to the more expensive hand- This system. would also enable the per- NO. 2605, VOL, 104| coloured maps, including the 6-in. manuscript maps, at a comparatively small cost. The Survey publications should be illustrated in every museum and school in the districts with which they deal by small collections showing the characters of the local rocks, and of the minerals and fossils that occur in them, and care should be taken to see that- these collections are maintained in good order and properly labelled. It would be a good plan for the Survey to appoint a local geologist, an amateur or member of the staff of a university or college, in every area of twenty or thirty square miles to act as their representative and as a centre of local geological interest. He would be expected to given his assistance to other local workers who stood in need of it. He would receive little official remuneration, but inquirers in the neigh- hood would be referred to him, and where commercial interests were involved he would, subject to the sanc- tion of the central office, be entitled to charge sub- stantial fees for his advice. He would report to the Survey any event of geological importance in the area of which he was in charge—whether it was the dis- covery of a new fossiliferous locality, the opening of a new quarry,” the sinking of a well, or the com-. mencement of boring operations. Many of these matters would be adequately dealt with by local workers, but in other cases it might be desirable for the Survey to send down one of their officers to make a detailed investigation. One of the most important duties of the Survey, or of its local representative, would be to see that the records of well-sinkings and borings are properly kept, and that where cores are obtained the depth from which each was raised is accurately recorded. At the present time the officers of the Survey make every effort to see that this is done, but they have no legal power to compel those engaged in such operations to give the particulars required. Equally important is a faithful record of the geological information ob- tained in prospecting or mining operations. This is especially necessary where a mine is abandoned. _ If care is not then taken to see that all the information available is accurately recorded, it may never be possible later to remedy the failure to do so. ; Probably these objects would be much facilitated if engineers in charge of boring or mining operations had sufficient knowledge of geology and interest in its advancement to make them anxious to see that no opportunity was lost of observing and recording geo- logical data. This would be in most cases ensured if every mining student were required to carry out geological research as part of his professional training. It is now recognised that no education in science can be considered to be up to universitv standard if it is limited to a passive reception of facts and theories without any attempt to extend, in however ‘humble a way, the boundaries of knowledge. In the case of geology such research will naturally in most cases take the form of observations in the field. The im- portant point is that the work must be original, on new lines, or in greater detail than before, and not a mere confirmation of published results. It is only by the consciousness that he is accomplishing some- thing which has not been done before that the student can experience the keen pleasure of the conquest of the unknown and acquire the love of research for its own sake. s There is one respect in which geological workers 2 Itis very desirable that arrangements should be made for the co-opera- tion of the Geological Survev or their local representatives with the Inspectors of Quarries appointed hy the Hore Office, and that the annual official list of quarries should describe the rocks which are worked, not only by their ordinary economic designations, but also by their recognised geological descriptions. 104 NATURE [OcToBER 2, 1919 suffer a heavy pecuniary handicap-—the cost of. rail- way fares. This affects both the staff and students of colleges, as well as local workers who are extending their radius of work—an inevitable necessity in the investigation of many problems. It also seriously interferes with the activity of local natural history societies and field clubs, the geological societies and associations of the great provincial towns, and, above all, that focus of amateur geological activity—the Geologists’ Association of London. It is difficult to exaggerate the importance of these agencies in the promotion of geological education. Both professional and amateur geologists are deeply indebted to the excursions which are in most cases directed by specially qualified workers, with whom it is a labour of love. At the same time one of their most valu- able results is the creation of interest in scientific work in the localities that are visited. Now that the railways are, if report speaks truly, to be nationalised, or at any rate controlled by the State, the claims of scientific work, carried out without reward in the national interest, to special consideration will surely not be ignored. All questions as to the persons to whom such travelling facilities should be extended and the conditions: that should be imposed may safely be left to the decision of the Geological Survey, which has always had the most friendly and sympathetic relations with private workers and afforded them every facility and assistance which their compara- tively limited staff and heavy duties permitted. There is at the present time a very urgent need for the provision of further facilities for the analysis of rocks and minerals to assist and complete the researches both of the official surveyors and of private persons engaged in research. The work is of a very special. character, and the number of those who have given sufficient attention to it and understand its difficulties and pitfalls is very limited. The analytical work of the Survey is organised on a very modest scale in comparison with the personnel and equipment of the laboratory of the United States Geological Survey, though the quality of the work has been, as a rule, in recent years quite as high. There are two analytical chemists attached to the Geological Survey, and some of the other members of the staff are capable of doing good analytical work. The demand, however, for analyses for economic pur- poses is so great that it is impossible to carry out all the analyses that would be desirable in connection with the purely scientific work of the Survey itself. There is, consequently, no possibility of their being able to assist private investigators. In the absence of facilities for obtaining rock analyses, petrological work in this country is ‘at present seriously handicapped. A striking illustration of the inadequate provision for analyses is revealed in the fact that for the whole of the early Permian granitic intrusions in the south-west of England, covering nearly two thousand square miles, and in- cluding numerous different types and varieties, there are only four analyses in existence, and of these two are out of date and imperfect. This is all the more remarkable in view of the fact that these rocks are closelv connected with the pneumatolytic action that has given us almost all the economic minerals of the south-west of England. { Another direction in which the work of the Survey could with advantage be extended is in the execution of deep borings*® on carefully thought out schemes by which a maximum of information could be obtained. Both in- Holland and Germany borings have been 2 T have nor space to deal here with the shallow borings in soft strata which have heen co successfully conducted on the Flanders front during the war by Capt. W. B. R. King, of the Geological Survey. NO. 2605, VOL. 104] carried out to discover the nature of the older rocks beneath the Secondary and ‘Tertiary strata, and Prof. Watts in his presidential address to the Geological Society in 1912, dwelt on the importance of ex- ploring systematically the region beneath the wide spread of the younger rocks that covers such a great extent of the east and south of England. rof. Boulton, my predecessor in this chair, has endorsed this appeal, but nothing has been done or is ap- parently likely to be done in this direction. It seems extraordinary that no co-ordinated effort should have been made to ascertain the character and potentiality of this almost unknown land that lies close beneat our feet and is the continuation of the older rocks of the west and north to which we owe so much of our mineral wealth. It is true that borings have been put down by private enterprise, but, being directed only by the hope of private gain and by rival interests, they have been carried out on no settled plan, and the results, and sometimes the very existence, of the borings have been kept secret. The natural con- sequences of this procedure have been the maximum of expense and the minimum of useful information. Unfortunately, in recent years percussion or rope- boring, which breaks up the rock into fine powder, has more and more, on account of its cheapness, re- placed the use of a circular rotating drill, which yields a substantial cylindrical core that affords far more information as to the nature of the rocks and the geological structure of the district. If private boring is still to be carried on, the adoption of the latter pro- cedure should be insisted on, even if the difference of cost has to be defrayed by the Government. It is quite true that a considerable amount of useful in- formation can be collected by means of a careful microscopic examination of the minute fragments which alone are available for study, so that the nature of the rocks traversed can be recognised; but the texture of the rock is destroyed, as well as any evidence which might have been available of its larger structures and stratigraphical relations. and almost all traces of fossils. It is, too, impossible to tell with certainty the exact depth at which any particular material was originally located, for fragments broken off from the sides of the bore may easily find their way to the bottom. A good illustration, and one of many that might be cited, of the misdirected energy that is sometimes expended in prospecting operations was afforded a few years ago by a company that put down a boring for oil through more than a thousand feet of granite without being aware of the nature of the rock that was being traversed. In this case a percussion drill was employed, but a few minutes’ examination of the material should have enabled the engineer in charge, supposing he had even an elementary know- ledge of geology, to save hundreds of pounds of need- less expenditure. The sum total of the funds which have been uselessly expended in this country alone in hopeless explorations for minerals, in complete dis- regard of the most obvious geological evidence, would have been sufficient to defray many times over the cost of a complete scientific underground survey. If research is to be carried out economically and effectively, it must be organised systematically and directed primarily with the aim of advancing know- ledge. If this aim be well and faithfully kept in view, material benefits will accrue which would never have been thought to be sufficiently probable to war- rant the expenditure of money on prospecting. It is, however, not only in the areas occupied by Secondary or Tertiary rocks that systematic boring is urgently needed. There are many other localities where important information as to the structure of OcToseEr 2, 1919] NATURE 105 the rocks could probably be obtained in this manner. Opinion is very much ‘divided as to the relation of the Devonian to the older rocks in South Devon and Cornwall, but there is little doubt that a series of judiciously placed borings would solve the problem without difficulty. In North Devon and West Somer- set the question as to whether the Foreland Grits are 4 repetition by faulting of the Hangman Grits could also be settled at once by borings in the Foreland Grits and in the Lynton beds. It is not, however, on terra firma alone that such investigations may be usefully carried out. The floors of the shallow seas that separate these islands from One another and from the continent of Europe are still almost unknown from the geological point of view, although their investigation avould present no serious difficulties. Joly has described an electrically driven apparatus which, when lowered so as to rest on a hard sea-floor, will cut out and detach a cylindrical core of rock, and retain it until raised to the surface. Afterwards he invented a still more ingenicus device, in which the force of the sea-water entering an empty vessel is substituted for electrical power, but, unfor- tunately, neither the one nor the other has actually been tried or even constructed. Meantime, however, vertical sections up to 80 cm. of the mud of the deep seas have actually - been obtained in iron tubes attached to sounding apparatus employed in the course of the voyage of the Gauss- berg. These reveal a succession of deposits of which the lower usually indicate colder water conditions than the upper. : In many places rock fragments are dredged up by fishing-boats. These should, of course, be used with caution in drawing conclusions as to the distribu- tion of rocks in situ on the sea-bottom, as such frag- ments may have been transported when embedded in ice-sheets or in icebergs or other forms of. floating ice, or entangled in the roots of floating trees; but where the rock fragments can be shown to have a definite distribution, as in those described by Gren- ville Cole and Thomas Crook from the Atlantic to the west of. Ireland, and by R. H. Worth from the western portion of the English Channel, they may ke regarded as affording trustworthy information as to the. geology of the area. : There seems every reason to believe that advances in submarine geology will not be only of scientific interest, but will bring material. benefits with them. It seems quite possible that off the shores of Northum. berland and Durham there are, in addition to exten- sions of the neighbouring coalfield, Permian rocks containing deposits of common salt, sulphate of calcium (gypsum and anhydrite), and, above all, agg salts comparable to those at Stassfurt, which ave proved such a source of wealth to.Germany. No less important than: the work of the Geological Survey is that of our great national museums. I have already alluded to the need for local collections to illustrate the geology of the areas in which they are situated. The museums of our larger cities and our universities will naturally contain collections of a more ‘general character, but it is to our national museums that we must chiefly look for the provision of specimens to which those engaged in research can refer for comparison, and it is imperative that they should be maintained in the highest state of efficiency if the best results are to be obtained from Scientific investigations in this country. The ability and industry of the staff of the mineral and geological departments of the Natural History Museum are _ everywhere recognised, as well as their readiness to assist all those who go to them for information, but _. in point of numbers they are undeniably insufficient NO. 2605, VOL. 104] to perform their primary task of examining, describ- ing, arranging, and cataloguing their ever-increasing collections so as to enable scientific workers to refer to them under the most favourable conditions.* Even if the staff were doubled, its time would be fully occupied in carrying out these duties, quite apart from any special researches to which its members would naturally wish to devote themselves. The additional expense incurred by the urgently needed increase of the museum establishment would be more than re- paid to the country in the increased facilities afforded for research. i : There is room, too, for a’ considerable extension in the scope of the activity and usefulness of our museums in other directions, and more especially in the provision of typical lithological collections illus- trating the geology of different parts of the British Empire and of foreign countries. So far as the United Kingdom is concerned, this requirement has been admirably fulfilled in the museums attached to the Survey headquarters in London, Edinburgh, and Dublin, and ‘there is a smaller collection of the same nature, excellent in its way, at the Natural History Museum. But to obtain a broad outlook it is essential that the atten- tion of geological workers should not be confined to one country, however diversified its rocks may be, and it is impossible to assimilate effectively publica- tions dealing with the geology of other parts of the world without being able to refer to collections of the rocks, minerals, and fossils described. ; Such collections should include not only rock speci- mens in the ordinary sense of the term, but also examples of metalliferous veins and other mineral deposits which present important distinctive features. he lithological and palzontological ~ collections which I am now advocating should be arranged so that each group of specimens illustrates an area pos- sessing distinctive geological features. Little has_ hitherto been done in this direction. The mineral department of the Natural History Museum possesses a large and extensive collection of foreign and Colonial lithological specimens arranged according to localities, which is too little known, but it is naturally very’ unequal and incomplete, some countries being comparatively well represented and others scarcely at all. The geological department of the museum is well provided with palzontological specimens, but these are arranged according to their biological affinities, and they might well be supplemented by a series of typical collections illustrating the fauna and flora of the more distinctive horizons in different areas. This is all the more important, as the mode of preservation may be very different in different places. The provision of such facilities for the study of the geology of other lands is especially desirable in London in view of the number of students of mining and economic geology who receive their training in this country and ultimately go out into the world to find themselves face to face with problems in which a true understanding of the local geology is absolutely essential. | ss S It is more difficult to arrive at the true interpreta- tion of the phenomena presented by the endogenetic rocks * which have come into existence by the action of the forces of the earth’s interior, for the conditions of temperature and pressure under which they were formed, whether they are igneous rocks in the nar- rower sense, or mineral veins, or metamorphic in i ics is quite insufficient, though their Sick We gente saeiads te whe Goclogical attics prodition % made for two only, and at present but one is actually at work. 5 T. Crook, Min. Mag., vol. xvii., p. 87, 1914. 106 NATURE ‘ [OcToBER 2, 1919 origin, were widely different from those with which we are familiar. In such circumstances the ultimate physical principles are the same, but the so-called constants have to be determined afresh, and a new chemistry must be worked out. It is necessary, there- fore, so far.as possible, to reproduce the conditions that prevailed—a task which has been courageously undertaken and, to a considerable extent, accom- plished by the geophysical laboratory of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, By artificial means temperatures and pressures have been already produced far higher than those that were in all probability concerned in the evolution of any of the rocks that have been revealed to us at the surface by earth-movements and denudation, for it is unlikely that in any case they were formed at a greater depth than five or six miles, corresponding with a uniform (or, as it is sometimes termed, hydrostatic) pressure of, 2000 or 2400 atmospheres, or at a greater temperature;,than 1500° C. Indeed, it is probable that the vast. majority of igneous and metamorphic rocks, as. well as mineral veins, came into existence at considerably less depths, and at more moderate temperatures. It is true that most of the rock-forming minerals crystallise from their own melts at tem- peratures between r100° C. and 1550° C., but they separate out from the complex magmas from» which our igneous rocks were formed at lower temperatures. It has been found possible at the geophysical labora- tory to maintain a temperature of -1o00° C. or more under a uniform pressure of 2000 atmospheres for so long a time as may be desired, and, what is equally important, the temperature and pressure attained can be determined with satisfactory accuracy, the tem- perature within 2° C., and the pressure within 5 atmospheres. It has been ascertained that such uniform pressure as would ordinarily be present at the depths men- tioned does not directly affect the physical properties of minerals to anything like the same extent as the difference between the temperature prevailing at the earth’s surface and even the lowest temperature at which igneous rocks can have been formed. It has, however, a most important indirect action in main- taining the concentration in the magma of a con- siderable proportion of water and other volatile con- stituents® which have a far-reaching influence in lowering the temperature at which the rock-forming minerals crystallise out—in other words, the tem- perature at which the rock consolidates—and in diminishing the molecular and molar viscosity of the magma, thus facilitating the growth of larger crystals and the formation of a rock of coarser grain. They must also be of profound significance in determining the minerals that separate out, the order of their formation, and the processes of .differentiation in magmas. It is, therefore, obvious that any conclusions derived from the early experiments which were carried out with dry melts at normal:pressures must be received with very considerable caution. Nor does much advance appear to have been made, even at the geo- physical laboratory, in experiments with melts con- taining large amounts of volatile fluxes, and ‘yet, if we are to reproduce even approximately natural conditions, it is absolutely necessary to work with magmas containing a proportion of these constituents, and especially water, equal in weight to at least one- third or oné-half of the silica present. This will obviously present considerable difficulties, but there is no reason to doubt that it will be found possible to surmount them. A much more formidable obstacle in realising the 6 John Johnston, Journ. Franklin Inst., Januaty, 1917, pp. 14-19- NO. 2605, VOL. 104] conditions under which rocks are formed is the small scale on which our operations can be carried on. There are important problems connected with the differentiation of magmas, whether in a completely fluid or partly crystallised state, under the action of gravitation, for the solution of which it would seem for this reason impossible to reproduce the conditions under which Nature works. Instead of a reservoir many hundreds of feet in depth, we must content ourselves in our laboratory experiments with a ver- tical range of only a few inches. There are, how- ever, other phenomena that require investigation and that involve a great difference of level in their opera- tion, but do not take place at such elevated tempera- tures. Such are some of the processes of ore deposi- tion or transferefice, especially secondary enrichment. Here, with the friendly assistance of mining engineers, but at the cost of considerable expenditure, it might even be possible to experiment with columns several thousand feet in vertical height. : In any attempt to reproduce the processes of meta- morphism other than those of a purely thermal or pneumatolytic character, or to imitate the conditions that give rise to primary foliation, we must consider the effects of non-uniform or ‘directed ’’ pressure in- volving stresses that operate in definite directions and result in deformation of the material on which they act. Unlike uniform pressure, which usually raises the crystallisation point, directed pressure may lower it considerably and thus give rise to local fusion and subsequent recrystallisation of the rock. At the same time it profoundly modifies the structure, resulting in folds and fractures of every degree of magnitude. One of the most pressing problems of geology at the present moment is to determine the effects of directed pressure in its operation at different tem- peratures, and in the presence of different amounts of uniform pressure, a factor which has probably an important influence on the result, which must also depend on the proportion and nature of the volatile constituents which are present, as well as on the time during which: the stresses are in operation. The time elements in the constructive or trans- forming operations of Nature cannot, of course, be adequately reproduced within the short space of individual human activity, or, it may be, that of our race; but I am inclined to think that, even in the case of metamorphic action, the importance of extremely prolonged action has been exaggerated. In attempting to imitate the natural processes in- volved in the formation and alteration of rocks and mineral veins, we require some means of ascertaining when we have approximately reproduced. the condi- tions which actually prevailed. It is not sufficient to bring about artificially the formation of a mineral occurring in the rocks or mineral deposits under investigation, for the same mineral can be reproduced in. many ways. It is, however, probable that a mineral produced under different conditions is mever identical in all its characters. Its habit, or the extent to which its possible faces are developed (a function of the surface tension), the characters of the faces which are present, its. twinning, its internal structure, inclusions, and impurities, all vary in different occur- rences, and the more closely these can be reproduced the greater the assurance we obtain that an artificial mineral has been formed under the same conditions as the natural product. For, this purpose it is, above all, necessary that there should be in the first place a systematic com- parative study of these characters and of the associa- tion in which they are found. The results thus ob- tained should be of the greatest value in indicating the directions along which experimental work would pn tin at eeneioaa eS! 0 the experimenter. been done on the effects on these characters of the _ presence of other substances in the same solution. traversing the earth. _ the deeper portions of the earth by a surface of dis- continuity at which earthquake vibrations travelling them unconformably ; “OcTOBER 2, 1919| NATURE 197 be most probably successful. They should be supple- mented by laboratory studies of the relations of such subsidiary crystallographic characters to the environ- ment in the case of crystals which can be formed under normal conditions of temperature and pressure, arid therefore under the immediate observation of Some work has, in fact, already In the study of the secondary alterations of metal- liferous deposits, especially those which consist of the enrichment of mineral veins by the action of cir- culating solutions, either of atmospheric or intra- telluric origin, the study of pseudo-morphs gives, of course, valuable assistance in determining the nature 4 the chemical and physical changes that have taken place. The problem of the structure and nature of the earth’s interior, inaccessible to us even by boring, would seem at first sight to be well-nigh insoluble, except so far as we can deduce from the dips and relations of the rocks at the surface their downward extension to considerable depths. We can, however, gain important information about the physical condi- tion of the deeper portions from the reaction of the earth to, the external forces to which it is subjected, and. still. more from a study of the ‘preliminary ”’ earthquake tremors that traverse it, the time occupied in their passage, and the difference in intensity of those that follow different paths. These methods are, however, not applicable to the earth’s crust. Its physical characters appear to be distinct from those of the interior, but very little is as yet definitely known about them, except, of. course, in the neigh- ‘bourhood of the surface, and for this reason they are ‘usually ignored in calculating the paths of tremors It seems to be separated from upwards towards the surface may be reflected. Cal- culations based on the total time taken by these reflected waves to reach the surface after a second passage through the earth’s interior appear to indi- cate that this surface of discontinuity, whatever its nature may be, is at a depth of about twenty miles, though there can be little doubt that this depth varies considerably from point to point. There must be numerous surfaces of discontinuity in the earth’s crust in addition to that forming its ‘lower limit. Such would be the boundaries between great tracts of granite or granitoid gneiss and the basic rocks that in all probability everywhere underlie them; the surface dividing gneisses and _ crystalline schists from unmetamorphosed sediments overlying that between hard Palzeozoic rocks and softer strata of later age; and the surfaces of massive limestones or sills. : It deserves consideration as to how far it may be possible to add to our knowledge of the earth’s crust ‘by experimental work with a view of the determina- tion of surfaces of discontinuity by their action in reflecting vibrations from artificial explosions, a pro- _ cedure similar to that by means of which the presence _ of vessels at a distance can be detected by the reflec- _ tion of submarine sound-waves. The ordinary seismo- graphs are not suited for this purpose; the scale of their record, both of amplitude and of time, is too small for the minute and rapid vibrations which would ‘be expected to reach an instrument situated several miles from an explosion, or to distinguish between direct vibrations and those that may arrive a second or two later after reflection at a surface of discon- tinuity. As the cylinder on which the record is made would be only in motion while the experiment was NO. 2605, VOL. 104] in progress, there would be no difficulty in arranging for a much more rapid movement. -At the same time it would be. desirable to dispense with any arrange- ment for damping the swing of the pendulum, which would be unnecessary with small and rapid vibra- ~ tions, and would tend to suppress them. It is possible that it might be better to employ a_seismo- graph which records, like that devised by Galitzin shortly before his death, variations of pressure ex- pressing terrestrial acceleration, instead of one which records directly the movements of the ground. It would, however, probably be found desirable to sub- stitute for the piezo-electric record of pressure employed by Galitzin a record founded on the effect of pressure in varying the resistance in an electric circuit. This is, in fact, the principle of the micro- phone and most modern telephone receivers, but quantitatively they are very untrustworthy. This would not matter so much for the present purpose, where the time of transmission is the most important feature in the evidence. UNIVERSITY AND. EDUCATIONAL INTELLIGENCE. CampripGe.—Mr. B. M. Jones, Emmanuel College, has been elected to the Francis Mond professorship of Aeronautical Engineering at the University, founded by Mr. Emile Mond in memory of his son, who was killed in the war. This is the first pro- fessorship in aeronautics which has been filled in this country. Mr. Jones entered Emmanuel College as an Exhibitioner in 1906. He afterwards became a scholar, and obtained First Class Honours in the Mechanical Sciences Tripos of tg09. From 1910 to 1g12 he was employed on aeronautical research at the National Physical Laboratory, and held a research scholarship fromthe Imperial College, London. In the capacity. of an assistant he continued. in | this work until May, 1913, when he left the National Physical Laboratory to’ take-up the design of: rigid airship construction and other aeronautical work for the firm of Sir G. W. Armstrong, Whitworth, and Co. In September, 1914, Mr. Jones joined the Royal Aircraft Establishment, and remained there, carrying out aeronautical research and experimental work until May, 1916. He was then transferred to the Armament Experimental Station, Orford Ness, with the rank of captain, R.F.C., eventually rising to the position of Assistant Controller of Experiment and Research with the rank of lieut.-colonel. His chief activities were directed towards aerial gunnery and aerial bombing, and in order to gain first-hand experi- ence of fighting conditions he qualified as a pilot and served with No. 48 Squadron, R.F.C.,. in France during the early months of 1916. On being demobi- lised in March last, Mr. Jones was elected a junior fellow of Emmanuel College, with the post of director of engineering studies at the college. SHEFFIELD.—The council! has received with much regret the resignatién of Prof. J. O. Arnold, dean of the faculty of metallurgy and professor of metallurgy in the University since 1889. Steps will shortly be talken to appoint a successor. Dr. J..G. Stewart has been appointed lecturer in engineering at University College, London. A cnair of laryngology has recently been established in the University of Paris, the first occupant of which is to be Dr. Sebileau. THE sum of 400,000l.. has been bequeathed. to the University of Sydney by ‘Sir Samuel McCaughey. 108 NATURE [OcroBer 2, 1919 The University of Brisbane will receive 250,000]. from the same source. , Pror. ALEx, Finpiay desires it to be known that after October 1 his address will not be the University College of Wales, Aberystwyth, but the Chemistry Department, the University, Marischal College, Aberdeen. Tue School of Librarianship, instituted at Univer- sity College, London, will be opened by Sir Frederic Kenyon on Wednesday, October 8, at 5 p-m. Cards of invitation and particulars of the work of the school may be obtained from the Secretary, University Col- lege, Gower-street, W.C.1. THE programme of University Extension lectures for the coming session has now been issued by the University of London. Central courses are to be held in the University buildings and in the City, while local courses, at some sixty local centres in and around London, will prove of value to the student jn the suburbs. The subjects treated cover a wide range, but science occupies a minor position among them. There are to be about ninety courses in all, and these are mainly on literature, economics. history, and architecture, progressive science being represented by two courses only on scientific discoveries and their practical application. Either the local committees of London University Extension centres are not. in- terested in scientific subjects, or the Board is unable to offer a strong panel of science lecturers for their selection. SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES. . MELBOURNE. Royal Society of Victoria, July ‘10.—Mr. J. A. Kershaw, president, in the chair.—H. G. Smith: The essential’ oil of “Boronia pinnata, Smith, and ‘the presence of elemicin. The plants were collected at Longwarry, where it grows in great profusion, and the distillation was carried out by -Mr.° P. Ro H. St. John. The product consists largely of elemicin, which has previously occurred’ only in the order’ Burseracexe (Protium, elemi resin), whilst Boronia belongs ‘to’ the Rutacez.-—J. T. Jutson: The “clawing” action of rain in sub-arid Western Australia. The author describes the erosion on ground generally covered by hard ‘capping due to surface deposits of hard mineral matter. When this capping is broken, miniature waterfalls are formed, and at lower levels basins with crenulated edges, with a gradual reduction of rock material from high to low levels. The “ clawing ”’ action of the rills ‘is so marked as to deserve special notice.—J. T. Jutson: A striking example of rock expansion “by temperature variation ‘in sub-arid Western Australia. This note puts on record an instance of a thin slab of granite parting from the main mass and rising convexly 7 in. from its’ base before cracking and breaking up.—E. O. Teale: The diabase and associated rocks of ‘the Howqua River, near Mansfield, with reference to: the Heathcotian problem in, Victoria. A study of this interesting area of the Howqua district with its Lower Carboniferous, Upper and: Lower Ordovician, and older rocks throws much light on the sequence of the Lower Palaeozoic series in other areas. Cherts and bedded’ ash with radiolaria and sponge-remains are found, similar to those of Heathcote, and an interesting ' phosphate- breccia with trilobite remains is described, which is closely associated with. Upper Ordovician rocks.— F. Chapman: An Ostracod and Shell-marl of Pleisto- cene age from Boneo Swamp, west of Cape Schanck, Victoria. This deposit of marl, which does not now appear to be subject to tidal influence, contains an interesting fauna of fresh- and salt-water Ostracoda, NO. 2605, VOL. 104] Ltd.) and swamp, land, and marine shells. Ostracods are new. Cypris tenuisculpta and Limni- cythere sicula, It is probable that in late Pliocene and on to Pleistocene times this area was connected — with N.W. Tasmania, as an emergence of Bass Strait of 40 fathoms would show the earliest land connection © Two of. the at these points. This theory is supported by the occurrence of Limnicythere both at Boneo and Mow- bray Swamps. BOOKS RECEIVED. The English Rock-Garden. By R. Farrer. 2 vols. Vol. i. Pp. Ixiv+5044+52 plates. Vol. ii. Pp. viii+ 524+50 plates. (London and Edinburgh: T. C. and — E. C. Jack, Ltd.) 31. 3s. net. 2 a Motionism, or the World’s True Religion. By — E. J. M. Morris. Pp. 130. Press, Ltd.) 5s. net. ‘ Ethnography and Condition of South Africa before A.D. 1505. By Dr. G. M. Theal. Second edition. © Pp, xx+466. (London: G. Allen and Unwin, Ltd.) — 8s. 6d. net. ae The Daily Telegraph Victory Atlas of the World. — Part i. (London: “‘Geographia,” Ltd.) 1s. 3d. net. The Timbers of India. By A. L. Howard. Pp. 16. (London: W. Rider and Son.) 2s. 6d. ‘ a General Phonetics, for Missionaries and Students | of Languages. By G. Noél-Armfield. Second edition. Pp. xii+146. (Cambridge: W. Heffer and Sons, 5s. net. ; t ‘CONTENTS. PAGE South Australian Geology. ByJ.W.G. ..... o1 Our Bookshelf 20). a Letters to the Editor :— r A Photoelectric Theory of Colour Vision. —Sir Oliver Cope. F Luminous Worms.—Rev. S, Graham Brade-Birks Catalysis in Chemic Taylor... FS ag ta Np P eee cee aes Frosts and Agriculture in the United States. By Notes Our Astronomical Column :— : The Twenty-four-hour Day... 2... 2. 100 — Comete re ee oe Vs ae 100 — Minor Planets . Seu tk + 100 Ei Flora of Macquarie Island ..... sine eke MOT Education in British India .. . ee Pee fe) ge The British Association at Bournemouth eas Section C—Geology—Opening Address (Abridged) * by J. W. Evans, D.Sc., LL.B., vee President ofthe Section . ...... «+ 102 University and Educational Intelligence .... 107 Societies and Academies. ........... . 108 Books: Reteived oi). eae é 108 Editorial and Publishing Offices: MACMILLAN AND CO., Ltp., ST. MARTIN’S STREET, LONDON, W.C.2. Advertisements and business letters to be addressed to the Publishers. : Editorial Communications to the Editor. Telegraphic Address: Pnusts, Lonpon. * Telephone Number: Grrrarp 8830. iti (London: The Caxton | NATURE 109 THURSDAY, OCTOBER 9, 1919. MATHEMATICAL TEXT-BOOKS. ) Empirical Formulas. By Prof. Theodore R. Running. (Mathematical Monographs, No. 19.) Pp. 144. (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc. ; London: Chapman and Hall, Ltd., 1917.) Price 7s. net. ®) Differential and Integral Calculus. By Dr. 4H. B. Phillips. Differential. Pp. v+162. Integral. Pp. v+194. (New York: John _ Wiley and Sons, Inc.; London: Chapman and & Hall, Ata. 1916-17.) Price 9s. 6d. net. G) A First Course in the Calculus. Part i. | Powers of X. By Dr. W. P. Milne and _ G. J. B. Westcott. (Bell’s Mathematical Series.) Pp. xx+196. (London: G. Bell and | Sons, Ltd., 1918.) Price 35. 6d. (4) Dynamics. Part Il. By R. C. Fawdry. _ (Bell’s Mathematical Series.) Pp. viiit+ 179-355+vii. (London: G. Bell and Sons, ' Ltd., 191g.) Price 2s. 6d. ) Solid Geometry, including the Mensuration of Surfaces and Solids. By Prof. R. S. Heath. Fourth edition. Pp. iv+123. (London: Rivingtons, 1919.) Price 4s. 1) oO of the most important activities of the practical, as well as of the theo- retical, man of science is the discovery of laws. _ Given a number of observations, the problem is to _ correlate them in the form of a single analytical expression. The basis of such discovery is the recognition of a curve as being one the equation f which is known. But, strictly speaking, there s only one curve that is really recognisable, and ‘this is the straight line. A piece of a circle can peasily be mistaken for a piece of an ellipse, and a parabola for a catenary; but if a sufficiently long piece of a curve is straight, then the curve can 9€ pronounced to be a straight line. If, then, it is possible to plot the results of observation in such a way that the resulting points lie on a ‘straight line (even if there are some casual, ex- perimental errors and consequent deviations), then we can at once deduce the law. _ This fact underlies the major part of Prof. -Running’s monograph. The author summarises the most useful types of laws that are reducible to Straight-line laws by means of simple transforma- tions. He also gives practical rules for deciding whether such a law is correct for the given data and for the determination of the constants. Nine- en laws are discussed, and illustrated by means of numerical examples, whilst curves are drawn to show graphically the types of relations given by these laws. _A twentieth law is the Fourier expansion. On interpolation, and numerical integra- The result is an eminently useful hand- 900k for the scientific researcher and the practical ¢ngineer, and a highly commendable adjunct to the more theoretical study of mathematics. NO. 2606, VoL. 104] The pedagogy is, however, somewhat defective. It is difficult to imagine such a book in the hands of a student. The philosophy of the subject is scarcely entered into at all, and in places, where an attempt at justification is made, the result is not satisfactory. Also, one question remains unanswered : How is one to guess which law to try? Is one to try them all one after the other until the right one is reached? And what if none of those given is correct? Information on this and other points is very desirable, but none is offered. One or two definite criticisms must be made. The different schemes in the chapter on Fourier series are not always consistent, and some are incomplete. No explanation is given of the mean- ing of “weights ’”’ in the method of least squares. In the chapter on interpolation the difference formula is proved only for integral values of the argument, and then applied to fractional values. In addition, there are a few misprints and some evidences of carelessness. The book thoroughly deserves a second edition, in which, it is hoped, these and other faults will be rectified. (2) This is a very good book on the calculus, written in the old style with which we have been familiarised by writers like Edwards and William- son. It is very well written and compact in form; the diagrams are good, and the exercises excellent. Particular attention is paid to ques- tions of a practical nature. The student,who has worked through this book conscientiously will have a good, if dull, appreciation of the subject’ and its manipulation. A few of the pages are headed ‘‘ Unconventional Methods,’’ but the thrill one gets on seeing this only leads to disappoint- ment. There is nothing unconventional in an in- volute or in a parabola rotating about an axis. The second part (which is also issued separ- ately) includes the usual chapters on. differential equations and the usual box of tricks. This book, like so many others, gives the student the impression that there is just one par- ticular integral of a linear differential equation in which the right-hand side is a function of the independent variable. It is more useful to inform the student that there are, of course, an infinite number of particular integrals, but that one of them is obtainable most readily and directly. In Ex. 3, p. 10, of the second part it would have been. more reasonable to put a negative sign to indicate the retarding effect of friction. (3) Dr. yi and Mr. Westcott have given expression to an important and fundamental prin- ciple in mathematical pedagogy—namely, the secondary nature of the manipulative art, and the first-rate importance of the ideas and methods of mathematics. They have recognised that the main part of the essence of the calculus, and even the most important practical applications of its processes, can be taught and learnt without using anything but the simplest of all functional types -—namely, x” and combinations of powers of x. When once the student has learnt to differentiate x”, he is ready for much of the mysterious dis- G 110 NATURE [OcroBER 9, I919 cipline that constitutes the black art of the calcu- lus method. He can do dynamical problems with- out the aid of confusing formule; he can measure the volume of a tree; he can énclasé land econo- mically; he can draw tangents and normals; he can find radii of curvature; he can even solve differential equations. The authors, having recognised this fact, have acted upon it boldly and frankly, with the result that they have pro- duced a book of a peculiarly suggestive and per- suasive kind. Both authors are experienced teachers of mathematics, and the practical touch introduced by the physical propensities of one of them is everywhere noticeable. It is also refresh- ing to see dy/dx=f(x) treated as a differential equation. The merit of the book is somewhat marred by a few faults, and especially by the mediocre dia- grams. Some are not well produced, whilst others are not even well drawn. The authors, or their artistic representative, seem to have an un- failing belief that a circle in perspective can be represented by two circular arcs intersecting at sharp angles. This is a gratuitous trap for the unwary. The style is splendid. The preface is worth reading for its own sake, whilst the historical sketch with Isaac Barrow’s prayer will interest even such students as are not excited by Guld- inus’s and Pappus’s theorems. (4) Many teachers have experienced the want of -books on mechanics more advanced than the easy text-books used in schools, and not so advanced as the larger treatises intended for specialists in mathematics. Mr. Fawdry’s books are supplying this want, and the present volume is a further contribution to the author’s series of books on mechanics. This volume forms the second part of his ‘‘Dynamics,’’ and discusses such subjects as differentiation and integration as used in dynamics, harmonic motion, and easy two-dimen- sional rigid dynamics. The work is well done. The experimental hints, the numerical illustrations. of dynamical laws and results, and the very prac- tical examples all help to make the subject attrac- tive and intelligible. There is some lack of logic in the arrangement, and the impression one gets is that of scrappiness. The chapter on harmonic motion, e.g., seems out of place in the middle of a discussion of rigid dynamics. Mr. Fawdry wastes time in proving that the acceleration d?x/dt? can be written vdv/dx. Surely it must be a part of fundamental dynamical doctrine that : Number of units of force=time rate of momen- tum ; Number of units of force=space rate of kinetic energy. This saves much trouble and memory-searching. One cannot feel angry with a student who forgets the trick of ‘multiplying by twice the velocity ’”’ to get the energy equation. The figure on p. 271 is unfortunate: when a spiral spring is stretched, the pitch is increased. One can heartily recommend this as a sound NO. 2606, VOL. 104] book that will be found very useful both in itself and as an introduction to the larger treatises on the subject. (5) The fact that a new edition is called for of Prof. Heath’s ‘Solid Geometry ’’ proves that it has been found to serve its purpose as an intro- duction to those parts of the subject that are required for their practical usefulness. The book, while making no pretence to pedagogical origin- ality, is a very good collection of the most u: theorems and- problems in solid geometry. includes the geometry of the regular a ae * spherical geometry, and the mensuration of the © sphere. There are a large number of examples y with some hints for their solution. com S. BRODETSKY. — VAGUENESS AND DISCRIMINATION. (1) The Intuitive Basis of Knowledge. An Epis- : temological Inquiry. By Prof. N. O. Lossky. © Authorised translation by Nathalie A. Dudding- — ‘ton. With a preface by Prof. G. Dawes Hicks. — Pp. xxix+420. (London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd., 1919.) Price 16s. net. (2) Cultural Reality. By Dr. Florian Znaniecti Pp. xv+359. (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press; London: Cambridge University Press, 1919.) Price 2. 50 dollars net. ee is extraordinary how difficult it seems to be (and how fearfully long the argument is) to sobeines a man that what he is quite ready to be- lieve, until you make him doubt it, is true. Natural — realism—the theory that the objects of come are in themselves what they are represented to bh in our knowledge, that knowledge is the dis- crimination by the mind of a reality awaiting — discrimination—is, I suppose, the philosophical _ theory of knowledge we all hold until we ure — philosophers consciously philosophising. Tables and chairs are just tables and chairs, and would — be such, so far as their essential form and matter — are concerned: were there no mind, or, as the i realist prefers to say, were there no act of cis 2 crimination, in the universe. We all believe it, but let us once challenge a realist philoso her to prove it—he may be able to, but, unlike chet Rabbi called on to expound the whole of the law and the prophets, not while you stand on one foot. (t) Prof. Lossky’s ‘‘ Intuitive Basis of Know- ledge’ is admirably translated and very clear and easy to read. The translator, Mrs. Duddington, is eminently qualified for the work, not merely by her knowledge of the original language, but also by what is far more important, — her complete sympathy with the a oe view of the author. The book is prefaced by a particularly lucid ‘‘ Introduction’? by Prof. G.— Dawes Hicks, who, though not in entire agree-_ | ment with the author, is very sympathetic towards — his point of view. Prof. Hicks expresses surprise — that a professor in a Russian university should — have reached conclusions so strikingly in accord with his own, but, though Petrograd may be a long way from London, it is no further from OcrToBER 9, 1919] NATURE EES ‘Berlin and the German universities than London is, and Prof. Lossky is known to many of us by his part in the International Congresses of Philo- sophy. He is, in fact, thoroughly cosmopolitan so far as his qualifications in philosophy are concerned. The title of his book might lead the reader to expect.a theory in accord with some of the more noticeable modern developments, such as Bergson’s doctrine of instinct or Croce’s esthetic activity, but intuition has not any such distinctive meaning for Prof. Lossky. He means by the intuitive basis of knowledge merely the vagueness with which the object of knowledge exists undiscriminated, before it is discriminated. This, of course, is the crucial point of realist theory. What it has to account for primarily is **vagueness,’’ in the precise and not vague mean- ing of the term. According to the realist theory, ‘tables and chairs are, so far as their basis in reality is cofcerned, the same for men and for guinea-pigs. Apart from acts of discrimination, “men and guinea-pigs are on one level of know- ledge. What is that? Well, the answer is what the realists are trying to give us, and perhaps if ‘we are patient and allow them time enough they will succeed. ‘ (2) It is mot easy to indicate any particular connection between Prof. Lossky’s book and Dr. _ Znartiiecki’s ‘‘ Cultural Reality.’’ Their names might suggest that they share an Eastern Euro- pean viewpoint, if such there be. But, as Dr. - Znaniecki is lecturer in the University of Chicago, _ it is not surprising that the philosophy of the New - World—Pragmatism and New Realism—mainly occupies his attention. ‘‘ Culturalism’’ is the thesis that there are an objective reality and a subjective adaptation that both change, and change more profoundly than can be expressed by ‘the advance of knowledge by discrimination. It ‘is an attempt to blend the realist theory that there s an object on which the only mental work is dis- crimination with the pragmatist theory that we make truth. The idea apparently is that from ‘the two separate worlds of things and values there arises a third reality, which is irreducible to either cultural reality sui generis. |The primitive material is not conceived as vague, but as a ‘concrete chaos of historical reality.’’ He Wii. » IRON AND STEEL PRODUCTION IN _ GREAT BRITAIN DURING THE WAR. The Iron and Steel Industry of the United King- dom under War Conditions: A Record of the _ Work of the Iron and Steel Production Depart- _ ment of the Ministry of Munitions. By Dr. _ F. H. Hatch. Pp. xii+167. (London: Privately _ printed for Sir John Hunter by Harrison and Sons, 1919.) Es) N account of the vastness of the field covered, the variety and complexity of the technical roblems involved, and the far-reaching industrial uestions raised, the activities of the Iron and NO. 2606, VOL. 104] Steel Production Department of the Ministry of Munitions during the war form a subject of sur- passing interest and importance. The history of this great work has been written by Dr. F. H. Hatch, himself a member of the Department. The narrative falls naturally into two divisions, namely, (1) that of the small Steel Department which was formed as a branch of the Materials Department, of which Sir Leonard Llewelyn was director, and (2) that of the much larger organisa- tion formed by Sir John Hunter when he became Director of Iron and Steel Production in August, 1916. Sir John Hunter was confronted with a very difficult task. The demand for various types of steel for munitions and shipbuilding was growing rapidly while the supply of raw materials essential for their manufacture was threatened with curtail- ment, if not complete suspension, so far as foreign sources were concerned, by the activity of German submarines. The only sound remedy was the development of home resources, but the substitu- tion of lean phosphoric ironstones such as con- stitute the main portion of British iron ores for the rich ores imported principally from Spain and the Mediterranean, involved such sweeping changes in plant, supplies, inland transport, labour, etc., that it could only have been carried out with difficulty even in peace-time. Under war conditions it was evident that the problem would require the most skilful handling by a carefully organised department. In spite of difficulties which at times appeared to be almost insuperable, Sir John Hunter’s “Basic Iron Program” obtained a high measure of success, and enabled the urgent and incessant calls of the great Service Departments for ship plates, shells, and other munitions requiring steel in their manufacture to be punctually and duly met. It is a remarkable tribute to the inherent but not always obvious organising power of the nation that under the adverse conditions of a great war it should have been possible to raise the steel production of the country to the highest point it has ever reached in the history of the industry. Under the stress of necessity raw materials which had been allowed to lie dormant in this country were rapidly developed and brought to the pro- ducing stage. Iron ores in Oxfordshire, coking coal in Scotland, ganister for silica bricks, mould- ing sands for foundry work, and refractory sands for open hearth furnace bottoms, are instances in point. Whereas in 1913 and 1914 the total steel output was 7-66 and 7-83 million tons respectively, it had risen in 1917 to 9-71 million tons, and during the first half of 1918 it was at the rate of close on 10 million tons per annum. The plans of the Department provided ultimately for an increase to 12 million tons annually. Dr. Hatch suggests two main reasons for the success obtained; these are (1) the trust reposed by Sir John Hunter in the members of his staff, which was entirely recipro- cated, and (2) the fact that manufacturers cordially co-operated in the plans of the Ministry and loyally ti2 “NATURE [OcrosER 9, 1919 concentrated on war work. According to him, many firms readily fell in with the suggestions of the Department to depart from routine practice and embark on experimental work, often at a con- siderable financial loss to themselves. OUR BOOKSHELF, Pre-History in Essex, as Recorded in the Journal of the Essex Field Club. By S. Hazzledine Warren. (Essex Field Club Special Memoirs, vol. v.) Pp. vii+44. (Stratford, Essex: The Essex Field Club; London: Simpkin, Marshall, and Co., Ltd., 1918.) Price 2s. 6d. nét. Tue title ‘‘ Pre-History in Essex” would suggest that the subjects treated in this special memoir are entirely prehistoric. But we find mentioned papers such as “Fifty Years Ago in Essex,” “Tree-Trunk Waterpipes,” ‘‘The Coming of Age of the Essex Field Club” (1901), etc. Indeed, the number of papers on various subjects mentioned is such that in most cases two or three lines com- prise all the explanation of their nature. Among the few subjects to which more space is given are the Deneholes of Hangman’s Wood. Mr. Warren does not take the view given in the report on the Denehole Exploration at Hangman’s Wood (E. Nat. 1, 1887), but considers that ‘they possess in every way the normal character of com- paratively modern chalkpits ” (p. 34). Now about half a mile- west of Hangman’s Wood is the eastern margin of an area of bare chalk extending thence to Purfleet, besides much smaller exposures of chalk near Little Thurrock and East Tilbury, with modern‘ chalkpits in each place mentioned. Hence modern chalkpits at Hangman’s Wood, where the chalk is about 60 ft. beneath the surface, where each pit occupies a very small horizontal space, and is separated from the other pits, and shaped so as to show intended separa- tion, are surely incredible. And the evidence is surely in'favour of the E.F.C, Exploration view that these deneholes were family stores. Then the notion of the E.F'.C. explorers that deneholes meant denholes was considered by that eminent philologist, the late Sir J. A. H. Murray, to be incorrect, deneholes being Dancholes. However, “Pre-History in Essex ” will form a decidedly useful list of the papers published by the Essex Field Club since 1880. T. V. Hoimes. The Chemists’ Year-Book, 1918-19. Edited by F. W. Atack, assisted by L. Whinyates. Vol. i., pp. vi+ 422; vol. ii., pp. iv+ 423-1146. (London and Manchester: Sherratt and Hughes, 1919.) Price 15s. net 2 vols. Tue chemical pocket-books used in this country before the recent war were chiefly of German origin. Mr. Atack brought out the first edition of his “‘Year-Book” in 1915: its appearance indicated that, as with sundry other chemical products and adjuncts, we were quite capable of supplying our own requirements in this respect. A large amount of information has been packed NO. 2606. VOL. 104] ‘miracles and folklore. into the two small volumes. Much of the space is devoted to tables showing the chief physical and chemical properties of numerous organic and in- organic substances—their formule, molecular weights, boiling-points, and so on. There are also the ordinary tables of specific gravity, solu- bility, etc., and much useful matter of a mis- cellaneous kind, including historical references, mensuration data, and lists of scientific journals. In addition, the volumes include a number of short articles which summarise the theory and practice of various branches of chemical ’ technology. Thus, to mention only a few by way of examples, there are sections on electro-chemical analysis, fuels, dairy products, brewing materials, textile fibres, dyestuffs, tobacco, and photography. These condensed accounts serve to furbish up the reader’s acquaintance with branches of work in — which he may have become “rusty.” Several new sections have been added to the present edition. They include one on agricultural chemistry by Dr. E. J. Russell, and one on the analysis of ceramic materials by Dr. Mellor. — Other parts of the work have undergone a general revision, and chemists will find the “ Year-Book ’” a convenient and useful vade mecum. The Geographical Part of the Nuzhat-Al-Qulab. | Composed by Hamd-Allah Mustawfi of Qazwin _ in 740 (1340). Translated by G. Le Strange, i _ # es Spi an eee ow and printed for the Trustees of the “E. J. W. — Gibb Memorial.’’ Vol. xxiii. Pp. xix+322.— (Leyden: E. J. Brill; London: Luzac and Co., — 1919.) .Price 8s, 5 WE have here an English translation of the original Persian text of the ‘‘ Nuzhat-Al-Qulab”’ published in this valuable series three years ago, — The author, Hamd-Allah, was a man of note im his day, holding the post of Mustawfi, or State — Accountant, to Abu Sa‘id, the last of the decadent — Ilkhan dynasty, the first Mongol rulers of Persia, — and great-grandson of Hulaqu, the Conqueror of | Baghdad. The author must have been in pos- session of much geographical and statistical in- formation, and in many ways his account of Persia and Mesopotamia in the middle of the | fourteenth century is valuable; but he depended — : largely on materials collected by other writers, — much of which is now available in published texts. The book takes the form of a gazetteer, but, except as regards places like Qazwin, the author’s native city, little new information is forthcoming. — Perhaps the best chapter is that describing the | mines of western Asia producing metals, precious — stones, and other minerals. His science is that of | his own day, that of the scriptures and traditions © of Islam, as when he tells us that one of the chief values of mountains is that they prevent the ground - from moving. But the treatise abounds in Mr. Le Strange’s special local knowledge is well exhibited in his identifica- tion of many of the obscure places mentioned in the text. The volume is in every way creditable to the editor and to the trustees of the E. J. W- Gibb Memorial Fund. nen en OcToBER 9, 1919] NATURE 113 LETTERS TO THE EDITOR. QThe Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions _ expressed by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manu- scripts intended for this or-any other part of NATURE. No _ motice is taken of anonymous communications.] ; Temperature in the Sun. ‘WHENEVER a spell of hot weather occurs it is common to see published accounts of the ‘‘ tempera- ture in the sun.’’ These sun-temperatures have little meaning unless the cther surrounding conditions are also stated. Comparatively few people realise that a thermo- meter indicates nothing except the temperature of the fluid in its bulb, and that to draw any useful inference _ from that temperature it is necessary to know how _ the heat which produced it was supplied. Heat may enter a thermometer from the air by Fandalso” aided by convection currents and wind, 4 : q sand also by radiation from distant objects. In ‘general, both these sources contribute to the total. The true temperature of the air is indicated only when the thermometer is screened from the radiation “of any body which is not at that temperature, and the ventilated shelters in which meteorologists place _ their instruments are intended to ‘secure this condi- “tion. In ordinary cloudy and windy weather they answer the purpose, but in sunshine and calms the whole shelter becomes heated, and the thermometer readings are too high. _ When a thermometer is fully exposed to the sun a large part of the heat received is supplied by radia- tion, and the apparent temperature will vary with the character of the surroundings, including the nature of the glass of which the bulb is made. Of the total radiant energy falling on the bulb part is regularly reflected and the remainder scattered or absorbed, but it is only the energy absorbed during its passage through the glass of the bulb which raises the temperature of the contents—at any rate, in mercury thermometers. The limiting temperature is reached when the surface of the bulb loses, by con- duction and dark radiation, as much heat as will balance the supply. _ If the bulb is smoked there is scarcely any reflec- tion, and thus a bulb coated with lampblack will reach a higher temperature than a black glass bulb, and this, in turn, will be higher than if the glass is ‘transparent, and if the exterior of the bulb is silvered ‘there will be an even greater difference. __ Thus, in the same place and in the same sunlight, four different temperatures might be indicated by accurate thermometers, each reading differing from ‘the others by several degrees, the differences depending “on the different absorptive and emissive qualities of e glass and its surface. ' The actual difference between the apparent ‘“ tem- "perature in the sun’”’ and the air temperature may in “this country be as great as 50° F. In the tropics I believe it may be considerably more. _ Darwin, when in the Galapagos Islands, wrote :— On two days the thermometers in the tent stood for ome hours at 95°, but in the open air in the wind ‘and ‘sun at only 85°. The sand was extremely hot; ‘the thermometer placed in some of a brown colour mediately rose to 137°, and how much above that would have risen I do not know, for it was not fraduated any higher. OB ...? The true air temperature was probably about 80°, so that the sun’s radiation heated the sround 60° or 70° more than air. ' I remember seeing in a sunny window in January the thermometer standing -at 108° when the room emperature was about 60°; and in the recent warm NO. 2606, VoL. 104] Pe The black sand felt much | weather, when the air temperature was about 80°, a thermometer shielded from draught by a_ thin smoked glass tube indicated 128°. These facts show how little meaning can be attached to ‘‘temperatures in the sun”’ unless all the conditions are stated. If a blackened thermometer is enclosed in a good vacuum chamber of transparent glass, and is care- fully screened from all ground radiation, its readings in the sun will give a good comparative measure of the transparency of the air to radiant heat; but if the true temperature of the air is required, the thermo- meter should be surrounded by two or more con- centric silvered glass tubes~through which a rapid draught is maintained. In this way the effects of radiation’ are almost eliminated, and all the heat received is supplied by conduction. A. Mattock. 6 Cresswell Gardens, South Kensington. Percussion Figures in {setropic Solids. THE accompanying photographs are of interest as illustrating the manner in which an isotropic solid breaks down under the stresses set up by impact when these exceed the limits of perfect recovery, and have a bearing on the theory of the collision cf elastic solids developed mathematically by Hertz. Figs. 1, 2, and 3 are pictures of the percussion figure, taken from three different points of view, produced on the surface of a thick glass plate by the Fic. 1 Fic. 3. impact of a polished hard stee] ball. Near the centre of the region of contact between the sphere and the plate the stresses are mainly in the nature of a volume-compression, and fracture accordingly does not originate there, but occurs at or near the margin of the compressed area in the form of a fine circular crack which spreads inwards into the plate obliquely in the form of a surface of revolution. This is clearly shown in Fig. 1, which is a front view of the percus- sion figure by reflected light, the dark circle in the middle being the uninjured area of contact between ball and plate. The circular interference-rings seen in the picture are a measure of the separation of 114 - NATURE [OcToBER 9, 1919 the surfaces of the internal fracture within the plate. Fig. 2 is a side view, and Fig. 3 an oblique view, of the internal fracture seen through the edge of the plate, the lower half of each picture being the image of the upper half formed by the reflection of light at the interior surface of the plate. The circular area of contact from the margin of which the fracture starts appears in Fig. 3 as an elliptic white disc at the centre. It seems clear that the internal fracture prac- tically occurs along the surface of maximum shearing stress set up during the impact. C. V. Raman. 210 Bowbazaar Street, Calcutta, August 18. The Rigidity of the Earth. AN account of an experiment to determine the rigidity of the earth was published in the Astrophysical Journal and in the Journal of Geology, March, 1914. This gave the ratios of the amplitudes of tides observed in N-S and E-W pipes to the amplitudes computed for the same pipes on the assumption of a perfectly rigid earth as 0-523 and o-710 respectively. The work of reducing a new set of automatically recorded observations made by an interference method, which was interrupted by the war, was _ recently resumed, and it was found that the N-S and E-W ratios were very nearly equal to each other, It was then noted that 0-523/0-710=0-7366, and that the cosine of the latitude of Yerkes Observatory, where the experiment was performed, is 0:7363. It seemed highly probable, therefore, that cos@ had been introduced erroneously into the computed formula for for N-S tides. We have just been informed by Prof. Moulton that he has gone over the old formule used, and has found that the computer introduced the factor cos erroneously into the N-S computation. The N-S ratio should therefore have been 0°523/0-°7363=0-710, which, oddly enough, is exactly equal to the E-W ratio. The new observations point to a value of about 0-69 for both E-W and N-S ratios. A. A. MICHELSON. Henry G. Gate. University of Chicago, September. 10. The ‘Flying Gallon’’ in Art. In Nature of August 21 (p. 489) reference is made to a popular article by Mr. C. W. Bishop on ‘The Chinese Horse,’’ and to the distribution of the artistic motive of the flying gallop dealt with in it, It may be of interest to remark that this problem was first studied and discussed. by the famous French archzo- logist S. Reinach in his “‘La représentation du galop dans l’art ancien et moderne’’ (Paris, 1901), and was afterwards expanded by me in my_ book, “Chinese Pottery of the Han Dynasty”? (Leyden, 1909), where also many illustrations of the motive ‘from Chinese art-works are given. : B. Laurer,. Curator of Anthropology. Field Museum, Chicago, September to. MUSEUMS, EDUCATION, AND THE BOARD. OR many years a number of our provincial museums have striven to make their collec- tions of educational value, both to the ordinary citizen through their exhibits and guides, and to the schools through their exhibits and_ special circulating collections, as well as by talks to the teachers or pupils. The response of the educa- NO, 2606, VOL. 104} . report, and hindering museum activities in many tion authorities long continued disappointing, but some eight or ten years ago things began to move more rapidly. Certain pure educationists began to see that there was something of value for them in the museums, and in 1913 the Educa- tional Science Section of the British Association appointed a strong committee to report on the question. The war, though unfortunately pre- venting the publication of that committee’s lengthy directions, has had the result in some towns, notably Manchester, of inducing the schools to — lighten their own troubles by seeking the aid of the museums and their staffs. So well had the movement progressed, thanks mainly to the insistent propaganda of museum officials, individually and through the Museums — Association, that at last the Education Act of — 1918 and the draft suggestions for the arrange- ment of schemes thereunder (Circular 1096) took museums into serious account as an educational factor. Museum enthusiasts were delighted. But now comes a move which gives them pause. The — Adult Education Committee of the Ministry of Reconstruction has issued an interim report (Cd. 9237) recommending that public libraries and museums should be placed under the control of the local education authorities, and administered — by special committees of those bodies, and urging — “that the powers and duties of the Local Govern-_ ment Board regarding public libraries and — museums should be transferred forthwith to the Board of Education.” So reasonable a recona- mendation would, it is doubtless expected, be — welcomed effusively by the institutions concerned. The contrary is the case. The protests of the librarians are quoted—and dismissed—in the ia- terim report itself. They have just been repeated at the meeting of the Library Associa- tion in Southport, but we cannot consider them — here. As already reported (NATURE, July 17, 1919, © p. 394), the Oxford meeting of the Museums Asso-— ciation raised so many objections that it appointed — a committee to prepare a statement. And now, in | a discussion of the Educational Science Section of the British Association, the opposition of the — museums found vigorous expression, and such © support as the proposal received from one or two — curators was only half-hearted. It may be well, — therefore, to summarise the arguments. a The Adult Education Committee holds its — opinion so strongly that. it has condescended to — very little argument. We gather more from a — paper laid before Section L by Prof. J. A, Green. — This assumes that museums are “fundamentally — educational in character,” and infers that they should form part of the educational machinery of the country. This machinery should be controlled by one authority, and its parts adapted to a | common aim. This would change the outlook of | the museums and lead them to display their collec- | tions in such a way as to dispel “museum head- ache.”’ The responsibilities of the Education Com- mittees have been extended to adult education, and they would be better able to bring museums _ Ocroser 9, 1919] NATURE 115 into touch with universities and other of the higher educational establishments. Where a museum does not exist already, as in certain towns and in country districts, a live education authority would set one up, so that the number will be increased. Museums suffer from want of funds because few are supported by more than a 4d. rate, some not even by that; they would receive grants ‘in aid directly from the Board of Education. To this the museums reply that they recognise the argumentative force of a pecuniary bribe; but if their work is worthy of this reward, why should it not be given? For the rest, they dispute the premisses. A museum is not fundamentally an educational institution. It exists primarily for the collection and preservation of the works of ‘nature or of man, and its highest aim is the advancement of science or of art. The needs of the researcher must never be sacrificed to those ‘of the elementary student or the public. Even ‘the smallest local museum has a duty in this direction, and it is this spirit which keeps the ‘museum alive. Museums which themselves chart ‘the unknown seas of knowledge can best pilot the learners. Organised education is the vehicle of established knowledge, is necessarily limited in “scope, and must move on the rigid lines of a syllabus; but the museum must respond to new ‘influences, must extend knowledge, and assemble material for future research. The existing museum committees are not ideal, but neither are the education committees. The curator knows his men, has been moulding their ideas, and has generally found a chairman with large views. He does not wish to see either himself or his chair- man controlled by a body the scope of which ‘embraces but a subsidiary part of his museum’s activities. If his means of support are to come solely through: educational channels, results will be expected through those channels alone. The others will gradually be blocked, the level of aspiration and accomplishment will be lowered, e living water will stagnate. Museum officials, from experience or observation, distrust bureau- cratic government; they want men whom they ean approach, not an anonymous Board. _ Compromise, however, may be possible. Co- operation is desired, though not subordination. Let the education authority advise upon the public exhibition series, and support financially the ducational work of the museum in proportion as it approves. But hands off the unseen activities of the museum! Provincial museums may be linked up with one another and with the national museums above and the minor museums below, Sut the linking should be through a body repre- sentative of their own committees and curators. f the source of money must be the Board of Education, so be it; but let it flow to these com- nittees through a separate museum department of the Board. Museums here, as in the United States, have shown what good educational work hey can do on their own initiative. Recognise that initiative, and they will respond with more | abundant and more fruitful efforts. _ NO, 2606, VOL. 104] — Ss THE COALFIELDS OF SPITSBERGEN. Ge is not a new discovery in Spitsbergen. It has been known for more than 3009 years, and about a century ago small cargoes were even brought to Norway. But mining on a serious scale did not begin until some fifteen years ago, while its rapid extension is due to the high price and comparative scarcity of coal during and after the war. There are now at least four mines in Spitsbergen exporting coal in large quan- tities during the summer months, and_ several others which will soon reach the export stage. Coal of at least three ages occurs—Carbonifer- ous, Jurassic, and Tertiary. It is difficult to give the total content, but it may safely be said that Spitsbergen coalfields do not contain less than 5,000,000,000 tons. Bear Island, in addition, has a content of some 8,000,000 tons. The occur- rence of drowned fault valleys in. the plateau of almost horizontal strata has made. the coalbeds easily accessible in most places, and greatly facili- tates’ loading by reducing land transport to a minimum. Practically all the valuable coalbeds lie around the two great inlets on the west coast— . Icefjord and Lowe Sound-—except a small outlier of Tertiary coal in King’s Bay, near the north- west corner of Spitsbergen. The Tertiary coal has attracted most attention, and for the present . at least provides most of the export coal. At Longyear City, the prosperous Norwegian mine in Advent Bay, several seams have been located at 755 ft. above sea-level; a 3}-ft. seam is now being worked, and at 815 ft. a 44-ft. seam is being opened ; another seam occurs at 640 ft. The same coal is being worked in Lowe Sound and in Bra- ganza Bay. In the latter place Swedes are ex- porting large cargoes from their mine in the 3$-ft. seam at a height of 245 ft. It is also being mined successfully by Russians in Green Harbour. The Tertiary coal has been proved to be a good steam coal of high calorific value, and fairly free from dirt. An average of the analysis of several samples gives about 79 per cent. carbon, 2 to 6 per cent. water, less than 2 per cent. sulphur, and about 4 per cent, ash. The calorific value averages about 7800, The seams appear to main- tain a fairly consistent thickness and uniformity in quality over wide areas. Other seams of Tertiary coal also occur, notably a 7-ft. seam of bituminous coal in Advent Bay at a height of 1900 ft. This seam, which is now being mined, shows a slight tendency to pass to lignite, an unusual feature in Spitsbergen Tertiary coal. The coal of Carboniferous age occurs in the culm beds near the foot of the Carboniferous system. The deposits are very extensive, but have been investigated only recently, and so have attracted less notice than the Tertiary seams. Moreover, the outcrops of these coal seams are generally obscured by enormous screes and slip masses, so that their examination entails a good deal of serious work, including boring operations ; but this is well repaid, as the seams are thick, and extend over wide areas round the northern 116 NATURE [OcropeR 9, 1919 and eastern bays of Icefjord. In the Klaas Billen district valuable seams have been opened up at various heights. Varying from a few inches to about 3 ft. in thickness, they total 6 ft. Early analyses of Carboniferous coal were vitiated by the samples being taken from weathered slip masses, in consequence of which they showed a high proportion of ash. Now, however, that the coal has been reached in situ, it proves to be of high quality, clean and lustrous, and, unlike the Tertiary coal, fit for coking. Projects are on foot for extensive mining operations in these fields. Jurassic coal is widely spread, but less accessible than the other kinds. It was the first coal to be mined, but turned out to be of rela- tively poor quality, and is now no longer worked. Mining is continued throughout the year, although the export season at present extends only from June to September, The miners winter in comfortable timber houses, and are well supplied with fresh food, brought from the European mainland in the autumn. There is wireless communication throughout the winter. The restriction of export to four months in the year necessitates good storage | facilities for the winter coal and rapid loading in summer both from the dump and _ direct from the mine, but these problems are being satisfactorily solved. The total coal export of Spitsbergen, which» in 1913 was 35,000 tons, rose last year to 65,000 tons, and _ this year must have reached about 100,000 tons. These figures are, of course, comparatively small, but they will be much increased as several new mines get into working order. ‘The shortage of labour, material, and tonnage still affected the output this season, but it may be said that the prejudice against mining in the Arctic has now been over- come, and Spitsbergen will soon take its due place, as one of the important coal-producing countries of Europe. R. .N. R. B, NOTES. Tue Ministry of Munitions has published as a con- fidential document a highly interesting report of the Commission appointed to visit the iron and_ steel works of the occupied areas of Germany, also of Lorraine, Luxemburg, and certain portions of Belgium and France. The object of the Commission was to ascertain what developments in iron and steel manu- facture have taken place during the war, the present condition of the plants, the future prospects of these areas, and to what extent fuel economy has _ been advanced therein. As regards the last-named item, Messrs. Cosmo Johns and Lawrence Ennis com- municated to the recent autumn meeting of the Iron and Steel Institute a report on the present status of fuel economy in the German iron and steel industry of the occupied territory. This report is now public pro- perty, and contains very much interesting material ; it may be taken as an indication of the importance of the valuable information which the Commission itself has collected. It is to be hoped that the Ministry of Munitions will see its way to’ publish the entire report as an ordinary Government publica- tion purchasable in the usual way, so that it may be NO. 2606, VOL. 104] 7 known by all engaged in the iron and steel industries in this country, as there is no reason why our indus- tries should not be allowed the benefit of the careful studies of this Commission. Such an important document should be made available as widely as possible to all those interested in the subject- matter, Tue future of the Royal Botanic Society at Regent’s Park has for long been a matter of anxiety, and the recent appointment by Lord Ernle, when President of . the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries, of a stron Committee to inquire and report as to what steps tons be taken to render the work of the society as useful as possible, from the scientific and educational points of view, was a most welcome step. The Committee, under the chairmanship of Sir David Prain, Director of Kew Gardens, has taken evidence from representa- tive botanists and others, and its report is now avail- able. Apart from the establishment of the gardens at Regent’s Park, the primary object of the society, which was incorporated in 1839, was ‘‘the promotion of botany and its application to medicine, arts, and manufactures.’? It is interesting and satisfactory, therefore, to note that the Committee is of the opinion that the usefulness of the work of the society would be enhanced by the organisation and development of botanical work essentially economic in its bearing. The chief suggestions made by the Committee are :-— (1) The establishment of a school of economic botany at which a knowledge of economic plants and their products could be obtained; (2) an institute which might be made a centre for research, especially — in plant physiology; and (3) a centre for teaching — practical horticulture. The first is the most notable and valuable recommendation. The establishment of such a school would supply an undoubted want in ~ this country, where organised instruction in economic botany, especially as regards tropical crop plants, is almost impossible to obtain. The Committee is to he congratulated on, so accurately judging the need of the situation. It is greatly to be hoped that the financial means necessary for the successful carrying out of the Committee’s recommendations will he forthcoming. : A MEETING of the Executive Committee of the United States National Research Council was held — at the National Research Council Building, Washing- — ton, on April 15 last, and according to an abstract, 21 pages in length, of the minutes, which appears in the July issue of the Proceedings of the National — Academy of Sciences, the Council has already made great progress in initiating and co-ordinating research in pure and applied science in the States. It has organised divisions for physical science, chemical }} science, geology and geography, biology and agricul- ture, engineering, industrial, educational, and State relations. Each division is presided over by a man of note, and on it there are many representatives of scientific and other societies. The Council will have ample funds at its disposal, the Rockefeller Founda- tion alone having undertaken to provide 100,000. § during the next five years for the promotion,of funda- mental researches in physics and chemistry primarily in educational institutions. The chairman of the Council receives 2000l., and chairmen of divisions 1sool., per annum, with travelling expenses. The Council is to be congratulated on the speed with which it has accomplished so much. Dr. THEopore W. Ricwarps, professor of chemistry at Harvard University, has (Science announces) been elected president of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. P ee. ee ey a ae a OcTOBER 9, 1919] NATURE 117 . Tue Secretary of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research informs us that a British Asso- ciation of Research for the Cocoa, Chocolate, Sugar, Confectionery, and. Jam Trades has been formed in accordance with the Government scheme for the en- couragement of industrial research. The secretary is Mr. R. M. Leonard, the Manufacturing Confectioners’ Alliance, Ltd., 9 Queen Street Place, E.C.4. - A COMMITTEE has been formed to raise a fund by public subscription for the purpose of establishing a memorial to perpetuate the memory of the eminent services, particularly in the fields of economics and science, rendered to Tasmania by the late Mr. R. M. Johnston, for many years Government Statistician and Registrar-General of that State. Subscriptions are now invited, and should be sent to Mr. T. A. Tabart, jun., honorary treasurer, Cathedral Chambers, Murray Street, Hobart, or Mr. Clive Lord, honorary secretary, c/o Museum, Macquarie Street, Hobart. By the untimely death of Prof. F. J. Haverfield, Camden professor of ancient history, the University of Oxford has lost a valued member and the first living authority on Roman Britain. . Early in life Prof. Haverfield devoted himself to this, his special subject, and his reputation caused Mommsen to en- trust to him that portion of the ‘‘Corpus Inscrip- tionum ’’ which dealt with Great Britain. Not only was he a master of the literature of the Romano- British period, but he gave much assistance to excava- tions at Silchester, Caerwent, and the Roman Wall. He was an admirably stimulating lecturer, and was interested in town-planning in ancient times, on which he wrote a valuable book. Late in life he devoted himself to the question of university finance. It may be said that the Camden chair was never more worthily held by a scholar and practical archeo- logist. It is a matter of deep regret that ill-health prevented Prof. WHaverfield from preparing the authoritative work on Roman Britain which he had planned, and alone could have accomplished. Wirn the mathematician Philip Edward Bertrand Jourdain there died on October 1 a truly remarkable character. Jourdain lived only thirty-nine years, but the amount and value of the work that he accom- plished, considering the disabilities under which he laboured, are almost incredible. He was weakly from infancy, and as a child developed symptoms of the progressive paralytic condition known as Friedreich’s ataxia. In spite of his unsteady gait and constant ill-health, he early showed great mathematical and mechanical capacity. He went up to Cambridge in 1898, then already a cripple. During his course at Cambridge he spent some time in Germany and became a fluent and scholarly linguist, speaking and reading several European languages. In 1904, though now physically quite incapacitated, he was awarded the Allen mathematical scholarship for research, and throughout the remainder of his short career his main activities were directed to the prosecution of mathe- matical investigations. His most important work was the discovery of certain series of infinite numbers. Working with Russell and Whitehead, he showed tliat certain arithmetical processes could be applied to them, and thus he obtained new and _ interesting results. He continued on this line of research, and even a few days before his death, of the imminence of which he was fully aware, he succeeded in demon- strating the existence of a previously unsuspected series of infinites.° His very last work was the Gis- covery of a formula for the well-ordering of any aggre- gate. Notes of this work are now, we understand, in the hands of Prof. Love. Jourdain contributed exten- NO, 2606, VOL. 104] sive mathematical articles to the last edition of the “Encyclopedia Britannica.’’ He founded and edited the International Journal of Ethics. He was for some years the English editor, and since the death of Carus in 1918 the chief editor, of the Monist. He also made a number of translations of scientific works for the Open Court Publishing Co. Jourdain tools the liveliest interest in the movement for encouraging the history of science. He was a contributor to Isis, and at the time of his death he had in preparation an article for the ‘‘Studies in the History and Method of Science ’’ which it is hoped he may have left in a state ready for publication. In Man for September Col. de Guérin, of Guernsey, expresses the opinion that the megaliths in that island may be much more recent than they were hitherto supposed to be. This view is based on the important discovery of traces of a rudely sculptured human figure on a capstone of the great chamber of the dolmen of Déhus. The relationship of this figure to similar anthropomorphic sculptures in Guernsey and France is obvious, and as these latter, according to Déchellete and others, date at earliest from late in the Neolithic, at the verge of the A®neolithic period, the dolmen of Déhus must be of this age or later. This is confirmed by the discovery in 1847 of a copper knife-dagger in the great chamber of this dolmen. Col. de Guérin fixes also the statue Menhir at the Catel Guernsey in the first Brenze age. He lays special stress on the evidence of a still earlier sea- borne trade with Brittany in the numerous celts of jadeite and other foreign rocks found in the island. In the nineteenth volume of Natural History (Nos. 4-5, April-May, 1919) Mr. I. M. Clarke describes, with numerous excellent photographs, the new Gaspé bird sanctuaries established by the Canadian Government on Percé Rock and Bona- venture Island, off the Gaspé Peninsula, and, further out in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, the Bird Rocks of the Magdalen Islands, The efforts of ornithologists for bird-protection have at last proved successful with the support of the Hon. Honoré Mercier, Minister of Colonisation, Mines, and Fisheries for the Pro- vince of Quebec. In another article on the same subject Mr. A. M. Bailey describes the Hawaian Island Reservation, which was established in 1g09 by Executive Order as a sanctuary for the millions of sea-birds and waders which return there annually to raise their young or to rest while migrating. For this and other generous measures to preserve bird- life, science is indebted to the late Theodore Roose- velt. Natural History (vol. xix., Nos. 4-5, April-May, 1919) publishes a series of articles on zoological sculpture in art and architecture. Mr. S. B. P. Trow- bridge, dealing with architecture, beginning with the palzolithic horse frieze at Cap-Blane and the horse painting from Altamira, reproduces photographs of the bas-reliefs of Assyria in the British Museum and the Rostra at Rome. In regard to modern art, he accounts for the comparative failure of modern attempts on the ground that ‘‘in the art of sculpture, as in all art, there must be sincerity and_ truth, accuracy in delineation and fidelity in modelling, and the suppression of every detail unnecessary to expression.”? This idea is pursued in Mr. C. R. Knight’s account of the work of contemporary American artists dealing with animal life. The black rhinoceros and African buffalo by Mr. J. L. Clark have some impressive vigour; but the zoological statuary at Washington, described by Mr. R. W. Sao “i shows little dignity or power of expression. 118 NATURE [Ocroser 9, 1919. The lions, tigers, and buffaloes are distinctly inferior to the Nineveh hunting scenes described in the previous article. Mr. V. StEFANssoNn describes his successful method of Arctic exploration in an interesting article entitled “Living Off the Country ’’ in the May issue of the Geographical Review (vol. vii., No. 5). Mr. Stefans- son’s well-known adoption of Eskimo habits and diet have enabled him to travel with very light loads and to penetrate far into the unknown for long periods without any anxiety. He contends that from experi- ence he has found that a diet of flesh or fish is quite sufficient to sustain a person in good physical and mental condition, and that salt is not necessary for health. White men whom he has known to have lived for a year or more on an exclusive meat diet have shown no desire to return to the varied and elaborate diet of civilisation. So convinced is Mr. Stefansson of the abundance of food’ in the Arctic lands and seas he knows that he asserts that any man conversant with the ways of wild animals and the hunting and living methods of the Eskimo can load on one dog-team all the equipment he needs for a journey of several years. Where previous explorers had carried food and fuel, Mr. Stefansson carried neither, choosing to adapt himself to his environment rather than fight it. Instead of taking food and fuel he carried merely the instruments for obtaining them. By economy in the use of ammunition one can obtain as much as two tons of food for a pound of am- munition, or, in other words, ammunition is several thousand times as economical to carry as the most condensed kind of food. The paper deals at length with the methods of Arctic hunting, particularly seal- stalking. In his presidential address to the seventeenth meeting. of, the South African Association for the Advancement of Science, held in July last, the Rev. Dr. W. Flint discussed the thorny problem of ‘‘ Race Consciousness’? in the light of modern scientific opinion. He regarded ‘national consciousness’ as a mental tendency which had been fostered among the peoples of Europe, by territorial and _ linguistic boundaries, and by the propagation of a community of ideas. ‘‘ Race consciousness,’’ as seen in South Africa and in the Southern States of America, on the other hand, was an inherent proclivity or “ property of human nature,’’ and demanded the closest scrutiny and most accurate study on behalf of all men of science if political bankruptcy was to be avoided. In Spanish America racial animosities had been dis. solved by miscegenation, but that method was un- thinkable as a solution of South African racial diffi- culties. There was also another plan, the proposal to segregate native races in demarcated territories, but in practice that proved an impossible working policy. There was a third proposal which had been debated, the frank recognition of racial antagonism and the resolution on the part of each race to live within its own armed camp. The solution advocated by Dr. Flint was none of these, but the cultivation and recognition of an ‘international consciousness,” which could be fostered by education and by the recognition on the part of ‘‘superior’’ peoples that every race has its rights, economical, political, and social. Dr. Flint holds that ‘racial consciousness ”’ can be uprooted and replaced by an intellectual ‘‘ inter- racial consciousness,’’? and that racial conflicts can be avoided only by education—of whites as well as of blacks. On the biological significance of ‘trace con- sciousness”? Dr. Flint did not attempt to throw any light; that is a matter which still’ awaits patient investigation. Everyone interested in the problems NO. 2606, VOL. 104] ° ’ of. racial contact will find food for thought and sub- ie for observation in Dr. Flint’s presidential address, _ | _ Tue Board of Agriculture has received the follow- ing information from the International Agricultural Institute at Rome:—The yield of wheat in. Spain, Scotland, Italy, Canada, the United States, India, Japan, and Tunis is estimated at 929,525,000 cwt., or 56 per cent. below the 1918 crop, and rr per cent. below the average yield of the five years 1913-17. The estimated production of rye for Italy, Canada, and the United States is given as 48,274,000 ecwt., or 71 per cent. below last year’s production, but 67:3 per cent. above the average crop for the years 1 13. The barley crop for Scotland, Italy, Can . the United States, Japan, and Tunis is estimated at 159,397,000 cwt., Or 15-1 per cent. below last year’s production, and 4-1 per cent, above the average pro- — duction of the years 1913-17. The estimated produc- tion of oats in Scotland, Italy, Canada, the United States, Japan, and Tunis is 491,933,000 cwt., or 18-4 per cent. below the 1918 yield, and 7-2 per cent. below the average yield of the five years 1913-17. The maize crop in Italy, Canada, and the United States is estimated at 1,473,592,000 ewt., or 10-2. per cent. above the 1918 production, and 3 per cent: above the average yield of the years 1913-17. § “ Tue flora of Aldabra and other small islands of the western Indian’ Ocean is the subject of an article by Dr. Hemsley in the Kew Bulletin (No. 3, 1919). Aldabra is an atoll, similar in size to the Isle of Wight, 220 miles north-west of Madagascar, and about 600 miles from the Seychelles Archipelago. Assump- tion, the nearest island, is about twenty miles distant. -Aldabra is densely clothed with vegetation, which is unusually rich for an atoll flora, com rising herbaceous, shrubby, and arboreous species. Exclud- ing species inttoduced by human agency, the flora com- prises more than 170 species of flowering plants, repre- senting 127 genera and 54 families, proportions which are characteristic generally of insular floras. Grasses number 14 species, Rubiaceae 15, and Leguminose 12. The Rubiacee constitute the predominating element in the woody vegetation, both as to number and diversity of genera and number of species, but are less conspicuous in the scenery than the mangroves, the figs, and a species of Euphorbia. The vegetation consists of four types :—(1) Mangrove swamp, which fringes the lagoon. (2) Pemphis bush, a dense growth of the hard-wooded Pemphis acidula (Lythracez), a widely distributed sea-coast plant. (3) Open bush, mostly of low trees and bushes, which are usually leafless in the dry season and flower at the beginning of the rains; herbaceous plants are scarce, and only found in the wet season. Almost all the Aldabra plants are to be found in this type of country. (4) Shore zone, extending round the atoll, varying much in width and supporting some widely distributed littoral species. The coco-nut, of which there are conspicuous plantations, is regarded as an introduced plant. Dr. Hemsley is convinced that this palm is a native of South America, the home of all the numerous species of the genus, and that its present wide distribution is due to human agency. Some particulars are also given of the floras of other islands in the western Indian Ocean, and of their relations with the flora of Aldabra. The data collected point to the common origin of the flora of Aldabra and the neighbouring islands, and indicate that the flora is essentially African and-almost without any infusion of a Malayan element, such as exists in the Seychelles and the Mascarene Islands. - a i eis ye wry es Pe | ababie bee very. Lae SOI ry eee te - Nature OcroneR 9, 1919] NATURE 119 _ OcroseR is a transition month so far as winds and distribution of atmospheric pressure are concerned in the East Indian Seas, and the Monthly Meteorological Chart published by the Meteorological Office shows that a considerable change is taking place in the general meteorological conditions. To the north of the equator northerly winds are decidedly asserting themselves and the south-west monsoon of the summer months is giv- ing way. In the Bay of Bengal and in the Arabian Sea, October and November are the most stormy months of the year, and cyclones are more numerous than at any other period. The low barometric pres- sure which has prevailed over the land to the north of India is giving place to higher barometer readings, which causes a diametrically opposite wind circulation. The chart contains an interesting note of sea phos- phorescence in the vicinity of Madras on July 3. At 2.10 a.m., in latitude 12° 43’ N., longitude 30° 34’ E., the steamship Clan. Ogilvy (Capt. W. M. Porterfield) passed through what appeared to be a gigantic wheel, with many ‘“‘curved’’ spokes, revolving the same way as the hands of a clock. The phenomenon lasted quite ten minutes, and is said to have been caused by phosphorescence. The wheel was travelling to the eastward. As each ‘“‘spoke’’ passed, the ship was _ lit up. Tuat the war has done a great-deal to show the value of the spectroscopic examination of metals and alloys is proved in an article on the subject in La (September. 6). Considerable information was gleaned regarding. the composition of secret German alloys which were investigated by A. de Gramont by his method, and the same _ remark applies to the composition of the metal used by the enemy in the manufacture of the long-range shells fired upon Paris. The spectroscopic method would seem to be of particular value when applied to the examination of the constituents of alloy steels and commercial alloys, and; as the writer states, is capable of great expansion in this direction. Messrs. Lever Bros., Lrp., Liverpool, have lately published an interesting ‘“‘Cattle Food Calendar ’’ for 1919-20. This contains articles on the scientific side of agriculture written by men competent to speak on their respective subjects. Further, it is illustrated by photographs and pictures of many of the important operations in agricultural science. Among the articles we note ‘‘How Mendelism May Help the Stock- breeder,’’ and shorter, but equally interesting, articles on “The Work of the Board of Agriculture,’’ ‘* Plant Diseases,’’? ‘‘The Relation between Skin-temperature and the Fattening Quality of Cattle,’? ‘The Official Seed-testing Station at the Food Production Depart- ment,’’ “‘The Work of the Rothamsted Experimental Station,’ ‘‘The Breeding of New Wheats,’’ ‘ Warble Maggots in Cattle,’ ‘‘ Investigation and Research in Dairying,’’ “ Contagious Abortion in Cattle,’’ ‘* Horti- cultural Research,’ ‘‘The Cheshunt Experimental and Research Station,’? and ‘‘Forestry.’’ The list covers'a wide field, and the articles give brief, but useful, summaries of the application of science to agriculture. OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN. Comet 1919¢.—The following is a continuation of the ephemeris of comet 1919c (Metcalf-Borrelly) for Greenwich midnight :— R.A. N. Deel. R.A. S. Decl. hh Rete Bs eB. gti’ S Get coy Cee oe 8h 1a Oct ar, -16 10:14), 311/27 13 15 4838 3 4 25 16 21 39 3 30 17 155914 0 54 29 16 33 30 5 43 NO, 2606, VOL. 104] Logr and logA on October 9, 0:1574, 0-3052; on October 25, 0-1106, 0-2884. The comet is an evening object, and is getting inconveniently near the sun. © A Fawr Nova.—Miss Mackie announces that she has discovered a nova from a study of the Harvard photographs (Harvard Bulletin 691). Its position is R.A. 20h. 3m. 4s., N. declination 17° 24-3’. (1900). It follows a 14th magnitude star by o2s. It reached its maximum, 7-2 magnitude, on Novem- ber 22, 1913, and has now sunk to below 14:5. The position is in Sagitta, within the limits of the galaxy; it is only about 26° from Nova Aquila. Hinpu SpuHericaL AstroNnomy.—Mr. G. R. Kaye has published a paper on “Ancient Hindu Spherical Astronomy ”’ in the Journal and Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal (vol. xv.). In this he sum- marises, with the aid of modern mathematical formule, the fundamental portions of the principal classical astronomical texts, which date from between A.D. 498 (the Aryabhatiya) and about a.p. 1000, when the redaction of the Surya Siddhanta now extant was written. Indian trigonometry is, like Indian astro- nomy, of Greek origin, but the Indians developed the methods received from the Greeks in various ways. There seems to be no doubt that the Indians were the first to introduce the use of sines instead of chords, and to compute tables of sines. But they never went further, and did not make use of the tangent function. They never give a proof of any rule they enunciate. The title of Mr. Kaye’s paper refers to spherical astronomy only, but the author also gives a short account of the Hindu notions of the motions of the planets, though this has been done by several previous writers. The Hindu planetary theories differ in several details from those of Ptolemy, and were probably mainly derived from Alexandrian writings from the period between Hipparchus and Ptolemy, now lost. Though there is nothing par- ticularly new in Mr. Kaye’s paper, it gives a con- venient summary of the principal doctrines taught in the great Indian astronomical text-books. STELLAR CLusterRs.—Dr. and Mrs. Shapley con- tribute another paper to the Astrophysical Journal for July on stellar clusters. They give a table of forty- one clusters, of which thirty show ellipticity, eleven are sensibly circular, and one is unsymmetrical. The most elliptical cluster is Messier 19, in which the greatest diameter is about twice the least; this is a much lower degree of flattening than that in the galaxy or the spiral nebulae. In the case of the cir- cular clusters, the form may be real or it may be due to our being situated near their polar diameters. There is some evidence that clusters near the galactic plane tend to have their equatorial planes parallel to it. At a distance from the galactic plane this no longer holds. THE AURORA OF OCTOBER 1. HERE was noteworthy auroral activity on the night of October 1. The display started in the ‘early evening and lasted -until well after midnight. As seen in the south of England, the aurora was generally of the glow type. The absence of streamers, etc., was commented on by Mr. W. H. Dines, of Benson Observatory, but Capt. J. E. Cowper noted streamers at Shanklin, Isle of Wight, soon after 22h. 15m.’ The colour of the glow, which was ccm- parable in effect with bright moonlight, was reported as ‘‘pale white’’ at Benson, ‘‘ greenish-yellow ’’ at 1 According to the Times of October 3 there was a brilliant display with streamers seen from Worcester Park about 1 30 en October 2. “Curtains” were seen at Newport between 21.30 and 23 on October 1. 120 NATURE [OcToBER 9, 1919 Shanklin and also at Ross-on-Wye, and “ reddish- yellow ’’ at Newquay. : The display was first noticed at Bristol at 9.15, and the final traces of it disappeared 5% hours afterwards, viz. at 15h, G.M.T, The appearance was that of a band of luminosity lying just over the northern region of the sky and extending over about 70° from nearly north-west to north-east. From this intense glow streamers occasionally shot upwards, but these quickly broadened and disappeared, They showed a reddish tint, and in several cases could be traced nearly to the altitude of Polaris. The stars of Ursa Major were deeply involved in the aurora, but shone conspicuously amid the light surrounding them, At first sight a person might have mistaken the aurora for the reflection of a widespread conflagration, but a little watching revealed the precise nature of the event. Clouds covered a large portion of the sky at times, but it seemed curiously to avoid the region affected by the phenomenon, and there were showers of rain at intervals. The brilliancy of the northern light and the darkness of the clouds in other parts offered a striking contrast. Several meteors were seen during the night radiating from a point at 355°+40°. A letter from the Isle of Man describes a brilliant aurora visible there at 8.45 G.M.T. on the same night, and continuing with various modifications for several hours, Dr. C. Chree has supplied the following note on the simultaneous magnetic storm as recorded at Kew ' Observatory, Richmond :— “A .smart magnetic storm was simultaneously experienced in connection with the aurora, As recorded at Kew Observatory, it began with a well- marked S.C. (sudden commencement) about 16h, 12m. G.M.T. on October 1, and continued until 4h. on ‘October 2. The approximate ranges were 32’ in D, 280y in H, and 170y in V. The extreme westerly position was reached at the end of the S.C. about 16h, 16m., the extreme easterly position about 23h. 25m. on October 1. Between 22h. 18m, and 22h. 50m. there was a swing of 29’ to the east. The maximum in H appeared about 17h., the minimum shortly before midnight. After the minimum there was a rapid recovery from the depression. As usual in storms, V was enhanced in the afternoon, the maximum appearing about 19h. 10m. There was, however, a second approximately equal maximum about 22h. 15m. This was preceded and followed by somewhat rapid movements. After 233h. there was depression in V, the minimum appearing shortly after midnight. The element remained depressed until 4h. on October 2. The curves were fairly quiet for the next twenty-four hours, but disturbance began again about 4h. on October 3, and was active when the sheets were changed about toh. ‘It may be noted here that the storm itself was quite secondary as compared with the big one in August last, and so, from the purely magnetic point of view, the interest is very moderate.’’ ; THE SUDAN IRRIGATION WORKS. 1? is an unfortunate circumstance’ when a con- troversy respecting the merits of rival schemes for Imperial development works is embittered by charges impugning the good faith of either side, and it is particularly painful when an accusation of this kind is levelled by a Government official of high standing and repute against his colleagues in the Department with which he was formerly associated. We do not propose to discuss the ethical question (it has already been the subject of inquiry by a Foreign NO. 2606, VOL. 104] Office Committee), but it is unavoidable to mention it as indicating the ground upon which Sir William Willcocks has published his brochure on ‘The Nile Projects"’ and the acutely critical spirit in which it is written. ‘ We have already outlined in Nature for September 13 (p. 67) the schemes actually adopted by their respective Governments, and now in course of execution, for the development of irrigation in Egypt and the Sudan, comprising the formation of a dam on the Blue Nile at Makwar, near Sennar, and of a reservoir at Gebel-el- Auli, on the White Nile; and in the ‘‘ Notes ”? columns of the issue for May 22 last (p. 233) we briefly alluded to the alternative proposal advocated by Sir W. Will- cocks and designated by him ‘‘the Sudd reservoir.’ The following additional particulars gleaned from the pamphlet before us may be of some interest. The Blue Nile project, for the irrigation, of the Gezirah plain in the Sudan, involves the storage of 463,000,000 cubic metres of water for distribution during the winter season to 300,000 féddans (acres) about to be exploited in cotton-raising. To meet this requirement a supply of 120-150 cubic metres per second will be necessary at the canal head throughout the winter up to the end of March, although in an occasional year the supply may have to be continued - | to the middle of April. This would leave three months for the gathering of the crop and the preparation of the ground prior to the next sowing. It is essential to have this period as dry as possible in order to root out the old stalks, which otherwise tend to sprout, as, indeed, happens when the rains supervene. Sir W. Willcocks expresses the apprehension that irrigation supplies will have to be given much later than April 15, and that the sources for Egyptian use will be seriously depleted in consequence. ; The White ‘Nile reservoir: at Gebel-el-Auli, pro- posed to be formed by an earthen bank across the river at a point some 50 km. above Khartoum, comes in for the criticism that it will flood a considerable tract of country, disturbing the inhabitants and neces- sitating their transfer elsewhere, and that the stag- nant pools left when the reservoir is low will lead to an increase in mosquitoes. Both these objections were before the Foreign Office Committee, but were not held to be vital. Another point made by Sir W. Willcocks is that a work so remote from Egypt might in the hands of a hostile Power become a serious menace to that country. ‘An enemy getting, posses- sion of the dam and filling it brimful to the height of the earthen bank in a high flood could sweep the Nile Valley as thoroughly as Noah’s deluge swept the Euphrates Valley.’’ ; is Pursuing a trenchant criticism of the estimated cost of the foregoing schemes, Sir W. Willcocks compares them very unfavourably with his own project of utilising as a reservoir the vast tract of swamp known as the Sudd region, where, owing to the dense growth of papyrus and aquatic vegetation, there are ‘‘a score of milliards of cubic metres of water standing well above the level of the flat plain as though they were congealed.’’ Such a region, Sir William contends, could be laid under contribution for practically in- exhaustible supplies of water more effectively and at less cost. Brysson CUNNINGHAM. COLLIERY BOILER-PLANTS. A REPRINT of articles on the performance of colliery steam boiler-plants and the saving to be obtained by their reorganisation, which appeared in Engineering for July 25 and August 1 last, has been sent us by the author, Mr. D. Brownlie. The OcToBER 9, 1919| NATURE 121 discussion in the articles is based upon results’ of tests carried out by the author, and a valuable feature is a large table giving details of these results for too boiler plants, chiefly of the Lancashire type. Mr. Brownlie’s figures indicate that the average net working efficiency of colliery steam-boiler plants is only about 55:5 per cent. . By carrying out a re- organisation of such plants on modern scientific lines it is possible to obtain 70 per cent. efficiency, and Mr. Brownlie estimates that about 6,600,000 tons of coal per annum could be saved by the adoption of scientific methods and by more extensive use of refuse coal. The 100 boiler plants tested have a total of 570 boilers, 500 of these being Lancashire, 2 Cornish, 37 egg-ended, and 31 modern tubular boilers. The average efficiency of the egg-ended boilers is less than 35 per cent., and there appears to be still a fair | number of this type at work, in spite of it being | hopelessly out of date. It is also of interest to note that the few modern tubular boilers installed are, on the average, giving no better results than the _ Lancashire boilers, which average 55 per cent. efficiency. This fact obviously indicates improper arrangements in the installation or bad methods of working,*or both. Another point of importance to which Mr. Brownlie directs attention arises from the Final Report of the Coal Conservation Committee, which states that ‘‘ the policy of collieries has been to set free the best quali- ties of coal for the market, and to retain for colliery consumption the poorest quality. The returns show that the quantity of ash in some of the fuels used ranges from 50 per cent. to 80 per cent.’? Mr. Brownlie actually finds an average of 15-5 per cent. ash and coal of 10,500 B.Th.U. used at colliery boiler plants, and most people will support him in his statements that he has never heard of a case of 50-80 per cent. ash; that such instances must be rare; and that the statement in the report is most misleading. In actual fact, 52 per cent. of the coal employed at collieries is high-grade coal; of the remainder, 32 per cent. could be used economically in industry for steam generation, and only 16 per cent. is definitely unsaleable. The highest ash-content of this refuse coal was 35 per cent. Mr. Brownlie maintains that these results are typical of the colliery industry, and the idea that collieries burn chiefly refuse and unsaleable coal is a complete fallacy. As a matter of fact, there are millions of tons of refuse coal lying unburnt at collieries, and a very large proportion of this refuse could be utilised for steam generation, as has been proved by Mr. Brownlie’s firm on a number of colliery plants. The carrying out of this proposition would result in a very large saving in the coal consumption, even after ample deduction for the cost of extra boilers and plant necessary because of the low calorific value. A fair average price for the whole of the coal burnt on colliery boiler plants is to-day about 20s. per ton; making allowance for extra labour, plant, and depreciation, and taking 3 tons of refuse coal as equal in practice to 1 ton of saleable coal, the value of refuse coal to-day would be about 8s. per ton. Mr. Brownlie’s pamphlet is to be welcomed, partly on account of the strong case for reform presented in view of the need for national economy, and partly on account of the large number of test results which _ he gives in a form suitable for easy comparison. _ The pamphlet may be obtained from Messrs, <9 ies and Green, Ltd., 2 Austin Friars, London, e€.2: j NO. 2606, VOL. 104] THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION .AT BOURNEMOUTH. SECTION D. ZOOLOGY. OreninG Appress By Dr. F. A. Dixey, M.A., F.R.S., PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION, One of the results of the great war now happily at an end has been its effect upon science. On the one hand it has checked the progress of scientific investi- gation; it has done much to destroy international co- operation and sympathy; it has removed from our ranks, temporarily or permanently, many admirable workers. On the other hand it has acted as a great stimulus in many departments of scientific inquiry, and it has given the general public an interest in many scientific questions which have hitherto met with little recognition or encouragement from the people at large. It was perhaps inevitable, but at the same time, as {1 venture to think, rather to be deplored, that that interest has tended to concentrate itself upon applied more than upon abstract science; that it has been concerned chiefly with the employment of natural knowledge in devising and perfecting new methods of destruction. Terrible as is the power which the present-day engines of warfare have attained, it may be reasonabl2 to hope that some compensation for the mischief and suffering which they have caused may eventually be found in peaceful directions ; that the sub- marine, the aircraft, and even the high explosive may cease to be a terror to civilisation, and in spite of their past history may after all become agents in the ad- vancement of the general welfare : Hoc paces habuere bone, ventique secundi, will, let us hope, be a legitimate reflection in later times. But for the true scientific worker, I ‘think I may safely assert, the primary object of his studies is the attainment of knowledge for: its own sake: applications of such knowledge may be trusted to follow; some beneficial, some perhaps the reverse. Still, whether they do or do not so follow is less a concern of the scientific man than whether his labours have resulted in a fresh advance into the realms of the unknown. I confess to some sympathy with the feel- ing which is said to be expressed in the regular toast of a certain scientific gathering :—‘‘ Pure mathematics, and may they never be of any use to anybody.”’ For genuine enthusiasm in the cause of science for its own sake, I think that we zoologists may’ claim a good record. We are by no means unmindful of the great benefits to humanity which have taken their rise more or less directly from zoological science. I need do no more than mention the services to. medi- cine, great at the present and destined to be greater still in the future, that are being rendered by the proto- zoologist and the entomologist. We may look for- ward also to results of the highest practical import- ance from the investigations into the laws of heredity in which we are engaged with the co-operation of our allies the botanists. But what we are entitled to protest against is the temper of mind which values science only for the material benefits that may be got from it; and what above all we should like to see is a greater respect,on the part of the public for science purely as science, a higher appreciation of the labours of scientific men, and a greater readiness, in matters where science touches on the common affairs: of life, to be guided by the accumulated knowledge and experi- ence of those who have made such matters the subject of constant and devoted study. If the war leads to any: repair of the general deficiency in these respects, ‘it 122 NATURE [Ocroper 9, 1919 will to that extent have conferred a benefit on the community. : Regarding, as-I do, my present position in this Sec- tion as a great honour and privilege, especially in view of this being the first meeting of the British Association to be held after the war, I hope I may be allowed a few preliminary remarks of a somewhat autobiographical. character. As far back as I can remember, zoology has been a passion with me. I was brought up in a non-zoological environment, and for the first few years of my life my only knowledge of the subject was gained from an odd volume of Chambers’s ‘‘Information for the People.’’ But on being asked ‘by a visitor what I intended to do with myself when I grew up, I can distinctly remember answering, with the confident assurance of seven or eight, ‘‘Zoology suits me best ’’—pronouncing the word, which I had only seen and never heard, as zoology. By the time I went to school, my opportuni- ties had increased; but I soon found myself engaged in the classical and mathematical routine from which in those days there was little chance of escape. In due course I went to the University with a classical scholarship, which necessitated for the time an even more rigid exclusion of scientific aspirations than before. I mention this because I wish to pay a tri- bute of gratitude to the College authorities of that day, to whose wise policy I owe it that I was eventually able to fulfil in some measure my desire for natural, and especially biological, knowledge. After two years of more or less successful application to the literary studies of the University, I petitioned to be allowed to read for the final school in natural science. The petition was granted; my scholarship was not taken away, and was even prolonged to the end of my fifth year. This I think was an enlightened measure, remarkable for the time, more than forty years ago, when it was adopted. I only hope that we have not in this respect fallen back from the standard of our predecessors. The avidity with which I took up the study of elementary chemistry and physics, and the enthusiasm with which I started on comparative ana- tomy under the auspices of George Rolleston are among the most pleasant recollections of my youth. But from the force of circumstances, though always at heart a zoologist, I have never been in a position to give myself unreservedly to that department of biology ; and even now, in what I must call my old age, I fear I cannot regard myself as much more than a zoologi- cal amateur. My working hours are largely taken up with serving tables. What moral do I draw from this brief recital? Not by any means that I should have been allowed to escape a grounding in the elements of a literary edu- cation, though I think it quite possible that the past, and even the present, methods of school instruction are not ideally the best. My experience has led me to conclude that much of the time spent over the minutiz of Greek and Latin grammar might, in the case of the average boy, be better employed. But I do not agree that a moderate knowledge of the classics, well taught by a sensible master, is useless from any reasonable point of view. To those of my hearers who appreciate Kipling, I would call to mind the vividly truthful sketch of school life called ‘‘Regulus.”? Let them reflect how the wonderful workmanship of the inspired and inspiring Ode of Horace, round which the sketch is written, must have sunk into the mind of the appa- rently careless and exasperating ‘‘ Beetle,’’ the ‘‘ egre- gious Beetle ’”’ as King calls him, to bear such marvel- lous fruit in after years. Beetle, as we all know, is no professional scholar, no classical pedant, but a man of the world who has not forgotten his Horace, and upon whose extraordinary literary skill those early school-tasks must have had, whether consciously or NO. 2606, VOL. 104 | not, a dominating influence. How else could he have written ‘Regulus’? ‘‘ You see,’’ says King, ‘ that some of it sticks.’ So it does, if it is only given a fair chance; and in the skirmish between King the Pee es ee classical and Hartopp: the science master, both right up to a point and both wrong beyond it, I give on the whole the palm to King. To revert to my own case. I do not regret a word of either the Latin or the Greek that I was obliged to read, nor even the inkling of the niceties of scholarship to which 1 got, 1 hope, a fair introduction. But I do think that I might have been allowed to start on scientific work at an earlier period, and that a good deal of the time spent, say, on Greek — and Latin prose and verse writing, might in my case have been well spared for. other objects. / To generalise what I have been saying. Start teach- ing your boy or girl on a good wide basis. Nothing is better for this than the old school subjects of classics, history, and mathematics, with the addition of natural science. In course of time a bent will declare itself. Encourage this, even at the expense of other studies desirable in themselves. But do not allow any one subject, however congenial, to usurp the place of a grounding in those matters which are proper to a general education, The time for specialising will come; and when it has arrived do all you can 10 remove obstacles, pecuniary.and other. Do not hamper your historian with chemistry or your zoologist with the differential calculus. If they have a taste for these things by way of diversion or recreation, well and good. But let their action be voluntary, This, however, is not a fitting occasion for pro- pounding my views on the question of education, anid it is time to turn to the immediate object of my ad- dress. And here I think I cannot do better than bring before your notice certain facts which have a bearing on the subject of insect mimicry; a subject which for many years past has engaged much of my attention. The facts on all hands are allowed to be remarkable. As to their interpretation there is much diversity of opinion; and indeed, until complete data are forthcoming, this could scarcely be other- wise. é In the first place let us glance at a certain assem- blage of butterflies that inhabits New Guinea with some of the adjacent islands. These butterflies, though belonging to different subfamilies, present a resem-_ blance to each other which is too strong to be acci- dental. Three of them belong to the Pierines, the group which includes the common white butterflies of this country; the fourth is a Nymphaline, not widely removed from our well-known tortoiseshells, red admiral and peacock. The resemblance on the upper surface between two of the three Pierines is not especi- ally noteworthy, inasmuch as they present in common the ordinary Pierine appearance of a white or nearly white ground’ colour with a dark border somewhat broadened at the.apex. But this, an everyday feature in the Pierines, is almost unknown in the very large subfamily to which our present Nymphaline belongs. Still, though sufficiently remarkable to arrest t attention of anyone familiar with these groups, the Pierine-like aspect of the upper surface of this Nym- phaline, which is known as Mynes doryca, would not by itself have seemed to call for any special explana. tion. esting coincidence. But the under surface of the three Pierines, known respectively as Huphina abnormis, Delias ornytion, and Delias irma, presents a striking combination of colour very unusual in their own group; and this peculiar character of the under surface is shared by the Nymphaline Mynes doryca. The “long arm of coincidence ’’ could scarcely reach so far as this. Whatever might be said about the likeness seen from above, that the wings beneath should show The resemblance would pass as merely an inter- re eg eee _ differences. _ less widely in aspect from their nearest congeners than ~ OcToBER 9, 1919] NATURE ¥23 virtually the same unusual pattern’ in the Mynes as in _ the Pierines seems to call for some explanation other _ than an appeal to chance or accident. Moreover, with _ regard to the Pierines themselves, the two members of _ the genus Delias are, of course, fairly closely related ; _ but the Huphina belongs to an entirely distinct genus, _ separated from Delias by many important structural The two species of Delias perhaps depart _ does either the Huphina or the Mynes. The under _ surface of the Huphina is unexampled in its genus, but the upper surface is quite ordinary. The Mynes, as we have seen, stands alone among its nearest rela- _ tives not only in the character of its under surface, but also in the Pierine-like character of its wings above. We will now turn to another assemblage, which pre- sents us with the same problem from a somewhat different point of view. In south-eastern Asia, with certain of the adjacent islands, is found a genus of large butterflies, called by Wallace Prioneris from the saw-like front margin of the forewing in the male. More than fifty: years ago it was remarked by Wallace that the species of Prioneris in several cases seem to mimic those of the genus Delias, and that ‘tin all cases the pairs which resemble each other inhabit the same district, and very often are known to come from the same locality.’’ The parallelism is even stronger than was stated by Wallace, for there is not a single known member of the genus Prioneris which does not resemble a species of Delias, so that Prioneris cannot really be said to have an aspect of its own. Prioneris - clemanthe and Delias agostina form a pair inhabiting the Himalayas, Burma, and Further India. In the same region occur Prioneris thestylis and Delias bella- donna, the striking similarity of which species, especi- ally on the underside and in the female, drew the special attention of Mr. Wallace. A still more remark- able instance is that of Prioneris sita of southern India and Ceylon, the likeness of which to the common Indian Delias eucharis is spoken of by Wallace as ‘perfect ’’; while Fruhstorfer, a hostile witness, testi- fies to the fact that the Prioneris always flies in com- pany with the Delias, and rests just like the latter with closed wings on the red flowers of the Lantana. Prioneris hypsipyle of Sumatra and P. autothisbe of Java are like Delias egialea and D. crithoe of the same two islands. Here again Fruhstorfer says of Prioneris autothisbe that it visits the flowers of the Cinchona, ‘‘always in company with the similarly coloured Delias crithoe.’’ Wallace remarked on the close similarity between Prioneris cornelia of Borneo and _ Delias singhapura of the Malay Peninsula; in this case, it will be noted, the localities, though not far. distant from each other, are not identical. But a Delias form which was unknown at the date of Wallace’s paper has since been found in Borneo, and this latter butterfly, known as D. indistincta, is even more exactly copied by P. cornelia than is the Delias which first drew Wal- lace’s attention. Prioneris vollenhovii of Borneo is a kind of compromise between Delias indistincta and, on the underside, D. pandemia of the same island, and it may be added that another Bornean Pierine, Huphina pactolica, is a good copy of Delias indistincta, therefore resembling also the Bornean Prioneris cor- nelia and P. vollenhovii. The memoir, published in 1867, in which Wallace remarked on the parallelism between Prioneris and Delias, contains a noteworthy prediction by the same author. Speaking of Pieris (now called Huphina) laeta of Timor, he says that it ‘‘departs so much from the style of colouring of its allies and approaches so nearly to that of Thyca (Delias) belisama of Java, that I should almost look for an ally of the last species to be discovered in Timor to serve as its pattern.’? Thirty- NO, 2606, VOL. 104] | four years after the expression of this anticipation, Mr. Doherty discovered in Timor an ally of Delias belisama which at once suggests itself as the model from which the peculiar and brilliant colouring of Huphina laeta has been derived. Fruhstorfer, who is by no means friendly to the theory of mimicry, says of this Delias, which was named splendida by Lord Rothschild, that beneath it is ‘‘deceptively like Huphina laeta.”’ But here comes in a curious point. The black forewing with its yellow apex and the orange-yellow hindwing with its scarlet black-bordered costal streak are present on the underside of both the Delias and the Huphina; but the latter butterfly possesses, in addition to these features, a row of scarlet marginal spots on the hind- wing which are not to be found on the Delias.. In spite of this discrepancy, the likeness is sufficiently striking. But from the same island of Timor, Doherty sent home another Delias which, besides resembling D. splendida, possesses a row of scarlet patches in the corresponding situation to those of H. laeta. In this latter Delias, however, named dohertyi by Lord Roth- schild after its. discoverer, the brilliant scarlet costal streak is completely absent. The Huphina, therefore, is more like either species of Delias than they are like ‘each other, forming, as it were, a link between them. So that, adopting Professor Poulton’s terminology, we may say that, if this is a case of mimicry, one form may possess at the same time the aposemes -belonging to two distinct models. I will not now stop to discuss the bearing of this case on current theories, but will only remark that, granting mimicry, the whole assem- blage, D. splendida, H. laeta, D. dohertyi, may be expected to gain advantage from the blending action of the intermediate H. laeta. This I think would happen whether /aeta is a “‘ Batesian ”’ or ‘‘ Miillerian ”’ mimic, but the gain to the association in the latter case is certainly the more obvious, i This state of things would be sufficiently curious if it stood by itself: But it does not stand by itself. In Lombok, Sumbawa, and Flores there occurs another member of the peculiar group of Huphina to which H. laeta belongs. This butterfly, known as H. temena, resembles H. laeta in many respects; possess: ing on the underside of the hindwing a scarlet costal streak and a row of scarlet marginal spots like those of that insect. The forewing,- however, differs from that of H, laeta in having its ground-colour not uni- formly' black, but divided between a dark shading to the veins, a dark submarginal band, and series of pale streaks and patches in the interspaces between the veins. The question at once suggests itself: Is there a relation between H. temena and one or more species of Delias corresponding to that between H. laeta and D. splendida and dohertyi? The answer to this ques- tion is in the affirmative. Delias oraia, together with Delias sumbawana, both species inhabiting the same three islands as H. temena, form with it an assemblage quite comparable with the former triad from Timor. Further, the points in which H. temena differs from H. laeta have their counterpart in the distinctions be- tween D. oraia and D. splendida on the one hand, and D. sumbawana and D. dohertyi on the other. These points are chiefly, in the temena assemblage, the less definitely black-bordered costal streak, the more strongly-marked black bordering to the submarginal scarlet spots, and the diversely-coloured as compared with the uniformly black forewing of the Timor insects. Again, in the island of Bali, Huphina tamar would seem to combine certain features of two species of Delias in a similar manner to the cases of laeta and temena just considered. The underside as a whole, is reminiscent of D. periboea, a member, like D. dohertyi and D. sumbawana, of the eucharis or hypa~ 124 NATURE - rete group of the genus; while the red costal streak suggests the influence of a representative in Bali of the belisama group, like D. splendida and D. oraia in the other islands. ’ Finally, in the island of Sumba we have another member of this remarkable group of Huphinas. Huphina julia, the butterfly referred to, so closely resembles Delias fasciata of the same island, that even the sceptical Fruhstorfer is constrained to speak of it as a ‘faithful copy ’’ of that insect. But here once more it is noticeable that one of the most conspicuous features of the Huphina is absent from the Delias. ‘This time it is not, as in the case of D. splendida, the submarginal row of scarlet spots on the underside of the hindwing, but it is the scarlet costal streak that is wanting. Huphina julia was discovered by Mr. Doherty in the year 1887, and described in 1891. It is interesting, in the light of what is now known of the butterfly fauna of the Lesser Sunda islands, to read what Doherty has to say about the mimicry question in relation to the Delias and Huphina forms that have just been mentioned. Speaking of H. julia, he says, “If it stood alone, I should certainly suppose it to be a mimic of some form of Delias:'hyparete yet undis- covered in the island. But both H. laeta and H. temena require to be accounted for in the same way, and while it is possible that some Timorese Delias may resemble H. laeta, I feel sure that H. temena can have no such original. It must then be assumed that this ‘group is less pressed by its enemies in the Timorian Islands, and has therefore been able to acquire more brilliant colours than its allies.’’ So far Doherty. Whatever may be the value of this last hypothesis, we have just seen that the supposed facts on which it rests are non-existent, for (1) the ‘‘form of Delias hyparete as yet undiscovered ’’ has actually turned up in the person of D. fasciata; (2) it is not only possible, but actually the case, that ‘‘some Timorese Delias may resemble H. laeta’’; (3) Mr. Doherty ‘‘ feels sure that H, temena can have no such original,’? but Delias oraia and Delias sumbawana have just the same rela- tion to Huphina temena as D. splendida and D. dohertyi to H. laeta. In view of these facts it may be not rash to suppose that the apparent absence of a model for the red costal streak of H. julia may here- after be accounted for. Of the three instances of possible mimetic association which have now been mentioned, I think that only one, viz. the first, has previously been treated in detail. The numbers of cases more or less similar to these three might be very largely extended, but for our present purpose it will be sufficient to confine our attention to those already given. It is probable that to some minds the facts adduced are simply curious coin- cidences, needing no explanation; but it can scarcely be wrong to suppose that to most students of nature the observed phenomena do call for some attempt at interpretation; and on a review of the evidence it seems clear that the geographical element must enter largely into any explanation that may be offered. On the whole, it is certainly the case that the forms which are supposed to be related by mimicry do inhabit the same localities; the continental Prioneris, for example, is like the continental Delias, and the island Prioneris recalls the island, not the continental, Delias. More- over, we find the differences between the Delias of Timor. of Sumbawa and Sumba reflected in the asso- ciated Huphinas of the same islands. If it be granted that the geographical element is a factor, it is natural to inquire how it works, It is no doubt true that external geographical con- ditions are occasionally capable of producing, whether directly or indirectly, a community of aspect in the animals or plants exposed to their influence. The pre- NO, 2606, VOL. 104] valence of a sandy coloration in the mammals and birds of a desert, and of whiteness in the inhabitants of the arctic snow-fields, the spiny character so often assumed by the plants of arid regions, and the general dwarfing of the vegetation that grows close to the sea, may be given in illustration. At first sight these phenomena may seem to be of the nature of direct effects of the environment; quite possibly some of them are so, but I think few observers would den that they are at least largely adaptive, being used for purposes of aggression or defence. Still, even if we allow the direct effect of the environment, as per- haps we may do especially in the case of the plants, can we frame any hypothesis of the action of geo- graphical conditions: which shall lead directly to the assumption of a common pattern in the case of the three or four butterflies from New Guinea? I confess that I am quite unable to do so. If the climate, or the soil, or any other geographical. condition in New Guinea is capable of directly inducing so remarkable a combination of colour. as we see in these Pierines and Nymphalines, why does it not affect other organisms in a similar way? Why do not other Pierines, for instance, closely related to ornytion and abnormis, share in the same coloration? And considering the characteristic aspect of the underside, which is sup- posed to be called into being by some unexplained con- dition peculiar to New Guinea, we may well ask, Why should its most conspicuous features belong in the one case to the forewing and in the other to the hindwing, and vice versa, the general effect being the same? Fruhstorfer, we may note, does not feel these diffi- culties. ‘‘Many Pierids,’’ he says, ‘present typical examples of that resemblance to other butterflies which has been named mimicry. The origin of this resem- blance, however, is now explained by the supposition that the mimics were modified by the same (as yet unknown) influences under which the colouring of the models, mostly Danaids, developed.’”’ I think it will be generally agreed that this reference to “unknown influences ’’ is no explanation at all. It is necessary to take into account the fact that the resemblances of which we are speaking are independent of structural differences, being, in fact, merely super- ficial. This is a point which is capable of much wider demonstration than I am giving it to-day. But even from the instances now before us | think there cannot — be much difficulty in coming to the conclusion that the resemblances are an appeal to vision. meant to be seen, though by whom and for what purpose may: be open to question. Speculations as to recognition and sexual attraction may, I think, in these cases be put out of court; but there remains the theory of warning colours assumed in reference to the attacks of vertebrate enemies. From the fact that the most striking and most conspicuous of these common aposemes or danger-signals belong to the under surface—that is to say, the part chiefly exposed to view during rest—it may be inferred that the enemies to be guarded against are mainly those that attack butterflies, not on the wing, but when settled in repose. Both birds and monkeys are known to feed on butter- flies, and there is a good deal of evidence as to their preference for one kind of food over another. I will not stop to give details, but anyone who wishes to study the evidence may be referred especially to the memoirs of Dr. G. A. K. Marshall, Mr. C. F. M. Swvnnerton, and Capt. G. D. H. Carpenter. If the warning-colour interpretation of these resem- blances be the true one, we see at once why they are so largely independent of structure and affinity. Being meant to catch the eye, they ride rough-shod, so to speak, over inconspicuous features, such as venation; nor do they respect more than the nature of things [OcToBER G, 1919 ~ They are z _ OcToBER 9, 1919] NATURE 125 _ obliges them to do the ties of blood-relationship. Then, again, it is obvious why they occur in the same and not in widely different localities; in some instances, as _ we have seen, their bearers actually flying in company and frequenting the same flowers; for the common aspect, supposing it to be in any sense protective, would only take effect when the sharers in it were _ exposed to the attacks of the same body of enemies; _ that is to say, when they inhabited the same locality. _ And this would be equally true, whether the warning colours are shared between distasteful forms, or _ whether they are deceptively adopted by forms unpro- tected by inedibility ; whether, in Prof. Poulton’s terms, they are synaposematic or pseudaposematic. I do not _ enlarge upon this part of the question, or upon the _ theories which are known under the names of Bates and Miiller respectively, because these theories have been fully dealt with elsewhere, and I think I may assume that they are familiar to the greater part of _my hearers. But that mistaken ideas as to what is really meant by protection and mimicry still prevail in _ some quarters, is evident from certain remarks of Fruhstorfer in dealing with the genus Prioneris which we have just been discussing. ‘‘ Wallace,’’ he says, “regards the ‘rarer’ Prioneris as a mimetic form of the ‘commoner’ Delias.. But I cannot accept his _ view, since mimicry among the in all respects harmless Pierids appears no sort of protection, and, properly speaking, the smooth-margined Delias should rather copy the armed Prioneris if there is assumed to be _ mimicry at all.”” If anyone has no better knowledge _ than this of what is meant by the theory of mimicry, it is not wonderful that he should consider the subject unworthy of serious attention. The warning-colour theory, then, resemblances and of the geographical factor in their occurrence. But it obviously involves the reality of _ natural selection; and it is here that some are dis- posed to part company with the upholders of the _ theory. I have already referred to the fact that much _ positive evidence now exists both that butterflies are _ eaten and that preferences on the part of their enemies _ exist between one kind and another. I will only _ remark in passing that the objector on this score _ sometimes adopts an attitude which is scarcely _ reasonable, and, perhaps, on that very account is somewhat hard to combat. The kind of objector that _ I mean begins by saying that the destruction of _ butterflies by birds and other enemies is not sufficient to give play for the operation of selection. You beg his pardon, and produce evidence of considerable _ butterfly destruction. To which he replies, ‘Oh, they are eaten, are they? I thought you said they were protected.’ This is a good dilemma, but the dilemma 1s notoriously an unconvincing form of argument. If » a reply be called for, it may be given like this: _ ‘Butterflies are either preyed upon or they are not. -If they are, an opening is given for selection; if _ they are not, it shows the existence of some form of protection.’’ The essence of the matter is that both the likes and dislikes of insectivorous animals, and the means of protection enjoyed by their prey, _ are not absolute, but relative. A bird that will reject _ an insect in some circumstances will capture it in some others; it will, for instance, avoid _ insect A if it can get insect B, but will feed on A _ if nothing else is to be had; and it is probable that _ scarcely any insect is entirely proof against the attack - of every kind of enemy. The relative nature of pro- _ tection is readily admitted when the question is not _ one of mimicry or of warning colours, but of pro- _ tective resemblance to inanimate objects. All degrees NO. 2606, VOL. 104] v ives a rational explanation both of the superficial character of the’ of disguise, from the rudimentary to the almost per- fect, are employed; the lower degrees are allowed to be of some service, and, on the other hand, a dis- guise that is almost completely deceptive may at times be penetrated. This consideration applies also to the objection that the first beginnings of mimetic assimilation can have no sélective value. If the rough resemblance to an inanimate object affords some amount of protection, though that amount may be relatively small, why should not the same apply to the first suggestion on the part of a mimic of an approach to the aposeme or warning colour of its model? The position that neither kind of assimila- tion is of service is intelligible, though not common; but there is no reason why benefit should be affirmed in the one case and denied in the other. There are further considerations which tend to deprive this latter criticism of force; the fact, for instance, that a resemblance to one form may serve as a stepping- stone for a likeness to another; or, again, the exist- ence of clusters, as they may be called, of forms varying in affinity, but embodying a transition by easy stages from one extreme to another. In a case of this sort the objection that may be felt as to two terms in the series arbitrarily or accidentally picked out is seen to be groundless when the whole assemblage is taken together. Much attention has lately been given to the fact that of individual variations some are transmissible by heredity and some are.not; under the latter head- ing would generally fall somatic modifications directiv induced upon the individual by conditions of environ- ment. Whether any other kind of variation belongs to the same category need not for the present pur- pose come into discussion. But with regard to the -undoubtedly transmissible variations, or mutations if we like to call them so, there is, I think, a fairly general consensus of opinion that thev need not neces- sarily be large in amount. A complete gradation, in fact, appears to exist between a departure from type so slight as to be scarcely noticeable, and one so striking as to rank as a sport or a monstrosity. And we know now that where the Mendelian relation exists between two forms, no amount of inter- breeding will abolish either type; intermediates, when formed, are not permanent, and if one type is to prevail over the other, it must be by means of selec- tion, either natural or artificial. In view of all these considerations, I venture to think that there is no reason to dispute the influence of natural selection in the production of these remark- able resemblances. Other interpretations. may no’ doubt be given, but they involve the ignoring of some one or more of the facts. It may fairly be claimed’ that the theories of Wallace, Bates, and Miiller, depending as they do on a basis of both observation and experiment, come nearer to accounting for the facts than any other explanation yet offered. It will, of course, always be possible to deny that any ex- planation jis attainable. or to assert that we ought to: be satisfied with the facts as we find them without attempting to unravel their causes. But such an attitude of mind is not scientific, and if carried into other matters would tend to deprive the study of Nature of what, to most of us, is its principal charm. It is quite true that before the validity of any generalisation is accepted’ as finally and absolutely established, every cpportunitv should be taken of deductive verification. This has been fully recog- nised by the supporters of the theory of mimicry, and much has been done to test in this manner the various conclusions on which the theory rests... The verification is not complete, and perhavs never will 136 | NATURE [OcToBER 9, 1919 be, but every successive step increases the probability of its truth; and probability, as Bishop Butler taught, is the guide of life. Meantime it is, one may say, the positive duty of everyone who has the opportunity, to fill up, so far as is in his power, the aps that still exist in the chain of evidence. Here is an especially promising field for naturalists resident in tropical regions. Before concluding this address there are two points on which I should like to lay some special emphasis. One is the undesirability—I had almost said folly— of undervaluing any source of information or any particular department of study which does not come within the personal purview of the critic or com- mentator. “‘T hold,’ says Quiller-Couch, ‘there is no surer sign of intellectual ifl-breeding than to speak, even to feel, slightingly of any knowledge oneself does not happen to possess.” This is a temptation to which many of us are liable; and falls, I fear, are frequent. It was a matter of sincere regret to me to find one of my most valued scientific friends speaking publicly of the Odes of Horace as a subject comparatively devoid of interest. I can only confess my utter inability to sympathise with my friend’s point of view. If he had merely said, ‘‘ Excellent as those works may be, I have other things to do than to attend to them,’’ I could approve; but that is a different matter. The failing that I speak of is, unfortunately, by no means unknown among scientific men, and is perhaps rather specially prevalent when such subjects as those of my present address are in question. I can recall a very eminent man of science, no longer living, speaking with scarcely veiled scorn of ‘those who occupied themselves with “ butterflies in cases.’’ This was in a presidential address to a section of this association. If so little respect is paid by a leader of science to work done in another part of the field, it is perhaps not to be wondered at that one of his Majesty’s judges should speak of the formation of a great collection of butterflies—a most valuable asset for bionomic research—as_ the “gratification of an infantile taste.’’ This or that collector may be an unscicntific person, but it would be easy to show that the study of insects in general, and .of butterflies in particular, is one of the most efficient of the instruments in our hands for arriving at a solution of fundamental problems in biology. My second and final point is this: 1) have not hesitated to affirm my conviction of the importance in evolution of the Darwinian doctrine of natural selection. This necessarily carries with it a belief in the existence and general prevalence of adaptation. I am willing to admit that at times too much exuber- ance may have been shown in the pursuit of what Aubrey Moore called ‘‘the new teleology.” ‘‘Men of science,’’ it has been said, ‘like young colts in a fresh pasture, are apt to be exhilarated on being _ turned into a new field of inquiry; to go off at a hand-gallop, in total disregard of hedges and ditches, to lose sight of the real limitation of their inquiries, and to forget the extreme. imperfection of what is really known.’’? This is not the utterance of some cold outside critic, but of a great exponent of scientific method—nco other than Huxley himself. It may be true of some of the wilder speculations of Huxley’s date. I am by no means sure that there is not truth in it as applied to some of the developments of a later time. But however wide of the mark our sug- gested explanations and hypotheses may be, the net result of all our inquiries, after the gradual pruning away of excrescences and superfluities, will be a real advance into the realms of the unknown. We may feel perfectly assured that the objections so far brought against our own interpretations are null and NO, 2606, VoL. 104] void, but we may yet have to give way in the light of further knowledge. ‘*Let us not smile too soon at the pranks of Puck among the critics; it is more prudent to move apart and feel gently whether that sleek nose with fair large ears may not have been slipped upon our own shoulders.” * UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL INTELLIGENCE, Bristot.—Under the will of the late Dr. Joseph Wiglesworth, whose interest in bird life is widely known, his ornithological library passes by bequest to the University. This library of more than 1000 volumes, including finely-bound copies of the works of Gould, Seebohm, Dresser, Lilford, Levaillant, and other leading authorities, is probably one of the best in the kingdom. It will be housed in a separate room in the. new University buildings, and will be kept up to date. Dr. Wiglesworth gave the residue of his estate to the University after his widow’s death for the furnishing and maintenance of this special library. The advan- tage to a university of facilities for prosecuting specific lines of research can scarcely be overestimated. Situate, as is Bristol, in a district rich in birds, it is to be hoped that the studies to which Dr. Wiglesworth devoted so large a portion of the little leisure obtain- able in a busy and fruitful life will be stimulated by a bequest which will serve to keep his own work in remembrance. ae ‘ CaMBRIDGE.—Dr. A. E. Shipley, Master of Christ’s College, has resigned the office of Vice-Chancellor and been succeeded by Dr. Peter Giles, Master of — Emmanuel. During his period of office Dr. Shipley — devoted himself consistently to progressive measures, _ and was most active in furthering schemes of scientific importance. He has had two years of very strenuous work under abnormal conditions, and members of ihe University are grateful to him for the devoted atten. tion he has given to all matters affecting their best interests. ; GLascow.—During the summer an unusually large number of university lecturers have been promoted to professorial chairs at Glasgow and elsewhere. Prof, Henderson, formerly assistant, and lately professor, at the affiliated Royal Technical College, has been appointed to the Regius chair of chemistry in the University; Dr. T. S. Patterson, Waltonian lecturer, to the Gardiner chair of organic chemistry; Dr. E. P. Cathcart, formerly Grieve lecturer, to the Gardiner chair of physiological chemistry; Dr. C. Browning, formerly lecturer in clinical pathology, to the Gardiner chair of bacteriology; and two other lecturers in the arts faculty have also been promoted to chairs in the University. ; The Queen’s University of Belfast has elected Dr. A. W. Stewart, lecturer in physical chemistry at Glas-- gow, to its chair of chemistry, and Dr. T. Walmsley, lecturer in embryology at Glasgow, to its chair of. anatomy. Dundee University College (St. Andrews) has appointed’ Dr. F. J. Charteris, lecturer in pharmacy at Glasgow, to its chair of materia medica, and Dr. J. F. Gemmill, research fellow and formerly lecturer in embryology at Glasgow, to its chair of natural history. Dr. Shaw Dunn, lecturer in clinical pathology at Glasgow, has been appointed professor of pathology in the University of Birmingham. Dr. W. E. Agar, lecturer in zoology and heredity at Glas- gow, has been appointed professor of biology in the University of Melbourne. Dr. Leonard Findlay, Gow lecturer in medical diseases of children, has also been 1 Dowden. OcrToBER 9, 1919] NATURE 127 appointed Director of Child Welfare to the Inter- _ national Red Cross organisation at Geneva. Three - lecturers in the departments of economics, history, and modern languages have received professorial ap- pointments in other universities. Lonpon.—A course of lectures on “A General _ Survey of the Globe and its Atmosphere,’’ with prac- tical work, will be given at the Meteorological Office, _ South Kensington, by Sir Napier Shaw, reader in - meteorology in the University, on Fridays at 3 p.m. during. the second term, beginning on January 23 next. ‘The informal meetings at the Meteorological Office for the discussion of important contributions to current meteorology in Colonial or foreign journals will be resumed at 5 p.m. on Monday, November 3, 191g, and will be continued on alternate Mondays until March 22, 1920, with the exception of Decem- ber 29. Students wishing to attend should com- municate with the Reader at the Meteorological Office. The lectures are addressed to advanced students of the University and to others interested. in the subject. Admission is free by ticket, obtainable on application at the Meteorological Office. The academic teaching of military science as a subject of curricula for degrees of the University is to be resumed in the session now opening. Some years before the war military science was introduced as an optional subject for the Intermediate and Final Courses for the B.A. and B.Sc. degrees. The sylla- buses have recently been revised by the Senate in the light of experience gained during the war, and it is expected that, in view of the large number of students who have gained practical military experience during the war, the subject will attract an increased number of students. The subject can be studied in the Uni- versity both as a branch of general education and, in the case of candidates for University commissions in the Regular Army, as a preparation for their profes- sion. Both classes of student will be able to obtain practical military training in the University Contingent of ‘the Officers Training Corps. The post-war condi- tions under which commissions in the Regular Army may be obtained. by University candidates have not yet been published. SHEFFIELD.—Prof. J. O. Arnold, who recently resigned his position as professor of metallurgy and dean of the faculty of metallurgy in the University of Sheffield, has been in failing health for some time, and, much to the regret of the University authorities, he has found himself unable to continue his work. Prof. Arnold was appointed in 1889 professor of metal- lurgy in succession to the late Prof. W. H. Green- wood at the technical department of the Firth Col- lege, which afterwards became a constituent part of University College, Sheffield, and later of the Uni- versity of Sheffield. The applied science department of the University has kept pace with the applications of science to the steel industry, and taken a pro- minent part not only in the supply of trained men to these industries, but also in producing in rapid succes- sion a number of valued contributions to the science of metallurgy. Prof. Arnold himself has been an active contributor for many years of valuable papers and researches carried out in the laboratories of his department. In 1912 he was elected a fellow cf the Royal Society, and in 1916 a member of the council of the Iron and Steel Institute. He lectured before the British Association during its visit to South Africa in 1905, and he became the first dean of the faculty _ of metallurgy recently established in the University. His colleagues and friends wish him renewed health and vigour, which they trust may come to him now that he has allowed himself to relinquish some NO. 2606, VOL. 104] of the strenuous duties which he has performed so successfully for many years. Dr. Epwarp Hinpie, Kingsley lecturer and Bye fellow of Magdalene College, Cambridge, and assis- tant to the Quick professor of biology, has been elected to the chair of biology in the School of Medicine, Cairo, Egypt. Dr. R. H. A. Primer, reader in physiological chemistry, University College, London, has been ap- pointed as head of the biochemical department of Craibstone Animal Nutrition Research Institute, which is under the direction of Aberdeen University and the North of Scotland College of Agriculture, Mr. J. R. Taytor has been appointed to the newly-created post of director of humanistic studies in the Huddersfield Technical College. Mr. Taylor is a graduate of the University of Edinburgh, and for several years past has occupied the position of lecturer to University tutorial classes under the University of Leeds. News has just reached us of munificent bequests made to educational institutions in the Commonwealth of Australia by the late Sir Samuel McCaughey. Bequests made to the Sydney University, the Bris- bane University, soldiers and their dependents, and the Presbyterian Church in New South Wales and Queensland are proportions of the residue of the estate, and the amounts are, therefore, contingent upon the sum realised by the estate. The estimated value of the estate is 1,750,000l., and it is believed that, after certain legacies, amounting to about 230,000l., and. the other specific bequests are provided for, the residue of the estate will amount to 1,394,000l. Among the. specific and the residuary bequests based on this estimate for educational, religious, and charit- able purposes, the following are mentioned in the Sydney Morning Herald:—Sydney University, 465,0001.; Brisbane University, 232,000l.; Scots Col- lege, Sydney, 20,0001.; Sydney Grammar_ School, 10,0001. ; North Sydney Church of England Grammar School, 10,o00l.; Cranbrook Church of England Grammar School, 10,00ol.. ; Newington College, 10,0001. ; and King’s School, Parramatta, 10,0001. The university bequests are unconditional. The gift to the University of Queensland (Brisbane) will enable that institution to do what it has always wanted to do, and never had the chance of doing :. become a university, and more than’ a place for imparting a certain amount of (chiefly) technical instruction. The political world is rather a troubled one, and the type of Labour Party in power has not taken much interest in higher educa- tion. So the University has been cramped for funds, and unable to get much past its initial stage. With the gift to Sydney it is hoped that in a few years’ time this institution will be a far bigger force for good than it now is. State education policy has brought secon- dary education to the people, with the natural result that the University is thronged, and that the build- ings have been taxed to the limit of their capacity, the staff, especially on the scientific side, being far too heavily burdened. Now there is a prospect of an end to that condition of affairs, and, as the State will doubtless add to the buildings, the new revenues can go to strengthen the staff and bring in a number of leading men. A great increase in the graduate travelling scholarships is also desired, so that more of the best men of the University mav spend some years in England and elsewhere. It is hoped that Cambridge will soon allow a Sydney B.Sc. to enter for the Tripos without making him pass the Little-go. \ 128 NATURE [OcTOBER 9, 1919 SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES. Paris. Academy of Sciences, September 15.—M. Léon Guignard in the chair.—E. Goursat: Remarks on a problem of vectorial geometry.—H. Le Chatelier and B. Bogitch: Refractory properties of aluminous materials. In spite of the high melting point of alumina, it has proved in practice to be an unsatis- factory refractory material. Measurements of the resistance to crushing at varying temperatures of alumina bricks, made up in different ways, are given, and it is shown that all become plastic at tempera- tures between 1200° C. and 1500° C. This explains their failure in steel furnaces, where the temperature exceeds 1600° C. In special types of laboratory fur- nace, where the material is not required to bear pressure, alumina can be used with advantage, and details are given of the method of building such a furnace capable of sustaining a temperature of 1600° C.—H. Le Chatelier: The development of scientific research in the United States.—A. Foch: Concerning the period of water-mains with a unique characteristic, furnished with an _ air-chamber.—L. Picart and F. Courty: Observations of the Metcalf and Borrelly comets made at’the Bordeaux Observatory (38-cm. equatorial). Details of observations made on August 23 (Metcalf), August 31, and September 1 and 4 (Borrelly).—L. Picart and F. Courty: Further observations on these two comets. Measurements are given for September 5, 9, 10, and 11.—H. Vander- linden: Elements of the comet 1919¢ (Borrelly).—L. Guillet, J. Durand, and J. Galibourg : Contribution to the study of the tempering of certain aluminium alloys. The alloys studied were of the duralumin type, containing about 3-7 per cént. of copver, 0-6 per cent. of manganese, 0:25 per cent. of zinc, and 0-43 per cent. of magnesium. The breaking ‘strain, elastic limit, and hardness all increase with the time after tempering, a remarkable property shown by this alloy alone.. The hardness was measured at varying inter- vals of time after tempering at temperatures of 300° C., 400° C., 450° C., and 500° C., and the transformation point found to lie between 400°C. and 450° C. The increase of hardness with time was only shown when the tempering temperature was above 4oo° C.—A. Carpentier: The fructifications of Sphenobteris herbacea.—L. Daniel: The stability and heredity of the Cratzegomespilus and the Pirocvdonia.—V. Galippe : The resistance of living intra-cellular agents to the action of certain chemical substances. . The microzvmas of tissues are not destoyed by glycerol, alcohol, chloroform. or by lavse of time.—M Herlant: New researches on the inhibiting action exercised by the sperm-of the mollusc on the fecunda- tion of the egg of the sea-urchin. BOOKS RECEIVED. Cattle and the Future of Beef-Production in Eng- land. By K. J. J. Mackenzie. Pp. xi+168. (Cam- bridge: At the University Press.) 7s. 6d. net. Unexplored New Guinea. By W. N. Beaver. Pp. 320. 25s. net. Spitsbersen. By (London: Seeley, Service, and Co., Ltd.) Dr. R. N. Rudmose Brown. Pp. 319. (London: Seeley, Service, and Co., Ltd.) 25s. net. Modern Engineering Workshop Practice. By H. Thompson. Pp. xi+328. (London: C. Griffin and. Co., Ltd.) 9s. net. Catalysis in Theorv and Practice. By Dr. E. K. Rideal and Prof. H. S. Taylor. Pp. xv+496. (London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd.) 17s. net. NO. 2606, VOL. 104] Submarines and Sea Power. By C. Domville-Fife- Pp. viiit250. (London: G. Bell and Sons, Ltd.y tos. 6d. net. An Introduction to General Physiology, with Prac- tical Exercises. By. Prof. W. M. Bayliss. Pp. xv+ 238. (London: Longmans and Co.) 7s. 6d. net. Text-book on Wireless Telegraphy. By Prof. R.. Stanley. New edition in 2 vols. Vol. i. Pp. xiii+ 471. Vol. ii. Pp. ix+357. (London: Longmans and Co.) 15s. net each vol. : A Practical Handbook of British Birds. Pp. 209-272+3 plates. (London : September 26, 1919.) 45. net. Part 4. Witherby and Co., DIARY OF SOCIETIES. © TUESDAY, Ocroper 14. — Royat ANTHROPOLOGICAL INSTITUTE, at 8 15.—Lieut. E. W. Pearson Chinnery : Initiation Ceremonies of the Mambare and Kumusi Divisions, British New Guinea. THURSDAY, Ocroser 16. , Tue InstiTuTION oF MininG AND METALLURGY, at 5.30.—C. M. Harris > Prospecting for Gold and Other Ores in Western Australia.—F. Danvers Power: Coral Island Phosphates in the Making. g. OpricaL Society, at 7.30.—J. W. French: The Unaided Eye, If.— Chas. W. Gamble: Projection Screens. : TUESDAY, Ocrorer 21. ZooLocIcaL SoctETyY, at 5.30.—E. G. Boulenger: Report on Research i Society's Experiments on Methods of Rat !estruction at the Gardens.—Dr. A. Smith Woodward. Prof. F. Wood Jones, = Be es, Prof, J.P. . Hill, Prof. A. Keith, Mr. R. I. Pocock, Prof. G. Elliot Smith, and Others : Discussion on the Zoological Position and Affinities of Tarsius. ’ CONTENTS. _ PAGE Mathematical Text-books. By Dr. S. Brodetsky . 109 Vagueness and Discrimination. By H. W. C. . 110 Iron and Steel Production in Great Britain during the War’ yess its) Saree. ote «cla ae ies are Our Bookshelf: ). 0.0.5.5. s oo. , pia Are tS Letters to the Editor:— Temperature in the Sea.—A, Mallock, F.R.S. . . 113 Percussion Figures in Isotropic Solids. (IIlustrated.) —Prof. C. V. Raman . Il The Rigidity of the Earth.—Dr. A. A. Michelson » and Henry G. Gale Ae INS : eee oes & The ‘‘ Flying Gallop” in Art.—Dr. B. Laufer . . 114 Museums, Education, and the Board . ran eC ae 62 The Coalfields of Spitsbergen. By R.N.R.B... 115 Notes .... oc ka ee ee es ae yee iver aed OF Our Astronomical Column :— Comet 39106 ee ois ie eke Sai = eae er meron! L A Faint Nova Re ate kien y/o" ae Reet Hindu Spherical Astronomy . .. 1... .4.+6. 119 Stellar Clustersi6) od yo Je nauey TED The Aurora of October 1 . 1 ee rn a The Sudan Irrigation Works, By Dr. Brysson Cunningham . Se OS SS ee Colliery Bosler-Plants . © 2 1 1s - 120 The British Association at Bournemouth :— Section D—Zoology—Opening Address by Dr. F, A. Dixey, M.A., F.R.S., President of the Section sit A Mee University and Educational Intelligence. ... 126 Societies and Academies ...... Pre ye .: Books Received i000. 3 On a ee Popeye Didry of Societies is ee Pancras 5 3:5 (INDEX. ) Editorial and Publishing Offices: MACMILLAN AND CO.,, Ltp., ST. MARTIN’S STREET, LONDON, W.C.2. ae Advertisements and business letters to be addressed to the Publishers. Ta oe Editorial] Communications to the Editor. Telegraplic Address: Puusis, LONDON. Telephone Number: Grrrarp 8830. ye ee es es NATURE 12g THURSDAY, OCTOBER 16, 1919. THE BANTU LANGUAGES. A Comparative Study of the Bantu and Semi- Bantu Languages. Sir Harry H. Johnston. Pp. xi+815. (Oxford: At the Clarendon Press, 1919.) Price 3 guineas net. = Wigs comparatively small number of people in % this country who care in the slightest degree _ about the Bantu languages must long have been - aware that this volume was in preparation, and have regretted scarcely less keenly than the author himself the innumerable difficulties which have conspired to keep it from the public. It is to be hoped that the obstacles to the production of the second volume will speedily disappear, as without it a right estimate of the whole work is impos- ‘sible. It is to contain “an analysis and com- _ parison of the phonology and word-roots, and a _ comparative examination of the syntax of the _ Bantu and semi-Bantu languages,” and until these _ are available we shall be compelled to suspend our _ judgment on many important points. _ Even a cursory survey of the first volume, how- - ever, fills one with astonishment (when one re- members the author’s multifarious activities in _ other directions) at the amount of patient labour involved in the compilation and arrangement of the 274 vocabularies and the tabulation of prefixes and concords following each group. The three preliminary chapters likewise represent an amount of research out of all proportion to their length, and should be studied by all who wish to become acquainted with Bantu comparative grammar; while even those who want to acquire only some particular Bantu language will find _ their horizons enlarged and their grammatical 4 path smoothed. That these pages contain some - highly controversial—and_ controverted—proposi- - tions does not lessen their value. Bantu studies _ advance, as did the scholastic learning (no further ' parallel is intended) by means of continual disputa- _ tions. _ Perhaps the most important of such questions ‘concerns the difference between the prefixes and pronouns, which, though in some cases identical, in others diverge so considerably (e.g. m- and yu- or a-, omu- and gu-) as to make the term “alliterative concord” largely a misnomer. Con- nected with this is the phenomenon of the initial - vowel, or article, which Sir Harry Johnston pre- _ fers to call the “preprefix.” This, he thinks, has _ given rise to the pronoun, therein agreeing with _ Meinhof, but—so far as we can make out—with this difference: Meinhof holds that the prefixes, _ probably excepting the tenth, consisted of one syl- lable only—mu-, mi-, li-, ma-, etc. To these was er cixed a demonstrative particle of the hypo- thetical form ya, which, through vowel-assimila- tion and modification or dropping of the conso- nant, produced in time such forms as gumu-, — Rumu-, umu-, gimi-, imi-, gama-, ama-, etc. (In - some cases the consonant, as well as the vowel, NO. 2607, VOL. 104 | ag tei Some. on Bs: ‘and pitch require some notice. was assimilated, giving such forms as baba-ndu, bibi-ndu, etc.) This “article,” or “preprefix,” became the pronoun prefixed to the verb. Sir Harry Johnston’s view seems to differ from the above in assuming that the original prefix con- sisted of two syllables, of which the first after- wards became the subject-pronoun, while the second supplied the object—thus explaining the difference between these in the cases where it exists. But, taking into consideration such a sentence as this, from his Encyclopedia Britan- nica article, “It is possible that some of these prefixes resulted from the combination of a demonstrative pronoun with a prefix indicating quality or number,” it is really difficult to distin- guish his explanation from Meinhof’s. We must leave to phonetic experts the dis- cussion of the passages with which their science is more immediately concerned—viz. pp. 36-41 and 44; they will probably dissent from some of the author’s statements. Even the lay mind is inclined to doubt whether u in “but” is the short sound of a in “father”; whether the German “ich-Laut ” is ‘almost English sh”; and whether the Polish velar 1 ( ) can properly be described as dental. By the “indeterminate labial” (p. 39), bi- labial f and its corresponding voiced sounds are probably meant—and these can scarcely be said to result from “indecision on the part of the individual speaker or the tribe as fo the utterance of b or w.” Or are we to suppose that the whole Spanish nation halts between two opinions as to the v in huevo and that in viejo? But Sir Harry Johnston has seemed to us, of late, to exaggerate his revolt against pedantry into a too indiscrimin- ate contempt for recent developments of phonetic science, and to fall back on “individual vagaries ” or carelessness of pronunciation, somewhat as Socrates accused Anaxagoras of falling back on the vois. At the same time, he credits “certain German philologists’”’ with the theory “that we should attribute to the old Bantu some degree of vagueness in consonantal utterance.” It is difficult to discover this theory in Meinhof’s simple statement that primitive Bantu probably had three stops, all voiceless (k, t, p), and three fricatives, all voiced, y, 1, v. All analogy makes it probable that y, for instance (which still-exists in Sham- bala, where other languages have g, j, dz, , or y), should be ‘“‘the parent of the modern g”’ and some other sounds, but what vagueness of utter- ance is implied here, more than in any other sound-shifting that could be mentioned? (Mein- hof, by the by, nowhere claims y, or in Sir Harry’s notation x, as “the parent of k,” though he gives an example of the reverse relation.) The paragraphs on p. 41 dealing with stress Leaving aside the somewhat confused terminology (“accent or pitch of the voice’’), we think the statement that the penultimate stress is the “prevailing rule in Bantu ” requires some qualification. In Yao and Luganda the accent is on the stem-syllable, not shifting forward when terminations are added (e.g. wdangula, not wangtila). The same seems H 130 NATURE [OcToBER 16, 1919 to be the case in Konde and Sango. Again, it is not quite accurate to say that “the use of the high and low tones of the voices for purposes of etymological distinction is not common in Bantu, and is only observable (perhaps) in the Becuana group, and most markedly in the Pafiwe lan- ~ guages of the north-west Bantu area.” Tones are exceedingly important in Shambala, as Arch- deacon Woodward discovered, once they had been pointed out to him; also probably in Konde and Sango; and they certainly exist (no doubt to a greater degree than has yet been observed) in Zulu and Nyanja, to name no others. The summary, “History of Research into the Bantu Languages,” given in chap. i., is exceed- ingly valuable, and the generous appreciation of work done by predecessors and contemporaries renders it very pleasant reading. OUR LEGACY OF HOPE. The Century of Hope. A Sketch of Western Progress from 1815 to the Great War. By F. S. Marvin. Pp. vi+352. (Oxford: At the Clarendon Press, 1919.) Price 6s. net. HIS is a historical sketch of the last hundred years, distinctive in its insight and grip and .in the place it gives to the development of science and its reactions. The new birth of humanity at the Revolution brought with it a legacy which has been especially expressed in the growth of know- ledge and in the growth of freedom. These have had manifold social reactions, as in the political revival of 1815-30, with its increased realisation of the principles of freedom in both domestic and foreign affairs; the socialistic agitation which led on the Revolution of 1848; the practical applica- tions of science, from railways and the telegraph onwards; the diffusion of biological and evolu- tionist ideas; the demand for schools for all; the increased liberation of religious activity; and the adoption of social reform as a primary objective of government. These are some of the subjects with which Mr. Marvin deals in his vivid and con- vincing book, and he leads us in conclusion to the international progress which is promised, he thinks, even in the decade of the greatest of wars. “Tf the war was the greatest, so also was the world-alliance for humanity and international law which brought it to a victorious conclusion. So also, we believe, will the world-union be the greatest, and most permanent, which will arise from the devastated earth and the saddened but determined spirits who are now facing the future with a new sense of hope, which enshrines our sorrows and has overcome our most oppressive fears.’”’ Belief in the desirability and practicability of any development is certainly a factor making for its realisation, and ‘“‘The Century of Hope”’ shows that this faith is reasonable. The fine chapter on mechanical science and invention enforces many useful lessons. ‘The sciences have, broadly speaking, become applicable to useful ends in proportion to the degree in which they have become exact.” “Practical appli- NO. 2607, VOL. 104] cations of science haye become more and more abundant in proportion to the mutual aid of the sciences among themselves.’’ The steam-engine “was the fruit of abstract thought applied to practice, and, in its turn, paid back its debt to science by leading to the greatest and most fruitful generalisation which had yet. been reached. This was the principle of the conservation of energy, arrived at in 1848.” “Society has become, in all these countries where industry has been organised and developed by science, a far more united and stable thing than it was before, or than it is in other regions less advanced in this respect.” These sentences illustrate the insight and grip that mark the book. In a few pages Mr. Marvin sketches the development of the evolution-idea from Goethe and Lamarck to Darwin, “The organism in all its parts and with all its instincts was for the first time seen fully as an historical being.” “No other part of science, no other episode in the story which we have to trace, affected so powerfully as did the theory of evolu- tion the development of the historical spirit which we distinguished at starting as one of the charac-. teristics of the age. The body of a man is like every Social institution, history incarnate, and to Darwin more than to any other the world owes its overwhelming bent for the historical point of view, the desire to know the origins of things, the conviction that it is only by studying their. steps that we can.arrive at a true comprehension of their nature.” We cannot do more than refer to the lucid chapter on the new knowledge which centres around the discovery of radio-activity, and the inspiring discussion on social and international progress. The book begins and ends with emphasis on the truth that “not economic conditions ror geography nor the ambition of governments is the. primum mobile in human affairs, but the spirit of man itself seeking greater freedom and expan- sion.” ‘The spiritual forces are the supreme factors, both in building the individual soul and in giving a common soul to all humanity.” “In the history of science and its applications we have. the most perfect example of a growing human product in which the diverse races of mankind have all taken a proportionate share as they advanced in civilisation.” This is a book that everyone’ should read, for it shows that from the real world. — with all its “Hearts of Darkness” we may not unreasonably augur the rising of a Heart of Light. OUR BOOKSHELF. Australia: Problems and Prospects. By the Hon. Sir C. G. Wade, K.C. Pp. 111.. (Oxford: At the Clarendon Press, 1919.) Price 4s. net. Str CHARLES Wape, Agent-General for New | South Wales, was Premier of that State during three years especially eventful in the effort to establish State control of wages and industrial, unions. His pessimism as to the future of that policy and of the trend of government in this country may be due to the insuperable difficulties | pip) Ye v OcToBER 16, 1919] “NATURE 131) he then encountered. The book is based on a series of lectures on the resources and on the _ industrial and political problems of Australia. The author writes on political questions with expert _ knowledge. The chapter on the resources of Aus- tralia is less trustworthy ; thus it says that there is little evidence of a diminishing flow from the artesian wells, in spite of the conclusive evidence _ to the contrary on the maps of the Queensland _ Water Supply Department. The exaggerated ex- tations based on the artesian water near Lake yre are also based on incomplete information. _ The -chapter entitled ‘Industrial and Social Problems” is probably the most important; it, however, deals only with the attempt to settle some of them by legislation. The author represents the New Zealand attempt to regulate wages by a _ special law court as a complete failure. He commends the wages - boards of Victoria, but considers that system in- _ applicable where labour is aggressive. The _ attempt of New South Wales to enforce its labour laws by imprisonment or other penalties he regards as hopelessly impracticable. He shows, on the other hand, that the Australian system of land settlement has been remarkably successful, and the State expenditure on railways and public works a profitable investment. He predicts that the Constitution will be greatly modified in 1921, but does not expect that Australia will accept - unification. The book is a very valuable, up-to-date sum- mary of the trend of industrial legislation in Aus- tralia, though the war has so disturbed its develop- ment that the conditions now are abnormal. A weighty preface by Sir Charles Lucas refers to the difficulties in the British and Australian compre- _ hension of each other’s points of view, and wel- _ comes the book as helpful to that fuller knowledge _and closer sympathy which are indispensable for ~ permanent Imperial union. ~ Resources and Industries of the United States. ' By Prof. E. F, Fisher. Pp. ix+246. (Boston Ginn and Co., Price and London: Be . 3S. od. net. Pror. Fisuer’s book is illuminating in that it presents the United States to the reader in such guise as to emphasise the greatness of the _ progress and the healthiness of the growth of the - country. It is addressed to American secondary- _ school pupils, but merits a much wider public; it is knit together by a doctrine which is new to _ geography books—the doctrine that human energies should be conserved. The pupils are stimulated to visualise not only the resources and industries, but also the means whereby these may _ be conserved and made of most use to the com- - munity. For example, the United States, which _ produces two-thirds of the world’s petroleum, uses more than it produces because it wastes half the oil that comes from the earth by allowing it to run ) waste or to evaporate in open storage tanks. etroleum is needlessly used to drive engines over 32,000 miles of railroad where electricity could be ‘utilised. The pictures and maps are effective. NO. 2607, VOL. 104] 1919.) LETTERS TO THE EDITOR. [The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manuscripts intended for this or any other part of Nature. No notice is taken of anonymous communications.] Colloid and Saline in Shock and Gholera. THE two letters by Sir Leonard Rogers and Prof. Bayliss in Nature of September 25 are of interest and importance, not only to physiologists and physicians, but also to physical chemists. The two series of observations are not contradictory of each other, but complementary. : There exists in blood plasma and in all living cells a delicate labile balance between the salines or crystal- loids and the colloids. These two types of dissolved substances are not present in free condition, but in colloidal adsorption, the one with the other, forming a crystallo-colloidal complex. This delicate balance is upset in opposite directions in wound-shock and in cholera respectively, saline being in excess relatively to the colloid in the former, and colloid of toxic origin in excess in the latter. Hypertonic saline is efficacious in cholera because it replaces a defect, and combines with colloids of cells and with toxins which otherwise would combine with each other. In addition, it confers osmotic pres- sure on the poisonous toxins and hastens them out through the excretory cells. It is, indeed, because of this latter action that its concentration has become subnormal during the attack of cholera. A colloid like gum-acacia is of no service in cholera, but rather the reverse, because it is an additional claimant for the denuded salines. On the other hand, after haemorrhage, as in wound- shock, both colloid and crystalloid are at first diluted, but saline is more fully restored from tissues than the protein colloids. In such circumstances there is no colloid available to hold any hypertonic or isotonic saline which may be injected, and this saline is promptly ejected by the excretory mechanisms; so saline alone is not efficacious. But a colloid of such a type as protein, gelatine, or gum-acacia possesses too great a molecule (or solution aggregate) to be excreted until it is broken down by metabolism, and, in addition to not being able to go out, it anchors salines by passing into labile adsorption ‘with them, and so holds fluid in the vessels, raises pressure, assists the heart by giving fluid to fill it, and saves the cells from denudation of their crystalloids, which beyond a certain point always leads to change in col. loidal aggregation and death. It may be pointed out that such crystallo-colloidal adsorption is likewise the explanation of the important discovery of Ch. Richet, Brodin, and Saint-Girons at Paris that anaphylactic shock can be completely pre- vented by hypertonic saline. Here also lies the ex- planation for the prevention of hzmolysis by an active hemolysin in presence of hypertonic saline as shown some years ago by McCay and Sutherland. ‘ The saline locks up by adsorption the toxin or the immune body, and this can then no longer attack nerve-cells or blood corpuscles. Under physiological conditions it is this adsorption of saline by colloid which determines the concentration of saline in circulation and cells.. This regulation is one of the most ancient in evolution, far more so than regulation of bodv-temperature, for it holds sway from the teleostean fish to man. Whatever the concentra- tion of the fluid of the external medium in salines from pond-water to sea-water, the salinity of the intimate medium bathing the living cells is always 132 NATURE [OcToBER 16, 1919 regulated to. correspond with between 0-7 and og per cent. of sodium chloride. It is strange that the mechanism governing this vital regulation should not have been grasped before. The cells and circulating medium are saturated with col- loids, and this amount of 0-7-0-9 per cent. of saline is just the amount the colloids are capable of holding in crystallo-colloidal adsorption. Any more is at once filtered away; any less, and life ceases. There are many other applications in biology and medicine, but they cannot be treated within the compass of a letter. Benjamin Moore, 14 Frognal, Hampstead. ; The Audibility of Thunder. Ir has been. stated that thunder is not usually heard at a greater distance than about twelve miles. This may be.so during the day, but at night it can fre- quently be heard at a much greater distance from its point of origin.. Some years ago I timed an interval between flash and sound over the sea, and found it to be more than two minutes. During. the storm of September 5 last my. son, Lieut: F. O. Cave, and I timed an interval by a method of counting seconds . often adopted by photographers, with which ‘method we were both familiar; one of us made it 140 seconds, the other 141 seconds: The flash was a particularly bright one; we. had. previously heard fainter thunder corresponding. with less. bright. flashes, which were presumably a good deal further away. On.-the night of October 1-2 a thunderstorm passed up-Channel to. the. south. of this locality; .any rainfall _must have been’ beyond ‘the .Nab and. the..Warner lightships, as both lights: were plainly visible; their distances are. 17} and .16}.miles.respectively if thev are in their pre-war positions. With the help of an electric clock, -which moves. on: every ‘half-minute, supplemented: by..counting seconds, ‘I. made one time- interval 120 seconds and another 170 seconds; then with a stop-watch I timed an interval of 189 seconds. During the storm of October 1-2 the pheasants crowed much more loudly than usual, especially at the early rumbles of thunder, or else the audibility was exceptionally good; probably the latter was the case, as the night was very clear and the air in the valley from which the crowing came would have been colder than the air here, a condition which would probably be favourable for good audibility of sounds coming from the valley, though it would scarcely account for the audibility of the much more distant thunder. It may be worth noting that the false cirrus above the thunder-cloud was lit up by light reflected from the aurora which was extremely brilliant at the time. C. J. P. Cave. Ditcham Park, Petersfield, October 6. OPEN-AIR NATURAL HISTORY.! M R. is OVELL’S book is the outcome of years of patient study, and will be welcome to botanists, entomologists, and _ bee- keepers. It deals with the inter-relations of flowers and. insects, especially as regards pol- lination; it “treats of plants alive and in the midst of their home surroundings”; it justifies the iat (x) “‘ The Flower and the Bee: Plant Life and Pollination.” By John H. Lovell. Pp. xvii+286. (London: Constable and Co., Ltd., t919.) Price ros. 6d. net (2) “* Insect Artizans and Their Work.” By Edward Step. (Hutchinson’s Nature Library.) Pp. x+ 318. (London: Hutchinson and Co., n.d.) Price 78. 6d. net. @) “The Seashore : Its Inhabitants and How to Know Them.” By F. Robson. Pp. 111. (London: Holden and ‘Hardingham, Ltd., n.d.) Price 1s. 6d. net. NO. 2607, VOL. 104] author’s prefatory remark that “the identification of a species should be regarded merely as an intro- duction and the beginning of a friendship lo to be continued.” The book is written wi enthusiasm and popularly, but it is a scientific record of personal observations of great interest, and it includes some notes on modern theories. which should be carefully considered. It is illus- trated with conspicuously successful photographs, which have been taken on panchromatic plates to preserve in monochrome the proper colour values. Beginning with a short historical sketch, in which tribute is paid.to Sprengel, Hermann Miller, and Darwin, the author discusses wind-pollinated flowers, the réle of hive-bees especially in relation to blue flowers, the humble-bee’s favourite flowers which are mostly irregular in shape, the short-cuts’ taken to the nectaries, the crab- spiders which lurk in flowers and pounce on the — insect-visitors, the ‘“‘oligotropic” bees that rarely visit more than one kind of flower, the predomin- antly reddish butterfly-flowers like pinks and some Composite, the work of nocturnal moths in rela- tion to flowers like evening. primrose and honey- suckle, the fly-flowers like Linnaea borealis which is visited by the dance-fly (Empis rufescens), and those with nauseous odours like the carrion-flower and the skunk-cabbage, the usually injurious visits of beetles, flowers. like wild roses, mulleins, and poppies which are visited for pollen, not nectar. Mr. Lovell discusses the experimental evidence -of the value of having conspicuous flowers and of colour-discrimination on the part of bees. In regard to the latter, however, the -discussion is inadequate, for no experiments are conclusive that do not distinguish between colour as such and differences in intensity of illumination. A very interesting general chapter deals with the colours of flowers. Of the 4020 flowering plants in north- eastern America, the greens, whites, and yellows number 3001, while the reds, purples, and blues amount to only 1o19. The latter are, on the whole, of more recent origin, and have evolved from the others, the selective agency of insects playing its part. In conclusion, the author dis- cusses the value of bees in connection with fruit- growing, and notably in securing cross-fertilisa- tion, the importance of which is very strongly emphasised. The author has written a fine book on a fine subject, and his treatment should stimulate further study. We wish that he had been able to devote a special chapter to theoretical considerations, for, though he believes in the transmission of acquired characters, in the efficacy of insects as selective agents, in orthogenesis carrying plants beyond the limits of the advantageous, and in the evolutionary importance of crossing, he says tantalisingly little on these subjects. From an observer of Mr. Lovell’s experience we should like to hear more. (2) Mr. Step has written a delightful book on the industries of insects, which he arranges under headings corresponding, with human occupations. He directs attention to the interesting fact that —— rr — ee ee ee OcTOBER 16, 1919] NATURE £33 many of the activities are very specific and very intricate, yet there can be no help from parental instruction. ‘In the vast majority of species the parent is dead long before the daughter comes to that stage of existence when the necessity for making provision for her progeny arises, so the knowledge has to pass by way of transmitted memory. Somewhere in the minute speck of proto- plasm constituting the egg of one of the solitary bees there is an infinitesimal particle of nerve Oe Me ERA pail Fic. 1.—Leaf-cutter Bee. : cells made from the cut portions of leaves. ‘matter which contains the secret of how to cut ' accurate circles and ovals of rose-leaf so that a number of them will overlap and curve into a ' perfect cylinder. During the greater part of its life the creature that hatches out from that egg will have no need of the secret, but the germ of it will go on developing, and when the insect has attained to the complete bee form there is the idea in the memory cells ready to instruct the nerves that govern the action of wings and legs and cutting jaws.” We have quoted this at _ length, for it expresses Mr. Step’s view of the - big riddle that lies behind his book. Unfor- _ tunately, we do not know how the secret is kept in the egg before there is any particle of nerve matter, or how the insects get the knowledge _ which forms the contents of the transmitted memory, or whether they really have an idea which instructs the nerves. But the author usually _ -chooses the wise path of keeping to the facts, and gives us a charming account of spinners and ‘weavers, miners and masons, carpenters and ‘wood-workers, upholsterers, wax-workers, paper- makers, tailors, horticulturists, sanitary officers, ‘musicians, burglars, and lamp-bearers. The book as fresh and competent, and the _ illustrations NO, 2607, VOL. 104] (two of which are here reproduced) deserve high praise, both the photographs by the author and the drawings by Mr. Carreras. (3) Mr. Robson’s little book attempts the im- possible, and does not succeed. The space is, indeed, inadequate for an interesting account of — the inhabitants of the seashore, but it might have been used more skilfully; the illustrations are not very happy; there are several inaccuracies in the brief text; and there are far too many mis- The left photo shows the bee at work. The right photo is a section of an old post and shows the thimble-shaped From “* {Insect Artizans and their Work.” prints. Several excellent inexpensive guides to the seashore, as much within children’s compass as this book is, are readily available. - THE RECONSTRUCTION OF THE FISHING INDUSTRY. Pe November of last year the National Sea Fisheries Protection Association made _ pro- posals for a unification of fishery administration, and it embodied these in a ‘‘ Memorandum” (which was referred to in NATURE of November 28, 1918, p. 248). The memorandum was submitted to Mr. Prothero, who doubtless acquainted the Cabinet with its provisions, but that was all that happened. Eight months afterwards the Govern- ment introduced a Bill for the establishment of a Standing Fishery Advisory Committee, and for the removal of the statutory limitation of the salary of the President of the Board of Agricul- ture and Fisheries ! The 1918 memorandum recommended the crea- tion of a United Kingdom Ministry of Fisheries, but its authors found that they were “up against ” the opposition of the Scottish industry. So when a special joint committee of the association pre- 134 ; NATURE [OcToBER 16, 1919 pared a scheme for fishery research, statistics, education, and propaganda they took care to avoid this and other obstacles. They recognised that the only logical way of co-ordinating all British ‘agencies for fishery development was by the setting-up of an Imperial authority; but they also recognised that this ideal was unattainable. Some other statutory body for the co-ordination of research and education would have been agreed upon by the various sections of the British in- _dustry, but the committee then found that the fishery Departments were ‘‘unlikely to acquiesce in the formation of any central authority other than a Ministry of Fisheries, to be superimposed upon them from without.” In the face of this formidable opposition the committee had to do the “next best,” and, abandoning any really compre- hensive way of making use, to the greatest advan- tage, of all fishery workers, they have made a compromise that may bé practicable. In order that as few people as possible may object, they do not recommend the formation of anything in the way of a ‘“Super-Department.” Assuming that the existing fishery authorities are to be properly financed and organised as permanent secretariats, and that each of them will then pro- ceed to set up a scientific branch with a director of scientific work, they propose that the three permanent secretaries shall then sit as a joint re- -search board, with such official and non-official assessors as they may nominate. The hope (un- coloured by conviction) is then expressed that the assessors may form the means of communication between the officials, the industry, and the non- official investigators. The joint research board, so constituted, is not to be, in general, an executive body controlling research. Obviously not, for agreement could not be obtained on points of difference between officials, and departmental privilege would be too great a factor. It is to deliberate on schemes of research and transmit plans and estimates pre- pared by the departments. But it is recommended that it shall control the collection of fishery statis- tics, set up a joint editorial board which will pub- lish all results—administrative, statistical, and scientific—in uniform style and with promptitude, and establish and carry on (through an editorial staff) a Fisheries Journal which will be, in the main, popular in character. A strong plea is made for some reform in the manner of publication, for speedy production, for some relief from the exceeding dulness and clumsiness of governmental Blue Books, and for a “break away” from the methods of H.M. Stationery Office. Considering the things to be investigated, the Committee recognise five categories of research, and set these out in detail: (1) Practical adminis- trative problems to be studied by the departmental staffs; (2) fish culture; (3) industrial research; (4) speculative research; and (5) oceanography. Fish culture is obviously work for the depart- ments, and, since the fishing industry does not seem likely to undertake industrial research itself, NO. 2607, VOL. 104] this must be done by the Government. Speculative research—a very large category of investigations —ought to be relegated to the universities and marine biological stations, with some other subjects included in the category of industrial research and in that of oceanography. Since the departments must possess and equip sea-going vessels for their practical administrative investiga- tions, it is obvious that they should also carry out the oceanographic observations at sea, but the working up of these should be done by the unofficial State-aided institutions. And so, — it is hoped, everybody will be satisfied, and the — best use possible made of all the talents. A’ provisional scheme for fishery education, training, and propaganda is appended. This in- cludes the training of administrative and scientific officers, and of men occupying responsible indus- trial posts, by the provision of Government fellowships tenable as post-graduate studentships at the universities; fishery colleges at Liverpool and Aberdeen; fishermen’s classes carried on locally and a scheme of fishery apprenticeship. The latter proposals are most interesting. Imme- diately upon the outbreak of war hundreds of vessels and thousands of men were placed at the disposal of the Admiralty, and, without any special training, the duties of mine-sweeping, patrolling, and escorting were ca:ried out in such a way as to earn loud expressions of admiration and gratitude. There were exceptional losses due to war risks and natural decrease; the training of lads largely ceased during the period of war; the old system of apprenticeship has become obsolete and, in view of naval defence and in the interest of the industry itself, a better class of lad is now desirable. The interesting suggestion is made that a number of the trawl-vessels built during the war by the Admiralty be detailed and equipped as training-vessels, and a scheme of apprentice- ship is recommended. This scheme was worked out in detail by the industry as soon as it was seen that peace was. assured. It is an integral part of any attempt at fishery reconstruction and naval defence. It was. submitted to the Government nearly a year ago, and it has been “‘under consideration ” ever since then! Meanwhile the Admiralty trawlers are being offered for sale. SumMARy oF Matin RECOMMENDATIONS. (1) That the Government be requested to provide funds for a comprehensive scheme of research statistics for the fisheries of the United Kingdom on: the lines set forth in this report. : (2) That each Fishery Department be provided with a suitable scientific staff under a scientific director with well-equipped laboratories, and with sufficient steamers for research work and for the exploration of our fishing grounds. : (3) That the Fishery Departments be requested to- adopt the best means they can devise for securing the uniformity of fishery statistics, and the co-ordination of research work throughout the United Kingdom. (4) That the Fishery Departments make suitable provision for the rublication of scientific reports whiclr _ OcTOBER 16, 1919] NATURE B50! are of importance to the industry, and in particular for the publication monthly of a fishery journal con- taining all information in regard to scientific results, statistics, statutes, orders, foreign intelligence, com- mercial information, and all other information likely to be of benefit to those carrying on the industry. (5) That the Fishery Departments and the Educa- tion Departments of the three kingdoms be requested to co-operate in providing a scheme of education on the general lines laid down in the report. NOTES. Tue British Association, as an outcome of the com- prehensive review of scientific work during the war, which formed a conspicuous part of the programme .of the recent meeting in Bournemouth, has addressed the following resolution to the Prime Minister and the Treasury :—‘‘ The British Association for the Advance- ment of Science, in reviewing the results of scientific method applied to military and other practical arts, recognises that the successful issue of the war has sprung from. the efforts of scientific men concentrated on those problems, and with the conviction that the well-being and security of the nation are dependent on the continuous study of such matters, would urge on H.M. Government the necessity for apportioning an adequate sum from that allocated to home administra- tion and the upkeep of the fighting forces for the purpose of a definitely organised scheme of research, as, for example, on problems connected with health, food, and commerce, on explosives, on chemical war- fare, and on physical and engineering problems bear- ing on military work.’’ Similar resolutions, in vary- ing terms according to the special cases, have been forwarded to the First Lord of the Admiralty, the Secretary for War, the President of the Board of Trade, and the Ministers of Health and Food. Tue appointment, as recently announced, of Prof. S. J. Chapman ‘to be joint Permanent Secretary of the Board of Trade, owing to the transfer of Sir William Marwood to the Ministry of Transport, will be welcomed by all who know him. Prof. Chapman, who had held the professorship of political economy at Owens College, Manchester, since 1901, acted during the war as head of the temporary Industrial (War Inquiries) Branch of the Board of Trade, and in 1918 was appointed head of a new General Economic Department created for the purpose of assisting the Permanent Secretary in relation to ques- tions involving economic policy. He is a fellow and member of council of the Royal Statistical Society, to the Journal of which, and to that of the Manchester Statistical Society, he has made numerous contribu- tions bearing mainly on the cotton industry of Lanca- shire. In the Times of October 11 is a letter from Prof. J. Johnstone on the subject of the extension of terri- torial waters in relation to deep-sea fishing. It is pointed out that the information at present available is not sufficient to enable satisfactory regulations to be drafted, and that, therefore, administrative authorities should not be given legislative powers which they cannot exercise properly. Prof. Johnstone also states that scientific investigation of our sea fisheries has never been properly organised and supported, and is in a worse condition now than it ever was. We agree with him that fishery investigations in this country have been quite inadequate, and we hope in the near future to see the establishment of an organisation for the comprehensive scientific study of the sea, so important for a great maritime nation, on a scale proportionate to the magnitude of our interests. NO. 2607, VOL. 104] CuaNnGEs in the Meteorological Office staff have recently been made, and the following appointments have been announced :—Mr. K. » Lemp-. fert becomes assistant director, and takes general oversight of observations and stations contributing observations to the Office. Mr. Lempfert entered the Meteorological Office in 1902, and has been superin- terdent of the Forecast Division since 1910. Lt.- Col. E. Gold becomes assistant director, in charge of forecasting. Col. Gold graduated as Third Wrangler in 1902, and was elected Fellow of St. John’s College, Cambridge, in 1906; he was Schuster reader in dyna- mical meteorology from 1907 to 1910, and he then be- came superintendent of statistics at the Meteorological Office. On the formation of the meteorological sec- tion of the Royal) Engineers in 1915 he was appointed to the command of the overseas contingent at G.H.Q., France. Capt. D. Brunt is made superintendent of the work for Army services. Capt. Brunt was in the meteorological section of the Royal Engineers during the war, and acted under Col. Gold. Mr. Carle Salter becomes superintendent on the staff of the Meteoro- logical Office for the British Rainfall Organisation. Mr. Salter has recently been assistant director of the British Rainfall Organisation, which has now come under the control of the Meteorological Office. In connection with the International Meteorological Committee, appointed by the International Conference at Innsbruck, 1905, a meeting of available members was held at the Meteorological Office, London, on July 3-9 last, and a copy of the minutes which have been printed has reached us. Since 1905 the com- mittee has met in Paris (1907), Berlin Bet and Rome (1913). The July meeting was of a semi-official character, and was really to prepare the way for the Paris meeting, which commenced on September 30. The president, Sir Napier Shaw, in his introductory statement directed attention to the changes caused by the great war, and especially to the new méteoro- logical organisations developed. It was felt that the extent and detail of international co-operation must be much greater in the future than it had been in the past, but the problems are essentially of the same nature as formerly. The great development of avia- tion has introduced new requirements in respect of in- formation concerning the upper air obtained by pilot- balloons or in other ways. The hours of observation for Europe were considered; rh., 7h., 13h., and 18h. have become general, but it has been suggested that preference might perhaps be given to 3h., gh., 15h., and 2th. Consideration was given to North Polar investigation in co-operation with Amundsen’s ex- pedition, and there was a proposal for the estab- lishment of a meteorological station in the Island of Jan Mayen for observations from the summer of 1920 to the autumn of 1922. Necessarily much attention was devoted to the coding of messages and to the method and nature of the observations. Tue Harveian Oration will be delivered at the Royal College of Physicians by Dr. Raymond Craw- furd on Saturday, October 18, at 4 p.m. We regret to record that “Engineering has suffered a severe loss in the death of Mr. B. Alfred Raworth, who had long been a member of the staff, and taken a prominent position in the editorial manage- ment during the past thirteen years. Mr. Raworth was a trained engineer, and had considerable experi- ‘ence prior to joining the staff of Engineering in 1882. He was a member of the Institution of Mechanica’ Engineers, of the Iron and Steel Institute, and of the Institute of Metals. : : 136 NATURE [OcToBER 16, 1919 Tue Engineer for October 16 records the death of Sir Charles Chadwyck-Healey, who had been inti- mately associated with our contemporary throughout the greater part of his life. Sir Charles was the only son of the founder of the Engineer, and was trained for the Bar, from which he retired after a successful career in 1893. During the war he performed a national service of great utility in fitting out at his own expense the hospital ship Queen Alexandra, and commanded her until she was discharged a few months ago. . WE regret to record the death, on October 5, of Mr. G. W. Palmer, who was appointed senior mathemati- cal master and master of the Royal Mathematical School at Christ’s Hospital in September, 1911. Edu- cated at Dover College and Trinity College, Cam- bridge, Mr. Palmer did valuable work as mathemati- cal master first at the Royal Naval School, Eltham, and afterwards at Clifton College, where he became head of the military side. An enthusiast in all matters educational, and a prominent member of the Mathe- matical Association, he kept in close touch with the best modern ideas on the treatment of his subject. Owing to his strong influence, more time was given to important principles and fresh ideas, while elaborate development in any one direction was avoided or post- poned. The result has been that Christ’s Hospital boys have shown increased interest in their mathemati- cal work and a high general level of achievement— and this, too, without affecting the standard attained by boys preparing for the universities. During a brief reign of eight years Mr. Palmer accomplished a notable and valuable work of lasting benefit to Christ’s Hospital. His death is a very severe loss to the school. Tue Society for the Prevention and Relief of Cancer has issued a pamphlet, ‘‘ Cancer Research and Vivisec- tion,’? summarising in tabular form the number of experiments returned by cancer institutes in the last fourteen years. The author holds that animal experi- ment in cancer is a futile waste of money, and ought to be stopped. Illustrations are reproduced showing infiltrative growth and metastasis-formation in experi- mental cancer, but the author suggests that experi- ment can throw no light on these conditions in the human subject. The aims of the society include the provision of hospitals for cancer patients, the statistical study of cancer, and legitimate (sic) experiment. No indication is given of what kind of experiments are contemplated, although needles and_ syringes for animal inoculation are figured in the book. Pamphlets have also been published on the use of violet-leaves and on the influence of tea-drinking. The society has been in existence for seven years, but its efforts seem to have had no effect on cancer mortality. Tue September—October issue of the Scottish Naturalist contains some extremely interesting notes by Mr. Donald Guthrie on the birds of South Uist. Among these, Mr. Guthrie remarks of the greylag goose that its wariness baffles description, yet goslings of this species which he hatched out from a ciutch of eggs placed under a hen proved as amenable to domestication as ordinary tame geese. In_ their second year two females of this brood bred near the house without the slightest sign of shyness. A third disappeared for several weeks, then returned with a - brood of goslings, and took up her place, accompanied by her family, with the fowls round the house. Her mate, who accompanied her, for a day or two held aloof, but on the third day took his place with the rest and stayed there. Having regard to the interest NO. 2607, VOL. 104] attached. to the oft-discussed theme as to the origin of our domesticated geese, this case is worthy of note. In Report No. 1 of the Industrial Fatigue Research Board Dr. H. M. Vernon describes ** The Influence of Hours of Work and of Ventilation on Output in Tin- plate Manufacture.’’ The tinplate industry is a very strenuous one, especially as concerns the millmen, for they are responsible for rolling out the red-hot tin- plate “‘bars ’’ into thin sheets of steel, which are after- wards tinned. The tinplate mills run continuously from Monday morning until Saturday afternoon, and, as a rule, the men work in eight-hour shifts. If © there is a breakdown of machinery or shortage of material, the men are often put on to six-hour shifts instead, and sometimes even on to: four-hour shifts, so as to give them all some employment. Conse- quently one is able to obtain trustworthy evidence as - to the effects of such shortened hours on output. Arguing from numerous statistical data collected at a number of tinplate works, Dr. Vernon found that when the men were transferred to six-hour shifts their hourly output went up about ro per cent., and when to four-hour shifts, it went up 115 per cent. This improvement is not so great as would be brought about by a thoroughly efficient system of ventilation, for it appeared that in works without artificial ventila- tion there was a marked seasonal: variation of output, and in the hottest weeks of the year the output was 11-18 per cent. smaller than in the coldest weeks. In the ventilated factories the seasonal variation was much less, but even in them there was plenty of room for improvement. The report is illustrated by photographic reproductions of the millmen under working conditions. One of the commonest and most disfiguring abnormalities of the modern mouth is a forward protrusion of the upper incisor teeth, with which is usually combined a retraction of the chin and a crowding of the lower incisor teeth. On this condi- tion Mr. D. M. Shaw, curator of the Prosthetic Laboratories, Royal Dental Hospital of London, has recently thrown quite a new light (Lancet, August 23). He has shown that a certain ‘perverted functional activity’ of the tongue will produce the series of anomalies which dentists have so often to correct in the mouths of modern children—forward protrusion and obliquity in the upper incisors, with retraction and uplift of the lower incisors. Mr. Shaw directs the attention of dentists to, the strength with which the tongue can be made to press against the anterior part of the roof of the mouth, particularly behind the upper incisors, thus exerting a much greater power to produce deformity than is used by dentists to cor- rect malposition of the teeth. Tongue-pressure of this nature is particularly common among children, especially when eating soft or pulpy food, being really a form of tongue mastication. This form of mastica- tion appeals to children because it yields a fuller sense of taste if the food is sweet or agreeable than the legitimate use of teeth and gums. The point which is quite new in Mr. Shaw’s demonstration is that during the palate-pressure action of the tongue the genio-glossus muscle exerts a retracting action on the chin region of the lower jaw. A USEFUL article on ‘‘The Climate of Liberia and its Effect on Man,’’ by Mr. Emory Ross, appears in the Geographical Review for June last. The passages © on ‘European life on the West Coast” in general, on ‘tropical hygiene,’’ and on ‘“‘the nervous strdin of the tropics’’ offer conclusive advice to those who may, in an idle moment, have thought of emigra- tion. By immense efforts acclimatisation of the white OcToBER 16, 1919] NATURE 137 man might be rendered possible, but at present his relation to the African West Coast ‘‘can be only one _of tolerance.”’ Tue manganese ores of the Shimoga and adjacent districts are interestingly described by Mr. B. Jayaram, _ Senior Geologist to the Department of Mines and Geology of Mysore (Records, vol. xvi., part 2, 1917). The author suggests that percolating waters have brought the manganese, and the iron with which it is always associated, from the silicates of the basic . chloritic schist series, and have deposited the ores as a replacement of the limestones and grits in which they are now found. The rocks termed limestone and grit are not true sediments, but secondary products of an igneous complex. * ATTENTION was directed to the magnesite deposits _ of Canada in Nature, vol. c., p. 490, 1918. Those _ of Bulong, north-east Coolgardie goldfield, are now _ described by the Geological Survey of Western Aus- tralia (Bulletin 82, 1919). The magnesite, which is _ in numerous veins a few inches wide, has arisen from _ the decomposition of a great band of serpentine, and it is suggested that augite as well as olivine has sup- plied the magnesium required for its formation. The ‘silica set free is probably responsible for the capping of “siliceous laterite, usually opaline in composition,”’ _ which is stated to occur in the magnesite areas. The value of the magnesite is estimated at 11. per ton cn _ the ground, the export value being nearly 4l. per ton. ‘One of the means by which supplies of potassium - compounds were eked out during the war period was _ the recovery of potassium salts from the flue-dust _ which occurs as a waste product in the manufacture of Portland cement. The principal methods employed _ depended upon treatment of the flue-gases by water- _ sprays or by a process of electrical precipitation. An account of the various installations devised for the purpose has been published by the Department of _ Mines, Ottawa (Bulletin No. 29, ‘‘ Potash Recovery at Cement Plants’’). It contains descriptions of the recovery systems developed at a number of cement factories in the United States, together with an his- torical review of the whole question and full references _ to the literature of the subject. ___ ATTENTION may be directed to a. useful series of - articles on the mechanical handling of chemical materials, by Mr. G. F. Zimmer, which have recently _ appeared in the Chemial Age (Nos. to to 15). It has - been remarked that chemical works in this country are _ rather poorly equipped with labour-saving machinery. In present circumstances, when the cost of manual ' labour has increased so greatly, it may be necessary - to pay more attention than formerly to devices which will reduce this cost. The articles in question will help to show how this may be done. They are illus- trated, and well worth consulting by chemists in _ charge of factories. Messrs. Lumitre anpD Sgyewetz have published in _ the British Journal of Photography (October 3, Colour _ Supplement) a simplified method for the development of autochrome plates. The developer is prepared of _ two degrees of concentration, so arranged that if the weaker is applied first to the plate, the time that is taken in producing the first outlines of the image (neglecting the sky) will be exactly the time that the stronger solution will require to complete develop- mient. Although a watch or clock may be used for | the timing, a simple sand-glass has many advantages. _ The sand is started running when the weaker solu- tion is applied, then on the first appearance of the image the glass is put on its side; the weaker solution is poured off and the stronger’ poured on, and the sand-glass put upright. When the sand has flowed NO, 2607, VOL. 104] i i | back again the development is complete. In the formula given the concentrations of the developers are as I to Io. Sir CHartes BricHt read a paper on ‘“Inter- Imperial Communication, through Cable, Wireless, and Air Methods,’’ before the Section of Economic Science and Statistics at the Bournemouth meeting of the British Association. He pointed out that it is conceivable that national and imperial interests can be adequately provided only by the State controlling at least one complete cable to all points of the British Empire, supplemented by an_all-British wireless chain. The recently established Telegraph Communi- cations Board, first urged by the author seventeen years ago, is intended for generally controlling and developing inter-imperial telegraphic and aerial com- munication in national and public interests. By this scheme all the Government departments concerned (strategic as well as civil) are represented by delegates, who meet~ periodically to discuss and settle all matters germane to the subject. This should do much towards improving the previously existing arrangements by which the Post Office alone represented the Government. Besides increased cable and wireless facilities being necessary and the war devastations made good, it is highly desirable that improved methods of message condensation should be introduced so as to get the best results from existing facilities. The field open to inter-imperial air com- munication is considerable; air organisation and air routes are amongst the important questions of the day, and it is suggested that all aerial mail communications should be rationed. AN important paper on the theory and use of radio- direction-finding apparatus by Capt. A. S. Blatterman, of the U.S. Army, appears in the Journal of the Franklin Institute for September. It is known that in radio stations it is sometimes possible to hear signals when the antenna is disconnected from the apparatus. Hence the passing waves induce sufficient electromotive forces in the coils of the receiver to produce audible signals. An investigation was there- fore carried out in.the U.S. radio laboratories in 1917 and 1918 to find out the most efficient shape of coil to receive signals directly. As the loudness of the signals varies with the position of the coil, an inves- tigation was’ also made of the most efficient shape of coil for direction-finding. Elementary theory would lead us to suppose that the coil would be more effec- tive the larger its cross-section and the greater its time-constant. It would also appear that the loudness of the signals is inversely proportional to the square of the wave-length. » This, however, is not the case. The experiments recorded in this paper prove that there is a certain size of coil which gives the best results for a given wave-length. This was traced to the fact that the resistance of the coil varies with the wave-length. For very long wave-lengths the resist- ance has its ordinary value. As the wave-length is shortened, and therefore as the frequency is increased, the resistance increases slowly until it is two or three times its ordinary value, and it then increases with great rapidity. This effect makes the reception bad at high frequencies. There is, therefore, a certain sized coil which produces the best effects. The results of the experiments described prove this conclusively. A thorough investigation is alsé given of the directional characteristics of this tvpe of receiver, and many curious properties depending on its height above the ground were discovered. Using a properly constructed coil in an ordinary room and a seven-stage amplifier, the signals issued by all the high-power European stations could easily be heard. 138 NATURE é [OcToBER 16, 1919 OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN. EpHEMERIS OF Comet 1919b.—Messrs. Braae ana Fischer Petersen give the following continuation of this ephemeris (for Greenwich midnight) in Ast. Nach., 5008: : R.A. Decl. Log x Log 4 anemia pty Osteen S185 '-29 8 55N. 9:6856 9-9440 AE eo) MER Agn 2O 5 10 BRE ac 82 Ter 30 1:36N.. 97225 00-0289 BOs: eee eee Ad 1 43 S. NOWsi52 5) ai! 7229318 447 S. 97962 00932 The comet is in perihelion October 16-9,so it should still be an interesting object, though its distance from the Earth has greatly increased. It is rather incon- veniently placed in the morning sky, but observations of position are much desired. Tue ALBepo or Saturn’s Rincs.—The Astro- physical Journal for July contains a paper on this subject by Mr. L. Bell. It is considered that the very high albedo of the brighter parts of the rings indicates that much of the matter forming them exists in the form of optical dust of dimensions comparable with a wave-length of light. Mr. Bell quotes the familiar fact that many substances appear of a lighter colour when powdered than when in large blocks. He gives 15 km. as the thickness of the main parts of the rings, slightly greater at the outside of ring B and the inside of ring A. He suggests that there are dust-clouds of exceedingly small density on each side of the ring-plane, to explain the nebulous patches seen when the ring is edgewise. He points out that light-pressure would come into play in the case of this fine dust, and help in its diffusion. It is supposed that there are some larger lumps in the main rings, and by a combination of dynamical and optical arguments he fixes their diameters as being of the order of 3 metres. Mr. Bell makes use of Prof. Barnard’s photographs, and also of those of Prof. Wood in monochromatic light. THe SELECTION OF SITES FOR ASTRONOMICAL OpsErvatTorigs.—The importance of studying atmo- _spheric conditions before choosing sites for observa- tories intended for work of a delicate character on the sun or planets is becoming increasingly recog- nised. Prof. W. H. Pickering gives some interesting details of the station established by the, Harvard Observatory at Mandeville, Jamaica, altitude 2000 ft. (Popular Astronomy, August-September). The air is of such extraordinary clearness that the star y Volantis, magnitude 3-7, is frequently visible to the naked eye, although its maximum altitude is 1° 40’. A photograph is reproduced, taken with a small stationary camera, which shows a very clear trail of 8B Carine, altitude 2° 40’. Prof. Pickering’s experience, contrary to the im- pression of many astronomers, is that the seeing is at its best when the air is heavily charged with moisture. It will be remembered that much work on Mars has been done at Mandeville in recent years. FORTHCOMING BOOKS OF SCIENCE. AGRICULTURE AND HORTICULTURE. Edward Arnold.—Gardens: Their Form and Design, Viscountess. Wolseley, illustrated. Cassell and Co., Ltd.—The Garden Month by Month, H. H. Thomas, illustrated; Garden Handbook for Begin- ners, H. H. Thomas, illustrated. Constable and Co., Ltd.—Forests, Woods, and Trees in Relation to Hygiene, Prof. A. Henry, illustrated.— Hodder and Stoughton.—Chemistry and Bacteriology . of Agricul- NO. 2607, VOL. 104] ture, E. J. Holmyard, illustrated (The New Teaching — Series of Practical Text-books). Hutchinson and Co, —Gardens of Celebrities and Celebrated Gardens, J. Macgregor, illustrated. Macmillan and Co., Ltd.— Science and Fruit Growing: Being an Account of the Results Obtained at the Woburn Experimental Fruit Farm since its Foundation in 1894, the Duke of Bed- ford and S. Pickering. John Murray.—Conifers and their Characteristics, C. C. Rogers. Oxford Univer- sity Press.—Efiects of the Great War upon Agricul- — ture in the United States and Great Britain, Prof. — B. H. Hibbard; United States Forest Policy, J. Ise. — ANTHROPOLOGY AND ARCHASOLOGY. ; W. E. Harrison (Ipswich).—Pre-Paleolithic Man, — J. Reid Moir. Hutchinson and Co.—The Ruined — Cities of Northern Africa, Dr. R. Sturzenbecker, illustrated. Macmillan and Co., Ltd.—An Introduc- — tion to Anthropology : A General Survey of the Early — History of the Human Race, Rev. E. O. James; The ~ Ila-Speaking Peoples of Northern Rhodesia, Rev. — E. W. Smith and the late Capt. A. M. Dale, 2 vols., illustrated; Among the Natives of the Loyalty Group, Mrs. E. Hadfield, illustrated. John Murray.—Travels — in Egypt and Mesopotamia in Search of Antiquitivs, 1886-1913, Dr. E. A. Wallis Budge, 2 vols., illus- — trated. Oxford University Press.—James Toil’s Annals and Antiquities of Rajasthan, edited with an introduction and notes by Dr. W. Crooke, 3 vols., illustrated. BIoLocy. A. and C. Black, Ltd.—Outlines of the History of — Botany, Prof. R. J. Harvey Gibson. Cassell and Co., Ltd.—Under-water Glimpses of Animal Life, — Dr. F. Ward, illustrated. Constable and Co., Lid.— The Sea Fisheries, Dr. J. T. Jenkins, illustrated. Hodder and Stoughton.—Applied Botany, G. S. M. — Ellis, illustrated (The New Teaching Series of Prac- tical Text-books); The Book of a Naturalist, W. H. Hudson; The Mason Wasps; The Sacred Beetle; The | Story Book of Birds and Beasts; and The Story Book — of Science, each by J. Henri Fabre, translated ly A. Teixeira de Mattos. Henry Holt and Co. ay E York).—The Development of the Chick, Prof. F. R. — Lillie, new edition. J. B. Lippincott Co.—In Mono- graphs on Experimental Biology and General Physio- — logy: The Nature of Animal Light, Prof. E. Newton — Harvey; The Chromosome Theory of Heredity, Prof. T. H. Morgan; Inbreeding and Outbreeding: Their : Genetic and Sociological Significance, E. M. East and — D. F. Jones; Pure Line Inheritance, Prof. H. S. Jennings; The Experimental Modification of the — Process of Inheritance, Prof. R. Pearl; Localisation — of Morphogenetic Substances in the Egg, Prof. E. G. Conklin; Tissue Culture, Prof. R. G. Harrison; — Permeability and Electrical Conductivity of Living Tissue, Prof. W. J. V. Osterhout; The Equilibrium between Acids and Bases in Organism and Environ- ment, Prof. L. J. Henderson; Chemical Basis of Growth, Prof. T. B. Robertson; and Co-ordination in Locomotion, A. R. Moore. Longmans and Co.— A. Naturalist’s Sketch Book, A. Thorburn, illus- trated. Methuen and Co.; Ltd.-—Iron Bacteria, D. Ellis, illustrated. Oxford University Press— Fungal Diseases of the Common Larch, W. E. Hiley, — illustrated. Bernard Quaritch, Ltd.--Essays in Early Ornithology, J. R. McClymont, illustrated. G. Rout- ledge and Sons, Ltd.—The Wonders of Insect Life, J. H. Crabtree, illustrated. S.P.C.K.—Joseph Dalton Hooker, Prof. F. O. Bower (Pioneers of Progress : Men of Science). Witherby and Co.—A Geographical Bibliography of British Ornithology, H. Kirke Swann, W. H. Mullens, and F. C. R. Jourdain; A Hand- a OcToBER 16, 1919] NATURE 139 book to the Vertebrate Fauna of North Wales, H. E. Forrest; The Birds of France, C. Ingram; A Prac- | _ tical Handbook of British Birds, in parts; Monograph | of the Pheasants, W. Beebe, vol. ii. CHEMISTRY. Bailliére, Tindall, and Cox.—In the Industrial ‘Chemistry Series: Explosives, E. de Barry Barnett; The Industrial Gases, Dr. H. C. Greenwood; Animal ‘Proteids, H. G. Bennett; The Carbohydrates, Dr. S. Rideal; Fats, Waxes, and Essential Oils, W. H. Simmons; Silica and the Silicates, J. A. Audley; The Rare Earths and Metals, Dr. E. K. Rideal; The Iron Industry, A. E. Pratt; The Steel Industry, A. E. Pratt ; Gas-Works Products, H. H. Gray; Organic Medicinal Chemicals, M. Barrowcliff and F. H. Carr; ‘The Petroleum Industry, D. A. Sutherland; Wood and ‘Cellulose, R. W. Sindall and.W. Bacon; Rubber, Resins, Paints and Varnishes, Dr. S..Rideal; and Economic Fuel Production in Chemical Industry, Dr. ‘H. S. Taylor. G. Bell and Sons, Ltd.—Notions fondamentales de chimie organique, Prof. Moureu, translated. J. and A. Churchill.—A_ Dictionary of Explosives, A. Marshall, and a new edition of Quali- tative Analysis and Practical Chemistry, adapted for. use in the Laboratories of Colleges and Schools, Dr. F. Clowes and J. B. Coleman. Constable and Co., Lid.—A_ Treatise of Electro-Chemistry, edited by B. Blount; Ozone: Its Properties and Uses, Dr. E. K. Rideal; The Profession of Chemistry, R. B. Pilcher; Problems in Physical Chemistry, E. B. R. Prideaux, new edition; Fuel, Water, and Gas Ana- lysis, J. B. C. Kershaw, new edition, illustrated. Hodder and Stoughton.—Chemistry from the In- dustrial Standpoint, P. C. L. Thorne (The New Teach- ing Series of Practical Text-books); A Foundation Course in Chemistry for Students of Agriculture and Technology, J. W. Dodgson and J. A. Murray. Henry Holt and Co, (New York).—College Text- book of Chemistry, Prof. W. A. Noyes; Labora- tory Exercises in Chemistry, C. E. Dull; Manual of Classroom Exercises in Chemistry, Profs. W. A. Noyes and B. S. Hopkins, new edition. J. B. Lip- pincott Co.—The Analysis of Minerals and Ores of the Rarer Elements, Dr. W..R. Schoeller and A. R. Powell. Crosby Lockwood and Son.—Animal and Vegetable Oils, Fats, and Waxes: Their Manufac- ture, Refining, and Analysis, Dr. G. Martin; Applied Chemistry for Technical Students, Dr. C. K. Tinkler and H. Masters; Practical Leather Chemistry, A. Harvey; Industrial and Manufacturing Chemistry, Dr. G, Martin and others, Organic, new edition, illustrated. Longmans and Co.—In Monographs on Industrial Chemistry: Synthetic Colouring Matters : Sulphur Dyes, Prof. G. T. Morgan; Synthetic Colour- ing Matters: Vat Colours, Prof. Jocelyn F. Thorpe; Naphthalene, Prof. W. P. Wynne; Synthetic Colour- ing Matters: Azo-Dyes, Dr. Francis W. Kav; Utilisa- tion of Atmospheric Nitrogen: Synthetical Production of Ammonia and Nitric Acid, Prof. A. W. Crossley ; Cement, B. Blount; The Principles and Practice. of Gas-purification, E. V. Evans; Refractories, Dr. J. W. Mellor; Ozone and Hydrogen Peroxide: Their Properties, Technical Production, and Applications, Dr. H. V. A. Briscoe; The Nickel Industry, W. G. Wagner; Cellulose-Silk, C. F. Cross; The Electric Arc in Chemical Industry, Dr. J. N. Pring; By- product Coking Practice, E. Bury; Organic Synthetic Reactions: Their Application to Chemical Industry, Prof. J. B. Cohen; Synthetic Colouring Matters: Triphenylmethane Dyes, Prof. R. Robinson; Syn- thetic Colouring Matters: Anthracene and Allied Dye- stuffs, F. W. Atack; Synthetic Colouring Matters: - Acridine and Xanthene Dyestuffs, Dr. J. T. Hewitt; NO, 2607, VOL. 104] Synthetic Colouring Matters : Azine and Oxazine Dye- stuffs, Dr. J. T. Hewitt; Synthetic Drugs: Local Anesthetics, Drs. W. H. Hurtley and M. A. Whiteley; Plantation Rubber, G. S. Whitby; Margarine and Butter Substitutes, W. Clayton; Lead and_ its Compounds, Dr. J. A. Smythe; and Corrosion and Decay of Metals, Prof. C. H. Desch. Macmillan and Co., Ltd.—Alcohol: Its Production, Properties, Chemistry, and Industrial Applications, with Chapters on Methyl] Alcohol, Fusel Oil, and Spirituous Beverages, C. Simmonds, illustrated. Methuen and Co., Ltd.— Everyday Chemistry, W. Robinson; Chemistry for Public Health Students, G. Jones. G. Routledge and Sons, Ltd.—Chemical Industries (Industrial Supremacy Books). Seeley, Service, and Co., Ltd.—Chemistry and its Mysteries, C. R. Gibson, illustrated. ENGINEERING. Edward Arnold.—Modern Roads, H. P. Boulnois. Benn Bros., Ltd.—Electric Switch and Controlling Gear, Dr. Garrard; The Electric Handling of Materials, H. H. Broughton, 4 vols., illustrated; The Design of Model Aeroplanes, F. J. Camm, illustrated. Cassell and Co., Ltd.—Electrical Engineering, H. M. Simmons, revised by A. H. Avery, in fourteen parts. J. and A. Churchill—The Mechanical Principles of the Aeroplane, Dr. S. Brodetsky. Constable and Co., Lid—Hot Bulb Oil Engines and Suit- able Vessels, W. Pollock, illustrated; The Internal Combustion Engine, H. E. Wimperis, new edition; Locomotive Valves and Valve Gears, J. H. Yoder and G. B. Wharen, illustrated; Handbook for the Care and Operation of Naval Machinery, Comdr. H. C. Dinger, new edition. Hodder and Stoughton.— Foundations of Engineering, W. H. Spikes (The New Teaching Series of Practical Text-books); Aerial Transport, G. H. Thomas; Applied Aero-Dynamics, G. P. Thompson, illustrated; Steam Engine Troubles, H. Hamkens; Model Making: Including Workshop Practice, Design, and Construction of Models, edited by R. F. Yates; Gasoline Engines: Their Operation, Use, and Care, A. H. Verrill; American Stationary Engineering, W. E. Crane; Automobile Welding with the Oxy-acetylene Flame, M. K. Dunham; Plain Answers to Direct Questions on Steam, Hot-water, Vapour, and Vacuum Heating Practice, A. G. King; Modern Machine Shop Construction Equipment, and Management, O. E. Perrigo. Crosby Lockwood and Son.—The Engineering Workshop Handbook,.E. J. Pull; Motor-Car Catechism, J. H. Knight, new edition; Streamline Kite Balloons: Design and Stability, with Useful Tables, Aeronautical and Mechanical Formula, Capt. P. H. Sumner; En- gineer’s Year Book for 1920: Comprising Formule, Rules, Tables, Data, and Memoranda, forming a Com- pendium of the Modern Practice of Civil, Mechanical, Electrical, Marine, Gas, and Mine Engineering, H.R. Kempe and others. Longmans and Co.—Ships’ Boats: Their Qualities, Construction, Equipment, and Launching Appliances, E. W. Blocksidge, illus- trated; Efficient Boiler Management: With Notes on the Operation of Steel Re-heating Furnaces, C. F. Wade; Principles and Practice of Electrical Testing, as Applied to Apparatus, Circuits, and Machines, R. G. Allen; Telephonic Transmission, Theoretical and Applied, J. G. Hill, illustrated; Applied Aero- Dynamics, L. Bairstow, illustrated; The Design of Screw Propellers, with Special Reference to their Adaptation for Aircraft, H. C. Watts. Methuen and Co., Ltd.—The Engineering Draughtsman, E. Rowarth. Sir Isaac Pitman and Sons, Ltd.—Gas and Oil Engine Operation, J. Okill;) Aeronautical Engineering, A. Klemin; and new editions. of Modern Illuminants, L. Gaster and J. S. Dow; Elec- 14¢ NATURE trical Engineers’ Pocket-Book; and Elementary Aero- nautics, A. P. Thurston. G. Routledge and Sons, Ltd.—Civil_ Engineering; Mechanical Engineering ; Electrical Engineering ; Chemical Engineering (Indus- trial Supremacy Books). University Tutorial Press, Ltd.—Alternating Current - Electrical Engineering, W. T. Maccall. John Wiley and Sons, Inc. (New York), and Chapman and Hall, Ltd,—Topographic Maps and Sketch Mapping, Prof. J. K. Finch; High- way Inspectors’ Handbook, P. Hubbard; Mechanical Drafting Manual, C. B. Howe; Engineering Educa- tion: Essays for English, selected and edited by Prof. R. P. Baker; and a new edition of Principles of Reinforced Concrete Construction, Dr. F. E. Turneaure and Prof. E. R. Maurer. The Wireless Press, Ltd.—Telephony without Wires, P. R. Coursey; Alternating Current Work, A. Shore. ‘ GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. George Bell and Sons, Ltd.—Elementary Geo- graphy, Prof. W. P. Milne and J. Milne. Hodder and Stoughton.—Geography of Commerce and Industry, R. S. Bridge (The New Teaching Series of Practical Text-books). Longmans and Co.— Wanderings and Memories, J. G. Millais, illustrated. Macmillan and Co., Ltd.—Through Deserts and Oases of Central Asia, Miss Ella Sykes and Brig.-Gen, Sir Percy Sykes, illustrated; England, edited by F. Muir- head (The Blue Guides); Highways and Byways in Northumbria, P. A. Graham, illustrated by Hugh Thomson (Highways and Byways Series); The Hand- book to Cyprus, H. C. Luke and D. J. Jardine, new edition. Methuen and Co., Ltd.—On Alpine Heights and British Crags, G. D. Abraham, illustrated. Uni- versity of London Press, Ltd.—The Teaching of Geo- graphy, Miss A. Booker (The Education of the Future Series). ; GEOLOGY, PHYSIOGRAPHY, AND MINERALOGY. . M. Dent and Sons, Ltd.—The British Coal Industry,G. Stone. Henry Holt and Co.(New York). —Physiography, Advanced Course, Prof. R. T. Salis- bury, new edition. T. Murby and Co.—An Introduc- tion to Paleontology, Dr. A. M. Davies; Petrographic Methods and Calculations, Dr. A. Holmes; A Nomenclature of Petrology, Dr. A. Holmes. John Murray.—Manganese Ores, A. H. Curtis; Tin Ores, G. M. Davies; Tungsten Ores, R. H. Rastall and W. H. Wilcockson. John Wiley and Sons, Inc. (New York), and Chapman and Hall, Ltd.—Prospecting for Oil and Gas, L. S. Panyity. MATHEMATICAL AND PuHysicaL SCIENCE. Cambridge University Press.—Infinitesimal Cal- culus, Prof. H. Lamb, new edition; Plane Trigono- metry for Secondary Schools, Dr. C. Davison. Constable and Co., Ltd.—Elementary Plane Trigono- metry, H. E. Piggott; Elementary Mathematics, I. and IJ., H. E. J. Curzon. Hodder and Stoughton.— Mathematics of Business and Commerce, O. H. Cocks and E. P. Glover; Everyday Mathematics, F. Sandon; The Mathematics of Engineering, S. B. Gates (The New Teaching Series of Practical Text-books). Longmans and Co.—Elements of Vector Algebra, Dr. L. Silberstein; Mensuration for Marine and Mechani- cal Engineers (Second and First Class Board of Trade Examinations), J. W. Angles; The Elements of Physics, Dr. R. A. Houstoun. Open Court Publishing Co.—History of the Theories of Limits and Fluxions from Newton to Woodhouse, Prof. F. Cajori (Open Court Classics). Seeley, Service, and Co., Ltd.—What is Electricitv?, C. R. Gibson, illustrated. S.P.C.K.— Herschel, Rev. H. Macpherson (Pioneers of Pro- gress: Men of Science). University Tutorial Press, NO. 2607, VOL. 104] [OcroBER 16, 1919 Lid.—Magnetism and _ Electricity, Intermediate, Bausor; School Geometry, Matriculation — edition, Workman and Cracknell; Second Course in Mathe- matics for Technical Students, Haler and Stuart; and a new edition of First Course in‘ Mathematics for Technical Students. John Wiley and Sons, Inc. (New York), and Chapman and Hall, Ltd.—A Kinetic Theory of Gases, Liquids, and Intermediate States of Matter, Dr. R. D. Kleeman. aga MezpIcat SCIENCE. 2 Edward Arnold.—A_ Physician in France, Maj.- Gen. Sir Wilmot Herringham. G. Bell and Sons, Ltd.—Card Test for Colour-Blindness, Dr. a F. W. Edridge-Green. Cassell ond Co., Ltd.— In the English Public Health Series: The Story of English Public Health, Sir Malcolm Morris; Housing and the Public Health, Dr. J. Robertson; Food and the Public Health, Dr. W. G. Savage; The Welfare of the Expectant Mother, Dr. Mary Scharlieb; Infant and Young Child Welfare, Dr. H. Scurfield; and The Welfare of the School Child, Dr. J. Cates. J. and A. Churchill—The Principles of Ana- tomy as seen in the Hand, Dr. F. Wood-Jones. Constable and Co., Lid.—Sir Victor Horsley: A Study of his Life and Work, S. Paget, illustrated ; The Great War and the R.A.M.C., Lt.-Col. F..B. Brereton; Altitude and Health, F. F. Roget; Physio- logy and the Nation’s Needs, edited by Prof. W. D. Halliburton. W. Heffer and Sons, Lid. (Cambridge). —Groundwork of Surgery for First Year Students, A. Cooke. W. Heinemann (Medical Books), Ltd.— The Medical Prevention of Venereal Disease, Sir Archdall Reid; The Clinical Aspect and Treatment of Venereal Disease, J. E. R. McDonagh, illustrated ; Diseases of the Throat, Nose, and Ear, Dr. D. McKenzie, illustrated; Home Exercises for Spinal — Curvature, R. T. Timberg, illustrated; X-ray Ob- servations for Foreign Bodies and their Localisation, Capt. H. C. Gage, illustrated; Anesthesia in Dental Surgery, Dr. T. D. Luke and J. S. Ross, new edition, illustrated. Longmans and Co.—The Feeding of Nations: A Study in Applied Physiology, Prof. E. H. Starling, being the Oliver-Sharpey Lectures given at the Royal College of Physicians, London, June, 1919; The Physiology of Muscular Exercise, Prof. F. A Bainbridge, illustrated; The Principles of Child Physiology, Pure and Applied, Dr. W. M. Feldman, illustrated. Macmillan and Co., Ltd.—Essays on the Surgery of the Temporal Bone, Sir Charles A. Bal- lance, with the assistance of Dr. C. D. Green, 2 vols., illustrated. Methuen and Co., Ltd.—A Text-book of Hygiene for Training Colleges, M. Avery, illustrated. Mills and Boon, Ltd.—The Problem of Nervous Breakdown, Dr. E. L. Ash. Oxford University Press.—Medical Science: Abstracts and Reviews, pub- lished for the Medical Research Committee (National Health Insurance); The Heart and the Aorta, Drs. Vaquez and Bordet, translated by Dr. Honeij; Patho- logy of War Gases, Dr. M. C. Winternitz (prepared under the direction of members of the Yale Labora- tories). METALLURGY. Constable and Co., Ltd.—Malleable Cast-Iron, S. J. Parsons, new edition. John Wiley and Sons, Inc. (New York), and Chapman and Hall, Ltd.—The Physical Chemistry of the Metals, Prof. R. Schenck, translated and annotated by R. S. Dean. METEOROLOGY. : Oxford University Press.—-Aristotelis Meteorologi- corum Libri Quattuor, Recensuit Indicem Verborum Addidit, F. H. Fobes. Witherby and Co.—Meteoro- logy for All, D, W. Horner. PE ae ig See me eT a Sea Ocroser 16, 1919] NATURE 141 MISCELLANEOUS. . Edward Arnold.—The Struggle in the Air, 1914-18, _ Major C. C. Turner, illustrated; Memories of the Months, Sir Herbert Maxwell, Bart., sixth series; _ In the Modern Educator’s Library—Education: Its _ Data and First Principles, Prof. T. Percy Nunn; _ Moral and Religious Education, Dr. Sophie Bryant. _ Blackie and Son, Ltd.—Science and Theology, F. W. Westaway; Scientific Method: Its Philosophy and its Practice, F. W. Westaway, new edition. “Cam- _ bridge University Press.—Accounts Rendered of Work Done and Things Seen, J. Y. Buchanan, illustrated; Short History of Education, Prof. J. W. Adamson. Cassell and Co., Ltd.—All about Aircraft of To-day, F. A. Talbot, illustrated; All about Treasures of the Earth, F. A. Talbot. Constable and Co., Ltd.—Dic- tionary of Scientific Instruments, illustrated; The Curriculum, K. Richmond; Montessori Experiments, Mary Blackburn, illustrated; An Introduction to Educational Sociology, Prof. W. R. Smith. Hodder and. Stoughton.—The Natural Wealth of Britain: Its Origin and Exploitation, S. J. Duly (The New Teach- ing Series of Practical Text-books). Longmans and Co.—The Manchester Grammar School, 1515-1915: A Regional Survey of the Advancement of Learning since the Reformation, Dr. A. A. Mumford, illus- trated; Human Personality and its Survival of Bodily Death, F. W. H. Myets, a new and abridged edition, with a portrait and biographical sketch of the author. G. Routledge and Sons, Ltd.—The Human Motor and the Scientific Foundations of Labour, Dr. J. Amar, illustrated ; Motion-Study for the Handicapped, F. B. Gilbreth, illustrated; Animal Foodstuffs: Their Pro- duction and Consumption, with Special Reference to the British Empire, E. W. Shanahan. Seeley, Ser- vice, and Co., Ltd.—The Wonders of Scientific Dis- covery, C. R. Gibson, illustrated. S.P.C.K.—Some Wonders of Matter, Right Rev. Dr. J. E. Mercer. PHILOSOPHY AND PsycHOLocy. Henry Holt and Co, (New York).—Army Mental Tests, C. S. Yoakum and R. M. Yerkes, illustrated. Macmillan and Co., Ltd.—The Idea of Progress: An Inquiry into its Origin and Growth, Prof. J. B. Bury; Implication and Linear Inference, Dr. B. Bosanquet ; Mind-Energy, Prof. H. Bergson, translated by Prof. H. Wildon Carr, in collaboration with the author; The Reign of Religion in Contemporary Philosophy, Prof. S. Radhakrishnan. G. Routledge and Sons, Ltd.—The Psychology of Special Abilities and Dis- abilities, A. F. Bronner. University of London Press, Ltd.—The Modern Philosophical Basis of Education, B. Branford; Psychology of the Class, F. Watts (The Education of the Future Series). ‘TECHNOLOGY. Cassell and Co., Ltd.—Small Lathes: Making and Using, illustrated; Model Aeroplanes, illustrated ; The Motor Mechanics’ Handbook, G. W. Watson and F. H. Rogers, new edition, illustrated. Constable and Co., Ltd.—Glass Manufacture, Dr. W. Rosenhain, new edition; Wood Pulp, C. F. Cross, E. J. Bevan, and R. W. Sindall, new edition. Hodder and Stoughton.—Popular Handbook for Cement and Concrete Users, M. H. Lewis and A. H. Chandler; Practical Dry Cleaner, Scourer, and Garment Dyer, W. T. Brannt; Perfumes and Cosmetics, C. W. Askinson. Crosby Lockwood and _ Son.—Electro- plating, Based on’ the late Alexander Watt’s Electro- metallurgy; Lockwood’s Builder’s Price Book. for | 1920, R. S. Ayling, illustrated; and a new edition of Mechanical Dentistry: A Practical Treatise on_ the Construction of the Various Kinds of Artificial Den- NO. 2607, VOL. 104] tures, comprising also useful Formulz, Tables, and Recipes for Gold Plate, Clasps, and Solders, C. Hunter. Sir Isaac Pitman and Sons, Ltd. —Asbestos, A. L. Summers; Zinc, T. E. Lones; and Cordage, T. Woodhouse and P.- Kilgour (Common Commodities and Industries Series). Scott, Greenwood, and Son.—A Treatise on Ceramic Indus- tries: A Complete Manual for Pottery, Tile, and Brick Manufacturers, E. Bourry, a revised transla- tion from the French, with some critical notes by A. B,. Searle, new edition. A THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION AT BOURNEMOUTH. SECTION E. GEOGRAPHY. OPENING AppREss By Pror. L. W. Lyng, M.A., PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION. The International Rivers of Europe. Tuts subject was chosen before the publication of - the Treaty of Peace, and was dictated by a wish to combine my geographical creed with the political conditions of an ‘“Americanised’? Europe. The Treaty embodies so many of the principles which I wished to emphasise that my treatment should perhaps now be rather historical than political. My geographical faith is in Outlook; the jargon of to-day is about Leagues of Nations. This is the day of nations and nationalities, and geographers must rejoice in the fact, because civilisation depends on a blend of varied influences—each an individual element, a genius loci—and the triumph of nationality must curb that tendency to a drab cosmopolitanism which would crush out all such variety. But these varied influences cannot blend into a progressive civilisation unless they have all possible facilities for friendly meeting; for instance, international rivers should not be, like international finance, anti-national, but really inter-national, ‘‘between nations,’? common to all nations, and encouraging the friendly meeting of diverse political elements and ideas. Liberty always makes for differentiation—in nations as in individuals; and if our. international intercourse becomes really ‘*free,’? the desired variety is guaranteed. That is why I should like to press the’truth that Outlook is, or ought to be, the motto of geography. It is so for many of us, and it ought to be for all. But the word covers both a process and an objective. The outlook is essentially over big Mother Earth; the process is visualisation—the picturing of forms and forces, places and peoples, beyond the horizon, all possible horizons being included in the one great unit of the globe. But the geographical interaction of the man and the place cannot be dissociated—least of all in political geography—from the historical inter- dependence of group and group. Both alike are con- cerned with progress. We want to know, therefore, the whole simple truth—what the particular features and phenomena mean as world-features and world- phenomena,’ not what’ special meaning can be read into them, or extracted from them, by some local and interested political unit. Geography is, first of all, the visualisation of the world and the relations of the various parts of that world. Now, the one predominant feature of the earth’s surface is not land, but water. Nearly all inter- national problems to-day have to do, explicitly or implicitly, with the ocean, i.e. with access to cheap water transport on the medium which covers three- quarters of the whole surface of the earth... Even the problem of Alsace-Lorraine, itself perhaps purely 142 NATURE [Ocroser 16, 1919 a land problem, conceals—especially from the Swiss point of view—a problem of access to the sea; and the problems of Poland, of Italy, of Jugo-Slavia, are obviously sea problems, or sea problems very slightly disguised. It is a truism that the ocean attracts rivers and their trade and their riverine population. Industry, commerce, even culture, have been starved and stunted in various parts of the world by lack of easy access to the sea. Even your League of Nations idea has more than once approximated to a substantial fact— round the Mediterranean and round the Baltic, facili- tated by inter-national or inter-racial rivers. The Hanseatic League was essentially based on the rela- tion of a number of more or less navigable rivers to an inland sea, and that was why it came to include such distant ‘inland’? members as Breslau and Cracow. Accessibility is row more than ever before a supreme factor in all cultural and economic develop- ment, and rivers are still the chief natural inter- mediaries between land and sea. The first real inter- national attempt to solve the problem of international rivers followed the victory of sea-power over the France of Napoleon ‘the Great; the second has fol- lowed the victory of sea-power over this would-be “Napoleon”? of Prussia. Now, I submit that to many of us the mere word “river? by itself suggests, at once and primarily, a physical unity—no doubt, with some variety of relief and climate—and that on this physical unity we are prepared to sanction some social and economic, and even political, unity. But directly you add the qualifying ‘‘international,’’ the suggestion changes; the adjective raises a picture not of local features, but of regional relations. In recent years Ihave pléaded for the use of rivers as political boundaries—on. the ground that they clearly separate lands without at all separating peoples except in time of war; we want to preserve the valuable variety of political and cultural units, but to draw the various units together, Our object is unity, not uniformity. The proposal has been objected to—even. by some who are not at heart hos- tile to the idea of fostering all possible aids to the easy, honourable, friendly intercourse of peoples—on the ground that rivers shift their courses. They do, and trouble has come of this in the past, political trouble as well as economic, The Missouri was a fertile source of inter-State squabbles. But no normal person would choose a mud-carrier, like the Missouri, as a political boundary unless there was marked differ- ence of racial type or nationality running approxi- mately along the line of the river. In fact, I would suggest that the troubles along the Upper Missouri were really due to the fact that the river was nowhere an inter-State boundary, and therefore each State claimed the right to monopolise it in the particular section. If it had been an inter-State boundary from the first, such a claim would have been obviously absurd. And it was the iniquity of the claim to monopoly that forced the United States, as similar conditions forced the Australian Commonwealth, to take over the control of the inter-State rivers. The principles behind the control are significant. Thus the Murrumbidgee is entirely within New South Wales, as the Goulburn is entirely within Victoria ; but the Murray is an inter-State river—in a double sense, acting as the boundary between New South Wales and Victoria, and emptying through South Australia. New South Wales has entire use of the Murrumbidgee, and Victoria of the Goulburn, but the whole volume of the Murray up to normal low-water level is left to South Australia. In Europe navigation is usually far more important than irrigation. Why NO, 2607, VOL. 104} should not Europe exercise similar control over the navigable rivers of Europe? For, geographically, great navigable rivers are essentially a continental feature, i.e. really a world feature, for all major continental features must be included in a. survey of world features, even if they are minor world features; and the world can recog- nise no right ofa political unit to regional monopx of the commercial advantages of such a feature to the disadvantage of other political units—least of all, others in the same region. As with the irrigation, when a river is obviously and entirely within an area where identity of culture and sentiment proclaims a natural or national unit, then that unit has a claim—_ even if it should prove impolitic to press it—to some monopoly of the facilities afforded by that river. But when the river runs through or between.two or more such natural or national units, i.e. is really inter- national, one of the units has no claim to any mono- poly against the other or others. ws a | It was reasonable that expanding Prussia should get to the mouth of the Elbe, and it was certain that Holstein had been both a fiéf of the Holy Roman Empire and in the German Confederation of 1813, and that succession in Holstein could not go in the female line. It was equally certain that Schleswig had never been in either the Holy Roman Empire cr the German Confederation, and that succession in Schleswig could go in the female line. The reason- able sequel in 1864 would have been for Prussia to purchase Holstein from Denmark, and share the facilities of the international river. One would not expect such a view to be tak a Prussian, but that was the actual principle laid down by France nearly one hundred years earlier. The famous Decree of November 16, 1792, a that :—‘‘No nation can, without injustice, claim the right to occupy exclusively a river-channel, and to prevent the riparian States from enjoying the same advantages. Such an attitude is a relic of feudal slavery, or at any rate an odious monopoly imposed by force.”? This was not mere talk. Tt was’ fol- lowed in 1793 by the complete freeing of the Scheldt and the Meuse to all riparians—France herself being — a riparian in each case, for the Scheldt was naturally navigable up to Valenciennes. Somewhat similar rights were extended in 1795 to all riparians on the | Rhine—France herself, of course, being again a riparian; and in 1797 the freedom was extended, so far as France was concerned, to the ships of foreign nations, though Holland was able to make the privi- lege valueless. i The original Decree had not pressed the precise question of internationality. But if the general prin- ciple holds—that a great navigable river cannot be monopolised by a single political unit against riparians, even if they are its subjects and of alien “race,” still more must it hold when the river in question is fully international, flowing through or between two or more States. Of course, the Rhine, Danube, and Vistula do both. a ‘As a matter of fact, in Europe this principle has been. generally accepted for the last century except | bv Holland. Prussia and Saxony agreed about the Elbe in 1815, and the agreement was extended to Austria, Hanover, and Denmark in 1821- Prussia, Hanover, and Bremen made a similar agreement about the Weser in 1823; and Spain and Portugal made similar agreements about the ‘Tagus and the Douro in 1829 and 1835. Holland, however, has a tarnished record. .-_ ; ‘op ee eae One has not an atom of sympathy with the arrogant German demand that “ small nations must not be allowed to interfere with the development of nee eae ee er apa aS a eee ae ' estuaries in the interest of Germany. OcToBER 16, 1919 | NATURE 143 ‘great nations, ‘least of all with that of the greatest _ of nations,’’ and that Holland, simply on the ground of her small size, should ke robbed of her three But neither _ has one an atom of sympathy with the Dutch habit of taking advantage of that small size to behave in a mean and unreasonable way on the assumption that no Power -except Germany would use force against such a little people. I would ike to illus- trate the position by an analysis of the problem on a canal, for one must include straits and canals with rivers. Their inclusion may involve some difficulty, but in the most serious case the difficulty is already largely solved. I refer to the Panama Canal during the second year of the war, when British shipping was exactly half as large again as U.S.A. shipping, amounting to very nearly 42 per cent. of the whole traffic. The total result of the war, however, has beena loss of more than 5,200,000 tons of British shipping, involving a reduction of 13-5 per cent. in our carrying ower at sea, while the U.S.A. tonnage has increased y nearly 6,730,000 tons, i.e. an increase of 382°1 per tee in the U.S.A. sea-going tonnage (June, 1919). bom fy Vhe case which I propose to analyse is that of the Terneuzen Canal, and | wish to press it with all possible emphasis, because it shows a typical case of quite natural—and, therefore, almost pardonable— human selfishness, and its supporters are guilty of an extraordinary blindness to their own mercantile advantage. ; Ghent is the second port in Belgium and the first industrial town in Flanders. In the days before the separation of the two countries it was connected with Terneuzen, i.e. ‘‘ open-sea ’’ navigation on the Scheldt, by a canal twenty miles long, of which rather more than half was in ‘‘ Belgian ’’ and rather less than half in ‘‘Dutch ” territory, the actual sea connection being, unfortunately, in the Dutch territory. At the time of the Franco-Prussian War the Bel- gians decided to enlarge the canal, but had to waste eight years in obtaining the consent of the Dutch to the undertaking. Even then the consent was given only on the condition that the Belgians should pay for all work done by the Dutch, give an annual grant of some 13,0001, for the upkeep of the new works, and grant Terneuzen reduction of rates on Belgian railways! Some twenty-five years later it became necessary again to enlarge the canal; ‘this was begun in 1895 on condition that Belgium again paid all the cost, that the Dutch had the right to close the locks “whenever they deemed it useful to safeguard Dutch interests,’? and that various other concessions were granted, e.g. about the Antwerp-Rozendaal railway ; and the complete agreement was signed in 1902. The total cost was 1}600,000l1., a large proportion being spent on the canal port at Terneuzen; but the con- trol is entirely in the hands of the Dutch; the Belgian part of the canal is both broader and deeper than the Dutch part, and the larger Belgian boats even now cannot reach Terneuzen! That is to say, after all the cost, the concessions, the delay, etc., the trade of Ghent is still hampered and may be cut off at any moment. Of course, the stupidity of the Dutch in thus crippling their own trade is unpardonable; but what about Belgium? Even then her boats have only reached the Scheldt—a river of little use to Holland, but vital to Belgium. ; ~The case is important, because the two nations have lived together in peace in spite of the serious _ ‘international servitude’? of Belgium, and because _ practically everything that Holland has done has been - quite legal. Dutch officials claim that ‘‘ Belgium has enjoyed absolute freedom of navigation ’’; that ‘‘ Bel- NO. 2607, VOL. 104] gium has in no way been made to feel that she had to use the waterway of a neighbour to get access to the sea’’; and that ‘‘ Holland has been perfectly right in asking Belgium to pay for improvements on a canal which admittedly (!) serves almost exclusively Belgian mterests.”” To a Belgian this is mere mockery. And I submit that, if Belgium has to pay almost the entire cost, she ought to have also almost the entire control; that the traffic is very profitable, the tonnage of Terneuzen being relatively larger than that of any other Dutch town, even Rotterdam; that part of the cost has been due to the canal having formed part of the Dutch polder system; and that, under international control, the total cost would have been met out of the profits on the traffic. Further, I submit that, although the waterway was originally not artificial at all, but a distributary of the Lys, navigation has not been free for Belgium. Facilities have been both denied and delayed. Denials have been rare; but the Dutch refused, in 1907, to forgo customs formalities on cargoes moving only and directly between Ghent and Antwerp, and they have refused to provide fog-signals or beacons at Ter- neuzen. Preposterous delays have been more or less normal. For instance, the request about the customs was made in January, 1906, and was refused in January, 1907; a request for permission to dredge a sandbank, made on November 11, was granted on the following September 17; and another made on July 9 was granted on December 2. Even the dimensions on the Dutch part of the’ canal have prevented any real freedom of navigation. These dimensions were originally agreed upon by a mixed body of experts, and accepted almost verbatim by the Dutch Government in 1895. They were modified in 1902, though the 1902 Convention was not ratified; and, thus modified, the scheme of 1895 was completed in 1910. Now, under international control, it would have been completed much sooner; all un- necessary formalities due to riparian sovereignty would have been avoided; all necessary safety would have been immediately provided for, e.g. by dredging or fog-signals; and all improvements would have been adopted on their merits. In the absence of inter- national control Belgium has been subject, as I have indicated, to serious ‘international servitude,’’? which has involved her in heavy costs and continual annoy- ances. Yet Holland has, practically from first to last, acted with perfect legality. (I intentionally exclude the undoubted illegality of the closing of the Scheldt in August, 1914, the transport of excessive quantities of sand and gravel for German use during the war, and the free passage through Limburg granted to the retreating German armies.) But if the other things referred to are legal, it is high time that they were made illegal. It has been typical, toc, that when the Dutch have granted any facilities, it has been done by a specific treaty, i.e. done as a matter of policy, not of justice. Tt was from this point of view that they agreed to the Lek and the Waal being recognised as the proper mouths of the Rhine. This emphasis on policy rather than on justice has not, however, been confined to Holland, though she alone still adheres to it. In Europe, in America, in Africa, and even in Asia, there have heen, first, attempts to enforce a so-called poli- tical right of sovereignty against neighbours, e.g. on the Mississippi by Spain, on the St. Lawrence by us, on the Amazon by Brazil, on the Zambezi by Por- tugal, and then special conventions somewhat on the lines of a treaty of commerce. Such treaties grant commercial facilities, and power of navigation is such a facility; but if the navigation is on a great con- tinental feature, such as an international river, surely | . S anaiemmae 144 NATURE | [OcToBER 16, 1919 the. particular facility should be admitted without any special treaty. This claim has been specifically put forward on several occasions. For instance, by the Treaty of Paris (1763) we had the privilege granted to us of “navigation on the Mississippi to the sea,” and ‘to the sea’’ meant ‘‘ out onto the sea.’’ When the river passed under the control of the United States, the conditions were altered. Spain had granted no such facility to them, and she claimed the political right to block the estuary against them, while Jefferson claimed that they had a natural right to use the whole river, i.e, had such a ‘right in equity, in reason, in humanity.’’ The samme question arose on the St. Lawrence, where we claimed the political right to block the lower river against the United States in 1824. The case is specially important because Adams at once admitted the political right, i.e. the riparian ‘‘sovereignty,’’ but claimed—as Jef- ferson had done—a natural right to use the river itself, a right which he based on necessity and on the support of the political Powers of Europe as formulated in many conventions and agreements and commercial treaties. There had been so many of these that it had become possible to generalise as to a common prin- ciple—really the principle of justice; and so the Treaty of Paris in 1814 and the Congress of Vienna had adopted the principle, and had passed general rules in sympathy with it—rules which have been applied to many rivers and even to canals, e.g. in the old Kingdom of Poland. In the particular case of the St. Lawrence the water right would not. cover any right of portage; but, of course, the international boundary comes to this river from New York State below the last of the rapids. In 1851 Brazil claimed the political right to block the mouth of the Amazon, but this was universally condemned as a gross misuse of the right of riparian sovereignty, for the mouth of the Amazon is so truly an arm of the sea that it separates two distinct faunas; and, as the Plate was declared free in 1852, Brazil could not in decency exercise her dubious ‘‘right.’’ It was not formally given up, however, until 1867; and it lies implicity behind the recent so-called ‘‘ conces- sions ’’ to Bolivia. Portuguese law raised a similar difficulty in 1883 on the Zambezi. Of course, Portugal was our oldest ally, and our relations were very friendly; but, though she neither controlled nor traded with the interior, she claimed the political right to block the estuary against us, and we admitted the political right so far as to consent to her imposing duties—which, in ‘theory, might have been prohibitive of all trade. The Zambezi is specially interesting because it was concerned with one of the first of those land-corridors about which there has been so much discussion lately —the ‘‘Caprivi finger.’”? Everyone except our lawyer- politicians knew the real object, the certain meaning, and the probable result of our conceding that strip to Germany—though most of us pictured German troops marching eastward along it to cut the ‘Cape-to- Cairo’? route in Rhodesia, rather than Rhodesians riding westward into Ovamboland. But theoretically the Germans made a demand for access to navigable water on an international river, and we recognised this as a reasonable demand, and granted it. Here, again, we stand historically in a position of great moral strength. Further, if we accept international land-corridors and international air-corridors, we must accept also international water-corridors, such as a navigable river. or a narrow strait. I do not want, however, to press an African example, partly because I do want to repudiate entirely the application of the Berlin Conference to NO. 2607, VOL. 104] any rivers outside Africa. For in 1884 Africa was essentially a virgin continent, and its inhabitants were completely ignored—in theory by all the deliberators, and in practice also by the nation which had en- gineered the conference. For one of Germany’s essential objects was to converge on the Congo, and squeeze out Belgian interests; and eventually, to do that, she did not hesitate to employ the most un- scrupulous propagandists in this country on ‘Congo atrocities.’’ It was, therefore, part of her scheme to press—what was accepted by the conference—that the Congo should be open to all flags for all commercial purposes, and that no riparian rights should be recog- nised. It was equally, to her interest that the Inter- national Committee of Administration agreed upon should never be set up, and it never has been; and, of course, in 1911 she used the trouble which she had provoked in Morocco to acquire 100,000 square miles of the French Congo, so that she became a territorial Power in the west as well as in the east of the Congo basin. ; The whole question has two aspects—(1) the free- dom of the actual navigation, and (2) the administra- tion of the river. The former is largely a matter of’ equity, and so did not appeal to the Dutch or Por- tuguese lawyers; the latter is largely a matter of law, and has been much complicated by legal subtleties. But the two are closely connected, for the European rivers with which we are specially concerned, all have a lower course over the plain and an upper course involved in the folds and blocks of Central Europe. They are, therefore, important in the one case merely as carriers by water, and—all things con- sidered, and in spite of superstitions to the contra are probably dearer as well as less flexible than the carriers by rail that cross them from west to east; thus the quantity of foodstuffs that reached Berlin— or New Orleans—by water in 1913 was quite in- significant. In the other case, however, they are of supreme importance, for their valleys focus the whole commercial movement, @.g. of Switzerland, both by rail and by water. This puts the people of the upper river-basin commercially at the mercy of the holders of the lower; at least a third of the Swiss imports before the war were from Germany, and a fifth of the exports went to Germany—much, in each case, under what the Swiss felt as ‘‘ compulsion.” In this particular case the people of the Rhine delta were also—politically—at the mercy of the Germans. For the natural outlets of the Rhine basin, such as . Rotterdam and Antwerp, had taken on naturally the international character of all great ports, while the river-towns behind them, such as Cologne and Frank- fort, were nurseries of intense national feeling, most carefully and criminally fostered by the Government with the declared object of presently imposing that “‘nationality’? upon the “‘internationalised ’’ port. One way of entirely undermining a position offering such opportunities to the unscrupulous is international control,. with its impartial improvement of the water- way on its own merits. Thus in 1913 nothing like 1 per cent. of the navigation on the Rhine was British, while more than 65 per cent. was Dutch; but the deepening of the Rhine up to Basel to admit sea-going vessels, e.g. from London or Newcastle, would instantly free the Swiss from their slavish dependence on e.g. Westohalian coal. It is the political aspect, however, rather than the economic that I want to press for the moment. The economic aspect is useful only because it can be pre- sented more easily in a statistical form, while the historic—though equally, if not more, illuminating— cannot be applied to recent events. We can see now that Peter the Great did not provide ‘ta gate by which [his] people could get out to the Baltic,’? only one OctoseER 16, 1919] NATURE 145 _by which foreigners got into Russia; but we cannot have similar knowledge of the political value to Bohemia of the economically invaluable Elbe-Moldau. We can ‘note, however, that it is essentially a way _ out, for the quantity of down-stream traffic (e.g. lignite, sugar, grain) is five times that of the up- stream traffic (€.g. iron, cotton, oils). The agreements already mentioned, with regard to Elbe and Weser, Tagus and Douro, show that free- dom of navigation has been granted as a reasonable courtesy for many years by nearly all civilised Powers, though even to this day Holland has persistently blocked progress by her stupid commercial policy and ner unique position at the mouths of Rhine and Maas and Scheldt; and the essential principles are illustrated by the irrigation laws of Australia and the United States, where everyone now admits that the individual State cannot have any local standing, any riparian claims, as against the Commonwealth. | Ail States, whatever their size or wealth or population, must be equal, though the natural. advantages are with the upper riparians for irrigation as with the lower riparians for navigation. ' The serious administrative difficulties are two— _ concerned respectively with the riparian sovereignty and with the different geographical conditions of different rivers or different parts of the same river; e.g. you can easily decrease the pace of the Rhine above Mannheim, but not without increasing the susceptibility to frost. Historica'ly, riparian sovereignty, in the case of Rhine and Danube, is only a relic of feudal robbery. When they first became part of the civilised world under Rome, there was no such thing as riparian sovereignty. They were public property, which had to be kept in order and improved; and for this pur- pose the Romans exacted dues, which were spent wholly and solely on the upkeep of the waterway. The Franks continued the same custom on the Rhine, but the feudal system brought in a horde of petty princelings—as impecunious as German princelings have normally been—who completely upset the old | régime, converted public into private property, and exacted every kind of tax and toll. Unfortunately, because Rhine and Danube had been frontiers for Rome, they had been associated with a strictly mili- tary control, and the legacy of this favoured the feudal princelings—as it also helped to poison the whole political development along both rivers, for they got only the worst side of Roman civilisation. Now we must go back to the primitive conditions. If 2n international river is a world feature, then its world relation is the first consideration. In that case riparians must tolerate representatives of the whole world, or of such parts of the world as are most concerned with the particular river, on the executive for the administration of the river. In most cases, moreover, riparian sovereignty must be limited, even in the interests of the riparians themselves, for the presence of non-riparians on the executive may be, and has been on the Danube, of the greatest value in minimising friction amongst the riparians. In this respect France has played a most honourable part, generally supported by Britain, especially on the Danube, where, e.g. Austria tried to exclude Bavaria from the deliberations about the river, and to dominate and intimidate the representatives of the lower riparians. Indeed, it was only ‘‘ the day before vester- day’ that we had the gratification of readins the German decision to ‘exclude French and British representatives from the Danube Commission on. the ground that they had hindered the shins of the more important nations from. obtaining priority of treat- _ ment.’?. What greater compliment could have been . paid to us? NO. 2607, VOL. 104] The fact only emphasises the vital point referred to above, that different parts of the same river have different conditions and may need different treatment, i.e. that even riparians have not all naturally equal use of ‘the river, and that the strongest or the most favourably situated can grossly misuse their oppor- tunities. The Dutch showed this on the Rhine in 1816, and the Austrians on the Danube in 1856. Obviously such differences are, in themselves, poten- tial causes of serious trouble; riparians have not neces- sarily and naturally real equality even when the executive consists of only one representative from each riparian State. The greater opportunities of expan- sion, political and economic, on the lower river may favour the growth of a stronger Power; and the State with the largest share of the river or the best position on it has already an advantage over the others. For instance, the Dutch on the Maas and the Russians on the Danube have indulged in ‘voluntary negli- gence’’; it was in this way that Russia blocked the mouth of the Danube, and that Holland made it im- possible for the Belgians to continue their commercial navigation on the Meuse down through Holland to the sea, though since the discovery of coal in Limburg the’ Belgians have—stupidly—turned the tables on Holland to some extent. A low riparian may no more monopolise or ruin navigation on the lower course of a river than a high riparian may poison er exhaust its upper waters. The river is a unit, and its unity is essential to the fulfilling of its duties in the evolution of world commerce; and, therefore, it needs a unity of administration. This is best secured by a commission of riparians and non-riparians, and such conditions facilitate the use of a river as a political boundary. : Nearly all the important details involved in_ the internationalising of navigable rivers have been illus- trated already in the history of Rhine and Danube, and in both cases France has been an admirable guide to Europe. On the Rhine, as I have mentioned, she abolished in 1795 most of the restrictions which had made the river practically useless even to riparians,; and that she was not thinking only of her own interests was proved by her attempt—defeated by Hol- land—to extend the freedom of the river to all nations in 1797. Again, in the Convention of Paris (1804) France enforced unity of administration—sharing this with Germany on the ground that the river was of special concern to herself and to Germany, as she has shared the administration of the Niger with us in recent years on the same ground. The Rhine thus received a simple, just, uniform administration, which is a model for us now. All tolls were abolished except two—one on the boat and the other on the cargo—which were to be only large enough to meet the upkeep of the waterway, and were to be used for no other purposes. These tolls could be paid in each political area with the coin of that area, but a fixed ratio was maintained between the various coinages. Of course, in 1815 France was ousted from the bank of the river; and in the reorganisation elaborated by the Congress of Vienna von Humboldt, the Prus- sian representative, adroitly introduced into the regula- tions for the Central Commission of Riparian Repre- sentatives words .which were afterwards made to mean exactly the opposite of the freedom enforced by France, and exactly the opposite of what our British diplomats at the time thought and said that they meant! Not only so, but during the sixteen long years while France remained more or less submerged, Holland was allowed to make the whole scheme ridiculous by the claim that ‘‘to the sea” did not mean ‘‘out onto the sea,’’ and that a tidal estuary was 146 NATURE [OcToBER 16, 1919 ‘‘sea.”? The Regulations of Mainz gave each riparian State full sovereignty over its own part of the river, and limited the right of Stites to the subjects of riparian States; and in 1868 the Regulations of Mann- heim further whittled down the old liberal principles of France—to the disadvantage of non-riparians, although ihey were admitted to rights of navigation. The revised Rhine Navigation Treaty of that year was still in force in 1913, administered by the six riparian States—Holland, Prussia, Hesse, Baden, Bavaria, and Germany (as owning Alsace). Even since 187: Prussia, as the strongest Power, has ham- pered the development of non-Prussian ports, using even the most childish tricks with pontoon bridges, choice of wharves, accessibility to rail, etc., against other German States. Since 1871, too, the Rhine has illustrated another . important point—namely, that the traffic on an inland waterway depends largely, perhaps vitally, on the extent to which railways are willing or forced to co- operate; and this has a present importance even from a purely international point of view. One of the results of the Franco-Prussian War was that Prussia bought up a number of private railways in the Rhine valley, and eventually used the profits of the trans- action to make a secret fund for aggressive purposes. Now, if properly administered as an international waterway, the Rhine will be perfectly free except for trifling dues on boat or cargo for the expenses of upkeep; and it will compete so favourably with the Prussian railways that their rates will have to be reduced to a minimum. “This will cut hard at such differential treatment as has handicapped British trade in the last twenty years, and it will leave no surplus with which the unscrupulous can juggle. Of course, the Rhine is essentially linked with the Meuse and the Scheldt—politically, economically, his- torically; and the Powers have long been too lenient or too timid with Holland, possibly because her purely legal position appeals to lawyer politicians. The Dutch base their claims to monopolise the estuary of the Scheldt on the Treaty of Munster (1648), but have greatly strengthened their legal position in recent years. The marriage of the Dutch Queen to a German princelet was followed immediately by the intrigue that ended in Belgium definitely granting to Holland in 1892 special rights on the Scheldt in time of war, and Germany strongly supported Holland in getting these rights extended between! 1905 and 1908. But the Scheldt is merely an international river; it is navigable into France, and it was only by France waiving her claims in 1839, and proposing a dual control by Belgium and Holland—like that of the Rhine by France and Germany at the beginning of last century, and that of the Niger by France and ourselves now—that Holland ever obtained the power which she has abused. When Napoleon annexed Antwerp, he declared the Scheldt free; and the Rhine Regulations, when extended to the Scheldt, were interpreted as meaning “free for all flags out onto the sea.’? Even so, the Dutch raised every possible diffi- culty, and navigation had no fair chance until the railway from Cologne to Antwerp brought in the only kind of influence which the Dutch seem to under- stand. We have, therefore, full knowledge of all the essential conditions necessary to ensure the proper administration of international rivers, and shall have no kind of excuse if we are caught napping or misled by plausible and ‘interested’ tricksters. Amongst their last tricks is ‘‘the great difficulty of policing such a river, where a German boat may be stopped by a French official.’ That is not more terrible than a Rumanian boat being stopped by an Austrian official; and the experience on the Danube shows that NO. 2607, VOL. 104] there is really no difficulty at all—for the simple reason that offenders are always dealt with, naturally and reasonably, by officials of their own nation, just as the various European Powers have the right of jurisdiction over their own subjects in the Belgian Congo. In Article 25 the effete and pharisaical Berlin Act of 1884-85 provided that its regulations for the Congo ‘‘shall remain in force in time of war.”? To- day we are less ambitious, and desire only to further safe, easy, honourable intercourse, in time of peace, between nations that are unequal in size and popula- tion, wealth and power, situation and relation to navigation facilities. We have seen that one small nation may ill-treat another small nation from stupidity almost as easily and as grossly as a lar, nation may ill-treat a small nation from tyranny. In the circumstances it seems necessary to remove from both the stupid and the tyrannical the opportunities for misusing such facilities; and the obvious way of doing this is to make international rivers international in use and in government. Commerce is already a prime factor in the evolution of human brotherhood. Progress towards that ideal may be gauged as well by the price of a banana or a piece of chocolate as by the number of sermons preached on the subjec:; the sea is already free, made so mainly by British perseverance in clearing it of pirates; it only remains to make navigable rivers equally free, and the op- position comes mainly from those who have talked most loudly about “‘the freedom of the seas.’’ But “the freedom of the seas’ does not means that war is to be removed only from that element on which land-power is weak, while the land-power may still block access to the free sea by the natural avenue-— the navigable river. ; UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL INTELLIGENCE. CampripGE.—On October 10 Mr. A. J. Balfour was duly elected to the office of Chancellor of the Uni- versity in succession to the late Lord Rayleigh. Dr. Rosert J. T. BELx, of the University of Glas- gow, has been appointed to the chair of pure and applied mathematics in the University of Otago. Tue National Union of Scientific Workers is hold- ing a social evening at 52 St. Martin’s Lane, W.C.2, on Thursday, October 30, at 7.30, to inaugurate a London branch of the Union. The meeting will be open to all scientific workers. : ay, Tue Lord Strathcona legacy to Yale University, which amounts to about 120,000l., will, Science an- nounces, be used as follows : Two professorships in the . graduate school will be established, and several fellow- ships founded, and a memorial building, costing about 50,0001., will be built. Datnousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, cele- brated the centenary of its foundation (1818) on September 11, 12, and 13. Representatives were present from a large number of universities and learned bodies. On September 11, in the. Macdonald Memorial Library Hall, President A. S. MacKenzie conferred the degree of LL.D. honoris causa on the following gentlemen, those marked with an asterisk being in absentia :—-David Allison, ex-President of the University of Mount Allison; R. B. Bennett, Calgary ; the Right Hon. Sir Robert L. Borden, Prime Minister of Canada*; the Hon. W. J. Bowser, Victoria, B.C., ex-Premier of British Columbia*; G. S. Campbell, Halifax, chairman of the Board of Governors, Dal- . housie University; C. H. Cahan, Montreal; T. Cant- OcToBER 16, 1919] NATURE 147 ley, New Glasgow; Dr. M. Chisholm, Halifax; the on. Robert E. Harris, Chief Justice of Nova Scotia; _H. P. Judson, President of the University of Chicago ; the Most Rev. Neil MacNeill, Archbishop of Ontario, Toronto*; I. Pitblado, Winnipeg; the Right Rev. John Pringle. Sydney, Moderator of the General ey of the Presbyterian Church in Canada; H. S. Pritchett, President of the Carnegie Corpora- tion of New York*; Prof. W. T. Raymond, Univer- sity of New Brunswick, Fredericton; S. N. Robert- son, Principal of the Prince of Wales College, Char- lottetown, P.E.I.; J. Gould Schurman, President of _ the University of Cornell*; J. Seth, professor of moral philosophy in the University of Edinburgh; _ F. H. Sexton, Principal of the Nova Scotia Technical College, Halifax; the Rev. Prof. Simeon Spidle, Acadia University, Wolfville; J. Stewart, Halifax; the Rev. Prof. J. J. Tompkins, St. Francis Xavier College, hog pyre and Dr. F. Woodbury, dean of the faculty of dentistry, Dalhousie University, Halifax. The celebration was a great success in many ways; it was made the occasion of a reunion of old graduates _ dating back to classes as remote as 1852. Besides a _ procession of representatives of as many of the classes as could be got together, there were a dinner, a dance, a smoking concert, a regatta, and amateur _ theatricals. Addresses on the future of the Uni- versity were given as follows :—On arts and science, _ by Prof. H. L. Stewart (philosophy); on law, by ‘Prof. MacRae, dean of the faculty of law; on medi- cine, by Prof. Fraser Harris (physiology), dean of the faculty of medicine; and on Mentinety: by Dr. Frank Woodbury, dean of the faculty of dentistry. The urgent need of increased endowments, and, especially in the professional schools, of increased equipment as well, was urged by the speakers. There is a large increase in the number of those entering for the coming ses- - sion, but the University revenues are as in pre-war days. Tue second annual Streatfeild memorial lecture was delivered by Prof. G. T. Morgan at the Technical _ College, Finsbury, on October 2. In the course of his remarks on “Applied Chemistry in Relation to Uni- versity Training,’ Prof. Morgan surveyed the pro- gress of technical education in London from _ the pioneer college at Finsbury, through the polytechnic _ movement, to such recent developments as the Im- perial College of Science and Technology and the Salters’ Institute of Industrial Chemistry. The view. which advocates the concentration of instruction and research in applied science into a single large institute, having the status of a special- ised university with power to grant degrees in tech- nology, was contrasted with that whereby the techni- cal colleges are to be brought into closer union with the existing University of London. Prof. Morgan pointed out that fundamentally and so far as college training is concerned there is no distinction between pure and applied chemistry. The great generalisa- tions of chemical science must, in any case, be mas- tered before the student can hope to become com- petent to enlarge the field of knowledge. Ultimately the difference between university and technical col- lege becomes one of breadth of outlook. In extending the research section of the chemical department at Finsbury, the City -and Guilds of London In- stitute had, during the difficult period of the war, done much to render practicable Streat- feild’s ideal of a school of applied chemistry. This objective was an intimate blending of practical ele- _ mentary. training for beginners with specialised inves- _ tigation in various branches of industrial chemistry _ carried out by research chemists and other post- NO. 2607, VOL. 104] graduate workers sent to the college by interested chemical firms. At the present time when considera- tions of economy are paramount, this mode of de- veloping a technical college of university rank has the merit of involving the least outlay of capital on the part of the educational body, inasmuch as the cost is borne to a considerable extent by those benefiting from the additional facilities. SYDNEY. Linnean Society of New South Wales, July 30.—Mr. J. J. Fletcher, president, in the chair—-Dr. R. J. Tillyard : Mesozoic insects of Queensland. No. 6: Blattoidea. The paper deals with eleven specimens from the Ipswich Trias, of which nine are named, being placed in three new genera belonging to the family Mesoblattinide, Handl. This family occurs from the Carboniferous onwards to the Jurassic, but reaches its dominant position in the Lias. One of the Ipswich genera, Triassoblatta, n.g., is more archaic than any of the known Liassic genera; while a second, Samaroblatta, n.g., shows close affinity with Mesoblattula, Handl., from the Lias of Dobbertin. The author deals with the venation of the cockroach tegmen, and shows the main lines of its evolution from the Carboniferous onwards. The Ipswich speci- mens, though none of them are absolutely complete, are, on the whole, very well preserved, so that details like intercalated veins, cross-venation, etc., can be easily made out if present. Most of the tegmina are of moderate size, about 13 mm. or 14 mm. long; but there is one species of Triassoblatta that is much larger. Keys are given for distinguishing the genera and species described, and each new species is figured in the text.—Dr. R. J. Tillyard : Studies in Australian Neuroptera. No. 8. Revision of the family Ithonide, with descriptions of a new genus and two new species. The members of this family are stout-bodied, moth- like Lacewings, very distinct in their appearance, habits, and life-history from any other representatives of the order. Owing to the inadequacy of Newman’s original description of Ithone fusca, much confusion has been caused, and two species that were not really even congeneric have been regarded as this species. The doubt as to which was Newman’s species had to be cleared up by reference to the type in the British Museum. It was then found that Ithone, Newm., with one radial sector in forewing, is a monotypic genus, all the other species going either into Varnia, Walker, which McLachlan erroneously suppressed, or Heterithone, n.g. (type Ithone fulva, Till.). Two new species of this latter genus are described, making in all a total of six species for the family. The genus Nespra, Navas, is suppressed, being the same as Varnia, Walker. A description of the peculiar sand-plough of the female Ithonidz is given; the insect uses it to plough up the sand when ovipositing. A note is added describing the imaginal mouth-parts, and comparing them with those of the Psychopside. The full life-history of Ithone, which is very remarkable, the larva being a blind melolonthoid grub, is reserved for another paper.—Dr. A. J. Turner: Revision of Australian Lepidoptera. Part vi. (last instalment). In this paper fifty-nine species belonging to twenty-six genera (fam. Geometridze, subfam. Boarmianz) are dealt with, eighteen species and five genera being described as new. Royal Society of New South Wales, August 6.— Prof. C. E. Fawsitt, president, in the chair.—G.. J. Burrows: Volume changes in the process of solution. 148 NATURE [Ocroser 16, 1919 The paper contains figures showing the change in volume which takes place when two liquids are mixed or when a solid is dissolved in a liquid. These results are discussed, and also the change in volume which results from the solution of a solid in a mixture of two liquids.. A much smaller contraction is observed when a solid is dissolved in a mixture of water and alcohol than when it is dissolved in either of the liquids separately.—G. M. Bennett and E. E. Turner: Note on organo-metallic derivatives of chromium, tungsten, and iron. Organic compounds containing iron in direct union with carbon play an important réle in animal and plant chemistry, and have an interesting future in connection with pharmacology. An attempt has been made to prepare such compounds, and a few preliminary experiments have been carried out also on similar compounds of chromium and tungsten. Care Town. Royal Society of South Africa, August 20.—Dr. J. D. F. Gilchrist, president, in the chair.—Sir Thomas Muir: Note on a sum of products which involves symmetri- cally the nth roots of 1.—C. v. Bonde: Note on some abnormalities in the Cane. crawfish (Jasus lalandit). An account was given of some peculiarities observed among specimens procured for laboratory use in the Zéological Department of the University of Cape Town. BOOKS RECEIVED. A Laboratory Manual for Elementary Zoélogy. B Dr. L. H. Hyman. Pp. xvit+149. (Chicago, IIl.: The University of Chicago Press; Cambridge: Uni- versity Press, 1919.) 1.50 dollars. A Field and Laboratory Guide in Biological Nature- Study. By Prof. Elliot R. Downing. (The University of Chicago Nature-Study Series.) Pp. 120. (Chicago, Ill.: The University of Chicago Press; Cambridge : University Press, 1918.) 1 dollar. : The Hydrogenation of Oils: Catalyzers and Cata- lysis and the Generation of Hydrogen and Oxygen. By Carleton Ellis. Second edition, thoroughly revised and enlarged. Pp. xvii+767.. (London: Constable and Co., Ltd., 1919.) . 36s. net. The Manufacture of Chemicals by Electrolysis. By Arthur J, Hale. (A Treatise of Electro-Chemistry.) Pp. xi+80. (London: Constable and Co., Ltd., 1919.) 6s. net. Insect Pests and.Plant Diseases inthe Vegetable and Fruit Garden. By F. Martin Duncan. Pp. 95+ xii plates. (London: Constable and Co., Ltd., 1919.) 3s. 6d. net. The Teaching of Science in the Elementary School. By Gilbert H. Trafton.. (Riverside Text-books in Education.) Pp. x+293.. (New York: Houghton Mifflin Co.; London: Constable and Co., Ltd., 1919.) 6s. 6d, net. Problems of Cosmogony and Stellar Dynamics. J. H. Jeans. Pp. viii+293+plates v. At the University. Press.) 21s. net. Petrology for Students. By Dr. A. Harker. Fifth edition. Pp. viiit300. (Cambridge: At the Univer- sity Press.) 8s. 6d, net. The Nature of Enzyme Action. By Prof. W. M. Bayliss. Fourth edition. Pp. viiit+3190. (London: Longmans and Co.) 7s. 6d. net. Kingston-upon-Hull Before, During, and After the By (Cambridge : Great War. By T. Sheppard. Pp. 120. (London and Hull: A. Brown and Sons, Ltd.) The Condensed Chemical Dictionary. Compiled and, edited by the Editorial Staff of the Chemical Engineering Catalogue. _Pp. 525.. (New York: The Chemical Catalogue Co., Inc.) 5 dollars. NO. 2607, VOL. 104] Annuaire de 1’Observatoire Royal de Belgique, 1 ties Pp. vi+353. (Bruxelles: Hayez.) whic He Hidden Treasure: The Story of a Chore Boy who ‘ Made the Old Farm Pay.” By J. T. Simpson. Pp. 303. (Philadelphia and London: 3 pincott Co.) 6s. net. cultural and Gardening Projects. B Pp. xviiit+261. (Philadelphia. an Lippincott Co.) 7s. 6d. net. ° The Amoebae Living in Man. Pp. vit+155+plates v. (London: and Danielsson, Ltd.) .7s. 6d. net. re M. T. Cc London: J. B. DIARY OF SOCIETIES. THURSDAY, Ocroper 16. F Bt Tue INstiTUTION oF MINING AND METALLURGY, at 5.30.—C, M. Harris? Prospecting for Gold and Other Ores in Western Australia.— F. Danvers Power: Coral Island Phosphates in the Making. ; ’ Opticat Society, at 7. Chas. W. Gamble: Projection Screens. TUESDAY, Ocroeer 21. Ae Zoo.ocicat Society, at 5.30.—E. G: Boulenger: Report on Research Experiments on Methods of Rat Nestruction at the ical Socie Gardens.—Dr. A. Smith Woodward. Prof. F. Wood Jones, Prof. J. P. — Hill, Prof. A. Keith, Mr. R. I.. Pocock, Prof. G. Elliot S) and Others : Discussion on the Zoological Position and Affinities of Tarsius. © InstiITUTION OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGISTS, at 5.30.—Arnold Philip: Some Laboratory Tests on Mineral Oils. ‘ ; WEDNESDAY, Ocrower 22. Roa InstITUTION OF AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERS, at 8.—Thos, Clarkson: Presi- dential Address. FRIDAY, Ocroper 24. Bae fran Puysicat Society, at 5.—Dr. N. W. McLachlan: The Effect of Pressure and Temperature on a Meter for Measuring the Rate of Flow of a Gas. —J. H. Shaxby : A Cheap and Simple Micro-balance.—J. W. T. Walsh: The Resolution of a Curve into a Number of Exponentials. Bet wae INsTITUTION OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS, at 6.—Dr. E. Hopkinsom: Presidential Address, * : f CONTENTS.. The Bantu Languages .... ete Pane + 129 Our Legacy of Hope. soo. oe 6 Se nee ES ee *<) Our Bookshelf 2). es" ee + 130 Letters to the Editor :— a Colloid and Saline in Shock and Cholera.—Prof. Wambo Lips Applied Economic Botany Based upon Actual Agri- : By Prof. C. Dobell. John Bale, Sons, F 30.—J. W. French: The Unaided Eye, IL.— Ted Ot a Benjamin Moore, F.R-S... |. 22. eee 131 The Audibility of Thunder.—Capt. C. J. P. Cave 132 Open-air Natural History. (Jllustrated.) .... . 132 The Reconstruction ofthe Fishing Industry . . 133 MOLES esse ees Sei e esis ana Para) 135 Our Astronomical Column :— i Ephemeris of Comet 1919. . . . . . ee ee es 138 The Albedo of Saturn’s Rings . . 2. 2. ws. 138 The Selection of Sites for Astronomical Observatories 138 Forthcoming Books of Science ..... Can toate The British Association at Bournemouth :— bey Section E—Geography—Opening Address by Prof. L. W. Lyde, M.A., President of the Section. 141 University and Educational Intelligence... . . 146 Societies and Academies. ............ 147, Books Recéived: 5 0505... . «00 tes a 148 Diary of Societies i)... Ns eee . 148 Editorial and Publishing Offices: MACMILLAN AND CO., Ltp., ses ST. MARTIN’S STREET, LONDON, W.C.2. | hee: Advertisements and business letters to be addressed to the __ Publishers. Editorial Communications to the Editor. Telegraphic. Address; Puusis, LONDON. Telephone Number: GERRARD 8830. NATURE 149 THURSDAY, OCTOBER 23, 19109. _ FACTS AND FACTORS OF EVOLUTION. _ The Causes and Course of Organic Evolution: A __- Study in Bioenergics. By Prof. John Muirhead - —-~‘Maefarlane. Pp. ix+875. (New York: The . Macmillan Co.; London: Macmillan and Co., = ‘Ltd., 1918.) Price 17s. net. HIS book is the outcome of a lifetime of bio- logical reflection and investigation, and will be read with much interest. Edinburgh for Philadelphia many years ago, was early disciplined in zoology, as well as botany, but it is to the latter that he has especially devoted himself as professor in the University of Penn- sylvania. His treatise is erudite and careful, very _ instructive, even apart from its theories; it expresses the convictions of a patient and inde- - pendent thinker; it states a number of piquant - conclusions more or less peculiar to the author; and it is carefully written. It covers a very wide - range—the origin of organisms upon the earth, the phylogeny of plants and animals, the evolu- tion of morals and man, the ethical factor in organic evolution, the réle of religion in the ascent of man, the competitive and the co-opera- tive systems among animals and in mankind, the human environment as it has been and is, and _ the evolution yet to come. We must restrict our attention to a few of the salient features. (x) Prof. Macfarlane notes that “energy, con- tinuity, and evolution,” which may be said to con- stitute “the triune basis of existence,’ form the keynote of his book. But all that is distinctive is the prominence given to “energy.” The author _ recognises a series of forms of energy, which he _ calls thermic, lumic, tonic, chemic, molic or - gravic, electric, biotic, cognitic, and cogitic. _ Biotic energy is associated with protoplasm in _ general, cognitic with chromatin, and cogitic with | meuratin or Nissl substance. The terms “‘cog- ' nitic” and “cogitic” are far from happy, and it is of dubious utility to apply the physical concept of energy to certain aspects of vital activities | which remain undescribed when a physical and _ chemical formulation has been given of the others. _ If it could be definitely stated—as it cannot—that _ the particles which ultra-microscopic examination _ shows in movement in a living nerve-cell are asso- ' ciated with a particular kind of energy, distinct _ from and yet in a line with such recognised ener- gies as heat and electricity, then there would be _ similar to that held by some modern biologists, _ such as Prof. Marcus Hartog and the late Prof. | Richard Assheton; but more evidence of the _ reality of “‘biotic energy” is required than Prof. _ Macfarlane adduces—more evidence than the usually admitted inability to give an adequate description of the most characteristic features of the activities of living creatures in physico- chemical terms. The living organism is:a riddle mperfectly read, but our confidence in Prof. NO. 2608. vor. 104] The author, who left | '“pentamorphogeny, an objective basis for a form of positive vitalism, - Macfarlane’s contribution is not increased when we find two or three more particular forms of energy piled on the top of biotic. (2) The author has discovered, he thinks, overlooked factor in organic evolution, which he calls proenvironment—“ the resultant response of an organism to the sum-total of all the environal agents that act on it or on any part of it, and which causes the organism to proenviron a course or pathway that is temporarily satisfying to it, and that can alone be taken in virtue of the action of the several environal agents, and the reaction to each of these by appropriate organismal mole- cules.”” More briefly, Prof. Macfarlane defines the “law of proenvironment’’ as “the correlated resultant response by any body to the summated correlation of stimulatory action, that leads to a temporarily satisfied state.” We rub our eyes; the so-called law of proenvironment takes us back to Herbert Spencer (with his emphasis on equi- librium and “effective response’’) and farther. Surely it is a commonplace that the lines taken by development and activity alike are result- ants of environmental stimuli acting on living organisation which is internally determined by the inheritance and by previous experi- ences so that its responses are on the whole adaptive. We confess that we see very little in Prof. Macfarlane’s .discovery, and we doubt whether the capacity of giving a more or less satisfying unified response to a variety of external stimuli is a factor of evolution at all, except in the sense that every organism is a factor in its own evolution. It is a fundamental fact of life. The “five organic factors that are form- producing,” the co-operative action of which is ” are Heredity, Environment, Proenvironment, Selection, and Reproduction. But there would have been heredity, environment, proenvironment, and reproduction though there were no evolution, and what would Darwin say _ to leaving Variability out of the Pentarchy? (3) The author contends vigorously that “the main and dominant lines of animal evolution have all originated in fresh water or on land, and that only side lines have assumed a marine life, though these have often branched out profusely into species, and even have given off again groups that have in rare cases returned to a fresh-water or a land life.” This is a good-going heresy, and the author supports it with learning and ingenuity. It is directly counter to the conclusion of most authorities, who hold that the probabilities are in favour of a marine origin of most of the phyla. Prof. Macfarlane makes out such a strong case that we feel how uncertain these speculative conclusions are. In our ignorance of the actual beginning of most of the phyla it is difficult to prove the erroneousness of the view that the buds were in fresh water, though the blossoms may have been in salt. We submit, however, a few considerations : (a) At this distance of time appeals to present-day numbers of fresh-water and marine species in any particular phylum cannot be I Oo Se aienheene aaa ee 150 NATURE [OcToBER 23, 1919 of much value in reference to origins, but there is some utility in thinking of the numbers of types in the two habitats, and of cases where the enor- mous majority of the types in a phylum are in the one or the other. Now, if we begin with the lowest phyla of Metazoa, the Sponges and Ccelentera, we find in both cases the vast majority of types in the sea and a very small minority in fresh water. The most natural—though not in- evitable—inference is that the present-day habitat of the vast majority is the original habitat. The Echinoderms represent a well-defined phylum, all the living representatives of which are marine. The types at the base of the Chordate phylum— namely, Enteropneusts, Tunicates, and Lancelets —are all marine, which is again significant. Many similar cases might be given, but Prof. Macfarlane advances counter cases, and actual demonstration is out of the question. (b) If we take a number of notable advances, such as paired unjointed limbs or parapodia, such as body-segments or metameres, such as genuine pre-oral appendages, such as the annulate or the chordate type of nervous system, such as true gill- clefts, such as a dorsal axis, and ask where they began, the evidence from present-day forms and from paleontology is on the whole in favour of the answer: In the.sea. But Prof. Macfarlane brings forward counter instances, and no doubt the fresh waters have been a very educative school of life. (c) Types with direct life-histories are very generally, though not always, less primitive than related types with larval stages, and the tendency of fresh-water animals to have little in the way of larval stages (telescoping these, according to our theory) is very striking except along a few lines, such as that of aquatic insects, which are no doubt primarily terrestrial. And it is not difficult to see why it should be so. (d) For most of the types of fresh-water animals it is possible to give a plausible pedigree, starting from marine or terrestrial forms. (e) It is a significant fact, emphasised by Quinton, that the blood of land animals, such as mammals, is in the proportion of sodium, potassium, and calcium ions almost identical with sea-water. It is difficult to interpret.this except as a hint of pedigree. (4) It is impossible to do justice in a few lines to Prof. Macfarlane’s long discussion of the phylo- geny of animals. He regards Rotifers—in spite of the specialisation of most of them—as “the foundational group” of the simpler Metazoa, and he has the hardihood to place a ciliated Infusorian and a Rotifer side by side, for “the lines of stereogenesis in the Rotifera remain fundamentally as in ciliate Infusoria.” We do not profess to know much about stereogenesis, but the juxta- position of a Rotifer not only with an Infusorian, but also with a larval Entomostracan and a larval Gastropod strains our morphological faith. It must be a foundational creature indeed which is like three things so different. The author traces the main line of ascent from the Rotifers through NO. 2608, VOL. 104] Turbellarians, Nemerteans, Cyclostomes, Czcili- ans, to Marsupials and higher Mammals. The difficulties involved in side-tracking Tunicates and - Lancelets and in dragging Cyclostomes and Cecilians on to the direct line of ascent seem to us to be insurmountable. But this is largely a matter of opinion, It seems to be truer of phylo- geny than of statistics that if you pick your data you can prove anything you like. There are, naturally enough, some loose ends in Prof. — Macfarlane’s arguments. These are of two kinds — —matters of fact, as when he says that the eggs © of Cyclostomata undergo ‘holoblastic segmenta- — tion, which is not true of Myxinoids; and matters of interpretation, as when he says of the Cecili- ans: “the active gliding habits and slippery skin, also, scarcely serve to set up the needed irritable stimuli that would start paired limbs as a response-result.” This surely verges on the poetical. hed ae (5) A useful chapter on “higher” animals ex-_ pounds the not unfamiliar idea that along different — lines and at different structural levels animals rise — to approximately equal complexity of behaviour. Thus octopus, spider, ant, crow, and elephant are types that rise high along different lines of struc- tural advance. This is sound enough, though it — is time that Sir Ray Lankester’s distinction — between the ‘“‘little brain’ and the “big brain” — types of cleverness was recognised in all such com-_ parisons, but what seems to us quite in the air is Prof. Macfarlane’s theory that the “energising stimuli”? of a complexified environment excite the biotic system of the body and the cogitic cells of the brain to new adjustments and adaptive changes, “‘all of which are more or less shared by — and influence the generative cells, which in turn — affect the succeeding organisms hereditarily.”’ In — other words, without any submission of*evidence, — we are asked to return to the credulity of Lamarckism. The author says: ‘To repeat once © more our fundamental position: flows of energy, often and steadily repeated from sense-collecting centres, start stereo-energetic stimulation-acts, that inevitably affect the brain-cells, and these by expenditure of cogitic energy give rise to pro- environal responses that constantly tend to place © the organism for the time being in ‘ satisfied ” relations to its environment.” In so saying he seems to us to be stating with unnecessary tech- nicality the fact that living creatures adjust them- selves within limits to their surroundings; but when he suggests that the elephant’s trunk evolved by the transmission of the results of in-— dividual “proenvironal reponses,” we feel bound to say “napoo.” (6) In regard to the Ascent of Man, the author lays emphasis (as. Anthony, Wood Jones, and others have done) on the evolutionary importance of the emancipation of the hand which “stimu- lated the brain to increased flows of energy and so increased complexity and growth.” “In all such advance by environal stimulation-action and | brain reaction, followed by proenvironal outreach- ’ - OcrosER 23, 1919] NATURE 151 ing and succeeding response, the great law of roenvironment is constantly at work.” Again, e have the same fallacious hysteron proteron. Surely the emancipation of the hand was the out- come of variations of structure and habit which are left unexplained (not that we can explain them); surely the cerebral initiative that put the ree hand to manifold tests and found for it a _ thousand uses was and is a cause, not a conse- quence; moreover, the hereditary entailment of individual gains is a hypothesis, not a proven _ fact. We wish to make clear that when Prof. - Macfarlane speaks of “the capacity of an _ organism for perceiving and then positively grow- ; ing or moving toward an environment that is _ most satisfying for it,” he is not defining any new | “law of proenvironment,” but referring to the fundamental fact that the organism is a self- _ preservative agent. In so far as other evolu- _ tionists have forgotten this and made the organism a passive pawn in a game, or a portmanteau of ; Serge suiie which require only liberating stimuli, _ Prof. Macfarlane’s thesis is of great service. He has hold of the open secret that the organism shares in its own evolution. _ (7) Our admiration is commanded by the two * chapters in which the author gives an apprecia- _operative—in which organisms answer back to the difficulties and limitations that beset them, though we do not think he realises what Darwin clearly expressed, that a co-operative reaction to a crisis is as much part of the struggle for exist- ence as a competitive one. We wish that we had space to refer to the concluding chapters on human evolution, which are marked by a splendid earnestness and a truly evolutionistic hope. We ean only refer to the cope-stone of Prof. Macfar- lane’s hierarchy of substance. Just as_ biotic energy is associated with protoplasm, cognitic energy with chromatin, cogitic energy with neu- ratin, so there is “spiritic energy ”—a still more ondensed mode—which “has so functioned as to nergise the more aspiring and lofty souls of umanity to widest outreachings, toward the most rofound questions of the world and the universe.” “The phenomena, the experiences of human life n the past millennia especially, powerfully sug- St to the writer that built up on, energised by, nked into complex relations by, a combined bio- enito-cogitic union is a still more complex bstance than the protoplasmatin, chromatin, or euratin, probably resident in some part of the ‘ray frontal matter of the brain, and which hypo- 1etically we may call the spiritin,’” No man understands his brother’s philosophy, and we do yt know what Prof. Macfarlane is getting at by 3; quaint and uninviting system of substances ind energies. There may be some, however, to whom it makes the riddle of the organism—body- mind and mind-body—clearer ; and we are sure of d even the learned, and that the whole work marked by resoluteness and sincerity. 1 Ace, NO. 2608, vor. 104] tion of the two great ways—competitive and co- _ s, that there are facts enough in the volume to’ AMERICAN UNIVERSITIES. (1) The America of To-day. Being Lectures delivered at the Local Lectures Summer Meet- ing of the University of Cambridge, 1918. Edited by Dr. Gaillard Lapsley. Pp. xxv +254. (Cambridge: At the University Press, 1919.) Price 12s. net. (2) The Voyage of a Vice-Chancellor. Pp. 139. (Cambridge: 1919.) Price 6s. net. (1) pS volume of lectures delivered at Cam- bridge in the summer of 1918 contains only two chapters of direct technical interest to the readers of Narure—namely, that of Prof. J. W. Cunliffe, on “ American Universities: their Beginnings and Development,” and that by Dr. G. E. MacLean on “State Universities, School Systems, and Colleges in the United States of America.” The first of these gives a very in- teresting account of the English origins of Ameri- can universities, of the effect of the different en- vironments in bringing about a gradual departure from the English model, the injection of German influence, and the subsequent growth along more independent lines. The similar process of develop- ment is traced by Dr. MacLean with respect to the State-supported institutions, which have no direct counterpart in Great Britain. A very clear account is given of the various ways in which State and federal subsidy is provided for these institutions, and there is a brief discussion of the type of administrative organisation which has grown up. Both Prof. Cunliffe and Dr. MacLean rightly emphasise the ideals of universal educa- tion which have led to such a Jarge expenditure of public money upon the school system as a whole. The result is, perhaps, that the reader unfamiliar with the situation would get too rosy a picture of the state of affairs. Not that there is any loss of faith in the ideals, but that, as Dr. MacLean points out, there is a strong feeling that great changes of method are necessary, and, indeed, such changes are constantly under dis- cussion and under trial. Though they have no direct bearing on the subject of education, ix+ At the University Press, chaps. iii. and iv., by Lord Eustace Percy, on “State Municipal Government” and “Social Legislation,” read in conjunction with those on education, will give a fairer idea of the tremen- dous problems presented by education in America and of the political and social difficulties involved in their solution. (2) Such an important journey as that of the British University Mission in the autumn of 1918 to Canada and the United States will doubtless be the subject of formal and formidable reports both in England and America, but it is well to have also such an intimate and clever personal record of daily happenings as Dr. Shipley has given us in this volume. Though the account, in diary form, is very brief, one gains a clear impression of the differing characteristics of the various in- stitutions and regions which were visited. As one reads of the unbroken series of banquets and 152 NATURE [OcToBER 23, 1919 luncheons to which the commission was ruthlessly exposed, the number of speeches- which they were forced to make, and the other at least equal number to which they were compelled to listen, one is impressed by the fact that this academic group “did their bit” in a very real sense. One also wonders whether the present demand for a reduction in the hours of labour could not be directed towards a change in the customs of after- dinner speaking, resulting in a great conservation of the nervous energy of the world. It is to be hoped that the journey which is here so grace- fully described is but the first of many, perhaps less formal but more leisurely, which will be undertaken by academic and scientific men of both countries. It would be a pity if the greater intimacy and understanding, which war conditions have undoubtedly brought about between the men of science of England and America, should for any cause be allowed to lapse. C. EM. OUR BOOKSHELF. The Statesman’s Year-book. Statistical and Historical Annual of the States of the World for the Year 1919. Edited by Sir John Scott Keltie and Dr. M. Epstein. Fifty-sixth Annual Publication. Revised after Official Returns. Pp. lii+1476. (London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd., 1919.) Price 18s, net. ONE turns to the new volume of this ever-welcome annual with considerable interest in view of the present fluid condition of international affairs. The coloured map shows the conditiom of Europe in June of this year, the accession to political sovereignty of Iceland, Poland, and Czecho- Slovakia is recognised by their treatment in new and separate sections, and the introductory pages contain the League of Nations Covenant, a sum- mary of the peace terms to Germany, and a con- tinuation of the diary of the war. The Iceland section summarises the consequences of the Act of Union of November, 1918, which makes the connection between Denmark and Iceland, in other than certain temporary arrangements, entirely due to the fact that both States have the same King. Although it has not been possible to include statistics regarding the dismembered Austro-Hungarian Empire, various estimates have been included—e.g. the new Austrian Republic has a population of some ten millions, of whom 90 per cent. are Germans; the probable population of Yugo-Slavia is twelve to thirteen millions. There are brief summaries of the results already achieved by British administrators in Mesopo- tamia, and of the newly. independent kingdom of Hejas. The Boys’ Own Book of Great Inventions. By Floyd L. Darrow. Pp. ix+385. (New York: The Macmillan Company; London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd., 1918.) Price 12s. 6d. net. Tuts book contains a popular and interesting account of the more important inventions of the last hundred years. One chapter is devoted to the NO, 2608, VOL. 104] | gyroscope; six to telegraphy and telephony, with and without wires; two to aviation; and one each to the submarine; the steam engine; petrol, oil, © and gas engines; the use of machinery in agri- — culture; the development of electricity; the evolution of artificial illumination; fire and high temperatures; some notable achievements in — chemistry; the story of iron and steel; and Galileo and the telescope. The treatment is un- — usual. The author in most cases first appeals to — general interest by describing practical achieve- — ment. He then gives an account of the theory, — and concludes with a few experiments which the — boy may perform for himself. f ere The style is good, the information is accurate, — and the explanations are generally clear. The experiments are to the point, but, appearing as — they do detached from the descriptions of the apparatus and process, they appear to be scrappy — and unsatisfactory. Many of them are quite un- — necessary in the case of a boy who is doing science — at school, and to a boy who is not they would not — all prove helpful. We prefer description and — explanation, even where that involves experiment, to be more closely associated. aa The value of some of the half-tone blocks is much reduced by printing two or three on a page, * which renders them indistinct. oh Apart from these minor defects, the book is first-rate, and will form an excellent gift for a— boy who is interested in scientific achievement. — ERG oe8 Interpolation Tables or Multiplication Tables of Decimal Fractions. Giving the Products to the Nearest Unit of All Numbers from 1 to 100 by 0-01 to 0-99 and from 1 to 1000 by o.oo1 to — 0-999. By Dr. Henry B. Hedrick. Pp, ix+ 139. (Washington: Carnegie Institution of Washington, 1918.) fan TuE simplest description of these tables is to say that they give such results as 0-302 x 441 =133_ with the certainty (barring errors in the tables) that the third digit in the product is correct. Taking out such a product from the tables is an easy operation, requiring very little time; prob- ably, with practice, the use of the book would be as expeditious as that of an ordinary slide- rule, and the results more trustworthy. cha Various other ways of using the tables are explained in the introduction. The editor also” gives interpolation formule, and worked applica- tions to astronomy, etc., in which these tables’ are used. cae This publication appeals to a large body of com- puters and scientific workers, and affords another instance of the wise enterprise of the directors of the Carnegie Institution. They have already earned the gratitude of arithmeticians by their tables of primes and factors, and they are doing a public service by thus undertaking the cost of printing works at which no ordinary publisher would look for a moment. . The printing and arrangement of the tables seem to beall that could be desired. ae G. B. M. CTOBER 2 3, 1919] NATURE 153 LETTERS TO THE EDITOR. ‘he Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manuscripts intended for this or any other part of Nature. No notice is taken of anonymous communications.] ‘The Doubly Refracting Structure of Silica Glass. HAVE recently observed that ‘‘silica glass’’ pos- es a remarkable crystalline or quasi-crystalline cture when examined in the polariscope. The double refraction is extremely weak, the ardation being probably of the order of 1/1000th a wave, The structure cannot be advantageously amined with a polarising microscope as used by ologists, for the large number of lenses between he Nicols show enough double refraction to spoil the trast between the dark and light parts. It is visable to use a Nicol, and not a glass reflector, as olariser, and to dispense with lenses between the ‘Nicols. A magnifier of 2 in. focus is placed above the analyser. An extremely bright light is necessary ; I have used sunlight reflected straight into the paratus, thus obtaining an intrinsic brightness com- arable with that of the sun’s disc. (No doubt an re with a suitable condenser would do equally well.) e Nicols are to be accurately crossed so that the is invisible. _ If a circular plate of fused silica of “ordinary” “quality with polished faces is examined in this ar- ‘rangement, it shows a striking mosaic of dark and bright parts without regular arrangement. The size “of this structure is of the order of half a millimetre. It is seen superposed on the ordinary ‘dark cross”? ‘due to strain, which extends across the whole disc, *6 cm. in diameter. _A rectangular plate of the same class of material Showed the dark parts elongated into bands set in a definite direction, and suggestive of a flow structure. ‘A circular disc of optical quality silica showed -a spiral structure. ; __I have examined a large number of specimens of heet- and bottle-glass without meeting with any trace such a structure, which is evidently something quite liar to silica’ glass. It may be suggested tenta- ively that silica’ glass consists of a mass of “liquid crystals’? comparable with those described by ‘Lehmann in the case of certain organic substances. It is intended to obtain photographs of these struc- ures, and to study the effect of heat treatment on the ca until it becomes visibly devitrified. i RAYLEIGH. _ Imperial College, South Kensington, 4 October 20. A Search for Fine Wool. R. Lypekker in his monograph on “ Wild Oxen, , and Goats,’’ published in 1898, stated that the stral stock of sheep is not only extinct, ‘but otally unknown.’’ But in a book on sheep published 1912 Lydekker admitted that the mouflon and al had probably contributed to the making of lestic breeds. As a matter of fact, it has been ed beyond doubt (1) that the first domesticated p in Europe (i.e. the sheep introduced by the Alpine race about 7ooo B.c.) were derived from a itial (Ovis vignei) not unlike the one now inhabiting he Kapet-Dagh, and (2) that nearly pure descendants of the ancient Neolithic breed still survive on the nall uninhabited island of Soay (Sheep Island) near ‘Kilda. Further, it is now realised that rams of NO. 2608, vor. 104] at least three varieties of Ovis ammon have long been used for maintaining the size and vigour of fat- rumped and other breeds of Central Asia. More important still, it has recently been ascertained that the wool forming the inner coat of several of the wild sheep of Asia is longer than in the Soay, and decidedly finer than and quite as white as superfine Australian merino, usually said to be the finest and whitest wool in the world. Crosses between Soay and Southdown sheep yield excellent mutton, and beautiful wool remarkable alike for its strength and quality. It is hence possible that, with the help of the urial and other wild types, new fine-woolled, vigorous varieties of the merino might be introduced, In the meantime, I am anxious to examine the wool of crosses which include wild species amongst their recent ancestors. Sir Joseph Banks, president of the Royal Society when the attempt was made to estab. lish the merino breed in England, was a keeper of sheep, and was ‘well informed on all points relating to the production and uses of wool.’? Some of the readers of Nature who, like Banks, are interested in sheep may be in a position to help in the new search for the Golden Fleece. J. C. Ewart. The University, Edinburgh. Radiation Temperatures. In a letter to Nature of October 9 (p. 113) Mr. Mal- lock points out the uncertainties attaching to records of “temperatures in the sun,’’ due to the influence of the nature of the thermometer bulb on the readings. Similar uncertainties attach to readings of instru- ments exposed to a clear sky at night, and with even greater force, for there are two main radiation factors here, one of them being the cold ground—such ther- meometers being generally placed only four inches above the soil—and radiation to the ground is depen- dent to a very large extent on the nature and condi- tion of the soil, or of the vegetation growing on it, It would appear that the so-called minimum earth radiation temperatures have very little value as meteorological data. Both these and readings cf “temperatures in the sun” are affected by a source of error other than that noticed by Mr. Mallock, namely, the size of the thermometer bulb. With very large bulbs this may not obtain, but with bulbs of ordinary dimensions, say from 1-2 to 02 c.c., the difference caused by size is very noticeable, and is a curvilinear function of that size; with still smaller bulbs the func- tion becomes rectilinear, the apparent radiation effect’ varying inversely with the linear dimensions of the bulb. Within the limits of bulb-size above mentioned, the differences observed maybe 5 to 10 per cent. of the total radiation effect; and this, with readings “in the sun,’’ might represent differences of 3° to 6° F. These figures apply to mercury thermometers; I have no observations yet with alcohol thermometers. Differences of radiation temperatures due to the size of the object have an important bearing on subjects other than meteorological records. Thus, it will be impossible to cool a very small object by radiation to a temperature appreciably below that of the sur- rounding medium; hence the damage done to the pistils and stamens of flowers by frost cannot be due to radiation, but must be the result of the coldness of the air about them’; therefore, methods of pro- tection from frost dependent on preventing radiation by interposing a smoke cloud, or smudge, between the tree and the skv, will be ineffective. unless, indeed, the smoke cloud is sufficiently extensive to cover a large tract of country, and thus ensure a material reduction in the loss of heat from the ground by a I eS ascaiaansoeeeininendinatadaltislstieaeissinstastinetincdbmnenicenibaginemaraestivaitinaiees apcvaxkasmenateeetiemmmenmnememamnamae rae 154 NATURE [Octoses 23, 1919 ; radiation, and a consequent reduction in the cooling of the air above it. Local and restricted smudging will not prevent the inflow of colder air from the sur- rounding land where radiation is active. In England and on the Continent most of the recent suggestions for frost-fighting have been erroneously based on smoke production; but in Canada and the United States, although the reason of the inefficiency of smoke production does not seem to have been real- ised, the steps actually adopted for frost-fighting have taken the right direction, aiming at orchard heating— that is, actual heating by artificial means the air and the trees in the plantation. It is true that smudging ‘is still used, but with a very different object, the smudge fires being lighted at dawn to prevent the sun’s rays from heating too rapidly the frozen blos- . soms. It appears that the damage usually done by frost is not due to the freezing of the contents of the cells and the disruption of the cell-walls, but to the freezing of the intercellular liquid, the formation of ice here resulting in the abstraction of water from the cells; on thawing, this water is re-absorbed, but only very ‘gradually ; and, if the heating be too rapid, much evaporation occurs before the re-absorption: is com- plete, and the cells remain permanently depleted of part of their water. The dehydrating action of freez- ing water in this case is analogous to that observed by the present writer in the case of clay and other highly hydrated substances, when the liquid in which they are suspended is frozen. But in those cases no re-absorption of the water occurs on thawing. SPENCER PICKERING. Time Relations in a Dream. Tue following account of a dream which I had last night, and ‘of which I took some notes, may be of interest. The dream commenced by my, as I thought, hearing a drop fall on the laboratory floor; after a time there was another drop. I then realised that mercury was dropping on the floor from a small split in some rubber tubing in a gas-analysis appara- tus. Ass I became more wakeful and seemed to realise that I must get up to deal with the leak, the drops fell more rapidly until they were coming quite fast at the moment when I definitely awoke. I then realised that the dropping of mercury which I heard in my dream was in reality the ticking of the clock in my room. The point which interested me, and may, I think, interest you, is that of the time relations of the dream. I went over my memory afterwards with a stop watch—and, of course, it is only one’s memory |. of a dream that one ever has to go upon—with the following results :— As I dreamed it, the interval between the first two drops seemed to be of the order of five seconds, and the drops seemed to quicken until they were at an estimated rate of about one drop per second. Now the actual rate of ticking of the clock was one tick every quarter of a second. It is, of course, evident that one’s judgment of time in a dream is quite erroneous in the sense that the occurrences as they take place in the dream seem to extend over a much longer time than the actual time of the dream. On the assumption that each consecutive. drop in my dream corresponded with one consecutive tick, it would appear that at the commencement of the dream the time interval between .two consecutive ticks was exaggerated about twenty-fold in the dream, and that as I got more nearly awake the degree of exaggera- tion became-reduced to something like four-fold. At a guess, I heard about thirty drops, in which case the dream would have lasted seven to eight seconds. No. 2608, VOL. 104 | There is another possible int tion, namely, — that when I was most soundly asleep only one ticle ‘ out of twenty came through to my consciousness, and — that as I became more wakeful the number increased until one tick in four came through. On the latter theory the dream would have lasted consi ably longer than on the former. ean Whatever the interpretation, however, it. aes to me that the time records might be of interest, as 2 dream is rarely so simple or of such a kind as to at of even the vague degree of measurement 1 obtained. ' JosepH BaRcRorT. Physiological Laboratory, Cambridge, October 14. ft International Relations in Science. A CIRCULAR letter has been addressed, within ieee last few days, to ‘“‘ Members of the Academies of the Allied Nations and of the United States ’’ by their brethren of the learned societies of the neutral countries. It is an appeal for toleration, even for generosity, an earnest and eloquent protest against a policy which would seek to exclude the present gen tion of German scholars and men of science from our scientific and scholarly intercourse. = = = I cannot say that I have always been — ron the ile? of tolerance and reconciliation; but already we have had some little time to think, and this all but cosmo- politan appeal is bound, as it’ seems to me, to become a factor in the case. It is signed by very many friendly - and honoured names; we cannot shut our ears to it, we cannot resolve upon isolation, lest it be. isolation Aims indeed. This is not a matter to be decided for us By the votes of others, but by each man for himself—by all who claim liberty of action and freedom of thought. I am convinced that very many men feel, as I feel, that whatsoever overtures our German- col- leagues may make to us on matters scientific should” be freely reciprocated. Need we ask what a man has" thought or said, or even what he has done, in these last sad years? If he come in the universal name of science let that suffice; let it be granted that he means, now and henceforth, to follow the paths of learning, and to walk in the way of peace. fe St. Andrews. D’ArRcy- W. THoMPson INTERNATIONAL ORGAN 1N SCIENCE, AN appeal addressed “to the members| of the! Academies of the Allied Nations and of the United States of America” and signed by a number of scientific and literary men in oe countries has been circulated and has alrea given rise to comments in the Press. It deals mainly with the formation, by the Ae academies, of new international scientific associa- tions which neutral countries are now invited to. join. Stripped of its rhetorical clothing, the docu- ment is an appeal to let bygones be bygones and to allow science to become again “the great con- ciliator and benefactor of mankind.” There will be much sympathy with the areas ments used, the regrets expressed, and the hopes foreshadowed by our neutral friends, but they have left untouched, and to a great extent mis- understood, the principal considerations which have driven the allied academies to the policy they have adopted. It is only that part of our . - OcroBER 23, 1919] NATURE 155 scientific activity which involves a regular per- sonal and intimate relationship between men of different nationalities that is affected by the action of these academies. The question, therefore, simply resolves itself into this. Is it pos- sible that an international scientific meeting in which the belligerent countries sit side by de can, at the present moment, lead to any satisfactory results, or tend towards that reconciliation which the neutral countries very naturally and legitimately hope for? There can be but few who will answer that question in the affirmative, and it is doubtful whether those few - would include anyone who has had experience _ of international meetings before the war. The questions discussed at these meetings frequently touch national interests or national ambitions, be _ it only a discussion whether units adopted in one _ country shall be universally accepted. It often _ requires tactful leadership and a conciliatory dis- _ position on the part of everyone present to steer an international meeting to a successful issue. _ The matter is, to a great extent, decided for us by Article 282 of the Treaty of Peace which _ Germany has ratified. According to that article, _ “treaties, conventions, and agreements of an _ economic and technical character ” not included in a specified list cease to be operative. That this article was intended to cover conventions on scien- _ tific matters appears from the list of exceptions, in which the Metric Convention and the Agri- cultural Institute at Rome are included. _ In view of the strong feelings of resentment _ which still exist between the belligerent nations, feelings shared by the great majority of their _ members, the alternatives possible to the allied _ academies were either to discontinue international _ unions or to proceed as they have done. The former course, not perhaps very harmful in some branches of science, would have been fatal in _ others, and in coming to a decision they have had _ to give the foremost consideration to the interests of science. It is intelligible that, both in the _ Freview of the past and in the outlook of the future, _ neutral opinion should differ from ours; but we may be confident that the academies of the nations to which the signatories of the appeal _ belong will, in considering the invitations which _ are to be sent to them, be guided in their response _ by the same interest for the future of scientific progress which lies at the heart of the allied academies. _ EVOLUTION OF OSTRICH PLUMES. OROF. J. E. DUERDEN has published (Bul- 4 letin No. 7, 1918, Department of Agricul- _ ture, Union of South Africa, pp. 39, 12 figs.) a fourth report on his breeding experiments with Ostriches at the Grootfontein School of Agricul- ture. His work is full of interest, both theoreti- cally and practically. Birds brought from Nigeria ve 33-39 first-row feathers on each wing, NO. 2608, VoL. 104] oi with an arithmetical mean of 36°54. If these — imported birds represent a pure line, the likelihood is that the numerical variations are fluctuating somatic modifications, and that no amount of selection will increase the average number of plumes beyond that given. If the imported birds represent a mixed population of several pure lines, only appearing pure as a whole because of their small differences, it should be possible to obtain higher averages by always selecting as breeders the birds giving the highest number of plumes. It turns out that Cape birds have the same number of plumes as the wild Nigerian birds, and it appears, therefore, that during the fifty years of ostrich farming in South Africa no advance whatever has been made on the number of plumes originally present on the wild bird. For farmers have always bred for quality; quantity has never been taken into account. As regards the number of plumes, ostrich-breeding has been carried on altogether indiscriminately, and no advance has. been made. Among the Cape birds in the Grootfontein flock there have been two cases of 42 plumes to the first row. One of these met with a fatal accident; the other bred true. The 42-plumed bird might be regarded as a novel mutation, but there is a more plausible view. Recent studies on the ostrich afford strong evidence that the wings of its ancestors were much better covered with feathers than is the case to-day. There has been retro gression, and it is still continuing. The 42-plumed wing is a survival of an ancestral condition. Very interesting facts are communicated in regard to the retrogressive or degenerative processes which are still going on in the ostrich’s wing. The retrogression proceeds in one part of the wing quite independently of the other parts. Thus, apart from the plumes altogether, the third finger shows retrogression. It is almost buried in the flesh, and the claw which some books describe has never been found on the hundreds of birds coming under Prof. Duerden’s observation. But a study of the plumes lends no countenance to the common view that degeneration takes place by slow, con- tinuous stages. There may be the full presence of particular plumes in one individual, and their total absence in others; but there is not a gradual passage from full expression to the vanishing- point. The degeneracy of an organ may stop at any stage according to the number of constituent factors which happen to be lost. We are apt to think of the degeneracy as a somatic affair, whereas it is germinal. As to the possibilities of the 42-plumed survival, no chicks have yet been produced from the 42- plumed cock mated with a hen with the same number of plumes, for no hen has been forth- coming. But a score or so of chicks have been reared from the 42-plumed cock crossed with dif- ferent 36-plumed hens, and these showed an in- teresting series of numbers from 37 to 43. It | seems probable, therefore, that if the 42-plumed 156 NATURE [|OcToBER 23, 1919 cock had been mated with a 42-plumed hen there would’ have been a full 42-plumed progeny. If similar 42-plumed survivals occur, it should be possible for farmers to increase by as much as 25 per cent. the crop of feathers from the same number of birds, or, a more desirable outcome, to procure the same quantity of plumes from three- quarters of their present number of birds. Prof. Duerden is to be congratulated on reaching con- clusions at once of high theoretical interest and great practical utility. “EDUCATION IN INDIA2 aac is the second quinquennial review com- piled by Mr. Sharp, Educational Commis- sioner with the Government of India. Shortage of paper and other conditions bred of a period of war have compelled him to curtail his report and, not without advantage, to diminish his statistics. What remains is full of interest and significance, especially, of course, to those who have some first-hand knowledge of Indian education. There is the inevitable, and in some respects useful, comparison with the educational statistics of various European countries and Japan. Of this it is necessary to repeat that the comparison is obviously unfair, even in the case of Japan. British India is a continent rather than a country, and is far more varied in culture and civilisation than Europe or Japan. It is the great towns, such as Calcutta or Bombay, that should be com- pared with European countries, since there alone are conditions sensibly similar to those of Western nations. We should have welcomed, too, a fuller account of the attempts to impart instruction in the local languages. So long as British rule exists it will be as necessary for Indians to learn English as for educated Englishmen to learn French and German. But English as a medium’ of instruc- tion is open to obvious objection. We continue to hear complaints of superficial thought, parrot learning of cram text-books, absence of origin- ality, and so forth. Surely this is largely due to making lads, many of whom are not gifted lin- guists, learn difficult subjects, such as science and mathematics, in a language in which they cannot think. Were it not that many Indians have at- tained to a surprising proficiency in English, the system would have been condemned long ago. In the chapter on Oriental teaching Mr. Sharp con- fines his remarks to education in the Indian classics, and has little or nothing to say of the attempts now being made to gain for the modern languages of India the same facilities that Eng- lish universities are now supplying for European living speeches, their philology, phonology, and literature. From the point of view of education in India, war and the economies it involved came at an 1 “ Seventh Quinauennial Review of the Progzess of Fducation in India.’ By H. Sharp. (Burean of Education, India.) Price ss. €d. net. NO. 2608, VOL. 104] | | | | | | | unfortunate moment, since it was necessary to suspend a great part of the reforms projected in Lord Hardinge’s resolution of 1913. Even in that circumstance, however, we may ultimately find comfort, since what India chiefly needs is not official encouragement and the vicarious liber- ality of Government so much as public appre- ciation of what good and solid education is and by what means it can be supplied to the people — at large. One of the most important steps in this direction (less neglected than official reports seem to show) is to make the greater Indian languages fit vehicles for supplying instruction to immature minds. In many Indian provinces non-official committees and societies have carefully compiled vocabularies of scientific terms. | Some of these — seem pedantic and clumsy enough to those who study Indian languages merely with a view to the enjoyment of literature or the understanding of local life and character, that our own scientific nomenclature is chiefly bor- rowed from dead, inflected languages, and presents difficulties which, to an Indian mind, would not occur in the use of similar phrases bor- rowed from Sanskrit in the case of Hindu lan- guages or from Arabic for Mohammedan learners of science. On the whole, in spite of war and other lets and hindrances, some permanent, some, we hope, temporary, Mr. Sharp’s admirably arranged and ie very valuable report tells us a tale of substantial progress. E pur si muove! Public expenditure on education has increased by one-half in the five years under review. There is a steady improve- ment in the number of boys and girls under in- struction. Teachers are better paid, though it is probable that much of their increased salaries has been swallowed up by rising prices. The huge, too huge, examining universities are gradually — being supplemented by smaller residential and teaching colleges. This change implies some re- cognition, on the part of Government and parents alike, of the fact that education comprises a mould- ing of character and will as well as the training of memory, intelligence, and interest. It is perhaps a little surprising that Government reports on education do not deal with the signifi- cant results of school and university teaching as these appear in vernacular literature and journal- ism. Most of us in Europe have heard of Rabin- dranath Tagore and one or two other contempo- rary Indian authors. There are others, locally held in equal, or almost equal, esteem. A system of education which produces really fine literature, much of it entailing solid research and thought in history, in philosophy, and, to a growing extent, in science, is probably more full of hope and promise than can well be shown in an official sum- mary of the educational doings of some 200 mil- lions of human beings of extraordinarily various degrees of social, religious, and scientific pro- gress. This, of course, will be sufficiently apparent to any careful and disinterested reader of Mr. Sharp’s admirable report. But we must not forget oe eg OcTOBER 23, 1919] NATURE. 157 NOTES. _ Tue Board of Agriculture and Fisheries has taken step long overdue, and now the one competent entomologist on its permanent staff can look forward ‘to assistance in doing the work which twenty com- -petent entomologists might, perhaps, be expected to perform. An entomological laboratory has been estab- ‘lished and placed at Rothamsted, where a_ chief entomologist and two research assistants are to devote their whole time to investigation. The further: pro- posal to appoint twelve advisory entomologists for the twelve agricultural divisions of England is one the advantages of which are doubted in a leading article in the Times of October 10. It would be better, our contemporary thinks, “‘were the research staff at 4 Rothamsted to be increased, and arrangements made for the investigators to visit, now Cornwall, now : Northumberland, wherever a local problem became “urgent, returning to their headquarters to pool their experience and their results.’’ Research is needed, very much. needed, and probably nowhere else in England could greater facilities for investigations of the kind required be found than those at Rothamsted. But if the practical value of entomological research is to be brought home to the farmer, the fruit grower, or the breeder of stock, he must have his eyes opened for him and be given instruction on the spot; it can never be attained simply by the distribution of pamphlets or journals, no matter how well prepared or how valuable the advice they may give. The divisional entomologists should do something more than give advice when called upon; they might make periodical inspections, and have a look out for incipient stages in the diseases of crops in their divisions, as well as for critical stages, so that means could be taken in time to prevent the spread of the disease. It should also be their duty, rather than directly that of _ the farmer, to keep in touch with what was going on at headquarters, and to become acquainted with all the - latest discoveries brought about by research. Even in research they themselves need not be idle, if they have _ been properly trained, and are qualified, as they should _ be, to carry it on. Tue annual exhibition of the Royal Photographic Society is again held at 35 Russell Square, as, owing to the requirements of the Government, none of the larger galleries are available. But the scientific sec- _ tion suffers nothing on this account, as the society in its own house has greater facilities for displaying the exhibits. This section fully maintains its reputation. There are forty-three colour transparencies on auto- chrome plates out of a total of forty-six, but this kind of work is now so well established and so perfect _ that the interest has passed to the subject rather than to the process. Photomicrography is well represented by entomological and botanical series. A’ photomicro- graph that stands alone must have something very remarkable indeed about it to justify its exhibition. The radiographs of surgical and medical interest are as numerous and valuable as ever, and the application _ of Réntgen rays to the detection of hidden defects in metal castings and in aeroplane parts is strikingly and beautifully illustrated. Concerning novelties in scientific methods and apparatus, the splendid exhibit of grainless and filmless photography by the Messrs. -Rheinberg richly deserves the medal awarded to it. ‘It includes scales on glass for apparently every con- ceivable purpose, from micrometer scales to scales go cm. long. Messrs. Adam Hilger show a spectro- graph on an improved Schumann plate which records nes from wave-lengths 21 to 67, and photographs that illustrate the use of the interferometer for testing NO, 2608, vol. 104] camera-lenses. The exhibition closes at the end of November. THE subject of the declining birth-rate was raised at the Church Congress on October 15 in two papers. The Bishop of Birmingham held that restriction of births was due in most cases to prudential motives and to a sense of responsibility, and noted as a curious fact that statistics showed that doctors and clersvy, who used to be very prolific, now had smaller families on the average than other people. The nation wants more children, but wants them of the best quality. There must be cases where some kind of control should be exercised, and that must be before con- ception is known to have taken place. Dr. Amand Routh directed attention to, parental syphilis and alcoholism. as causes of ante-natal and _neo-natal disease and death. He condemned the circulation of so-called “prophylactic packets ’’ as likely to increase rather than to diminish venereal disease. He stated that in the six months ended March 31 last deaths in England and Wales exceeded births by 126,445— for the first time in our statistical history. Dr. Stevenson, Superintendent of Statistics, attributed this to a decline in fertility. Dr. Letitia Fairfield stated that venereal diseases had not only spread during the war, but had rapidly increased since the armistice, and urged an addition to the number of clinics. The Archbishop of Canterbury considered that the use of prophylactics would be perilous as smoothing the way towards vice, but approved the efforts of the National Committee for the Prevention of Venereal Diseases. Ir is with sincere pleasure that we learn that M. Emmanuel de Margerie has been appointed Director of the new Geological Survey of Alsace and Lorraine. M. de Margerie brings to his official duties the knowledge gained by years of cultured. conference with geologists: throughout the world, and we are indebted to his wide reading and his personal acquaintance with the face of the earth for the French edition of Suess’s ‘‘ Antlitz der Erde.’’ This, far from being a mere translation, is the form in which the book will live as a monu-’ ment to Austrian powers of collation and construction and to French lucidity of exposition. _M. de Margerie’s published work has been geographical as well as geological, and it is pleasant to picture him as looking out from the heights of the Vosges on river-profiles once more associated with France. Many questions of economic geology, and therefore of national wel- fare, will come before him in the recovered provinces. While his sympathetic spirit will find no barrier in the Rhine, his vindication of the attitude of the Entente Powers, addressed during the war to Prof. Heim of Zirich, proves him to be the right man for the task of reconstruction on the frontier. Mr. Francis Jerrrey Bett, who has just. retired from the Natural History Museum under the age- limit, entered the service of the trustees on August 12, 1878, when the Zoological Department was still at Bloomsbury and Prof, Owen the superintendent. He took an active part in the removal of the collections to South Kensington in 1882-83, and concerned him-’ self with various divisions of the marine invertebrata, giving especial care to the exhibition of selected types. Mr. Bell is emeritus professor of comparative anatomy in King’s College, London, and he served for many years as one of the secretaries of the Royal Microscopical Society, the Journal of which he also edited. In 1898 he acted as general secretary of the International Congress of Zoology, and for many years was a constant attendant at the council of the Marine Biological Association. Mr. Bell is part editor of the Museum report on the collections of the 158 NATURE [OcToBER 23, 1919 Southern Cross, and he has seen all six volumes of the Discovery Antarctic report through the press. WE learn from Science that Mr. John D. Rocke- feller has given to the General Education Board, founded by him in 1902, twenty million dollars, the income of which is to be currently used and_ the entire principal to be distributed within fifty years for the improvement of medical education in the United States. The working capital previous to this accre- tion amounted to between 35,000,000 and 40,000,000 dollars. Since the present sum is to be devoted exclusively to medical education, whereas the board’s previous resources, under the terms of the charter granted to it by Congress, have been devoted to “ pro- moting education within the United States, without distinction of race, creed, or sex,’’ the activities of the organisation with respect to medical teaching will be greatly increased. AccorpinG to the Morning Post, the Norwegian traveller, Dr. O. Olsen, proposes to conduct a small anthropological and botanical expedition to Siberia next spring. Dr. OlSen has had previous experience in Siberia when in 1914 he studied the Soyot tribes in southern Transbaikalia, near the Kitoisk Moun- tains. His present project is to go to the Yenisei valley north of Krasnoyarsk, and to push thence into the less known regions immediately to the east, with the object of studying several little-known tribes. These include the Dolgans, a Yakut tribe living between the Yenisei and the Khatanga; certain races of Samoyedes; and certain tribes of Tungus. The expedition also proposes to bring back with it, about January, 1921, seeds of Siberian conifers suitable for planting in Norway. WE have received a copy of the ‘‘Annuaire de l’observatoire royal de Belgique ’’ for 1920, edited by M. G. Lecointe. We are glad to note that the pub- lication of this useful little annual was continued throughout the years of the German occupation of Belgium. The observatory at Uccle was held by the Germans, but its scientific work continued. There was no interruption in its publications, and even re- search did not completely cease. Needless to say, the Belgian staff was responsible for this continuous activity, M. Stroobant replacing for the time M. Lecointe, who was with the Belgian Army. THE assistant secretary of the British Association, Mr. O. J. R. Howarth, has been charged with the col- lection of materials for a history of the association. The records available in the office, especially those referring to the foundation of the association, are far _ from exhaustive, and the loan of any letters or other documents bearing upon the history of the association will be gratefully welcomed by Mr. Howarth at the office of the association, Burlington House, W.1, and they will be duly returned after use. Tue Secretary of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research informs us that the following research associations have been formed in accordance with the Government scheme for the encouragement of industrial research :—British Rubber and Tyre Manufacturers’ Research Association (c/o Messrs. W. B. Peat and Co., 11 Ironmonger Lane, E.C.2) and the Linen Industry Research Association (secre- tary, Miss M. K. E. Allen, 3 Bedford Street, Belfast). Tue council of the Chemical Society has arranged for the delivery of three lectures during the coming session dealing with the work accomplished by chemists during the war. The first of these will be delivered at Burlington House on December 18 at NO, 2608, VOL. 104] 8 p.m. by Prof. James Walker, who will lecture on ‘War Experiences in the Manufacture of Nitric Acid and the Recovery of Nitrous Fumes.’’ Tue council of the Ray Society has appointed Dr. — W. T. Calman, of the Zoological Department, British — Museum (Natural History), to be secretary in suc- cession to the late Mr. John Hopkinson. = > jibe Tue annual report for 1918 on the Forest Adminis. ‘ tration of Nigeria shows the number of forest reserves _ to be gradually increasing. Their total area now — amounts approximately to 1462 square miles in the — Southern Provinces and to 3965 square miles in the Northern Provinces. Plantations continue to be made, _ in spite of the greatly depleted. European staff and the disorganisation caused by the influenza epidemic. — Apart from mahogany and Albizzia lebbek, the species _ that have proved most successful are Cassia siamea, — Dalbergia sissoo, Grevillia robusta, and Melaleuca 4 leucodendron, all of them exotics. In fact, it is very probable that, as experienced in South Africa, the a planting difficulty in the Northern Provinces will be — solved only by the introduction of suitable exotics. — Hence these operations must, for some years to core, be of an experimental nature. pa con A NuMBER of papers dealing with marine biological and fishery subjects have recently been published. The — Danish series, ‘‘ Meddelelser fra Kommissionen for _ Havundersogelser,’’ contains articles on purely fishery, — hydrographic, and biological investigations. A very _ useful account of the North Atlantic halibut fishery, — including work on the biology of the species, as well _ as on its exploitation by fishing vessels, is given by P. Jespersen in Bd. v. (No. 5) of the Fishery Series, — and a very interesting paper by A. C. Johansen in the same series deals with the biometrics of the spring- — spawning herrings that form the bulk of the fish | caught during the great spring and summer fisheries. _ There is also an account of fish-marking experiments carried out on the Faréese fishing grounds. This is local in its scope, but it is interesting to see, from — the results, to what an extent this region must have _ been ‘exploited by British trawlers in the years imme _ diately preceding the war. y In Report No. 4 of the Industrial Fatigue Research Board Mr. Major Greenwood discusses th ( of Industrial Accidents upon Individuals, with Special — Reference to Multiple Accidents.’? As a result of an — elaborate mathematical analysis of a large mass of statis- tical data, Mr. Greenwood comes to the conclusion that the distribution of accidents among the employees at — a factory is by no means a matter of chance, but that — certain individuals are much more liable to accidents — than others. This susceptibility to accidents is not due to the workers being quicker at their job than 7 their fellows, nor do they differ from them appreciably in general health. It seems to be a matter of per- sonality, and not determined by any obvious extrinsic | factor. As-Mr. Greenwood points out, the weeding- q out of these specially susceptible individuals would — lower the average accident-rate of a factory consider- | ably, and it might, in certain instances, have a more | important effect than this. In some industries, such | as certain of the explosive-supply trades, an accident — may lead to frightful disaster, and it might be well 4 worth while to track down these unsafe people by a — study of the ambulance-room records and get them ~ transferred to a less risky industry. ; Tue limitation of human settlement in South Africa — through deficient water-supply has moved Prof. E. H. L. Schwarz to undertake a journey to Ovambo- he Incidence — % Pr. . _ Ocroser 23, 1919 | _ has overtaken the country to the south. - ehtitled ‘The Kalahari Lake Scheme”’ (S$. African _ Mining and Engineering Journal—the complete refer- ence is not given on the separate copy sent us), Prof. _ Schwarz proposes to save Ovamboland and its native population by damming the Cunene River at the northwards and eastwards. ‘ NATURE 159 land, a little-known district north-west of the Kalahari region, which seems threatened by the desiccation that In a paper cataracts and diverting the water that now flows into the Atlantic back into a depression known as the Etosha Pan. Hence irrigation could be arranged A ‘‘Makarikari Lake ”’ is also proposed as a development of the Soa Pan, west of Bulawayo, and from this irrigation might be possible in the eastern Kalahari down the channels of streams flowing to the Orange River. The scheme is already exciting discussion in the States of the Union. In a recently published memoir of the Carnegie In- stitution of Washington (No. 285), Prof. T. H. Morgan gives an account of his experiments relating to the secondary sexual characters of poultry, and discusses at some length the genetic and operative evidence with regard to secondary sexual characters in general. In some breeds of poultry, notably Sébright bantams, the cocks are feathered like the hens, lacking the long, silky hackles of the neck and saddle, and the curved sickle feathers in the tail that distinguish the cocks of normal breeds. Prot. Morgan demonstrates by crossing experiments with game bantams—a_ breed with the normal sexual differences of feathering in the cock—that the hen-feathered condition is dominant. His figures suggest that two factors are concerned, but _ the experiments are not sufficiently extensive to render this certain. Castration experiments were performed on the Sebright cocks and some of their hen-feathered progeny, and the interesting fact was disclosed that removal of the testes results in the male assuming a type of plumage characteristic of the cocks of normal breeds. The fact is of great interest in connection with the recent work of Goodale, who showed that removal of the ovary from the hen leads to the assumption of am a Nr the male plumage. A further point of interest lay in the demonstration of luteal cells in the testes of hen- feathered cocks, similar to those which are known to occur in the ovary of normal*hens. Cells of this type are stated to be absent from the testes of normal cocks, The greater part of the memoir is taken up with a discussion of secondary sexual characters in animals generally, in relation both to Darwin’s hypothesis of sexual selection, and to the many other views which have been put forward at various times since. A brief review is also given of the heredity of the colour of the plumage in domestic fowls. The memoir contains an ample and useful bibliography, and is well illus- trated with coloured and other plates. Tue economic value of the forests of New Zealand is discussed by Mr. D. E. Hutchins in the Trans- actions of the Royal Scottish Arboricultural Society (vol. xxxiii., part 2, July, 1919). The forests are of ‘great value, and admittedly the best soft-wood forests in the southern hemisphere. In quality New Zealand timbers come before those of Europe and Australia and after those of North America. The valuable kauri-pine (Agathis australis) is the largest timber- producing tree in the world, owing to its massive bole having little or no taper. At one time there were about three million acres of kauri forest in New Zealand, now reduced to about half a million, in the extreme north. The next most valuable timber is supplied by another conifer, Totara (Podocarpus totara); it is very durable and of a fine colour. This NO. 2608, vor. 104] tree is generally distributed through the North and South Islands. A third conifer, Rimu (Dacrydinm cupressinum), also abundant throughout the islands, is the common house-building timber, a deep red, strong, hard, and heavy wood. White pine (Podo- carpus dacrydioides), one of the tallest trees in the colony (the writer records one of 210 ft.), has white, easily worked timber suitable for inside work. Honeysuckle. (Knightia excelsa), a tall, handsome tree with beautifully variegated wood, has never been ex- ported. There is a large class of so-called secondary timbers in New Zealand forests which have .never been utilised. The writer deplores the destruction of forests without any attempt to discriminate between land best suited for farming and land best suited for forestry. In 1886 the forest area of New Zealand was estimated at 21,000,000 acres, which by 1909 had become reduced to about 17,000,000 acres. The forests even in their present reduced and neglected condition are worth more than all the known mineral wealth of New Zealand, and they still offer more employment than any other industry. Compared with sheep-farming, the New Zealand forest, ‘if worked as are forests in Europe, would afford about ten times the employment. In the Indian Forester for July last, Mr. H. H. Haines gives an elaborate description, with figures, of the various shrubs belonging to the genus Carissa, the bark and leaves of which are an important source of tannin. Thirteen species have been described by various authors, but these are reduced by Mr. Haines to five distinct species with several varieties. Mr. Arex. L. Howarp wrote some time ago in the Timber Trades Journal a series of short articles giving a popular description of the most important woods that are imported into London from India, with notes upon their properties and uses in this country. These articles are now issued by Messrs. W. Rider and Son in pamphlet form, entitled ‘‘The Timbers of India” (pp. 16, quarto, price 2s. 6d.). In the description which, appeared in Nature of October 9 of the aurora of October 1, and the simul- taneous magnetic storm, several observations were recorded, but unfortunately the time reckoning is rot the same throughout. The observations described in the first and last paragraphs were received from the Meteorological Office, and the times mentioned in them were all referred to the civil day, which runs from midnight to midnight, whereas in the other para- graphs describing observations at Bristol and in the Isle of Man the astronomical “‘day’’ seems to have been used. When the change of time reckoning to which astronomers have agreed comes into force, the risk of similar accidents will be obviated. Sir Rosert’ Haprietp has just issued copies of a Foreword which he prepared on the occasion of the Prime Minister’s recent visit to Messrs. Hadfield’s works at Sheffield. Sir Robert has some timely remarks on the labour situation in the .country and the extreme necessity for joint intelligent effort on the part of capital and labour, without which under- standing the burden of debt arising from the war cannot be wiped out. During the present year many hundreds of valuable working hours have been lost as the result of trade disputes; but it is really hard to see what can be done without increased enlighten- ment of the working classes, whose destinies may be said largely to rest with themselves. Sir Robert pleads for the revision of the existing patent laws in this country, so that all classes, without dis- tinction, may benefit from the fruit of their discoveries. 160 NATURE [OcToBer 23, 1919 _ Some space is devoted to the importance of inventions and research in connection with war munitions, and it is interesting to note that Sir Robert’s firm is now in a position to manufacture a heavy calibre naval shell which, for range and piercing power, will far outstrip anything previously accomplished. Invention should be’stimulated and every effort made to discover fresh inventors, and, once they are discovered, _to encourage them to’ give their ideas to the world ‘so that everyone may benefit from them. CONSIDERABLE interest is attached to the description in Ertgineering for October 10 of the geared turbines supplied by the De Laval Steam Turbine Co. to the Swedish destroyers Wrangel and Wachtmeister. The high- and low-pressure turbines occupy separate casings, and drive pinions engaging on opposite sides of the main gear wheel. The high-pressure turbine casing accommodates a cruising element, and the low- pressure turbine an astern turbine. The wheels of both high- and low-pressure turbines are designed to make 3600 revs. per min, at full power, and the maximum peripheral speed is 180 metres per second. The cruising element consists of one velocity- compounded wheel, followed by a simple impulse wheel. The main turbine has four wheels. The astern tur- bine has one velocity-compounded wheel with two rows of blading, followed by a-simple impulse wheel. The aggregate shaft horse-power at full power is 11,000, with the propellers running at 450; the astern shaft horse-power is 4400, with propellers running at 250. With steam 97 per cent. dry, the turbines were guaranteed to consume not more than 52 kg. of steam per shaft horse-power hour at full load. Double helical gear wheels are used for speed reduction, and the pinions are rigidly mounted. ‘The pitch line speed at full power is 35 metres per second. Michel thrust- blocks have been fitted, and their remarkable qualities confirmed by the tests. OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN. Novzz,—Yet another nova has been found on the Harvard plates, this.time by Miss Woods (Harvard Bulletin 693). Position for 1875: R.A. 18h. 24m. 6-2s., S. declination 29° 28-9’. Its former magnitude was 14, but it rose temporarily to 11 in 1901. On April 24, Ig19, it rose to 7, and has now sunk again to 12, its image appearing nebulous. The magnitudes are photographic. ; Pubs. Ast. Soc. Pac., August, 1919, contains a paper by Dr. Shapley on a nova of another kind that was discovered by Prof. Wolf two years ago, and independently by Prof. Barnard in the present year. Its place for 1917-0 is R.A, 17h. 35m. 13-45s., S. declination 11° 53’ 57:6"; its photographic magnitude is 11 (Harvard scale); spectral type, FO; radial velo- city large and positive. All plates exposed before 1909 fail to show it; all since 1910 show it. Three inter- pretations are suggested :—(1) That it is really just beginning its stellar career, in which case it is of unigue interest; (2) that it is a long-period or ir- regular variable, somewhat like » Argds; and (3) that it has just emerged from behind an obscuring nebula. To test this last suggestion, Dr. Shapley took a long exposure with the 60-in. reflector and studied the dis- tribution of faint stars. The results, given in the paper, while not inconsistent with the hypothesis, ‘give no decisive evidence in its favour; there is no distinct line of demarcation of stellar density, as in some of Prof. Barnard’s dark nebular regions. However, a much smaller cloud than these would suffice in this case. NO. 2608, VOL. 104] -parallax of Nova Aquilz 191 Mr. Joy has made an estimate of the star’s distance by the Adams spectroscopic method, finding 500 par- secs. A Harvard plate of 1909 July 9 shows it of magnitude 14:4; 1910 March 21, 11-3, Since: 1915 {t has been 11. tied Both Mr. C. P. Olivier (Ast. Journ., No. 757) and Messrs. Van Maanen and Sanford (Pubs. Ast. Soc. Pac., August, 1919) publish Gee ead values of the . Their values (absolute parallax) are 0-060" and oo09". The latter, which implies a distance of 362 light-years, is close to the values found for Nova Persei, both by direct measures and by the expanding nebular illumination. All the observers contemplate further measures when the brightness of the nova has sunk nearly to that of the comparison stars, $ Tue Sun-spot Curve.—Mr. Seth B. Nicholson gives — an interesting curve of sun-spot activity in Pubs. © Ast. Soc. Pac., August, 1919. It is constructed simply from the number of spots, regardless of area. Mr. Nicholson places the late maximum in September, 1917, and the curve since then shows a notable decline. The previous maximum is placed in May, 1905, and is both fiatter and lower than the recent one. The — minimum is shown’ in June, 1913. There are also curves of the mean latitude of spots, which show that the fall in latitude since the last minimum has beer much steeper than in the preceding cycle. sage Mr. Nicholson directs attention once more to the resemblance of the spot-activity curve with the light- curve of Cepheid variables. The sun’s surface is cer- tainly not pulsating, as those of the Cepheids are believed to be; if the resemblance of curve means any- thing, it suggests that there may still be remnants of pulsation in the sun’s interior. Sorar Rapration.—Mr. C. G. Abbot (Proc. Nat.’ Acad. Sci., U.S.A., September, 1919) gives an account of the simultaneous measures of solar radiation made in 1918 at Mount Wilson and Calama, Chile. “The results give still stronger support to the hypothesis that the short-period variations in the radiation are in the sun itself than did those at Mount Wilson and Algeria in 1911-12. Mr. Abbot states that the Calama results are telegraphed to Argentina, and successful — predictions of temperature are based upon them. He suggests additional radiafion stations at various cloud- less regions, which he anticipates would be of great utility in weather prediction. ; NEW SOURCES OF ALUMINIUM IN NORWAY. cients tee URING the war neutral as well as belligerent countries had to search within their own § — borders for those raw materials which former] re 2 ’ were content to import ; new occurrences ms well- known ores have been discovered, and new methods __ devised for winning important products from rocks which hitherto have possessed no commercial value. Norway was particularly hard hit by the curtailment of international trade, and, amongst other problems, that of finding a home source of aluminium pre- sented itself, and seems to have received a promising __ solution. The metal aluminium can be obtained by elec- trolytic means from its oxide, and nearly all the — j suggested methods of manufacture depend upon this as a final stage, the main difficulty being the pre- paration of a sufficiently pure oxide, free from iron and silica. The ore commonly used is bauxite, after a rather costly preliminary purification by the Baeyer process. At the outbreak of war the Central Powers E ‘OcToBER 23, 1919 | irs 161 utilised their available bauxite, including the small deposits of poor quality in Germany; but the neces- sity of finding a more widespread source was felt, and a process was discovered and successfully put into operation by Dr. Buchner, of Heidelberg, for _ winning the metal from kaolin and kaolin-rich clays, _ Clay is extracted with sulphuric acid, and, after removal of the iron, the alumina is precipitated from the solution with ammonia, four tons of a clay with an alumina content of 30 per cent. yielding one ton of the oxide. This process seems to have a con- - siderable future before it, and plans are laid for its introduction on a large scale into Sweden, There is no bauxite in Norway, and it was first proposed to work the clays after the Buchner and other suggested methods. This, however, has for the most part proved impracticable owing to the un- favourable character of the clays, which are relatively unweathered glacial deposits, not only poor in alumina, 16-20 per cent., but with part of it bound in allxali felspar, and therefore unavailable. In 1917 Prof. V. M. Goldschmidt, of the Mineralogical Institute, Kristiania, conceived the idea of using labrador-stone as a source of aluminium,’ Labrador- stone is a white rock extensively developed in south- western Norway, and especially in the inner Sogne- fjord district, where it builds the huge laccolitic mountain masses so familiar to tourists, by whom it is commonly mistaken for. marble. The main constituent of this rock is a plagioclase felspar of the labrador group, the more felspathic varieties containing only a very small amount of iron-bearing +pyroxenes, and with an alumina content of 30 per cent. Prof. Goldschmidt has found that the felspar is surprisingly soluble in dilute acids, so that it can be dissolved out, leaving a residue of insoluble ferro- -magnesian minerals and silica. The calcium and sodium oxides of the felspar, 13 per cent. and 5 per cent. in amount respectively, go into solution with the alumina, and, using sulphuric acid, there is thus a considerable loss in the form of a_ useless by- _ product. This method is rejected for the manufac- ture of alumina, although it is used in the prepara- tion of sufficient quantities of aluminium sulphate to satisfy Norwegian needs. By using nitric acid as a solvent, not only is a waste of acid avoided, but the precipitation with ammonia can be dispensed with—a valuable consideration in Norway, where ammonia cannot be obtained cheaply in quantity. q The main features of the process, which has been worked out by Prof. H. Goldschmidt, are as follows : —The labrador-stone is extracted with dilute nitric acid, the 30 per cent. acid, first raw product of the electrical air-industry, serving for this purpose. The silica and greater proportion of the iron minerals remain insoluble, aluminium, calcium, and sodium going into solution together with a little iron. After removal of this, iron the solution is evaporated down and the residue heated to a certain temperature at which the aluminium salt alone is decomposed, the nitric acid driven off being collected as a_ valuable concentrate. By washing with water the nitrates cf calcium and sodium are removed, to be recovered and used in agriculture, the alumina remaining. This process seems to be full of promise for Norway -——a country with such abundant water-power, a flourishing nitric acid industry, and an unlimited quantity of a raw material which few other countries possess; and hopes are entertained that a product will be obtained which will not only suffice for local needs, put also win a footing in the world’s rapidly expand- ing aluminium market, L. Hawkes. 1 “Om Aluminiumfremstilling av Norske Raastoffer.” By V. M. Gold- schmidt. Szertryk av Tidsskrift. for Kemi, No. 2, 1919. No. 2608, VoL. 104] K NATURE HYDRO-ELECTRIC DEVELOPMENT WORKS.1 A N extremely able and informative paper has recently been contributed to the Institution of Electrical Engineers by Mr. J. W. Meares, chief en- gineer of the Hydroelectric Service of India, dealing with the general principles of the development and storage of water for electrical purposes—a_ subject which is of the greatest interest at the present time from an industrial and economic point of view. Mr. Meares’s paper is a general survey of the various problems connected with the inception of hydro- electric installations; it outlines the conditions essential to the satisfactory development of any scheme of water-power, for it must, of course, be borne in mind that it is quite possible for a country to have considerable water resources, say, in the form of rivers, which are incapable of economical development. The paper treats of all the preliminary considerations relating to the gathering of supplies, flow and storage, the lay-out and efficiency of hydro- electric plant, and the principles underlying the design of headworks, canals, and delivery mains. Supplies of water at different heads entail distinct methods of treatment. The heads may be broadly grouped as high, medium, and low, in which, with- out too rigidly defining the boundary lines, high heads are taken at from 300 ft. or 400 ft. to a possible 5000 ft., low heads from 3 ft. as a minimum to, say, 80 ft. or 100 ft., with medium heads between these limits. A high head is associated with small volu- metric flow, and a low head with a large flow; the former is adapted to jet-impulse wheels of the Pelton type, and the latter to pressure, or reaction, turbines, In areas dependent on the collection of rainfall for supplies, the amount of fall and the run-off are important considerations. The following empirical table devised by Mr. G. T, Barlow, formerly Chief Engineer of the United Provinces, India, gives a working hypothesis for preliminary calculations which, while perhaps inapplicable to many parts of Europe or America, affords a clear indication of the nature of the variations to be met with in a particular locality :— Percentage run-off Ban OC. D u Light falls, say under 14” in 24 hours... ee mata eaete Reams deem Ce hele Medium falls, say from 14” to 3” in 24 hours ... FO. ERE 20) BAG ee Heavy falls, say above 3”... 20 33 40 55 70 A is flat, cultivated and black cotton soil catchment. B is flat, partly cultivated and stiff soils. C is average catchment. D is hills and plains, with little cultivation. E is very hilly, steep, and rocky, with very little cultivation. é The paper also contains a table giving the over-all commercial efficiency of hydro-electric plant as follows :— For 500 kilowatts 74 per cent. 33 1000 ” 76 ” ” ” 1500 ” 78 ” ” 33 2000 3 aH BO 5) hs 3 3000 so and over a Ae As a rough approximation, the capacity of plant in kilowatts may be obtained by dividing by 15 the product of the quantity of water in cubic feet per “1 /The General Principles of the Development and Storage of Water for Electrical Purposes.” By J. W- Meares. 162 NATURE [Ocroser 23, 1919 second into the head in feet; the b.h.p. of the tur- bine will be given by one-eleventh of the same product. The ground covered by the paper is too extensive to admit of adequate notice in the space at disposal. From the foregoing extracts the paper will be seen to be replete with useful information. Brysson CUNNINGHAM, THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION AT BOURNEMOUTH. SECTION F. ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS. OpENING ADDRESS (ABRIDGED) BY SIR HuGu BELL, Bart., D.L., J.P., PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION. THE cessation of hostilities did not carry with it the cessation of expenditure. The figures given each week in the Economist show the daily disbursements of the kingdom to have amounted to 6,500,000l. for. the twenty-one weeks from November 16 to April 12. Our expenditure from August 24 to November 9 amounted to 585,500,o00l. From November 23 to July 8 we ex- pended 564,000,000l., a reduction of only 21,500,000l., or about 250,0001. a day. The debt with which the war burdened us continued to augment long after the cause of it had ceased to operate. We are still vastly exceeding our income. Even if we take into account the interest on the war debt, which amounts to about 1,000,0001. a day, it is clear that the various obliga- tions undertaken by the Government during the war continue to impose on us a huge expenditure which is largely in excess of our revenue. New claims are made on the national purse and are accepted with the same apparent light-heartedness and disregard of consequences which mark so many pre- vious acts of those responsible for our expenditure both during the war and before it. The call made on the men and women of the nation for services differing from those to which they had been accustomed involves great changes in the con- ditions of those affected. Some compensation for these sudden changes was, no doubt, inevitable. The disor- ganisation of the whole industrial machine made it difficult, if not impossible, to turn these different classes adrift into a world in the chaotic condition into which the war had thrown it. But it does not follow that this compensation should have been given in a way actually to encourage unemployment. There are only too many indications of a general tendency to extrava- gant expenditure which must be checked before the course of our economic existence can return to normal lines. To enable us to do this we must consider what has happened to the world economically since August, 1914. The first and perhaps most striking change to be noticed is that in these five years an immense quantity of wealth has been destroyed. There must be many hundred thousand acres of cultivated land, with the apparatus required for its cultivation, which has been reduced to a_ state of complete desolation. It is difficult to see how it can be brought again into use at an early date. The mere clearing away of the wire entanglements must be a costly operation. Great quantities of shell abandoned by the Germans in their hasty retreat still cumbered the ground they had occupied. These must be carefully removed—not a very simple opera- tion, and one which must be carried out under skilled direction. Can anyone doubt the huge destruction of wealth which has occurred? But it is really worse than it appears, for the very process of destruction was even NO. 2608, VoL. 104] . more costly than the damage which was done. Mil- lions of tons of steel in the form of guns and their projectiles—millions of lives had gone to produce this untoward result. For fifty months all the energies of the most active and energetic people on the globe had been turned from beneficial enterprise to work of which the result was the annihilation of vast masses of wealth. TS When all these things are considered it is not sur- prising to find our estimate of the cost of the war reaches a total the mind cannot grasp. When you begin to speak of pounds by thousands of millions, the = ditlerence between twenty-five and forty is noticeable. important fact to be borne in mind is that the wealth which it represents has passed out of being. © So much confusion exists on this subject that it’ is worth while dwelling on it for a moment. Some con- tend that there has been a mere change of wealth from one ownership to another. Into whose posses- sion, may we ask, has passed the wealth which used to exist in the towns and villages and cultivated land of the battle area? It is true that the steel which went to effect this destruction has been paid for, but from what source has that payment come? Let us — q think what might have happened but for the war. The steel might have made rails and been laid on a railway to bring the produce of Central Africa to lands ready to pay for it and desiring to consume it for use- ful purposes. For all time there would have arisen in the process an income which would have gone to Support in comfort those receiving it, and its surplus after this had been effected would have served to add yet more miles of railway and to bring yet more tons of useful produce. All this energy has been dissipated — in the manner indicated, and all that remains is the obligation of the “State” for all time to pay interest on a debt which has been created. Seine ¢ There is, as it seems to me, but-one way to escape from the situation we have created. No measure of confiscation, however disguised, will remove the burden under which we lie. It may be decided to alter the incidence of the burden from one set of shoulders to another. Any proposal of the kind must have very careful and earnest consideration. If a really sound and equitable scheme of taxation could be devised, each taxable unit would contribute to the common fund raised for the purpose of the Govern- ment an amount which would be arrived at after due allowance was made for his services to the community and his ability to pay. A bachelor, with no claim on him but to support himself without State aid, who had done nothing to provide for a citizen to take his place in the fullness of time, might be called upon to pay more than a man under obligation to maintain a family, and supply, by his children, the means of carrying on the torch of progress. ‘as. One of the chief objections of graduation seems to ; be the danger of gradually increasing the steepness of _ the scale until the higher incomes would be taxed out of existence and the revenue they produced disappear. This would, no doubt, bring its own remedy, The State needs a certain annual revenue to provide the services demanded by the community. If the result of taking much the greater part of incomes over a certain amount ends by extinguishing these, the State will cease to derive the revenue on which it counts. It must then either reduce the tax on them until a point — is reached at which they will continue to exist, or it — must increase the tax on all or some of the other in- comes. Unless it means to rush headlong into bank- ruptcy, it must find the point of equilibrium at which its scheme of graduated taxation continues to produce ore es ee Eee But be the sum larger or smaller, the all-_ OcroseR 23, 1919] NATURE 163 the revenue required, not in any one year, but in ~ll _ future years. Such a scheme, could it be discovered, - would meet entirely that very important desideratum % of a tax, namely, that it should be based on ability to ls > Two other points must be kept in view. A tax must be equitable in its incidence and reasonably ' continuous in its imposition. Given these three con- _ ditions, the economic burden of the impost will quickly fall on the right shoulders. We may dismiss the argument which asks for a levy on capital, and de- fends it against the accusation of being confiscatory on the ground that it is no more confiscatory _ than any other means of raising money by the State. No juggling with the balance-sheets of the nations of the world will get rid of the fact that many thou- sands of millions of wealth slowly accumulated in the - generations which lived before August, 1914, have been dissipated. [After a brief examination of the changes in the amount of the National Debt for the past century and its gradual reduction since 1814, the address pro- ceeds :— In a last five years all this has been changed. From August, 1914, to March, 1915, 450,000,000l. were added. The next year added more than ' 1,000,000,0001. By March, 1917, it stood at 3,906,000,0001., and now it has nearly doubled, and is more than ten times what it was at the outbreak of the war. It is true we have something to set against this vast sum. We have acted as the financial agents of our Allies. The sums we have found for them amount to close on 2,000,000,o001. On the other hand, we have ourselves contracted debts abroad to the extent of well-on to 1,500,000,000/.. On balance, therefore, we have interest to receive on about 400,000,000l. to 500,000,000l. But to enable the inhabftants of this country to find money for our Government, we have sold fully as large an amount of our holdings in foreign securities. It may be contended that we are little worse off. I fear on closer examination this view will not be found good. Let us admit that our Allies will find no difficulty in paying the 100,000,0001. a year or thereabouts due for the interest on their debt to us. We must recog- nise that this will make a serious draft on their re- sources. Very different were the securities held by individuals in this country with which they parted to take up each successive issue of Government Bonds at the urgent insistence of successive Chancellors of the Exchequer. The securities sold were usually first- class industrial or public utility issues. What have we got now? A charge on a heavily burdened country of which, it may be, many thousand acres have passed out of cultivation for years to come. Put at the highest, not many of our millions .of pounds will find their own interest. All the balance must come out of the product of the other and real industries of the debtor country, and to this branch of the subject we must now turn. At the present moment it is of more vital importance than ever that we should come to a clear and un- “garam understanding on this subject. To judge y appearances, the vaguest opinions exist as to the capacity of the community to meet the various claims which are preferred for a share of the wealth from _ which alone these claims can be satisfied. | Many le seem to think that no demand is too exorbitant. fe are asked to provide houses by the’ hundred thou- sand, undeterred by the consideration that they will cost _ two-, three-, or even four-fold the amount at which _ they could have been built before the war. They are, NO, 2608. VoL. 104] ‘take us too far to follow this line of thought. moreover, to afford accommodation of a much better character than was thought sufficient a very short time ago. Houses built so recently as twerty years ago are no longer good enough for the social re- formers of to-day. It is forgotten that something like 80,000 houses are needed each year to accommodate the growth of the population. There are to-day something more than eight million inhabited houses in Great Britain. Not more than half of these are above fifty years old. During the war housebuildin had almost ceased, but before 1914 the building o houses had been checked by two causes. The various Acts of Parliament dealing with matters affecting the building of houses had so enhanced their cost that there was the greatest uncertainty whether houses could be built to return a reasonable interest on their cost. But the second cause was of as great, or possibly even greater, significance. The trade unions con- nected with the building trades had gradually suc- ceeded in imposing conditions which had added enor- mously-to the cost of. building. It would not be diffi- cult to show why this had been possible, but it would The fact will not be denied by anyone conversant with the circumstances. The result of all this is a serious shortage of houses, and this it is proposed to make up by grants from the public purse. If this were the only demand of the kind we might face it with more equanimity than is in fact the case. But when we look elsewhere we see other claims comparable in their effects on the public purse, but differing in kind. The railway enterprise in this country may serve as typical of what is meant. Prior to the war the railways were carrying on their duties in a manner which enabled the country to get through its business in a profitable and, on the whole, fairly satisfactory way. They earned sufficient revenue to pay a fair return to the shareholders. It is true the prospect was not reassuring. The railway management was meet- ing’ the usual contradictory claims preferred against almost every industry. It was asserted that they were rendering services which were not nearly so great as were demanded by their customers, and they were charging for them rates which were regarded as quite out of proportion to the value of the services. On the other hand, they were paying wages which the re- cipients thought entirely inadequate, for much longer hours of service than their workmen were disposed to give. Negotiations between the parties had obtained certain concessions as to hours of work, and also as to rates of pay; but these were not accepted as suffi- cient, and Parliament was called upon to intervene, with the result that statutory hours were imposed. The very essential difference between hours of work or rates of pay resulting from convention between the parties interested and the same imposed by statute is often overlooked. The convention can be varied to meet the varying circumstances. The statute provides a hard-and-fast rule, from which it is impossible to depart without incurring penalties. When the railway companies pointed out the serious effect which these statutory obligations imposed on them had on their reyvenue-earning capacity, and sought power to increase the rates, their customers were up in arms. The very men who, in Parliament and elsewhere, were applauding the decision to give relief to the railway servants, resolutely refused to pay the extra cost thus incurred. With difficulty was Par- liament induced to give the companies leave to add to their charges something towards meeting this cost. The companies found still greater difficulty in obtain- ing a settlement with their customers as to the amount 164 NATURE [OcTOBER 23, 1919 which should be so added. The question was still awaiting a final settlement at the outbreak of war. {The position of the railways is examined; the small yield to the shareholders is set out; the need of the expenditure of fresh capital to enable the com- panies to cope with the growing traffic is stated; and the address proceeds :—] There has been a persistent demand by labour throughout the country for better pay, and an equally persistent demand for more leisure. To these de- mands no objection can be taken. On the contrary, rightly understood, they must meet with approval by all who desire to see the country, as a whole, happy and prosperous. But we must consider how they can be satisfied. The only source from which satisfaction can be derived is the sum-total of the product of the industry of the country, and indeed of the world, in the period under consideration. It must be noted that in many cases the product may not be realised within that period, as, for example, when a manufacturer holds large stocks of goods which he has not yet marketed, but on which much the greater part of the cost has been paid. It must also be noted that a very con- siderable part of the industry of the country does not add to the total product which is the subject of division, but is, in fact, a charge on that product. The whole burden is borne by those engaged in providing commodities or services necessary for the members. We touch at this point a very. difficult problem, the proper solution of which may possibly show us how all our economic troubles may be ended. I can do no more than state it as briefly as may be. There can be no question that a very great part of human activities is spent, and the resulting product used, in providing things which cannot be called necessaries of existence. The simplest food, clothing, and shelter may be said to cover all that comes under this head. But life that gives us nothing but the indispensable minimum of these essentials would be so dull and monotonous as to be scarcely worth the exertion needed to procure them. We must have more than these if we are to get enjoyment as well as mere life. How much more can we claim—perhaps we might say, extort—from our environment? And how shall this extra tribute be shared among us? If we made a complete analysis of the division of the product of industry we should be astonished to find how large is the amount which remains after the essential demands have been satisfied. If we sought to classify our expenditure we might come to some such division as this :— On essential needs. pre things making for the irreproachable amenities 10) ile. On luxuries which add to and aid our reasonable enjoyment. On those which subserve mere pleasures. On extravagant expenditure for which no justifica- tion can be offered. It is difficult to draw any clear line between the heads of this very rough division. Each class passes imperceptibly into the next. Fortunately for our pre- sent purpose, we do not require to do this. It is enough that we should admit that not all activi- ties are well directed, and that we consume a great many things we could do without. No class is ex- empt from this blame, if blame it be. Each is dis- posed to look askance at what is called the extrava- gance of some other. When people talk of waste, they often mean expenditure on things for which they themselves do not care. But the question is: How can we check this extravagance and provide more NO. 2608, VOL. 104] fully for the more essential needs ad the whole people ? If rich men did not drive motor-cars or drink costly wines, would the people who produce these luxuries be better off? Or if, instead of making these things, they made articles needed for the mass of the people, could these buy the result if they had no more means than they now possess? Do we not come back at the end to the proposition that men can have more “maly if they have more to offer in exchange? It may be contended that men have obtained more or less completely what they wanted most urgently. They wanted shorter hours. In many trades they have got them, and might have had them in more had they gone about it in the right way. They were not sufficiently desirous of having better houses, and they failed to procure what their well-wishers desired for them. A relatively small part of the population does un- questionably get a very large share of the total income produced by the whole community. Can we do any- thing by which this share may be reduced without bringing about greater evils than those we seek to overcome? The history of the sumptuary laws does not encourage much hope that attempts to prevent expendi- ture in particular directions will have much success. My own studies had brought me, many years ago, to the conclusion that in every industry examined there is no way of giving to those engaged shares greatly differing from what has been afforded in the past. The margins on which manufacture in general is con- ducted are too small to make it possible to give the larger contributors to the ultimate result any con- siderable addition to what they have been accustomed to receive. This impression was confirmed by the elaborate general survey of the industry of the king- dom carried out by the Census of Production of 1907. No doubt labour (which is much the most important item of cost) has obtained a gradually increasing pay- ment, though not necessarily any larger proportionate share. A steady improvement in the methods ‘in which the labour of men is applied has resulted in enabling a larger product to be obtained. Each new implement, each fresh application of energy of various kinds, as, for example, steam and electricity, has meant that the individual man produced more in his day’s work, and he got, in fact, a larger return for what he did. But at the same time the capital en- © gaged was increased, and consequently the proportion of the product to be ‘allotted to rewarding capital also increased. It is attempt to alter this state of things. The whole question has been treated in a vei masterly way by Prof. Bowley in a book published some months ago, entitled ‘‘ The Division of the Pro- duct of Industry.” Mr. Herbert G. Williams’s pam- phlet, entitled “The Nation’s Income,” also deals with the same subject with much care and skill. makes a critical examination of Sir Leo Chiozza Money’s book entitled “‘ Riches and Poverty.” The conclusion reached in these publications is prac- tically the same. It may be stated, in the cautious words with which Mr. Bowley ends his book :— _ “This analysis has failed in part of its purpose if it has not. shown that the problem of securing the wages, which people rather optimistically believe to be immediately and permanently possible, is to a great extent independent of the question of national and individual ownership unless it is. seriously believed that production would increase greatly if the State were sole employer. The wealth of the country, how- ever divided; was insufficient before the war for a general high standard; there is nothing as yet to show neither possible nor pees to In it he 5 * : 7 hen ee ve ee te Veter NS ee ee” a ee eee ee ee oe ee ee eee ey ee — OcroBER 23, 1919] NATURE 165 - that it will be greater in the future. Hence the most important task—more important immediately than the improvement of the division of the product—incumbent on employers and workmen alike, is to increase the national product, and that without sacrificing leisure _ and the amenities of life.”’ _. I-shall have failed in my object if I have left my _ hearers under the impression that I am wedded to or _ pleading for any particular division of the wealth of _ the country. We hear much talk about abstractions called ‘‘capital’’ and ‘‘labour.’’? The terms are con- venient enough if we do not let ourselves be deluded with the idea that they mean more than the sum of - those who own the capital or supply the labour. Labour itself is a somewhat ambiguous term. Until comparatively recently the members of the ‘labouring classes’ so called thought it was synonymous with the man who laboured with his hands. The Labour Party itself has been fain to enlarge its definition so as to include all those who “labour by hand or brain.” Not one of us is independent of capital. The most poverty-stricken member of the community relies as implicitly on it as the richest among us. To talk of the “abolition of capital’”’ is to use a form of words which is absolutely meaningless. What most people who use them really mean is one or other of two things, sometimes both at the same time—either that the capital is in the wrong hands and that it should not be held in the way or to the amount which is at present the .case, or that the division of the joint pro- duct of capital and industry is defective and should be altered. | I see great difficulty in saying no man’s fortune shall exceed some given sum, and even in saying no man shall bequeath to his survivors more than some very moderate amount. In either case I should fear en- dangering that building up of capital which, however it may be divided, is essential to our national progress. ' When we come to the division of the joint product of industry and capital other considerations become apparent. The question at once arises whether any other division would have been possible in the past, or could be accomplished in the future, without great ' changes in the way in which the product arises. Re- ference has already been made to my,own examination of this matter, which leaves me in no doubt that any considerable increase of the part of labour would have left the share of capital so small as to have stifled enterprise. This does not mean that large fortunes may not have been made by those whose skill and industry and enterprise enabled them to seize the advantages presented to them. Those who cry out against capital overlook the fact that in modern industries no man can be set to work except by means of a capital sum first found for :the purpose. In the industries I know best something above 2ool. is needed to put a man to work. The popu- lation of this country increases at the rate of about I per cert. per annum. This means that for every 1000 men to whom employment is being given, about ten youths are ready to be set to work each year, and something above 2ooo0l. must be found year by vear to give them employment. ‘ One further point must be made. Men see some great enterprise (and the railways will serve very well as an example), and look upon it as a capitalist or- ganisation. But when the circumstances are ex- ‘amined it is found that it consists of a multitude of small holdings, and comparatively few of large amount. In the North-Eastern Railway something like 60,000 _ shareholders hold the 83,000,000l. of capital of various _ denominations—say, on the average, some r4ool. each. NO. 2608 VoL. 104] ‘tion. Consider the widespread distress which would be caused if the income from the sum were to cease. I have made a similar calculation for a large colliery undertaking in which I am_ interested, with the following result. The capital in shares and debentures is about 1,300,000]. There are a little more than 1800 shareholders. We employ 5500 men. Each shareholder therefore provides employment for about three men, and holds on the average 7251. Before long we shall require further capital. We see our way to enlarge our operations and so to provide employment near to their homes for the fifty to sixty youths who, each year, grow to man- hood, and need productive employment if they are not to become burdens on the community. We hope our 1800 shareholders will have laid by enough to provide the 12,0001. a year which is necessary for this purpose. We are assuming they or someone will provide it, for we are using our resources (reserves and depreciation funds) in this way, and shortly it will be incumbent on us to fund this obligation and add it to our capital. We are thus brought to the last subject which I desire to consider with you—the widespread tendency towards what is somewhat vaguely called Nationalisa- It may be questioned whether any large number of people have very clear ideas what is meant by the term. ‘Let us assume for the present purpose that it signi- fies that the State shall become the owner of any enterprise which is nationalised—as it owns the busi- ness of the Post Office, the Telegranhs, and the Tele- phones. Let us ask what advantage will be gained by the assumption of ownership. A centralised man- agement, even of so simple a business as that of col- lecting and distributing letters and parcels, has not been an unqualified success. Where the business is more complicated, as in the other examples, the success has been even less conspicuous. What reason have we to hope, then, in such intricate matters as the railways or the mines, better results will follow? The incentive of individual gain will have dis- appeared, and with it the readiness to accept such risks as those to which reference has already been made. We may easily find that the developments needed to find employment for our young people are not forthcoming, for without such risks being run no growth of employment will take place. Unless I am much mistaken, a great temptation will be put before politicians to make concessions to the huge army voters who will be in the direct employment of the Government. The experience of these five years has failed to teach the lesson that you cannot touch one branch of labour without affecting all others. An advance of wages given to one section will inevitably be demanded by all others. The result will be prejudicial to the whole community. As regards international trade, we may find ourselves shut out of foreign markets because our wages are made artificially high, just as we should be excluded if, for example, the shipowners could compel us to pay inordinate freights on some indispensable raw material like cotton. A cure will speedily come, but it may come after great suffering has been inflicted on the whole com- munity. Parliament can easily impose on the em- ployer, whether a private individual or the State, the payment of a certain wage if a man is employed, but one thing it cannot do, and that is compel the em. ployment of the man at, a wage which the price of the article he produces will not suffice to pay. The aman will remain unemployed. That is the drastic remedy which economic law imposes. We may escape it. by making un from some other source the deficiency 166 NATURE [OcToBER 23, 1919 if we insist on having the article and refuse to pay the cost. But this remedy is applicable only to some small part of our total product. When we come to such industries as those now talked of it is impossible. We must make the industry self-contained. - But it may be said that those most concerned are not striving alone, or even chiefly, for higher wages, but desire to participate in the management and to bear their part in deciding the questions of policy which up to now have been in the hands of the em- ployers. To this no fundamental objection can be raised. The more completely the men engaged in any enterprise understand it, the better it will probably be for the whole. But large questions of policy require knowledge and appreciation of circumstances which can with difficulty be acquired by persons whose life is necessarily passed in quite other surroundings. That the fullest information should be given to the persons. in’ question cannot be denied. The claim to deal with matters of management lying quite beyond their competence cannot be conceded. The final im- pulse comes from one mind which cannot divest itself of its responsibility or exercise it under such condi- tions as those suggested would impose. A universal unrest pervades the world. This had indeed already become apparent before 1914. The war has exacerbated the symptoms which were already sufficiently menacing. Remedies by legislation had been applied here and elsewhere without success. In the nineteenth century the political emanicipation of the inhabitants of this country was gradually effected. By the end of it freedom had been practically won. The great changes which occurred in the political condition of the country as it was before 1832 and as it became bv the end of the century had been brought about with relatively little trouble. If is not surprising that this should have led to the conclusion that economic changes could be effected with equal ease. Perhaps the confusion which we continually observe between a ‘“‘law’’ imposed bv the will of a legislature and a ‘law of Nature,’’ so called, is responsible for this conclusion. Having gained political freedom comparatively easily, people seem to have thought economic freedom could be got with eaual facility. We have had numerous instances of this on which it is unnecessary to dwell. Concessions have been made by which, apparently, life was made much easier for certain people. But the fund out of which these concessions were to come has not been increased. Many of them, though not so intended, had the effect of positively lessening that total. In a perfect world it ought not to have had this effect, but, human nature being what it is, it was easy to foresee the result. It could have been foretold that a minimum wage established by law would sooner or later reduce the output of the man paid by piece. It had that effect on the coal- miners at a verv early date after its enactment. The demand for higher wages without a corresponding increased output was causing anxietv before the out- break of war. The inordinate expenditure which the war brought with it seemed to justifv the contention of the workmen that the claims they had put forward could easilv have been met in the past, and must be conceded when things became normal again. It was forgotten that all thought of economic production had ceased. We were living, not on the earnings of the vear, but on credit raised on our expectations of the future. In the past this course was also pursued, but (as has already been pointed out) in very different circumstances, for the capital thus created was cal- culated to yield an adequate return to the persons interested. None of the remedies proposed touches the difficulty. NO, 2608, VoL. 104] We must obtain a larger product if we are to have more to divide. Restrictions in output, whether pro- duced by the act of the Legislature, the will of the worker, or (let us add) the hindrance of a tariff, will fail to effect this. None of the short cuts now pro- posed will lead us to our goal. Can we convince those most deeply interested of the truth of this? The task is not an easy one, for promises without end are made to accomplish what is desired without pur- suing the patient and laborious course which alone can lead to a happy solution. For my part, I rely on the common sense of my fellow-countrymen. ‘The speedy abolition of all artificial prices by which we ‘ shall get to know the real cost of what we buy will be a great help. We may hope that on this will follow an earnest desire on the part of all to do their best for the commonweal—convinced that on this intel- ligent altruism we are best serving our own ends. A better division of industry would ensue. The net result would be a happy and contented nation, in which the efforts of each would be more guided by the common welfare than by the selfish desire for the advantage of the individual. None of these things can be accomplished by Acts — Statutory prices and statutory hours — of Parliament. offer no solution—rather increase the evil than lessen it. There is no royal road by which we can travel to a solution. We must, by patience and mutual for- bearance, seek to alter the present hostile attitude. We may frankly accept Prof. Cannan’s opinion that ‘the economic organisation of the nineteenth and ear twentieth centuries will not endure for ever, but wi be gradually replaced by something else more suitable for its own day and generation.’’* _ ; Let all parties in the State bend themselves to this change, in which, again to quote Prof. Cannan, “free associations of free men able to go out and come in as each pleased would voluntarily give ser- vice for service, irrespective of domicile and nationality.”” This is a change which we may agree with him in thinking more “desirable than ary restoration of the feudal system basing economic organisation on the territory of the lord, even if the personal lord of the Middle Ages is replaced by a Parliament elected by universal suffrage and propor- tional representation.’?? FORTHCOMING BOOKS OF SCIENCE. SINCE the appearance of the article on “ Forth- coming Books of Science”? in Nature of October 16, some further lists of books likely to appear in the near future have reached us. The Cambridge University Press is to publish ‘The Transmutation of Bacteria,’? Dr. S. Gurney-Dixon, and ‘t Notes on Mag- netism,’? C. G. Lamb. Messrs. C. Griffin and Co., Ltd., announce “The Flow and Measurement of Air and Gas,’’ A. B. Eason; ‘The Practical Desi in of rine» Plate Girder Bridges,’ H. Bird, illustrated; “* Diesel Engines: Maintenance and Running,” J. Lamb, illustrated ; ‘‘ Laboratory Aids in Practical Mechanics,” G. S. Bowling; “ Airman’s International Dictionary, English-French-Italian-German,” Lieut. M. M. Dander; ‘‘A Treatise on Surveying and Levelling,’’ S. Threlfall, illustrated; ‘‘ Modern Mine Valuation,” D. Penman, illustrated; ‘‘Peat Reference Book,” F. T. Gissing; ‘‘Coke-Oven and By-Products Works Chemistry,’’ T. B. Smith, illustrated ; ‘‘ Coal Economy : The Reduction of National Coal Consumption by so Million Tons a Year,’’ W. H. Casmey; “ Analytical Chemistry as a Profession for Women,’’ Emily A. L. Forster; ‘Text-book of Inorganic Chemistry,” 1 “Coal Nationalisation,” p. 25. 2 Thid. ee eee Te eee Se eS OT ey ae ‘*The Mineralo _ Richmond; _‘*Modern Road _ Construction,’’ OcToOBER 23, 1919] NATURE 167 vol. ix., Cobalt, Nickel, and the Elements of the ' Platinum Group, Dr. J. Newton Friend, and Iron, _ Dr. J. Newton Friend and J. Bentley; _ editions of ‘‘A Treatise on Petroleum,’’ Sir Boverton and new Redwood, Bart., in 4 vols.; ‘Electrical Practice in _ Collieries,’’? Prof. D. Burns; ‘‘The Problem of Flight : A Text-book of Aerial Engineering,” H. Chatley; of the Rarer Metals,’’. E. Cahen and W. O. ootton; ‘‘Elementary Agricultural Chemistry,’? H. Ingle; ‘‘ Dairy Chemistry,’? H. D. “Paper Technology,” R. W. Sindall; F.. Wood; ‘The Physico-Chemical Properties of Steel,’? Dr. C. A. Edwards; ‘‘General Foundry Practice,’? A. McWil- liam and P. Longmuir; ‘‘A Medical Handbook.’’ Dr. R. S. Aitchison; *‘Introduction to the Study of Mid- wifery,’? by Dr. A. Donald, illustrated; ‘‘A Manual of Elementary Seamanship,’’ D. Wilson-Barker; and “Elementary Coal-Mining,”’ G. L. Kerr. The new list of the J. B. Lippincott Co. includes ‘“‘The Harvey | Lectures, Delivered under the Auspices of the Harvey Society of New York, 1917-1919"; ‘‘Training of a Pharmacist,’”” D. C. O’Connor, illustrated; ‘‘ Airplane Photography,’’ Major H. E. Ives, illustrated; ‘ Train- ing for the Electric Railway Business,’ C. B. Fair- child, illustrated; and ‘Applied Economic Botany,” Prof. M. T. Cook, illustrated. They have also a number of volumes in preparation for appearance _ Paterson; _-versi Principality. He congratulated Sheffield on the pro- in the series of ‘‘Monographs on Experimental Biology and General Physiology.’? Mr. John Murray promises ‘‘Science and Life: Aberdeen _ Addresses,’’ Prof. F. Soddy; ‘‘Springtime and Other Essays,”’ Sir Francis Darwin; ‘The Life of Sir Wil- liam White, K.C.B., F.R.S.,” F. Manning, illus- trated; ‘The Shibboleths of Tuberculosis,’’ Dr. M. ““Theodore Roosevelt’s Letters to his Children,’’ edited by J. B. Bishop; ‘‘ Wild Life in Canada,”’ Capt. A. Buchanan, illustrated; ‘‘ Homing with the Birds,’’ Gene Stratton-Porter; ‘‘ Strategic Camouflage: The Probing of a German Secret,’’ S. A. Solomon, illustrated; and a new and enlarged edition of ‘‘Microscopy: The Construction, Theorv, and Use of the Microscope,”’ E. J. Spitta, illustrated. We notice that Dr. E. A. Wallis Budge’s long- expected new book is to be entitled ‘‘By Nile and Tigris: A Narrative of Journeys in Egypt and Meso- potamia on Behalf of the British Museum between the Years 1886-1913.’’ It will be in two volumes and illustrated. : UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL INTELLIGENCE. Bristor.—A new chair of physical chemistry has been established in the University on the endowment of Lord Leverhulme. Capt. J. W. McBain, lecturer in physical chemistry in the University since its foundation, has been appointed to the chair. _ OxrorD.—We understand that Prof. S. H. Vines is retiring from the Sherardian professorship of botany in the University at the end of the current year. SHEFFIELD.—On Friday, October 17, the Prime Minister received an honorary degree at the Univer- sity, and took the opportunity of speaking on the place which the university, especially the modern university, can fill in the general field of education. He spoke with great cordiality on the function in the educational world of the modern universities, illus- trating particularly by the influence which the Uni- of Wales has exercised throughout the entire gress that it had made, and paid a warm tribute of appreciation to the work of Mr. H. A. L. Fisher, WO, 2608, VOL. 104] both as Vice-Chancellor of the University and as President of the Board of Education. In particular he spoke of the work done by the applied science department during the whole his- tory of the University, and especially in relation to the supply of munitions for the British Army. “The contribution of Sheffield,’ the Prime Minister said, ‘‘was not merely a contribution drawn from the ranks of its students and its staff on the fighting side. It made a real contribution on the side of the provision of materials—an essential part of the winning of the war.’ At the same time he. pointed out that the work of a modern university was not by any means comprised in the service which it rendered to material needs or to local industries, important as these were; it should be, in addition, the intellectual centre of the whole district in which it was situated. “Tt leads,”* he said, ‘‘the population which surrounds it to a higher culture; that is the great task of all these young universities; and I am glad to know that Sheffield is thoroughly realising the importance of this aspect of its work, as well as the more and imme- diately practical part of the enterprise.” Tue Salters’ Institute of Industrial Chemistry has awarded grants in aid to thirty young persons occupied in chemical factories in or near London to assist them in improving their knowledge of chemistry. TuHE estate left by the late Gen. Horace W. Car- pentier is valued, says Science, at 721,200l. The principal beneficiaries are Columbia University and Barnard College, each of which receives 284,o00l., and the University of California receives 20,o000l. From the same source we learn that by the will of the late Mr. Charles W. Lenney, of New York, 10,0001. is left to Boston University. Tue Rev. S. Graham Brade-Birks has been ap- pointed lecturer in zoology at the South-Eastern Agri- cultural College, Wye. Mr. Brade-Birks is an honours graduate of the Victoria University of Manchester, and since his ordination in 1914 has spent much of his leisure researching with his wife (Dr. Brade-Birks) on the English millipedes and centipedes. Last session (1918-19) he acted as demonstrator in the zoological laboratories at the University of Manchester. SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES. Paris. Academy of Sciences, September 22.—M. Léon Guignard in the chair——The president announced the death of Gustaf Retzius, correspondant for the section of anatomy and zoology.—N. E, Nérlund; The poly- nomials of Bernoulli.—L. B. Robinson ; A symmetrical system of polynomials.—J. Chazy: Solutions of the problem of three’ bodies where the three bodies form an isosceles triangle.—G. Sagnac: The ether and absolute mechanics of waves.—L. Bruninghaus: The conditions of production-of fluorescence.—J. Guyot and L. J. Simon; The action of hydrates, oxides, and carbonates of the alkaline earths on dimethyl sulphate. Quicklime and caustic baryta are almost without action upon methyl sulphate; baryta-water and lime-water give barium and calcium methyl sulphates in theoretical quantities. Crystallised barium hydrate or slaked lime with methyl sulphate gives methyl ether and the sul- phate of the metal.—M. Delpech; Flameless powders. An account of experiments on the effect of adding charcoal, vaseline, and other substances to propellant explosive from the point of view of producing a flame- less explosion at the gun. Vaseline and heavy petroleum oil proved to be the most effective, provided 168 NATURE [OcToBER 23, 1919 that suitable additions to the weight of the: charge were made to make up for the addition of the non- explosive material.—M. Bourgeat: The discovery of coal-bearing schists on the borders .of the Serre.— E, Chaput; Remarks on the origins and classification of Desmoceras.—F. Morvillez: The leaf-conductor apparatus in the Hamamelidacee and neighbouring forms.—J. Duirénoy; Experimental bacterial tumours in pines. This disease is due to a coccus, and is transmissible from tree to tree. The tumour is caused by a deposit of resin at the infected part.—G. Bazile : New methods for the destruction of Acridians. The experiments were carried out in Algeria on columns ‘of Schistocerca tatarica. Of the methods tried, the use of flame-projectors proved to be the best.—P. ‘Godin: Difference of progression of the index of growth in the male and female sexes. SYDNEY. Royal Society of. New South Wales, September 3.— _ Prof. C. E. Fawsitt, president, in the chair.—J. H. Maiden: Two new Western Australian species of Eucalyptus. ‘The two. species have hitherto been wrongly included in Eucalyptus Oldfieldii One is a mallee that was originally collected by the Elder Exploring Expedition in 1891 both in South Australia and in Western Australia. It is now recorded from the Murchison River. It attains a height of about 20 ft., and has a singular, striate bark. The other species grows in damp, sandy land between the Darling Range, south of Perth, and the sea. It is a white gum, and has for many years been confused with the wandoo.—E, Cheel: Three new species of Lepto- spermum. One of the species from North Queens- land, collected by Dr. E. Mjoberg during the Swedish Scientific Expedition to the Commonwealth in 1913, has been named Leptospermum Mjobergi in honour of the discoverer. The other two species are found chiefly along the south coast.of this State, and include a species which somewhat resembles some. of our native Epacris. This has been named Leptospermum epacridioideum, and the other L. odoratum on account of the fragrant oil contained in the leaves. BOOKS RECEIVED. Stereochemistry. By Prof. A. W. Stewart. Second edition. Pp. xvit+277. (London: Longmans and Co.) 12s. 6d. net. Immunity in Health: The Function of the Tonsils and other Subepithelial Lymphatic Glands in the Bodily Economy. By Prof. K. H. Digby. Pp. viii+ 130. (London: Henry Frowde and Hodder and Stoughton.) 8s. 6d. net. Human Vitality and Efficiency under Prolonged Restricted Diet. “By F. G. Benedict; W. R. Miles, P. Roth, and H. M. Smith. Pp. xi+7o01. (Washing- ton: Carnegie Institution of Washington.) A Biometric Study of Basal Metabolism in Man. By J. A. Harris and F. G. Benedict. Pp. vi+266. (Washington: Carnegie Institution of Washington.) The Ecological Relations of Roots. By Prof. J. E. Weaver. Pp. vii+128+30. (Washington: Carnegie Institution of Washington.) The Carbohydrate Economy of Cacti. By H. A. Spoehr. Pp. 709. of Washington.) Orthogenetic Evolution in Pigeons. . Works of Prof. C. Otis Whitman. by O. Riddle. Pp. x+194+88 plates. Carnegie Institution of Washington.) Inheritance, Fertility, and the Dominance of Sex and Color in Hybrids of Wild Species of Pigeons. ‘Posthumous Works of Prof. C. Otis Whitman. NO. 2608, VOL. 104] (Washington : Carnegie Institution Posthumous Vol. i. Edited (Washington : Vol. ii. Edited by O. Riddle. (Washington: Carnegie Institution of Washington.) The Behavior of Pigeons. Prof. C. Otis Whitman. Vol. H.-A: Carr. ~: Pp; ixi+r6r. Institution of Washington.) iii. Edited by Prof. (Washington : Theorie de Strahlung und der Quatre By ‘Dr. A. March. Pp. vii+182. (Leipzig: J. A. Barth.) 12 marks. Studies of Heredity in Rabbits, Rats, and Mi-s. By W. E. Castle. Pp. iii+56+iii plates. - (Washing- ton: Carnegie Institution of Washington.) A Manual of Physics. By Dr. J. A. Crowther. Pp. xx+537. (London: Henry Frowde and Hodder and Stoughton.) 16s. net. ~~ DIARY OF SOCIETIES. FRIDAY, OctoBer 24. PuvsicaL Society, at 5.—Dr. N. W. McLachlan: The Effect of Pressure and Temperature’ on a Meter for Measuring the Rate of Flow of a Gas. W. T. Walsh: —J. H. Shaxby: A Cheap and Simple Micro-balance.—J. The Resolution of a Curve into a Number of Exponentials. Institution oF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS, at 6.—Dr. E. Presidential Address. , Hopkinson : TUESDAY, Octoser 28, ~ Wrretrss Society or Lonpon (at Institution of Civil ages wick ax 6 General Meeting. WEDNESDAY, OcrosER 29. Royat. AFRONAUTICAL Horace Darwin: ‘Ihe Static Head Turn Indicator for A Pp. x+224+39 plates ‘ Posthumous Works: of : Carnegie he se — i Sociery (at, Royal Society of Ai ties Bey at asi . Pe eh ee _ CONTENTS. | PAGE Facts and Factors of Evolution. ByJ.A.T. ... 149 American Universities. By Cok. Mee 158 Our Bookshelt 2.00 S750. sta Waa a 4 4) 152 Letters to the Editor:— ; The Doubly Refracting Structure of Silica Glass.— Right Hon, Lord Ravleien, F.R.S., : 153 A Search for Fine Wool.—Prof. J. C. Ewart, F. RS. 153 Radiation Temperatures. — Spencer Pickering, Slants org cee bathe 153 Time Relations in a Dream. Joseph Barcroft, Pe CBE INR ’S. nd GO haan 154 International Relations in Science — Prof, D'Arcy, W. Thompson, C.B., F.R.S. . . . 1... 154 International Organisation i in ‘Sciencé): ieee * 154 Evolution of Ostrich Plumes ..... . a oes Education:in India... ...0 02°. .° . sie 15) WSO Bb ee eh ie ae be a ee re oedae eee 5 oy a Our Astronomical Column ;— : NOVI Roo ya sek a we pe ee ee 160 — The Sun-spot Curve 00.0. si.) 6) eid eee ae oo) 160-4 Solar-Radiation «0.5. 3s SR 160 New Sources of Aluminium in Norway Py L. Hawkes icc eo 2 a eee 160 — Hydro-electric “Development. Works. By Dr. Brysson Cuntingham . 9) )°2)75eeeeee 161 The British Association at Bournemouth :— Section F—Economic Science and Statistics—Opening ~ Address (Abridged) by Sir Hugh ba Bart., : D.L., J.P., President of the Section. . ... 162 Forthcoming Books of Science . ..... . 166 University and Educational intelligence : ear apltyY *\:« Societies and Academies. ...... aie 167 Books Received ‘ 163 | Diary or Bocieries - 8. ee eps 168 Editorial and Publishing Offices: MACMILLAN AND CO., Ltp., ST. MARTIN’S STREET, LONDON, W.C.2. Adyertisanene and business letters to be addressed to the Publishers, F Editoria] Communications to the Editor. Telegraphic Address: Piusis, LoNpos. ~ Telephone Number: GERRARD 8830. the biological adjustment to an environment. i 3 & Ae eeNaRENM co me “se _ subjective, not simply superposed. NATURE 16g -~THURSDAY, OCTOBER 30, 1919. EDUCATION AND LIFE. Education for the Needs of Life: A Text-book in the Principles of Education. By Dr. I. E. Miller. (Home and School Series.) Pp. vii+ » 353. (New York: The Macmillan Co.; London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd., 1919.) - Price 7s. net. BOOKS on education may be roughly divided into two classes—those to be read and those to be avoided. There need be no hesitation in placing Dr. Miller’s work in the former class. It is designed chiefly as a text-book, but may be studied with profit by those who have long passed student days. It is a fresh and attractive re- statement of the educational problem and its sug- gested solution. Education is conceived of as an integral phase of the life process; its task is to ascertain the child’s vital needs and satisfactions, and to prepare him for their discharge or enjoy- ment, as the case may be. The starting-point is But adjustment is not mere passive moulding; it in- cludes also dynamic response by the child. Nor does environment consist solely of the physical and material world; it embraces also mental, moral, social, zsthetic, and religious factors. The general treatment of the biological presupposi- tions occupies the first chapter, in the course of which it appears that the several elements involved are the aim of education, the.child, the curriculum, methods, and the teacher. These, therefore, are the titles of the other five chapters. Dr. Miller is a trained and sane psychologist, and his chapter on the child is an admirable epitome of our present knowledge of the stages of development up to adolescence, with hints for guidance in their treatment. Education must be functional; it must follow the child; it must wait upon development; it must catch the seasons of Opportunity. The curriculum and the method _ must alike be organic to the pupil’s capacities and _ requirements, and the teacher must by character and training be a person who can adapt him- self to the varying situations which continually «confront him. No mere structural or mechanical _ View satisfies the conditions of the problem, for any education deserving of the name must be While the author would probably hesitate to subscribe to Rousseau’s doctrine that the child should learn no tesson of which he does not see the present need, yet his theory seems to suggest that the appeal must always be through the consciousness of a felt want. He does, indeed, distinctly recognise the remote end—the needs of life; but as “two _ points determine a straight line,” the present _ needs of the child and the destination in life are _ sufficient, he thinks, for the teacher’s guidance and the pupil’s well-being. But surely education is, like NO, 2609, VOL. 104] -the shoals. human progress in general, not a straight. line. The analogy is rather that of zigzagging in a mountain ascent, or tacking on a _ voyage, where the goal is reached by humouring the gale, availing of the currents, and, above all, avoiding Or, like the billiard player, the teacher may have to effect a cannon through a series of carefully calculated reactions along numerous lines, and with ultimate dual or multiple aim. The volume bears evidence all through of the influence of Profs. Dewey, James, and other American writers, but Dr. Miller is by no means a slavish copyist. Among points of special merit are the treatment of imagination, the fundamental conception of the curriculum in its relation to life, and the plea for generous esthetic culture based on psychological no less than on practical con- siderations. Dr. Miller writes out of the fullness of knowledge, first-hand acquaintance with the problems he discusses, and a belief in the efficacy of education which is an indispensable qualifica- tion of all workers in the field. But one would welcome a modification of expressions like ‘to gushingly remark” (p. 29), “to continually re- construct ” (p. 242), “‘run way beyond” (p. 292), and the like. MATHEMATICAL TEXT-BOOKS, (1) Introductory Mathematical Analysis. By Dr. W. Paul Webber and Prof. Louis Clark Plant. Pp. xiiit+304. (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc. ; London: Chapman and Hall, Ltd., 1919.) Price 9s. 6d. net. > (2) Descriptive Geometry. By H. W. Miller. Revised in 1917 by the Department of General Engineering Drawing. Fourth edition. Pp.v+ 176. (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc. ; London: Chapman and Hall, Ltd., 1918.) Price 7s. net. (3) Premiers Eléments d’une Théorie du Quadri- latére Complet. By A. Oppermann. Pp. 76+ 1 plate. (Paris: Gauthier-Villars et Cie, 1919.) Price 4 fr. (1) ga! book contains the elements of algebra, trigonometry, analytical geometry, and infinitesimal calculus; it is apparently intended for first-year students at a university. The reviewer does not feel able to recommend the book; the reason for his opinions will be gathered from the following notes, which may be of use to the authors in the event of their having to prepare another edition :— P. 122. It is tacitly assumed that complex numbers obey the ordinary laws of algebra; the assumption is pointed out in a footnote on p- 240. P. 199. The proofs of the formule for the derivates of irrational and imaginary powers. appear to assume what they profess to prove. Incidentally, imaginary powers do not seem to be defined anywhere in the book. : K 170 NATURE [OCTOBER 30, 1919 P. 236. The exponential series is defined as the limit of (1+x/n)", and is denoted by e*; on p. 237 it is taken for granted that e*, so defined, obeys the laws of indices. é P. 241. The proof of Euler’s exponential ex- pressions for the sine and cosine is new to the | reviewer, but he fails to see why the variable: must be expressed in radians rather than in any other unit of angular measure. The fact that the authors tell us on three occasions (pp. 108, 147, 243) that angles must be given in radians scarcely seems an adequate reason. We are told twice (pp. 22 and 29) that feet and inches are denoted by the symbols / and ”, but it is apparently considered superfluous to define a degree (until p. 106, though degrees are used on p. 41) or to give the details of sexagesimal measure, and the student is referred to the tables for the values of the trigonometrical functions of 30°; 45°, and 6o". P. 63. A definition of “‘variable” is given, but no definition of “constant.”’ P. 91, ex. 10. To solve sin (x—25°)=0-6 by using the addition theorem is a method which seems unnecessarily cumbrous. P. oi, ex. it.The equation. arctanx=— arc sec x— 45° seems to lead to a cubic equation. Methods for solving cubics are not given until + 144. . P. 182. The student should not be asked to prove that, in the hyperbola, F/P—-FP=2a, with- out being told that the equation is true for one branch only. P. 269. In a book which does not define even hyperbolic functions, it is going rather far to ask the student to find the length of y=sinx from x%=0 tO X=T. Chap. xvii. The notations //(x) and /f(x)dx seem to be used indifferently. The object of the former notation is not apparent. The notation “cot” used hitherto is here replaced by “ctn” without explanation. Misprints and other minor errors have been noted at p. 35, €X.175 p. 50) 6x. 473 py 60, 1-04 p. 100, 1-7 up, p. 116, 0x.3905 -p. 120, 4.2 Moe Pe tesole 2 up sp. 136, Tiersen. 1737 ex ates p-100, 6x. 6}.'p. 232; I. 3) 4) p. ean 6 y cane O10 253) GX. 227 Pp. 205,78 Pe 274, OXS. TA, 21 5p. 275. ex. 2h dnd p, aye, ep ends (2) This work, which was first published in 1911, has now been revised by the author, with the assistance of six of his colleagues. It forms an admirable introduction to the subject for the student, and deserves very high commendation. The mode of presentation has been carefully thought out, with the result that the style is clear and lucid, and any student of ordinary intelligence should be able to get from the book a sound knowledge of the subject without. the aid of a teacher. -The first chapter contains a synopsis of the notations used in the book; then follow four chapters on the representations of points and lines NO, 2609, VOL. 104] Lj DP. 470, OR. Bie by elevation and plan, and of planes by their traces; next there are four chapters on curved surfaces—mainly cones, cylinders, and spheres— a useful chapter on shadows, and a brief account of perspective. These chapters contain numerous practical problems, each worked out in full with enunciation, discussion, analysis, and construc- tion. eight long papers of problems and a good index. The diagrams are clear and well-proportioned, though a few of them would have been improved by being made rather larger. : ; The reviewer would like to make a few minor suggestions for the improvement of future editions. In the first place, the student may be a little puzzled at finding that the “ profile-plane””. plays a subordinate part compared with the other two co-ordinate planes (e.g. it is not mentioned in §19 on the “alphabet” of a point), and the explanation of this would be useful. Also, the terms “profile ground-line ” (§ 13) for a line which is not horizontal, and “vertical of a plane ” (§ 42) for a line which is not vertical, seem somewhat misleading. : ee Two omissions must be mentioned. The first is that no use is made of the method of changing the co-ordinate planes—a method which gives an elegant solution of such a problem as finding the true length of a line, by taking a new vertical plane parallel to the plan of the line. The second omission is of rather more importance to the student; he would find the subject much more interesting and concrete if some work (possibly in the form of examples) on solids with plane faces were included. The reviewer well remembers how fascinated he used to be by drawing cubes and pyramids in fantastic positions, particu- larly if a section of the solid had also to be drawn, ce The book would have been enhanced in value to the student of crystallography if some account of isometric projection had been given, and the reviewer would have been glad to see some developments of the theory of perspective—e.g. the theorem that plane figures in perspective remain in perspective when rotated about their axis of collineation; but possibly the author con- siders that such additions would have unduly increased the size of the book. In this, an interesting and suggestive work, — 3 ’ 5. Be > : He) the author (an engineer) discusses the theory of the quadrilateral after the manner in which various modern geometers have discussed the triangle. The treatment is quite elementary, and the object of the author is not to give a complete discussion of the subject, but to encourage and facilitate research. The book, “publié au moment ot la France vient de reconquérir les provinces qui lui ont été arrachées en 1871,” is dedicated to the memory of Joseph Pruvost, professor of mathematics at Strasbourg until the annexation; it contains a useful bibliography—a feature hitherto somewhat rare in mathematical works published in France. : ; The book concludes with a collection of — worked at _ which cover an area of 400 square miles and are OcrToseER 30, 1919] NATURE 171 MINERAL RESOURCES OF GEORGIA. Mineral Resources of Georgia and Caucasia: _ Manganese Industry of Georgia.” By D. Gham- bashidze. Pp. 182. (London: George Allen and Unwin, Ltd.; New York: The Macmillan - Co., 1919.) Price 8s. 6d. net. axe little book is interesting as being the out- come of the reorganisation of national boun- _ daries after the war and as evidence of the poli- tical and economic independence of the new Re- public of Georgia; this was an independent king- dom until it was forcibly annexed by Russia in 1801, and only recommenced its autonomous exist- ence in 1917. The object of the work now pub- lished by Mr. Ghambashidze is to make British readers acquainted with the industrial importance of Georgia and Caucasia so far .as the mineral wealth of this region is concerned. The author gives a long list of the various mineral substances of economic value known to occur therein, although relatively few have been worked on an industrial scale. The oilfields of Caucasia have long been known, the principal field, that of Baku, having been for many years one of the world’s great producers, with an annual (pre-war) output of about 7 million tons of petroleum. Next in importance comes that of Grozny, with a production of 1-1} million tons, and there are also several smaller ones, the out- put from which is at present negligible; even the Maikop field, the first borings in which aroused so much excitement, has sunk to a quite unim- portant factor in the general production. Of the other non-metallic minerals, bitumen is at present the most important, though the sulphur deposits in the province of Erivan, 30 miles from a rail- way line, may prove to be of value in the near future. Of the metallic minerals, a few deposits of iron-ore are known, but none apparently of great importance. There are several known deposits of blende and galena, but only one, a mine at Sadon, is being worked at present; it is in the hands of a Russo-Belgian company, the Société Miniére et Chimique Alagir. Copper is abundant and has been worked in many parts of Georgia and Caucasia. The best known of all is the Kedabek mine at Mis-Dag, which was an important producer up to about 1912, when the deposits began to show signs of exhaustion, so that the present output is barely 100 tons of copper per annum, whereas it was at one time up to 1750 tons. Altogether there were in 1914 some twenty-eight copper mines at work, fourteen of which had their own smelters; the total produc- - tion of copper in 1914 was 8259 tons. The most _ important of the metalliferous minerals is man- _ ganese ore. In addition to.a number of deposits in various parts of Georgia, which are not being present, and are briefly referred to, -known deposits in the province of Kutais, _ estimated to contain 200 million tons of available NO, 2609, VOL. 104] ore, are described in some detail. The exports of this ore from Georgia had reached more than a million tons in 1913, but then fell off rapidly owing to the war. There appears to be no reason why this industry should not again recover its previous importance. The book contains a valu- able amount of statistical information carefully tabulated, showing the mineral production of the districts treated of, and should be of use to all engaged in the mineral industry of the Near East. Heke OUR BOOKSHELF. : A Simple and Rapid Method of Tide Prediction. (Including Diurnal Time and Height Inequali- ties.) By Sgt. M. E. J. Gheury. Pp. 53. (London: J. D. Potter, 1919.) Price 5s. In this little book the author explains the method which he developed for predicting the time and height of high and low water at Richborough, on the River Stour (Kent). From observations of these variables, extending over a fortnight only (in the first instance), it proved: possible to deduce satisfactory predictions with but little trouble. The method has a rational basis, which is described in a preliminary: account of the tide- producing forces and their variations. The work involved is partly graphical and partly tabular, but no harmonic analyses are required. The aim is to replace the unsatisfactory method by which - a set of. corrections is applied to the high- and low-water data for the nearest standard port, which at some stations may be as much as 200 miles away. In the present case the nearest standard port was only 20 miles away (Dover), but even in this instance Mr. Gheury’s method, applied to deduce times of high water, gave better results than did the application of a correction to the elaborately derived Dover data. Rich- borough, being situated several miles up a narrow and sinuous tidal stream opening in a_ bay, presents some rather complex tidal features,. in- cluding well-marked diurnal height and time in- equalities; the success of the method, which can readily be applied to other similar or simpler stations, is therefore the more significant. The book is marred by some irritating misprints and grammatical errors, but the explanations are, on the whole, correct and lucid. Fermat’s Last Theorem: Three Proofs by Ele- mentary Algebra. By M. Cashmore. Revised edition. Pp. 55. (London: G. Bell and Sons, Ltd., 1918.) Price 2s. 6d. net. It is unfortunate that F. P. Wolfkehl’s legacy of a prize for settling the vexed question of “Fermat’s Last Theorem ” should have stimulated such a large erroneous mathematical literature. Most of the publications pretending to prove the theorem are deplorable for at least three reasons: first, because many of their authors have had in- sufficient mathematical training to enable them to decide whether a supposed proof is sound or not; secondly, because of the expense’ incurref# by the authors in printing invalid proofs;: ‘and 172 NATURE [OcroBER 30, 1919 thirdly, because useless publications increase the burden of librarians and scholars. We are far from wishing to discourage genuine attempts to reproduce Fermat’s line of thought. In view of the state of mathematical knowledge 250 years ago, Fermat’s proof, assuming it to be correct— a point on which expert opinions differ—is as likely to be discovered by a clever schoolboy of seventeen as by a more highly trained mathe- matician. Mr. Cashmore, in the tract before us, presents three distinct “proofs,” all erroneous. In I. (p. 14) he states that when : ax?-+by?=w", then w=au? + bv?, - the letters denoting ordinary integers. A numeri- cal example is enough to show that this is erroneous; thus 224+ 5.127= 32, 11-2?+ o8=59; but there are no integral solutions of x24 5y2?=3, rix?+yF=5. The first of several fallacies in IJ. occurs on p. 26, and in III. (p. 43) Mr. Cashmore states that when (p"—q”)y"-1 is divisible by pq, then y is divisible by pq, it being assumed that p and q are integers with no common factor It is seen that this deduction is erroneous by taking P=9, 7=4, y=6, n=3. W. Es HB: Secrets of Animal Life. By Prof. J. Arthur _ Thomson. Pp. viiit+324. (London: Andrew Melrose, Ltd., 1919.) Price 7s. 6d. net. Tus is a collection of forty essays, contributed during- recent years by Prof. Thomson to the New Statesman, and now collected in a handy and attractive volume. In his own clear and charming style the author’ seeks “to interest thoughtful readers in the multitudinous problems of animal life,” and he wisely enforces the lesson that, in’ many cases, the solutions of - these problems are ‘“‘secrets”’ = still. | Such familiar subjects as the habits of rooks and cuckoos or the “Fall of the Year” are mixed with review- summaries of noteworthy recent zoological literature of general interest such as Watson and Lashley’s observations on the “homing” of terns, Emery’s researches on the habits of Amazon ants, or Petersen’s surveys of the Zostera-beds off the coasts of Denmark, The problems of inheritance and evolution are pro- minent, as might ‘be expected, and from ‘such papers as “With Darwin Forwards” and “The Mendelian Clue,” the ‘thoughtful reader” may gain a clear introductory view of the fields of biological inquiry, as well as guidance in the way of deeper study. Prof. Thomson never misleads those for whom he writes by implying that after reading him they have no more to learn; his treatment of ‘‘The Problem of Cave Blindness,” for example, affords a needed corrective to wide- spread dogmatism on a subject-that has appealed to popular imagination since the early days of evolutionary biology. — Ay G,..F1, Crag NO, 2609, VOL. 104] LETTERS TO THE EDITOR. [The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opini expressed by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake. toa return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manu-' scripts intended for this or any other part of Nature. No notice is taken of anonymous communications.] International Relations in Science. I Do not agree with the proposals made by Prof. D’Arcy Thompson in Nature of October 23. 1 think that the less our academies and societies move in this matter the better. For my own part I objected alto- gether to the proposal made durin strike off our records the names of distinguished men of enemy nationality who had been elected ‘foreign members” before the war. They had not been admitted to any power or rights in consequence of that election, and it was, in my judgment, futile and petty to endeavour to obliterate the record of the honour which had been justly accorded to them. As to making overtures to, and the reception of overtures from, the academies of those hostile nationalities with which peace is not yet ratified, it seems to me that our own societies and academies should at present neither offer nor accept any such overtures. They are mere formalities and demonstra- tions without any real significance or value, and must be, and are often designed to be, misleading. On the other hand, I think every individual should act according to his own feeling and judgment, and not according to mass sentiment, in regard to entering into friendly relations with German men of science. At present I personally could not accept such rela- tions, I wish to reserve all action in the matter until my memory of many things has faded. But I will never wittingly treat.even those whom I most dislike with less than justice tempered by fracas E. Ray LaNKESTER. The Response of Plants to Wireless Stimulation. A GRowING plant bends towards light; this is true, not only of the main stem, but also of its branches and attached leaves and leaflets. This movement in response is described as the tropic effect of light. Growth itself is modified by the action of light: two different effects depending on the intensity are produced; strong stimulus of light causes a diminution of rate of growth, but very feeble stimulus induces an acceleration of growth. The tropic effect is very strong in the ultra-violet region of the spectrum with its extremely short wave-length of light; but the effect declines practically to zero as we move towards the less refrangible rays, the yellow and the red, with their comparatively long wave-length. As we proceed further in the infra-red region we come across the vast range of electric radiation, the wave-lengths of which vary from the shortest wave I have been able to produce (0-6 cm.) to others which may be miles in length. There thus arises the very interesting question whether plants perceive and respond to the long ether-waves, in- cluding those employed in signalling through space. At first sight this would appear to be very un- likely, for the most effective rays are in the ultra- violet region with wave-length as short as 20x 10-* cm.; but with electric waves used in wireless sig- nalling we have to deal with waves 50,000,000 times as long. The perceptive power of our retina is con- fined within the very narrow range of a single octave, the wave-lengths of which lie between 70x 10~° cm. and 35x1o-* cm. It is difficult to imagine that plants could perceive radiations so widely separated from each other as the visible light and the invisible electric waves. . ’ But the ‘subject. assumes a different aspect when we Cis L tea? the war to - OcTOBER 30, 1919] NATURE + 173 take into consideration the total effect of radiation on the plant. Light induces two different effects which may broadly be distinguished as external and internal. The former is visible as movement; the latter finds no outward manifestation, but consists of an ‘‘up”’ or assimilatory chemical change with con- comitant increase of potential energy. Of the two reactions, then, one is dynamic, attended by dissimila- tory ““down’”’ change; the other is potential, asso- ciated with the opposite ‘‘up’”’ change. In reality, the two effects take place simultaneously; but one of them becomes predominant under definite conditions. The modifying condition is the quality of light. With reference to this I quote the following from Pfeffer :-——‘‘So far as is at present known, the action of different rays of the spectrum gives similar curves in regard to heliotropic and phototactic movements, to protoplasmic streaming and movements of the chloroplastids, as well as the photonastic move- ments produced by growth or by changes of turgor. On the other hand, it is the less refrangible rays which are most active in photosynthesis.’”?* The dynamic and potential manifestations are thus seen to be complementary to each other, the rays which induce photosynthesis being relatively ineffective for tropic reaction, and vice versa. Returning to the action of electric waves, since they exert no photosynthetic action they might con- ceivably induce the complementary tropic effect. These considerations led me to the investigation of the subject fourteen years ago, and my results showed that very short electric waves induce a re- tardation of rate of growth; they also produce responsive movements of the leaf of Mimosa when the plant is in a highly sensitive condition.” The energy of the short electric waves is very feeble, and undergoes great diminution at a distance; hence the necessity for employment of a specimen of plant in a highly sensitive condition. I resumed my investigations on the subject at ihe beginning of this year. I wished to find out whether plants in general perceived and responded to long -gther-waves reaching them from a distance. The perception of the wireless stimulation was to be tested, not merely by the responsive movement of sensitive plants, but also by diverse modes of response given by all kinds of plants. _ The Wireless System. For sending wireless signals I had to improvise the following arrangement, more powerful means not being available. The secondary terminals of a moderate-sized Ruhmkorff’s coil were connected with two cylinders of brass, each 20 cm. in length; the sparking took place between two small spheres of steel attached to the cylinders. One of the two cylinders was earthed and the other connected with the aerial 10 metres in height. The receiving aerial was also 10 metres in height, and its lower terminal led to the laboratory, and connected by means of a thin wire with the experimental plant growing in a pot; this latter was put in electric connection with the earth (Fig. 1). The distance between the transmitting and receiving aerial was about 200 metres, the maxi- mum length permitted by the grounds of the institute. I mav state here that with the arrangement described above I obtained very definite mechanical and electric response to wireless impulse. For the former I emploved the plant Mimosa; the latter effect was detected in all plants, sensitive and ordinary. Limitation of space will allow only a_ detailed description of the responsive modification of growth.’ 1 Pfeffer, ‘‘ Physiology of Plants,” vol. ii., p. 104, 2 Bose, ‘‘ Plant Response.” p. 618, (1905.) % A detailed account of the response of plants to wireless stimulation will he found in the Transactions of the Bose Institute, vol. ii., to be published in November, 19109. NO. 2609, VOL. 104] ' radiator. Effect of Wireless Stimulation on Growth. For the detection of variation of growth it was necessary to devise the extremely sensitive balanced crescograph. In this apparatus a compensating movement is given to the plant-holder by which the plant subsides exactly at the same rate as its growth- elongation, so that the tip of the plant remains at the same point. This perfect balance is attained by a variable regulator. The compound magnifying ' ' ' \ Z| s So iw rd filled patterns, thus showing that the two types of technique were contemporaneous. The wares of a. northern type consisted for the most part of simple pottery decorated with large spiral or semi-spiral designs. Maritsa Valley near Philippopolis and generally in the Danubian area, and are essentially northern in type. A number of clay figurines of men, women, and Similar wares are common in the Uppe:— domestic animals were also found. The human figures . are for the most part steatopygous. of these discoveries for the prehistoric study of Mace- donia cannot be overestimated. The importance > The series will be’ published in the forthcoming Annual. of the British School at Athens. Tue October issue of British Birds contains an extremely interesting account of the nesting habits of the sparrowhawk. The author, Mr. J H. Owen, gives a vivid description of the bathing habits of this bird and of its playful feints at capturing prey. At. one time a hen he had under observation stooped at a rabbit two or three times, yet made no serious attempt to seize it; at another it trifled in the same: way with a brood of partridges. most important of Mr. Owen’s notes are those con- But perhaps the cerning the efforts of the bird to protect her eggs from. the sun, which she did at the cost of great dis- tress to herself. | this cause; at times, indeed, they were on the verge of collapse. greatly to the value of these notes. The nestlings suffered no less from - Some very beautiful illustrations add Tue first number of the Radio Review, a monthly - magazine devoted to scientific radio-telegraphy and radio-telephony, has been published. Tt contains © short instalments of papers by André Blondel and— Dr. Eccles on the functions applicable to directive aerials and on the internal action of a triode valve. In Blondel’s paper the definitions are not very explicit, | and so -it is not easy to follow his reasoning. Dr. Eccles’s paper is simpler, but in order to follow it the reader must have a knowledge of Child’s and Langmuir’s papers in the Physical Review. In a brief introduction the editor, Prof. Howe, states the policy — and aims of the review. The remaining part of this issue consists of abstracts and reviews of books. Apparently the aim of the journal is to do for radio- © telegraphy what the Philosophical Magazine does for physics. strikes us as rather meagre. The amount of matter in the first number Tue Institution of Electrical Engineers has issued | an amended edition of its Wiring Rules. These rules Fe a ee Ie, Leen ne ee : OcToBER 30, 1919] NATURE 179 have been universally adopted in this country, and _ they are annually amended so as to keep them abreast of the latest practice. The amendments this year are almost of revolutionary importance. As we fore- shadowed some months ago, the electricians have now abandoned measuring the size of wires in terms of the standard wire gauge (S.W.G.). They have s a ee gauges altogether. Instead of speaking of a No. 20 wire, they speak of a 0-036 wire—that is, one having a diameter of 0036 of an inch. Similarly, instead of writing 3/20 for a cable consisting of three strands of No. 20 wire, they write 3/0-036". Formerly they had a choice of fifty-seven cables for use in elec- tric wiring, but now there are only twenty-four sizes. Careful consideration has shown that this number is sufficient. Naturally this will be a great boon to the cable manufacturers. The British Engineering Standards Association (the B.E.S.A.).is to be con- gratulated on having initiated this important reform. For more than forty years the Institution of Civil Engineers has printed in its Proceedings short ab- . stracts of papers on engineering subjects which have appeared in periodicals and in the Transactions of scientific and technical societies. The institution now _ proposes to issue them separately in quarterly numbers, the first of which appears this month. Although its length is affected by the difficulty of obtaining periodicals from abroad, the first number gives ninety-nine abstracts, which cover seventy pages. Subject- and name-indexes are provided, and it is much to be desired that these should be made more useful by co-ordination in annual or two-yearly indexes. The abstracts are grouped under two heads :—Materials, Measurements, etc., and Engineering Practice. As the latter term is interpreted generously, there is some overlapping with abstracts issued by other bodies, and some system of interchange of abstracts will have to be evolved to prevent several abstracts of the same paper being written. At University College, London, on October 21, a public lecture was given by Prof. J. A. Fleming entitled ‘Speaking Across the Atlantic by Wireless Telephony.”’ Prof. Fleming opened by giving a general review of the physical facts leading up to ordinary telephony, and the application of Fourier’s theorem to wave-forms, with their consequent resolu- tion into harmonics, and the distortion produced in ordinary speech, due to the different velocities and damping of the various harmonics. Since the electro- magnetic waves employed in wireless telegraphy have a velocity which is independent of the wave-length, and a falling-off of intensity with distance which is the same for all frequencies, there is no distortion of the sound in wireless telephony similar to that which occurs in long-distance telephony of the ordinary kind. Speech transmitted by wireless is particularly clear and distinct. The three typical modes of producing electromagnetic waves were explained and illustrated by lantern-slides—the high-frequency alternator, the Poulsen arc, and the three-electrode thermionic valve used as generator. Prof. Fleming explained the mode of action of the Fleming valve as a rectifier, and _ the development of the three-electrode valve from this. The Marconi Co. now uses seven such valves in cas- cade for amplifying in receiving the feeble trans- Atlantic speech, since the amplification increases geometrically with the number of valves used. By a series of trials the Marconi Co. has demonstrated the possibility of speech over 1800 miles across the - Atlantic, and, moreover, the trials were carried out at an unfavourable time of day, 10 a.m. to I p.m. The audience was large and appreciative, one of the larger lecture-theatres of the college ‘being required. NO. 2609, VOL. 704] A course of six lectures on ‘‘Thermionic Valves ”’ is to follow on succeeding Wednesdays at 5 p.m. Messrs. Chapman and Hall, Ltd., announce :— “Aeronautical Engines,’? Major A. G. Clark; “Theory and Practice of Aeroplane Design,” S. T. G. Andrews and S. F. Benson; ‘* Geometry for Architects and Builders,” J. E. Paynter; ‘‘Mathematics for Engineers,” W. N. Rose, vol. ii.; and ‘* Metric System for Engineers,” C. B. Clapham. Mr. W. Heine- mann is to publish this autumn Sir Ernest Shackle- ton’s new book. It will be entitled “South: The Story of Shackleton’s Last Expedition, 1914-1917.” Messrs. G. Routledge. and Sons, Ltd., promise ‘Bakery Machinery,” A. W. Mathys; “The Utilisa- tion of Natural Powers,” E. L. Burne; ‘ Engineering Instruments and Meters,” E. A. Griffiths; ‘ Direct- current Dynamos and Motors,’’ Prof. W. B. Griffith; and ‘Manufacture and Installation of Electric Cables,’’? C. J. Beaver (in the Industrial Supremacy Books Series). In their Efficiency Books they will publish ‘Bibliography of Industrial Efficiency and Factory Management,’? H. G. T. Cannons, and a new edition of ‘‘ Lectures on Industrial Psychology,’ B. Muscio. Messrs. H. Sotheran and Co. will shortly issue an Illustrated Library edition of their ‘‘ Biblio- theca Chemico-Mathematica.”? It will contain many full-page plates, reproductions of title-pages, textual passages from rare or historically important works, and an analytical subject-index. THE special catalogues of Messrs. H. Sotheran and Co. (140 Strand, W.C.z) are models of what cata- logues of second-hand books should be, for they fur- nish in an interesting manner much out-of-the-way information respecting many of the volumes offered for sale, and are carefully classified. Messrs. Sotheran’s latest catalogue (No. 773, 2s. 6d. net) deals with rare books on exact and applied science, and includes the library of the late Prof. Henrici and a portion of that of Prof. G. Govi, of the University of Naples. Its 3336 items are classified under the headings: General and Collected Works; Mathe- matics; Astronomy and Geodesy; Dialling and Horo- logy; Physics; The Microscope and Microscopy ; Meteorology and Physical Geography; Chemistry; Crystallography; Chemical Technology, including Photography; Mining and Metallurgy; Engineering ; Seamanship, Airmanship, and Naval Architecture; and sets of Learned Societies’ Publications and other scientific journals. The catalogue will be very useful for reference. OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN. Larce Merrrors.—On October 21, at 8h. 35m. G.M.T., a meteor brighter than Jupiter was observed by Mrs. Wilson at Totteridge, by Mr. C. P. Adam- son at Wimborne, and by Mr. H. G. Baker at Wangford. It was directed from a radiant near aCephei, and moved slowly at an averagé height in the atmosphere. On October 22 at 7h. 42m. G.M.T. a bright meteor was seen from Bristol, Stowmarket, Wimborne, and Plumstead, S.E. It had a very long horizontal flight of about three hundred and thirty-five miles at a velocity of thirty-three miles per second, and passed from over a point twenty miles north-east of York to thirty miles south-west of St. Valery, France. Its height was about seventy-four miles, and its radiant at 156°+39°. It is very suggestive that the radiant point of meteors from the comet of 1739, as com- puted by Prof. A. S. Herschel, was at 157°+ 39° for October 22; meteor speed=39 miles per second. The 18¢e NATURE [OcTOBER 30, 1919 comet passed about 7,500,000 miles outside the earth’s orbit. Comet 1919b (BrorseN-MrrcaLr).—Messrs. Braae and Fischer-Petersen have redetermined the’ orbit of this comet from observations on August 21 and September 7 and 27. They first assumed the period as seventy-two years, and found that on this assumption there were residuals of +1-61’, —1-47’ in longitude (great circle) and latitude in the middle observation. They then left the period to be determined by the observations, and obtained the following orbit (Ast. Nach., No. 5015) :-— T =1919 Oct. 17°156 G.M.T. @ =129° 53:10 L=310° 28 56 } 919. 18° 53°02’ log g=9'68695 log ¢ =9'98229 Period = 42°465 years i= The residuals are now —o-21', —o-12’, and, as it appears that a further reduction of the period would | included Sir Horace Plunkett, the Hon. THE NEW LABORATORIES AT ROTHAMSTED. : ON’ Monday, October 20, the new laboratories at Rothamsted were opened by Sir Arthur Griffith- Boscawen, Parliamentary Secretary of the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries, in the unavoidable absence , of the Right Hon. Lord Lee of Fareham, President - of the Board of Agriculture, who had intended to be present himself. There was a_ distinguished gathering of men and women interested in the practice of agriculture and in the sciences underlying it, which upert and Lady Gwendolen Guinness, Sir David Prain, Sir Francis Watts, Mr. Otto Beit, Prof. V. H. Black- man, Dr. M. O. Forster, Prof. MacBride, Sir Robert and Lady Robertson, Mr. Arthur Sutton, Mr. M. R. Pryor,’Dr. M. C. Rayner, Dr. T. A, Henry, Dr. J. A. Voelcker, and others. The chair was taken by Prof. H. E. Armstrong, cs My. ~ Mar penslenr . “PR Ireemn & UI Nedonan ~ trch® . — make them smaller, it is concluded that the comet has | made two revolutions since 1847. The observations in that year were not very numerous, and the periods then deduced were liable to much uncertainty. If the 36-year period is right, the comet belongs to the family of Uranus, not to that of Neptune as formerly supposed. It is now more than ever desirable that the comet should be observed for as long a period as possible. The following ephemeris, for Greenwich midnight, has been corrected approximately for the change in the orbit :— R.A, S. Decl. Log x Log A ie ASS Vo Bs im’ ee NOV 78) noe I2) 334.8 4 39 9:7962 0:0932 Biers AF 3 1 7.23 10 +» 12°53 44 9 59 9°9750 O:1424 TAvxe 58 3 30 12.18 Pe Rep as We Sa) 14 25 99464 0:1808 92 ie Ree eo 16 22 26 13,319 18 Io 0-0090 O-2TIT NO, 2609, VOL. 104] | | | | | | vice-chairman of the Lawes Agricultural Committee, who said that Rothamsted had long been known throughout the world as the chief centre of scientific inquiry into the problems of agricultural practice. It was now the Mecca of agricultural pilgrims. Its sphere had been further widened by the recent action of the Board of Agriculture in establishing there an institute for the study of plant pathology, where entomological and mycological investigations could be carried on. The demands of modern scientific- workers were very considerable, but no pains had been spared to make the equipment and laboratories as efficient as possible, The total cost of these im- provements had been 26,000l.; of this sum no less than 10,0001. was collected in public subscriptions from farmers and their friends. The Board of Agri- culture gave generous assistance, and granted an equal sum—z1o,oo0l.—from its Development Fund. The remaining Goool, had been given by private donors and obtained in other ways, Fortunately, the; a ee OPN oe ee ae ee Se : : { : | OcTOBER 30, 1919 | NATURE 181 work was completed before the recent rise in prices, and at a conservative estimate could not be done now a for less than 60,000l. ; Sir Atthur Griffith-Boscawen said that for many ears agriculture had been neglected by the State, but its national importance was discovered during the war, and he knew it was the intention of the Govern- ment, and of the Prime Minister in particular, that agriculture should not be neglected in the future as it had been in the past. It was posSible that some of the methods proposed might lead to controversy, but he was sure that on one point there would be complete agreement, and that was the necessity of adequate provision for research in agricultural science. It was a fortunate, and perhaps significant, coincidence that the opening of the new Rothamsted laboratories was almost simultaneous with the Prime Minister’s speech, which might announce an important agricul- tural policy. Sir Arthur expressed his faith in the system of demonstration farms, at which farmers could see new methods in operation. But behind and above all such farms must be the research stations, where facts and principles could be ascertained in a truly scientific manner and with truly scientific pre- cision. The Board of Agriculture realised that reduced expenditure on agricultural research would be false economy; it was essential that agricultural produc- tion should be increased and that the best possible advice should be available for the farmer. The Board of Agriculture was conscious of the splendid work that was being done at Rothamsted, and he wished every success to that admirable institution. The Hon. Rupert Guinness, in thanking Sir Arthur Griffith-Boscfwen for having, at only «an _hour’s notice, taken Lord Lee’s place, emphasised the need for increased facilities for investigations in agricul- tural science as one of the surest means of progress, and expressed his satisfaction with the work done at Rothamsted. Sir Horace Plunkett, in seconding the vote of thanks, referred to the simplicity of language in which the results of the. Rothamsted inquiries were expressed, thereby making them intelligible to the ordinary farmer. : The door of the building was. then opened by Sir Arthur Griffith-Boscawen, and the company proceeded to the inspection of the various laboratories and of the interesting series of exhibits which had been arranged by the staff. THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION AT BOURNEMOUTH. SECTION G. ENGINEERING. Openinc Appress By Pror. J. E. Peravet, D.Sc., F.R.S., PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION. Durine the last five years every resource of the Empire, moral, intellectual, and material, has been concentrated on one great task, now successfully achieved; and the present period marks the end of a gigantic military struggle and the beginning of a new social era I.—Engineering and Science during the War. To summarise adequately the part played by en- gineering in the war would constitute a task far beyond the power of the writer or the scope of the present address. Now, as in the past, the fate of nations in war or peace is primarily determined by moral, intellectual, and physical attributes; but, under modern conditions, these forces can’ find efficient NO, 2609, VOL. 104] © application only through the agency of science and engineering. A large army depends for its subsistence and equip- ment on the combined effort of every branch of human activity; and every productive industry, when organised on a large scale, is in turn dependent upon the engineer. Before the end of the war this country had become transformed into one vast factory, every department of which required the services of trained engineers. Every member of this section has contributed his own share to the task, and our programme includes papers giving detailed accounts of several branches of the work, It is fitting, therefore, that I should restrict myself z a mere outline of some of the more outstanding acts. The urgent necessity for an output of munitions vastly in excess of any previous production made centralisation and standardisation essential, and: in- volved -a complete revolution in workshop practice. The Ministry of Munitions was responsible for. the formation of the required organisations and guided the transformation of industrial conditions, and, when the dilution of skilled labour became inevitable, the technical engineer designed the machinery. and devised the methods which made efficient work possible. : : Credit is due to the unions for the concessions made; greater credit to the women for their. en- thusiastic response to the call and the steady output they maintained. ‘ Munitions.—The Ministry of Munitions was’ created in May, 1915, its early efforts being concentrated on the production of guns and shells. A year later the Ministry was in a position to meet the ever-increasing demands of the Army, and by 1918 a large reserve of munitions had been established, the expenditure being limited only by difficulties of transport at the Front. The maximum expenditure of ammunition was reached one day in October in that year, when go00,000 shells, weighing 40,000 tons, were fired. The total number of guns manufactured during the war was 20,000, and more than 200,000 machine-guns had been delivered by November, 1918. The Ministry of Munitions took charge also of the production of aircraft, which were ultimately turned out at the rate of 4000 per month; later, the provision of motor transport was in addition placed under its control. Finaily, our production of ‘‘poison gas,”’ for which this Ministry was responsible, rose during the last few months of war to several thousand tons a month, sufficient to make the Germans rue the day on which they had introduced this weapon into warfare. Among the inventions which have had an influence on military operations I will mention only three as typical of three distinct classes :— Tanks were first used in 1916, and the results pro duced were greatly enhanced by the surprise created, and consequent moral effect, but the idea of an armoured chariot is as old as organised warfare. The problem of constructing a vehicle which could travel across the trackless and shell-pitted district which extended between the two armies remained to be solved. In the light of the experience gained with various types of tractors it was, however, clearly not insoluble, and credit is due to the man who had the courage to hazard a novel and important experiment. The resulting tank was the product of careful design and experiment, and the outcome of the co-operation of several engineers with special knowledge. Sound- ranging introduced the complex methods and delicate instruments of physical research into the trenches, and Palestine; 182 NATURE [OcTOBER 30, 1919 and, against all precedents, proved them to be trust- worthy and practical under the most adverse condi- tions. The Stokes gun, on the other hand, superseded all other trench-mortars by simplicity of design of manufacture and convenience in handling; 20,000 of these guns were used during the war. Transport.—On August 4, 1914, the Government assumed control of the railway systems in this country, but the working and management were left in the hands of the railway officials, and to them is due the smooth working of the lines during a long period of exceptional difficulty. British engineers, civil or military, have been responsible for the trans- port through France, and during the last two years of the war large numbers of engines were sent across the Channel and miles of track were taken up in England and relaid in France. Road transport was organised on an unprecedented scale, and 100,000 new vehicles were delivered. A network of narrow-gauge ‘railways was carried right up to the trenches, and numerous new roads, railway lines, and bridges con- structed. Railway construction formed an important factor in connection with the advances in Mesopotamia in the latter case the entire water- supply had for a long period to be drawn from the Egyptian base through a specially laid pipe-line. In France and elsewhere the armies were primarily dependent-upon sea transport for their food and equip- ment. This service, organised by the Navy, cul- minated in the unique effort which brought American troops at the rate of 300,000 per month, and thus overbore the balance which for four years had been oscillating between defeat and victory. ; Among the notable new departures the cross- Channel train ferry and the portable steel bridges, principally of the Inglis type, should be specially mentioned. : Navy.—At the outbreak of war the Navy was ill- prepared with regard to anti-submarine defence and mining. The influence of the submarine on naval warfare had been under-estimated, and mines were regarded as a somewhat discreditable means of destruction; but during 1915 the depth-charge and the paravane were developed by the Naval Experi- mental Department at Portsmouth, and later thou- sands of these were brought into use. In principle the depth-charge consists of a canister containing a large charge of explosive and a pistol actuated by a hydrostatic valve. The merit of the invention resides in the simplicity, safety, and trustworthiness of the mechanism. In designing the paravane the body was borrowed from a torpedo, and wings, rudder, and elevator from an aeroplane. ‘The secret of the device lies in the stabilising mechanism, which en- ables it to keep its position when the ship is running at high speeds. The paravane enabled most ships to pass unscathed through a minefield, and in a slightly modified form it served to seek out and destroy sub- marines under the water. Sound-location proved to be one of the most valu- able inventions developed by the Board of Invention and Research. By its means the position of a sub- marine explosion off the coast of Belgium could be found within a few hundred yards by observers on the English coast; passing ships or submarines could also be identified and located. Sound-locators were also used on board anti-submarine craft, but at the time of the armistice were for this purpose being superseded by other methods. Mine construction, laying, and sweeping formed the object of many successive improvements. Mines of .special construction, which cannot be swept by ordinary means and) explode without actual contact, were used in large numbers in 1918, and were particularly effective against submarines. NO, 2609, VOL. 104] Various new types of oscillating mines were also — developed. 3 Many of the newer fighting units of the Navy were designed for speeds far in excess of anything that had been previously contemplated; the attainment of the required horse-power was rendered possible by im- provements in boiler construction, by the development of oil-firing, and by the invention of the geared tur- bine. At the present time the horse-power of some of the fastest destroyers equals that of any pre-war Dreadnoughts. fa, On Numbers of strange craft were designed for special purposes. The monitor was used as a floating fortress, and ships without funnels or masts formed cruising aerodromes. The torpedo-net was known to be in- effective as well as inconvenient, but some years elapsed before ships were rendered immune from tor- pedo attacks by a wide outer sheath of resilient con- struction. Some protection was first given to mine- sweepers by fitting the vessels with a false prow; the newer minesweepers were rendered nearly unsink- able by the provision of numerous bulkheads. The submarine was developed with regard to size, range, and speed. The latest, and perhaps the strangest, craft was the submarine fitted with a hediy ae gun which could be fired when all but the muzzle was submerged. : PO | Aircraft.—The rapid progress and expansion of aeronautical science and construction are perhaps the most remarkable achievements of engineering during In 1909 Blériot flew the Channel. In 1910 Cody won the British Michelin Cup by a flight of 185 miles. The Royal Flying Corps was foqned in 1912, and it was decided that the equipment should consist of seventy-two aeroplanes and two airships. The number the war, of aeroplanes available in 1914 was less than 200; the number ultimately required proved to be more than 3000 a month. The aeroplanes which were sent out with the Expeditionary Force in 1914 had a maximum speed of some 80 miles an hour, a rate of climb at ground-level of 300 ft. or 400 ft. a minute; they were equipped with engines of 60 h.p. to 100 h.p. In 1918 the fast machine had a maximum : _of 140 miles an hour, a rate of climb at ground-level of 2000 ft. a minute; single-seaters were fitted with engines of 200 h.p to 300 h.p., and the largest machines were equipped with a power plant develop- ing more than 1300 h.p. The maximum height attain- able had increased from 5000 ft. to 25,000 ft. The Atlantic flight has given the measure of the success achieved in the design of long-range bombing machines. Two types were evolved: the fast day bomber, capable of carrying a useful load of about 3000 lb. at a speed of 130 miles an hour, and the night bomber with a larger load and slower speed. The largest aeroplane manufactured in numbers was the Handley Page V/rs00, with a weight of 11 tons and a power plant of 1300 h.p. Three days before the armistice two of these machines stood fully equipped — waiting for the order to start for Berlin. The largest bombs in use weighed more than a ton, and during the war 8000 tons of explosives were dropped on the enemy. The experience which they had gained in the construction of the high-powered engines required for airship work proved to be a valuable asset for the Germans. Initially also their rate of production, both of aeroplanes and engines, was far superior to ours, and; faced with the ménace of otherwise being for a. period deprived of machines, we were bound to con- tinue the use of a certain standardised types longer than was desirable. ; ; The labour difficulty was overcome by the intro- duction of a large proportion of female labour, which proved to be very suitable for aeroplane manufacture, vee ee i ea = = cul J 4 " 5 f J n ne ee ee oa til —OcToseER 30, 1919] NATURE 183 and especially for wing construction. The bulk produc- _ tion of aero-engines presented grave difficulties. Every part had to be made to close limits so as to be inter- changeable, and it was necessary to maintain the a pe quality with the minimum amount of skilled E ur. For a period the supply of magnetos was both inadequate and unsatisfactory. The Germans _ had acquired practically a monopoly in this direction, and it became essential for us to build up a new industry on the results of careful research and experi- ment. The fact that in these circumstances a total of - 8,000,000 h.p. was produced during the last twelve months of the war represents one of the greatest achievements of engineering organisation. Synchronised gun-firing through the propeller was first pent into use by the enemy, and the success of the Fokker was due, not to superior design, but to this characteristic armament and to the relatively high engine power. On the other hand, throughout the war the only stable machines were British. For observation work, night flying, and flicht in fogs and cloud the advantages of a stable machine are obvious. Instability, inasmuch as it favours rapid and unexpected manceuvres, was for a time regarded as an advantage in aerial fighting, but later experi- ence proved that a well-designed aeroplane could be made stable and yet remain quick and light on the controls, Seaworthiness, no less than airworthiness, is re- quired of the seaplane, and this implies a machine of considerable size and weight. Most of the best sea- planes in use in 1918 had a total weight*of four or five tons each, a speed .of nearly 100 miles, and engines of about 700 h.p. The machines used by the special aeroplane-ships were principally small fast scouts, but one type was of eufficient size to carry an 18-in. torpedo. In 1918 seventy aeroplanes were carried by the Fleet as part of the regular equipment. Airships proved to be of great importance in con- nection with naval work. The smaller non-rigids were used for patrol duty along the coast and convoy service, and by their means a submarine could be detected and attacked while still at a considerable dis- tance below the surface. The success achieved was extensive, and ships convoyed by airships were prac- tically immune from submarine attack. The larger non-rigids served as scouts in naval operations. The SSZ had a speed of 50 miles and a gross lift of about two tons; the North Sea type a lift of 11 tons and a speed of 60 miles. Compared with the achievements in other directions the record of British work in connection with the development of rigid airships is not entirely satisfac- tory. In this field, where consistent policy and firm- ness of purpose were essential, the Admiralty vacillated strangely. The May-fly, constructed at Barrow in 1910, was admittedly an experiment, and although an accident ended her career after the first few mooring tests, she had already served her purpose in providing the experience and data necessary for a more perfect construction. Nothing further was done, however, until after the war had started. In Germany, on the other hand, painstaking plod- ding had built up success on the ruins of a dozen failures. Improvements in the rate of climb of aeroplanes and the invention of the incendiary bullet brought an end to the effectiveness of the Zeppelin as a bomber, but as a scout in long-range naval operations its influence remained considerable, and the recent suc- cessful journey of R34 indicates the possibilities of the rigid airship in times of peace. The useful load increases rapidly with size, and a ship 15 per cent., NO. 2609, VOL. 104] larger than R34 in linear dimensions could have carried 100 people to America. What is popularly known as an invention, or an idea of revolutionary importance emanating from one person, has played relatively little part in the recent development of aeronautics. Success has been due to systematic investigation and the combined effort of many scientific workers, trained designers, and prac- tical constructors. With some exceptions the same holds true in the case of engine construction. Inven- tions there have been (8000 are duly recorded in the files of the Air Inventions Committee), but equipment and armament and accessories appear to have offered most scope for brilliant new departures. Several inventions notably influenced the course of the war. The successful manufacture of incendiary bullets put an end to the Zeppelin raids, tracer bullets increased the accuracy of aim, and synchronising gear made it possible to fire through the propeller at the rate of nearly 1000 rounds per minute. A satisfactory self-sealing petrol tank was manufactured after many: unsuccessful attempts, and greatly diminished the risk of fire. Much ingenuity was displayed in connection with bomb-sighting and navigational instruments.” Wireless telephone and directional wireless were intro- duced. Dr. T. A. Chapman : (1) Contributions to :¥ Life-history of Lycaena euphemus, Hb.; (2) Notes on Lycaena acon, F.—Dr. G. D. H. Carpenter: Notes on Species of Pseudacrza from Uganda. THURSDAY, Novemser 6. Royat Society (jointly with the ROVAL ASTRONOMICAL Society), at he —Sir Frank Dyson, Prof. Eddington, and Others: Discussion on the Results of the Observations obtained at the Total Solar Eclipse on May 29, T9190. LINNEAN SOCIETY, at 5. Roya CoLLEeGE oF Puvsictans, at 5.—Dr. A. P, Beddard : Some Remaris on Chrenic Arthritis (Bradshaw Lecture). CHEMICAL Society, at 8 | FRIDAY, November 7. as Saar Astronomicar. Society ‘(Geophysical Committee), at ir 1. W, simpson: cp: G. Burrard, Prof. A. E. H. Love, and Others: pose ge Isos acuta InspECTION ASSOCIATION (at bot oa — of Arts), at rar Prof. Baly : The Spectr pe in the S f To-day. CONTENTS. PAGE Education. and Life. 00) 3) 25. Se ee Mathematical Text-books . SEG ae Mineral Resources of aati By + Oey ante EEG E Our Bookshelf... . Y Bag Ty eRe & Letters to the Editor :— ; International Relations in Science.—Sir E. Ray Lankester, K.C.B., F.R.S. alee 172 The Response of Plants to Wireless Stimulation, | Ullustrated.)—Sir J.C. Bose. epee A New British Enchytreid Worm. —Rev. Hilderic Friend . 174 A Photoelectric Theory of Colour Vision,—Dr.-H. Stanley Allen Ree! I74 Luminous Worms.—H. E. ‘Aldridge . ie eae 74 Recotieiriction: «50s ese Ais a Ppa & The Fauna ofthe InléLake ......... 5 176 Notes .. a Lee ey, Our Astronomical Column :— Ustirize Meteors onic ats 20: 5) a be, as en Peer arise: 8 Comet 1919 (Brorsen- -Metcalf) 18 The New Laboratories at Rothamsted. (Illustrated.) 180 The British Association at Bournemouth :— Section G—Engineering—Opening Address by Prof. E, Petavel, D.sc., F.R.S., President of the Section . ~ ee University and Educational Intelligence Bae reo, t- Societies and Academies. ....°...... aires ¢) Books Received 0... ss can wee Diary of Sociedes 0 > oa aa eames . 188 Editorial and Publishing Offices: : MACMILLAN AND CO.,. Ltp., us| ST. MARTIN’S STREET, LONDON, W.C.2. Advertisements and business letters to be addressed to the ‘Publishers. Editoria] Communications. to the Editor. ; Telegraphic Address: .Puusis, LONDON. Telephone Number: GERRARD 8830. SUPPLEMENT TO NATURE THURSDAY, NOVEMBER 6 isis Walker ph se. AS? 1869-1919. JUBILEE ISSUE. THURSDAY, NOVEMBER 6, 1919. VALEDICTORY MEMORIES, By Sir Norman Lockyer, K.C.B., F.R.S. ft has been suggested to me that some remin- iscences relating to the circumstances which led to the establishment of NATURE would be of interest, and I am glad to be able to contribute them to this jubilee issue. It is a great satis- faction to me again to have the opportunity of expressing my best thanks to the many friends whose knowledge has always been placed freely at my disposal, and to know that the vitality of the journal is now as strong as ever it was. At the time when Nature first made its appear- ance, just fifty years ago, scientific progress was commanding increased attention from the public mind, and British workers were experiencing the need for an organ devoted to their common activi- ties and interests. In 1858 a fortnightly column of scientific notes was started in the Saturday Review, and two years later Huxley became the chief editor of the Natural History Review, with the intention of providing a quarterly which would deal with scientific matters systematically and thoroughly. He ceased to contribute to that magazine, however, in 1863, and became asso- ciated with the Reader, a weekly journal of which I was the science editor. My first literary work arose from observations of a transit of the shadow of Titan Saturn’s disc. .I sent an account of observations to the London Review, appeared in the issue of May 10, 1862. This communication brought me two letters —one from Mr. W. R. Dawes, who was at that time recognised as one of the keenest astronomical observers in England, and the other from Mr. W. Little asking me to send astro- NO. 2610, VOL. 104] across these and it — | nomical notes from time to time to the London Review, together with an article each month on the “face of the sky.” j I was then living at Wimbledon, and was honorary secretary of the Wimbledon Village Club, on the committee of which were Thomas Hughes, J..M. Ludlow, and George Pollock. It was this connection that' led to my appointment as science editor of the Reader, when it was established with Hughes and Ludlow among the proprietors. My astronomical work thus led me into literature, and the subject with which I was particularly concerned—astronomy—was also the product of my Wimbledon environment. When the Reader ceased publication the idea occurred to me of starting a general scientific journal of a more comprehensive scope than the Natural History Review, which, like other specialised scientific periodicals, had failed for want of circulation. On discussing the matter with my friends, I found that they were favour- able to the idea; and one of them, Mr. Alexander Macmillan, greatly encouraged me to develop it. It was in consequence of his sympathy and enthusiastic assistance that the journal started. He was unwavering in his support of the belief that British science would be advanced by a periodical devoted to its interests—a_ point on which I had always laid stress as the result of experience up to that time. It was the hope that a more favourable condition for the advance- ment of science might be thereby secured that led Mr. Alexander Macmillan to enter warmly into the establishment of NATURE in 1869. He enlisted the interest of Sir Joseph Hooker and other of his scientific friends, and before the journal had started I was assured of the support of Huxley, Tyndall, and practically all the other leading workers in science of the time. was Lv 190 NATURE [ NovEeMBER 6, 1919 It may be of interest to reprint here the follow- ing circular which was issued broadcast to bring the aims and intentions of the journal before scientific readers and others :— this The object which it ‘is proposed to attain Oe i ts periodical may be broadly stated as follows. intended : First, to place before the general public the grand results of Scientific Work and Scientific Discovery, and to urge the claims of Science to a more general recognition in Education and in Daily Life; and _ Secondly, to aid Scientific men themselves, by giving early information of all advances made in any branch of Natural Knowledge throughout the world, and by affording them an opportunity of discussing the various Scientific questions which arise from time to time. To accomplish this twofold object, the following plan is followed as closely as possible. Those portions of the paper more especially devoted to the discussion of matters interesting to the public at large contain : * I. Articles written by men eminent in Science on subjects connected with the various points of contact of Natural Knowledge with practical affairs, the public health, and material progress; and on the advance- ment of Science, and its educational and _ civilising functions. II. Full accounts, illustrated when necessary, of Scientific Discoveries of general interest. III. Records of all efforts made for the encourage- ment of Natural Knowledge in our Colleges and Schools, and notices of aids to Science-teaching. IV. Full Reviews of Scientific Works, especially directed to the exact Scientific ground gone over, and the contributions to knowledge, whether in the shape of new facts, maps, illustrations, tables, and the like, which they may contain. In those portions of Nature more interesting to Scientific men are given: \V. Abstracts of important papers communicated to British, American, and Continental Scientific societies and periodicals. VI. Reports of the meetings of Scientific bodies at home and abroad. In addition to the above, there are columns devoted to Correspondence. especially From the first I was helped by the free kind- ness of most of the men of science in the country, by their permitting me to appeal to them for assistance and advice, and my election into the Royal Astronemical Society, and afterwards into the Royal Society, in 1869, brought me into closer correspondence and contact with many of the ‘active. workers in scientific fields. I am very grateful for what they did, and for what men of science are still’ ready to do to that Nature shall represent scientific claims justly and scientific fact and, thought in correct proportion. While this common. interest in the journal exists among men of science, not only in the United Kingdom, but also in Europe and America, there will be no falling off from the high standard maintained in its pages from the commencement of its existence. NO. 2610, VOL. 104] ensure 7 PROGRESS AND PROMISE. N the career of a journal, as in the life of a man, stages are met from which it is appro- priate to take a glance backward at the road traversed and to contemplate the outlook of the future. Such an epoch has been reached in the history of Nature, the first number of which was. published fifty years ago—on November 4, 1869. . The circumstances which led to the establishment of this journal are described briefly by Sir Norman Lockyer in the preceding article. Men of science had felt the need for an organ devoted to their in- terests in common, and several attempts had been made to meet it, but unsuccessfully. It required the rare combination of scientific authority, un- tiring energy, wise judgment, and business apti- tude to construct a platform on which investi- gators of the many and diverse fields of natural knowledge could put their trust, and from which descriptions of their work would command atten- tion. : : How fully these attributes are possessed by the founder of this journal, and how consistently they have been made manifest in its pages, is shown by numerous appreciative messages received from scientific societies and distinguished workers. Thanks to the sound and comprehensive pro- gramme laid down by Sir Norman Leckyer at the beginning, and followed ever since, NATURE now occupies a high place in scientific life. It would be disingenuous to pretend.that we are not proud of the testimonies which have been sent by many leading representatives of progres- sive knowledge as to services rendered by the journal in various ways. Among those who have expressed their congratulations upon the attain- ment of the jubilee are readers who have never missed a number since the first issue, while others of a new generation equally acknowledge the stimulus they derive from a wide view in these days of minute specialisation. The intellectual background is different now from what it was in 1869, and the outlook, as. well as the conceptions, of science has changed. Specialised work is necessary to acquire new knowledge, but for the great generalisations which provide an impulse to wide inquiry atten- tion must be given to results achieved in the whole sphere of related investigations. It is the particular function of NaTurE to present this com- prehensive view, and to bring to a focus upon its. pages the living picture of scientific advance as. a whole, so that workers in separate fields may see the growth of the grand edifice of naturak knowledge, and the place their own contributions take in it. NoveMBER 6, 1919| NATURE 1g At one time—as, for example, in the early days | of the Royal Society—it was possible for every member of a general scientific society to take an intelligent interest in every paper presented. Since then, however, science has passed from the stage of a simple organism to that of a body made up of parts with highly differentiated func- tions. Numerous specialised scientific societies have been formed, as may be seen by the list published in this issue of those established since 1869, and many periodicals similarly devoted to distinct branches of pure and applied science have come into existence. The common factor is interest in the advancement of knowledge; and a society or a journal concerned with this as a whole can best assist the aim in general by providing the segregated groups of investigators with intelli- gible accounts of activities in other fields, which may or may not be on the borders of their own. The remarkable collection of articles published in this issue represents the highest type of con- tributions of this kind. Each article is by an eminent authority upon the subject with which it deals, and each can be comprehended by everyone who has had a scientific training. It is scarcely too much to say that no such authoritative epitome of fifty years of scientific progress, as viewed by pioneers in particular fields, has ever been brought together in any one periodical. Contributions of such high distinction are rendered possible largely because the writers know that in these pages they are addressing themselves to fellow-workers throughout the world, as well as to other readers having an intelligent interest in the march of scientific. knowledge. ; Four of the writers—Sir Archibald Geikie, Sir E. Ray Lankester, Prof. Bonney, and Canon Wilson—were contributors to the earliest issues of this journal; and every reader will be grateful for the enlightening descriptions of stepping-stones of scientific progress which we are now privileged to publish. Nature could not have maintained its original standard for so long but for the active ‘support which these and many other leading men of science have been ready to give it since its foundation. This is as true of the new generation as it was when the journal was founded; and the value of the association is most highly appre- ciated. While Nature is honoured by the active co-operation of the men of genius who are travers- jing the royal roads of science, its functions. will extend, and its influence increase, with the ex- pansion of knowledge. With this assurance, and the encouragement which the past has given, we look with confidence and strength at the prospect of the future. NO. 2610, VOL. 104] SCIENTIFIC WORTHIES. XLI.—-Str Norman Lockyer, K.C.B., F.R.S. sy Bory simple title NATURE, embracing all in a single word, was most appropriately chosen by Sir Norman Lockyer when, exactly fifty years ago, he founded this weekly journal, which is devoted to all the sciences, and has had so suc- cessful a career. The first article in the journal ’ reproduced profound aphorisms of Goethe on the intimate relations of man with Nature, of which he is a part. The poet-philosopher set forth in striking language, which was rendered into English by Huxley, the innate feebleness of man before the immutable forces andthe great mys- teries which everywhere surround him, and at the same time the incessant human desire, never com- pletely satisfied, of comprehending and penetrating ~ them. The contribution is a stimulating’ preface to a scientific periodical; it well exhibits the high character of the journal at the outset, and the spirit in which it has always been conducted. Indeed, Nature is, of all scientific journals, the most comprehensive in the world; it includes articles of the highest scientific standard, as well as those of a more popular kind; it has open columns for the discussion of current subjects, and it provides summaries of most of the papers presented, to the chief academies and learned societies; it gives the latest events of the scien- tific world, news about men of science,, and accounts of the most recent discoveries in scientific fields. It has rendered inestimable services to the cause of science in general. Since the first issue the journal has main- tained the form and character which we see to-day. A comparison of a number issued in the year 1869 with one of 1919 shows the same general arrangement, the same sequence of subject-matter; moreover, the pages and the style of type are nearly identical in appearance. The founder, who in 1869 was only thirty-three years of age, has proved himself a publicist and an organiser of the first rank. During its exist- ence the journal has ably recorded the magnificent discoveries which have distinguished the last fifty years in every branch of science; it has had to deal with subjects beyond one’s dreams; and it has been the better able to present them to the ~ public because the founder has himself been one of the foremost builders of this noble edifice. Sir Norman Lockyer is distinguished not only by his eminent public work, but also as one of the greatest men of science of our time. In the three years which preceded the foundation of this journal he made discoveries relating to the sun which will permanently preserve his’ memory’ 192 NATURE [ NovEMBER 6, 1919 among men. He was one of the pioneers of astrophysics, the new branch of astronomy which is now of such importance. For fifty years, with untiring activity, he has carried on a multitude of researches in the three observatories established by him and in the physical laboratories associated with them; and, like a true philosopher, he has presented a general synthesis of celestial pheno- mena. The title “‘ Nature ” might be justly given to the record of his personal achievements, to which the remarks which follow are particularly devoted. Sir Norman Lockyer is not the product of a university; he may be termed a self-made man of science. He was at first employed in a Govern- ment Department, where he remained for more than ten years; but he was irresistibly drawn towards science, and especially to astronomy, the wonder of which exercises a powerful attraction. All his leisure and all his personal resources were devoted to scientific pursuits. Spectrum analysis had come into being, and its application to celes- tial bodies opened up the widest horizons. Sir Norman Lockyer attached a small spectroscope to a modest equatorial telescope of 6-in. aperture, which constituted his private observatory, and he studied the light emanating from the solar spots. The first results were summarised in a note pre- sented to the Royal Society in 1866, where the author discussed the bearing of his observations on the two rival theories which were then to the front as to the nature of sun-spots. He foresaw the possible daily observation of the red flames, or prominences, which up to that time had only been observed on the outer edges of the sun during total eclipses. He conceived the idea that the spectroscope might be able to reveal them at ordinary times under the same conditions as those which caused the appearance of bright lines in the new star in Corona Borealis. This star had appeared a few months previously, and, as ob- “served by Huggins, had presented a_ stellar nucleus surrounded by a relatively feeble nebu- losity; but in the spectroscope the light of the nucleus was spread out in a continuous spectrum and thereby enfeebled, while the atmosphere showed the bright lines of hydrogen with great brilliance. This idea was really a flash of genius, because it contained the germ, or the principle, of the method which, for fifty years, has revealed to us at all hours of the day the gaseous atmosphere of the sun. The first application of the method to the sun’s edge, however, gave no result; the spectroscope employed was not sufficiently power- ful. Two years later the observations in India of the total‘eclipse of the sun of August, 1868, gave NO. 2610, VOL. 104] valuable information—the solar prominences were gaseous, and showed the red and green lines of hydrogen with very great intensity. On October 20, 1868, Sir Norman Lockyer, at last provided with a powerful spectroscope, for which he had waited two years, discovered, at Hampstead, a prominence on the sun’s edge, and made a drawing of it two days later. The discovery was communicated to the Royal Society on October 20 and to the Academy of Sciences at Paris on October 26. By a striking coinci- dence, at the same meeting of the Academy, a letter sent from India by the French astronomer Janssen announced the same result. During the eclipse Janssen had recognised in the spectro- scope the nature of the prominences, and was able to see them again on the following day with the same instrument. Janssen continued to observe them daily during three weeks, and found that they were composed principally of hydrogen, and were subject to remarkable variations of form which were often very rapid. The astronomer Faye then pointed out that the first idea of the method was certainly due to Lockyer, but that the first application had been realised by Janssen, and since then the two names have been justly united in connection with the discovery. During the weeks and months which followed, Sir Norman, with praiseworthy activity, continued the study of the sun by the new method without intermission, and he successively recognised several new facts of the first importance, namely :— 1. The prominences emanate from a gaseous | layer of the same composition, which envelops the entire sun, and reaches a height of 8-10 secs. of arc. This layer is of a rose colour, like that of the prominences themselves, and Sir Norman Lockyer gave it the name of the chromosphere; it had already been glimpsed in preceding eclipses, but its existence was not generally acknowledged. 2. The yellow radiation of the prominences, which had been attributed to sodium by the eclipse observers, proclaimed in reality the existence of a new gas, to which Sir Norman gave the name of helium. It was the first recognition of the famous gas which was afterwards obtained from terrestrial sources by Ramsay in 1898; it is emitted by radio-active bodies, and now can be used for the inflation of dirigibles. 3. The green line of hydrogen becomes broader in passing from the summit to the base of a prominence. From a series of experiments on hydrogen at low pressures, carried on in the chemical laboratory of his friend, Frankland, Sir - Norman concluded that this widening is simply due NovEMBER 6, 1919 | NATURE 193 to an increase of pressure. Spectrum analysis dis- closed not only the chemical composition of the prominences, but also to a certain extent their physical state. 4. The lines of the prominences are often dis- placed and distorted. This phenomenon was cor- rectly attributed to the movements of the vapour in the direction of the observer; it was ‘the first real verification of the velocity displacements which have since become of such great importance in astronomy. This first series of investigations is set forth in some detail, because it represents magnificent work; it is an example for all, and has its place marked out in the history of science, especially as it was carried out with simple means. The greatest discoveries, as one knows, have not been made in the largest laboratories, and the capacity of the man is always of more consequence in re- search than that of his instruments. In his in- vestigations Sir Norman Lockyer has shown a power, an acuteness of mind, and a creative imagination which are truly exceptional. These are the qualities of men who, like him, have over- come all difficulties placed in their way in order to pursue fixed ideas and follow vocations which they have fully resolved to adopt. In the succeeding years Sir Norman organised several eclipse expeditions under Government auspices; all the important solar eclipses since 1868 have been observed by him or by his assist- ants, with programmes laid down by the Solar Physics Committee, of which he was a member. At the same time, he undertook extensive work which may be summarised in the words: ‘‘Com- parative study of terrestrial spectra and the spec- trum of the sun, extended afterwards to stars, nebula, and comets. Special and general conse- quences drawn from them.” After fifty years of continuous labour the work has certainly been advanced, but it is not yet completed. It was carried on at first in his own observatory, then from 1879 in the establishment at South Kensing- ton which the Government had created for the development of the new methods and placed under his direction. The astrophysical observatory at South Ken- sington was a model of its kind; it consisted of two parts, quite distinct but closely related, namely, an observatory properly so called and a physical laboratory. The astrophysicist must pass constantly from one to the other, and, in fact, the number of publications issued from South Kensington has been nearly the same in the two sections. It has been said that an astrophysical observatory is merely a physical laboratory NO. 2610, VOL. 104] oriented towards astronomy, the astronomical instruments being in reality nothing more than physical apparatus of large dimensions; and it is therefore necessary to attach to them men who have been trained by the study of physics and capable of immediately applying to the celestial bodies the most recent discoveries made in the laboratory. In this connection Sir Norman has trained at South Kensington several investigators, including Prof. Fowler, Dr. Lockyer, and Messrs. Shackle- ton, Baxandall, and Butler, at once physicists and astronomers, and well known by their publica- tions. Prof. Fowler, now president of the Royal Astronomical Society, is already distinguished ; we owe to him important discoveries and some fine series of precise measurements. In 1912 the land occupied by the observatory at South Kensington was required for the exten- sion of the Science Museum, and the observatory, with all its instruments, was transferred to Cam- bridge. Sir Norman, having passed the age- limit, was obliged to retire from the directorship, but, feeling that his work was not yet accom- plished, and still vigorous in body and mind, he forthwith set up another observatory—the Hill Observatory—with the aid of several friends of science. The site chosen, at Sidmouth, is very favourable for astronomical observations, and us the first buildings were erected very quickly and provided immediately with some fine instruments, the researches commenced at South Kensington, especially those on stellar spectra, have been continued with but little interruption. It is hoped to establish there an astrophysical observatory comparable with the American observatories and worthy of the United Kingdom. The new facts gathered together in the course of these fifty years are extremely numerous; they are set forth with the inferences drawn from them in 200 memoirs, and it is impossible to give any detailed analysis of them here, Fortunately, the author, who has an affection for great generalisa- tions, has always sought to connect the facts in a few leading ideas which are for him “working hypotheses,” and he has expounded each hypo- thesis in a special book. The volume on “The Chemistry of the Sun” (1887) deals with the dif- ferences of spectrum emitted by different parts of the sun, and explains them by the dissociation hypothesis, according to which the molecules and atoms are grouped in different ways or are split up into simpler elements. In his book on “The Meteoritic Hypothesis ” (1890) the author explains all the celestial bodies by collisions of meteorites; it is a simple and fertile idea, which has been 194 NATURE [ NoveMBER 6, 1919 adopted by several astronomers. The last volume, entitled ‘Inorganic Evolution” (1900), develops the final methods and ideas of the author, and presents a general classification of all the stars. It is only necessary to add one remark: Sir Norman is one of those who publish the observed facts immediately, and also the interpretations which present themselves at once to his mind. This method inevitably involves imperfect detail, or over-sanguine conclusions, which have been freely criticised. Pruning and revision have become necessary, and this work has _ recently been taken in hand by the author himself. The main body of facts and ideas remains unaffected, and is always worthy of being retained. It will suffice to mention here very briefly on one part some of the more important results on the sun and the effects of its radiation, and, on the other, the great classification of the stars. Sir Norman was the first to recognise the presence in the solar spectrum of lines due to a band spectrum, attributed at first to cyano- gen, and now assigned to nitrogen alone. He observed the widening of the dark lines in the spectra of sun-spots, a phenomenon which has since been so brilliantly explained by Prof. Hale, of the Mount Wilson Observatory. With the simple arrangement of the objective prism, he was the first to photograph in an eclipse the spectrum of bright lines given by the reversing layer, situated at the base of the chromosphere, thus obtaining a verification of the general accordance of these bright lines with the ordinary dark lines, and confirming the simple explanation of the dark lines given by Kirchhoff. He discovered in the fluctuations of the solar prominences a period of 3-8 years, which is super- posed on the great eleven-yearly period, and he showed later, in collaboration with Dr. Lockyer, that this same period of 3-8 years reveals itself in variations of pressure of the terrestrial atmo- sphere. This last result has a practical import- ance because it renders possible the forecasting of the variations of the monsoons in the Indian Ocean. In addition, the schematic chart of the law of the winds in the southern hemisphere, drawn up in this case by Dr. Lockyer, has been verified by all later observations; it has been reannounced in 1919 by Prof, Hildebrandson, one of the founders of meteorology, in a note on the general movements of the atmosphere presented to the Paris Academy of Sciences. One of the questions which have most occupied Sir Norman is that of the variation of laboratory spectra with the energy of the excitation. He has from the first distinguished the long and short NO. 2610, VOL. 104] lines in the same spectrum, and the employment of a very powerful induction spark has given him new lines which he has called “enhanced lines.” The three types of lines—long, short, and en- hanced—correspond with increasing temperature, and constitute valuable tests which serve to dif- ferentiate the stars. Sir Norman has observed the presence of these lines in the spectra of stars, and at the same time the different behaviour of the lines of hydrogen, of helium, and of the metals, which has led to a new classification of the stars. The labour involved in this investiga- tion was considerable, because it became neces- sary to photograph stellar spectra under the un- favourable conditions of London and with a high dispersion. Its success was secured by the use of an objective prism of large angle and by great patience. -At the same time, the great American astro- nomer Pickering, means, had entered upon the observation and classification of stellar spectra over the entire sky, and was content to use a small dispersion which enabled him to reach the fainter stars. But as the study of enhanced lines demanded a high dispersion, Sir Norman confined himself to the stars visible to the naked eye. The classification adopted differs essentially from all previous classifications, which had con- sidered only the actual temperatures of the stars and supposed a continuous cooling. Sir Norman went much further, and in the year 1888 estab-. lished a distinction between the stars in which the temperature was rising, and those in which the temperature was diminishing. Beginning with a primitive nebula, the body which forms by con- densation will at first become hotter, then attain a stationary temperature, and will finally cool. Its natural evolution, expressed by temperature as a function of time, ought to comprise an ascending branch, a steady state correspond- ing with the maximum, branch. In the ascending phase the lines of hydrogen are narrow and the chromosphere is of low density; at the time of maximum the en- hanced lines predominate and the maximum in- tensity of the spectrum is far in the ultra-violet; in the later phase the lines of hydrogen are broad and diffuse, and the chromosphere is of greater density. It is certain that one thus penetrates more deeply into the nature of things. Further, Sir Norman does not explain the variable number of metallic lines by a different distribution of the chemical elements in the stellar atmosphere. When the star is very hot the metallic lines are wanting, and he has attributed this to a dissocia- with much more powerful and a_ descending ee nT a ee {. NE Pe ee Se ae ee RO NOVEMBER 6, 1919] NATURE 195 tion of the elements analogous to that of radio- active bodies. On this view the heavier elements are split up into‘lighter and even into new and sumpler elements which he has called “ proto- elements.’”? The evolution of the stars is accom- panied by a simultaneous evolution of the simple elements of Nature. The great chemist, Ramsay, who was a pioneer in many directions, gave the greatest attention to these new ideas and to the numerous observa- tions which appeared to support them. The classification of the stars in accordance with the foregoing tests has been fully confirmed by optical measurements of their absolute temperatures. To sum up, in his latest researches, as well as in the first, Sir Norman Lockyer has exhibited an aptitude for experiment, a creative faculty, a penetration, and a breadth of view which are truly remarkable; and the results obtained on the sole basis of experiment are of the first importance. He is one of the great men of science of England and one of the greatest astronomers of all time. Finally, let us hope that, bearing the weight of years in comfort, he may continue his services to science and his association with this journal, and witness for himself the increasing success of om ideas and his methods. H. DESLANDRES. (Vice-President of the Academy of Sciences of Paris, Director of the Astrophysical Observatory of Meudon.) RETROSPECT “AND! PROSPECT. By Sir ARCHIBALD GEIKIE, O.M., K.C.B., F.R.S. IFTY years have passed since the publica- tion of the first number of Nature on November 4, 1869. To start successfully a weekly journal entirely devoted to chronicling the onward march of science was an experiment that could not but involve some financial risk, and certainly required no small editorial ability. To maintain such a journal for half a century on a high level of excellence, and to gain for it a place admittedly of importance in the periodical literature of our time, is a feat of which Editor and publishers have good reason to be proud. The weekly con- tributions of this journal to current scientific literature now amount altogether to more than a hundred volumes, which contain a contemporary record of the progress made by every department of natural knowledge, often contributed by the men to whom the progress was due. It may be appropriate, as we take note of this achievement, _to cast an eye back upon the condition of science among us fifty years ago, to survey our present position, and to look forward into the vista that is opening out for the future. In taking such a retrospect one of the most conspicuous and satisfactory features to attract attention is the remarkable increase and steady growth of fresh centres of higher education all over Britain, where not only is the time-honoured | literary side cherished, but ample room and full equipment are found for the theoretical and prac- tical teaching of science. These centres, begin- ning perhaps as modest colleges, have attracted a constantly increasing number of students, and each of them has become a nursery in which the men of science of the future are being bred. A convincing proof of their vitality is furnished by their successful claim for recognition as universi- ties. They have already added half a dozen new universities to our educational strength, and this year one of the youngest yet most important of NO. 2610, VOL. 104] them, the Imperial College of Science and Tech- nology, is now in turn demanding the status and powers of a university. There has never been a time in our history when the opportunities for obtaining a thorough scientific training have been thrown open so widely and attractively, and when advantage has been taken of them in so large a measure. That one of the great duties of a nation is to promote the cultivation of science by appropri- ating funds not only in aid of education in theory and practice, but also in support of research and experiment, never began to be realised until within living memory. British science has attained its greatness without State aid. There are, indeed, a few directions in which public money has been disbursed for scientific objects, such, for instance, as Greenwich Observatory, the British Museum, and the various geographical expeditions and geo- logical surveys. But not until the middle of last century did it dawn upon the attention of the Ministry of the day, awakened possibly by the portents of the coming Great Exhibition of 1851, that men of science are not as a rule wealthy, that they must often be -involved in considerable expense in carrying on their researches, that they _cannot always look to the universities, colleges, or learned societies for financial support, and therefore that it might be of public advantage to come to their help from the public purse. Accord- ingly, in November, 1849, Lord John Russell, then Prime Minister, sent a confidential communi- cation on the subject to the president of the Royal Society (Earl of Rosse), who remitted to a com- mittee to report how a financial grant, if made by Government, could best be employed. After deliberate Governmental consideration for the space of nearly a year it was decided at the beginning of 1851 to make an annual grant of one thousand pounds to be administered by the Royal 196 Society, chiefly in aid of private individual scien- tific investigation. At the end of four years the Treasury declined to continue the grant of this sum (trifling as it was, compared with the revenue of the country), on the ground that the fund from which it was taken would no longer admit of “an annual grant to the Royal Society.” The council replied with spirit that it was not a grant to the Royal Society, but ‘‘a contribution on the part of the nation towards the promotion of science generally in the United Kingdom,” the council being only trustees for the due administration of the fund. The grant was then placed on the Parliamentary Estimates, and the 100ol. continued to be paid annually for nearly twenty years. In 1877 the. vote was increased to 4oool., but the council had still some difficulty in preventing the grant from being regarded as one to the Royal Society, which was in no way benefited by it, but, on the contrary, had an onerous and difficult task in looking after its proper administration. In 1894 application was made for an increase in the amount of the grant, but without success. Meanwhile the German Government, looking keenly to the future and thoroughly impressed with the importance of stimulating the cultivation of science, was spending large sums to equip laboratories and otherwise further education in science, and to stimulate discovery and invention. The example of that country was often cited here, and contrasted with the unsympathetic attitude and stingy support of our authorities, much to the surprise and annoyance of the permanent officials of the Treasury, who rather seemed to think that their grants to science were remarkably liberal. I remember an occasion when I had to go to the Treasury about a matter connected with the Geological Survey. The official on whom I called was one of the heads of the Department, with whom I had long been on terms of friendly intimacy. He began the interview by saying that he would be glad to hear me, but begged that the example of Germany might not be mentioned. Happily these times of indifference belong to the past. Twenty years ago an appeal was made to Government for the creation of a National Physical Laboratory for the purpose of standard- ising and verifying instruments, testing materials, and for the determination of physical constants. After some effort and with the persistent support of Lord Rayleigh, the appeal was eventually suc- cessful. The institution began on a modest scale with a staff of only twenty-six, no more than two departments, and a small grant annually voted by Parliament. But under the able supervision of Sir Richard Glazebrook it rapidly increased the scope of its work, the extent of its buildings, and the size of its staff, until the burden of responsi- bility for its administration was becoming too heavy for the Royal Society. In April of last year it was transferred to the newly established De- partment of Scientific and Industrial Research, the number of its departments of investigation having now grown to seven, and that of the staff to more than 600. In this enlarged sphere of public utility NO. 2610, VOL. 104] NATURE [ NovEMBER 6, 1919 it will no doubt achieve still greater success, while at the same time research in all directions and its practical applications will be greatly quick- ,ened. The day of parsimony in regard to the prosecution of scientific inquiry and its applications is now gone beyond the power of any Government _ to revive. i Obviously it is not zeal for the advance of pure science that has led to the augmented general interest in research. The appreciation of the practical value of many discoveries in relation to the daily life of mankind has naturally been the main stimulus. The philosophers might have ex- perimented until doomsday upon ether and its undulations without awaking more than a languid interest in their work, or receiving any pecuniary help in their expenses; but when they showed that by means of these undulations messages could be flashed across the ocean without any wires, the public imagination was at once excited, and millions of money were ready for investment in any company that would undertake to fit up the necessary apparatus for sending such messages. In like manner, there might have been but a feeble appreciation of the phenomena of radio- activity, but when it was shown that by means of R6éntgen rays the surgeon could see the bones inside a human body and detect there the exist- ence and exact place of any bullet or other dense substance, a wide interest in the discovery was awakened, and little difficulty was found in supply- ing every hospital with the requisite apparatus. The War has brought the economic value of science before the world on a colossal scale of demonstration. While scientific inventions have enormously augmented the offensive powers of the belligerents, it is pleasing to know that the applications of science have not been all on the destructive side, but that at the same time the greatest stimulus in the history of mankind has been given to medicine and surgery, and that each of these great divisions of the healing art has made notable advances and gained fresh powers for dealing with diseases and wounds. Exactly ten years had elapsed after the publica- tion of Darwin’s ‘Origin of Species” when the first number of NATURE was issued. The doctrine ~ of Evolution had long been before the world. Laplace had introduced it into the history of the solar system; Lamarck, after Buffon, had pro- posed an ingenious etiology in the history of organised life upon the earth; while towards the middle of last century came the cruder efforts of the author of the “Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation,” which so perturbed the minds of his generation. But it was not until after the appearance of Darwin’s book, and in consequence of that book, that Evolution came slowly to be regarded as the great law of the whole cosmos. If we consider broadly the rela- tion of the community to scientific progress during ‘the last fifty years, its most outstanding feature will probably be recognised in the general accept- ance of this great generalisation. The views of Darwin made their way with Sa il a NoveEMBER 6, 1919| NATURE 197 ‘more speed on the Continent than in his own country. Probably not many survivors are left to recall the astonishment and indignation with which some of the older geologists of the day read his two chapters ‘On the Imperfection of the Geological Record” and ‘On the Geological Succession of Organic Beings.” To the younger men, on the other hand, these chapters were a luminous revelation. I shall never forget their influence on myself. They gave me a new key to unlock the history recorded in the rocky crust of the globe. They linked together Stratigraphy and Paleontology in the most masterly way, making each of them explanatory of the other, and confirming the doctrine of Evolution more clearly than ever. The bearing of the ‘Origin of Species” on social questions was more promptly recognised abroad than at home. ‘Thus, in the first number of NaTuRE, it was stated that when the Austrian Reichsrath, after the disastrous war with Prussia, - assembled in December, 1866, to deliberate on the best means of re-consolidating the prostrate empire, a distinguished member of the Upper Chamber, Prof. Rokitansky, began a great speech with this sentence: ‘‘The question we have first to consider is, ‘ Is Charles Darwin right or no?’” Such phrases as “the struggle for existence ” and “the survival of the fittest ” have not only become household words, but they have been brought into the domain of social relations and of the physical improvement of mankind. Foremost among those who have insisted on the vital importance of these subjects to human society was Darwin’s cousin, Sir Francis Galton, to whose writings and _ per- sistent advocacy the new study of Eugenics owes its existence. In one important branch of research Britain has always taken a foremost place. Geographical exploration, where it can be undertaken by the Navy, has long been a favourite task with our Admiralty. The earlier expeditions were mainly intended for geographical discovery. Those of the last fifty years have been in increasing measure devoted to scientific observations in magnetism, meteorology, oceanography, and natural history. A new type of equipment has thus arisen, in which each vessel becomes a kind of floating workshop of laboratories, microscope rooms, photographic chambers, and all the other requirements of physical and biological science. It was the naturalists who asked for State assist- ance in the exploration of the ocean, its tempera- ture, currents, depths, and living things. In 1868 they succeeded in obtaining from the Admiralty the services of the Lightning, and two years later of the Porcupine. These tentative missions brought to light so much fresh information and raised so many new problems that, in response to a loud appeal from the scientific world, the Challenger was prepared on a more complete and elaborated scale, fitted with every kind of appli- ance, and furnished with a company of skilled investigators, under the leading of a distinguished No. 2610, VOL. 104] naturalist. For the first time in the history of exploration the globe was circumnavigated during four years (1872-76), not for the discovery of new lands, but for an investigation of the oceans from their surface waters to their utmost depths. Splendid in its conception and admirable in its achievement, this great expedition laid. a solid foundation for the new department of science which has now been named Oceanography. And the fifty quarto volumes in which its labours and results are recorded form a noble monument of successful research. Since that time the problems of the Antarctic regions have been attacked by several expedi- tions. The two brave adventures of Capt. Scott and his associates in 1901 and 1910, amply sup- ported by the Admiralty, were meant not merely for the increase of geographical knowledge, but were fitted out with all the needful appliances for observations of the magnetism, meteorology, geology, and zoology of the area around the South Pole. They have added much to our knowledge of Nature in that region of the globe. If, now, we cast our eyes towards the future, the prospect for British science is eminently encouraging. The opportunities for research and experiment were never before so ample, the co- operation of the State never so cordial, the-ranks of the investigators never so full, and the joy and enthusiasm for investigation never more ardent. For years to come this prosperity ought to con- tinue and increase. But unquestionably in the distance a cloud may be discerned, which has long been in sight, but is now much nearer. Our present great source of power is coal, but at a not - very remote date our coal-fields will be exhausted. If before that time some other source is not dis- covered, our position as a great manufacturing country will be seriously affected. Hopes have been raised on the possibility of finding large supplies of mineral oil in our islands. It is well known that in one or two places oil has long been coming to the surface in small quan- tities. It is possible that these indications may point to larger supplies below. But we are still so ignorant of the distribution of the oil within the earth that no confident prognostications are warranted. Much misunderstanding still exists on this subject. There can be now no doubt that the oil found so abundantly in some regions has no connection with coal-fields or with any deposits of organic origin, but. comes from a depth prob- ably below all the stratified part of the terrestrial crust. The most probable explanation of its origin is that it results from the decomposition of carbides forming part of the original constitu- tion of the globe. These carbides, or compounds of carbon with some metal, such as iron, are decomposable by water and then give rise to the production of hydrocarbons, such as mineral oil and marsh gas. If water descending from the surface through the upper crust should reach those deeper-seated compounds, this decomposition would take place, and the pressure of the 198 NATURE a eee [ NovEMBER 6, 19 19 generated gas might force the oil up the fissured crust to the surface. Only where it makes its appearance do we know for certain that there must be some oil below, but whether in quantity sufficient even to repay the cost of boring for it cannot be predicted. But before our coal supplies are worked out, and whether or not we discover subterranean supplies of oil, we may surely hope that some of the sources of power which are now unused will be harnessed to the service of man. To the water- falls, tides, and winds, which have long been con- sidered, Sir Charles Parsons in 1904 suggested another possible source of power in the internal heat of the ‘globe, and in his recent presidential address to the British Association he has returned to the subject. His proposal is to sink a bore-hole 12 miles deep, which would cost five million . pounds and require about eighty-five years for its completion. With the use of a fresh source of power and an extended development of electricity, - we should doubtless be able to hold our own in the competition of the nations. It may be allowed to me to end this article on a more personal note. To the foresight, energy, and constant attention bestowed on Nature by its founder, Sir Norman Lockyer, the world of science has been indebted during half a century ~ for the possession of a journal which with per- sistent force has sustained the cause of science in this country, has been an invaluable medium for recording the progress of research and dis- covery, and has played a most useful part as a medium for the discussion of questions of general interest and for ‘public intercommunication between the cultivators of science, to whom it has become indispensable. I contributed to its first number, and have often sent communications since then, and now I am proud to be asked to write a preface to this jubilee issue and to wish continued life and prosperity to my old and valued friend, the founder of the journal. THE FOUNDATION OF BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES. By Sir E. Ray Lanxester, K.C.B., F.R.S. Wo the first number of NATURE was pub- lished in November, 1869, the word “biology”? had not the currency now given to it. The word had been adopted by Whewell, and was used by Treviranus and philo- sophical writers of the early half of last century. What is now called hypnotism was termed “electro-biology,” but the extent of the great field of exploration signified by “biology ” was little understood. The great event in the history of biological science occurred ten years before the appearance of the first issue of NATURE, namely, in 1859, when Darwin published his book ‘On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life.” The new conception of organic phenomena brought about by Darwin’s work took deep root in the ten years from 1859 to 1869, and the main lines of study necessitated by it had been boldly laid by the pioneers, chief of whom were Huxley and Hooker. One main line of work set going, and ever since continued, was the production of further evidence of the kind brought forward by Darwin and Wallace. The period was one of intense activity and movement. The Darwinian theory spread in every direction, and flew evidence in its favour was accumulated by naturalists, collectors, and explorers. By a remarkable coinci- dence, the year 1859 was marked not alone by the publication of the ‘Origin of Species,” but— owing to the work of Joseph Prestwich and a small group of English geologists—it is definitely distinguished as the date when the occurrence of flint implements in the gravels of the Somme was recognised as proving (as had been main- tained since 1847 by M. Boucher de Perthes and NO. 2610, VOL. 104] denied by the French savants) the existence of man as a contemporary of the mammoth and the woolly rhinoceros. ; When this journal started its career we had already Darwin’s additional volume on_ the “Variation of Animals and Plants under Domesti- cation,” which was followed in 1871 by the “Descent of Man.” Practically the whole scien-— tific world (and much of the thinking world out- side it) had been convinced of the truth of the doctrine of organic evolution and also of the vast antiquity of man. The evolution of man from animal ancestry, with all its consequences as to the development of the human mind, became an inevitable inference. Elementary Biology. By the year 1869 the triumph of the Darwinian theory was assured. In that year Huxley began his course of lectures and laboratory work on elementary biology. The class numbered about a hundred, and Huxley’s three assistants were (Sir) Michael Foster, Rutherford (then professor at King’s College, London, afterwards professor at Edinburgh), and myself. This course of lec- tures to teachers, which was given also in the following year, largely emphasised the unity of animals and plants, and it aroused great, en- thusiasm. Each lecture by Huxley was followed by demonstrations by his assistants in the laboratory, which lasted all day. This became the model for the courses in biology in all English- speaking countries, and formed the basis of the examinations in the University of London. Huxley by no means sought to put forward zoology at the expense of physiology and botany. In the new laboratories at South Kensington the ee ee ae — 7 _ ur fe i is rs y i a al i nl i NoOvEMBER 6, 1919] NATURE 199 first course of botany dealing with the vegetable kingdom as a whole, and not, as heretofore, merely with flowering plants, was given at Huxley’s in- vitation by Thiselton-Dyer. It included the very complete study of lower as well as higher plants. This and the publication of the translation of Sach’s ‘Text-book of Botany,” in which Dyer was chiefly concerned, were the starting points of the rapid and remarkable development in botany in the English-speaking universities, which has con- tinued very actively ever since. Profs. Vines and Marshall Ward and others who became leaders in botany were pupils of Dyer at that time. About the same date, and as part of the same general movement, the development of “ physio- logy ”’ began, so far as this country is con- cerned. This name has been curiously, by sheer chance, assigned to a study which would more properly be called ‘‘organology.” Originally physiology meant the study of Nature, but it has been whittled down until now it means essentially the activities of organisms. together with Michael Foster and Rutherford, were especially active in the introduction of the laboratory study of physiology in connection with physical measuring apparatus, such as the kymo- graph and other devices already in use in German and French universities. This has resulted during these fifty years in great progress in both the teaching and the understanding of physiology in every university in Great Britain and America. In 1868 our greatest teacher of physiology in London—Prof. Sharpey, of University College— used to exhibit the mode of record by means of a kymograph by fitting a piece of paper round his tall hat and slowly rotating it on the lecture- table! There was no physiological laboratory in the place at that time. Methods of Research. Another great development connected with the new outburst of biology was the improvement both of the microscope itself and of methods of microscopical research. In 1870 all biological “workers and teachers became convinced that the long tube and immensely complicated brass-work of English microscopes were superfluous, and that the smaller microscopes of the Continent were better suited to ordinary work. Moreover, the high powers made by Hartnack, of Paris, especially the No. 10 immersion, were found to be more suitable for work upon living and biological material generally than the equi- valent powers of English makers. In Vienna in 1869 I worked with Stricker in his laboratory, and learnt from him the method of embedding in waxy materials for the purpose of section-cutting, of which he was the actual inventor. I also studied the methods which he had devised for the investigation of living protoplasm—the out- wandering of white corpuscles in inflammation, movements of the large connective tissue-cells of the cornea, etc. In 1870, owing to the connection thus estab- lished, Dr. Emmanuel Klein came to London as NO. 2610, VOL. 104] Burdon Sanderson,,. assistant to Burdon Sanderson, and was after- wards, by his appointment at Bartholomew’s Hos- pital, the chief teacher of Continental methods of staining, section-cutting, and refined histology, which at once took firm root in English schools of medicine. Previous to this it was not realised in England ‘that it was easy to watch the move- ments of the white corpuscles of the blood and other living cells of the animal body. Also previous to 1870 a few individuals, such as Lockhart Clark, had in this country used the method of carmine staining for the study of such. tissues as the spinal cord. But the method of hardening in various fluids, passing the sections. from absolute alcohol to chloroform and_ ulti- mately to Canada balsam or Damma varnish, and’ so rendering them transparent, was practically unknown. But since 1870 the methods of stain- ing and section-cutting have enormously developed in this country. English workers are especially responsible for the development of the microtome and the methods of producing long ribbons of con- secutive sections, which has had an immense effect on the study of the microscopic structure of all organisms. Embryology. Obviously, a line of research the importance of which was greatly accentuated by the Darwinian point of view was embryology. The discovery in 1866, by Kowaleyvsky, of the identity in the early stages of cell arrangement in embryos of the Ascidians and Amphioxus gave an enormous im- pulse to the study of embryology, and raised the hope that secrets of organic relationship in. plants and animals might be revealed in other cases. Indeed, Kowalevsky’s great discovery may be considered to rank in biology with that of his fellow-countryman Mendeléeff in chemistry. For he showed that the study of cell development could be carried further, and laid the foundation of cellular embryology, which culminated in what is called the ascertainment of “‘cell-lineage.” That remarkably accurate pursuit had its inception ina paper by Whitman published in the Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science in 1878, and has been largely continued by Conklin and others in™ America. The actual study of embryology took a new departure in this country under the influence of Frank Balfour, who published papers on the development of the Elasmobranchs, and estab- lished the origin of the notochord and the coelomic cavity in Vertebrates as identical with that shown in Amphioxus and Ascidians by Kowalevsky. My own part in this embryological work was chiefly in regard to the Mollusca, but general conceptions were, I think, facilitated by the introduction by me of the terms “archenteron,” “blastopore ” (orifice of invagination by which the two-cell- layered sac, called by Haeckel the gastrula, is formed), “stomodeum,” and “proctodzeum ” (the in-pushing of the outer layer relating re- spectively to the mouth and anus). The German terms “ Vorderdarm”’ and ‘“ Hinterdarm,” refer-. ring merely to the anterior and posterior ends 200 NATURE [NoveMBER 6, 1919 ‘of the alimentary canal, were not identical with my terms, which apply only to portions of ectodermal origin. The doctrine that the celom throughout the animal kingdom is actually or implicitly an out-growth or a series of out-growths of the archenteron was maintained by me in opposition to the views of Haeckel and Gegenbaur and others, and was finally established by the observations of Sedgwick on Peripatus. It was further proved by me that the vascular system was an organic unit entirely independent of the ccoelom, and my conception of “ phleboedesis ” made an end of the German misinterpretations of the body-cavities of Arthropods and Molluscs. The abundant cumulative study of embryo- logy during these years has led to most important conceptions with regard to the relation- ship of various animals—e.g. the origin of verte- brate limbs. Present conclusions are really based on inquiries into embryological beginnings, and the whole interpretation of morphology in its em- bryological aspect is still in progress. The Cell. The study of the structure of the cell itself, and of the processes of cell division, shortly after 1869 made a very great advance. Chromo- somes and their importance, and the whole subject of mitosis, became a part of our fundamental knowledge. This very naturally, in view of the importance of heredity with regard to the whole _ theory of organic evolution, led to the minute study of the structural facts connected with the egg- and sperm-cells, as well as fertilisation and the earliest divisions of the fertilised egg-cell to form the embryo. ‘This study, beginning about the commencement of the period under considera- tion, is still actively proceeding. Whilst it seems that in the chromosome we have got very much closer to an understanding of the actual visible features relating to the phenomena of heredity, yet there are important facts in course of dis- covery. Oceanic Research, Another line which also suddenly came into activity and has been a prominent feature since 1869 is deep-sea exploration, which began with the voyage of the Challenger. When the first number of NaturE was published, this was having its initiation under Dr. W. B. Carpenter and Prof. Wyville Thompson, who, led by the dis- coveries made by those who laid the first deep- sea cables, had conceived the notion of explor- ing great depths of the ocean by means of the dredge. They obtained the brief loan of a war- ship from the Government for the purpose of their explorations. This led to the three years’ voyage of the specially fitted ship Challenger and its staff of scientific experts, and the publication afterwards of a magnificent series of reports. This example of the Challenger has been followed by every country, and valuable explorations of the ocean—oceanographical research as it is called— has become an established branch of scientific inquiry. NO. 2610, VOL. 104] A complement of the pursuit of oceanography by means of ships and apparatus for deep-sea dredging has been the establishment of zoological laboratories in specially suitable localities on the seashore. The one. organised on an international basis. by Dr. Anton Dohrn was the first to become widely known and useful, although the French naturalists had some years before this founded marine laboratories—Coste at Concarneau and Lacaze-Duthiers at Roscoff. Now they are estab- lished everywhere. Palaeontology. Beginning with our starting point, and more especially connected with the founders of the Darwinian theory, there has been an immensely important and productive activity in paleonto- logy. A large part of Huxley’s scientific work consists of the thirty or more valuable memoirs on the remains of extinct fishes and reptiles published by him as naturalist of the Geological Survey. By his paleontological studies he was led to views as to the genealogical history and connection of the birds and reptiles, and also as to the special development of certain mammalian forms, such as the horse. Also at this period there developed in America an enormous activity in paleontological discovery. Up to 1869 we knew some few of the extinct animals of America through the work of Leidy. Marsh and Cope then burst upon the scene with most astonishing and valuable accounts of extinct dinosaurs, birds, and mammals. These have been followed ever since by a stream of important discoveries in which Henry Fairfield Osborn is now the leader. The stimulus of this work for the Darwinian theory and its vast importance in relation to that theory are obvious. Pathology. A study which has greatly developed, and has had an effect on Darwinism and been re- acted upon in turn by Darwinism, is that of the whole field of pathology. Before 1869 the - germ theory and the importance of bacteria in disease had begun through Pasteur’s work to be appreciated. Since then knowledge has accumulated, and the work of Lister has fundamentally altered views as to the effective nature of asepsis in the treatment of wounds. The outcome of this is an immensely increased study and knowledge of bacteria and other para- sitic organisms, and also of the means of resist- ance to their attack. Special importance attaches to the recog- nition by Metchnikoff of the function of the colourless corpuscles as scavengers in the blood and tissues—his doctrine of phagocytosis and the réle of phagocytes in immunity. Perhaps most strikingly significant is his explanation of inflammation, which is now seen in the light of the Darwinian theory to be a life-preserving pro- perty of the higher organisms in which, by local arrest or slackening of the circulation, the access NovEMBER 6, 1919 | NATURE 201 of phagocytes to injured and diseased tissues is facilitated. General Retrospect, All these developments will be found recorded in successive volumes of Nature, in reviews of books, correspondence, and articles. In this way greater perfection of record and comprehensive- ness of treatment have been attained than in any other scientific journal. Whilst all these studies were going on, the more direct observations by the Darwinian method have been accumulating enormously. Classifica- tion and general views on morphology have been affected accordingly. Various serious attempts have been made to improve upon or to add to Darwinian theory, perhaps to its detriment. One example of this is»Romanes’s notion of physio- logical selection. Another is the attention given _ to the experiments and conclusions as to hybrid _ breeding of the Abbé Mendel. Mendel’s conclu- sions differ but little from those contained in Darwin’s own work, as was pointed out in a letter to Nature for August 14 last, p. 463. No doubt the breeding experiments which are now carried out in the name of Mendel might equally well be performed in the name of Darwin. The importance of this work was little assisted by those interested in Mendelism, when in the early days they called it a “new science.” | Within the limits of a short survey it is impos- | _ sible to measure the heights of more than a few peaks of biological science, or to describe the boundaries of even a few fields of work. Others will deal with particular branches of biology, including psychology, which will be developed in the near future as the basis of anthropology, and should be to education what physiology is to medicine. Physiology itself has yet to come under the fulj influence of the Darwinian doctrine —‘the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life.” As yet there has been no in- vestigation of the development and survival of functions. It is necessary to study their evolu- tion from simpler types and to analyse by experi- ment the progressive series of chemical activities involved in digestion, secretion, excretion, and so on. At present physiology is as incomplete as morphology would be if no forms below terres- trial vertebrates had been studied. In concluding this sketch I desire to bear testimony to the valuable services in the promo- tion of scientific progress which Nature has ren- dered throughout its existence. In the hundred and three volumes which have been published since 1869 the names of all the most active workers in the realm of natural knowledge will be found in their pages, not only in papers and books recorded and epitomised, but also as the authors of articles, letters, and other contribu- tions. Every man of science knows the useful function performed by Naturr, and appreciates its essential importance to the vitality of the scientific organism. I am particularly glad that my friend, Sir Norman Lockyer, has lived to see the completion of the fiftieth year of the journal established by him. The high and secure position which Nature occupies is due to the sympathetic, impartial, and honourable editorial traditions gained for it by him and still maintained. As a | personal friend I cherish the recollection of asso- ciation with the founder of the journal through- out the long period of its existence, and with all other scientific workers I tender him grateful con- gratulations for what he has done through it to stimulate the increase and application of know- ledge. : signa SCIENCE AND By THE VEN. James M. Witson, D.D., first year of publication I was one of its _ contributors, and he asks me to write something for its jubilee issue. He goes on, further, to assign me a subject—‘‘ The General Attitude of the _ Church and the Religious Laity towards Science - now compared with what it was fifty years _ ago”’—and he limits me to “about a thousand _ words.” It is a sufficiently large subject for, _ Say, ten or twenty thousand, and yet I am going _ to double that subject by adding the words “and | that of the scientific world towards the Church.” I think there has been an equal change in both, _ and I take the latter half first. is About fifty years ago I was more at home in the scientific than in the clerical world. NO. 2610, VoL. 104 | } THE CHURCH. CANON AND VICE-DEAN OF WORCESTER. a fair mathematician; an enthusiastic, though | ill-equipped, teacher of science; an observer in astronomy; on the council of the Royal Astro- | nomical Society; and associated with Huxley and | | | } | my friends. | the rank and file of men of science. Tyndall in a small British Association Committee on teaching science in schools. They were among I had also many friends among Such are my credentials to speak of the attitude at that time of men of the scientific world to the Church, That world, impressed and dazzled as it was by the vast extension of the sphere of the natural —that is, of what was sure to recur in like | physical 'cireumstances—felt, speaking generally, I was that “the Church,” which insisted on the super- M 202 NATURE [NoveMBER 6, 1919 natural, was ipso facto an upholder of error and | superstition, an enemy to truth. They were out to sweep the Christian faith away. It might hold out, they thought, for a few decades in obscure circles, but its time had come. They were as cocksure and contemptuous of believers in the supernatural as were the Germans of the English in 1914. I am speaking generally, and chiefly of the smaller fry and hangers-on. But some of the leaders. occasionally showed the same tone. The attitude of men like Huxley, Adams, Stokes, H. J. S. Smith, Asa Gray, Salmon, Max- well, and others was very different. They never wavered in their sense of the duty of setting truth first, and of the value of knowledge. They saw and welcomed the setting far back the traditional boundary between the natural and the super- natural. But they stopped there. They felt the presence of the unknown, and humbly suspended their judgment, conscious of limitations. Tyndall and his admiring school seemed to feel no such limitations. I remember talking with him at his house on the Bel Alp one glorious evening. He gave some two or three of us a brilliant monologue on his doorstep. But that universe of stars and snow-peaks was to him a magnificent field of exercise of atomic forces. Further knowledge, he doubted not, would estab- lish the fact that we also, with our mental facul- ties, were only items in the same field, products of the same forces. ‘ Such was the impression given of their beliefs by the dominant and aggressive school of men of science of that time—that freedom in spiritual life, and therefore responsibility, were illusions, though goodness was no illusion. Insensibly a change has occurred which is not easy to define. Perhaps it may be described broadly as the discovery by that scientific world that the sphere of religion is not inherently anti- rational; that faith, like knowledge, résts ulti- mately on experience; that science has its sphere in the world of matter leading up to forces of unknown origin and nature; and that faith has its sphere in a world of personality leading up to a similarly unknown goal of personality: that their methods are not inconsistent; and that their goals may be identical. There is a pregnant saying of Augustin: “In- terrogate thyself, O man, and make of thyself a step to the things which are above thee.” Science has of late begun to do this. Previously it had turned its face to things which are below us. Faith has ever turned its eyes to that which is above us, dim though it is, proofs of the exist- ence of which it finds in its own mental and spiritual faculties—in the sphere of the good, the beautiful, and the true. Through that experience faith is led up to the conviction of a Personal origin of Nature, with whom it is possible for us to be in some communion. ; Miss Jane E. Harrison, in her recent “Conway Memorial Lecture on Rationalism and Religious NO. 2610, VOL. 104] Reaction ” (Watts and Co.), has laid us all under a debt by her characteristic frankness on this subject. “If you will pardon,” she says, “a personal reminiscence, I should like to acknow- ledge my debt as a rationalist to a reviewer. Mr. Clutton-Brock, in reviewing a review of mine—I do not think he has read my book— noted, truly enough, that I always implied that religion was obsolete, and only to be examined — as a curious survival of man’s past. ‘And,’ he ended, ‘it is hardly scientific to lecture on the corpse of religion when all the while religion is alive and laughing at you’! It is a staggering experience to learn anything from a reviewer. That sentence made me reel for a moment. When I recovered I determined that religion any- how should not go on laughing at me any longer. So I turned to the study of modern developments, and I confess the result has in some ways sur- prised me.” ; This is an illuminating statement. There has been also, during the last fifty years, a corresponding change in the attitude of religious faith towards science. The following points strike me as the most obvious. First, the clergy and the educated laity have lost their fear that the predictions of the science of fifty years ago would be verified, and that we should find ourselves in a world of determinism and materialism. : Secondly, the younger generation of both clergy and laity take it as a matter of course that science has helped faith to extricate itself from many crude mythological forms in which its ex- ponents in pre-scientific days expressed their beliefs. Science has shattered some of our idols, and we are grateful, and shall be more grateful as the years pass. [ Thirdly, all Christians value highly the enor- mous extension of knowledge of the works of God due to scientific labour and genius. More- over, not a few would like to say emphatically that the disinterested search after truth, which is the very soul of science, is in itself a worship of the God of truth. It is faith. It is a religion. It is a consecration. Lastly, the ordered reason and method which have won such conquests in the physical world, and revealed fresh sources of power, have helped religious thinkers to see an inexhaustible source of spiritual power in that conception of the divine indwelling life which leads, not to the quietism | and the static passivity of Pantheism, or to a selfish individualism, but to ever-hopeful and ever-fruitful activities for the common good of men. May we not in conclusion say that the human and spiritual energies which in the past have created religion and science have now begun to see that they can work as independent allies, urged by a common motive, which one of the two would describe as the elevation of humanity in the scale of being, and the other would call i seeking the kingdom of God? NoveEMBER 6, 1919| NATURE 203 progress in geology has kept pace with that of the other natural sciences. In regard to them, in an article contributed to the first volume, I wrote of what had been done and what yet required to be done for their study in Cambridge, where I was then resident, and whither I have since returned. The changes may almost be called a transformation. The museums and laboratories, though the supply is not yet quite equal to the demand, far surpass what we desired in those early days, and the class-list of the Natural Sciences Tripos, instead of containing about a dozen names, had risen before the war to fully 130. The same is true of the other older universi- - ties, while more than as many, non-existent fifty years ago, are now busily engaged in educating natural science students. _ But to refer to geology only. In 1869 even _ the geography of considerable regions on the - earth’s surface was unknown. There were large areas in Africa, away from the coasts, where only here and there had a traveller passed. Hundreds _ of square miles about the North and South Poles were blanks upon the maps. With the exception _ of Western Europe, North America east of _ the Rocky Mountains, some portions of Asia, and a little of Australia, geological knowledge was _ very limited. Now careful surveys have been made far beyond the original boundaries, and it - is not too much to say that a general idea has _ been obtained of the geology of the earth as a whole, for, in addition to exploration of its surface, deep-sea sounding has revealed the . tea of the deposits now forming on the ocean floor. _ The advances in stratigraphical knowledge have _ told on every branch of geology, but especially on paleontology. Much valuable work had no doubt been done by 1869 on the Corals, the Echinoderms, the Crustaceans, the Brachiopods, _ the Molluscs, and the Vertebrates, but great dis- -coveries have been made, particularly in regard the last. The work on them, begun by Cuvier and carried on by Owen, has now been extended © most parts of the globe. Even so near as Belgium, the buried ravines of Bernissart have yielded up whole skeletons of the Iguanodon; the more central parts of North America show that, when the Rocky Mountains had partly begun to tise, reptiles, stranger in form and vaster in bulk than the founders of paleontology had imagined, haunted their swamps, and lakes, and rivers. Cope and Marsh, fifty years ago, were nly beginning their work. Such giant reptiles s Brontosaurus; Atlantosaurus; Diplodocus, with its inordinately long neck and _ tail; Stegosaurus, with its strangely serrate back; -and Triceratops, with its horned and armoured head, have all been reconstructed. Some century nd a half ago a forerunner of the sea-serpent NO. 2610, VOL. 104] 3 1? the fifty years since this journal began, the THE EXPANSION OF GEOLOGY. By Pror. T. G. Bonney, F.R.S. had been discovered at Maestricht, but the list of Mosasauroid reptiles has been much augmented from the inhabitants of the inland seas of late Cretaceous age near the Rocky Mountains of the present day. Dentigerous birds, and the Archzo- pteryx, half-bird, half-reptile, have been dis- covered, and some of the earliest Tertiary mam- mals, again more especially in Central North America, are no less weird in shape than the above-mentioned reptiles. Since the publication of the “Origin of Species,” which antedated that of NaTuRE by ten years, scientific paleontology may almost be said to have been born. Missing links in the chain of living creatures have been found,. gaps in knowledge have been filled in, difficulties which raised opposition from not a few good naturalists have been removed; evolution has passed from the stage of hypothesis to that of theory, and extended from natural history to other branches of science and into yet wider fields. The pedi- gree of not a few forms of life has been con- structed, so that “zoning” by fossils has greatly aided the stratigrapher, and the zoologist finds it possible in many cases to retrace the steps of that pedigree until, in this tree of life, the twigs are followed down into the branches, and the branches to the primary stems, though, notwith- standing recent discoveries in regard to the fauna of early Cambrian times, not a few pages have disappeared from the history of life, especially in its opening chapter. Discovery is. now pro- ceeding with quickened pace in the history of plant life, so that when Nature celebrates its centenary the zoology and botany of the world will undoubtedly be understood far more com- pletely than they are at the present day. In 1869 petrology was at a low ebb. Maccul- loch and De la Beche had done what was possible without the microscope, but the great majority of field-workers remained well contented if they could recognise the commoner igneous rocks and vaguely identify the metamorphic. Clifton Sorby, by applying the microscope to petrological study, had pointed out, nearly twenty years before 1869, the way to success, but had attracted very few followers, so that even our official surveyors did more to retard than to advance this branch of geology, while in regard to metamorphism the wildest ideas were not seldom proclaimed. Light gradually dawned, misconception after miscon- ception was dispelled, until in 1883 Prof. Lap- worth made the great forward step in this branch of the subject by discovering the “Secret of the Highlands.” Petrology now claims dozens of students, busily engaged in clearing up the diffi- culties and solving the puzzles of this or that region, and the study of rocks has become as truly scientific as that of paleontology. The value of geology for economic purposes has been increasingly recognised during the last fifty 204 : NATURE [ NovEeMBER 6, 1919 years, though for no small part of that time the so-called ‘‘practical man” was accustomed to make light of it. By the middle of last century the importance of some knowledge of stratigraphy was beginning to be generally realised in regard to coal-mining; yet cases sometimes occurred such as making boreholes in search of that material in hopeless places, or carrying a shaft down into the Wenlock Lime- stone in the hope of striking a valuable seam, which, as the result of an unconformity, had never been deposited. Much information, however, has been obtained about underground stratigraphy by some of these borings for minerals or for water, even when they proved fruitless in themselves. Shafts also for coal and for metals have been carried to much greater depths than formerly, one or two even going down to as much as 5000 ft. below the surface. But the late war repeatedly proved the practical value of a good knowledge of geology, in the cutting of deep trenches, in driving tunnels, mines, and counter-mines, and in constructing underground shell-proof shelters, so that we may now reasonably hope that our military and political authorities will recognise the importance of geology as a subject of education. - This increase of knowledge is not without its attendant drawbacks. The microscopic study of rocks and minerals, the minute observance of the variations in closely allied species, the distinction of geological areas, tend to foster specialism. In the present age the emergence of men like Darwin, Hooker, and Huxley, men with far- reaching views and wide outlook, who make great forward steps, has become increasingly difficult, while the literature of all the subjects, though it aids, also lays a heavy burden on the student. Much time has often to be spent in searching through many volumes, for fear of overlooking some fact which may have an important bearing on a special investigation; in short, there is some- times a great danger in being unable to “see the wood for the trees.” But we may hope that these obstacles will in due time be overcome, and details be regarded in their right relation to psinciples. Dect, THE NEW BIRTH OF MEDICINE. By Sir T. Ciirrorp Atisurt, K.C.B., F.R.S. My ERIN the period of fifty years during which Nature has been published, medicine has undergone a revolution. It has become enlarged from an art of observation and empiricism to an applied science founded upon research; from a craft of tradition and sagacity to an applied science of analysis and law; from a descriptive code of surface phenomena to the discovery of deeper affinities; from a set of rules and axioms of quality to measurements of quantity. When I turn back to the medical text-books of my pupil- age, to the wise and scholarly Watson or the respectable Alison, and contrast them with the text-books of to-day, I marvel that a change so vast, so profound, so revolutionary, should have come about in one lifetime! Many a generation had to pass before Harvey’s researches estab- lished animal mechanics; many again before the half-lights on animal heat of Willis, Mayow, and Boyle were brought to quantitative verifications. In medicine, observation cannot carry very far —not so far, let us say, as in astronomy; while skill and sagacity, if they do not die with the individual, keep in the axioms and exercises of the school but a transitory life. No observation of a thunderstorm could unravel its affinities to the action of a loadstone on a scrap of iron; no observation on diet could réveal the relation of food protein, by way of the amino-acids, to the tissues; no observation bestowed on scurvy or beri-beri could detect the occult and elusive but 1 Abstracted from an address by the author to the Scientific Meeting of the British Medical Association in April, tgrg. NO. 2610, VOL. 104 | all-potent influence of the vitamines; no observa-— tion of secretory and muscular action could reveal the play of surface-tension in muscular contrac- tion, or its relations to lactic acid and oxygen. By what sagacity could the shrewdest observer, let us say of heart disease, perceive the likencss of the formations of a soap bubble, or a raindrop, to the contraction of a muscle-fibre in terms of its length; or that muscular contraction is not so much a chemical as a physical system with a nega- tive temperature coefficient? Again, the relation of sexual hormones to the development of men and women, and to the phases of their respective organs of reproduction, is an issue of the academic laboratory. The prodigious harvest medicine has reaped in the recent operations of war was derived from the original researches of a chemist into the occult causes and. laws .of fermentation by microbes, and from a field apparently so alien as of the silkworm disease. ree One of the main lessons of our history has been that, in neglect of research into truths below the surface, medicine, for lack of a deeper anchorage, has always sunk back into empiricism and routine. Research is the salt of the most practical train- ing; it cannot begin too soon; it is the light of the wisdom of the man, of the mind of the boy, of the heart of the child. Education has lingered on Hellenistic and scholastic ways, on the systems of abstract notions unvexed by verification, so long that the hard-shell practical man is still occupied by the notions of antiquated theory and the phrases of a dead or moribund nosology. The NovEMBER 6, 1919 | NATURE 205 majority of medical men have to work upon the store of scientific ideas and facts with which they set out in practice; onwards they may gain in adaptiveness and technical facility, but can dig little deeper into the strata of knowledge; but for the modern academic spirit this would spell, as in our history it has spelled, stagnation. Physics and Medicine. Let us glance, however hastily, towards some of the fields. in which new knowledge has been gained. In the venerable study of anatomy in its static aspects the student has long been taught the value of precision; but the recent tide of anatomical study towards its dynamic aspects, as by the work of Sherrington and Head, is bringing in new currents, not of theory only, but also of _ practice. Of other casements opening upon new visions of medicine that from the chambers of physics is perhaps the most arresting, at any rate at present. How fascinating, in their application to pathology, are the principles of osmosis with its curious reversals, of surface action and adsorp- tion, of electrolytic differentials and _ electric _ methods of taking quantitative measurements, of _ mechanical pressures in the. circulation of body fluids and, in the heart, as measured and graphic- ally delineated by Hales, Ludwig, Gaskell, and ' Mackenzie, of the behaviour of fluid veins, and of the relative diameters, normal or variable, of _ the cardiac chambers and their main outlets. I need not do more than allude to the recent work on the CO, tension in the pulmonary alveoli, and - to its immediately practical bearing on so-called _ acidosis, on the treatment of persons gassed in military or civil operations, and so forth. By physics again we are shown, especially in plants, how in life the less complex molecules, _ working not only in planes below those in which _ the higher functions are developed, but also up- _ wards by pacific penetration, moderate where they _ do not command. How instantly such researches as these must govern the practice of medicine we perceive, for example, in the gum-saline treatment of surgical shock. It would seem indeed that some of the most mysterious phases of immunity and anaphylaxis, of phagocytosis, as also of narcotism, may depend, at any rate in great part, on surface action; and that the behaviour of lipoids released from disintegrating proteins may lower surface energy, as in the retention of water in renal dropsy; or again in a different field may deter- mine the touch or the permeability of synaptic neurons. These, and such physical laws, as they are revealed to us, teach that the multiplication - and co-ordination of surfaces, let alone their _ chemistry, are operations which do not arise in mere mixtures of the same ingredients. So far it seems as if all biological reactions were deter- mined by physico-chemical laws—that is, by molecular structure. The laws of selective absorp- tion, as revealed in incandescent vapours, might throw some light upon those of biology; for in NO. 2610, VOL. 104] both fields we have to study vibration of molecular systems in unison, harmony, or discord. When we rise from physics into systems of bio- logical activity two conceptions especially strike us as new and marvellous; namely, those of the colloids and the cell. But throughout these systems we shall find the physical phases, if no longer constructively dominant, yet still active and effectual. We cannot even guess at the links of these chains where physics recedes and bio- chemistry takes the lead. The mere size of the molecules now concerned alters their relation to the spaces in or about which they move; not only so, but in organic compounds a mere change of position of a radical profoundly alters the proper- ties of the compound and leads to manifold changes of function. Often, moreover, these changes, as in the cases of immunity and susceptibility, do not vary gradu- ally, but by leaps and bounds, as flames respond to musical scales of vibration. Thus great diversities, contrasts, and strange. conjunctions of morbid phenomena do not necessarily signify great divergence of nature in the morbific agents ; so that again we cannot get very far by grouping phenomena by direct observation. Processes out- wardly disparate may be alike at the core. A small and latent change of chemical constitution may turn a benignant into a virulent substance, and conversely; as we may see in such substances as cacodylic acid and the cyanides, or as saliva, serpent’s poison, and trypsin; and so forth. On a small deviation in a secretion we may be destroyed by those of our own household. How far are hormones a particular category, how far universals? Do they differ in nature from other secretions, enzymes, antisubstances, and so on? Do they by their interactions, compensations, and inhibitions cover the ground of concerted chemical action in kind, as the nervous system does in time; or are they few and peculiar to certain limited needs? Whether inhibitory or stimulatory may often depend rather upon the term of the series to which the hormone is applied than to a difference in quality. Merely to glance at such questions as these reveals to us how vast is the realm of knowledge yet unconquered, nay undiscovered— . . . Mazes intricate, Eccentric, intervolved, yet: regular Then most when most irregular they seem. A very interesting transition from physics to chemical biology is found in the phenomena of catalysis. By some elusive property certain in- organic substances—spongy platinum, for example, or manganese dioxide—themselves unaltered, exercise an accelerating influence upon chemical change; properties which are utilised to-day on an enormous scale in industrial processes. Now by our increasing knowledge of biochemistry we perceive that the function of which the inorganic catalyst is a simple case is manifested also in ‘more complex orders by certain enzymes, or col- Se a eee 206 NATURE [NoveMBER 6, 1919 loidal catalysts, upon which depends in great part the sweep of our health and of our diseases. In these enzymes which accelerate metabolism we may admire again, as in the simpler catalysts, the exquisite economy of energy in vital processes; how small the energy transactions may be, and these often reversible, which may compass great ends. A striking example of such economy is now being demonstrated to us in the calculated balances of voluntary muscular activity. The minute quantities of vitamine suggest that they, too, are catalysts, and function without much waste. Diet and Nutrition. During the last half-century the subject of dietetics has been strictly analysed on quantitative lines, and its energies calculated. in caloric and other units. Yet even herein our attainment is far from complete. About this well-worn, almost hackneyed subject a breeze of new and far-reach- ing ideas is gathering. Our balances, as in the children’s milk, ‘and in the analysis of the diseases of deficiency, are eluded by imponderables, by the infinitely little; our quantities are set at naught. For health and disease the new ‘vitamines to which I have alluded, like some other hormonic and enzymic imponderables, are as potent as they are intangible. Hormones work in infinitesimal ranks; and I believe no antibody has as yet been isolated. Once more we find that Nature laughs at our formal categories, at our several compartments of protein as such, of carbohydrates as such; a straitlaced reckoning. No one class of foods, it appears, will build or burn without another; carbohydrate metabolism leans on that of protein, the protein on carbo- hydrates, and all these on the fats, in mutual function; each of these is engaged in the totality of the chemical changes. For instance, deficient carbohydrate means deficient oxygenation of fats, and imperfect protein distribution. ; Nor is this all; some of our great ancestors, likewise having penetrating ideas of the infinitely little, supposed that the sources of nutrition must contain a supply to each and every living tissue of its own form of minute identical elements ; be they of bone, of muscle, of blood, of “nerve,” and so forth, each being proper to its particular tissue, to which it attaches itself (Homceomerism). This crude notion, it is true, made no great way; still until lately we have all of us supposed some, if a more general, congruity of form between the nutri- tive elements and the qualities of their various destinations. But the study of the reduction of foods to amino-acids, and issues of like researches, are telling us to-day that there is no necessity even for the food proteins to be of similar constitution to the tissues which they subserve. To the almost magical part played by certain elements, such as calcium, as stabilisers, or of the alkali-metals as labilisers of equilibrium I need but allude. The bearings of these dietetic researches upon practice, for example in the treatment of diabetes, are too obvious for reiteration. NO. 2610, VOL. 104] If we turn now to the cell, as described to us by Virchow, we realise that our knowledge of this tiny microcosm is as yet only beginning. The infinity of extension is not strange to us, for some of it we can see; but the infinity of the universe of the little, which far escapes even our microscopes,. does not so strike the imagination. Still, even of this inward universe and its intense activities, as by present research they emerge into the field of the mathematical physicist, of the spectro- scopist, of the radiologist, of the physical chemist, we are beginning to conceive something. The microcosm is no longer Man, but the cell of which he is built. To our wonder we see that, even within such tiny spheres, some of them filtrable, are multiple systems moving in relative independ- ence of each other. The cell membrane is formed chiefly perhaps by the physical processes we have considered. Yet puzzling and intricate as these reactions are, they are all-important to the physician; as, for instance, in the relations of the glomerular epithelium to sugars; its unerring dis- crimination between substances, even isomeric, im the blood, as between glucose and lactose; or again in the constant and subtle opposition of tae normal intestinal epithelium to the entrance of poisonous elements, or foreign proteins, into the vessels and tissues. For the Future? This rapid glance over a small part of the field of the medical sciences may serve to reinforce the lesson of their profound and instant bearing upon practice, and the neéd for linking up the laboratory with the wards. Only by disinterested cessed on the large patient and prophetic lines of the pure sciences can progress be made. The isolated academic worker, as well as the practitioner, loses. by this isolation; he loses the spontaneous out- crops of problems and crucial instances which so often spring up in practice,. but fail to show them- selves in the laboratory. So complete and mis- chievous, however, has been the barrier between research and the industry of medicine that a re- action from “laboratorism” to symptomatology has set in, because there are no intermediary workers—no engineers—between the knowledge getters and the knowledge dealers. have laboratory investigators completely out of touch with practice, and practitioners faithless of theoretical principles—just “ Philistines.” : As the engineer is something of a mathematician, something of a physicist, so the professor of medi- cine must be something of a physicist, something of a biochemist. Through these middlemen the man of science and the practitioner should mutu- ~ ally feed each other. In every adequate clinical school, then, there must be a professoriate ; whole time—or nearly whole time—professors, each with: his technical laboratory, biochemical and patho- logical, who with their assistant staffs shall be engaged continually in irrigating our profession from the springs of the pure sciences. Thus we - NoveMser 6, 1919 | NATURE 207 Most of the fundamental facts of physiology ; had been discovered before 1869, but nearly all the progress in the nineteenth century up to that time was made in France and _ Germany; and those who wished to learn the subject properly had perforce to seek instruction abroad—a condition of affairs which _ is fortunately in great measure now re- _ versed. During the sixties of last century physio- _ logy had ceased to exist as an active science in this country. There were no laboratories, and no systematic investigations of a physiological - character were carried on. The men who pro- _ fessed the subject in our medical schools were _ physicians or surgeons who were switched on to it as it came to their turn, and imparted to their _ hearers such knowledge as they might have acquired from books, but were themselves igno- _ rant of the methods and aims of the science they were appointed to teach. There was, however, one notable exception in _ William Sharpey, who was called from Edinburgh - to fill the newly-constituted chair of general anatomy and physiology in University College, - London, in 1836, and retained it until 1874. _ Sharpey, although a great teacher, was not really a physiologist. His training was wholly that of an anatomist, and his teaching was _ largely anatomical. Of the physiology he taught very little was acquired as the result of personal investigations, and his knowledge of the methods _ employed in modern physiology was nil. But he had clear ideas regarding the principles of the science, and an extraordinary facility for impart- ing his ideas and for interesting his hearers in _ them, so that when the opportunity came for learning the methods they were in an advan- _ tageous position to pursue the subject. It was a pupil of Sharpey—Michael Foster— _ who founded the famous school of physiology at _ Cambridge, and it was through Sharpey’s influ- ence that Burdon Sanderson was induced to give _ up the practice of medicine in order to install _ the practical teaching of physiology in London. These were the pioneers, and their influence gradu- » ally spread, so that before very long England _ succeeded in again taking a foremost place in a science which may be said to have had its birth _ in our country, for before the immortal discovery _ of Harvey no true physiology was possible. _ _ The development of the science during'the last _ fifty years has occurred partly along the old lines, _ which have been thrust forward far in advance _ of the position they occupied half a century ago, _ partly on new lines which were at that time not _ only untraced, but even unthought of. The _ immense progress on the old lines of investigation _ is evident whatever be the branch of the science _ to which we may turn our attention. This pro- ' gress is actively correlated with the parallel a NO. 2610, VOL. 104] DEVELOPMENTS OF PHYSIOLOGY. By Sir Epwarp SHARPEY ScuareEr, F.R.S. development of the sciences upon which physio- logy is based—physics and chemistry. More than all, perhaps, has physical chemistry—a branch of science which, if already born fifty years ago, had at any rate not been baptised— enabled the physiologist to see—if still very dimly—into the processes which make up life itself further than could ever have been dreamed of in those distant days. To give an account of the progress which has been made on the old lines of investigation would occupy a large volume; the shortest description would take many pages. Fifty years ago nothing was known of the constitution of the proteins or of the manner in which they are built up into the tissues. The mode of action of the heart and the factors which regulate circulation and respira- tion were still obscure. The localisation of func- tions in the brain had not been discovered. The important changes which cells undergo in the per- formance of their functions and in multiplication were unknown. The relation of the sympathetic to the rest of the nervous system was in ‘no way understood. But perhaps the most striking fact which has come out as the result of modern in- vestigation is the dominant action of the central nervous system upon all physiological processes. Not that this is entirely new; it was undoubt- edly indicated before the period with which we are dealing. But the paths and manner of its action have been so thoroughly studied, and the accumulation of evidence regarding it has become so great, that one may fairly look upon this as the most important development of physiology along the lines it was pursuing some fifty years since. That this advance has been assisted by the remarkable conception of the structure of the . nervous system, which we owe in the first in- stance to an anatomist—Golgi—is willingly con- ceded, for it must be admitted that our under- standing of the mode of action of the nervous system has become vastly simplified thereby. The new lines on which the science has under- gone development within the period with which we are dealing relate to the influence of chemical agencies in regulating the functions of the body. New lines, do I say? Nothing under the sun is ever entirely new. From the earliest times with which history deals, and doubtless .even in prehistoric days, it was known that the functions of the body are affected by chemical agencies. For have not drugs, many of them of a potent, not to say poisonous, nature, been administered from time immemorial? Was it not known that the chemical condition of the circulating fluid influences the, functions of some organs; that an excess of CO, in the blood affects respiration, an excess of sugar the kidneys; whilst any alteration in its constitution or re- action is liable to have a deleterious action 208 NATURE - [NoveMBER 6, 1919 on the body, and may produce. fatal effects? For all that, fifty years ago no one sus- pected that the body itself produces drugs destined to influence its own functions, that certain organs pass chemical substances (chemical messengers, as they have appropriately been termed) into the blood to affect distant parts, and that many functions of the organism are regu- lated by these chemical agents and _ self-formed drug's, sometimes in conjunction with the nervous system, sometimes to the exclusion of its action. The discovery of these internally formed drugs | has led to the development of a new branch of physiology to which the term “endocrinology,” or physiology of the internally secreting glands, has been applied. Fifty years ago the pituitary body, the thyroid gland, and the suprarenal cap- sules were mere names. Little was known of their structure, nothing of their functions. account which we are now able to give of these organs reads like a fairy-tale. That one of the } | smallest should by its secretion be able to influ- ence the growth and stature of the body, render- ing this man a giant, that man a dwarf; that — another should produce a material without which the nervous system is not in a condition to per- form its functions; that yet others should elabo- rate materials which when discharged into the blood exercise a profound influence upon the activity of totally distinct and distant organs of | the body, are secrets of Nature which were unre- | vealed fifty years ago, although now amongst the commonplaces of physiological instruction. The individuals who have been responsible for these advances—whether on the old or on the new lines—are too numerous even to be men- tioned here; those who most deserve such men- tion would indeed be the last to desire it. But | History will carve their names on the monument | they have joined in erecting, and Science, no less” The | mindful of her votaries than Religion of hers, will not fail to reward their services with the eke encomium : Ed, dodAe dyabe wal more. THE MODERN SCIENCE OF PSYCHOLOGY. oe progress made by psychology since 1869 may be justly described as unparalleled. In that year the subject had no laboratories, and it was regarded as a matter of philosophical study. To-day a psychological laboratory exists in nearly every important university, and psychology has become recognised as the youngest recruit to the natural sciences—the natural science of mental processes. The modern science of psychology, while admit- ting the great value of the older purely intro- spective psychology of the philosophers (repre- sented in this country by the writings of Ward and Stout), realises its dangers and its inade- quacy, and seeks to remove it from all meta- physical implications and to study mental pro- cesses under known variable conditions. From experimental psychology, thus established, have arisen the sub-sciences of (i) physiological psycho- logy, in which the relation of mental to nervous processes is investigated, (ii) animal psychology, which studies the relation of animal to human mentality and behaviour, and (iii) individual and racial psychology, which determines the mental differences between different individuals and races of mankind. There have also developed various “applied” psychological sub-sciences—e.g. (iv) educational psychology, the results of research in which are now taught to teachers in their period of training; (v) social psychology, which includes the psycho- logy of religion and other social institutions and characteristics; (vi) abnormal psychology, which forms a subject of examination for the post- NO. 2610, VOL. 104] graduate diploma in psychological ened now established in the Universities of Cambridge, Edin-— burgh, Manchester, and elsewhere; (vii) industrial | psychology, which is concerned in discover a the best conditions for the highest mental effici- ency of the workers, in connection with which ap- plications for the services of psychologically trained investigators are now coming from pioneer indus- trial and commercial firms; (viii) the psychology of esthetics, in which laboratory investigations. I of importance for art have been published in this — country and elsewhere. Particularly in America, — but also in Germany, many special journals have arisen devoted respectively to the psychol OF 3 education, abnormal psychology, indieelual psychology, animal psychology, industrial f logy, the psychology of evidence, etc. country we have the British Psychological _ Society, consisting of about 500 members, and — publishing the British Journal of Psycholog Fechner, who worked at Géttingen, "and i Wundt, of Leipzig, who in the ’seventies estab- — lished the first psychological laboratory, may be reckoned the fathers of experimental psycholog Fechner was the first to formulate the psyct : physical methods, a thorough grounding in which is indispensable for the avoidance of the many pitfalls of psychological experiment. To Wundt or to his pupils (especially Kiilpe) flocked students from other parts of Europe, and notably from America, who sought to be ‘trained in the prin- ciples of the science. But in Italy, Austria, and Russia experimental psychology has attracted few workers. In Switzerland it has followed the ‘In this — er Novenser 6, 1919] NATURE 209 French guidance of Ribot and Janet, who laid _ the foundations of our modern conceptions of the _ disorders of memory and personality, and of _ Binet, who was among the first systematically to _ study individual mental differences and to devise _ tests of mental ability. In the United States, under the influence of Stanley Hall and Titchener, and in Scandinavia, the German tradition was at first faithfully up- held. Most American, like most German, psycho- logists had their earlier training in philosophy, _and the work published generally followed ‘along _ German lines, consisting often in ‘maiden ” papers written by candidates for the doctorate of _ philosophy. In this country, especially through _ the influence of Rivers, who went to Cambridge in the early ‘nineties at the invitation of Michael Foster as lecturer in the physiology of the sense- _ organs, experimental psychology has developed on rather different lines. It has seldom received more than lukewarm support from philosophy, and it has been taken up by maturer workers, _ fewer in number, who in several instances came _ to it from physiology and medicine. Thus, Rivers _and MacDougall began their psychological work on vision, and Myers on hearing, while later Spear- man, who had graduated under Wundt, special- _ ised in the correlation of mental abilities. In this country scientific psychology has never suffered, as in America, from the dangers of excessive popularity. Here stress came to be laid on cone or other of the aspects of comparative psychology, rather than on the pure experimental psychology of the German laboratory. For it was quickly recog- -nised that the mental differences found under dif- ferent experimental conditions in any given in- dividual are generally less in degree and less in ‘significance than those observed under the same conditions in different individuals. True, both in ‘England and in Germany there have been import- _ant investigations @arried out upon the effects of ‘alcohol and other drugs on the mental processes of a given individual. But even here, as also in the striking researches of Ebbinghaus and G. E. Miiller on memory, the special interest has been ' found to lie in the study of the behaviour of dif- ent individuals. The Cambridge Anthropo- ical Expedition to the Torres Straits, under leadership of Haddon, which included in its ‘sonnel three psychologists, and the later rapid owth of the applied sciences of educational, ndustrial, and medical psychology, have likewise ped to stimulate the study of comparative ychology in this country. But in Germany and in America there have so been signs of a breaking away from the tial, less fruitful (though fundamental) themes research. Stern’s work on individual psycho- , following the pioneer investigations of ancis Galton in this country, and the, work on imal behaviour by Jennings, Thorndike, and kes in America, based on the foundations laid by Romanes and by Lloyd Morgan, are nples in point. _ NO. 2610, VoL. 104] The insufficiency of the older introspective psychology, whether studied in the laboratory or outside it, has since been growing more and more obvious. Watson and others have vainly sought to establish a psychology expressed merely in terms of behaviour, Loeb and Pawlow in terms of purely mechanical or physiological processes. Head and his collaborators have shown the ‘impos- sibility of analysing and tracing the evolution ‘of sensory and higher processes save by studying the effects of lesions in the peripheral nerves and the central nervous system. Freud and his fore- most pupils and critics have indicated the enor- mous importance of the study of the emotional, instinctive, and sub-conscious processes which are inaccessible to introspective examination. Whether or not we accept Freud’s views in their entirety, his work has given an enormous impetus to psychology by laying stress. on the conflicts arising from rival incompatible mental (especially - emotional) processes, and by indicating the dif- ferent principles which Nature and the physician may employ to combat such conflicts. The pub- lished experiences of MacCurdy and others of the American Army, and of Brown, Hart, MacDougall, Myers, Pear, Rivers, Rows, and other psychologists engaged in the treatment of functional nervous and mental disorders in the British Army during the recent war, have also shown how much can be done by the early application of appropriate psycho-therapeutic methods to the cure of such disorders. The war has likewise emphasised, both in this country and especially in America, the great value of psychological tests in the selection of candi- dates for the work to which they are best fitted. The importance of psychological experiment is now becoming recognised not only in regard to vocational guidance, but also in regard to industrial fatigue, the effects of different lengths and distributidns of periods of work and rest, etc. There was a time now past when in the popular view psychological research was supposed to be limited to reaction time experiments, or was con- fused with “psychical research ” into spiritualistic phenomena. It is true that the encrmous amount of labour spent in Germany on reaction time experiments promises at length useful results in the study of emotional complexes and of voca- tional selection. And only by the narrow-minded can psychical research be excluded from psycho- logical science provided that it be conducted by workers systematically trained in experimental methods and freed from personal bias and preju- dice. But the most promising future develop- ments of psychology may be looked for along quite other lines, which have been already briefly indicated in the foregoing account of its present position, more especially in the study of. the effects of nervous lesions and of mental and nervous disorders, and in the examination and recognition ‘of individual mental differ- { ences. | 210 NATURE [NoveMBER 6, 1919 ‘PREVENTIVE MEDICINE SINCE 1869. By Dr. C. J. Martin, F.R.S. REVENTIVE medicine is concerned with the application of knowledge to the prevention of disease. To this end all the sciences have been laid under tribute, but physiology, pathology, bacteriology, and epidemiology to the greatest extent, as these have the more immediate bearing. The rapid progress of preventive medicine during the last half-century is due primarily to the increase of physiological and pathological knowledge, and pre-eminently to the completer understanding of the process of infection which has been acquired during this period. So long as defective development and disease were regarded as wholly constitutional or inherent in the in- dividual, the only prospect of improvement lay in the weeding out of the unfit by the ruthless process of natural selection. A greater hopeful- ness has, however, arisen as the part played by prejudicial environmental conditions, such as im- proper feeding and housing, undue fatigue, the abuse of alcohol, and, above all, the invasion of pathogenic agents, was realised. By the end of the ’sixties the necessity of sup- posing a contagium vivum as the cause of many diseases was fairly generally recognised. Pasteur’s researches on fermentation and putre- faction had led him to the opinion that infectious diseases might be interpreted as the result of particular fermentations cue to specific microbes, and it was the ambition of his life to substantiate this conception. Lister had launched his anti- septic methods on the basis of Pasteur’s work, and these were already beginning to revolutionise surgical practice. Villemin had just demonstrated that tuberculous diseases, hitherto regarded as “constitutional,” were due to a common infective agent capable of multiplying indefinitely in the bodies of animals and of being handed on from one animal to another by inoculation. Hitherto, however, although various microscopic organisms had been found to be associated with disease, and indications had been obtained of their etiological significance, not one of them had been isolated. The causal relationships claimed were thus un- proven and much of their life-history unknown. The first isolation and propagation in pure culture of a pathogenic organism took place in 1876, and was accomplished by Koch in the case of a bacillus derived from cases of splenic fever or anthrax. Inoculations of cultures made in vitro into animals reproduced the disease. Pro- gress in bacteriological discovery remained slow until in 1880 more appropriate methods for the and plague, as well as of a larger number of diseases of animals, were discovered. ’ % The discovery of pathogenic agents of another kind soon followed. The association of relapsing fever with the presence of a minute motile spiral organism in the blood was observed by Ober- meier in 1873. Later, a number of diseases of man and animals were found to be caused by various spirochetes, most important among them being relapsing fevers, syphilis, yaws, and infec- tive jaundice. ie nase In 1881. Laveran described the parasite of quartan malaria. This observation was followed by the discovery of more than a hundred micro- parasites belonging to the protozoa which are responsible for diseases in higher animals. The most important human diseases due to protozoan — parasites are the three types of malaria, sleeping sickness, and kala azar. E aa Another class_of pathogenic agents which is — already known to be responsible for upwards — of thirty separate diseases of man and animals remains to be mentioned. These viruses are — either on the margin of visibility or invisible with — the microscope. They are so small as to pass — through biscuit porcelain. The causal agents of — infantile paralysis, yellow fever, molluscum con- — tagiosum, dengue fever, the three-day fever of the Mediterranean, and typhus fever belong to this category, as well as those of many important animal diseases, as rinderpest, horse sickness, and foot-and-mouth disease, and there are a number of indications that the infective agents of the common — exanthemata—measles, scarlet fever, smallpox— — are at some period of their life-history so small as to be included amongst the “filter-passers.” Since 1880 the etiological fattor of most human maladies has been brought to light. A correct ztio- logy is fundamentally necessary, but for preventive © measures mere identification of the cause of ad disease is not sufficient. The life-history of the parasite within and without its host, and particu-. larly the channels and method of entrance and — exit, must be known if a successful attack is to ’ be made’ upon it. Indeed, some of the most striking triumphs of preventive medicine have — been gained in the case of diseases in which the © virus had not been seen or isolated (such as hydrophobia, yellow fever, and trench fever), but in which, nevertheless, many properties of the ee, ne and exit had been revealed by experiment. virus and the method whereby it effected entrance isolation of bacteria were derived by Koch. | researches were more particularly directed to the Then followed a period of extraordinary fertility. Within fifteen years the causal agents of cholera, typhoid fever, diphtheria, tuberculosis, various types of suppurative processes, gas gangrene and erysipelas, glanders, gonorrhcea, pneumonia, food poisoning, meningitis, Malta fever, leprosy, NO. 2610, VOL. 104] In the first half of the period under rote discovery and isolation of the causative factors of disease; the latter half, for the reasons outlined © above, has been characterised by the amount of © knowledge gained regarding the details of the life-history of various parasitic agencies, the — maintenance of the infection in the absence of Novemser 6, 1919] NATURE 211 obvious cases of the malady, and the transmission of the infective agent from one individual to another. If the infective agent is present in a super- ficial lesion, as in smallpox, syphilis, diphtheria, or pneumonia, or passes out with the excreta, as in cholera and typhoid fever, more or less direct transmission can occur, but in the case of a para- site situated only in the blood or internal organs it was for long a mystery how the disease was transmitted. The secret was revealed by the dis- coveries of Manson, Smith, and Bruce on filariasis, red-water fever, and Nagana, showing that in these diseases mosquitoés, ticks, and _ tsetse-flies respectively acted as _ transmitters. These observations were soon followed by those of Ross on the transmission by mosquitoes of malaria, and afterwards it was shown by the American Commission that yellow fever also was trans- mitted by a particular species of mosquito. Relapsing fever, sleeping sickness, and bubonic plague were also found to be spread by the agency of insects; ticks or lice in the first case, a tsetse-fly in the second, and fleas in the last, and the most recent additicn to the list is trench fever, which has been proved to be louse-borne. The dependence of these maladies for their dis- semination upon particular species of insects has afforded a long-looked-for explanation of their _ distribution—e.g. sleeping sickness, yellow fever, and dengue—and the very extensive investiga- tions into the life-history of the parasites and their insect hosts has enabled the sanitarian to choose the stage in the cycle most convenient for attack. He could strike at the enemy whilst it was resi- dent in either host or indirectly by preventing the insect from biting the patient and cther individ- uals until in course of time the infection died out. _ By netting-in patients suffering from yellow fever so that mosquitoes could not attack them, and at the same time insisting on.the remoyal of all small collections of water in the neighbourhood of habitations in which these insects were wont to lay their eggs, Gorgas rid the city of Havana of _ yellow fever. By a campaign on similar lines _ against malaria-bearing species of mosquitoes, the Isthmus of Panama was converted into a health resort. Equally satisfactory results have followed _ elsewhere when it has been possible to institute equally thorough measures. _ Before leaving the subject of infection, I must “not omit to mention that biological discoveries _ regarding the life-history of the parasitic worms - —e.g. the hookworms and Bilharzia—have shown _ how diseases caused by this class of parasites _ could be successfully controlled. It has not often been found possible to eliminate the cause of a disease. In some cases knowledgé has not been sufficiently complete. In others its _ application has been too difficult, and it has been found impracticable sufficiently to control the lives of the population. In many such cases, however, preventive medicine has another NO. 2610, VOL. 104] arrow in her quiver. This is aimed at reducing the susceptibility of a population to a particular infection by protective inoculation. The earliest effort of preventive medicine along these lines was that of inoculation against smallpox prac- tised in Asia for some centuries and introduced into England in 1721 by Lady Mary Montagu. Cutaneous inoculation of smallpox usually pro- duces a local and comparatively mild illness, but the method suffers from the disadvantage that it propagates the virus of the disease. Jenner’s vaccination with cow-pox—a modified virus— obviated this disadvantage. With the discovery of the microbial origin of disease, Pasteur saw that the principle of Jen- nerian vaccination might be further exploited, and in 1881 successfully employed attenuated cul- tures of the microbes of splenic fever and chicken cholera to protect flocks and poultry against the depredations of these diseases. In the case of man, the possible danger from the employment of living cultures of the germs of fatal diseases led to researches to determine whether the injection of the microbes which had been killed by heat or chemical agents also in- duced some measure of protection against a sub- sequent inoculation with living virulent organisms. By experiments on animals this was found to be the case, and the use of such bacterial “vac- cines ” was employed by Haffkine to protect man against cholera and plague. Shortly afterwards Wright and Semple elaborated a similar method of protective inoculation against typhoid fever. Anti-typhoid inoculation has been extensively used. The experience in the British and Ameri- can Armies during the last fifteen years has been that a material reduction in the incidence of the disease has occurred amongst inoculated troops. The greatest triumph of preventive medicine during the late war was the comparative rarity of typhoid fever amongst our troops. This was the case not only in France, but also in military operations in other areas, where the conditions were such that satisfactory hygienic measures could not be carried out. No other explanation of this freedom from enteric is forthcoming other than the periodic prophylactic inoculations to which our armies were subjected. So far I have dealt exclusively with infection by living pathogenic agents. I make no apology for so doing, for the great developments in pre- ventive medicine throughout the world which are characteristic of this period have been due to the impetus given by the conceptions of Pasteur and the methods of Koch. At the same time, knowledge in all departments of physiology and pathology has steadily, though less dramatically, progressed. The increased understanding of animal nutrition must, owing to its important bearing upon the maintenance of the health of the peoples, be briefly referred to. Before the period under review Pettenkofer and Voit had been able to strike a balance-sheet of the ‘one of them is 212 NATURE [NoveMBER 6, 19 19 niet in-goings and output of matter by the animal body. Within the last fifty years the applicability of the principle of conservation of energy to animals has been established by Rubner. The energy-value of the important foodstuffs has been ascertained, and the requirements of the human body under various conditions of age, climate, and occupation have been determined. This knowledge has been inadequately exploited because everyone prefers to be a law unto himself in the matter of food intake. It has served as a basis for the rationing of armies and for the con- struction of institutional dietaries. During recent years, however, it has become increasingly ap- parent that man cannot live on protein, fat, and carbohydrate alone, but that a diet must contain in addition small quantities of what, until they can be isolated and _ identified, have been designated “accessory food factors.” The best example of these is the for long recognised anti- scorbutic substance in fresh vegetables and fruits. The existence of at least three accessory food substances has been since established. For all of these the animal is dependent directly or indirectly upon the vegetable kingdom. An_ insufficient supply of any one of these leads to trouble. If inadequate, scurvy results; deficiency of another leads to the disease beri- beri; and if deprived of the third an animal fails to grow. There appears also to be no doubt that rickets in children is due to a similar cause. é This knowledge has for long been utilised tq prevent scurvy. Where it has been intelligently applied it has eliminated beri-beri from coolie- camps, the population of jails, and industrial com- munities of the Far East, and if it is utilised in. the efforts to feed the famished population of the unfortunate countries of Eastern Europe it will be the means of saving thousands of young lives during the ensuing winter. Science has also been successfully applied in — recent years to the diminution of the dangers — incident upon certain industrial occupations, such as mining, caisson working, and deep-sea diving. During the last ten years, too, the influence of industrial fatigue, alcohol, improper ater conditions in workshops, etc., upon the health and efficiency of the worker has been seriously studied. — In these inquiries America has shown the greatest energy, but in Britain the subject is beginning tc receive the attention its importance demands. é It is impossible to assess the effect of pre- ventive medicine and improved hygienic surround- ings upon the health and happiness of mankind; but the influence upon longevity can, in the case of civilised communities, be determined. During the last fifty years upwards of ten years have been added to the mean expectation of life of a child born in Britain or in the United States of America. An increase of 25 per cent. in so short a time is cause for congratulation, but, on the other hand, the fact that a million young men were found unfit for active service indicates that all is well with Britain. ‘s ; i We are still far from the possession of sufficient “_ knowledge to regulate satisfactorily our environ- _ ment or to avoid all noxious influences, but owing _ to lack of power, money, or sometimes sense, we apply far less than we possess. " THE ANTIQUITY OF MAN. By Dr. A. Smita Woopwarp, F.R.S. . T the beginning of the Tertiary period, when mammals began to spread widely over the world, they were all very small and so uniform in character that it is scarcely possible to classify them into groups or orders. They all had a com- paratively small brain of a simple kind, and as in course of time they became gradually sub- divided into the groups with which we are now familiar, the brain increased both in size and effectiveness, while many of the animals them- selves grew larger. Inthe middle and towards the end of the earliest Tertiary (Eocene) epoch some of the low-brained hoofed mammals attained their greatest size and then became extinct. Next-in the Oligocene another group with somewhat improved brain grew even larger just before extermination. In the following Miocene epoch several groups that had by that time acquired a still more effi- cient brain, such as rhinoceroses, horses, certain carnivores, and primitive elephants, attained a comparatively large size and soon reached their maximum in the Pliocene. About the middle and towards the end of the Miocene epoch true apes, NO. 2610, VOL. 104] with a higher development of brain than any mammal up to that time had acquired, also began to grow to as large a size as most of the apes of the present day. It may therefore be pre- dicted that the earliest remains of the largest members of the ape-series, with a truly overgrown brain—the great ground-apes which were the im- mediate forerunners of man—will not be found in rocks of older date than the Pliocene, and prob-— ef ably not in any but the latest of this epoch. For. other reasons Sir William Boyd Dawkins came to | the same conclusion so long ago as 1880, and as discoveries progress it becomes increasingly clear that true man, of the family Hominide, cannot be earlier than late Pliocene or the dawn of the Pleistocene. _So few fragments of apes and man _ have hitherto been met with that it is difficult to decide upon the region of the world that may be most hopefully searched. If, however, conclusions may be drawn merely from teeth, the most promising field at present seems to be south-central Asia. By the discovery of such teeth, Dr. Pilgrim has Novemser 6, 1919] NATURE 213 shown that a varied assemblage of apes lived in the forests of northern India in the Miocene epoch. At that time the. Himalayan Mountains. did not exist, and the late Joseph Barrell ingeniously suggested that it may have been during the uplift of this mountain range at the end of the Miocene and beginning of the Pliocene that primitive man originated. As the land rose, the temperature would be lowered, and some of the apes which _. had hitherto lived in the warm forest would be trapped to the north of the raised area. As com- paratively dry plains would there take the place of forests, and as the apes could no, longer migrate southwards, those that survived must have become adapted for living on the ground, and acquired carnivorous instead of frugivorous habits. By continued development of the brain and increase in bodily size, such ground-apes would tend to become man. Unfortunately, we are still ignorant of fossils to test this hypothesis. We know from fragments of jaws, isolated teeth, and one limb bone that generalised apes as large as chimpanzees existed in Europe so far north as the latitude of Darm- _ stadt until the end of Miocene times, but the only ~ giant ground-ape, which many have claimed to be an ancestral man, was found by Dubois in Java in deposits of much later age which may even be Pleistocene. Pithecanthropus erectus, as the Javan species is named, is still known only by a cranial roof, two molar teeth, and a diseased thigh-bone, which bear many resemblances to the corresponding parts of the existing gibbon, and are tantalising i in their imperfection. It is, however, curious that almost the only traces of true man hitherto found with distinc- tively ape-like characteristics are from Western Europe. The imperfect skull and mandible of Eoanthropus dawsoni discovered by the late Charles Dawson at Piltdown, Sussex, represents a man with the lowest of all known human brains, and with an ape-like jaw in which typically human molar teeth are accompanied by large canines as completely interlocking as in any ape. The massive lower jaw of Homo heidelbergensis from Mauer, near Heidelberg, still retains much reminiscence of an ape in its retreating chin. The fine skeleton of Neanderthal or Mousterian man described by Prof. Marcellin Boule from La- Chapelle-aux- Saints, France, combines more ape- like features in a single individual than are known in any existing man. The Piltdown and Heidelberg fossils are shown by associated mam- malian remains to date back at least to the begin- ning of the Pleistocene, perhaps even to the end of the Pliocene epoch. Neanderthal man is later, and is very soon followed by typical modern man. As to the actual age of these various remains in years or centuries there has been much dis- cussion, but it must be confessed that on present evidence only vague. guesses are possible. It is true that Penck and Briickner have made some plausible suggestions as to the length of Pleisto- cene time based on their studies of the glaciation of the Alps. Baron de Geer has also been able to date more precisely the retreat of the Pleisto- cene ice-sheet in Scandinavia by counting the annual layers in the mud which its flood-waters left behind. It is impossible, however, with our present knowledge, to correlate the isolated patches of Piltdown gravel, Mauer sands, or cavern deposits with the surface phenomena of distant areas; and it is doubtful whether this difficulty will ever be overcome. Our knowledge of the ancestry of man has, indeed, progressed much during recent years, but unfortunately it is necessary to depend on acci- dental discoveries. Systematic exploration seems to meet with little or no result. Mrs. Selenka | made great and prolonged excavations in Java in the river-deposits whence Pithecanthropus was ob- tained, without any success. The great sandpit at Mauer has been continuously worked and most carefully watched since the famous jaw was dis- covered, but without recovering any further traces of man. I have worked hard in the Piltdown gravel, but for the last three seasons I have not found a fragment of either bone or tooth. The research needs much patience, but we may hope that as interest in the subject is more widely spread a larger proportion of the accidental finds relating to it will escape destruction. THE PRESENT POSITION OF THE MUTATION THEORY. ' By Pror. oo assumed that species originate by the gradual accumulation of infinitesimal, ordinarily invisible variations on account of their utility in the struggle for life. The difficulties inherent in this conception have led to the theory of mutation, which supposes that the production of species and varieties proceeds by small but distinct steps, each step corresponding to one or more unit-characters. It is only after their appear- ance that the environment can decide about their utility. The new theory reduced the time necessary for NO. 2610, VOL. 104] Huco DE VRIES. the evolution of organic life on earth to the limits deduced by Lord Kelvin and others from physical and astronomical data. It explained the appear- ance of the numerous useless qualities of animals and plants, and eliminated the objection that the first almost imperceptible changes could scarcely have any beneficial significance for their bearers. It developed the doctrine of two essential types of variability, which are now called fluctuating variability and mutability. The first of these describes the small but always present differences among individuals of the same stock, whereas 214 NATURE [ NoveMBER 6, 1919 the second is the way in which varieties are known ‘to arise in horticulture and arboriculture. Since the publication of my book on the muta- tion theory (1901-3) numerous instances of muta- tion have been observed by different investigators among animals as well as among plants. Half a dozen species of (CEnothera, some types of Primula, the walnut, the sunflower, Narcissus, Antirrhinum, Ligustrum, and many other in- stances might be cited. Among insects Morgan and his pupils have described more than a hundred mutations from the fruit-fly, Drosophila. Other cases have been studied by Tower for Leptino- tarsa, etc. The production of new races of agricultural crops by means of continual selection constituted for Darwin one of his strongest arguments. He showed conclusively that new species and varieties are produced in Nature in the same way as agri- cultural novelties. But at that time the practical method was far from being clearly understood. The work of Hjalmar Nilsson and Hays has since shown that selection may be conducted according to the principle of the mutation theory, only one choice being necessary to start the whole new variety. It is now generally conceded by mutationists that the initial change takes place in the produc- tion of the sexual cells before fecundation. From this conception it follows that the chance of two similarly mutated cells to meet one another in this process must be very small, whereas ordin- arily the mutated cells will combine with normal ones. This must produce half-mutants, and these may, in ordinary cases at least, split off the full mutants after the same rules which Mendel dis- covered for his hybrids. Sometimes the half- mutants will be distinct from their ancestors, as in Oenothera Lamarckiana vrubrinervis and erythrina, and, therefore, will easily be discovered. In other instances external differences may be absent, and only the unexpected production of a new type in about 20-25 per cent. or more of the individuals will betray the internal change. This explains the _ mass-mutations discovered by Bartlett. Such an indirect way of producing mutations by means of two successive steps seems to be very common in Nature, and will probably afterwards prove to be the general rule. Willis has made an elaborate statistical study of the appearance of endemic species, which he considers to be the youngest of their region. He finds that utility of the new characters cannot have had any part in their production, since it their first local extension or on their subsequent spreading over larger regions. Wide spreading is mainly the result of age, the oldest species having, as a rule, the largest areas. Moreover, in comparing the diagnoses of endemic species with the differences among the mutated forms of such a group as the evening primroses one finds a close parallelism, showing that our experimental mutations are quite analogous to the species- producing steps of Nature. Objections against the mutation theory have been made by different investigators. Some systematists and paleontologists still adhere to the old view either wholly or only for special cases. Biologists rarely attack the theory in a direct way, but mainly discuss the question whether the observed mutations are really the representatives of the species producing changes in Nature, as is claimed. They assume that the splittings seen in our experiments are due to hybridism, and that every mutating species is a sessed the mutative characters as specific marks. This idea can scarcely aid in simplifying the ques- tion, since it puts the origin of the characters involved on to unknown parents. Sterile varieties cannot produce hybrids, and therefore cannot originate in this way. This fact seems sufficient to disprove the hypothesis. In the case of the evening primroses this view has led to fantastic diagnoses of hypothetical ancestors, but even these fail to explain the facts observed in our cultures. Morgan’s hypothesis of crossing over, which goes far to explain the splitting phenomena of the fruit-fly, fails in its application to the evening primroses, since here half-mutants are the rule. These must evidently be produced without the aid of that process. Moreover, the heterogamous mutants have dominant characters which are handed down by the egg-cells, and not by the pollen, instances of which are given by the mutations called lata, scintillans, cana, liquida, and others of Oenothera Lamarckiana. Evidently these can never be explained by the assumption of a hybrid condition of the parent species. Thus we see that the broad arguments for the mutation theory are continually increasing in number, whereas the criticisms are more and more directed against special’cases. They are concerned with the possibility of experimental proof and with the fitness of our material for further studies, but are not expected to invalidate the theory as such. THE PROGRESS By Pror. W. ROM the discoveries to which the Mendelian clue immediately led, many lines of research and speculation are diverging. These enterprises have still aims in common, a fact which we recognise by including all under the one name, NO. 2610, VOL. 104] OF MENDELISM. j BaTEson, F.R.S. 1 , genetics; for, though various in their methods, | all relate to the physiology of breeding, a depart- | ment of science the growth of which is a feature of the period surveyed on this occasion. | Stocktaking at the present moment is, however, cannot be shown to have any influence either on — hybrid between supposed ancestors which pos- ee a eee PRS ee ea, ey RT a) ee ae ee owe " NoveMBER 6, 1919 NATURE 215 not easy. cipient stage, and that which is the most attrac- tive of all—namely, Morgan’s effort to establish a close connection between cytological appear- ances and the results of experimental breeding— promising though it is, must be tried by tests on a scale far wider than experience of Drosophila provides before we are able to assess its value with confidence. Whether the theory that the factors are arranged in the chromosomes, like beads on a thread, stand or fall, it has already served the purpose of a good theory. It has _ fired the minds of many workers, and has directed their inquiries with manifest success. Its weak- ness lies first in the narrowness of the field studied, but besides this it is not yet wholly free from the objection that the subordinate and inci- dental hypotheses are not altogether independent of each other. Various as are the methods of attack, the objects before us are sufficiently clear. Among them the most important is a determination of the moment or moments at which segregation may occur. To the solution of this problem most of the investigations contribute. On one hand, we have the large body of facts consistent with Morgan’s view that synapsis is the’ critical moment. Were our outlook confined to animals, we should scarcely hesitate to accept that hypo- thesis as satisfying the conditions, but the plants give no such clear answer. Not only is an obvious somatic segregation leading to genetic diversity of the parts not rare, as in many variegated plants and plants which give dissimilar forms from adventitious buds, but there is now a large group in which the male and female organs of the same plant differ in the factors which they carry. Miss Saunders’s stocks are the classical example, where the male side carries doubleness and cream plastid colour, whereas the ovules are mixed in these potentialities. Similar sex-linkage, as, following Miss Pellew’s use, it may provision- ally be called, has been shown to exist in Petunia, Campanula carpatica, Begonia Davisii, and in certain forms of Ginothera. In all such examples segregation cannot be supposed to occur later than the constitution of the sexual organs. Collins’s experiment, show- ing that in Funaria the scales surrounding the male organs by their vegetative growth give rise exclusively to male mosses, is another and very striking indication to the same effect. The _ genetics of “rogue” peas point to a similar con- _ clusion in regard to the distinction between the rogues and the type from which they come. In some way not yet clear, the type-elements are wholly or partially excluded from the germ- _ lineage of the heterozygotes, being apparently _ relegated to the lower parts of the stem. Such facts raise a suspicion that, considered as genetic machines, plants may be fundamentally distinct from animals, an idea already suggested by the _ contrast between their modes of growth. In the animal the rudiments of the gametes are often visibly separated at an early embryonic stage, . NO. 2610, vor. 104] Much of the new work is in an in- whereas in the plant they are given off from persistent growing points. Indeed, since Baur’s work with variegated chimeras, which led to his brilliant interpretation of Winkler’s “graft- hybrids,” this possibility has inevitably been present to our minds. In knowledge of the nature of sexual difference many very substantial advances have been made, which have much extended the original discovery that sex depends on a segregating Mendelian factor, in some forms the male, in others the female being the heterozygous member. In the fowl femaleness is dominant, and the hen is heterozygous in sex, from which Morgan drew the interesting corollary that the “henny” char- acter of the Sebright cock is also a dominant. Not only has this been proved experimentally, but he has lately shown that after castration the Sebright cock acquires ordinary cock’s plumage, much as hens do in ovarian disease. Perhaps we may regard the henny male as containing part of the large compound factor which normally con- stitutes femaleness. Conversely, we may inter- pret the spurs frequently present in normal Leg- horn hens as indicating that they have lost that part of the female factor which inhibits the growth - of the spur. Whether such transference involves actual detachment of chromosome material, as Morgan’s theory would demand, is uncertain. Nevertheless, an approach to such evidence is provided by the extraordinarily interesting observation of Bridges of a condition which he calls non-disjunction. Certain crosses in Droso- phila failed to exhibit the normal sex-limitation, and unexpected terms appeared. - Bridges was able to show that in the families which behaved in this way an extra sex-chromosome sometimes occurred, carried over, as he imagines, by some error of division. Not improbably Doncaster’s female-producing strains of Abraxas grossulari- ata, in which evidence of an extra chromosome was found, are an analogous case. Patterson with great probability proposes a similar explana- tion for the curious phenomenon which he has investigated in Copidosoma, where, by poly- embryonic division of a single egg (almost cer- tainly), males, females, and inter-sexes may result. The inter-sexes seen by Kuttner in Daphnia, and those produced by J. W. Harrison with considerable regularity in some hybrid com- binations of species of Geometers, are obviously to be considered in this connection, and doubtless the sterile males, accompanied by fertile females, which Detlefsen found as the normal produce of a species cross in Cavia, will be investigated with such possibilities in view. But though sex behaves in so many ways as a Mendelian allelomorph, showing, of course, frequent phenomena of linkage, it begins to be re- markable that no case of crossing-over in respect of these linkages has yet been established. Were the sex-chromosome always mateless, this fact would fit admirably with Morgan’s views, but since the x-chromosome not rarely has a mate, a distinct problem is created. As bearing on the 216 NATURE [ NoveMBER 6, 1919 same question, we have also to remember Tanaka’s observation that a certain linkage found in the male silkworm is absent in the female. Another far-reaching discovery has been made by F. Lillie. When in horned cattle twins of opposite sexes occur, the female is sometimes sterile, being called a free-martin. We were inclined to interpret these twins as arising by division of one fertilised ovum, but Lillie, in a study of material from the Chicago stockyards, found that an ovum had dehisced from each ovary, and the twins were therefore originally distinct. Moreover, he showed that in some in- stances the twins have an actual anastomosis in the foetal circulation. We are thus driven to believe that the presence of a male embryo may influence—in cattle—the development of a female embryo, poisoning it, in so far that the develop- ment of the generative organs is partially in- hibited. Many complex cases of interaction between factors have been successfully analysed. Punnett’s elaborate experiments on the colours of rabbits and sweet peas, Emerson’s studies in Phaseolus, and several more such investigations -are gradually laying a solid foundation from which the mechanism of factorial determination may be deduced. The discovery made by Nilsson- Ehle, and independently by East, that in some forms there are several factors with identical powers, is another notable advance. Controversy is proceeding respecting the divisi- bility of factors. When on segregation, either in the gametes of F, or in later generations, in- stead of two or three sharply differentiated classes of zygotes, much intergradation occurs, or when one of the parental types fails to re- appear, the result may be interpreted either as showing imperfect segregation, or as an indication that the number of factors involved is very large. The balance of evidence perhaps suggests that many factors can, and on occasion do, break up (as the sex-factor almost certainly does), some commonly, others exceptionally, while others, again, seem ‘to maintain their individuality in- definitely unimpaired. As bearing on evolutionary theory, the new work leaves us much where we were. Progress in genetic physiology has been rather a restrain- ing influence. The notion that Mendelian - gation applies to varieties and not to species h been often refuted. One of the most useful con- tributions to this subject is Heribert-Nilsson’s evidence respecting Salix hybrids. |Wichura believed himself to have proved that they and their derivatives are simple intermediates between the parental forms, and this statement, which has passed current for fifty years, is now shown to be a mistake due to insufficient material. In- | terest also attaches to Castle’s recent withdrawal of his conclusion that by continued selection certain Mendelian characters in rats could be modified, an opinion which, though consistent with his own experimental work, has not stood a _ crucial test. We. are still without any uncon- trovertible example of co-derivatives from a single __ ancestral origin producing sterile offspring when intercrossed. This, one of the most serious obstacles to all evolutionary theories, remains. The late R. P. Gregory’s evidence that tetraploid Primulas, derived from ordinary diploid plants, — cannot breed with them, though fertile with each — other, is the nearest approach to that pheno- menon, but the case, though exceptionally inter- esting, does not, of course, touch this outstandinz difficulty in any way. Space does not suffice to enumerate the prac- tical applications of genetic science to economic breeding, of which some have already matured ' and many are well advanced. TELEGONY. By Pror. J. Cossar Ewart, F.R.S. HE belief in telegony is probably as old as the belief in maternal impressions, so intimately associated with Jacob’s breeding experiments, re- corded in the thirtieth chapter of the Book of Genesis. In prehistoric times, when breeds of sheep and cattle brought from the East by the Alpine race were crossed with the more recently formed European breeds striking new varieties would now and again appear. The ancient shep- herds would doubtless endeavour to account. for the differences between the cross-bred offspring and their pure-pred ancestors, and later biologists would be called upon to decide which of the views of the ancient breeders were most worthy of sup- port. The doctrine of the infection of the germ now known as telegony was more or less firmly be- lieved in by men of science as well as by breeders NO. 2610, VOL. 104] up to the end of the nineteenth century. Beecher, writing at the close of the seventeenth century, says: “When a mare has had a mule by an ass and afterwards a foal by a horse there are evidently marks on the foal of the mother having retained some ideas of her former paramour, the ass.’’ Agassiz held that the ovary was so modified by the first act of fecundation that “later impregna- tions do not efface that first impression.’’ Similar views were entertained by Haller, Darwin, Herbert Spencer, Carpenter, Sir Everard Home, and others, and up to 1895, when I started my experi- ments, physiologists as a rule either admitted the possibility of the blood of a mare imbibing from that of the foetus some of the attributes which it had derived from its male parent and thereafter handing them on to offspring by a different sire, or believed that some of the unused germ plasm f - Novemser 6, 1919] NATURE 217 of the first mate penetrated the immature ova and eventually took part in controlling the develop- ment of offspring by subsequent mates. Up to the end of last century Lord Morton’s experiments with a male quagga and a young chestnut seven-eighths Arabian mare were re- garded as affording strong evidence of telegony. Hence at the outset I decided to repeat as accur- ,ately as possible Lord Morton’s experiment. The quagga being extinct, a Burchell zebra was mated with Arab and other mares belonging to different breeds and strains. The mares, after producing one or more hybrids, were mated with Arab and other stallions. In an account of my experiments, illustrated by numerous figures, published in the Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scot- land for 1902, it is pointed out that, though, to start with, I believed there was such a thing as telegony, I eventually came to the conclusion that “there never has been an undoubted instance of infection in either dogs, rabbits, or horses.” Though a full account of my investigations, by Mr. Hermon C. Bumpus, appeared in the American Naturalist (December, 1899), and an ab- stract was published in the 1910 Report of the United States Bureau of Animal Industry, it is related in a recent American work on evolution! that the idea of telegony “rests mainly upon what are known as the Penycuik experiments (Ewart, 1899), the initial one of which was the impregna- tion of amare, ‘Mulatto,’ by a quagga, a species of zebra whith is now extinct. The offspring of this union was the foal ‘Romulus,’ which showed the quagga-stripes of his father very distinctly. Later, ‘ Mulatto ’ was bred to a pure Arab stallion and her second foal also showed traces of stripes, although by no means as distinctly as his half- brother ‘Romulus.’ . . . Definite instances are neither numerous nor well authenticated: with the exception of the one in question, and even this may be due to some other cause.” It is scarcely necessary to say that I am not responsible for the idea of telegony—without going far afield, Lull might have discovered that the . doctrine of “infection ’’ had been dealt with by Agassiz and was especially associated with a mare belonging to Lord Morton—but it may be as well to point out that I used a Burchell zebra (the quagga had been extinct for nearly a quarter of a century); that the hybrid “Romulus,” instead of being striped like his sire, approached in his mark- ings the very richly striped zebra of Somaliland; and that the two subsequent foals of ‘ Mulatto ’’ were decidedly less suggestive of zebras than pure-bred foals of a near relative of ‘“ Mulatto” who had never even seen a zebra. In 1910, when giving a course of lectures in Iowa, I gathered that the doctrine of telegony had few adherents in America. This view is supported by a statement in the recent work by Jordan and Kellogg, who “think it probable that the phenomena called telegony have no real exist- ence.” PROGRESS OF CHEMISTRY. By Str Epwarp Tuorpe, C.B., F.R.S. fi) half-century which has elapsed since the | first issue of Nature has witnessed an extraordinary development of science in general, but in no department has it been more marked, or the changes more profound, than in chemistry. Before dealing with the period over which the existence of this journal extends, it may not be uninteresting to indicate, in the broadest possible outline, the main features of progress in chemical science to which the growth we have witnessed during the last fifty years is in reality due. The opening years of the nineteenth century constituted a new era in the history of chemical science. The revolution initiated by Lavoisier and his associates—Morveau, Laplace, Monge, Berthollet, and Fourcroy—was by this . time accomplished, and its influence had extended throughout Europe. The French chemists, who emancipated chemistry from the thraldom of a false German doctrine, swept phlogistonism into the limbus fatuorum of extinct heresies. The "early years of that century saw the passing of _ the more prominent adherents of Stahl’s philo- _ sophy; of the English chemists, Priestley died in 1804, and Cavendish, who for some years “I Lull, “ Organic Evolution.” (New York: The Macmillan Co.) NO. 2610, VOL. 104] previously had ceased to pursue chemical inquiry, followed him six years later. Within the first quarter of the century appeared some of the most eminent of those who were destined to consolidate the principles upon which the New Chemistry was founded. Dumas and Wohler were born in 1800, Liebig in 1803, Graham in 1805, Laurent in 1807, Gerhardt in 1816, Wurtz, Kopp, and Marignac in 1817, Kolbe and Hofmann in 1818, Pasteur in 1822, Alexander Williamson in 1824, and Edward Frankland in 1825. But there was already a generation at work the members of which, although not specially distinguished for their direct contributions to speculative chemistry, yet served by their labours to strengthen the foundations upon which it is based; among them were Wollaston and Davy, born in 1766, and Gay-Lussac, born in 1778. Berzelius, who was born in 1779, first published his electro-chemical theory in 1827. A revolution scarcely less momentous than that of Lavoisier had, moreover, by this time been effected by John Dalton; the enunciation of the atomic theory in 1807-8 wholly altered the aspect of chemistry; henceforth it was brought within the domain of mathematics, and its laws and processes were established on a 218 NATURE [NovEeMBER 6, 1919 quantitative basis. It consummated a change which Cavendish may be said to have originated. It can be proved that Cavendish was cognisant of the principles underlying what we term the “Jaw of constant proportion” and the “law of reciprocal proportion”; that he foresaw that the facts embodied in these laws are at the founda- tion of all quantitative analytical work, and that in his practice he implicitly recognised their truth. In spite of the widespread political and social disturbance which marked the early years'of the last century, a tide in the affairs of chemistry then set in, which, with periods of ebb and flow, reached a high-water mark at the time this journal was founded. The first two decades of the century not only witnessed the establishment of the fundamental laws of chemical combination and their rational explanation by means of the atomic theory; they also saw the enunciation of the gaseous laws; the discovery and application of voltaic electricity as an analytic agent; the isolation of the metals of the alkalis and alkaline earths; the determination of the nature of the halogens; and the discovery of many new metallic elements. In 1802 these were only twenty-three in number, as against sixty-three at the present time. They saw, too, the discovery of fulminating mercury and ful- minating silver, acetylene, carbonic oxide, phos- gene—some of which have played a large part in the Great War, but which when first made known were regarded as mere chemical curiosities, incapable of application. This period also saw the invention of the miner’s safety lamp and the creation of the gas-lighting industry—two, new departures of which it is impossible to exaggerate the consequences, immediate and remote. It witnessed also the discovery of isomorphism, the enunciation of the law of Dulong and Petit, and “ first synthesis, by Wohler, of an organic pro- uct. The third decade brought us Faraday and the discovery by him of tetrachlorethylene and _per- chlorethane; the liquefaction of the gases; the isolation of benzene; the preparation of naphtha- lene sulphonic acids; and the formulation of the laws of electro-chemical decomposition. It wit- nessed also the activity of Graham; the promulga- tion of the law of gaseous diffusion; the recogni- tion of the basicity of acids and the constitution of salts; the establishment of the doctrine of com- pound radicals by Liebig and Wohler; the dis- covery by Dumas of chlorine substitution and the publication of his theory of types. It saw also the death of Wollaston and Davy,’ and the birth of Cannizzaro, Berthelot, Kekulé, and Lothar Meyer. The early ’thirties are memorable, too, for the attempts made to regtilarise chemical notation and for the gradual adoption of the system of Berzelius. But, with the exception of the work of Graham and Faraday, the decade 1830-40 is not particu- larly remarkable for British contributions to chemical science. Although the volume of pub- lished work was no doubt considerable, it was NO. 2610, VOL. 104] not of the epoch-making order. As Edward Turner wrote, “the era of brilliant discovery in chemistry appeared to have terminated for the present.” Thoughtful men deplored the condition of British science at this period, and they were concerned at the general apathy of the public with respect to it. One result of their action was the foundation, in 1831, of the British Association for the Advancement of Science. it cannot be said that Continental workers were much more active. Apart from those already referred to, we find no noteworthy contribution to the theory of chemistry. The extent of the retrogression in this country may be judged from the fact that at this time the number of com- munications to the various societies, and to scientific periodicals dealing with chemistry, was not much more than half of what it was in 1802. With the advent of the fourth decade there was a great awakening. It was signalised by the discovery of the first of the organo-metalloid radicals by Bunsen in 1841; the recognition of homology by Schiel in 1842; the early work of Pasteur on racemic acid; the synthesis of acetic acid by Kolbe; the dissociation of water by — heat by Grove; the work of Frankland on ethyl and zinc-ethyl; the discovery by Wurtz of the compound ammonias and their synthetical formation by Hofmann; and the elucidation of the constitution of ether and the theory of etherification by Williamson. This decade was further made memorable by the creation, in 1841, of the Chemical Society of London, and by the foundation, in 1845, of the Royal College of Chemistry. At that time organic chemistry was scarcely studied in this country, and schools of practical chemistry were very few in number here. English chemists who sought instruction in opera- tive chemistry and in the methods of original investigation for the most part resorted to Liebig at Giessen or to Wohler at Géttingen. Liebig soon made his influence felt abroad, and his memorable English tour in 1842 gave a strong stimulus to the study of chemical science in this country. One of its immediate effects was the foundation of the Royal College of Chemistry, with Hofmann, one of Liebig’s most brilliant pupils, as its director. This was the first institution of its kind in Great Britain in which chemistry was studied for its own sake, and not merely as subordinate to other professional training. Space does not per- mit of any detailed account of its activities, or of the circumstances which led to its absorption into the School of Mines. It is only necessary to recall the names of Warren de la Rue, Abel, E. C. Nicholson, How, Bloxam, Blyth, Price, Rowney, Muspratt, Mansfield, Field, Noad, Brazier, Medlock, Crookes, Spiller, Tookey, Church, Perkin, Groves, Valentin, Vacher, O'Sullivan, Duppa, McLeod, Reynolds, Griess, Holzmann, Martius, Geyger—among the most, distinguished of Hofmann’s pupils and coadjutors —to indicate the influence he exercised on the development of chemistry in Great Britain during At the same time, ._ ee ee SA ee a a Ce ee ee ROS ron rey as = _— ad Perkin’s discovery of mauve, and Hofmann him- PO aS eee ee ee Novemser 6, 1919] NATURE 219 the twenty years of his residence amongst us. That he should have been allowed to depart was nothing short of a national calamity. As regards British contributions to chemistry during this and the succeeding decade, the most noteworthy may be said to have emanated from the Oxford Street institution. Williamson, how- ever, was still active at University College, and to this period belongs Frankland’s recognition, in 1851, of the principle of valency. The syn- thetic colour industry originated in 1856 from self, with other of his pupils, contributed greatly to its development. As regards other workers, notable contributions to chemical theory at about this time were Clausius’s work on electrolysis, Deville’s studies on dissociation, Couper’s con- ception of atomic linkage, and the resuscitation by Cannizzaro of Avogadro’s hypothesis and his demonstration of its sufficiency at the memorable Congress of Karlsruhe in 1860. The introduction of spectrum analysis by Bunsen and Kirchhoff belongs also to this epoch. Nature was founded at a time of extraordinary development in chemistry. Kekulé had made known his fruitful conception of the constitution of benzene, and a host of workers, more particu- larly in Germany, were exploiting with feverish activity the chemistry of the so-called aromatic compounds. The synthetic colour industry re- ceived a remarkable impetus by the synthesis of alizarin. Newlands had already adumbrated Mendeléeff’s great generalisation, of which the validity seemed to be established by the dramatic discovery, in quick succession, of the new elements it had predicted. During the fifty years of its subsequent exist- ence this journal has recorded and made intelli- gible to the general public every notable advance in chemistry. It has witnessed great and funda- mental changes in the science. New conceptions have arisen and time-honoured doctrines have been modified or altogether supplanted. Chemical | knowledge has been augmented by the inclusion of the theories of stereo-isomerism, desmotropy, the gaseous theory of solutions and free ions, and the Walden inversion. It has had to note and describe the methods of liquefaction of all the so- called permanent gases, and it has seen the universal recognition of the principles, first indi- | cated by Andrews, on which the change of | physical state depends. It has chronicled the discovery of argon by Rayleigh, and that of terrestrial helium, krypton, neon, and xenon by Ramsay. It has seen the rise and progress of radio-activity, the isolation of radium and _ its associates, and the discovery of isotopic elements. Lastly, it has seen a profound change in our con- ception of the Daltonian atom as an indivisible entity, and a strengthening of our belief in the intimate connection between matter and energy. . Throughout the whole of its existence NATURE has been true to the ideals which it established at its birth, and has been consistently faithful to the traditions it created. It has insisted from the outset that national progress must’ be based upon new ideas, and that the main source of new ideas is original research. It has shown that the greatest practical realities of our time have originated from the search for truth; that inven- tion waits upon discovery—the most powerful of all agents of civilisation; and that new knowledge means new power. Hence it has with a uniform insistence pointed out that it is the duty of. the State, in its own interest, to encourage and foster research and to remove the hindrances which beset the pursuit of science and impede its progress. Nor has its advocacy been based solely on the lower ground of material advantage, or on the fact that original research has proved to be the source of new industries and of wealth—that it creates employment and alleviates labour. It has striven to show that mental and moral progress have a scientific basis—that our knowledge of Nature and the universe, our modes of thought, our criteria of truth, our detection and avoidance of fallacies, are dependent upon that habit of | mind we call “scientific’”’—a habit which can be cultivated and strengthened only by the study and | pursuit of science. It has a record of which it may justly be proud. _ By the manner in which it has discharged its functions and fulfilled its obligations, it has earned ” the gratitude of all men of science, and it now celebrates its jubilee with the knowledge that it has merited, and will receive, the unstinted appre- ciation of all true lovers of science. CHEMISTRY IN By Pror. Henry E. aT HE period covered by NAtuRE happens to be that which just comes within my ken. In chemistry, both pure and applied, it has been one of astounding progress and fulfilment. Frank- land and I published our new method of water analysis—involving combustion in vacuo with the aid of the Sprengel pump—in the year of its birth: people then ran their sewage into a cess- pit and drank the water from an adjoining well. Typhoid fever was rife throughout the land. NO. 2610, VOL. 104] THE MAKING. ARMSTRONG, BRS; Bacteriology was an unknown science. Frank- _ land’s work on the Rivers Commission gave the nation a pure-water supply and contributed greatly to a complete sanitary system, in this respect placing us ahead of the world. The systematic use of the Sprengel pump dates from our inquiry; Crookes afterwards used it in con- structing his radiometers. It is noteworthy that sulphuric anhydride was a laboratory curiosity at that time: when I 220 NATURE [NoveMBER 6, 1919 prepared several pounds of it, in Leipzig, in the autumn of 1868, I was regarded with wonder: Squire and Messel began its manufacture here at Silvertown in 1873: it soon came into vogue, especially in the alizarin industry. During the war, many thousands of tons have been used in the production of propellants and high explosives. I then also made the chlorhydrol, SO,HCI, in quantity, and suggested to my student friend, Karl Knapp, Liebig’s nephew, that he should test its value as a sulphonating agent. He sulphon- ated benzene. I took up the work afterwards and first applied it to toluene, so laying the foundation of the method now preferred in manufacturing saccharin. In 1868 chemists were waxing enthusiastic over Mendeléeff’s great generalisation, brought home to us not only in his paper in the Annalen but also by Lothar Meyer’s well-known book, then recently published, especially by Meyer’s justly famed atomic volume curve. At that date those of us who could think in terms of systematic organic chemistry were possessed by the view that the “elements ’’ must be compounds: the “ periodic ” inter-relationships were so similar to those mani- fest 1 in homologous and isologous series. Soddy’s “jsotopes”’—the word is unnecessary—are simply the chemist’s homologues. That the two leads should be as like as the two Dromios— recent observation shows that they are perceptibly different—is in no way surprising: methane and ethane are all but indistinguishable chemically ; we can also foresee isomeric as well as homo- logous primaries. Now that the “primaries” have been robbed of their position as “atomic” materials, by the appearance on the scene of radium, this view is proved to have been justified ; but none of us ever dreamt that they would come to be regarded as made of lumps of electricity— still less that we should ever dare to think of energy in terms of quanta or to discard the doctrine of the other in favour of one of relativity. All my life, I have regretted the aloofness of chemistry from physics: that the physicist shows so little real interest in chemistry. It is a welcome finish to find him at last entering upon the fringe of our domain and taking up our work, though it is a pity he cannot become one of us instead of a mere extrapolation; probably it cannot well be otherwise, as the mathematical habit of mind is required for the new work and chemist and mathematician are different natures. Ours must be the task of digesting the material to the point at which our mental enzymic machinery no longer suffices and that of the mathematician and physicist comes into play. The two recent lec- tures to the Chemical Society by Nicholson and Jeans—both astounding displays of eloquence and imaginative power—are demonstrative of the new departure. If fifty years hence the new field be as fully grasped as that has now been which I saw opening up in 1868, Nature at its centenary will indeed have cause to congratulate its readers. In 1868, we were only beginning to write C=12; our symbolic system was barely stabi- NO. 2610, VOL. 104] lised; the importance of Avogadro’s theorem was but coming home to us, mainly through © Structural constitutional Cannizzaro’s insistence. chemistry was in its infancy. Frankland’s theory of valency—it is now clear that he included carbon in his scheme—and Kekule’s benzene symbol were new weapons; we were only beginning to inter- pret isomerism in terms of structure; we scarcely thought of position as its cause. A vast edifice has been erected in the interval but the founda- tions are simple: Frankland’s postulates have but been supplemented by van’t Hoff’s extension of Pasteur’s geometric conceptions. What is most noteworthy is the surprising simplicity and suffi- ciency of the system. Latterly we have begun to think in terms of solid structure: it is already clear that the next advance will come from the geometric, crystallo- graphic side: a brick wall, we are now beginning to peer directly into the molecular structure of crystalline soliis. Low temperature phenomena have been probed to their depths, especially in this country; indeed, we have seen a series of important pone tries grow out of the work. The growth of our knowledge of method, of our analytic and synthetic powers, has been mar- vellous—full use has been made of this deyelop- ment by the manufacturer, so that we can now not only reproduce natural colouring matters but — match the rainbow in every tint. Although British chemists cannot claim the credit of much of the matching, they can at least rejoice in the fact that the foundations were laid in London—by Faraday’s discovery of benzene in 1825, in Albe-— marle Street; and by Perkin’s discovery of mauve, in Oxford Street and at Sudbury in 1856. It is noteworthy that mauve was made in at- tempting to synthesise quinine: and in no way near to a method of producing it artificially, it is clear that even now our powers of interrogating and copying Nature are but limited: remarkable as our progress has been, she yet defies us in many directions. ashamed before the unassuming ease with which she fabricates starch from glucose underground in the dark; indeed, cane-sugar, starch, cellulose and not a few other compounds of primary im- portance are still to be rangéd with the Delphic mysteries. But whilst, favour of our structural conceptions are many thousands to one—because we have been able to ring the changes so often with success; on the inorganic side, almost complete ignorance pre- vails—because we have not been able to ring the changes. Thus we cannot say, with any approach to certainty, what is the structure of so simple a substance as sulphuric acid. In this and similar cases probably the clue will come through X-rays. On the biological side the advance has been very great and it can no longer be said with truth that ‘“Thierchemie ist Schmierchemie ’—Emil and having learnt to see through as we are not. yet certain as to the structure of this alkaloid We stand ae ee ee on the organic side, we have secured a wonderful mastery and the odds in — Novemser 6, 1919| NATURE 221 Fischer’s expression; but physiologists are still far from being sufficiently schooled in our science and progress has been chiefly due to men such as Emil Fischer, who have had sympathy with biological problems and been alive to the fact that it is desirable to walk before running. It is strange that few chemists have biological leanings—but the biological is still further re- moved than the chemical from the mathemanee habit of mind. The chief feature of progress in ites years has been the ongrowth of the physical school. This has had both its advantages and its disadvantages —for whilst we have been led to widen our vision and increase our grip on the philosophy of our subject, we have lost in manipulative skill, as we have given inadequate attention to the develop- ment of method and technique. This probably is one of the chief causes of our comparative failure on the industrial side. Though based on analysis, chemistry is mainly a constructive, practical science: our success has been in proportion to the extent to which we have been able to confirm analytic by synthetic results. The man who does always gets ahead of the man who doesn’t—of the man who merely seeks to explain; though the latter is often more useful than is supposed in controlling practice. Still it is because fingers and artistry come first in the practice of chemistry, that the chemist proper is not and ,cannot often be a mathematician. The superior value of the preparative side has been so brought home to us during the war, that it is to be hoped that full attention will now be given to its development. Our ill-balanced bookish system of examina- tions is one of the main causes of the incomplete practical training chemists have received of late years ; we have yet to teach the real value of books, that they are meant for constant reference; to force students to memorise them is the worst of policies: thoughtful, dextrous fingers and know- ledge of materials are the chemist’s chief needs. Much progress has been made,:on the physical side, in correlating properties with structure. Also great attention has been paid to the problems of solutions: unfortunately the men who have dealt with this latter side of chemistry have not been working chemists—in fact, scarcely chemists at all—and the pseudo-mathematical treatment they have introduced has often savoured far too much of dogma. The result has been to introduce an unscientific, partial habit of mind into our subject. We are strangely behind in having no proper, accepted theory of chemical change in general. Our elementary text-books too are ‘behind the times—full of half-truths and super- ficial when not inaccurate: there is no lack of detail but little philosophy and still less logic. Chemistry is the most fundamental of the sciences, the one by means of which it is alone possible to teach the principles and practice of scientific method in their entirety—and yet chemists are rarely trained to be masters of method. To make chemistry a truly philosophical science, for the guidance of students, we need a man of giant mind, well versed in practice, who will survey and weigh the facts and give sym- pathetic consideration? to all hypotheses, then summarise the situation in broad and_ simple terms which all can understand. Fitzgerald was a man of the type I have in mind. Certainly the progress made during the fifty years is astounding—the extent of our collective knowledge is extraordinary. But we must be on our guard—there are teo many “bits of chemist ” about: the most pretentious member of the species is of modern invention—the “research chemist.’’ No chemist is a chemist who is not fully imbued with the spirit of inquiry. Not a little of the work that is now called research is of a trivial character; the majority are incapable of original effort and far more careful direction of advanced work is required. If care be not taken, “research”? will become a word of re- proach. The effort of the future must be to produce the whole chemist—the man who will know his subject and be ever careful and modest, both in word and deed, being possessed by scientific method. THE DISCOVERY OF CHEMICAL ELEMENTS SINCE 1869. By Pror. H. B. Drxon, A GLANCE at the history. of the chemical elements reveals the fact that no fewer than fifty-three of them were recognised so early as 1818, and since that time some thirty more have been’ discovered. The search for new elements _ between 1818 and 1869 represents an empirical _ programme without considerations of marked _ theoretical interest, and the investigations were directed more particularly to an examination of minerals. The chief results were the isolation of new metallic elements, and the work of the great _ master, Berzelius, stands out pre-eminently _ during this period, and _ his quantitative work surely paved the way for future investigations. NO. 2610, VOL. 104 | E.R.S., AND H. StepHen, M.Sc. The later period extending over the past fifty years marks out a new era in the history of the chemical elements, inasmuch as it opened with the discovery of the periodicity of the elements in connection with their atomic weights. The elaboration of the system in its final form was due to Mendeléeff in 1869, although Newlands had foreshadowed such a system in his law of octaves (1863). Mendeléeff’s system had a profound effect in bringing about radical changes in respect of the atomic weights of certain elements, notably beryl- lium, uranium, and indium; and in affording pre- dictions of the existence and properties of new 222 NATURE | NoveMBER 6, 1919 elements, which were confirmed with astonishing exactitude in the cases of scandium, gallium, and germanium. Another factor which played an important réle in the development of the chemistry of the elements in the early years of this period was the applica- tion of the spectroscope by Bunsen and Kirchhoff to chemical analysis, when, by a comparison of the bright lines in the spectra of the vapours of metallic elements with the dark lines in the solar spectrum, they showed that many terrestrial elements exist in the sun. During the last two decades the interest in spectroscopy has revived, and much of the valuable information which we now possess of the intra-atomic structures of the elements is due to the remarkable developments in the construction of diffraction gratings, and in particular the concave gratings of Rowland, Notwithstanding the great possibilities for research opened up by Mendeléeff’s periodic table, the latter remained only slightly modified until 1893, when a period of rapid development and continual progress began. The later discoveries with regard to the chemical elements fall in a remarkable way into three distinct groups: the rare earths, the inactive gases, and the radio- active elements, and it is to be lamented that the pioneers in the two first-named groups have passed away. Much of our knowledge of the rare earths is due to the late Sir William Crookes, who was the first to advance the conception of the meta- elements—i.e. elements which show great resem- blance to each other, and have many physical and chemical properties in common, and, in conse- quence, are not easy to separate. Such in a few words sums up the chief characteristics of the rare earths, which have found so far only a temporary resting place in the periodic table. Apart from their purely academic interest and the high degree of accuracy attained in -their separation, the rare earths have found important technical application as catalytic agents and in the manufacture of the modern incandescent mantle. Our knowledge of them, however, remains in many respects incom- plete. Of the second group, the inactive gases, we possess a more complete history of their chemistry, due in no small measure to the brilliant achievements of Lord Rayleigh and Sir William Ramsay, who were the first (1894) to characterise the inert gas argon in the atmosphere, and so confirmed the almost forgotten work of Caven- dish more than a century before. The discovery of helium in cleveite by Ramsay followed shortly after that of argon; his attention had been directed by Miers to Hillebrand’s discovery of nitrogen in the mineral uraninite—and gas-con- taining minerals seemed to be a possible store- house of condensed argon. He sought for argon and found helium, the presence of which in the sun’s atmosphere had been detected by Lockyer twenty-five years before. - The proof that helium was an inert monatomic gas like argon led to many speculations as to NO. 2610, VOL. 104] the position of these new elements in the periodic system. Ramsay predicted the existence of another inert gas between, and forming a “triad ” with, helium and argon, having an atomic weight between that of fluorine (19) and that of sodium (23), and he and his fellow-workers deliberately hunted for the missing element. They found it in the atmosphere, but besides the gas they sought—neon (20)—they also isolated the heavier elements krypton and xenon. All the inactive gases are colourless; they form no chemical compounds, and are monatomic. They have definite boiling points, give characteristic Geissler-tube spectra, and occupy a unique posi- tion in the periodic table—the neutral points in Crookes’s descending figure of eight. The last group of elements to be discovered include the remarkable and interesting series of radioactive elements, which originated in the dis- covery of radium by Mme. Curie in 1898. The development of this field of research has produced a profound effect upon chemical theory and given us entirely new conceptions of the structure and nature of the atom, foremost among which is the nuclear atom proposed by Sir E. Rutherford, and recently modified by Prof. Bohr. The chief interest of the radioactive elements — centres round two elements of highest atomic weights, uranium and thorium, which are con-— tinually decomposing into a series of other elements at definite rates over which we have at | present no control. These new elements in a similar way undergo spontaneous changes into still another series of elements. Accompanying these changes in both cases there is a high-speed emission of three distinct kinds of rays, now designated the a-, B-, and y-rays_ respec- tively. The first-mentioned have been identi- fied as electrically charged atoms of helium, and it is now believed that all radio-elements are built up of lead and helium, a conclusion reached by Rutherford and others, and thus after the lapse of a century the hypothesis advanced by Prout (1815), concerning the existence of a primordial substance, makes a reappearance in modern guise, The ‘majority of the elements formed in the transformations associated with uranium and thorium (which are the progenitors of a long line of descendants) have not as yet been obtained in a pure condition, and are characterised at the — present time solely in connection with radioactive properties.. Two substances, radium and niton— the gaseous emanation from radium—have been definitely described, and their atomic weights and positions in the periodic table fixed. Niton belongs also to the group of inactive gases; its existence is traisitory, since the gas disappears after a few days, during the course of which radioactive disintegration takes place. Its atomic weight being 222, four units less than radium, the difference is attributed to the loss of a helium atom from radium. Based on a consideration of their researches, Rutherford and Soddy have formulated a theory of atomic disintegration (1902) in connection with ee ee ~ NoveMBer 6, 1919] NATURE 223 which Soddy has recently introduced the term isotope, by which he defines very closely ‘elated elements which are chemically inseparable but have different atomic weights. The non-separa- bility of isotopes by chemical methods has recently been confirmed by Richards and his co-workers, who found that the atomic weight of lead obtained from Australian carnotite (containing uranium- lead) was unaltered even after the nitrate into which the lead was converted had been subjected to more than a thousand fractional crystallisa- tions. Furthermore, Richards has determined the atomic weight of uranium-lead, and the number | found (206.08) is less by as much as 0-25 per cent. than that of ordinary lead, which differs from it in other physical properties involving weight. It _ is possible that lead descended from thorium (208) and lead descended from uranium (206) have enough in common to be each called lead, but are varieties or isotopes of the same element, common lead (207-2) being a mixture of the two. We may conclude, therefore, that in radioactive substances there is a continual transformation of one element into another of lower atomic weight, such transformation (apparently quite independent of temperature and external electrical conditions) being accompanied by the liberation of enormous amounts of energy, compared with which the magnitudes of energy of chemical reactions fade | to insignificance. Has the earth passed through | its element-building epoch? Instead of spinning | “for ever down the ringing grooves of change,” are we mounting backwards up the spiral as our larger empires of matter disintegrate into smaller and perhaps more stable states ? Just as the beginning of the last half-century was marked by the epoch-making discovery of the periodic system of the elements, so in effect is the | close of it marked with another—namely, Moseley’s discovery of the atomic numbers of the elements, the importance of which we have as yet scarcely realised. | The atomic number of an element as suggested | by van der Broek defines the place-number occu- pied by the element in the periodic table, and at the same time is the number of electrons in the atom or nuclear charge of it. Moseley showed | from a_ spectroscopic examination of the fre- quencies of characteristic X-rays emitted when X-rays bombard anticathodes of various metals, that the square roots of the frequencies are pro- | portional to the atomic numbers. The latter are | known for all elements up to uranium—thus, | hydrogen one, helium two, lithium three, and so ' on until finally. uranium 92, and the anomalies | which appear in Mendeléeff’s table disappear, as in all cases the correct chemical order is main- | tained. The atomic numbers appear to be even | more fundamental than the atomic weights. PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY—PAST AND PRESENT. By Pror. J. C. Puivir, F.R.S. HE cultivation of the border-lands between the various sciences, so actively prosecuted in the last few decades, has nowhere led to more notable results than on the frontiers of physics and chemistry. This particular field of investiga- tion, covering phenomena in some measure com- _ mon to both these sciences, has gradually taken shape, and has attracted crowds of workers, keen to apply the exact methods of physics to the wealth of problems and material presented by chemistry. With the passing of the years physical chemistry has ultimately emerged as a definite branch of natural knowledge, full of in- trinsic interest, but comprising also much that is of value for other sciences. Fifty years ago the foundations of physical chemistry had to some extent been already laid. Faraday’s experiments on electrolysis and the liquefaction of gases, Graham’s observations on gaseous and liquid diffusion, and Hittorf’s in- vestigations of electrolytic migration had been put on record, although in some cases, notably the last-mentioned, the full significance of the work Was not to be realised for many years to come. Avogadro’s hypothesis and the kinetic theory were also before the scientific world, and the Brownian movement of minute _ particles NO. 2610, VOL. 104] ’ suspended in water, destined ultimately to figure so prominently in the physical chemistry of recent years, had been not only recorded but, for the time, forgotten. During the period in which Nature first ap- peared, new methods of investigating chemical change, and new conceptions of chemistry as a quantitative science were being developed. The work of Harcourt and Esson, of Guldberg and Waage, on the action of mass as a factor in equilibrium and velocity, as well as Horstmann’s application of thermodynamics to chemistry, in- augurated a new epoch, with which, in both directions, the name of van’t Hoff was afterwards so brilliantly associated. It was van’t Hoff who | put the science of chemical dynamics on a secure experimental basis, and thus prepared the way for a rational study of catalysis, a particular development of vital significance for the growth of important chemical industries. It represents part of the contribution which physical chemistry | has made to the advance of chemical knowledge from the purely descriptive to the rational and quantitative stage. Appreciable progress towards the recognition | of physical chemistry as a distinct branch of | knowledge resulted, at a somewhat later date, 224 NATURE [NovemBER 6, 1919 from van’t Hoff’s study of osmotic pressure, and his extension of the gas laws to solutions. This remarkable work was followed, at a short interval, by Arrhenius’s hypothesis of electrolytic dissocia- tion, a conception that has left its mark deep on the physico-chemical research records of the past thirty years. This hypothesis has been the guid- ing principle in countless investigations, and although it presents difficulties not yet satis- factorily solved, and appears to require modifica- tion in some respects, notably in regard to the véle of hydration, it holds the ground to-day as the most acceptable and intelligible interpretation of the properties of electrolyte solutions. history of the electrolytic dissociation theory may be fairly described in Larmor’s words: “In the case of every successful scientific theory the time must come when its first easy triumphs become exhausted, and what prominently confronts the investigator are its outstanding defects and diffi- culties.” Such is the present position in regard to the ionisation theory, and during recent years there has been a concentration of effort on such outstanding problems as the application of the mass action law to strong electrolytes, the cata- lytic action of ions, and the differences existing between the values of the ionisation ratio deduced for one and the same electrolyte by the osmotic and conductivity methods respectively, The decade in which the theories of van’t Hoff and Arrhenius were propounded saw also the establishment of the first journal exclusively de- voted to the record of physico-chemical research. The first number of the Zeitschrift fiir physik- alische Chemie appeared in 1887, and an inspec- _ tion of the early volumes reveals the extraordinary variety and attractiveness of the problems that were being attacked under the egis of the new science, and on the more definitely quantitative lines for which this branch of chemistry stands. It was not long before the influence of physical chemistry began to be apparent beyond its own borders in a renascence of inorganic chemistry which continues to the present day. Important reactions between well-known substances, _ re- garded as completely worked out, have been ex- plored afresh in the light of physico-chemical principles, and have yielded an extraordinary amount of valuable quantitative data. In this The connection one might refer to the phase rule and its practical utility in connection with the con- ditions of existence of salt hydrates, the constitu- — tion of alloys, and various technical problems. Prominent among the later developments of physical chemistry has been the examination of matter in a condition coarser than that corre- sponding with the molecular state. The study of mechanical suspensions, and the investigation of colloidal solutions with the aid of the ultramicro- scope, have opened up a whole new world of — - fascinating phenomena, and bridged the gap between the visible particle and the molecule. Perrin’s epoch-making count of the particles at different levels in a vertical column of a mechanical suspension, and the evaluation of the Avogadro constant which follows therefrom, have notably extended the validity of the gas laws, and supplied at the same time definite quantita- tive proof of the molecular movements postulated _ by the kinetic gas theory. Of extraordinary interest also in this connection is the fact that purely physical evidence, based on the atomic character of electricity and depending on measurements of the elementary electric charge, — gives strong support to the Avogadro conception. At the present moment fresh means of attack-- ing the still unsolved problems of the physico- chemical field are being developed. quantum theory, for example, coupled with such ~ experimental work as that on the heat capacity of solids at low temperatures, and on the origin and relationship of spectral lines, appears likely to have a notable’ influence on the future of — The thorough investigation — physical chemistry. of colloids along physico-chemical lines, which — a is actively proceeding to-day, promises to throw light on many problems which are of interest not — only from the purely scientific point of view, but also to the industrial chemist. The sister sciences, too, are vitally concerned in the exploitation of — this field, and, indeed, the physical chemist of — to-day may point with legitimate pride to the fact that the principles of his science are welcomed | by the metallurgist, the physiologist, the geo-— logist, and others, as valuable aids in the elucida- ag tion of their respective problems. This ever- widening influence is the guarantee of the future ; 4 vitality cf physical chemistry. sree f8 erie

ddress delivered by the President of the American Chemical Society, Dr. W. H. Nichols, at Philadelphia, September 4. NO, 2610, VOL. 104] education and the ability to extend it to embrace new and unexpected knowledge, and apply this in its turn as we progress upwards. i A The importance of research is being more and more recognised and understood by the public. One of the most encouraging evidences of this is shown in the preamble and resolution adopted recently by the American Federation of Labour at Atlantic City, indicating as these do a clear appreciation by that great association of how much we all depend on what science will disclose to ameliorate the conditions of the future. ar But let our friends of the federation not be content with what the Government can do in the line of thei resolution, good as it has been and will be. Let t start a carefully planned series of researches th selves, and follow them up until the truth s revealed. Employers of labour have been doing this — for years. The shining goal of all research is the — truth, the whole truth, and nothing but the truth. _ Thus, starting from different angles, with fairness and thoroughness, the various so-called interests wil] arrive at the same truth, for there can only be one truth concerning any question. Thus will it come to pass that capital and labour will discover that the true interest of one is the true interest of all, and instea of bickerings and suspicions we shall have that cordial. co-operation which is absolutely essential if we are to get the best out of this world of ours. Ea Scientific discovery is really not a haphazard matter. The art of making it can be cultivated, and definite rules of research can be laid down. L elements enter into the problem, and these have been very well tabulated by the late Dr. G. Gore in his book, ‘‘The Art of Scientific Discovery.” He defines — the difference between discovery and invention as follows :—‘‘ Discovery consists in finding new truths of Nature, whilst invention consists in applying those truths to some desired purpose’; and that definition is sufficiently accurate. Research does not always lead to discovery or discovery to invention, but the sequence is logical. . 5 The application of research has always required a high order of talent. In the future a still higher order of talent will be necessary, but in addition this talent must be prepared by education to do this very thing. — How can we produce the leaders who shall adequately combine both the scientific and the practical qualifica- tions that are necessary? This is one of the greatest and most interesting problems awaiting solution by our educators, and on its correct solution depends, in — a larger degree than many imagine, the future a successful and contented industry in this country. — The candidate for leadership should have a beklity body, good habits (which involves good character), and a good mind educated to the highest Cegree attainable. This education should be specialised in the desired direction, while good all round. He should — have a thorough knowledge of human nature. i play on the ‘‘harp of a thousand strings” requ an unusual acquaintance with the instrument. Hoy many men, otherwise great, have broken down here, sometimes because they have given too much con- fidence, sometimes not enough, sometimes because they did not know how to select assistants. ‘3 Let us proceed to fill our high places of every kind with the men and women specifically prepared to fill them, being assured that the effort to do so will produce an army of those not quite qualified for the — top, but of the greatest value to assist those who are. — Let us educate for living, certainly; but let us also educate for leadership—that superlative leadership of which civilisation will stand more and more in need as it increases in complexity and reaches higher and higher planes. ‘a Novemser 6, 1919] NATURE 203 BRITISH BOTANIC GARDENS AND STATIONS. AV MARKED feature of the Scientific activities of the past fifty years has been the extensive estab- lishment throughout the British Empire of botanic gardens and botanic stations. The history of such institutions is a long one; it takes us back to the time of the Pharaohs. It is also wide; the Spaniards found, in the Mexico they devastated, establishments of this nature conducted with as much enlightenment _ and on as elaborate a scale as any then to be met with in Europe. The motives underlying the creation of such gardens have varied at different times and in different countries. Up to the middle of the sixteenth century the scope of European botanical gardens was mainly confined to the technical task of illustrating as fully as possible what were believed to be the sources of classical simples. During the next hundred years this was ex- tended so as to include such esthetic and economic novelties as could be made to grow. But by the middle of the eighteenth century, when the Royal Garden at Kew (1759), and the Botanic Garden at St. Vincent in the West Indies (1764), were founded, the purpose of botanical collections had become largely limited to the assemblage of plants interesting because .of their rarity. é i Presently a healthy reaction against this rather narrow outlook arose, for we find the historical memorandum by Lt.-Col. Kyd, to which the establish- ment of the famous institution at Calcutta was due (1786), advocating ‘‘the propriety of establishing a botanical garden, not for the purpose of collecting rare plants (although they also have their uses) as things of mere curiosity or furnishing articles for the grati- fication of luxury, but for establishing a stock for disseminating such articles as may prove beneficial to the inhabitants as well as to the natives of Great Britain, and which ultimately may tend to the exten- sion of the national commerce and riches.’’ Already Sir Joseph Banks, with his practical mind, had made representations to the same effect with regard to Kew, urging the utilisation of the Royal Garden as a central institution where information regarding the vegetation of the globe and its economic uses could be accumu- - lated; where useful plants from all quarters could be raised; and whence such plants could be distributed to the overseas possessions of the Crown. Before the close of the first generation of the nineteenth century, many important establishments of the kind had been provided; among these we may note the gardens at Peradeniya in Ceylon, Saharunpur in North-West India, Singapore and Penang in Malaya, Buitenzorg in Java (during the brief occupation of that island by the English), Trinidad in the West Indies, and Sydney in Australia. The conversion of Kew into the national botanic garden for this country (1841) gave a new impetus to this salutary activity, and under the active guidance of three eminent directors—Sir W. J. Hooker (1841-65), Sir J. D. Hooker (1865-85), and Sir W. T. Thiselton- Dyer (1885-1905)—the tradition established by Banks was vigorously sustained. To this impetus we may attribute the establishment of the famous gardens of Melbourne (1846), Durban (1850), Adelaide (1855), Brisbané (1855); and Jamaica (1857), though in the last case the inability of the local legislature to appre- ciate the value of science ensured for the garden the fate which had befallen that founded a century earlier in St. Vincent. The great services rendered by Kew to all forms of botanical enterprise have been _ nowhere more manifest than in the training of those __ who have proceeded to eve quarter of the globe NO, 2610, VOL. 104 | followed by to take charge of the botanic gardens and stations throughout the Empire. Since 1869, when Nature was founded, the activities in this direction have continued unimpaired. In 1870 the botanic garden at Wellington in New Zealand was founded. In 1871 the abandoned Jamaica garden was re-established and another was created in Bermuda. In 1879 an important botanic garden was founded at Georgetown, in British Guiana. Between 1886 and 1890 the botanic garden at St. Vincent, which had long been allowed to lie in abey- ance, was restored, and new botanic stations were opened in the islands of Barbados, Dominica, Grenada, St. Lucia, and the smaller islands. The last station to be established in this region was that of British Honduras (1892). Profiting by the experience gained in the West Indies, attention’ was directed to Africa, and Kew has been instrumental in the establishment of botanic stations in our West African Colonies at Lagos (1887), Aburi in the Gold Coast (1890), Old Calabar (1893), Sierra Leone (1895), and Kaduna in Northern Nigeria (1914). In East Africa the need for a botanic station in ‘Nyasaland was urged by the authorities at Kew, and as a result that at Zomba was founded in 1891. This was the establishment of the botanic garden at Entebbe in Uganda in 1898. The urgency of the need for such an institution in the East Africa Pro. tectorate it has, for some reason, been more difficult to persuade the authorities concerned to realise. But at last (1918) the beginnings of such an institution as jhas long been called for have been created at Nairobi. The Government of the Sudan, with a keener appre- ciation of the value of science, lost no time in estab- lishing a botanic garden at Khartum and a botanic station at Jebelin. Notable additions to the list of botanic gardens were those founded at Hong Kong in 1871, and at Aberdeen in 1897. But the most important of the creations of recent years is that of a great national botanic garden at Kirstenbosch, Cape Town, in 1913. This science owes to the enlightened action of the Government of the Union of South Africa, and to the untiring advocacy and exertions of the late Prof. Pearson. This institu- tion bids fair to become in time the “Kew” of South Africa, and gives promise to be one of the most in- teresting and valuable scientific gardens in the world. Se THE SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL DEPARTMENT OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE. [*® furtherance of its principal object of promoting the utilisation of the resources of the Empire, and in order to supplement its other activities in this direction, the Imperial Institute established in 18096 a scientific and technical department under the direc. tion of Prof. Wyndham Dunstan. The history of the formation of that department and of its work in early years was told by the late Sir Frederick Abel, at that time Director of the Imperial Institute, in the preface to a volume of technical reports and scientific papers published by the institute in 1903. . From that account it will be seen that the inception of scientific work at the institute received strong support from his Majesty King Edward and from the Royal Commission of the 1851 Exhibition, whilst the late Lord Playfair was one of Its most active supporters. j : The Principal purpose of the department was to investigate by laboratory researches and technical trials raw materials, and especially those derived from the Empire overseas, as the first step in their com- mercial utilisation. The work of. the department 264 NATURE [Novemser 6, rapidly increased in amount and importance, and the laboratories and staff have been greatly extended in recent years. It is obvious that in the wide sense the scientific investigation of raw materials provides an enormous field, and it was necessary to limit the work of the departmeft to those materials which are considered to be of most importance from a com- mercial point of view and are best dealt with in this country, and also to a large extent to limit the scientific investigation of these selected materials to the subjects requiring elucidation from the commercial viewpoint. Even with these necessary limitations a large number of scientific papers have been communi- cated by the staff of the department to the Royal Society, Chemical Society, Society of Chemical In- dustry, and other societies, whilst a number of materials of promise in scientific research have been passed. for investigation to workers in other institu- tions, including the Universities of Manchester, Liver- pool, Leeds, Aberdeen, and London. To the research’ laboratories, which are provided with the proper equipment for experimental research, have been added testing plant and machinery for en- abling small-scale technical trials of certain raw materials to be carried out. Arrangements have also been made with manufacturers for trials on a com- -mercial scale of materials which appear to be suit- able for commercial employment, and the department is now utilised not only for such investigations as have been indicated, but by manufacturers and mer- chants in. this country for obtaining information as to supplies of raw materials, their nature and com- position, and also as to their uses and the means of overcoming technical difficulties in regard to their industrial employment. The scientific results of investigation conducted by members of the staff are, asa rule, communicated to the special societies concerned, whilst records of some of the: principal results obtained in their com- mercial bearings are printed in the quarterly Bulletin of the Imperial Institute. THE LISTER INSTITUTE OF PREVENTIVE MEDICINE: ERE institute originated from a public meeting summoned by the Lord Mayor in July, 1889, to hear statements from scientific men as to the efficacy of Pasteur’s treatment for hydrophobia. The lack of any institute in this country with objects similar to those of the Institut Pasteur in Paris was discussed, and it was pointed out that England should continue: to take her share in the discovery of means to control disease and not be dependent upon the national labora- tories of France and Germany. A committee was formed, of which Lister became chairman, and in 1891 the British Institute of Preven- tive Medicine was founded. ' During the first nine years of its existence the per- manent income of the institute was hopelessly in- adequate to the requirements, but in 1900 it received a gift of 250,000l, from Lord Iveagh, which for the first time placed it in possession of an assured income. In 1903 the title of Lister Institute was adopted. The central institute is situated on the banks of the Thames at Chelsea. It contains laboratories equipped for the study of bacteriology, biochemistry, protozoology, experimental pathology, entomology, etc., and a library and theatre. These accommodate, in addition to the staff, 20-30 graduates who are engaged in researches in some subject pertaining to preventive medicine under the guidance of the staff. The institute is a school of the University of London, and graduates of any university may proceed to the degree of doctor of science after having satisfactorily NO. 2610, VOL. 104] ‘director and an annual income of 5oool. conducted during two years a research under the tion of a member of the staff who is a recognised _ teacher in the University. In addition to its central laboratories in London the institute has a branch where antitoxic sera, bacteri vaccines, and calf-vaccine lymph are manufactured, and where investigations into the improvement of — these curative and _ prophylactic agents, their standardisation, etc., are carried out. : The institute is administered by a governi of seven, upon which the Earl of Iveagh has three representatives and the Royal Society one. The remaining three are elected by the members. —__ The income of the institute is derived from two sources, about one-third from endowment and_ the remainder partly from the sale of antitoxins, etc., a partly from moneys received from Governme Departments and municipal authorities as remunera- tion for investigations and diagnoses carried out ¢ their request. : THE NATIONAL PHYSICAL LABORATORY. F fifty years ago a Government had proposed to I allocate 150,o00l. per annum for the fur Herenine: OF scientific research, it would have met with an un- sympathetic response in Parliament, and in all prob- — ability would have been turned out of office as too visionary and unpractical. The growth of the belief — in the influence of research on industry and com- merce was slow in this country, and was dies ApS, more to the successful application to the reader of electricity and of light of the laws of ctro- magnetic induction discovered by Faraday than to any other fact. When Dr. (now Sir Oliver) Lodge urged the necessity of a National Physical Lal A : in his address to the Mathematical and Physical Sec- tion of the British Association in 1891, Berlin and Paris had already taken action. A committee of the association, under the chairmanship of Sir Douglas Galton, drew up a scheme for the foundation of such a laboratory, and, after a favourable ort — a Treasury Committee under Lord Rayleigh appointed to consider the matter, the laboratory was four ae: 1got, with Dr. (now Sir Richard) Glazebrook as The control was vested in the council of the Royal Society, who appointed an executive committee. Owing to the rapid growth. of the work of the laboratory, the financial responsibility became too great for the Royal’ Society, and the financial control was taken over by _ the Government in 1918. So well has the lal justified its foundation that the Government is | pared not only to make the annual grant mentioned the opening sentence, but also to support a Depart- ment of Scientific and Industrial Research, and’ National Chemical and Engineering hot outside the bounds of possibility. THE DAVY FARADAY RESEARCH LABORATORY OF THE ROYAI INSTITUTION. THE Davy Faraday Research Laboratory of the- Royal Institution was founded and endowed by the late Dr. Ludwig Mond, F.R.S., with the object of providing opportunity for original investigation to: extend knowledge in the domain of pure chemical and” ta re physical science by persons (men and women of any nationality) who could satisfy the authorities of the laboratory of their scientific training and qualifications” to conduct original research. _ Ree The laboratory was opened on December 22, 1896, by his Majesty King Edward VII., who took: body — Mi Laboratories are- 5 ae ais © - i, u oS ae aon il » ree ; ie Novemser 6, 1919] NATURE . 265 occasion to point out that “Dr. Mond’s foundation. was a most important: accession to the resources which had been placed at the command of the institu- tion for the advancement of chemical and physical science. The Royal Institution has long enjoyed a world-wide reputation, thanks to the marvellous work of the succession of illustrious men whose researches carriéd on within its walls have very largely con- tributed to secure and maintain for this country a foremost position as a source of great discoveries and important advances in science and its applications.” Mr. Robert Mond was nominated in the deed of trust honorary secretary for life. The managers appointed the late Lord Rayleigh and Sir James Dewar the directors without remunera- tion. The following is a selection of inquiries executed in the Davy-Faraday Research Laboratory com- municated to scientific societies by fellows of the Royal Society:—Dr. H. Debus, ‘Contributions to the History of Glyoxalic Acid’?; Hugo Muller, “*Quercitol, Cocositol, Inositol, Flavon”; Horace T. Brown, ‘Starch: Its Transformations and Deriva- tives”; J. Y. Buchanan, ‘‘The Specific Gravity of Soluble Salts’; J. Emerson Reynolds, ‘Silicon Researches”; J. E. Petavel, ‘Standards of Light ’’ and ‘Gaseous Explosive Mixtures”; A. Scott, “Atomic Weight of Carbon, etc.’’; W. J. Russell, ‘“‘ Action of Wood on Photographic Plates in the Dark, etc.’” The following papers have been published :—A. Croft Hill, ‘‘ Reversibility of Enzyme or Ferment Action, etc.’’; W. Wahl, ‘‘ Optical Investigations of Solidified Gases, etc.”?; W. Gluud, ‘ Derivatives of Allylamine, Phenylglycine, etc.’’; Sir J. C. Bose, “The Response of Inorganic Matter to. Stimulus, etc.’?; Miss Ida Smedley, ‘‘Colour Derivatives of Fluorene’’; and Miss A. Everett, ‘‘Colour Photo- metry.” THE INTERNATIONAL CATALOGUE OF SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE. Bl aes International Catalogue of Scientific Litera- ture was constituted in 1900 at an International Conference held in London under the auspices of the Royal Society. It is a unique attempt to secure an accurate and exhaustive bibliography of pure science by international co-operation, each country being responsible for the indexing of its own literature. Each volume contains an author index and a subject index. An annual issue is composed of seventeen volumes indexing the seventeen branches into which science is divided for convenience of reference. The books and papers catalogued are those published since January 1, 1901, papers published before, that date being indexed in the Royal Society’s Catalogue of Scientific Papers. The control of the catalogue is in the hands of an international council com of one representative from each country taking part in the work. This council appoints an executive committee, which meets in London, but each of the countries co-operating has its own regional bureau to prepare index cards and send them to a central bureau in London for publi- cation. Since the foundation of the catalogue about three million such cards have been received from the bureaux. More than two hundred volumes have been published. Until the outbreak of the war in 1914 more than _ thirty countries were taking part in preparing the _ catalogue, and the harmony with which they worked _ together is one of the most remarkable features of the _ enterprise. Even the Russo-Japanese War did not NO. 2610, VOL. 104] hinder the delegates of Russia and Japan from meet- ing at the conferences. Although the recent war and the present condition of Europe create a difficult position for all international undertakings, it is much to be hoped that means may be found for continuing the work of the catalogue on an international basis, and without sacrificing those distinctive features which have met with such wide- spread appreciation. THE TROPICAL DISEASES BUREAU. @ ee Tropical Diseases Bureau came into existence in July, 1912, as a development of the Sleeping Sickness Bureau founded in 1908. The main function of the bureau has been to review current papers on tropical diseases, i.e. exotic diseases occurring in the tropics and sub-tropics. The medium of publication is the Tropical Diseases Bulletin, now in its four- teenth volume. The Bulletin, which appears monthly, contains classified summaries of all papers within its scope which come under notice. Each subject is in charge of a ‘sectional editor,’? whose initials are appended to his summaries. Thus the results of the most recent researches on tropical disease in every country, new methods of treatment, and improved means of prevention quickly become available for the remote worker in the tropics. Critical reviews of books are also: published. The bureau issues also the Tropical Veterinary Bul- letin quarterly, the object of which is to deal with the diseases of domestic animals in the tropics in the same way as the Tropical Diseases Bulletin does with the diseases of man. The bureau maintains a library under the charge of Capt. R. L, Sheppard, which contains complete or nearly complete files of all the tropical medical jour- nals, in addition to others, some two hundred series in all, and a large number of reports and reprints. Though the library is mainly intended for the use of the sectional editors, it is open to any inquirer without formality. The bureau is under the management of a com- mittee appointed by the Secretary of State for the Colonies, the expert members of which are Sir John Rose Bradford, Sir David Bruce, Sir Havelock’ Charles, Sir Wm. Leishman, Sir Patrick Manson, and, representing veterinary medicine, Sir John M’Fadyean and Sir Stewart Stockman. Dr. A. G. Bagshawe is the director. It is maintained by a grant in aid from the Imperial Treasury and by contributions from the Governments of India, the Sudan, the Union of South Africa, and certain colonies and protectorates, to which copies of its publications are supplied gratis. By the general public the Tropical Diseases Bulletin _can be obtained at an annual subscription of a guinea, and the Tropical Veterinary Bulletin at tos. The offices of the bureau are at present situated at the Imperial Institute, South Kensington. WOMEN AT CAMBRIDGE. | ioe February, 1896, the council of the Senate reported the receipt of four memorials relating to the ad- mission of women to degrees, A syndicate was ap- pointed to consider the question, and in February, 1897, the majority reported recommending that degrees should be conferred on women by diploma, but not that they should become members of the University on the same terms as men. The liveliest interest in and opposition to these proposals were occasioned, and a discussion lasting three days. took place in the Senate House. Finally, in May, 1897, the report 266 NATURE [ NovEMBER 6, 1919 was rejected by the Senate, amid scenes of enthusiasm and disorder, by a majority of 1707 to 661. In May, 1919, the council reported the receipt of two memorials relating to the same subject, and pro- posed the appointment of a syndicate to consider it. The first memorial stated :—‘‘We believe that the time has passed for the adoption of half-measures, and that women should be admitted to full member- ship of the University.’’ In the second, objection was taken to the ‘‘attempt to force a hasty con- clusion on a prejudged issue,” and the sug estion made that a solution might be found by allowing women to obtain degrees without becoming full members of the University. This suggestion—which is made now by those who in 1897 opposed the granting of degrees to women at all—is practically the same as that which was rejected by a large majority then, and illustrates how far the attitude towards women has changed in twenty-two years. There are few now who would dare openly to advo- cate the exclusion of women from the recognition rightly due to their study and their services to learning. On Thursday, October 30, a discussion on the sub- ject was held in the Senate House. It is clear that a large progressive body of opinion is in favour of removing all restrictions on the studies of women and on their just recognition by the University. It is also clear. however, that there is still an underlying opposition to the idea of a mixed university, which will manifest itself in proposals designed to shelve the question temporarily by the adoption of half- measures. There can be little doubt that in the end all restrictions will be removed; and there are many who believe that it will be wiser and more generous for the University now to allow women the full membership they demand than to have the change forced upon it by outside influence, e.g. through the coming Royal Commission. NOTES. ANnNouNcEMENT of the approaching fiftieth anniver- sary of the foundation of NATURE was made in a letter sent a few weeks ago to the presidents of a number of scientific societies, official heads of British universities, and other representatives of progressive knowledge, most of whom are amon the contributors to the columns of this journal. The result of this communication has been that we have received numerous cordial messages of congratulation, many of them containing interesting reminiscences «sso- ciated with Nature, and all most appreciative of the services it affords to scientific workers. It was hoped that space could have been found to publish these messages this week, but this has proved impracticable. We believe, however, that these testimonies to the close attention paid to the contents of NATURE will interest a wide scientific public, and therefore propose to place a selection from them before our readers in next week’s issue. Tue general arrangement of Notes in these columns follows the principle of from man to machine; early paragraphs are concerned with current topics and events, and these are followed successively by Notes on subjects relating to biological, physical, and en- gineering sciences. The articles on scientific progress which we have been fortunate enough to secure for this issue are arranged in much the same order, so that each has a relationship to the contributions which precede and follow it. In addition to the descriptive articles concerned with different fields of scientific activity, short accounts are given of a few important British institutions established for research purposes NO, 2610, VOL. 104] since NaTuRE was first published. These articles will, we think, serve to increase the value of this jubilee number as an epitome of outstanding developments of scientific work during the past fifty years. On Wednesday, October 29, Mr. Balfour was in- i, oo Chancellor of Cambridge University. In a letter to the Vice-Chancellor dated October 25 he had written :—‘‘In so far as lifelong devotion to the — University, unceasing interest in its welfare, and pride in its great services to learning be sufficient ualifications for that high post, I am not unfitted to Il it.’? His election was unopposed. In ting the Letters Patent the Vice-Chancellor Fi is the needs of the University and upon the possibili of utilising the learning available in the University more fully in the service of the Empire. The new Chancellor agreed that it is the business of the com- munity to make easier the path of those who hay shown what the sound learning and scientific Sainte of a university can do for a national cause, but at ed the same time he felt that, in the main, Cambridge would have to trust, and could well trust, its‘own — powers in the coming arduous days of peace. Tn all departments of national activity, but e i in the scientific study of the mechanical, economic, ical, medical, or physical problems of the last five years, our universities—and not least Cambridge-—have earned a position in the national estimation which they have never held before. This position carries great opportunities and great obligations with it. The interest of the next few years and their influence on the future history of education and human know- ledge are immense. There will undoubtedly be a strong tendency towards the adoption of a as technical education and towards the teaching of “practical” subjects in a university course; this ¢ tendency cannot, and must not, be opposed, but at the same time it is most earnestly to be desired that — our universities should keep before the eyes of heir students the three chief motives for the ai and improvement of knowledge: a pleasure in. know- ledge for its own sake, a sure faith that no attem»t to acquire and improve knowledge is vain, and a - reasoned belief in the power of knowledge to help and elevate mankind. . Cambridge has chosen wisely in electing a Chancellor in whom these motives are so strong, and who possesses in a high degree the power and opportunity of keeping them before the eyes of the best of his countrymen. : MemoriaL tablets to Lord Lister to be erected at University College, London, will be unveiled on Tuesday, November 11, by Sir George Makins, presi- dent of the Royal College of Surgeons, and Sir J. J. Thomson, president of the Royal Society. The Duke of Bedford, president of the Lister Memorial Com- mittee, will preside. Tue Very Rev. W. R. Inct, Dean of St. Paul’s, — has been appointed Romanes lecturer for 1920 at the University of Oxford. The date and subject of — is lecture will be announced later. The late Can professor of ancient history, Mr. F. J. Ha has bequeathed the residue of his estate, oul to certain charges, in trust to the University for the advancement of of antiquities. Mr. W. R. Cooprr has just retired from the edi- torial chair of the Electrician, having decided to devote the whole of his time to his consulting practice. He was appointed editor of our contemporary in, 1906, and under his editorship the journal has represented electrical science at its best, as well as progressive practice. He will be succeeded by Mr. F. H. Masters, the study Romano-British ~ NoveMser 6, 1919 | NATURE 267 who was chief assistant editor at the outbreak of war in 1914. Ar the annual general meeting of the Cambridge Philosophical Society, held on October 27, the follow- ing were elected officers of the society for the ensuing session, 1919-20 :—President: Mr. C. T. R.: Wilson. Vice-Presidents: Sir W. J. Pope and Sir E. Ruther- ford. Treasurer: Prof. Hobson. Secretaries: Mr. A. Wood, Mr. G. H. Hardy, and Mr. H. H. Brindley. New Members of the Council: Prof. Inglis, Prof. Seward, Dr. Rivers, Dr. E. H. Griffiths, and Mr. F. A. Potts. Dr, O. L. Brapy, president of the National Union of Scientific Workers, took the chair at a meeting held on October 30 to inaugurate a London branch. He pointed out that the organisation of the union is by branches. Although there are already branches in South Kensington, the Board of Agriculture, the London County Council, and at Woolwich, it was felt that a more central branch should be formed to meet the needs of workers engaged in the City and in the central district of London. eee tS} K.C.B., F.R.S. By Dr. H. Deslandres (Vice- Position and Prospects of Aviation. By L. Bairstow, ’ President of the Academy of Sciences of Paris, PARIS) oT es ee a hee 246 Director of the Astrophysical Dhieroney, of The Liquefaction of Gases. By Prof. C. ‘H. ‘Lees, Meudon). 2... ee a ee 191 TR BD Oe ee ee yaaa Retrospect and Prospect. By Sir Archibald Geikie, Progress of Meteorology. By W. H. Dines, F.R.S. 247 OM.; RIC Bis FRG Fo o ee ee nae 195 | Progress of Geography. . By Sir John Scott Keltie. 249 The Foundation of Biological Sciences. By Sir E. Progress of Photography. By Chapman Jones. . 251 : Ray Lankester, K.C.B., F.R.S. 198 | The Reproduction of Illustrations, Bt OA By a Science and the Church, By the Ven. Jeoes M. Emery Walker’ ..°- 2 0 2 ee 252 Wilson, D.D., Canonand Vice-Dean of Worcester 201 | Progress in Science Teaching. By Sir William A. The Expansion ‘t Geology. isd Prof. T. G. Bonney, Tilden, FOR ie oa, ie teen ee "Sele nen wire i253 BRIG Sg os Sa Se eva 203 | Aspects of Science at Universitibas: By Dr. Alex — The New Birth of Medicine. By Sir T. Clifford © FM, 6 oa ee Ay ae hee ee HORS WBS Altbutt;'K26.8., Ff ReSit eae 204 | Fifty Years of Technical Education. By of. Bh eS Developments of Physiology. By Sir fawntd Reynolds, M/S¢e? 52 oe + Sa aeee 257 Sharpey Schafer, FOR 'S. ong wee ee aa 207 | The Promotion of Research. By. Sir ‘Richard A. The Modern School of Psychology ........ 208 RATEROTY So ie eae bons ee Sse aiee 259 Preventive Medicine since 1869. By Dr. C. J. Research and its Application, By Dr. W. H. Martin, FeRiS goo lik sets aa: ee ae ene 210 Nichole <9.) . 5.4.4 yaa eee el. alls Ga? The Antiquity of Man. By Dr. A. Smith Wood- British Botanic Gardens and Stations... .. . . 263 ward, F.RSs es) 313 oh eee ae ee eee 212 | The Scientific and Technical Department of the The Present Position of the Mutation Theory. By Imperial Institute - 2 es Se eee a 3 Prof. Hugo de Vries, For.Mem.R.S. . 213 | The Lister Institute of Preventive Medicine . . | The Progress of Mendelism. By Prof. W. Baicenk: The National Physical Laboratory .. «ae ee AOS, Baie toe ores tn chee RE peste | a ge ea 214 | The Davy Faraday Research Lahore ‘of the Telegony. By Prof. J. Gésear Swied F.R.S. 216 Royal Institution .- .) ose. 2) eee ain Sk WeGg Progress of Chemistry. By Sir Edward Thorpe, The International Catalogue of Scientific Literatute 265 SB Pies. . ee 217 | The Tropical Diseases Bureau ......... - 265 Chemistry in the Making. By Prof, ‘Metiry. E. . | WWomen at Cambridge ©, 5. ae Thoin 265 Armstrong, FUR Gs) 6S eae a eee 210 SINOOB is oc Bau cs ed Pec ee be : . . 266 The Discovery of Chemical Elements since 18609. ‘Our Astronomical Column :— . By Prof. H. B. Dixon, F.R.S., and H. Stephen, Comets 62 Ns yer eae oe See es) aa MeGee 5. ane SE Se NES ce 221 The Sources of Stellar Energy 269 Physical Chemistry—Past and Present. By Prof. British Scientific Societies Pounded during the ; ep os Con iekew iL Ce ee 223 Past Fifty Veate 5. 00.- |. ae iat 270 The Influence of Investigations on the Electrical Societies and Academies’. ......... arias yk Properties of Gases on our Conceptiors of the Diary’ of Sociétiés’ >... 271 Structure of Matter. By Sir J. J. Thomson, bi Si Se dB Le ~ Ree ee av Lene are ca Se 224 i ee ig aver... Biivoria) and Publishing 2g Atoms and Molecules. By Prof, Frederick Soddy, MACMILLAN AND CO., Ltp., + ptlpcdd ae he apie tage Paednsiney | 230 ST. MARTIN’S STREET, LONDON, W.C.2. Ionisation of Gases. By Prof. J. S. Townsend i ‘gis > eee tine Sa Sa aearea ce aoa amr e ORG Wate eas SE 233 F _ Ee ROP Re Pa Ee wis Advertisements and business letters to be addressed to the X-Rays in Physical Science, By Prof. W, H baetctat ; PEE Re ees. Souk SSR oe’ oie ae 235 - X-Rays in Medical Science. By A. C. Jordan, Editorial] Communications to the Editor. ‘aii Striel SG 5 O12 ARIE te SARS AD: le RI be 237 Q Progress of Electrical Invention, wa Prof. “s re Telegraphic Address: Puusis, LONDON, Pimtings R wl as a ia ey 239 Telephone Number: GERRARD 8830. NO. 2610, VOL. 104] ‘ SA yk ay sacs ae "NALORL 273 THURSDAY, NOVEMBER 13, 1919. - ee eae ‘> + THE TURKS-OF CENTRAL ASIA. _ The Turks of Central Asia in History and at the Present Day: An Ethnological Inquiry into the Pan-Turanian Problem, and _ Bibliographical Material relating to the Early Turks and the Present Turks of Central Asia. By M. A. Czaplicka. Pp. 242. (Oxford: At the Claren- don Press, 1918.) Price 15s. net. 4: HIS small and closely packed book deals with a big and intricate subject which can be dealt with satisfactorily only on a much larger scale, and it is to be hoped that its talented and learned author will presently give us a larger monograph in which the earlier history of the Turks, with its dramatic ties with the fortunes of Asia and Europe, will be told in much greater detail. It is opportune that such a book should appear when the greatest and most powerful empire established by the Turkish race is passing away, and when the thoughts of many of us are turning with a good deal of interest to the period in its history when the race emerged from the prehistoric age and began its wider sphere of interest. It is not possible in the space which NaTurE can spare to do more than give a bare outline of the subject. _. The Nomadic peoples who occupy the great stretch of grassy steppes, barren lands, and stony plateaus of Asia from the River Ural to the _ Yellow Sea form a group which is closely united by physical ties and by language. Their speech, although mutually unintelligible, has a common grammatical structure and a large number of common words. They are divisible into two main branches, respectively known to the Chinese as the Eastern and Western barbarians. Each of these divisions is again separable into two sections, ene _ of them including the Mongols properly so-called, and the Tungus, better known in the West from one of their tribes as Manchus, and occupying the eastern part of Central Asia, of which the _ great desert of Gobi and its borders form the _ kernel. The other section, comprising the Turks and Finns (each divided into various tribes), occu- pies the country west of Mongolia, and is grouped about the great mountain chains of the Urals and the Altai Mountains, and is often spoken of as the Uralo-Altaic section of the human family. Ee At the time when history first notices this group, _ they were probably nearly as much separated as _ they are now, the great distinguishing feature ; which separates these two branches being that, while the Finnish branch were at that time almost entirely hunters and fishermen, the Turks have always been nomad herdsmen, having been occupied chiefly with the rearing of cattle, horses, and camels. In their early days one section of the Turks formed the “frontagers ’’ of the Aryan peoples, who lived in the Persian provinces of Khorasan, _ Balkh, and Transoxisia, which they continually NO. 2611, VOL. 104] worried and attacked. The two lands, that of the ‘nomads and that of the settled people, were re- spectively known to the Persian writers.as Turan and Iran. This Western section is generally known as the Western Turks, and was perhaps the only portion of the stock specifically called Turks at that time. Another great section occupied the frontiers of China and the greater part of what is now known as Mongolia, and in the earliest Chinese writers are known as Hiong Nu, or Hiun Nu. The Hiong Nu formed a very powerful empire, which fought on equal terms with China, and was a serious menace to the latter empire during the Chinese dynasties of the earlier and later Han. The power of the Hiong Nu was gradually sapped in their struggles with the Chinese, and they were eventually attacked and conquered by their Eastern neighbours, known to the Chinese as Yuan Yuan, who thus became the masters of all Nomadic Tartary, and were probably nearly related to the later Mongols. I argued in former years that they were identical with the Avars of the European writers, who appear in the West at the time when the power of the Hiong Nu was destroyed. Presently, in the sixth century, the Yuan Yuan were themselves conquered and replaced by the true Turks, who then appear eo nomine for the first time in the Chinese annals. The Chinese, not having the letter “r’’ in their alphabet, represented the name “Turk’’ by that of Thu- kiu. These Turks were, I feel sure, the Western branch of the race above named. They in turn became the masters of all Tartary, and eventually were divided into two sections, a Western branch and an Eastern, the latter being in a large measure the descendants of the Hiong Nu above named. It is with the advent of these true Turks into Mongolia that we first meet with signs of a settled community there, marked by many traces of civilisation, which are clearly traceable to the Iranian lands from the borders of which these Turks came. Among these the most notable relics are the remains of towns, and the exist- ence of inscriptions, proving their knowledge of letters. They have left us a number of most interesting inscriptions, which have been studied and illuminated by several notable scholars. The names of the rulers mentioned on these inscrip- tions are also found in the Chinese annals, and are attributed by them to the Thukiu. We can therefore date them with the greatest precision. They are written in the well-known and widely spread Syriac script known as estranghelo, in which the Nestorian inscriptions of China were written, and which was afterwards used by the Uighur Turks and the Mongols for their writings. The capital of these early Turks was in Northern Mongolia, and, as stated above, they have left large traces there of their settlements. Presently it would seem that the earlier Turks who lived in the East and had been known as Hiong Nu reasserted themselves and conquered N 274 NATURE ee ae [NovEMBER 13, “1919 and replaced the Turks just named, taking possession of their settlements and capital, and continuing their culture. They also adopted the new name of Uighurs, which the Chinese, having, as I have said, no letter “r,” changed into Hoei Hoei and other distorted forms of the name Uighur. ; ; These Uighurs became a_ highly cultivated people, with a considerable literature, which is . still extant, and their dialect is known as Eastern Turki. They apparently inherited from the Western Turks an attachment for the Iranian or Zoroastrian religion, and traces of the Zoroastrian gods and ritual are found among their remains. On other sides their religion was affected by mis- sionaries from other sources. Manicheism found numerous recruits among them, and we are now fast recovering from the buried cities of Eastern Turkestan most interesting remains of the religion of Manes, while the Nestorian clergy founded episcopal sees in their country, and made numer- ous recruits. Presently, and in the seventh cen- tury, Buddhism also made its way among them in the corrupt form, and mixed with the Tantra superstitions, which then prevailed in Tibet, and is known as Red Lamaism in contrast with the reformed Lamaism of the later Yellow Lamas. At length, in the ninth century, the religion of Islam found its way into Central Asia, being dis- seminated from the Central Asiatic State governed by the Samanis, and the Western Turks became eager converts to it both in the frontier steppes of the Persian Empire and in Eastern Turkestan. The Eastern Turks or Uighurs continued to be the more cultivated of the race, but the Western were the more powerful warriors, and under the name of Turcomans overran Persia and Asia Minor, founding the famous empire of the Seljuki, which was presently (in the thirteenth century) over- whelmed by the Mongols. ; I am conscious of the extremely meagre and arid nature of this epitome, and how little it does justice to the wide reading and sound judgment of the author. No one knows it better, for I have spent a large part of my life in writing four fat volumes on the Mongols, and two sets of papers on the westerly drifting of Nomads and the northern frontagers of China in the old Ethno- logical Society’s Journal and the Asiatic Journal respectively. This may give me at least a claim to speak in terms of high praise of the work before me, in which the author, having the unusual ‘ad- vantage of knowing Russian, has employed it with generous profusion, much to our profit, and in which she describes with clearness the various divisions into which the Turks have been disinte- grated, with their geographical, ethnographical, and religious features, and also tells the story of their doings. It is so well done that I cannot pay the book a greater compliment than to repeat my invitation to the learned lady who has written it to give us a much larger work on the subject. I may add that a most ample bibliography occu- pies 114 of the 242 pages comprised in the work. Henry H. Howortu. NO. 2611, VOL. 104] el THE LIVING PLANT. Botany of the Living Plant. By Prof. F. O. Bower. Pp. x+580. (London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd., 1919.) Price 25s. net. A GOOD deal of discussion has recently taken place among botanists on the subject of the reconstruction of elementary botanical teaching, and one of the main contentions of the originators of the discussion was that in order to secure improvement “comparative morphology should be reduced to a subordinate position.’’ It has further been alleged that in modern botanical teaching the teacher has failed to present the plant as a living organism, thereby implying that morphology has been divorced from physiology. Prof. F, O. Bower has already expressed himself forcibly and with sound sense upon the question in the pages of the New Phytologist (vol. xvii. Nos. 5 and 6, p. 105), and has aptly summarised his views with the adage, “Physician, heal thyself.’’ In his book now‘under notice he has given so admirable a presentment of the plant as a living organism that instead of there being any antagonism between physiology and morphology, their fusion and interdependence are so impressed on the reader that he can see, not two entities, but “one flesh.’’ Prof. Bower concludes the article to which réference has been made with the following: “Finally, each teacher with a due sense of his responsibility, and of his opportunities and requirements, must form his own scheme to meet his own needs. If he cannot do this he is not fit for his position.’’ Prof. Bower has followed this very pertinent criticism with his book, ‘‘The Botany of the Living Plant,” which is framed on the lines of the annual course of elementary lectures on botany given by him at Glasgow for more than thirty years. His main object has been to present the plant as a living, growing, self-nourishing, self-adapting creature, and he has very finely achieved his ideal. In his method of treatment of the subject he has allowed the living plant to tell its own story, slowly and naturally unfolding itself stage by stage in such a manner that interest is aroused and observation stimulated. The book may very justly be regarded as an invaluable contribution to sound learning. It does not aim at being an exhaustive treatise, but deals with the funda- mental facts of plant life, and is written in a remarkably clear style, so much so that anyone with only a slight acquaintance with plant life should be able to acquire a real knowledge of the science of botany from a careful study of these essays. : The opening chapter is occupied by a careful and comprehensive description of the seed and its germination. It is sometimes considered more reasonable to commence the study of botany with the lower forms of plant life, but it is obviously a better plan to set out with a familiar and easily handled object, such as the seed, which marks a NOVEMBER “13, T9TQ] WALUNL 275 Sdehnite starting-point, and can be examined and Bi studied in detail without recourse to the micro- scope. It is pointed out that in the plan of con- struction of the higher plants the outstanding feature is the capacity for indefinite Vegetative ‘increase which may be termed ‘“‘continued _ embryology.”’ _ The cellular construction of the plant and the various functions of the cell, cell-division, and z protoplasmic continuity naturally follow, and then the tissues are dealt with in further detail. _ The sequence of events next leads to an account of leaf and root from the morphological point of view, followed by chapters on the relation of plants to water, and on nutrition, storage, and respiration. In the chapter on growth and move- ment due attention is paid to the statolith theory in connection with geotropism. Succeeding chapters deal fully with the mechanical construc- tion of the plant body, modifications of form in the vegetative system, such as bulbs, tubers, climbing plants, etc., the irregular nutrition of _ parasitic, semi-parasitic, and carnivorous plants, and vegetative propagation, all of which aspects of plant life are fully discussed with a wealth of _ well-chosen examples. The inflorescence and flower and the formation and development of the seed with all that is _ entailed occupy some eighty pages and bring this first division of the book to its logical conclusion. This portion is not a mere chronicle of well- known facts, but is illuminated by a considera- tion of flower colours, pollination, and the details of fertilisation, and closes with a description of the mode of dispersal of some of the better-known seeds and fruits. _ The second part of the book is arranged in four Bi sions, dealing respectively with the Gymno- sperms, Pteridophyta, Bryophyta, and Thallo- phyta, followed by two chapters, one on sex and eredity, the other on the alternation of genera- tions and the land habit. These two essays very _ fittingly come at the end as a summary of the previous chapters dealing with the life-histories of the lower plants. ' As in the earlier part of the book, these more "specialised chapters on the ferns, mosses, fungi, and alge are treated on broad lines, and there no superfluity of detail to obscure the salient os atures. _ The book concludes with two appendices, one on the types of floral construction in Angio- “sperms, the other on vegetable - foodstuffs, both of which considerably enhance the value of the volume. In the former a few types of flower are described, and notes are added on the natural families to which the particular examples belong. The plants chosen are easily accessible and also ‘represent characteristic features of families the “products of which are of economic importance. Further, they are of interest in connection with the production and dispersal of seeds, floral biology, etc. The illustrations in this appendix have been drawn for the most part by Dr. J. M. Thompson, and are particularly clear and useful. NO, 2611, VOL. 104] \ The glossary-index, which completes the book, - occupies thirty-two pages, and furnishes a further example of the thorough and careful manner in which Prof. Bower has carried out his object. We have for so long been accustomed to rely on translations of German text-books for our elementary botanical students that it is very grati- fying to find them superseded by so excellent and comprehensive a study of the living plant from one of the most eminent of our own professors and teachers. A. W.-H. OUR BOOKSHELF. Influenza: A Discussion opened by Sir Arthur Newsholme. Pp. 102. (London: Longmans, Green, and Co., n.d.) Price 3s. 6d. net. Tue discussion on influenza at the Royal Society of Medicine in November last summarises very completely our knowledge of this obscure epidemic disease. Sir Arthur Newsholme, in his opening remarks, expressed the opinion. that influenza is a specific disease recognisable in severe outbreaks, and pointed out that, with the exception of plague and cholera, it has on occa- sion travelled farther and more rapidly over the world than any other recognised disease, and that it is one over which preventive medicine so far has secured little or no control. Dr. Stevenson directed attention to certain features of the 1918 epidemic which differed from those of the past twenty-seven years, viz. (1) its intensity was greatly in excess of that of any of its predecessors, and (2) the sudden and startling change which occurred in 1918 in the age dis- tribution of influenzal mortality. In all previous years the majority of deaths—generally about 70 per cent.—occurred at ages above forty-five. But in July, 1918, only about 30, and in October about 20, per cent. of the persons dying were more than forty-five years of age, and only 5-5 per cent. of the deaths of this outbreak were at ages above sixty-five, as against an average of 37 per cent. for the years 1890-1917. Several speakers dealt with the aspects of the epidemic in the Navy and in the Army, and in France, America, and South Africa, which corre- spond closely with those observed among the civil population here. With regard to the bacteriology of the disease, most of the observers noted the presence of the influenza bacillus, the pneumococcus and the streptococcus, but no very definite opinion is ex- pressed as to the nature of the virus. Prophy- lactic vaccination receives scant notice, probably because the data were insufficient at the time of the meeting. As regards tréatment, Mr. E. B. Turner claimed that large doses of salicin constitute a specific, and certainly his experience, based on the observation of 2500 cases, suggests that this drug deserves an extended trial. R. T. Hewtetr. oi i ea ie 276 NATURE [NoveMBER 13, 1919 The “Daily Telegraph” Victory Atlas of the / “World. "Part i. (London: “Geographia,” — Ltd., 1919.) Price 1s, 3d. net. Tus is the first part of a new atlas to be com- pleted in about forty-eight parts. Each part is to consist of three double-page maps, 20} in. by 26 in. A gazetteer is to complete the work. The first part contains maps of Australia (physical), South-West Spain (political), and Germany (his- torical), besides several inset maps. The colour — printing is good and the lettering particularly legible. The orographical map ot Australia is layer coloured, and although it shows some small discrepancies from the recently published official orographical map of the Commonwealth it is an effective and useful sheet. The map of Spain, which we take to be the type of political map of the atlas, would be improved by the omission of the “caterpillar” relief, which is merely mislead- ing and of no value. In this respect the map of Germany is better, for no attempt is made to | The changes due to the Peace © show relief on it. Treaty are incorporated, but a mistake is made in: the area of the Slesvig plebiscite. The atlas promises to be a useful one for general reference purposes. Its low price is much in its favour. R.N. R.-B: The Mica Miner’s and Prospector’s Guide. By Archibald A. C. Dickson. Pp. viii+ 50. (London: E. and F. N. Spon, Ltd., 1919.) Price 4s. 6d. net. : THE mica industry is indebted to the author of | this “Guide’’ for the current system of mining in Kodarma, the most prolific mica field in the | world. His memoirs on that field are wel! known. Any contribution of his to the literature of the subject is therefore sure of careful consideration. The present booklet, which is high-priced—fifty pages for 4s. 6d.—was prepared to help the in- creased output of mica necessary during the war. from the title. tions of eight of the secondary mines of | the Kodarma field and of notes on_ the mining methods there. It contains little information as to costs and values, and would not explain to a miner who had no previous ex- perience of mica-mining how to estimate the prob- bl fit 1 f ¢ ly discov set! Bless 5 ae 2 Oc newly Sever | light nearer the edges of the exciting line, polarisation The author’s main thesis is that mica-mining must be guided by careful geological study, and he insists that all the facts observable during the entered on a mine plan. This warning is especially | useful with a branch of mining in which so much of the output is from small mines worked by | parties of local labourers. Mr. Dickson points out that the mica lenses on the margin of a deposit | are apt to be inclined to the shoot, and a miner | who was guided only by the facts seen would be diverted from the main body of mica. NO. 2611, VOL, 104] _ polarisation (Phil, Mag., vol. xxxii., p. 329, 191 | of the atoms. | ful spectroscopes. j ; ; | more to be done in this direction. working of a deposit should be systematically | | made of a new method, proposed by M. LETTERS TO THE EDITOR. [The Editor does not: hold himself responsible for opinions © expressed by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manu- scripts intended for this or any other part of NATURE. No notice is taken of anonymous communications.] Scattering of Light by Resonating Molecules. Pror. R. W. Woop (Phil. Mag., vol. xxiii., p. 689, 1912) found that mercury vapour, even at the smali | density corresponding to atmospheric temperature, when illuminated by the ultra-violet mercury radiation 4 2536, re-emits this radiation laterally in considerable intensity. Further, Wood and Kimura found after repeated examination ihat this radiation,is completely free * Seals I have been very much impressed with the contrast between this case, where there is resonance, and the behaviour of gases in general when illuminated by light which is not in resonance with the free period In the latter case the laterally emitted light usually approximates to complete polarisation (Proc. Roy. Soc., A, vol. xev., p. 155, 1918). What happens as we gradually depart from exact resonance? Prof. Wood’s experiments were made with the exciting Jight polarised, and he observed the reson- ance radiation through the same window by which the exciting light entered. In this way the light examined comes chiefly from the very first stratuin of vapour entered by the beam. This stratum gives by far the most intense emission. As, however, the beam advances into the mercury vapour the light in exact resonance is absorbed, being, in part at least, re-emitted. The lateral emission further on is much fainter, and corresponds presum- ably to a less exact resonance. ed It appeared to be of interest to examine this lateral _ emission from the deeper strata for polarisation. This I have done, and I give here a brief statement of results, leaving the experimental details for later publication. : After the unpolarised primary beam has traversed 9-4 cm. of mercury vapour at ordinary temperature, the lateral emissign shows very perceptible polaris:a- tion; the component intensity vibrating parallel to the exciting beam having go per cent. of the intensity of the perpendicular component. : After passing through 2-5 cm., this ratio fell to C ‘ ; _ 82 per cent. It contains much valuable information, but does | not cover all the ground that might be expected © It consists mainly of descrip- | After 27-4 cm., the value found was 60 per cent. Thus it appears that the scattered light is un- polarised only when resonance is very exact. The breadth of the absorption band (reversal) pre by a few millimetres of mercury at atmospheric tem- perature and in vacuo must be extremely small, and probably beyond the range of any but the most power- Yet it is only within this narrow spectral range of the exciting light that the scattered light is sensibly unpolarised. When this component is filtered out, and such excitation as remains is by becomes conspicuous. ae It need scarcely be said that there is very much Further experi- ments are in progress, RAYLEIGH. Imperial College, South Kensington, : November 1. Vertical-pipe Irrigation for Orchards and Market- gardens in Arid Glimates. : In the issue of Nature for September 11, 1919 (p. 44), abstracting from the Comptes rendus of the Paris Academy (August 25, 1919, p. 391), mention is Paul Par- ye 4 4 _-Novemser 13, 1919] NATURE 277 mentier, for irrigating orchards and market-gardens in Syria, Palestine, and other countries subject to long summer droughts. The observations of M. Parmen- tier refer especially to the citrus gardens around Jaffa. In arid climates economy in irrigation-water is obviously of the utmost importance. According to the method proposed by M. Parmentier, the water is applied direct to the roots of each tree by means of the soil. The great losses by evaporation that always occur in open canals and in surface irrigation are thus avoided. M. Parmentier. remarks that with vertical-pipe irrigation the water used in a citrus orchard was only 84 litres per hectare, as compared with 600 litres necessary for surface irrigation, applied every five to twelve days. trees to 1 hectare (2}°acres) of citrus orchard, and 1100 plants in the banana gardens. These figures are very high, and imply a great consumption of water. The method proposed by M. Parmentier is not new. Watering orchards by means of special drain-tubes sunk vertically in the soil is an old practice at Mes- sina, in Sicily, where it is chiefly applied to young plantations. This method of irrigation was_ first described long ago by Prof. Giuseppe Inzenga, the well-known Sicilian agronomist and botanist, in the Annali di Agricultura Siciliana; and again by F. Alfonso-Spagna in his ‘‘Trattato d’Irrigazione”’ (Palermo, 1877, p. 502). In my book of agricultural chemistry (‘Chimica Agraria, Campestre e Silvana,” Napoli, 1902) this special method of drainage-irrigation gardeners is a conical earthenware pipe, about 1 metre long, open at both ends. pipe thus holding about 12 litres of water. M. Par- mentier proposes pipes holding 20 litres for use in orchard irrigation. At Messina the upper end of the catuso projects slightly above the soil, the opening being covered with a brick or tile. : In the summer of 1889, at Portici, near Naples, I experimented on two lemon-trees of the same age _ and size, watering one in the usual manner and the _ other by means of a drain-pipe sunk vertically in the earth. During that hot summer, in the sandy, _ volcanic soil at the foot of Vesuvius, the difference between the effects of the two methods of watering _ was very apparent. The lemon-tree provided with the _ vertical drainage-pipe prospered on a ration of water _ about 50 per cent. less than that necessary for the control tree watered from the surface. 'The sunk end of the drainage-pipe is made to rest on loose stones or potsherds, which form air-chambers. Thus clogging of the pipe is prevented, and the water _ that is poured down gets well absorbed and distributed _ just where the roots are more vigorously developing __and renovating their absorbing organs. _ The subsoil air-chamber is as important as_ the water-pipe. During drought the deep aeration of the creasing their power of absorption and at the same _ time favouring deep-soil nitrification. The roots are induced to develop chiefly around the reservoir of moist, warm air, where respiration and growth find active rootlets thickening around the spot where the watering is concentrated and nitrates are being actively formed. The loss by evaporation and _per- colation is minimised. Moreover, the close air under maintained in a less damp condition than is usual in the deeply shaded citrus orchards, where the NO. 2611, VOL. 104] earthenware, cement, or iron pipes fixed vertically in | At Jaffa there are 880 | is again described. The catuso used by the Messina | The diameter of the upper | Opening is 15 cm. and that of the lower 10 cm., the | soil, when moisture is sufficient, provokes the growth | of the roots and the renewing of the root-hairs, in- | favourable conditions, the network of young and | the foliage of the trees, as M. Parmentier remarks, is | | development of parasites and pests is much favoured | by the moist shade, | M. Parmentier observed that vegetables watered by | underground irrigation are more tender and of higher market value than vegetables watered by submersion, or by any other method by which the foliage, stalks, _ and upper parts of the roots are wetted. Indeed, it may be added that the wetting of the foliage increases | transpiration, and consequently the waste of water, | By means of vertical-pipe irrigation dilute liquid ) manure can be applied far more effectually and economically than by the usual method of night-soil manuring. In the case of vegetables and fruit-trees subsoil liquid manuring is also advisable from a sani- tary point of view. In arid climates, and wherever the economy both of water and of liquid nitrogenous manure is of special consequence, the Messina and Parmentier snethod | of underground watering by vertical drainage is much to be recommended. Iraco GIGLIOLI. Laboratory of Agricultural Chemistry, University of Pisa, Italy. New Sources of Aluminium. I was much interested in the account given in NaturE of October 23 of the new methods of extrac- tion of aluminium from clays of the kaolin class (formed from the denudation of volcanic rocks) by | means of nitric acid and electric furnaces in Norway. When this source of production is generally adopted, | as no doubt it will be owing to the diminishing supplies of cryolite and bauxite, it seems probable that the vast quantities of ‘‘decomposed porphyry ’’ discovered by the late Prof. Jacob during his geological explora- tions in the Rocky Mountains (some of which have been mistaken for chalk by prospectors) will then form an inexhaustible source of supply for that valuable metal. J. E. Bacon. The Barracks, Fulford, York. Radiation Temperature: Dew. Tue letter in Nature of October 23 on radiation temperature from Mr. Spencer Pickering reminds me that the theory of the equilibrium temperature is given by Clerk Maxwell in his little-known article on Diffusion (‘‘ Ency. Brit.,” ninth edition, p. 218). Max- well shows that in still-air temperature @, a thermo- meter will gain heat per sec. 4rCK(0,—6,), where C is the electrical capacity of the bulb, K the conductivity _ constant for air; and that it will give up heat per sec. AR(6,—6), where A is the area of the bulb, R the radiation constant, and @ the temperature towards which radiation occurs. If the bulb be spherical C=r, its radius. Consequently, 4nrK(6,—8,)=47r°R(0,—8), K(6,—6,)=7rR(6,—8). That is, the conductivity effect depends on the radius of the bulb. Mr. Pickering has observed this in the case of small bulbs. He goes on to apply this result to small objects, such as the pistils and stamens of flowers. I would like to point out another | effect to which his observations apply, namely, that | true dew (arising from radiation) is not found» on | spiders’ webs. If webs are examined when dew is on the ground they are found to be dry. When drops of | water are found they arise from the collecting action | of the webs on mist or fog, i.e. by the collection of drops already formed. I have confirmed this on many | occasions. I conclude that whenever drops are found | on webs it is the result of fog or mist. SIDNEY SKINNER: - South-Western Polytechnic Institute, Chelsea. or 278 NATURE [NoveMBER ue 1919 Surface-Tension. Ow1nc to surface-tension, a surface of mercury supports easily a sovereign placed flat upon it. Care must, of course, be taken to avoid amalgamation. I shall be greatly obliged if one of your readers will supply me with a formula for determining the size of the largest sphere of gold that can just be supported by mercury. As the numerical solution of the equa- tion may be troublesome, I venture to ask only for the formula. C. T. WHITMELL. Hyde Park, Leeds, November 3. Exceptional Dryness of October, 1919. MetEorotocists have directed attention to the exceptional dryness of the past October. It is also interesting to note that the amount of drainage-water percolating through 20 in., 40 in., and 60 in. of soil in the open field for the month of October as recorded by the Rothamsted Experimental Station gauges is nil. The three gauges, each measuring 1/1000 acre, were built in 1870, and in no previous year is October shown quite dry, 1897 being the nearest with a reading of o-oot in. The following are the figures for October :— 20in. goin. 60 in. gauge gauge gauge Rainfall Average of 50 years 1848 1-798 . 1-669 © 3-233 Max. 1891 ... 5589 5716 5479 6-764 Min. 1897 .«. nil 0-001 0001 0960 1919 nil nil nil 1-073 The 50-year records show that October is one of the four months when the ground is wettest. W. D. CHrisTMas. Lawes Agricultural Trust, Rothamsted Experimental Station, Harpenden, November 6. SOUND RANGING. ena ranging consists in the location of the . source of a sound, such as the report of a gun, by means of measurements made on the sound-wave which spreads from the _ source. When it seemed probable, in the latter part of 1914, that the struggle in France was going to develop into trench warfare, the possibility of locating enemy batteries by this means was recog- nised, and many experiments were started inde- pendently to find a method of sound ranging which could be used in the field. Suppose that there is a gun at the point S in Fig. 1. The report of the gun spreads as a spherical sound-wave, with a uniform velocity, and is re- ceived by stations at A, B, and C. If the time intervals between the arrival of the sound at A, B, and C are measured, a very simple construction gives the position of the gun. For instance, if the sound: gets to B a time #, after it gets to A, and to C a time f, after it gets to A, circles are described around B and C the radii of which are equal to the distances travelled by sound in times t, and ¢, respectively. If a circle is found which passes through A, and touches the circles around B and C, the gun position will be at its centre. Therefore, by installing a series of observation stations along the front at surveyed positions, and recording the times at which the report arrives at these stations, it is possible to plot the position of the enemy battery on a map on which the NO. 2611, VOL. 104] | observation stations are marked. This is the essential idea underlying sound ranging. Three stations only are necessary, but more may be employed in order to confirm’ the location. There are other ways of plotting the gun posi- tion, given the time intervals. For instance, if the time interval between A and B is #,, the gun must lie on a hyperbola with foci at A and B which is such that the difference in the distances from the foci of any point on the curve is Vi, where V is the velocity of sound. Another pair of stations give another hyperbola, and by finding” where this intersects the first the gun position is determined. This was thé’method actually em- ployed on the plotting-boards used by the sound- ranging sections. The hyperbola approximates so closely to its asymptote near the gun position — that the asymptote can be used equally well, which makes the method a very simple one i practice. , The French Army started experiments in sound aa Fic, 1. ; ranging in 1914, and obtained results which showed that the method was a promising one. From the very beginning development took place along two lines. Either observers were used, who recorded the time of arrival of the sound by press- ing a key, or the sound was registered automatic- _ ally by some form of microphone. In both cases the stations were connected electrically to a central station, where the signals sent by the observers or microphones were registered on a chronograph of some form. It was soon found that observers were not sufficiently accurate. They made errors amounting to one-tenth of a second, whereas it is necessary to time the arrival of a a sound to 0-005 second in order to make a satis- | factory location. This accuracy was attained by the system in which the arrival of the sound was registered by a microphone, and. both in the ~ French Army and ours a microphone system was finally adopted. Pn ee ee eee ey was experimenting. _ the apparatus fully. The recording apparatus con- stations. _ special type adopted after experiments at the front. - NoveMBER 13, 1919] NATURE 279 Our attention was directed to the French results in the early part of 1915, and a proposal to form an experimental sound-ranging section was laid before the Experiments Committee at General Headquarters. The committee at first decided against ordering any apparatus, but was_ per- *suaded to alter its decision, and an English sound- ranging section was sent to the front in October, 1915. Sound ranging was still in its infancy, and the results obtained were very disappointing. In fact, it was doubtful at one time whether the continuation of the experiments would be author- ised. Fortunately, sound ranging just survived these early trials, and during 1916 sufficient sections were formed to cover the whole front. The apparatus which we adopted was designed by M. Bull, of the Institut Marey, in Paris, and | was one of several with which the French Army Report reaches No. 1 microphone. Report reaches No. 6 microphone. ae Th 4 Hea hae » pees! Ni A Tea Oa eh Way ie bite F oe ere Papeete! Oe ee pa ve J atecessosvsssessosaseessON@ SECONG,«. 00. o0saer00-000 > Fic. 2.—The figure is an enlarged print of the record of a 15 cm. howitzer, the report of which has reached No. 1 microphone first and No. 6 micro- phone last. The film has been moving from right to left while the record was being taken. The time intervals are marked by vertical lines, one hundred to the second, every tenth line being heavier so as to facilitate counting. The horizontal lines represent the shadows of the Einthoven strings, which lie across the slit behind which the film is exposed, and the movements of which are shown on the record. It is not possible to describe sists of an Einthoven galvanometer with six strings, each string being connected to a micro- phone at a receiving station. The currents which the microphones send to the recording instrument _ cause the corresponding strings to vibrate, and their movements are recorded photographically on a moving kinematograph film. At the same time, by interrupting the light which photographs the strings on the film, at intervals of 1/100 second, _ a series of time markings is ruled on the film, ‘which makes it possible to measure the time interval between the arrival of the sound at two The microphone finally used was of a Its special feature is that it is very sensi- tive to sounds of long wave-lengths, such as gun reports or shell bursts (the wave-length of the NO. 2611, VOL. 104] report of a large gun-may be 250 ft.), while com- paratively insensitive to ordinary sounds, such as speech, rifle fire, traffic, and so on. The credit of its design is due to Lt. Tucker, an officer serving in the experimental section in 1916. A record of a German 15-cm. howitzer is illus- trated in Fig. 2. The installation of a section using the Bull apparatus is shown in Fig. 3. There are six microphones, spaced along a “base” about gooo yards long and 4ooo0 yards behind the front line. These are wired up to a central station which is placed in a cellar or dug-out some 5000-6000 yards from the front line. In front of the base are the “advanced posts.” An observer Area occupied by enemy batteries. Front Line. 9000 Yards ~-----> Advanced Post Centra! Station Fic. 3. is stationed at each of these. When he hears a hostile gun fired, he presses a key which sets in motion the apparatus at the central recording station. The kinematograph film runs through the camera, the lamp is turned on, and all! is ready to record any sounds reaching the microphones. Having allowed time for the sound to reach all the microphones, the forward observer raises his key and the recording apparatus stops. He tele- phones to the central station a report giving his estimate of the direction from which the firing has come, of the target, and of the calibre of the piece. The film is developed and fixed by a 280 NATURE [N OVEMBER 13, 19 19 photographer; this can be done in ten seconds «by using strong solutions. It is handed over to a computer, who reads the time intervals and plots the result, and the location of the battery is tele- phoned to all interested. The time taken to work out a result is generally from four to ten minutes after the battery fires. The location is first tele- phoned to the artillery, in order that immediate -action may be taken if desired. The neighbouring sections and other units engaged in location are then informed in order that results may be com- pared. At the end of the day the section sends in a full report of the day’s work, and this is used by the compilation staff employed in estimating the positions and strength of the enemy artillery in any particular sector. In 1917 and i918 there were about thirty sections on the Western front, each section having four officers and forty men. number of locations obtained per day by each section was about five, though on a day when conditions were particularly favourable it was not uncommon for a section to get thirty, forty, or even more locations. Long spells of westerly weather were responsible for keeping the average number so low, because it was found impossible to “sound-range”’ in a wind blowing from the base towards the enemy guns. The sound is deflected upwards in the well-known manner, and fails to be recorded by the most sensitive micro- phone. The accuracy of the results was tested in many ways. After a successful advance it was possible to examine the positions the enemy batteries had occupied and compare them with the locations. When this could not be done, an examination of aeroplane photographs generally revealed ‘the gun pits, when sound ranging or other methods of location had indicated the approximate battery position. The average error of location, at a range of 10,000 yards, was about fifty yards, though naturally the conditions under which the section was working affected the accuracy greatly. Whenever possible, the aeroplane photograph was relied on to give the exact battery position. The sound-ranging results were especially valuable, however, in that they gave not only the approxi- mate location of the battery, but also its calibre and the target at which it was firing. The shell- burst was recorded as well as the gun report, and so the time of flight of the shell could be found. The character of the report was a clue to the calibre of the piece. The area shelied could be examined to find the shell fragments, and there were other clues to the calibre which made it pos- sible for sound ranging to give very full informa- tion about any battery recorded, and this greatly enhanced the value of the locations. : The most serious of the difficulties encountered by the sections were: Confusion between the gun report and the shell-wave which precedes it in the case of a high-velocity shell; inaccuracy caused by ignorance as to the effect of wind and tem- perature on the sound-wave; interruption by the | noise of our own artillery and the enemy bat- | "NO, 2611, VOL. 104] The average | teries; cutting of the lines by shell fire and traffic or by enthusiasts of other units collecting cable of a very useful type; the. difficulty of survey of the microphone positions in a country where all landmarks were destroyed; and in the final stages of the war the problem of transporting and install- -ing the section quickly when the line moved every few days. Experience solved these difficulties one by one, and towards the end of the war the sections reached a high state of efficiency, though the limit of development had by no means been attained, and it is certain that they might have played an even greater part than they did in the — ; final struggle. 3 : The British system of sound ranging, founded on the Bull:recording apparatus, was developed entirely by officers of sound-ranging ‘sections — working at the front. The original experimental _ section was installed on Kemmel Hill, south of Ypres, and its researches were carried out there. — Later, when there were sections along the whole front, it was arranged that an officer from each _ section should attend a conference which was held — every two months. At the conference, proposed improvements were gone into, the equipment was __ discussed, results were compared, and the report — of the discussion was submitted to General Head- quarters. This informal conference did more than anything else to improve the work of the sections — ——it stimulated rivalry and ensured that all pro-— posed alterations in the existing methods © ere i subjected to severest criticism by men who : first-hand experience before they were ad dor ° turned down. The officers were for the greater part university men who had had a scientific train- a ing, and it would not be possible to imagine a — more keen and enthusiastic body of men. They — were sorely tried in the early days of sound rang- — ing, when they worked under great difficulties, and had yet to prove that reliance could be placed in their results; but they were amply repaid when — sound ranging came to its own at the end of the — war, and was recognised as one of our most ~ valuable means of locating the enemy’s batteries. — RESULTS OF THE TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE ~ OF MAY 29 AND THE RELATIVITY — THEORY. ~ . Ba results obtained at the total solar eclipse of May 29 last were reported at a joint — meeting of the Royal and the Royal Astronomical — Societies, held on November 6. The stations — occupied were Sobral, in North Brazil, and Prin- — cipe Island. Two cameras were employed at Sobral, Be the 13-in. objective of the Greenwich astrographic — equatorial, and a 4-in. lens, of 19-ft. focus, lent, — together with an 8-in. coelostat, by the Royal Irish Academy. It was realised, before the ex- |" pedition started, that the coelostat was scarcely — suitable for observations of such extreme pre- cision as were required to detect and measure the small shift in the places of the stars that might be produced by the sun’s attraction. War con- ditions, however, made it impossible to construct ~ ——— NoveMBER 13, 1919] NATURE 285 _ that this may be done before the eclipse of 1922. _. The results, to some extent, but, fortunately, not entirely, justified these apprehensions. The eclipse plates taken with the 13-in. (stopped down - to 8 in.) are out of focus. Since the focus was good on photographs taken at night a few hours earlier, and also on the check plates taken before _ sunrise in July, the explanation appears to be a _ change of figure of the ccelostat mirror, due to the heat of the sun. These plates were compared with the July check plates by using a duplex micrometer. They show an undoubted gravita- tional shift, the amount at the sun’s limb being 0°93" or o'g9", according to two different methods of treatment. The probable error, as esti- mated by the individual discordances, is about o°3", but there is reason to suspect systematic error, owing to the very different character of the star-images on the eclipse and check plates. This instrument supports the Newtonian shift, the amount of which is 0°87” at the limb. There is one mode of treatment by which the result comes out in better accord with those of the other instru- _ ments. Making the assumption that the bad focus did not alter the scale, and deducing this from the July plates, the value of the shift becomes ri52!. _ satisfactory. The star-images are well defined, and their character is the same on the eclipse and check plates. As the duplex micrometer would not fit these plates, a key-plate, on which the _ film was placed away from the lens, was taken in July, and all the plates in turn were placed in _ contact with this plate and compared with it. The _. resulting shift at the limb is 1°98”, with a prob- able error of o'12”. The values from the separate stars are in good accord, and they support the fact of the shift varying inversely as the distance from the sun’s centre; they are thus unfavourable to its being due to refraction, as was suggested _ by Prof. Newall at the meeting. Moreover, Prof. _ Lindemann pointed out that the comets of 1880 _ and 1882 had traversed this region without giving sistance; as their speed was about 300 miles per - second, a vivid idea is given of the extreme _ tenuity of any medium that they encountered. The Principe expedition was less fortunate in the matter of weather; but a few plates showed five stars. Since no check plates of the cclipse field could be taken there, another field near Arcturus was photographed, and both it and the glass. It was, moreover, necessary to assume that the scale of the eclipse plates was the same as that of the check plate. This is justified by the fact that the diurnal variation of temperature in Principe is only some 4° F., and that there had been no bright sunshine on the mirror before totality. The measures indicate a shift at the limb of 1°60”, with a probable error of 0°3”. NO. 2611, VOL. 104] __a suitable equatorial mounting, though it is hoped that with the 4-in. at Sobral agrees very closely with Einstein’s predicted value 175”. It was generally acknowledged at the meeting that this agreement, combined with the explanation of the motion of the perihelion of Mercury, went far to establish his theory as an objective reality. Sir J. J. Thomson, who presided, spoke of the veri- fication as epoch-making; he suggested that it would probably have a bearing on electrical theory, but he regretted the very complicated form in which Einstein expressed his theory, and hoped that it might be possible to put it into a form in which it would be more generally com- prehensible and useful. Dr. Silberstein laid great stress on the failure to confirm Einstein’s third prediction, that of the displacement of lines in the sun’s spectrum to- wards the red, to the amount of 1/20 Angstrém unit; this had not been verified, in spite of the _ careful search made by Dr. St. John and Mr. | of 1922 might be observed with equatorials. Evershed. As the probable error of their measures was much less than the quantity predicted, he looked on this result as final; some people had suggested that the shift might be veiled by a systematic outward movement of the photosphere, but.as Dr. St. John made measures both at the | sun’s centre and limbs, that suggestion was not : | tenable. Prof. Eddington admitted that the failure The results with the 4-in. lens are much more | threw doubt on the validity of some of the steps which led Einstein to his gravitational result; but he contended that the two other successes indi- cated that the result was right, even if reached by a wrong method. There was some discussion on Prof. Linde- mann’s method of photographing stars in daylight by the use of red screens. However, the eclipse method seems more trustworthy, and the Astro- nomer Royal expressed the hope that the eclipse The | star-field is not so rich as in the late eclipse, but | fairly accessible. _ the slightest evidence of having encountered re- | eclipse plates were compared with pilates of the | same fields taken at Oxford with the same object- | | field of usefulness. with longer exposure much fainter stars could be recorded. The eclipse-track crosses the Maldive Islands and Australia, and is therefore A. C. D. CROMMELIN. ? THE JUBILEE OF “NATURE”: CON- GRATULATORY MESSAGES. T is with a certain amount of diffidence that we give here a number of cordial messages which have reached us upon the attainment of the fiftieth anniversary of the foundation of NATURE. We believe, however, that many readers will be interested not only in the friendly greetings ex- pressed in these messages, but also in the refer- ences to the work of science, and its expanding To the official representatives of scientific societies and university institutions, and to the other men of light and leading who have honoured us with their congratulations, we offer our sincerest thanks. Such eppreciation of | past efforts affords the strongest stimulus to It will be seen that the mean of this result and | future endeavour, While Nature has the advantage of the active 282 NATURE [NOVEMBER © interest and co-operation of so many distinguished leaders in the world of science, the columns of the journal will continue to represent with authority the position and claims of progressive knowledge. In sending us best wishes for con- tinued fulfilment of this function, Dr. Hilda Brade-Birks ‘and the Rev. §$. Graham Brade- Birks, of the South-eastern Agricultural College, Wye, refer us to some striking verses in the seventh chapter of the Wisdom of Solomon in the Apocrypha, and the words are of such interest as expressing the human outlook upon natural know- ledge that we are glad to reproduce them :— God hath granted me to speak as I would, and to conceive as is meet for the things that are given me: because it is He that leadeth unto wisdom, and directeth the wise. For in His hand are both we and our words; wisdom also, and knowledge of workmanship. For He hath given me certain knowledge of the things that are, namely, to know how the world was made, and the’ operation of the elements : The beginning, ending, and midst of the times: the alterations of the turning of the sun, and the change of seasons : The circuits of years, and the positions of stars: The natures of living creatures, and the furies of wild beasts: the violence of winds, and the reasonings of men: the diversities of plants, and the virtues of roots : And all such things as are either secret or manifest, them I know. all SCIENTIFIC AND OTHER SOCIETIES. Royal Society. President: Sir JosEpH THomson, O.M.—The council of the Royal Society offer to the Editor and publishers of Nature their congratula- tions on the fiftieth anniversary of the publication of that journal. They desire to express their apprecia- tion of the services rendered to science by NaTURE during the past fifty years, both by the promotion of research and especially by providing an efficient and convenient means for workers in one branch of science to keep in touch with the progress made in other departments of scientific activity. They recall with satisfaction the fact that the jubilee of the election into the society of their distinguished fellow, Sir Norman Lockyer, coincides with that of his jubilee as Editor of Nature. Royal Society of Edinburgh. President: Dr. Joun Horne, F.R.S.—I am glad to have the | opportunity of expressing my high appreciation of the invaluable services rendered by Nature in promoting scientific research in Scotland during the last fifty years. In 1862 a distinguished Scottish man of science deplored the progressive decay, during the previous half-century, of the once illustrious Scottish school of geology. Since that time the progress in each department of geological inves- tigation in Scotland has been remarkable through the | labours of English and Scottish geologists. The pub- lication of Nature has been a powerful stimulus to geologists and other men of science in North Britain to test all previous work in the light of the most recent research. NO. 2611, VOL. 104] if Royal Irish Academy. President: Tux Ricut Hon. and Most Rev. J. H. Bernarp, D.D., D.C.L., Provost or ‘Trinity COLLEGE, ” - Dustn.—The pubuES of Narure marks the completion of fifty years’ useful aid to science, and the proprietors are- heartily to be congratulated on the fruitfulness of ‘their — = undertaking. The application of science to the prac: tical needs of mankind is taking a wider range every year, and the president of the Royal Irish Ac: wishes all success to the Editor of Nature in efforts to encourage and give publicity to the aims oe scientific research and its importance to the nation. Royal Dublin Society. Vice-President: Pror. J. Jory, F.R.S.—In furthering scientific progress, Nature 5 has played no small part, for.it has supplied a vital necessity : early publication of new ideas, new results, and new projects. We who now write know that our > earliest efforts found encouragement in its columns. May the early efforts of our successors continue to gather from its columns the same encouragement and the same stimulus! Looking back, we recognise and acknowledge that Nature has played an important — part in our lives. Royal Anthropological Institute. President: Siz EveRARD IM THurN, K.C.M.G.—The council of the Royal Anthropological Institute has commissioned me é to convey to the Editor of Nature yery hearty — congratulations on the jubilee of that journal and on fifty years’ successful furtherance of science generally, and not least of anthropology. Our subject may be said to have developed during the same period — from a merely interesting to a scientific stage. We anthropologists foresee a very special task lying before us in the immediate future, in the betterment of the almost innumerable races included in our world-wide — Empire. We look to Nature for continued apis in- creased help in the furtherance of this work. Royal English Arboricultural Society. Prades: Major G. L. Courrnopr.—May I offer my con- gratulations to NATURE upon attaining its jubilee, — and upon the excellent work it has done, during its fifty years of life, in the promotion of scientific. study? The passing of the Forestry Act opens a: fresh vista of useful possibilities to the student of natural science—a yista in which, I am sure, Nature will play its part., In the United King- dom scientific forestry has been the rare exception rather than the rule, with the result that our 3,000,000 acres of woodlands produce only a fourth of the yield which we might expect from them if scientific principles had been applied to the varyin natural conditions of our countrysides. Let us hop that the next fifty years will make up for our short- comings in the past. 4 Royal Institute of British Architects. Peeples: : Mr. Jonn W. Simpson.—Many congratulations will be received on the issue of the jubilee number of — Nature, and I shall feel privileged by being allowed — to add my own tribute. The journal has achieved a_ great position ini the scientific world by reason of its sane and unprejudiced attitude towards research; and, in common with all highly specialised technical, call- ‘i ings, the architectural profession is greatly indebted By NATURE 283 to it. To the Science® Standing Committee of the Royal Institute, and its various committees which are occupied with scientific research into matters connected ‘ with heating, _ lighting, construction, and _ building _ materials, Nature is especially valuable. Pray accept my sincere good wishes for a long-continued prosperity. . Royal Astronomical Society. President: Pror. A. Fow er, F.R.S.—The field of scientific investigation is ever widening with the advance of knowledge, and those who are engaged in research are fortunate in being always able to look with confidence to Nature to keep them well-informed as to the latest developments in their own and other branches of science. By its timely announcement of approaching phenomena and its record of current work and thought the journal has rendered jmportant services to astronomers, and can scarcely have failed to stimulate an intelligent general interest in the results of their work. ‘Royal Engineers Institute, Chatham.—The presi- dent and council of the Royal Engineers In- stitute offer their most sincere congratulations to Nature on the attainment of its jubilee. They recog- nise with a lively sense of appreciation the high standard consistently set in its columns. They offer the Editor their thanks that he has never failed to enforce the great lesson: that the search for know- _ ledge, pursued for its own ends and with no imme- _ diate thoughts of material gain, should be one of the most potent driving forces in the life of a nation. Without this impulse no material advance in civilisa- tion is possible. Now at the present time, at the end of a devastating war which finds many exhausted and some despairing of the future, it is more than ever necessary to hold this beacon aloft and to convey a message of encouragement to all workers engaged in the great search for natural knowledge, bidding them remember that, whatever be the temporary distrac- tions of the time, they should never lose sight of the central truth: that with them lies, in no small degree, the future of the world. Royal Horticultural Society. Chairman of Council: Mr. Harry J. Verrcu. Secretary: Rev. W. Witks.— Like most ancient arts, the practice of horticulture was rooted in tradition and hedged about by em- Piricism. Advancing knowledge gradually lets in light upon its many branches, stimulates its dormant buds into growth, and surrounds its roots with the vitalising environment of experiment. It is an art that lays all Nature under contribution; that can flourish best where knowledge of Nature is deepest. In the name of British horticulturists we congratulate Nature, which has done so much to spread knowledge, upon its fifty years of usefulness, and wish it and those whose work it tells of continued diligence and success. _ Royal Society of Medicine. From the PresipEnt.-- _ During the fifty years that Nature has provided a _ weekly summary of science the changes in medicine, _ particularly as regards diagnosis and treatment, have _ been without parallel. This is shown by a comparison ‘of the toll of disease, on one hand in the late war, and on the other in the Crimean, North and South, and Franco-Prussian Wars. NO. 2611, VOL. 104] The changed picture is due | to the practical application of science. Pasteur’s re- _ searches gave us bacteriology and a knowledge of the nature of infection, and rendered possible the modern treatment of wounds, introduced by Lister, and the use of serums and vaccines. The diagnostic and therapeutical use of X-rays, the employment of radium, and many other advances are further gifts from science. But this transformation of medical practice only reveals a multitude of important problems con- cerned with the prevention, early detection, and effec- tive treatment of disease, and for their solution we must look to scientific research. Royal College of Surgeons. President: Str Grorcr H. Makins, G.C.M.G.—The realm of science may well acclaim the jubilee of Nature, and no less all those concerned in the promotion of the public good. The occasion arrives opportunely, for at no time has the public sense been so forcibly awakened to the influence of the applications of science to such divergent objects as trade, medicine, war, or the feeding of the population. If important changes founded on the pro- gress of science are to be effectively introduced, those who will be affected must be educated and prepared beforehand. In this great work Nature has taken and must take a prominent part, an aim no less wide- reaching than that of bringing students in every branch of science into association and establishing a common bond of sympathy and mutual understanding between them. Royal United Service Institution. Chairman of the Council: ApmiraL Sir F. C. D. StrurpgE, Barr., K.C.B., K.C.M.G., C.V.O.—As chairman of the council of the Royal United Service Institution, I wish to convey the congratulations of the council and myself to the proprietors and Editor of NarureE on attaining its jubilee. We all recog- nise the excellent service that the journal has rendered to science during the last fifty years. Science, while aiming at the development of human progress, was ready to turn its thoughts and genius to helping the Empire in its time of trial. This fact is most thoroughly appreciated by the Navy, Army, and Air Force, and as one of their representatives I wish to express my thanks, and trust that Nature will continue its help to the fighting Services for the defence of the Empire. Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland. Chairman of Directors: Mr. Cuartes Douctas, C.B. —It gives me great pleasure to congratulate the Editor of Nature on the attainment by that journal of its jubilee. Writing as a representative of the agricultural industry, I desire to acknowledge the immense benefits which that industry has received from the development of science, and especially in the field of chemistry. It is universally recognised that the future success of the industry depends in large measure on the further application of scientific discovery. Both fundamental and practical research in bacteriology promise to give invaluable results, whether in the near or remote future; and the further development of engineering in its application to agri- culture offers great prospects of economy and in- creased efficiency in production. I offer my most sincere good wishes for the future of Nature. 284 NATURE [NoveMBer 13, 1919 | Society of Public Analysts and Other Analytical Chemists. President: Dr. Samuet RipeaL.—As presi- dent of the Society of Public Analysts, I beg to. offer you congratulations on reaching the jubilee of NaTure. The journal has always been the pioneer of scientific progress in this country, and has contributed not a little in its development at the present time. It looks as if the Government and the daily Press are still far from realising what the promotion of science and its value to the national needs means. Members of my | / / society, who are for the most part Government officials | under Acts passed so long ago as 1875, a few years | ~ after your first number appeared, have recently been, I believe, transferred to a new Government Depart- ment, the Ministry of Health, which starts on its new career, like its predecessor, without any adequate representation of pure scierice on its councils. Your weekly numbers must have a beneficial effect upon the national development, and I hope that your cir- culation will increase and that the knowledge which you reveal will be assimilated and rendered more and more available for the general good. Anatomical Society of Great Britain and Ireland. President: Pror. ArTHUR KertH, F.R.S.—NaturE is the link which binds British men of science together. It is essential, and I wish it long life and prosperity. Institution of Automobile Engineers. President: Mr. Tuomas CrarKson.—A lover of science is con- tent to follow devotedly the object of his affection regardless of whether his revenue is likely to be speedily augmented thereby. He should, never- theless, take a broad view that does not exclude the consideration of probable benefit to the community as a result of his endeavours. In other words, the true man of science is a public servant in the widest sense, and his work is directed to bettering the conditions of life, reducing its toil, evil, and dis-ease,” while increasing its pleasure and charm: for example, by adding to our knowledge and power of controlling the forces and amenities of Nature; by interest to students of natural science alone... It is, 1 hope, generally recognised now that the interests of science and of the humanities are not hostile, and that the welfare of the nation depends on the advance of knowledge in both these spheres, and in a fuller recog- nition of the necessity of both. Narurr, I am sure, under its present administration, will, without pre- judice to the subjects with which it is specially con- cerned, continue to advocate the cause of knowledge and intellectual culture as a whole; and all friends of the humanities will wish it God-speed. British Association. President: Sir Cuartes A. _ Parsons, K.C.B., F.R.S.—The British Association — sends its most cordial greetings to Nature on the com- pletion of its fiftieth anniversary. The influence of NaTurRE on the advancement of science for half a century has been wide and comprehensive, and | a powerful factor in popularising scientific thought and progress. To men of science also it has been of great _ assistance by chronicling contemporary progress in the solving the problem of increased production with | | advocated the cause of scientific education and brought greater leisure to the worker; by increasing cultiva- tion; by reducing the cost of transport, and thereby | facilitating intercourse. Biochemical Society. Dr. ArtHuR Harpen, F.R.S. —The recognition of biochemistry—linked on one hand with chemistry, and on the other with biology— as a distinct branch of science has gradually come | about during the half-century covered by the pub- | part of that period has the importance of applying lication of Nature. To students of this borderland science NaTuRE, with its comprehensive and impartial treatment of the physical and biological sciences, has | always been of special value, bringing within their reach the opinions and discoveries of other workers, whose results, obtained in fields beyond their own | boundaries, are yet of great interest and often of | supreme importance to them. It is precisely this universality of scientific interest which constitutes the chief value of Nature to the investigator, and as long as this is maintained, so long will the journal con- tinue to flourish and earn the gratitude of its scientific readers. British Academy. President: Sir F. G. Kenyon, K.C.B.—The jubilee of NarurE is not a matter of NO. 2611, VOL. 104] advance of the sciences and arts, and has been a medium for the interchange of information, know- ledge, and ideas. Chemical Society. President: Sir James Dossie, F.R.S.—The advance of chemistry takes place to-day along a front which has been enormously extended since the first number of NarurE was issued. More- over, it is supported by forces so vastly superior in number, in organisation, and in equipment to those existing in 1869 that scientific workers may go for- ward in the confident anticipation that the progress of the next fifty years will be even more wonderful than that of the half-century which has witnessed the elucidation of the constitution of the most complex | organic compounds and the formulation of the law, and has revealed the structure of the atom. Amongst the agencies to which the improvement of the position of science in this country is due Nature takes an important place, not only by the opportunities it has afforded scientific men for interchange of views, but also by the force and persistency with which it has the claims of science before the attention of the Government. pee Institute of Chemistry. President: Sir HEkBERT Jackson, K.B.E., F.R.S.—It gives me very great pleasure to offer, Chemistry, hearty congratulations to NaTuURE on fifty years of work in the best interests of science. At no science to industry been more evident than it is to- day, and at no time, perhaps, has it been more abundantly clear that sound and broad training in pure science is imperative if real progress is to he made in its applications. May Nature flourish and continue to spread knowledge of science, to show its necessity in education, and to point out how prolific a source it is of benefits to mankind. : Institution of Electrical Engineers. President> — Mr. Rocer T. SmirH.—Nature attained its jubilee — within a few days of the first full meeting of | the International. Electrotechnical Commission held since peace was signed. Well-known electrical engineers representing twenty-one foreign countries on behalf of the Institute of ee Ly NovEMBER 13, 1919] NATURE 285 ye met in London to standardise, for those nations participating, some of the fundamental constants i. and relations on which the applications of elec- trical science to industry depend. NATURE throughout its career has stood in the first place for pure science, and since most of the important applica- tions of science to industry have grown from the dis- coveries of the worker in pure science, I recognise the high standard of Nature’s work and of its ideals, and hope that both may long continue in the same happy combination. North-East Goast Institution of Engineers and Ship- builders. President: Mr. A. Ernest Doxrorp.—I have the greatest pleasure in.,congratulating NaTURE upon the attainment of its fiftieth birthday. Throughout the past half-century the journal has maintained its character as the organ of workers in fields where science is studied mainly for its own sake, and has refused to sacrifice accuracy to the demands of what is understood as ‘‘popular’’ science. It is a healthy sign that the periodical should be so prosperous, testifying to the existence of a constant and active desire for British scientific literature of a high standard. I sincerely wish continued prosperity to the good work which Nature is undoubtedly doing. The development of the journal along its present lines cannot but be beneficial to scientific progress. Institution of Engineers and Shipbuilders in Scotland. President: Dr. T. Birackwoop Murray.—As presi- dent of the Institution of Engineers and Shipbuilders in Scotland, allow me to express our congratulations on the occasion of the jubilee of Nature. While perhaps the journal, dealing as it does largely with questions of pure science, may be said to be at the extreme pole from that occupied by the intensely prac- tical applications of science which form the life- _ occupation of us engineers, still I think every day it _ is being more and more realised that it is largely _ due to the pioneer in pure science that we owe all modern developments in engineering. The worker in pure science may be likened to the explorer “ec _ follow along after as the builders of towns and - founders of industry. The day has passed when the _ practical engineer was’ inclined to scoff at science and theory, and was too prone to point to apparent _ contradictions of practice as against theory. Nowa- "days no engineer can hope to succeed unless he takes _ advantage of all that science can teach him. It there- _ fore gives me much pleasure to take this opportunity _ of wishing Nature continued prosperity. _ Faraday Society. President: Sir Ropert HaprieLp, Barr., F.R.S.—It is with much pleasure I learn of the jubilee of Nature-—a publication which has done so much in the past to assist science and scientific develop- ment; in fact, its name has been a household word throughout the world. I should like to offer my best _ who strive to promote science and scientific interests. _ There never has been a time in the history of our _ nation when it was more desirable that the best _ possible stimulus should be afforded to those who guide the destinies of the British Empire in educa- _ tional matters, especially matters relating to science NO. 2611, VOL. 104] ' making excursions into virgin country, while we ; wishes for the future success of this valuable aid to those | and its development, which surely in the near future will have its proper position allotted to it in our Government Departments and establishments. It has been well said that, of developments in such Depart- ments, Science is the ‘Cinderella.’ It is therefore to be hoped that steps will be taken to remedy this crying injustice, which is so damaging to the true interests of the nation. Geological Society. President: Mr. G. W. LampLucn, F.R.S.—During the past fifty years Nature has faith- fully mirrored for us the advance of science all along the line, and epitomised and discussed the new results, both observational and speculative. It has en- abled the individual worker to keep in touch with the main currents of progress in branches other than his own; moreover, it has served him as a general chronicler of happenings in the sphere of science, and has gratified his desire to know something about the personality of the leading investigators, past and present. I congratulate the Editor on the sustained skill with which the complex task has been accom- plished, and I look forward with confidence to its successful continuance. Illuminating Engineering Society. President: Mr. A. P. TRoTTER.—Maxwell, at the British Association meeting in the year after Nature first appeared, referred to the reciprocal effects of the progress of science. ‘* When the student has become acquainted with several different sciences, he finds that the mathematical pro- cesses and trains of reasoning in one science resemble those in another so much that his knowledge of the one science may be made a most useful help in the study of the others.’’ The expansion of all branches of science in these fifty years has compelled most of us to specialise, not in one branch, but in a bough or a twig of the tree of knowledge. The pages of Nature have enabled this broad acquaintance to be made and this useful help to be rendered, not only between mathematics and physics, but also between all the natural sciences, F Institute of Journalists (Scientific and Technical Circle). Chairman: Mr. Leon Gaster.—I gladly take this opportunity of congratulating Nature on the attainment of its jubilee, and expressing my great appreciation of the work it has done, and is doing, for the promotion of science and the encouragement of education. Nature in many respects occupies a unique position. It speaks with an authority on scientific matters that is unrivalled; it has been fortunate in enlisting the help of experts in every field of science; and its treatment of subjects is invariably up to date. At the same time its outlook is sufficiently broad for it to interest many persons outside strictly scientific circles, and thus to promote that general appreciation of the value of science which is so essential in these times. I am sure that this useful record of work, extending for fifty years, has established the position of NaTurE as a permanent and indispensable publication in the interests of the advancement of science, Linnean Society. President: Dr. A. Smith Woop- warD, F.R.S.—The president and council of the Linnean Society desire to associate themselves in the congratulations due to the Editor and publishers of 286 NATURE | NOVEMBER 13, 1919 NaTurRE on the attainment of the jubilee of the journal. It is a noteworthy achievement of British science to have maintained for fifty years an organ of intercommunication for scientific workers perused and recognised by the men of learning of all nations. In these modern days of high specialisation it is more than ever important that those engaged in research should have the easy access to a summary of all current progress, such as Nature affords, and naturalists unite with other men of science in ex- pressing their best wishes for the continued success of the weekly publication to which they are already so much indebted. Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society.—The council .of the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society desires, on the occasion of the completion of fifty years issue of Nature, to express its high appre- ciation of the valuable aid which that journal has given to the development of science during that period. The council hopes and believes that the high standard of the reviews, reports, and original articles which has always characterised the journal in the past will be fully maintained in the future, and that with the growing recognition of the vital importance of scientific knowledge the journal will exert a constantly increas- ing influence for the diffusion of true learning. London Mathematical Society. President: Mr. J. E. CaMPBELL, F.R.S.—The London Mathematical Society is just four years older than Nature; in the early days and later the work of the society was promoted by a brief report of its activities in that journal. The volumes of Nature with their indexes, especially the earlier ones, have permanent value as one of the most effective sources of reference for the general history of scientific progress in the last half-century. It is much to be desired that this very essential se-- vice to the scientific -world may be maintained unimpaired, Institution of Mechanical Engineers. President: Dr. Epwarp Hopkinson, M.P.—The jubilee of Nature is an event of more than passing interest. During the last fifty years NaTurRE has been a potent factor in the diffusion of scientific knowledge. The realm of science is vast. Its boundaries are being constantly pushed further into the unknown. Of necessity, scientific workers must become more and more specialised in particular lines of research, and they need the help of some organ through which they can watch the progress of science in general. Such a survey NaTurE has provided, always up-to-date and always discriminating, and in so doing has helped to raise the status and strengthen the fellowship of scientific men throughout the world. To a much wider circle of men engaged in profession and in- dustry, whose daily work is so exacting as to preclude serious scientific study, Nature affords the opportunity of keeping in touch with scientific discovery and thought. Lastly, Nature has done much, though much remains. to be done, towards convincing our administrators and politicians that to neglect science and to fail to act upon its precepts is to doom the national life to decay. Mineralogical Society. President: Puipson Beare, Bart.—Among_ the NO. 2611, VOL. 104] Sir Winiiam many scien- tific societies which will be moved _ to exon gratitude and goodwill on the occasion of . the jubilee of Nature the Mineralogical Society of Great Britain and Ireland finds a place. The society was founded in February, 1876, under the presidency of Henry Clifton Sorby; and in ae: : 1883, under the presidency of Prof. Bonney, — absorbed the Crystallological Society. It is a ed thing to be able to say, in recalling these two names, that the society has seen, and taken some part in, the development of the domain of the mineralogist — and crystallographer into’ the wide fields of molecular physics, the exploration of which has been the most marvellous work of distinguished men of science in recent years. It is equally pleasant to recognise the co-operation of NaTuRE, associated with the name of Lockyer, in stimulating interest in, and ‘sustaining the work of, such research, cultivating the ground some years before the Mineralogical Society came ‘into 4 existence. ee Institution of Mining and Metallurgy. ; Mr. Hucu K. Picarp.—For fifty years NaTurE has — provided a link between workers in the fields of pure and applied science. During the war the achievements of chemistry and metallurgy, many of which have been recorded in its pages, ‘were nothing short of astounding; indeed, no branches of — scientific learning were more thoroughly tested or gained greater victories over almost insuperable diffi- culties. Urgency demands that results should be secured at any cost; consequently economics had to. take second place. In the coming peaceful fight for the world’s trade the metallurgist and chemist are faced — with a new set of difficulties brought about primarily ae by the high costs of fuel and labour. They cannot look forward to well-earned rest, but must devote themselves anew to the problem of reducing the ccst of production, always having before them the im- — portant economic factors which can no longer be put in the background. Optical Society. President: Pror. F. J. CHESHIRE. — —There is only one Nature, as there is only one «@ Punch—each supreme in its own sphere, ‘ Institution of Petroleum Technologists. Presta: . | Sir Freperick Brack, K.C.B.—In earlier days men with scanty knowledge, if any, of science found, and in crude fashion utilised, natural petroleum. To-day large production and economical utilisation demand the services of the geologist, the — chemist, and the engineer, al! of whom have a — common platform in the pages of Nature. The geologist, by his study of strata, directs effort to the more likely places. The chemist, by research and analysis, ascertains the proportions and pro- perties of the constituent fractions of the crude oil. The applied science of the engineer and the chemist turns laboratory methods and apparatus into those of the commercial refinery. Contrast the early crude methods with those of to-day, and some realisation will result of the work already done by science in — guiding the utilisation of a great gift of Nature. The field for similar effort is still great. Physical Society. President : Pror.C. H. Lres, F.R-S. —As president of the Physical Society I desire to offer President: -NovEMBER 13, 1919] NATURE 287 my congratulations to NaTuRE on attaining its jubilee. . There are, unfortunately, few physicists left who read the first number on its appearance, and it is hard for those of us who have grown up to expect NaTURE as regularly as Friday morning to realise how difficult it was fifty years ago to get trustworthy information on any scientific subject of special interest at the moment without going to original sources and reading at great length. To the specialist who is anxious to keep in touch with the world of science outside his own groove NATURE comes as a refresher, and to the general reader who finds his daily paper too untrust- worthy on scientific matters it is an invaluable authority. ib Physiological Society... Pror. W. D. HALiisurTON, F.R.S.—The Physiological Society has no president, and has never had one. At a recent meeting of the society I was deputed (as the oldest member present) to convey to the Editor of Nature our hearty congratula- tions to that journal on having reached its jubilee, and to thank its staff for all they have so successfully done in the promotion of scientific interests during the last fifty years. The position of science to-day is very different from what it was in 1869. There still remains much to be done in the education of the public in reference to the value of science to the nation at large, but we ‘anticipate that in the future, as in the past, NATURE will occupy a prominent place in this branch of educa- tion. The recent war has during the last five years brought home to the people a keener appreciation of the national value of science than the preceding forty- five years of peace, and in the time of ‘ reconstruc- tion ’’ now entered upon all will hope that both rulers and ruled will realise and act upon the imperative nature of the study of science, both pure and applied, if our efforts to make the world a better place are to be successful. The Physiological Society deSires me to allude in conclusion, when sending a message to a literary journal, to the fact that it also has under- taken the publication of a periodical entitled Physio- logical Abstracts, by means of which its own par- ticular part of the gospel may be spread. It was a direct outcome of the powerful stimulus of war, and we trust when the time of its jubilee arrives it may be able to show as good a record as its elder sister NATURE. Rontgen Society. President: Grorce B. Batten, Twenty-four years ago Réntgen, following the work of Crookes and Lenard, discovered X-rays, and a translation of his paper appeared in the columns of Nature (January 23, 1896) within a few days of the _ announcement of the discovery. In less than a quarter of a century the discovery has been of inestimable benefit to mankind not only in diagnosis and ‘treat- ment, but also in metallurgy, and has created quite a new and extensive industry. Moreover, the inves- tigation by Rutherford and a host of workers of the ‘properties of X-rays and of the kindred rays of radio- active substances has increased our knowledge to such an extent that our conceptions of the ultimate con- ‘stitution of matter and of the universe have been enlarged and revolutionised. NO. 2611, VOL. 104] M.D.—* Work is worth doing for work’s sake.” FOREIGN ACADEMIES AND SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. Belgium. Académie Royale des Sciences, des Lettres et des Beaux-Arts de Belgique. Permanent Secretary: M. Paut PELSENEER.—It is a great satisfaction for the Royal Academy of Sciences of Belgium to greet the first jubilee of Nature. The Academy highly appreciates what Nature has done for the promotion of science, especially in helping the speedy diffusion of the most important discoveries in every department. The Academy wishes the next period of fifty years to be still more fruitful, and that NaTurRE may assist scientific progress in the future as much as in the past. The Academy thinks that the ‘‘Entente Cordiale’’ of the inter- Allied academies and the newly instituted Inter- national Council for Scientific Research, in Brussels, will be, by a methodical co-ordination of work, the best and quickest means of promoting scientific know- ledge. Lastly, the Academy thinks all scientific workers understand that it is urgent to compensate for five years’ interruption by a renewal of activity and production. France. Société d’Encouragement pour I’Industrie nationale. Le Président: M. L. Linpet.—La Société d’Encourage- ment pour 1’Industrie nationale a suivi avec intérét les publications scientifiques du journal Nature; elle y a souvent rencontré des articles de science industrielle dont elle a fait son profit, en méme temps qu’elle se félicitait de voir Nature faire 4 son Bulletin des emprunts fort bien sélectionnés. Son ancienneté, qui remonte 4 1801, lui donne toute autorité pour souhaiter a Nature, aujourd’hui cinquantenaire, une tongue et glorieuse existence. Société de Géographie, Paris. Le Président: Le Prince BONAPARTE, DE L’INSTITUT DE FRANCE. Le Secrétaire Général: M. G. Granpipier.—La Société de Géographie ne saurait demeurer indifférente- a la célébration du cinquantenaire de Nature. En effet, depuis le jour oti elle a commencé de paraitre, NATURE s’est toujours intéressée 4 la géographie; elle lui a fait sa place parmi les sciences dont elle s’occupait, et, par nombre d’études publiées dans ses différents fascicules, elle a, d’autre part, indirectement contribué a ses progrés. Aujourd’hui, Nature peut encore agir de méme, et méme plus efficacement que jamais; il n’y a plus a réaliser de.grandes découvertes géographiques; mais, par contre, que d’études minutieuses sur le relief, le climat, la flore, la faune, ‘homme aussi, s’imposent aux travailleurs! En publiant des travaux originaux, en donnant les con- clusions des principaux mémoires parus ailleurs, Nature continuera de bien servir la géographie aprés 191g, exactement comme elle l’a fait précédemment, durant le demi-siécle écoulé depuis 1869. Holland. Dutch Academy of Sciences, Amsterdam. President - Pror. H. A. Lorentz.—On the occasion of the jubilee of Nature I have great pleasure in expressing my high appreciation of the important services it has rendered to science during the fifty years of its existence. The 288 NATURE [NoveMBER 1 3, 1919 wonderful progress that has been made in all direc- tions has been faithfully recorded. in the columns of this journal, which has been a most valuable source of information and a great aid in their work to scientific men all over the world. I heartily hope it may remain so for many years to come. Norway. Bergens Museum. President: Dr. JoHan Lo1HE.— During the war natural science amply proved what immense powers it wields and what great ends it can attain. In the work of reconstruction and peaceful development which is before us we shall look with greater expectations to science and to the results of scientific research. A highly trained staff of scientific workers, with well-furnished laboratories at their command, will then be an invaluable asset to any nation. At the same time we may entertain a hope that science, which is of necessity international, will in course: of time be able to renew the bonds of international intercourse and co-operation which have been broken by the war, and thus enable mankind to. bring the work for peace among nations to a happy end. i Portugal. i Academia das Sciéncias de Lisboa. President (Class of Sciences): Jos& Joaquim pA Sitva Amapo.—The great advances of, science: since the second half of the eighteenth century which are enjoyed by us, and the benefits of which are increasing every day, have been the result of three essential conditions, namely :— (1) The progressive triumph of the freedom of thought over the old tyranny of a dull scholasticism and its metaphysics, by which intellectual advancement -was retarded for so long; (2). the establishment of the fertile and sound principles of experimental method; and (3) the wide publication, with comments and criticisms through books and periodicals, of the valu- able scientific conquests obtained by the genius of | man. In the group of periodicals which have con- tributed so powerfully to bring the extensions of natural knowledge in their diverse manifestations before a wide circle of readers Nature, the fiftieth year of which is now celebrated, has contributed very greatly. The journal must be considered an active promoter of scientific learning, and of the spirit by. which the treasury of human knowledge is enriched. Associating ourselves with its jubilee feast, we send our very hearty compliments to NatTure’s Editor and _ pub- lishers. Switzerland. | grateful recognition of the fact that the journal has. | courant des progrés réalisés dans la technique et dans, l’enseignement des sciences naturelles. Persuadés que votre journal continuera & occuper un des premiers rangs parmi les périodiques scientifiques, nous — rendons hommage au travail que vous avez accompli et souhaitons a votre entreprise le ‘meilleur succes dans l’avenir. : : Société Helvétique des Sciences Naturelles. Central President: Pror. Dr. .Ep. Fiscuer.—I beg to offer my hearty congratulations on the fiftieth anniversary of Nature. The journal has always in a remarkable manner understood how to present an extraordinarily plete survey of the position and development ofthe various branches of — the natural sciences. to number among. its contributors the most distin- guished - naturalists and thinkers of Great Britain. To our congratulations. we add: the expression of our repeatedly directed the attention of its readers to Swiss research work and the activity of our -society. May Nature ever succeed in awakening and retaining _ interest in the high importance of the natural sciences Société de Physique et d’Histoire Naturelle de> Genéve. Le Président: M. J. Cary. Le Secrétaire: M. E. Jouxowsxy.—Les_ naturalistes genevois ont appris avec plaisir que le périodique Nature fétait prochainement le cinquantenaire de sa fondation. Ils Secretary: in the wiGEEE circles. United States. The Franklin Institute, Philadelphia. Watton Ciark. (By cable.)—The Franklin Institute extends to NaTurE heartiest congratulations on the No. journal has contributed attainment of its jubilee. more in the past fifty years to stimulate interest in physical and natural science. May you be as suc- cessful in. the future; for a widespread knowledge of science is to-day imperative if the civilised nations are — to continue to exist. National Academy of Sciences, Washington. ‘rou Pror. G. E.. Hate. (By cable.)— | president, Dr. Charles D. Walcott, requests me to offer his congratulations to Nature on the occasion of its jubilee and on behalf of the Academy to express the deep appreciation felt in the United States for the work. accomplished by Nature in the advance- ment of research in the world. During a period of specialisation NaTURE’s extensive survey of the pro- gress of research has stimulated wider vision “ats larger effort in spite of repeated discouragement. — \thas urged upon the statesmen of. two pe the vital importance of science to the nation. Ata time when the branches of science, no longer isolated, are uniting in common channels, and when Govern- — It has also had the good fortune President: Mr. ments once unappreciative are recognising the bear-— ing of research on national security and public wel- | fare, we rejoice in NaTURE’s expanding influence and | the higher opportunities for services penta to e in | a newly ordered world. , apprécient les immenses services que ce journal a | rendu a4 la diffusion des sciences naturelles par ses comptes rendus judicieux de l’activité des académies, par ses critiques des publications scientifiques et sur- | tout aussi par des articles originaux dis a la plume des savants anglais et étrangers les plus éminents. Tout en se mettant au service de la science pure, NO. 2611, VOL. 104] UNIVERSITIES. : Queen’s University of Belfast. Vice-Chancellor: Rev. Tuomas Hamitton, D.D.—Most heartily do I congratulate the Editor and proprietors of Nature on its jubilee. The progress of science in | the half-century which has passed since November 4, _ 1869, when the first number of Nature appeared, NaTurRE s’est toujours efforcé de tenir ses lecteurs au has undoubtedly been more illustrious than that i Siow Sawens _ NoveMBER 13, 1919] _ NATURE , 289 of any previous fifty years (or, for that matter, any previous one hundred and fifty years) of _ the world’s history, and there can be no ques- tion that, in that progress, Nature has been indeed pars magna. All the indications, how- ever, point to the conclusion that, splendid and memorable as has been the advancement of science in that half-century, the next fifty years will see the ‘chariot wheels revolving with a vastly increased velocity. That being probably so, it is equally clear thatthe services of such a journal as Nature will, in the future, be more needed than ever before. I con- gratulate, ex imo pectore, all concerned in its pub- lication on the conspicuous ability with which it has been conducted, the splendid progress it has made, | and the value of the work it has done since the issue of its initial number. But I also congratulate, with equal cordiality, the entire scientific world, at the com- mencement of another vitally important half-century, on the possession of such a very ably conducted and enlightened organ, and I fervently pray that, when the year 1969 arrives, it ‘will find our beloved NarurE still holding on its way and, in its very old age, still bringing forth such fruit as it now yields from week to week with ceaseless regularity, acceptance, and success, University of Birmingham. Vice-Principal: Sir Wa. Asutry.—The influence of Nature on the wel- fare of modern universities is matter for grateful acknowledgment. It has fostered that local generosity and enlightened opinion which led to their foundation and endowment. appeared an informed and helpful criticism that has furthered university growth and development, and its records of progress in science have been of value to all graduates, and specially to those scattered in dis- tant centres. plete. A new age of learning has begun. New centres for promoting “‘humane”’ and scientific knowledge | are arising. Meanwhile, as one of recent growth, | the University of Birmingham cordially congratulates Nature on its successful advocacy of higher learning, and sincerely hopes that its influence may continue to help those who are shaping the educational future of the Empire during the fateful years that are coming. : University of Bristol. Owen, D.C.L., M.D.—I hope I may be permitted to offer my hearty congratulations to NaTuRE upon the attainment of its jubilee. Since its first appearance in 1869 Nature has occupied an essential place in the | scientific life of this country, and may pride itself on having attained the rare position of an indispensable publication. whole scientific world in wishing it a long career of - continued prosperity and usefulness. University of Cambridge. Vice-Chancellor: Dr. P. Gires.—It must be a great satisfaction to all who admire and wish well to British learning to know that | at the end of its fifty years of successful career NATURE remains as it has so long been: a most valuable medium of opinion and criticism on scientific subjects. To Nature the man who is remote from academic centres looks for the first information on new dis- NO. 2611, VOL, 104] Through its columns there has | The list of universities is not yet com- | Vice-Chancellor : Str ISAMBARD | I shall but be voicing the feeling of the | coveries and for a sound judgment on the publications of the scientific world. One result of the war has been an advance, rapid beyond past experience, in many fields of knowledge. Of all such advances may Nature continue to be the herald as heretofore! University of Durham. — Vice-Chancellor: Mr. J. S.G. PEMBERTON.—The Vice-Chancellor, on behalf of _the University of Durham in general, and _ the bee of the Faculty of Science, on behalf of | the Science Faculty at Armstrong College in _ particular, send hearty congratulations to NATURE on the celebration of its jubilee. Nature, in. the | past, has occupied a unique position in forming | a connecting link between workers in various branches | of science the world over. Many a time discussions | on subjects of interest to more than one scientific | section have been carried on in its columns. A notable | ease was when the late Lord Rayleigh in 1892, in a letter to NaturE, asked for suggestions from chemists | as to the reason for the discrepancy he had found | between the. densities of ‘atmospheric’? and ‘chemical’? nitrogen. This led eventually to the | successful co-operation of Lord Rayleigh and Sir William Ramsay in the discovery of ‘‘argon.’? Such interlinking between the sciences promises to be of even greater importance in the future. University of Edinburgh. Printipal and Vice-Chan- cellor: Str ALFRED Ewina, K.C.B., F.R.S.—My debt to NarurE extends back to the ’seventies, when we were both very young. From time to time I have been a contributor; always an interested reader. In the steady advance and diffusion of scientific know- ledge during half a century Nature has taken an honourable part, maintaining a standard which has never failed to command the respect and gratitude | of serious workers. That its usefulness may long continue is the confident hope of many who in a | double sense are students of Nature. University of Glasgow. Vice-Chancellor: Sir Donatp MacAtisteR, K.C.B.—I attended the dinner given to the Editor of Nature five-and- | twenty years ago, when Huxley and other con- temporary leaders in science bore strong testimony to the great part which the journal had played in furthering the cause of natural knowledge and inquiry in this country. Nature has, in the fateful years since then, maintained and enhanced its influence and usefulness. It has become, indeed, an indispensable factor in the development of British science. It still furnishes ‘solid ground” to “the mind that builds for aye.’’ It still informs, chastens, and stimulates the scientific worker and the scientific teacher. None interested in modern higher education in particular can afford to overlook a single weekly number, except at the risk of missing a link in the evolution of the subject. The University, Leeds. Vice-Chancellor : Sir MicuakL | Sapter, K.C.S.1.—We bring our tribute of gratitude | and honour to those who have made the columns of | Nature during its fifty years of public service a | source of indispensable help and stimulus to students | of science and to those engaged in scientific educa- tion. The exacting care with which it has been 290 VGEd CS ILLS edited, the impartiality and precision of its judg- ments, the wide range of its information, the accuracy of its reports, have given Nature in its own sphere unique distinction and authority. These have been used for the disinterested furtherance of investigation and for the support of the claims of science upon national attention and support. University of Liverpool. Vice-Chancellor: Pror. J. G. Avami, F.R.S.—Looking backwards over the last quarter of a century spent overseas in Canada, I cannot but realise the heavy debt owed by me and other university teachers there to Nature. for keeping us in touch with the advances made in the various fields of science. Here, in Britain, the great dailies deal increasingly with the latest scientific developments. It is not so with the daily Press in North America. That is becoming more rather than less local and provincial. The broad survey given in Nature fills a void in the New World that is in part bridged over in the Old. Perhaps more abundant illustrations and one or two articles each week upon the application of science and the laws of Nature to industry, added to the present contents, would widen the circle of its readers, increase its influence, and reflect the spirit of the age. University of Manchester. Vice-Chancellor: Sir Henry A. Miers, F.R.S.—In common with all readers of Nature, I regard its great event. Life would have been a_ different thing to us without our weekly Nature, which has become an old friend because. it has _ pre- served its character unchanged. This is a great achievement and a testimony to the wisdom with which it was originally planned. Always a_ real scientific journal, it has continued to be also a popular journal in the best sense, and a great help in these days of increasing specialisation. A new and com- plete index to the first 100 volumes would be invalu- able to all scientific workers. University of Oxford. Vice-Chancellor: Rey. Dr. H. E. D.. Briaxiston.—The Vice-Chancellor of the University of Oxford is interested to hear that Nature attains its jubilee in November, and offers his congratulations to the Editor. He cannot profess to be a constant reader of any scientific periodical; but when he wants clear in- formation on any topic of scientific interest which is attracting public attention, or details of the career of any member of the University or of his own col- lege who has obtained distinction in natural science, his first thought is to obtain the loan of a copy of the current number of Nature. University of Sheffield. Chancellor: Tue Most Hon. THE Marquess or Crewe, K.G.—I am happy. to add my name, as Chancellor of Sheffield University and chairman of the Governors of the Imperial College, to the long list of those who are congratulating NaTuRE on its life of fifty years. As the nation becomes more and more conscious of its need for scientific training and the encouragement of research, it will continue to set an increasing value on Nature, both as a record of progress and as the trusted vehicle for the expres-_ sion of scientific opinions. NO. 2611, VOL. 104] jubilee as a) LANOVEMBER 13, $919 PERSONAL. Pror. Isaac Baytey Batrour, F.R.S.—NATuRE, founded in the period of revolution in scientific thought following Darwin, by presentation of the work and aims and its advocacy of the claims of — science, has been a powerful factor during fifty years in securing recognition by the nation of the importance of science which the lessons of the war __ have enforced. The world of science is proud of it. May its influence in this new period of reconstruction — - continue to operate forcefully, so that congratulations __ at its centenary may be ag gratefully tendered as are those we offer now. a Sir Georce Beripy, F.R.S.—I gladly record my - grateful appreciation of the services rendered by : d Nature to the cause of scientific culture in the best sense. The increasing tendency to specialisation by individual workers makes it more and more desirable that their touch with science in its widest aspects should be maintained with the minimum; of effort on their part. This, it appears to me, will continue to be—as it has been in the past—one of the most valu- : able functions of NATURE. Sir James Cricuton-Browng, F.R.S.—For “fifty years Nature has held the mirror up to Science: and faithfully reflected her every movement. Each volume has been a record of the best: brain-work of the year, ranging from the simples: observations to the most recondite abstractions. Recent issues have revealed the tremendously destruc- tive forces that science wields, and have suggested that it has been owing to the lack of science in places, ‘and to the blundering that ignorance and arrogance beget, that these malign forces have been let loose on mankind. But science unperverted is beneficent, and nothing is more urgently needed a this hour than its-teaching and popular exposition. _ Great is Science— mightiest in the mightiest ’—and Nature isitshandmaid. Floreat Scientia! Floreat“ Natura”; Ricnt Hon. Lorp Bryce, O.M., F-.R. S.—The amazing, and indeed unprecedentedly rapid, progress made during the last half-century in practically every branch of physical science, together with the increas- ing specialisation of most branches, has made it more and more difficult for those non-scientific persons who watch with eager curiosity the steps in that progress tc follow its developments. Such persons, and Sag gl those who occupy themselves with the study of the humanistic departments of knowledge, have long valued highly the help they receive from your journal. As one of these, I desire to congratulate the con. — ductors of NarurE on the services it has rendered, and i to express cordial wishes for its continued pro: 4 Sir Francis Darwin, F.R.S.—Nature has for a number of years seemed to its many readers to be a beneficent natural phenomenon occurring weekly. It is wisely variegated so as to give just the type of information and criticism that we need. I warmly congratulate the Editor on its jubilee, : Pror. WynpHamM R. Dunstan, C.M.G., F.R.S., Director, IMPERIAL InstTiTuTE.—I gladly ‘take this: opportunity, on the occasion of its jubilee, to con- gratulate Nature on the important aid it has given to scientific work and interests, and on the position DP Sere obra lado Roes kT ane: sen Om | ay oa 4 et & bao final it has achieved as an organ of scientific opinion, not only in this country, but throughout the world. Sir F. W. Dyson, F.R.S., Astronomer RoyaL.— _ The advancement of science owes a great deal to Nature, which keeps men of science in constant touch. with one another’s work. The outstanding feature of the journal is the combination of thorough- | ness and trustworthiness with readability and attrac- tiveness of form. Grateful recognition should be accorded to Nature for its able championship of the necessity of scientific research and the claims of workers in science. It was pointed out to me recently how closely the first number published fifty years ago resembles in form and contents the current numbers. Evidently great care and thought were given to the design and scope of the journal. In offering con- gratulations to the Editor and publishers, I should like to express, the hope that Nature may be as useful and successful in the next fifty years. Ricut Hon. H. A. L. Fisner, M.P., PRESIDENT OF THE Boarp oF Epucation.—NAatwrk is one of the authorita- tive voices of current scientific opinion. It provides the members of the scientific community with the means of publishing newly discovered facts of general interest and importance, and enables them to follow the current work and thought in their own and in other branches of science. To those dwelling on the out- skirts of the scientific community, the non-profes- sional men of science, it furnishes a valuable résumé of scientific news and progress, while in its columns the general public can never fail to find intelligible references to facts of interest and import- ance. performed this important function. science; and the vigorous pursuit of science, both pure and applied, is essential to the welfare of the nation in peace. And now we find that a general interest in science has been reawakened by its successes in the war, while our universities and colleges are crowded with students whose keenness has never _ been equalled, and from whom science will recruit the workers lost during the war. I trust that a new era of progress and prosperity has opened for British science, and I hope that in this era Nature will con- tinue to play its important part and to add to its success of the past. M. CamILLE FLramMArion.—La collection de Nature brille aux meilleurs rayons de la_ bibliothéque de mon observatoire. C’est une opulente et précieuse mine scientifique, admirablement com- posée. Dés la premiére page, du 4 novembre 1869, nous avons sous les yeux son vaste programme, dans un éloquent commentaire de Huxley sur les aphorismes de Goethe: ‘‘ Nature! We are surrounded and embraced by her: powerless to separate ourselves from her, powerless to penetrate beyond her.’ Oui, la Nature nous enveloppe de ses merveilles; la Science a pour mission de l’interpréter. ‘“‘Un demi-siécle passera,’’ ajoutait Huxley, ‘“‘et nous jugerons notre ceuvre,’? Ce demi-siécle est passé. La Rédaction de cette revue peut étre fiére de son ceuvre. J’ajouterai que Nature est souvent en avance de plus d’un demi- siécle. Ainsi, dans ce premier volume, de 1869, on NO, 2611, VOL. 104| For fifty years Nature has most successfully | Victory in the | war could not have been achieved without the aid of | peut voir, p. 304, une carte du “railway tunnel under the Channel,’ p. 407, une dissertation sur la 4° dimension, et p. 14, une étude de Norman Lockyer sur la couronne solaire, le tout en avence sur nos réalisations actuelles! Félicitations et vooux pour un nouveau demi-siécle, Ricut Hon. Sir Avcktanp Gepprs, K.C.B., G.B.E., M.P., PRESIDENT OF THE BoarD OF TRADE. —I should like to congratulate Nature on its long life now extending to half a century, and to wish it an even more vigorous and fruitful existence in the future. Any influence which at the present time directs the English mind to the facts of science is of service to the State. Industry, which we must now develop both in scientific economy and in volume to a level undreamed of in the days of our national pre- war wealth, needs every inspiration which science can give. Nature is one of the possible vehicles of that inspiration, and therein lies its immediate practical importance. Of its importance to science it is un- necessary for me to spealx. Dr. J. W. L. GratsHer, F.R.S.—I was an under- graduate in my third year of residence when I saw the first number of Nature in a shop-window, and I ~ remember well its purchase and my interest in reading it, and how a little group of undergraduates criticised its mame and discussed its contents and future. I now contemplate with admiration the hundred and three volumes and their services to science, and ] am impressed by their perfect uni- formity and absolute consistency of purpese. The ‘Notes’ date from the first number, and have sup- plied scientific information, English and foreign, such as did not exist before, and is still unique. From the first, astronomy occupied a prominent place, and the “Astronomical Column’? has been a most valuable feature fror the early ’seventies. The reviews and accounts of the British Association meetings have always seemed to me especially important. The study and teaching of natural science in the University of Cam- bridge were in 1869 just making a feeble beginning. I read in the first number of Nature that Mr. Bonney, of St. John’s (still among us), would lecture on natural science, and that Mr. Trotter (Coutts Trotter of the “Coutts Trotter Studentship,’? who died in 1887) would lecture on electricity, magnetism, and botany, and the Editor added the remark that he congratulated tha University on the increased desire for instruction in these subjects, but asked whether the number .of men in the University competent to teach them was so small that it was found necessary to entrust elec- tricity and botany to the same lecturer. Well, so it was. Trotter, a fellow of Trinity, had just returned from a course of study in Germany, and had induced the college to let him give these lectures. Though a mathematical man, I (perhaps induced by the para- graph in NATURE) was one of the three persons who attended Trotter’s lectures on physiological botany, then an absolutely new subject in the University. The other two students soon ceased to attend, and I was the sole lecturee until Trotter considered that he had carried the subject far enough. This illustrates the vast change that fifty years have made in the University. Not many persons are now living who can remember « 292 iViis UW WV oo eh ee tN 8 ay ie ee —and those of a later generation must find it difficult to credit—the almost complete lack of interest in natural science that existed in the University when | NatuRE was founded; and even in, mathematics (though included in the arts) there was no encourage- ment—quite the reverse—to research of any kind. The progress that has been made from the stagnation of the ’sixties is enormous, and to this great expan- sion of thought, study, and learning Nature has largely and worthily contributed. Sir R. T. Grazesroox, F.R.S., LATELY DIRECTOR or THE Nationat PuysicaL Laporatory.—-Those of us who have read the pages of NarurE weekly _ those principles by which, ledge, and the demonstration of the necessity of not : E for nearly the full period of its life can realise very | keenly its value and appreciate the influence it has had on the progress of natural science. It fills, and that in a most admirable manner, an important place in scientific literature; it has served as the means whereby many of the most marked advances of science have been made known to the world, and in the highest value to mankind. send to its veteran founder the heartiest congratula- tions on its jubilee. Sir Daniet Harr, K.C.B., F.R.S., PERMANENT SECRETARY, BoarRD oF AGRICULTURE.—Looking back ' even so far as one’s earliest student days, I see NATURE as a continuous and essential part of my scientific life. It has been especially so to me, because most of my time has been spent in the country, remote from the ordinary scientific meeting grounds, and with few opportunities of learning by conversation what was going on in the scientific world. Thus one became dependent upon Nature for information as to the changing currents of scientific opinion and for the necessary knowledge of what work was being done in other fields of science than one’s own. During the period in which I have known it, the notable features of Nature have been its catholicity, its fairness, and its dignity. It has worthily stated the case of science to the English-speaking world. Mr. W. B. Harpy, Sec. R.S.—I congratulate NATURE on its fifty years’ record. founded science has advanced to an extent which will be realised only by the historian of the future. The advance has been made possible by intense specialisa- tion, and the greatest service which Nature has rendered (and indeed, in my. opinion, can render) is that it has kept its readers in touch with the general progress in natural knowledge. Every movement of importance has found an expression in its pages. Pror. W. A. Herpman, F.R.S., PRESIDENT- ELecr OF THE BritIsH ASSOCIATION.—NATURE is now a firmly established institution in the world of science, bringing us week by week welcome additions to knowledge, news of work in pro- gress, helpful discussions of new views, and sound critical judgments on affairs scientific and educa- tional. Throughout the past fifty years this journal has consistently and authoritatively upheld the free- dom, dignity, and practical importance of science, and has established a splendid record of scientific pro- gress and a fine tradition of disinterested service to the advance and diffusion of natural knowledge. NO, 2611, VOL. 104] Sir Atrrep Keocu, G.C.V.O., G.C.B., Rector, ImpertaL COLLEGE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY.— The attainment by Nature of its jubilee is a notable — event. Fifty years of labour in the furtherance of | in many departments of — work, unsubstantial axioms were to yield pride of — place to scientific truth is no mean achievement. We — may well think that the burden of the future, if different from that of the past, is no less difficult. _ The stimulation of inquiry, the spreading of know- merely thinking, but of thinking scientifically, are amongst the most important achievements which Nature has successfully attempted. The interests of 3 science are the interests of the State, and in the vista which is now opening we can all perceive a future in which the well-being of humanity is entirely dependent 2 . upon the progress of knowledge and discovery. To aid, encourage, and stimulate progress and to record _ advancing knowledge is henceforward, as in the past, its pages will be found the account of discoveries of | It is a privilege to | Since the journal was | the task of Nature. As we look back with pride, so we may look forward with an expectant hope. Str Joseph Larmor, M.P., F.R.S.—The early volumes of NATURE especially formed an admirable, indeed still indispensable, record of the “progress of scientific discovery in our times. They were interesting without ceasing to be exact, and thereby potent to mitigate the specialisation that is ‘in- evitable for the secure and fruitful advancement of knowledge. The journalistic and discursive tendencies of the present time render such an authoritative organ, of type purely scientific, more than ever desirable. Pror. A, Liversipcr, F.R.S.—Having been a sub- scriber to Nature from its first appearance, and having read every number, I wish to offer my ‘con- gratulations upon its jubilee, as well as my best wishes for its continued usefulness and success. — Str Oxtver Lopcz, F.R.S.—I well remember the appearance of the first number of NaTurE, when I was eighteen years old and an enthusiastic amateur student: of science. ‘The comprehensive character of the new journal was typified by an eloquent introduction by’ Huxley at the request of Sir Norman Lockyer, And many a man of science must have been grateful to one of the few periodicals which at a high level keeps its readers in touch with practically all © branches. of scientific knowledge. Over-specialisation | is a real danger, and most publications necessarily cater for a limited group only, thus preventing free and easy interchange of thought across the | boundary, and excluding the ordinarily educated public from participation in: the current progress of science. Comprehensiveness has been the note of Naturs, * and consequently it has been able to render conspicu- ous service. Even our rulers and literary men may occasionally find time to glance at a periodical such as this, and thereby the. disastrous divorce between science and letters and public affairs is mitigated. Long may Nature flourish, and continue to sap read in all civilised countries. Pror. W. C. MclIntTosu, F.R.S._Narure, with which I have been familiar from its first number onward to date, has filled an important place in the scientific literature of our country, and in a ~4NOVEMBER 13, IQIQ] VAL UNL 295 \ manner which has won the confidence and elicited the help of every department of science. Moreover, — its reputation is as solid abroad as at home. Its long series of volumes is indispensable in every university | library and in every scientific institution or labora- tory. The attainment of its jubilee, therefore, is an | occasion for cordially congratulating the Editor and publishers on their long and successful labours, and | for wishing them a future’ as fertile as the past. Sir Puiie Macnus, M.P.—As one of the early contributors to Nature, I welcome the cele- | bration of its jubilee as indicating its value to an ever-increasing number of readers, and _ the permanent place it: has made for itself in the scien- | During the past half-century. the pro- | tific world. gress of science has been even more rapid than the | most sanguine of its devotees could have anticipated. Towards that progress the publication of Nature has largely contributed. It has stood in close touch with the results of the most recent scientific investigations, and one may truly say that no journal has been more | ably conducted; none has been more successful in realising and satisfying the requirements of those who are actively engaged in scientific work. To the Editor of Nature and his staff I venture to offer my sincere congratulations. Ricut Hon, Sir Herpert MAXWELL, Bart., F.R.S. —As one of what must be but a small remnant of those who remember the birth of Natures, let me offer humble, but cordial, tribute to the great service it has rendered to science throughout half a century. Born in a period of fierce controversy, it has proved faithful to the purpose of its sponsors, shedding a clear and steady light on the pathway of research, maintaining a lucid record of modern discovery, and stimulating the appetite for knowledge in many minds. The hand of its veteran Editor, Sir Norman Lockyer, has indeed been steady on the helm. May Nature long | retain its pre-eminence among English scientific journals! RicHt Hon. Sir AtrrepD Monp, M.P., First ComMISSIONER OF Worxs.—I heartily congratulate the Editor of Nature on the fact that his periodical, which has done so much to awaken and foster interest in science, should now be | celebrating its jubilee. It has always presented the progress of scientific activities in a readable, popular, and accurately scientific manner. The readers of Nature have been enabled to keep abreast of scien- tific progress, and always knew that they could rely upon the soundness of the information to be found in its pages. I hope that the general recognition of the importance of science to the progress of humanity which is now manifesting itself will extend still further in the future the valuable work and influence of this excellent journal. Pror. Joun Perry, F.R.S.—I congratulate ‘NatuRE on its jubilee. I have read interest the greater part of almost every copy for itself, and I can recollect many which exceeded even that very high standard. If England were idealistic, it would bestow a decoration much higher than O.M. upon Nature. ; Str WivuiaM J. Pore, K.B.E., F.R.S.—During the last fifty years the great truth that all human pro- gress is dependent upon scientific knowledge has gained much more general recognition than it previously enjoyed. The life-work and the writings of our foremost men of science of the last half- century—Huxley, Tyndall, Kelvin, Roscoe, Meldola, and a host of others—have been largely instrumental in clarifying popular opinion as to the value and significance of scientific research. Throughout this period Nature has devoted itself persistently to the task of presenting the case for science, both by sys- tematically recording the conclusions of scientific men and by editorial elucidation and comment. Although much has been achieved, far more remains yet to be done. We look to Nature in the future, as in the past, to impress public opinion with the necessity for giving scientific methods and results a prominent place among the activities and in the councils of the nation. Sir Davin Pratn, C.M.G.,:C.I.E., F.R.S.—Among the services rendered by Nature to science during the half-century which has passed since its foundation, one of the greatest will appear to the thoughtful to have been the adoption of the attitude consistently maintained in its pages towards the application of natural knowledge to everyday affairs. Launched at a dismal time when the philistinism of the nineteenth- century attitude of men of affairs towards science was only equalled by that of men of science towards affairs, NATURE had the courage to revert and adhere to that more humane perception of the seventeenth century: that the first duty of Science herself is to improve her new knowledge for use. The wider acceptance of this old doctrine which we welcome to-day Nature may fairly claim as an abiding reward. Sir Harry R. Retcuet.—Hearty greetings to NaTurE on its fiftieth anniversary! Science is now becoming the guiding principle of material progress, and its pursuit is justified and recommended to the public by the promise of material returns. Among those who still regard science as a branch of philosophy and | worthy for its own sake, Nature will always hold with | issued in the fifty years, and this interest has not | been confined to my own subjects, for NATURE is con- | stantly enticing me across the borders into biology. I | cannot recollect a single copy which has been much below the standard which the paper has established NO. 2611, VOL. 104] its own peculiar and honourable place. In its pages the worker whose horizon is not restricted by exclusive devotion to his own subject can follow the lines of advance along other paths of inquiry. A journal which can serve such a wide range of interests with- out falling into ‘popular’ science must always occupy a unique place in the intellectual life of the nation. Pror. J. Emerson Reynotps, F.R.S.—I beg to offer my hearty congratulations to the Editor of NATURE on the jubilee of that valuable journal. Nature has long filled so important a position in British scientific journalism, and reflected scientific progress so fully in the past, that I doubt not it will continue to do so in the future with even greater success, Pror. W. Ripper.—I desire to add my _ tribute of congratulation and thanks to the many which 294 NATURE [NovemBER: ic BL you will doubtless receive on the occasion of the attainment of Nature’s first jubilee. The whole scientific community of this country is indebted to you for the great service you have rendered to science in recording with wise discrimination the progress of science and the growth of natural knowledge. Your journal is welcomed week by week as a very real friend, and we trust it may long continue to serve the great cause of science with the same distinction and ability as in the past. - Str Ronatp Ross, K.C.B., K.C.M.G., F.R.S.—I write as editor of Science Progress to congratulate Nature on attaining its jubilee. It is with warm feelings that I do so, because Nature has been the medium of publication for almost all scientific men, whether as regards their scientific work or their per- sonal difficulties, or even questions of organisation, emolument, and so on, for fifty years. It is pre- eminent as a scientific organ, and the editorship of it is universally recognised as being extraordinarily efficient. I myself know the difficulties, and appre- ciate, therefore, the way in which they are completely overcome. : Pror. ArTHUR ScHusTER, Sec. R.S.—I_ desire to convey to the Editor of Narure my _ sincere congratulations on the cempletion of the first fifty years of life of the periodical which under his guidance has attained a unique position in the scientific world. By a well-balanced combination. of scientific articles, reviews, discussion by correspond- ence, personal notes, and general information, it soon established and continued to maintain a distinguished reputation wherever science is pursued. If continued in the same spirit of liberal thought and impartial criticism, Nature may look forward to an equally prosperous future. Dr. D. H. Scorr, F.R.S.—The fifty years of Nature’s brilliant career have seen great developments im botany, as in every other science. It is true’ that the previous half-century, which witnessed the birth of the cell theory and the acceptance of evolution, was a greater era; it was then that scientific botany, as part of biology, was created; the succeeding period has been ‘one of vigorous and manifold growth. When Nature started Darwinism had already won its first triumphs; it maintained and strengthened its position down to the end of the century, and then came a change. The rediscovery of Mendel’s work in -plant-breeding established the new science of genetics: and transformed current ideas: of evolution. Another new science, cytology, the intimate study of the ‘cell, and especially of the nucleus, arose, to work hand-in-hand with genetics, revealing the nature of fertilisation and, in a certain degree, the mechanism of segregation. These are matters of fundamental significance, common to both the bio- logical sciences. In the same field, but within the stricter limits of botany, we have the discovery of the spermatozoids of the maidenhair-tree and the Cycads, linking these primitive seed-plants with the Crypto- gams, and through them with the animal kingdom, and of the strange phenomenon of double fertilisation in the higher flowering plants. Other new developments are the growth of a comparative anatomy of plants, NO, 2611, VOL. 104] now extended to the oldest fossil remains, ‘and the he advent of ecology, or physiology in the field. ae this and much more a record will be found in ‘the long series of the volumes of NaTuRE. ° sy as Sir Auprey STRAHAN, K.B.E., F-.R.S., Directox | = | OF THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF. GREAT Briraty.—-I : am glad to avail myself of the opportunity Me sending my congratulations on the attainment by Nature of its jubilee. The high standard aimed at a in the earliest issue has been well maintained, and — Nature has now for half a century been our ad weekly journal on pure science. As regards geological re literature, apart from the valuable original articles which appear in its columns, its reviews especially supply a want which is not provided for elsewhere. I | venture to express the hope, which I believe will be S| shared by all scientific men, that NaruRE may con- — tinue to fulfil its high functions for may dees. be! ty come. sa Sik J, ee The F.R.S., LATELY Dimeetor 5 oF THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GREAT Brivain.--That Nature has rendered great services to science _ in general and to all its branches is universally ai- mitted. I have followed its development from the time of its first appearance until now with interest, sym- pathy, and admiration; and it is with a profourd ~ feeling of gratitude that I offer my hearty congratul.- tions on the celebration of the jubilee of the great journal which has been edited wie so much ks and ability for fifty years. i WA Pror. H. H. Turner, F. R. S.—The ‘pioait: f such work as yours are absorbed into the scientific system so naturally that, for the most part, they — excite no attention. All the more is it, ‘therefore, a: appropriate that at certain epochs notice should re expressly directed towards them and an atte to integrate what we have been quietly receiving for so many years in order that we may be truly thankful. It gives me great pleasure to be one of those invited to put our thanks into words. Dr. Henry DE VarRIGNY, SCIENTIFIC Eprtor: OF THE ‘‘ JOURNAL DES Dépats.”—As an old and very faithful reader who has never - failed reer abh forty years to read Nature, I beg to send my thanks to the Editor, contributors, and for the pleasure and information they have given me. Nature has been, and remains, the organ of British scientific thought and progress. All the work of Britain’s magnificent team of naturalists, E astronomers, physicists, chemists, biologists, etel, has been made known to the world by NATURE. Sincere ia thanks are due for the good work done in the interest of scientific progress, and cordial congratulations to the Editor on this anniversary. May both he and Nature live long to pursue their task, one which becomes more useful and essential than ever before to culture, haud teutonico sed humano sensu; and may we all, on both sides of the Channel, maintain that cordial. understanding so firmly. maintained — through the ordeal of blood and fire for the freedom of civilisation. Sir H. Trueman Woop.—I have been a regular reader of Nature since 1870—for forty- nine out of its fifty years of existence. There can- LY ENVY EMDEN 13) bao Sc a |e LV 44EL Uf AAL4 “.7) 4 not be very many now left who can say as much, -_ so I hope I may be allowed to add my voice to the | chorus of congratulation which I am sure will greet the completion of its first half-century.. Others may _ be better qualified to testify to the value of its services _ to various branches of science, but nobody can be ' more appreciative of the help it has given to the _ progress of science generally, especially in this country, which is fortunate in possessing what is matters are due alike to its eminent founder, still happily amongst us, and to the publishers who co- operated with him in what at the time can scarcely have been regarded as a very promising speculation. Dr. Henry Woopwarp, F.R.S.—Having been present at a dinner at the Garrick Club in 1869 to inaugurate the birth of Nature, now in its fiftieth year, 1 feel proud to be permitted to offer by hearty congratulations to the Editor and the publishers upon this memorable occasion of its jubilee. It is no small undertaking to have produced more than 2600 weekly numbers of a journal embrac- ing every branch of natural knowledge during half a century. the founder be spared to see its prosperity and, with the eminent firm of Macmillan, enjoy its cosmopolitan honours and high scientific reputation. NOTES. lowing awards this year by the president and council of the Royal Society :—Royal medal to Prof. J. B. Farmer for his notable work on plant and animal cytology, and Royal medal to Mr. J. H. Jeans for his researches in applied mathematics. The following awards have also been made by the president and council :—Copley medal to Prof. W. M. Bayliss for his contributions to general physiology and to bio- physics; Davy medal to Prof. P. F. Frankland for his distinguished work in chemistry, especially that on optical activity and on fermentation; Sylvester partition of numbers and analysis; and Hughes medal to Dr. C. Chree for his researches on terrestrial mag- by the president and council of the Royal Society for December 1 :—President: Sir J. J. Thomson, O.M. Treasurer: Sir David Prain, Mr. W. B. Hardy and Mr. J. H. Jeans. Secretary: Prof, W. A. Herdman. of the Council: Mr. J. Barcroft, Mr. C.. V. Boys, Sir J. J. Dobbie, Sir F. Dyson, Prof. J. B. Farmer, Sir R. T. Glazebrook, Prof. J. W. Gregory, Dr. A. ©. A. Schuster, and Prof. W. P. Wynne Tue President of the French Republic, accompanied his arrival in London on Monday, on a visit to the King and Queen. high regard for the influence France has alwavs exerted in. the cause of science and civilisation in Europe, and of fraternal greetings to the eminent NO, 2611, VOL. 104] admittedly the leading scientific newspaper in the — world. The thanks of all associated with scientific | Long may Nature flourish, and tong may | medal to Major P. A. MacMahon for his researches | in pure mathematics, especially in connection with the .| ‘ . * | L. Forestier-Walker, M.P. ; election to the council at the anniversary meeting on | C.M.G. Secretaries: | Foreign | Other Members | Haddon, Sir R. A. Hadfield, Bart., Sir A. B. Kempe, | Sir W. J. Pepe, K.B.E., Dr. S. H. C. Martin, Prof. by Mme. Poincaré, received a cordial welcome upon | British men of science would wish | to convey to President Poincaré the expression of their | leaders in intellectual activity who are preserving this great heritage. A banquet in honour of President and~ Mme. Poincaré was given by the King and Queen at Buckingham Palace on Monday evening. On Tues- day the President, accompanied by Mme. Poincaré, visited. the City and were presented with an address by the Lord Mayor. To-day the President is to be installed as Lord Rector of Glasgow University, and, with Mme. Poincaré, will be entertained at luncheon at the University, after which he is to be presented with the freedom of the city. A CORRESPONDENT informs us that the Village Club at Wimbledon, wherein, as Sir Norman Lockyer ex- plained in our jubilee number, the idea of Nature was born, was founded by Dr. Joseph Toynbee (father of Arnold Toynbee), and one of his intentions was to have a local museum in the building. Such a museum is now there, brought together by the more recently established John Evelyn Club for Wimbledon. The Village Club premises were occupied by the military during the war, but the collections have now been replaced and are again open to the public. They in- clude prints, pictures, maps, and a_ photographic survey, as well as many antiquities, bygones, and natural history specimens, all connected with the locality. It is hoped that the portrait of Sir Norman Lockyer will soon adorn the walls of the museum. Sir E. Ray LanKesTer has just completed fifty years’ editorship of the Quarterly Journal of Micro- scopical Science, and the current issue of that well- known periodical (vol. Ixiv., part 1) contains a brief summary by Prof. G. C. Bourne of the contents of the journal for the last half-century, demonstrating very | clearly the important part that it has played in the MPP icine has ‘been pleased to approve of thé fol- development of modern biological science. We offer our hearty congratulations to Sir Ray Lankester on this notable occasion, and hope that many more volumes may appear under his distinguished editor- ship. In reply to a question by Sir Philip Magnus, Mr. Bonar Law has announced that the Commis- sioners to be appointed under the Forestry Acts are as follows:—Lord Lovat (chairman), Director of Forestry, B.E.F., France, and member of Forestry Re- construction Sub-Committee and of the Interim Forest Authority; Mr. F. D. Acland, M.P., chairman of the Home-grown Timber Committee, chairman of the Forestry Reconstruction Sub-Committee, and chairman | of the Interim Forest Authority ; Lord Clinton, formerly : | president of the Royal English Arboricultural Society‘ netism. The following is a list of those recommended | and member of the Interim Forest Authority; Mr. Sir John Stirling-Max- well (hon. secretary), formerly president of the Royal Scottish Arboricultural Society and member of the Forestry Reconstruction Sub-Committee; Mr. T. B. Ponsonby, member of the Interim Forest Authority ; Mr. R. L. Robinson, member of the Interim Forest | Authority, secretary of the Forestry Reconstruction - Sub-Committee, and formerly head of the Joint Fores- Sir W. M. Fletcher, K.B.E., Prof. F. W. Gamble, | trv Branches of the Board of Agriculture and Office of Woods; and Col. W. T. Steuart-Fotheringham, member of the Interim Forest Authority. AFTER a successful military campaign the House of Commons has frequently voted large sums of money from public funds to the commanders under whose guidance the conquest was won. National recognition of a like kind was given to Jenner by a grant of 10,0001. made by the House in 1802, and. by a further grant of 20,000l. five years later, the inter- vening period having strengthened the opinion as to the efficacy of vaccination and its great benefits to the nation at large. Sir Ronald Ross has long 296 NATURE urged that this principle should be commonly followed in connection: with great discoveries by which numerous human lives are saved, as it is as the result of military conquests. In the case of a medical man devotion to research means the sacrifice of private _ practice, and when the result of his work is to the great advantage of the human race at large, or the nation in particular, much can be said in favour of just compensation to him. To further this reasonable claim for awards for medical discovery, a joint com-— mittee of the British Medical Association and the British Science Guild has just been formed. Sir Ronald Ross entertained the members of the com- mittee to luncheon on November 4, and among those present were Prof. W. M. Bayliss, Sir Alfred Keogh, G.C.B., Dr. R. T. Leiper, Prof, B. Moore, Col. Nathan Raw, M.P., and Dr. W. Somerville. meeting held on the same day it was decided that each of the members of the committee should collect information regarding medical research work and dis- covery already carried out which he considers worthy of recompense by the Government or other bodies, and Sir Ronald Ross undertook to collate and edit the information in a report to the committee for further action. In June, 1917, the Fuel Research Board was asked by the Board of Trade and other Government Depart- ments concerned to advise as to the most suitable com- position and quality of gas. In January last the Board made its report, and this has since been the basis of negotiations between representatives of the Board of Trade, gas companies, and local authori- ties. An agreement has now been reached, and from a recent statement by Sir A. Geddes, in reply to a question in the House of Commons, a Bill will shortly be introduced to give effect to the recommendations of the Fuel Research Board as modified by the agree- ment now arrived at. The gas consumer will be charged for the potential thermal units supplied to him, the unit to be 100,000 British thermal units. The gas companies are to declare the calorific value of the gas they propose to supply, no fixed standard being laid down by Parliament. The British thermal units supplied are to be calculated by multiplying the number of cubic feet registered by the consumer’s meter by the declared gross calorific value of the gas per cubic foot. (The original proposal of the Fuel Research Board is modified by the introduction of the word ‘‘declared.’’) The calorific value of the gas is to be continuously measured and recorded. As regards the proportions of inert constituents allowable, the Board’s original provosal was a maximum of 12 per cent., the gas companies claiming to be freed from any restrictions in this direction. The compromise now agreed upon states that the amount of inert con- stituents shall not exceed 20 per cent. for two years, — 18 per cent. for the next.two vears, and 1s per cent. afterwards. The gas undertaking is to ‘adjust, and if need be to replace gratis, the burners in consumers’ anpliances so that the gas delivered can be burned in ‘these anpliances with safety and efficiency. It will no doubt require some time for the consumer to become. accustomed to these changes and to be educated up to gsraso the meaning of the new unit, but. owing to the time reauired to make the new instruments and to adiust the cansumer’s anvliances, it will probably be three or four years after the passing of the new Bill before gas is supplied over | the whole country under the new conditions. Pror. A. Fow ter, professor of astrophysics, Royal College of Science, South Kensington, has be Nu, 2011, VOL. 104] Atia | been | awarded a gold medal by the National Academy of | _ erected - November 28 (at 5 p.m. in the Imperial College of — Science, South Kensington) is to be devoted to a dis- — [NovEMBER 13, 1919 | Sciences, Washington, in recognition of his eminent — contributions to astronomical science. Pror. A. W.. Crosstey, professor of chemistr ine the University of London (King’s College), has appointed director of research to the British Cotton — _ Industry Research Association. Notice is given that applications for grants from the Chemical Society Research Fund, made upon forms obtainable from the assistant secreta society, must be received on or before | December 1 next. : of the Tue Geological Survey of Great Britain and Museum | of Practical Geology, Jermyn Street, S.W.1, have — been transferred for administrative purposes from the Board of Education to the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research as from November 1. Cor- respondence with reference to the work of the Survey should be addressed as heretofore to the Director of the Survey and Museum, Jermyn Street, S.W.1. — At a general meeting of the members of the Royal Institution, held on November 3, the special thanks of the members were returned to Mr. Richard Pearce for his donation of tool. to the fund for the promo- tion of experimental research at low temperatures ; to Mr. Robert Mond for his gift of laboratory material; and to Sir Humphry Davy Rolleston for his gift of a drawing of Sir Humphry Davy’s birth. place and a water-colour of his statue in the Place, Penzance. : At University College, London, on Tuesday, tablets in memory of Lord Lister were unveiled before a lar; and distinguished assembly. The Duke of Bedford, who opened the proceedings, said that every civilised community rcalised the debt of gratitude it owed io Lord Lister. Sir George Makins, president of the Royal College of Surgeons, unveiled the bess oh | and Sir Joseph Thomson, president of the Royal Society, that in University College Hospital, to be erected in University College. 5 At the anniversary meeting of the Mineralogical Marke: Society, held on November 4, the following officers — and members of council were elected :—President : Sir William P. Beale, Bart. Vice-Presidents: Prof. H. L. Bowman and Mr. A. Hutchinson. Treasurer: Dr. J. W. Evans. Foreign Secretary: Prof. W. W. Watts. the Journal: Mr. L. J. Spencer. of Council: Mr. H. F. Collins, Mr. J. P. De Castro, Prof. H. Hilton, Mr. Arthur Russell, Dr. A. Holmes, Miss M. W. Porter, Mr. R. H. Rastall, Sir J. J. H. Teall, Mr. A. F. Hallimond, Dr. F. H. Hatch, Mr. J. A. Howe, and Mr. W. Campbell Smith. _ Tue meeting of the Physical Society of London on Editor of cussion of the subject of lubrication. ‘The physical qualities of a good lubricant have for long eluded cap- ture, and it is expected that the discussion will at | least furnish a step towards the solution of the ' problem, and at the same time create a wider interest Amongst those who will take part’ in the subject. are the following:—L. Archbutt, R. Mountford Deeley, W. B. Hardy, secretary R.S., F. W. Lan- chester, H. M. Martin, Principal Skinner, and Dr. T. E. Stanton. The meeting is an open one, and all | who are inte-ested in the subject are invited to attend. Dr. JoHN BROWNLEE has investigated statistically the periodicity of influenza epidemics. Considering specially the years 1889-96, he finds that the interval General Secretary: Dr. G. T. Prior. — Ordinary Members — 4 _ NOVEMBER 13, I9IQ| NAIURE 297 ? between the epidemics is thirty-three weeks, there being a missed epidemic when an epidemic is due in | the autumn (Lancet, November 8, p. 856). regard to the recent epidemics, from July 13, 1918, to March 1, 1919, the maximum points are separated 1 4 : of officers and executive committee for the ensuing by thirty-three weeks; from March 1 to October 1, 1919, is also thirty-three weeks. An epidemic is there- fore due, but falls at an unsuitable season, and should therefore be small, and so far this is the case. On the same sequence the next epidemic should occur in January or February of the new year. Lorp Mitner, Secretary of State for the Colonies, has appointed a Committee to consider the position of the medical services of the various Colonies and Dependencies, with the view of maintaining and in- creasing the supply of candidates and of securing con- tentment within the service; and to consider whether the principle of assimilating the medical service of neighbouring Colonies may usefully be extended, and, if so, how far and by what means. The members of the Committee are :—Sir Walter Egerton, K.C.M.G. (chairman), Lt.-Col. Sir Harry Verney, Bart., Sir Humphrv D. Rolleston, K.C.B., Sir W. B. Leishman, K.C.M.G., Lt.-Col. Sir James Kingston Fowler, K.C.V.O., Mr. T. Hood, Mr. A. Fiddian, and Mr. J. E. W. Flood (secretary), ; AmonG the old mathematical worthies who are With | ber 8, at the Imperial College Union, South Kensing- ton, and was attended by delegates from nine branches. The chair was taken by the retiring president, Dr. O. L. Brady, and the chief business was the adoption of the annual report and of the rules, and the election year. Dr. J. W. Evans was elected president, Dr. | Norman Campbell treasurer, and Mr. Eric Sinkinson secretary. At the dinner which followed, Dr. Evans, who presided, expressed the hope that the union, in | company with such other bodies as the British Asso- | things for science. ciation and the British Science Guild, would do great Sir Ronald Ross, replying to the toast of ‘‘The Guests,” thought there were three points for which the union might press :—(1) Better payment for newly qualified men, including the modi. - fication of the present system of research assistant. ships; (2) pensions on a transferable basis for staffs | of universities and other institutions; and (3) pav- buried in the churches of the City of London js | Nathaniel Torporley, who was interred in the church of St. Alphage, London Wall, now being demolished. | Torporley, of whom there is a sketch in the Dic. tionary of National Biography; was born in the same year as Shakespeare. 1564, of country some species have become absolutely wiped From the Shrewsbury | Grammar School he passed to Oxford, graduating in | 1584 from Christ Church and taking Hoalv Orders. It is said that for some years he resided in France and was amanuensis to Francois Vietd. return to England. he became one of the pensioners of Henry Percy, the ninth Earl of Northumberland, and, like his contemporaries Harriott, Dee, Warner, and Allen, spent. a part of his life at Sion College. solving spherical triangles. College, and. was buried on April 17, 1632. The After his’ | Church of St. Alphage was, we understand, destroyed | in the Fire of London, rebuilt. 1666, but was afterwards THE activities of the Royal Photographic Society . naturally divide themselves into two sections, namely, the pictorial and generally illustrative and the scientific and technical. We are very pleased to see that a few of the more energetic members are taking the latter division in hand in order to develop it by extending | its scope and encouraging scientific work. “Scientific and Technical Group ’’ consists already of 137 members of the society, and it is honed that this number will soon be largely augmented. The members of the group pay a small additional subscription, the disposal of this fund being exclusively under the control of the administrative committee of the group. . It is hoped to be able to distribute among the members abstracts or translations of scientific communications made to other societies or publications, as well as to arrange for scientific and technical lectures and papers. The Royal Photographic Society has always been the most important photographic centre in this country, ‘and it is to be hoped that this new arrangement will be energetically pursued, and that it will lead to a greatly increased interest being taken in the science ' of photography. The | Among his writings was one containing a rule for | eK. Torporley died at Sion | ment for advice given to Government and municipal bodies, which frequently did not even give travelling allowances. The union should also press for public recognition and awards for inventions. Inean able and very valuable summary of the mammals in the Melbourne Zoological Park, Dr. W. H. D. Le Souef, the director, contrives to give a lively description of all the more important indigenous mammals of Australia. As might have been expected, he adds some very interesting facts to what is known of the life-histories of these animals. Throughout he is constantly insisting on the need for legislation to stay the work of the exterminator. Over vast tracts out. It is not a little disconcerting indeed to learn that the skins of wallabies and kangaroos are ex- ported by the hundred thousand, for this means that vested interests are sure to beget strenuous opposition to the proposal which has been made to frame pro- tective measures to secure the survival of at least a remnant of this remarkable fauna. But we trust this legislation will be speedily effected, or it will! come too An additional toll upon this fauna is levied by the dogs, foxes, and cats which have been introduced bv settlers, and in many cases have become feral. This memoir, which is illustrated by a number of very beautiful photographs, is issued by the New York: Zoological Society. : Tue Journal of Indian Botany, the first number of which appeared in September, has been started under the editorship of Mr. P. F. Fyson, of the Presidency College, Madras, to provide a means of publishing botanical work done in India which would not naturally find a home in the existing botanical journals of that country. In addition to original papers it is proposed to publish abstracts and reviews of papers which appear in other journals. The editor appeals for help to Indian botanists to. make the journal, which will appear monthly, a success. The present issue contains a short paper by L. A. Kenoyer on the dimorphic female flower of Acalypha indica, a common tropical weed belonging to the family Euphorbiacee, which grows over most of India as a weed on waste ground. The lateral female flowers resemble those of Ricinus (Castor Oil) and the Euphorbiacez generally, but the terminal flower of the spike has one in place of three carpels, and develops one seed, which also differs slightly in size and structure from the normal seed. S. L. Ghose | gives a systematic account of the Myxophycee, or Tue annual council meeting of the National Union | of Scientific Workers was held on Saturday, Novem- - NO. 2611, VOL. 104] blue-green alge of Lahore, which occur throughout the vear in drains and watercourses, artificial tanks, ditches, and on moist ground and tree-trunks. The study of this group has hitherto been neglected in 298 India. The author describes about twenty species | which, occur commonly, and others are occasionally met with. L. J. Sedgwick discusses the distinguish- ing features of some closely allied species of the genus Alysicarpus (Leguminosze); and F. Fyson and NATURE | | | | [NoveMBER 13, 1919 | ‘ is obtained from Shoal Lake, with an area of 107. square miles, and a catchment, basin of 360 square miles, which is connected with the larger expanse of — | 1400 square miles known as the Lake of the Woods. — M. Balasubrahmanyam describe the growth and root- | structure of the strand-grass, Spinifex squarrosus, as a factor in the marine strand vegetation of Madras. THE recent work of the French in Morocco under by M. A. de Tarde in a well-illustrated article in the Geographical Review. for July (vol. viii., No. 1). Gen, | cut-and-cover It is described as soft and excellent in quality; the — chlorine content is three parts per million. tance conveyed is 963 miles. work, with culverts varying from to ft. 9 in. by 9 ft. to 6 ft. 5 in. by 5 ft. 5 in. Lyautey has not stayed his hand during the war, but | has continued a policy of reconstruction on a bold scale, building roads, railways, and harbours, improv- ing agriculture, and multiplying schools, hospitals, and administrative buildings. The growth of European population in the larger town is not to be allowed to crush the native town, nor is the European quarter to form part of the old town. All European towns are to be separated from native towns by a strip of ground, on which no building is allowed. The task of planning the European towns has been entrusted to competent architects and engineers under the direc- tion of M. Prost, who recently drew up plans for the extension of Antwerp. The plans for Casablanca, the chief port, Rabat, Fez, Marrakesh, and Meknes are now ‘complete. Ar the first meeting of the new session of the Institution of Petroleum Technologists, held on October: 21, a paper was read by Mr. A. Philip on ‘Some Laboratory Tests on. Mineral Oils.” The author referred at length to the imminent need for the standardisation of tests and methods in petroleum analysis, and considered that it would not be feasible to prepare and circulate standard material of known composition. . He therefore urged the very detailed description of procedure, so that it would be possible for a reasonably accurate repetition of results to be obtained from chemists working in different labora- tories... ‘Fhe sampling of oils was described minutely as practised at Portsmouth, and great emphasis was laid on this all-important preliminary operation. The author then dealt with the distillation of crude oils, and described a novel experimental still of very con- siderable merit and ingenuity, designed to minimise the time occupied in the determination of the light oils and water-content of a given material. Tabular matter illustrated the application of the method, and results were given of the analysis of the Hardstoft oil. Methods of determining the vapour pressure of petrol, calorific value, moisture, and flash-point were criticised, and the procedure adopted in the lecturer’s laboratory was detailed. It was shown that the flash- point of a fuel oil was liable to an experimental error of nearly. 5 per cent., whilst if the oil was wet the dis- crepancies were very much more serious, In consequence a considerable tolerance should be allowed in specifica- tions. A discussion followed, in which Sir Thomas Holland, Prof. Brame, and Dr. Ormandy made refer- ence to the subject of standardisation, whilst Dr. Dunstan, Mr. Mitchell, and Mr. Lomax brought for- ward criticisms of the various methods detailed in the paper. THE Engineer for October 24 contains a description | are 7 the direction of Gen. Lyautey is described in detail | miles of river siphons and inforced concrete pressure pipe. ot miles of re- he distributing — mains in the city of Winnipeg consist of 2} miles of 48-in. concrete pipe. The work was commenced in 1913, and estimated to cost just above 2,600,000]. Mr. F. W. Cuirrorp, librarian to the Chemical | Society, contributes to the Library Association Record for August an article on ‘‘ The Library of the Chemical | Society: A Record of a Recent Attempt at Co-opera- of the recently completed undertaking for the supply | of water to Greater Winnipeg. The quantity ren- dered available amounts to 85,000,000 galléns per day, which should suffice for the needs of the city for some time to come, as the present number of in- habitants is only some quarter of a million, and the consumption 44 gallons per head per day. NO, 2611, VOL. 104] tion.” The Chemical Society has always aimed at including in its library every book and periodical that might help its fellows in their work. ing the — war this library has been of the greatest assistance to the nation, since it was found to contain most of the important works of foreign origin which Government Departments and manufacturers wished to consult. This increased use of the books impressed upon the library committee the importance of further extension in the technical direction. The council therefore in- vited a number of kindred societies to co-operate with — it in extending the technical equipment of the library by appointing representatives on the library committee _ and by giving financial assistance for the purchase of books. The members of the societies thus co-operatin are able to use the library on the same terms as fellows. The invitation has been accepted by the Association of British Chemical Manufacturers, the Biochemical Society, the Faraday Society, the Insti- tute of Chemistry, the Society of Chemical Industry, — the Society of Dyers and Colourists, and the Society of Public Analysts. This, form of co-operation 2 perhaps be adopted with advantage by other libraric devoted to special branches of knowledge. Messrs. George Bell and Sons, Ltd., announce :—- “The Physiology of Vision: With Special Referenct: to Colour-blindness,’’ Dr. F. W. Edridge-Green ; | ‘Practical’ Biological Chemistry,’ Bertrand anc Thomas, translated by Capt. H. A. Colwell ; “An Introduction to the Study of Vector Analysis,”’ Prof. C. E. Weatherburn; ‘‘ Nomography,’’ Dr. S. Brodet- sky ;. ‘‘ Differential Equations and their Applications,’’ Dr. H. Pioggio; and “ Intermediate Chemistry,” Prof. A. Smith. The same publishers have in prepara’ ‘Recent Investigations in Fluorescence and Related Phenomena,” Prof, = Sine “A Be rk Zoology,” Prof. C.. H. O’Donoghue; and “Physics: — An Tateeiiadiats Course,” Dr. A. O. Rankine. Messrs. J. M. Dent and Sons, Ltd., are about to — publish a portfolio of twenty-four coloured “ Nature Studies ’? by E. J. Detmold. The issue will be limited to 500 sets, each of which will be numbered and accompanied by a certificate signed by the artist. Messrs. Longmans and Co. have in the press for appearance next year vol. i. of the treatise on “ Highe: Inorganic and Theoretical Chemistry,’’in six volumes, upon which Dr. J. W. Mellor has been working for the past twelve years. They also announce “A — Manual of Practical Anatomy,’’ 3 vols. (vol. i., The Extremities; vol. ii., The Head and Neck; and vol. iii., The Thorax and Abdomen), Prof. T. Walmsley; ‘Structural Steelwork,” E. G. Beck; | “A First-Year Physics for Junior Technical Schools,’’ The water | G. W. Farmer; and “Life in Early Britain: A Survey of the Social and Economic Development of The dis. 4 Of this 774 miles is _ NoveMBER 13, 1919] NATURE 299 the People of England from Earliest Times to the | Norman Conquest,” N. Ault. The new list of Messrs. _ George Routledge and Sons, Lid., and Kegan Paul and Co., Ltd., includes:—‘*The Social Maladies: _ Tuberculosis, Syphilis, Alcoholism, Sterility,’? Dr. J. _ Héricourt, translated, with a final chapter, by B. - Miall; ‘Agriculture and the Farming Business,” _ O.H. Benson and G. H. Betts; ‘‘ Wonders of Insect Life,” J. H. Crabtree; ‘‘Germination,”’ A. E. Baines; and ‘‘ Bakery Machinery,’’ A. W. Mathys; ‘tThe Clay- working Industries,’? A. B. Searle; ‘‘Direct-current Dynamos and Motors,’’ Prof. W. B. Griffith; ‘ Elec- tric Cooking and Heating,’ W. A. Gillott; gineering Instruments and Meters,’’ E, A. Griffiths; ‘*Manufacture and. Installation of Electric Cables,’’ C. J. Beaver; ‘Reproduction and Utilisation of Sound,” H. O. Merriman; ‘‘The Turbo-Alternator,”’ Dr. S. F. Barclay; and ‘*The Utilisation of Natural Powers,’’ E. L. Burne (in Routledge’s Industrial Supremacy Books). ARRANGEMENTS have been completed for the amal- gamation of the business carried on by Mr. Robt. W. Paul at New Southgate, London, with the Cambridge Scientific Instrument Co., Ltd. Mr. Paul will join the board of directors, and the manufacture of instru- ments will be continued both at Cambridge and at New Southgate. On January 1, 3920, the name of the company will be altered to the Cambridge and Paul Instrument Co., Ltd., and as soon as possible the head office and showrooms will be transferred to . London. Tue South-Eastern Union of Scientific Societies was established in 1896, and includes more than seventy affiliated societies. A correspondent writes to point out that the union was omitted from the list given last week. The list was not intended, however, to include unions or federations of societies, but rather individual societies which meet periodically throughout the vear. OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN. Tue Leonip Mrtrors.—Though no special display of these objects is to be expected this year, the sky should be vigilantly watched on the nights from ‘November 13 to 16, and particularly during the hours following midnight. The moon will be at the last quarter on November 14, being visible in the morning hours, but her light will be feeble and cannot materially interfere with the aspect of the shower. The radiant point in Leo does not rise until about -10.20 p.m. If any of the usual bright, streaking meteors are observed from this system, their apparent paths amongst the stars should be carefully recorded. There is no doubt, from the observations obtained in past years, that the stream of November Leonids is continuous in all sections of the orbit, and that there | are considerable differences in the apparent strength of the shower witnessed from year to year. The _ maximum may be expected on the morning of _ November 15 or 16. The shower of meteors connected with Biela’s comet is due to return a few nights later than the Leonids, and, as the moon will then have waned to the crescent shape, observations may be favourably: made should the atmosphere be suitable and free from the clouds and fogs so common to our climate at this season of the year. Tue Group or Hettum Srars in Orton.—There has for long been a natural curiosity to find the distance of the great nebula in Orion. The problem became more hopeful when it was found that the group of helium stars was probably connected with the nebula, NO, 2611, VOL. 104] “cc En- | * | as appeared both by their configuration and by identity of radial motion (about +22 km./sec.). Dr. Bergstrand, of Upsala, has published (Nova Acta Reg. Soc. Scient. Upsal., ser. iv., vol. v., No. 2) an attempt to find this distance. First, he made a careful re-examination of proper motions in order to find the rate of closing in on 6Orionis, owing to increasing distance from us; he found for the parallax 0-0044”", with probable error 0:0049”._ The second method was based on _ the assumption that the scattering of individual proper motions is comparable with that of the radial veloci- ties; he thus obtained 0-0076", with probable‘ error less than 0-002". It will be seen that the two deter- minations are of the same order of magnitude, and are also comparable with some other values; thus Dr. Charlier, in his memoir on the B stars, gave figures for the Orion group of which the mean is 00118”, and Prof. Kapteyn by another method found 00058". Also four of the stars are binaries, and the mean of their hypothetical parallaxes, as given by Messrs. Hertzsprung and Stebbins, is 0-0078”. From the large area that the group covers in the sky there is reason to expect a corresponding range in the individual distances. Hence we may look on the various determinations as satisfactorily accordant, and conclude that in putting the distance of the nebula as 400 light-years we are not very far from the truth. THE SECULAR ACCELERATION OF THE Moon.—In a recent paper Mr. Nevill claimed to have shown that the observations of the last three centuries prove that the acceleration does not differ from its theoretical value. Prof. E. W. Brown, in the Proceedings of the Royal Society (Series A, vol. xcvi.), shows that, by making suitable changes in initial longitude and mean motion, a change as great as 5-4” in the acceleration will make changes in the longitude. that are less than 1-6” for the whole interval between 1620 and 1950. Quantities so small as this cannot ke evaluated from the observations, so long as the large inequality with period of the order of three centuries remains unexplained by theory. Hence, apparently, the ancient eclipses, unsatisfactory as the records of them are, supply the only material available for deter- mination of the acceleration. THE GLASS RESEARCH ASSOCIATION. ja is now widely known that among the industries which have been profoundly influenced by the war the glass and glassware industry of the United King- dom occupies a foremost place. Not only have the re-war products of this industry, as they existed in this country before the war, been found essential for a wide range of national purposes during war- time, but the necessity has also been forcibly realised of creating certain special sections of this industry, previously non-existent in the country, to supply glass and glassware, glass instruments, and glass apparatus directly necessary for the prosecution of the war, as well as similar articles equally vital as being indis- pensable for the efficient operation of other industries. The importance of the glass industry to the economic life of the nation is to be measured largely by its effect upon, and indispensability to, other industries. This has been fully recognised by the Government in | the inclusion of scientific glassware and illuminating | glassware, as well as optical glass, in the schedule of | unstable ‘‘key ”’ industries. | But the revolutionising effect of the war upon the | glass industry is not alone manifest in the creation of these ‘‘key ’? sections which previously were mono- | polised by Germany and Austria, whose glass manu- | facturers had attained great strength and reputation, 300 NALURE [NOVEMBER 13, 1919 and certainlyedominated the markets of the world, or } even in the resuscitation of other sections (e.g. the so-called ‘‘ flint ’’ glass sections) of the industry, which, though long established in this country, were rapidly declining as the result of unfair foreign competition. The feature even more significant than either of these, prosperous British glass industry will be firmly estab- | lished, is the shedding of the old spirit of isolation and | same time possessing such specific chemical and exclusiveness which possessed the manufacturers of © Invariably in each works there existed | this country. a policy of secrecy, together with an unwarranted satisfaction with old-fashioned rule-of-thumb manu- facturing ideas and an absence of scientific method. _ glassware section—for glass tubing is the raw material This inevitably resulted in inability to organise for | production upon progressive modern lines. During the war there has been a wonderful awakening to the new possibilities of glass production in this country, and there is now happily evidenced among the manufac- turers a new spirit of co-operation combined with an enthusiasm for investigation and research, and a _ etc.) are nearly all solved when the proper desire to adopt new methods and equipment-involving | the scientific control of manufacturing operations. The establishment of the Glass Research Assoacia- tion, which after nearly twelve months’ spade-work by an earnest provisional committee was launched on its career on October 14 at the first general meeting held at the Institute of Chemistry, when the first council of the association was elected, well illustrates the changed aspect which the industry has assumed. | This association has been formed on the lines ap- | proved by the Department of Scientific and Industrial | Research for the encouragement of research. During the next five years the association will expend at least | 100,000l. upon investigations into the many problems of glass and glassware manufacture. There is a vast and difficult field to cover, as will appear from the consideration of the following groups of main problems to be attacked :—Chemical and physical properties of glasses; fuels, refractories, fur- naces, treatment of glass-making materials, glass- founding, temperature measurement and glassware-forming operations (hand and mechanical), glassware-making machinery; annealing, lamp-blown | work, and other finishing operations; design, lay- out, and equipment of glass factories; and scientific methods of storing, packing, and transit. These are but the general problems. When they are considered in rela- | tion to the enormous varieties of types of glass articles, | from common bottles, food and beverage containers, chemical and medical bottles, on one hand, to the elaborate products of the lamp-blown glassware bench- | worker (e.g. condensers, gas-analysis apparatus, ther- mometers, artificial eyes, X-ray tubes, syringes, etc.) on the other; from window-glass and plate-glass to beakers, flasks, and accurately calibrated and graduated glassware; from tumblers and_ the numerous domestic and fancy articles of glassware in common use to electric lamps, miners’-lamp_ glasses, and a host of articles essential for iHuminating pur- poses; and, in addition, the varieties of special glasses obtain satisfactory quality, and how much depends upon the high degree of individual skill in the worker engaged in glass tube-drawing. The Glass Research Association will not rest satisfied until, by ei | the concentration of engineering genius u | problem, glass tubing can be turned out with dimen- and the ground of the future hope that a stable and © sional accuracy comparable with that secured in pro- ducing tubing of brass or other metals, and at the physical properties as are necessary for workability in the blow-lamp. This problem affects vitally a whole section of the industry—the lamp-blown’ scientific — of this section, and the problems involved in making — many precise and important instruments (e.g. butyro- meters, clinical and other thermometers, hydrometers, tubing can be accurately and consistently. produced. Bahk sc There are at the present titae approximately four hundred firms engaged in glass and glassware manu- facture in the United Kingdom, emploving about 50,000 workers. It is anticipated that the research work of the association will commence in earnest at the beginning of next year. Before that date the council of the association hopes that every one of these four hundred firms will have apvlied for membershir The report of the provisional committee to the general meeting on October 14 showed that a member- shiv of 107 had already been reached; that a promise had been secured from the Committee of the Privy Council for Scientific and Industrial Research to pay to the association a total grant not exceeding 7¢.cool. within a period of five years on condition that during this period members of the association contribufe an agsregate sum of not less than soool. per annum in subscriptions. The financial statement also revealed that towards this sum of soool. per annum Gaberad 5 from the 107 members had reached 46 Radiation Temperature : Dew.—Sidney Skinner . 217 eho the Surface-Tension.—C. T. Whitmell Roa Se, Exceptional Dryness of October, 1919.—W. D. : Christmas . i ae pny ei ieee sh bee Bae Sound Ranging. (Jllustrated.) a ree re ey Results of the Total Solar Eclipse of May2g9 and ‘the Relativity Theory. By Dr. A. C. D. Crommelin 230 The Jubilee of ‘‘ Nature”: Congratulatory Messages 231 _ Notes Psy os Pia te ye) é Our Astronomical Column :— te The Leonid Meteors as pe 299 The Group of Helium Starsin Orion . . . . . . . 299° ‘The Secular Acceleration of the Moon. . ... . 299° The uo lass Research Association. By Edward Meigh 299 - The Tobacco Beetle’ 2°... . : Pea a se hs ae The British Association at Bournemouth:— Section H—Anthropology—Opening Address byProf. Artbur Keith, M.D., LL.D., F.K.s., President — of the Section cia piers 301. University and Educational Intelligence ... . 305 Societies and Academies... .... +. +s 5 « 307 Books Recéived 8. 2a ns oe ae Diary of Societies . : Foon eke te ee oe . Editorial and Publishing Offices: — MACMILLAN AND CO., Ltp., : ST. MARTIN’S STREET, LONDON, W.C.2. : Advertisements and business letters to be addressed tothe Publishers. . «oe Editorial Communications to the Editor. Telegraphic Address: Puusis, LONDON. Telephone Number: GERRARD 8830. 276 So . 4 : | ‘ q ; 4 ; 3 ; NATURE 329 *. “THURSDAY, NOVEMBER 20, 1919. VERTEBRATE EMBRYOLOGY. | Text-book of Embryology.. Vol. xi. . Vertebrata with the Exception of Mammalia... By Prof. J. Graham Kerr. Pp. xii+5g9r. (London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd., 1919.) Price 31s. 6d. net. Mia second volume of this important text-book of embryology deals with all the vertebrate groups with the exception of the mammalia. It is unnecessary to say that a more highly qualified authority than Prof. Graham Kerr to expound the many intricate problems of the subject could not be found, but what does impress the reader is the clear insight into the depths of these problems that the author has gained by his own detailed and important original investigations. It is not surprising to find that, in this compre- hensive treatise, the archaic but unfortunately inaccessible mud-fish—Lepidosiren—plays a pre- dominant réle, and that our old friends of the embryological laboratory—the chick ‘and the tad- pole—are relegated to minor parts; but Prof. Kerr convinces us that this is as it should be. The highly specialised vertebrates that we can _ get in abundance for our class work are not the _ best types in which to search for the clues to the _ solution of the many problems of vertebrate em- _ bryology. It is rather in the more archaic forms - with larger histological elements and a primitive anatomical structure—such as the Dipnoi, the Ganoidei, and the Urodela—that the embryologist _ has found by experience that he obtains his most satisfactory results. __. The need for a text-book of this description which deals fully with the fundamental problems _ of embryology, as distinct from a text-book that deals only with the development of a few selected _ types, has long been felt, and a brief reference to one or two of these problems may be given to indicate the manner in which the author expounds them in the light of .modern embryological _ research. There has been no more highly controversial problem in embryology than the question of the origin of the nerves from the central nervous system. Prof. Kerr describes in some detail the _ result of his own researches on the development of _ the motor nerves of Lepidosiren, and gives a _¢ritical summary of the theories of His, Balfour, _ and Hensen. His own opinion is finally expressed __ and may be very briefly indicated by the following - sentence (p. 111): “It is suggested that the _ development of the actual nerve fibril is simply _ the gradual coming into view of a pathway pro- L duced by the repeated passage of nerve impulses {) Over a given route.” § - The origin of the paired appendages of verte- _ brata is another of these debated problems on _ which distinguished morphologists have held very ed divergent views. Here, again, the author sets A NO. 2612, VOL. 104] Se mings SARIN ota Su nee me ” before the student the ‘branchial theory ”’ asso- ciated with the name of Gegenbaur, and the con- tinuous “lateral fin” theory which was supported by Balfour, before expounding his own views in what he calls the “external gill hypothesis.” This hypothesis is based on the supposition that the external gills extended further back than they do in any living vertebrate, and that, being potential organs of support, and also potential organs of movement, as indicated by their flicking movements in some existent larve, they became transformed into purely locomotive and support- ing paired appendages. The limb girdle on this hypothesis is a modified branchial arch skeleton, shifted backwards as in the theory of Gegenbaur. With the lateral fin theory already so well estab- lished in this country, it is not likely that Prof. Kerr will find his views in this matter generally accepted, but there is so much that is interesting and ingenious in the way in which his hypothesis is expounded that the student must benefit by its careful consideration. There are many other problems of absorbing interest, to which space does not permit us to refer, discussed in the spirit of just consideration of the views of previous writers, and a clear expression of the author’s own opinion. This is the feature which com- mends the volume most strongly to the student who is capable of appreciating something more than a plain statement of the facts that have been discovered. But a word of high praise must also be given for those parts of the work that are purely descriptive. It is always a difficult matter to condense into the allotted space the main results of exhaustive researches, but Prof. Kerr has accomplished this part of the task with great skill and judgment. In some cases, perhaps, a little more expansion would have been advisable. For example, in the chapter on the development of the brain a fuller explanation, with a figure, of what is meant by the term “Archipallium ” would be most useful, or, again, in the description of the development of the vertebral column of Sphenodon, in which the student, puzzled by the myotomes being opposite to the protovertebrz in Fig. 152 C, but alternate with them in Fig. 152 B, will find no key to the puzzle in the text. But minor criticisms such as these seem out of place in reviewing a book which has so many merits. We are glad to find that in writing this text- book Prof. Kerr has not withheld from us’ the fruits of his ripe experience as a teacher and in- vestigator, for we find in chap. x. a most excel- lent general account of the development of the chick, illustrated by many good figures, and accompanied by practical instruction in laboratory methods. This chapter will prove to be of great value to the beginner and to his teachers. More- over, in the last two chapters we are given most interesting and useful comments on the practical study of the embryology of the lower vertebrata and on the guiding principles of embryological research. Prof. Kerr has rendered a great service to scientific students by the publication of this : oO 310 NATURE [NovEMBER 20, 1919 volume, a volume which undoubtedly will take a high rank among modern text-books of zoological science. It is something better than a mere text- book of embryology, as it deals very fully with many of the most important principles of bio- logical philosophy, and will prove very useful as a guide for practical research work in other branches of zoological science. $21] a4. THE RARER ELEMENTS. (1) The Analysis of Minerals and Ores of the Rarer Elements for Analytical Chemists, Metallurgists, and Advanced Students. By Dr. W. R. Schoeller and A. R. Powell. (Griffin’s Scientific Text-books.) Pp. x+239. (London: Charles Griffin and Co., Ltd., 1919.) Price 16s. net. ‘ (2) The Metals of the Rare Earths. By Dr. James Frederick Spencer. (Monographs on Inorganic and Physical Chemistry.) Pp. x+279. (Lon- don: Longmans, Green, and Co., 1919.) Price 12s, 6d. net. Ei ses two volumes before us, taken together, form a very complete treatise on the rarer elements, their occurrence, properties, and the methods for their separation. Although they overlap in some measure, each contains much in, formation of the highest importance at the present day. The practical value of many of the rarer elements has recently been brought into pro- minence, and it is becoming increasingly plain that, locked up in these little-known minerals widely distributed over the earth’s surface, there are elements possessing properties of hitherto unrealised value and importance. Radium: has shaken the old conceptions in chemistry and physics to their very foundations. Uranium, tungsten, tantalum, molybdenum have given us steels which have profoundly influenced the engineering ‘trades and the production of artillery. Thorium and cerium have preserved the gas industry as a means of illumination. Cerium and the rare earth metals rendered us almost independent of the lucifer match. These are but a few indications of the potential value of the rarer elements. (1) This volume, which naturally comes first, deals exhaustively with the minerals from which the rarer elements are derived, and gives very clear and practical instructions for their recogni- tion, and the properties, chemical reactions, and method for separating the elements. The design of the work is distinctly original, and the authors have included as much trustworthy information about each element as is available at the present time, together with descriptions of the spectro- scopic, magnetic, electroscopic, and other ap- paratus used in research. It is abundantly clear that they have a very practical acquaintance with their subject; novel chemical and physical re- actions are given that are apparently taken direct from the laboratory note-books. The elements are taken in the order of their NO, 2612, VOL. 104] groups in the periodic system, and the text is arranged under two headings—‘‘ General Informa- tion,” which includes spectroscopic and other physical reactions; and “Mineral Analysis,” in- cluding qualitative and quantitative estimations. and chemical reactions. . ity ¢ There is no general index, but in its place two lists are produced, one giving the names of nearly two hundred minerals containing rare elements, and the other the various methods for separating them from the bodies most frequently accompany-, ing them. | _A table of atomic weights and gravimetric factors is included. oe (2) The title of this volume strikes one as a little inappropriate, for the metallic properties of the rare earth elements are those about which. least is known, but the author is to be congratu- lated upon having collected together the essential details of all that is known in the domain of the — “Rare Earths.” ‘ This field has a fascination of its own, quite apart from any utilitarian considerations; that is. only realised by those who have worked in it; so great is that_fascination that it hag claimed the best energy of some of the most honoured men of science. Berzelius, Nilson, Clevé, Lecog de Bois- baudran, Delafountain, Moissan, Crookes, Urbain — are only a few that have fallen under the spell of the “Rare Earths.” The work, hitherto exceed~ ingly difficult on account of the rarity of the minerals needed, has been greatly facilitated by — the development of the “mantle” industry, because in the extraction of the very large quan- tities of thorium and cerium needed for that purpose, all the members of the rare earth group are thrown out as by-products, and can be pro- cured with comparative ease. : The substantial monograph under notice is a2 advance upon any of the excellent works that have recently appeared on the subject. The most remarkable feature in the volume is the great number of references to authorities that are given ; these number as many as 1029, and will be found of very great value to the student, enabling hira easily to consult the original memoir. The author’s remarks, though good, are some- times liable to be misleading; in this connection we notice that, in reviewing the work of the late Sir William Crookes on the rare earths, and the suggestion there put out as to the possible exist- ence of ‘“meta-elements,” the author states om page 7 that Crookes, by fractional precipitation, obtained seven fractions of different basicity which’ had different absorption spectra, which he called meta-elements. This may be a clerical error by the use of the term “absorption” instead of “phosphorescence,” for the matter is quite cor- rectly stated on page 66. In point of fact, Crookes’s contention was that the purest yttria obtainable gave under the cathodic discharge, in vacuo, a diScontinuous spec- trum consisting in numerous more or less nebulous coloured bands, and that by fractionating this material it was possible to separate these bande NOVEMBER 20, 1919 | forming bodies from each other, and it was to these bodies, all components of pure yttria, that he gave the name of meta-elements. This ques- tion of the cause of the discontinuous phosphor- escent spectra is by no means settled, and offers a field of most interesting research. The history and analysis of each of the chief rare earth minerals is given, and this is followed by a good description of the various methods of fractionation used for separating the closely associated members of the rare earth groups. The methods of spectroscopic analysis are given, as is also the use of the magnetometer, an instru- -ment only recently applied to these researches. The cerium and yttrium groups of the rare earths are each separately described, and the latest determination of the atomic weights are given, together with the methods by which they were obtained. “In the discussion of the position of the rare ' earths in the periodic system the author includes _ the elements scandium and thorium, which for various reasons are not generally considered _ members of the rare earth group at all. It is not ’ difficult to find places for these, especially the : former, which is undoubtedly the “ekaboron” of _ Mendeléeff, but the placing of the closely allied bodies of the cerium and yttrium groups remains as big a puzzle as ever. i . The final chapter deals with the uses of the rare a a 4 % earth elements; with the exception of cerium, which is absolutely essential to the production of an efficient “mantle,” these are not numerous and are comparatively recent. But enough has been said to show the importance and value of the study of the rare earths, and the author’s very complete work, taken in connection with that of Messrs. Schoeller and Powell, will aid very greatly in the study of these little-known bodies from which we _ can confidently expéct great results. J. H. Garpiner. ae RACE AND NATIONALITY. Race and Nationality: An Inquiry into the Origin and Growth of Patriotism. By Dr. John Oake- smith. Pp. xix+300, (London: William Heinemann, 1919.) Price 10s. 6d. net. HE thesis which Dr. John Oakesmith main- - tains in this work is one which concerns anthropologists as well as politicians and_his- _ torians. His doctrine that the national frontiers _ of Europe have no racial significance is a truth so apparent that no proof needs to be adduced. _ Yet it is perhaps well that the fact should again be insisted on at the present time because the - public mind is still’ influenced by the vigorous _ anthropological teaching of last century, wherein _ it was maintained that the Saxon and Celtic elements in the population of these islands were _ of diverse racial stocks. We agree with Dr. _ Oakesmith that there is no single character or _ set of characters in body or mind by which an anthropologist’ can tell an Irishman from an _ Englishman. The claim for Irish separation does : NO, 2612, VOL. 104] . NATURE 311 certainly not depend on a difference of race, for both English and Irish are members of the same racial stock, and of the two the Irish are the more representative of the Nordic or North Atlantic race. The independence of nationality and race, how- ever, is but .a minor issue in Dr. Oakesmith’s main thesis. This concerns itself chiefly with an inquiry into the nature of nationality. He defines and redefines it in many passages, but the fol- lowing may be taken as representing his final conclusion (p. 75): “Nationality is a conviction based upon practical realities, upon the facts of historical development, and upon the demands of human experience.” This represents rather what he hopes nationality may come to mean in the future, for in the present he recognises that mixed with its rational or utilitarian qualities there are both passions and emotions. Rightly enough, he maintains that if these passions and emotions could be eliminated and only the intellectual con- ception of nationality left, then wars would cease, and the world would come by the peace it longs for. Such is the main thesis of this book. Does race, then, play no part in separating and keeping apart the masses of humanity? Dr. Oakesmith seriously maintains that “to envisage race as an operating objective factor in evolution of societies is both unscientific and unphilo- sophical” (p. 74). He cites the case of the Jewish people in England to prove that “race is a metaphysical conception having no foundation in practical life.” ‘With proper adjustments of education,” Dr. Oakesmith solemnly asserts, “you can turn an Oriental Jew into an Occidental Englishman.” In other words, were we to sub- stitute a Jewish for a native baby in every cradle of England for a generation, English nationality would remain just what it has been since the Anglo-Saxon invasion. Or, to alter the parallel, if we were to substitute babies from China, Central Africa, or Greenland, England would stand just where she did if Dr. Oakesmith is right. It is unnecessary, in the light of experi- ence to be gathered from every part of the world, where diverse races come in close contact, to do more than say that race, unfortunately, is much more than Dr. Oakesmith supposes it to be—a “metaphysical conception.” A. Keiru. OUR BOOKSHELF. Sanitation -Practically Applied, By Dr. Harold Bacon Wood. Pp. vi+473. (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc.; London: Chapman and Hall, Ltd., 1917.) Price 13s. 6d. Tue author of this volume is assistant commis- sioner to the West Virginia State Department of Health, and he prepared it as a “corollary to the numerous excellent treatises on the theory of hygiene and the laboratory manuals” for the use primarily of the health officer and for the student of public health topics. In the main it is intended for and will best meet the needs of the American worker and student. 312 NATURE i [ NovEMBER 20, 1919 Judged from the book alone, it is perfectly clear that Dr. Wood is wel! qualified to write upon the subject he has taken up. Although some of the subjects are dealt with sketchily enough, he gives the impression that he has had experi- ence; that he has worked in the field; that he has kept his eyes open and knows generally what should be done and how to do it. The American health officer and student of public health topics may very safely take him as a guide. The English health worker even may find something of value in what he has to say, though he has no refer- ence to English works and workers, and his view- point is purely American, and his methods, most of them, not such as are or could be applied in this country. The book is not a large one, but Dr. Wood covers the greater part of the field of health work, dealing with such subjects as statistics; control of communicable diseases; child welfare; school hygiene; pure foods, etc. The treatment throughout is practical, and the writing is good and attractive. The same may be said of the illustrations, of which there is a fair number. As already hinted, it is unlikely that Dr. Wood’s book will have more than a limited appeal in this country, but it will probably receive a good welcome from and be found useful by health workers in the United States. The Study of the Weather. By E. H. Chapman. (The Cambridge Nature Study Series.) Pp. xii+131. (Cambridge: At the University Press, 1919.) Price 3s, 6d. net. Tuts little book on elementary meteorology will be welcomed by the school-teacher, to whom it makes its primary appeal. Though the serious student of the science may at first. feel. that it has no place on his shelves, yet, should he at some time be called upon to lecture to. a non- scientific audience, he will find a perusal of its pages of no small value. The matter dealt with is mainly confined to features of the weather which can readily be observed by young’ people without special apparatus, and it.is presumably for this reason that any reference to pressure and temperature conditions in the upper air is omitted. With the foregoing rather notable exception the groundwork of meteorology is well covered. One of the chief features of the book is the series of exercises, of which more than 250 are given. These vary from some very simple questions to others: which the teacher would be well advised to think out carefully before putting to his class if he wishes to avoid finding himself in an awk- ward position. Many of these questions are calculated to arouse a most healthy interest in the minds of the pupils. One example must suffice. “What kind of weather is it that causes the inside walls of a building to stream with moisture? ” The Cambridge University Press is to be con- gratulated on the clearness of the printing and the excellence of the get-up of the book. The frontispiece is particularly pleasing. Numerous | illustrations and charts are included in the text. 4.38.20: NO, 2612, VOL. 104] LETTERS TO THE EDITOR. [The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manuscripts intended for this or any other part of Nature. No notice is taken of anonymous communications.] : Percussion Figures in Isotropic Solids. In the issue of NarurE for October 9, Prof. C. V. Raman, of Calcutta, illustrated the conical fracture produced by the impact of a steel ball on a plate glass surface. a The following observations, which may be regarded as supplementary, were made by the writer some time ago with the object of finding what really happens when a glass surface is being ground, or, as it is technically termed, smoothed by an abrasive such as carborundum. —_ Individual grains of a good abrasive have a nodular form, and the abrasion of glass appears to arise from the impact or pressure of the grains. Two polished surfaces of glass were placed face to — face with a few grains of carborundum between thera, and the specimen was compared with a similar one in which steel balls of 1 mm. diameter were substituted for the carborundum. Pressure was applied uni- formly over the whole surface, and while the pressure was being applied, the plates could be trans- lated one over the other, thus producing the actual machine conditions. The observations were made by means of a polariscope. As the appearances were identical, steel balls were used throughout the later experiments, thus enabling the conditions to be better — controlled. ; It will be assumed that the polished appearance of glass is due to an amorphous surface layer. When the surface particles are acted upon by mechanical forces, the molecules, or possibly groups of molecules, — rearrange themselves, the result being akin to the sur- face of a liquid. This conception was first advanced by Lord Rayleigh, and there is now a large mass of — supporting evidence. When a piece of glass is worked mechanically, the surface molecules are so profoundly agitated that they are able to rearrange themselves under the action of intermolecular forces. Fire glazing similarly consists in thermally a itating ; ficient to the molecules. Very small forces are su weaken the molecular cohesion by the required amount. Chemical action may produce a similar result. An optical surface may be reduced quite uniformly by the — action of HF, provided the fluorides as formed — are not allowed to crystallise and the bath is kep in continuous movement. fractured comparatively slowly, the forces at th of propagation of the fine crack must be ( and, as before, the molecules are able to flow or rearrange themselves to form a polished surface layer. But when the fracture takes place sud : almost explosively, as, for example, in the cooling of a pot of optical glass, portions of the surface ma have a matt appearance to the unaided eye. This type of matt surface has been discussed very fully re M. Charles de Freminville, of Paris, who regards it as a type of multiple fracture. f more probable than the alternative one that the time of fracture is too small'to permit of viscous flow. When a steel ball is pressed lightly on the polished surface of a glass block, the appearance, when viewed between crossed Nicols, is as in the diagram (Fig. 1), The central black cone has an angle of about 20°, which remains practically independent of the pressure of the ball. The cone of strain 6b, b has When a piece of glass is sand | This explanation is — NOVEMBER 20, 1919 | NATURE ai an angle of about go°. Some surface light is visible at d and d. At low pressures the dark cones c and | a merge softly into b. As the pressure is increased, the interfaces become more intense and clearly de- | fined, but the angles do not appreciably alter. The central cone proceeds from the surface first as a rod or filament of a remarkably black intensity. ’ Further gentle increase of pressure causes the sur- 2, which is face layer to rupture as indicated in Fig. a Ncols Paralleled fig 3. Fic. 8. a photograph of a surface repeatedly ruptured by gentle impact. If the Nicols are paralleled, black rays will be seen proceeding from the edge of the crack as in Fig. 3, their. direction indicating that the crack is normal to the surface and merely superficial. The Fig. 1 appearante remains unaltered. A new phenomenon makes its appearance when the pressure is again increased. Immediately under the ball there appears, as in Fig. 4, a sphere pierced by the filament of the cone a, and having a black outline tinged with red on the outside. The interior is filled with green-blue light, otherwise the general appearance of Fig. 1 remains unaltered. If now the Nicols are aralleled, the conical fracture (Fig. 5) previously illustrated by Prof. Raman will be seen, and b examination at intermediate positions of the Nicols, it will be evident that the cone fracture which takes place along the surface of b is tangential to the sphere which it encloses. The fracture can be extended up to a limit which it is difficult to exceed, even by a great increase of the rate of application of the pressure. _ If the pressure is increased again, the crushing point is soon reached. The glass under the ball collapses almost explosively, a faint click being audible, and the ball sinks deeply through the surface. The cavity thus produced is lined with a snow-white layer of powdered lass. . On the polariscope at the moment of fracture several interesting developments may be observed. First, as the result probably of the greater area of pressure contact, the cone of light b broadens out laterally ; secondly, the cone fracture may extend horizontally like the brim of a hat, thus definitely terminating the depth below the surface; and thirdly, the space within the cone becomes cleft by two fracture planes appar- ently normal to one another, and having their line of intersection on the axis of the dark cone a. If only one diametral plane appears, the other may be developed by an increase of pressure. Sometimes the second plane is terminated at the axis, but it can always be extended across the first plane. The ap- pearance of the fractures is now as indicated in Fig. 6. If the diametral plane fractures terminate at the base NO, 2612, VOL. 104] of the cone, they may be extended by pressure to the end of the rim, as in Fig. 7. Under erossed Nicols two new coloured spheres identi. cal with the original one may make their appearance just under the base of the cone fracture, as in Fig. 8, indicating the existence of subsidiary fractures. But if a polished transverse section of a glass plate smoothed with carborundum is observed microscopic- ally, it will be seen immediately that surface conchoidal fractures predominate, and that, if cone fractures do exist, fie. 8. } | they are very shallow. In the workshop process of smoothing preparatory to polishing, the smeothing tool moves over the glass surface, but movement of the experi- mental plates did not alter the general characteristics outlined above, nor did the presence of water afford an explanation of the results obtained in prac- tice. brim frécture Plane dismetral fractures Fis. 6. glass. Evidently mere pounding of a glass plate cannot result in a smoothed surface of a tech- ; nical order. ” 1a. 10. As in all the previous. experi- ments the pressure was applied at the centre of the block, where the horizontal forces were balanced, a new series was carried out near the margin of the. plate. The new appearance, corresponding with the stage illustrated in Fig. 1, is indicated in Fig. 9, from which it will be seen that the central cone is now deviated towards the side, its axis following the char- acteristic conchoidal section. In other respects the sequence of phenomena was as before. Thus, after the cone fracture which was of a shallower order took place, and the crushing point was reached, the dia- Magnification 42x. Fic. 2.—Surface percussion cracks on glass. metral plane fracture followed the axis of the deviated central cone, and the cavity from which the splinter was removed ‘had the characteristic. conchoidal. ap- pearance. It is presumably the impact of the carborundum grains on the edges of cavities on the glass to be ground that produces the conchoidal splinters as indicated in Fig. to. It would appear, therefore, that it is the diametral plane fracture that is of primary importance, 314 and that, in the processes of smoothing, the horizontal movement is required to force the abrasive grains against the sides of the cavities. From actual tests it is found that the rate of abrasion is directly proportional to the pressure and to the relative speed of translation. James WEIR FRENCH. Anniesland, Glasgow, October 13. The Breeding of the King Penguin. Tue Zoological Park at Edinburgh has had the good fortune to possess, almost from its inception, a small group of king penguins. Three of the birds were receifed in January, 1914, from South Georgia, a second consignment, of which three survived, arriv- ing in the spring of 1917. A hope was excited that they might breed when two of them were observed to be mating in the autumn of 1915, but nothing further occurred at that time. In the late summer of 1917 one of the birds became broody, and sat in the posture of incubation for about a month, but no egg was apparently laid, nor was: this bird one of the two which had been observed to be paired. It was not until 1918 that the paired birds really settled down in earnest, and much interest was aroused when, on July 8 of that year, one of them was found to have an egg. The king penguin, like its near relative the emperor penguin, makes no nest, but carries the single egg on its. feet, where it. is. held in place and covered for warmth and protection by a fold of the skin and feathers of the abdomen, which,, being furnished with a.constricting muscle, grips, the egg tightly... The brooding penguin can not only travel: about. with: ihe egg in position, but. even scratch its head with one foot. while still holding the. egg. securely... Both sexes. share in the work of incubation; the transfer of the egg having been observed on the second day. The parental instinct is very strong in the king penguin, not only in mated, but in the unattached birds as well. The group at this time contained three other birds, and their presence, or perhaps nothing but the very obvious conflict of desire for simultaneous possession of the egg between the husband and wife, may have been the cause of the misfortune which followed; at any rate, it was disappointing to find, after about two weeks, that the egg had been broken and that its custodian was believed to be relieving the tedium of duty by occasionally sipping its contents. The floor of the enclosure consists of shelving rock, and to reduce the risk of breakage if an egg were produced this year, a large bed of sand was laid down. The next incident was again disappointing, for in July an egg was laid, but within an hour or so it had dis- appeared. As none of the birds showed any disposi- tion to incubate it, I formed the opinion that it had been laid by one of the unmated birds, and _ this seemed to be confirmed when, on September 1, the female of the pair was found to have an egg. The other three birds were at once removed from the en- closure so that they should not interfere, and for two days all went well, the male bird taking the egg at night and the hen during the day. On the third day, however, the calling of one of the other birds—the third of the three originally imported—seemed to dis- turb the male, and he left his wife, refused to have anything more to do with the egg, and spent the day (and probably the night) in calling to the third bird and trying to get to it. After some days, as the female seemed to be suffering from the unrelieved care of the egg, and neither bird would feed, it was decided to put the third bird back. When this was done they all settled down together, and the male NO, 2612, VOL. 104] NATURE [| NOVEMBER 20, 1919 resumed his share in the labour, the third bird usually standing near. . ee The time during which each bird had the varied froma day to a week or more. The pitts. when she had the egg always remained in the same place, where she made a slight hollow in the sar but when the male had it-he occasionally went for a walk round the enclosure, shuffling along with the egg on his feet. He even descended from one 1 of rock to another by turning round and workin himself down backwards—a performance which 1 to several narrow escapes for the egg. ; As the period of incubation elapsed the result was awaited with some anxiety, and it was in no small degree gratifying to find, on October 22, that the egg was chipped and the chick inside alive. It was not, however, until two days later that the chick was clear of the shell, the period of incubation thus bei seven weeks and four days. The chick when ha was comparatively small, and the skin was bare, but in a few days it increased considerably in size. young bird, like the egg, is kept between the feet of the parent and covered by the fold of skin; it is fed at frequent intervals with semi-digested fish dis- gorged by the parent. As in the case of other birds which feed their young by this method, the chick places its head in the parent’s mouth and takes the food from the gullet. Sa : Apart from accident, there seems every likelihood that the young bird will be reared. It may be claimed — which feed their young by this method, the chick king penguin has bred outside those islands of the Antarctic seas on which it has its tome, and the record is a unique one. . JT. H. GILLespre. — Zoological Society of Scotland, Edinburgh, = October 29. : A Helium Series in the Extreme Ultra-Violet. Ir has been shown that the helium series first dis. covered in a terrestrial source by Fowler can be repre- sented by the formula Sh Lee) gy ; I I ved (ll 2 Ce hi where n, has the value 3 or 4 (Evans, Phil. Mag., vol. xxix., p. 284, 1915). ‘ ats If n, be given the value 2, and n, the successive value 3, 4,.and 5, lines result at wave-l £640°I, 1214-9, and 1084-7. My previous investigations of the helium spectrum did not afford much evidence as to the existence of these lines (Astrophys. Journ., vol. xliii., p. 92, 1916); a recent search, however, been more successful. With a powerful disruptive discharge in helium, a sharp, fairly strong line appears at 1640-2; no trace of it is found in hydrogen under the same electrical conditions, and it does not occur in helium when the discharge circuit is free from capacity. Under the same violently disruptive condi- tion the line at 1216, always present in helium and hydrogen, develops a satellite on its more refrangible side; this satellite is not well resolved, but its wave- length appears to be about 1215-1. The region that should be occupied by 1084-7 is obscured by a strong pair at 1085, probably due to an impurity. Owing to the difficulties of vacuum spectroscopy, it is perhaps unwise to claim that the evidence in this case is conclusive. I regard it-as very probable, how- ever, that two members of this series in helium have been found in the extreme ultra-violet. ; TuHEoporE LyMAn. Harvard University, October 25.° - thes NOVEMBER 20, 1919| NATURE ofS Variations of Refractive Index. EXPERIMENTS conducted in the research laboratory of the firm of Adam Hilger, Ltd., by Mr. G. M. Fleming show that, in certain circumstances, distinct differ- ences of refractive index may occur in certain liquids at the separating surface between the liquid and a polished glass surface. In a few exceptional cases the differences are very great; in the case of ether, for instance, they may amount to as much as 0-02 in the refractive index. These results appeared to me of considerable import- ance, and it was intended that the investigations should be continued here. As a first hypothesis, I proposed to assume that the effect was due to variations of pressure in the neigh- bourhood of the interface, such variations of pressure being due to cohesion, and occurring according to the intimacy of contact between liquid and glass. Very attractive lines of thought suggest themselves when the phenomenon is contemplated from this point of view. Unfortunately, more urgent preoccupations inter- vened, and the results have therefore been communi- cated to the director of the British Scientific [nstru- ment Research Association, in the hope that he may find a place in the programme of work for further study in this direction. Meanwhile, I should he grateful if any of your readers could refer me to any prior observations of the kind. F. Twyman. Research Department, Adam Hilger, Ltd., 754 Camden Road, N.W.1, November 7. The Audibility of Thunder. From reading a recent letter in NaTurRE (October 16) discussing the distance that thunder can be heard, | am induced to send you the following observation :— On the evening of February 26, 1912, when camped on North Chincha Island (off the west coast of South America), a brilliant display of lightning in the distant high interior to the east attracted our attention. The cloud-stratum from which the storm evidently issued lay far behind the clear coastal zone and the lower foothills, but hid from my camp the upper regions of the Cordillera. Both I and a Peruvian friend heard quite clearly the low distant peals of thunder. As I had been told that thunder was an almost, if not a quite, unknown phenomenon on the coast—this was the first thunderstorm, indeed, that my companion, a man of more than forty years of age, had experienced—I pur- posely made a record, during the best part of an hour, of the intervals elapsing between the flashes and the peals, and from my journal I find the average to have been 320 seconds. Henry O. Fores. Beaconsfield, Bucks, November 7. Linkage in the Silkworm: A Gorrection. In referring to Tanaka’s work on silkworms I made (Nature, November 6, p. 216) a mistake which should be corrected. His discovery was not that two characters linked in the male were not linked in the female, but that in a case of linkage common to both males and females it is only in the males that crossing- over occurs. Since, on the analogy of Abraxas, the female is presumably in the silkworm the heterozygous sex, this observation is complementary to and con- sistent with Morgan’s evidence that in Drosophila there is no crossing-over in the male, which in that animal is heterozygous in the sex-character. The paper is in Journ. Coll. Agr., Tohoku Imp. Univ., vii., 1916, pt. 3. Also the forms found by Patterson associated with males and females should have been called ‘asexual,’ not ‘‘inter-sexes.’”?’ W. Bateson. November 14. NO. 2612, VOL. 104] |THE PREHISTORY OF SOUTH AFRICA. HE bulk of Dr. McCall Theal’s book is as valuable now as it was when first issued, twenty years ago. But though “illustrated and enlarged,” it is not “improved” so much as one would have expected. Dr. Theal does not make much use—though he alludes to its publication in t911—of Dr. Péringuey’s important study of the Stone age in South Africa, though the theories of Péringuey and Shrubsall would have materially helped him in his attempts to picture the first peopling of South Africa by Man. Also, in the scanty evidence he has gathered together of the origin and wanderings of the Bushman race he—as do most other historians of Africa— overlooks the statement of the Italian traveller, Ludovico di Varthema, who in his 1508 voyage across the Indian Ocean stopped at Mozambique, and, journeying a short distance inland to some table-topped mountain, described a short-statured savage people living on the mountain-top whose language consisted largely of “clicks,” “like the sounds used by Sicilian mule-drivers.” I have myself gathered up and recorded legends in South (a) (2) Fic. 1.—Drawings of the-skulls of two Strandlooper types : (a) the oldest and most like to the Hamite or the Cro-Magnon of Europe; (4)a Strandlooper skull that is very Bushman-like. The originals are approximately the same size. Nyasaland of a_yellow-skinned, Bushman-like tribe that lived down to a few hundred years ago on the inaccessible upper parts of Mts. Mlanje and Chiperone. So far as we can trace the race movements in Africa south of the Zambezi prior to the definite entry of South Africa into recorded history, we find them to be something like this: At a com- paratively remote period—say, thirty to twenty thousand years ago—there was living in southern- most Africa a human type now named or nick- named the Strandloopers (“shore-runners”), whose skulls show a slight resemblance to the Bushman type, but whose brain capacity was much higher (1600-1500 c.c. in the male, compared with an average of 1200 c.c. in the Cape Bushman, and an average of 1480 c.c. in the Bantu-speaking Negroes). The higher type of Strandlooper skull (a in Fig. 1) in fact reminds one of the Hamitic skulls of North-east Africa or of the Cro-Magnon type of Europe thirty thousand 1 ‘Ethnography and Condition of South Africa before a.p. 1505.” By Dr. George McCall Theal. Second Edition in the Present Form (Illus- trated), Enlarged and Improved. Pp, xx+466. (London: George Allen and Unwin, Ltd., 1919.) Price 8s. 6d. net. 316 years or so ago. These scarcely Negroid Strand- loopers, according to Péringuey, were the earliest humans in South Africa, so far'as our very slight evidence can be applied to the making of theories. But apparently, though they brought with them the European arts of their time, and especially Fic. 2.—A photograph of the Nile Delta pygmy type of (?) 8000 years ago from a pre-dynastic ‘‘ slate palate.” their gift of drawing, they imparted some of these to the Bushmag mind and then died out. Another question hinted at, but not adequately discussed, in Dr. McCall Theal’s book is that of the different physical types of Bushmen. There is a Bushman language and culture common to all these (degraded or primitive) peoples, but the ¥ 1G. 3.—A photograph of a very old Cape Bushman. shape of the head differs considerably. Some— Dr. Theal gives a photograph of a woman— exhibit a-greater degree of prognathism than any other known human race. I could supplement Dr. Theal’s example by several others, ‘not, un- fortunately, at my disposal for reproduction at this moment. The North Kalahari Bushmen have NO, 2612, VOL. 104] NATURE [ NOVEMBER 20, 1919 sometimes .projecting brows; the Cape Bushmen, on the other hand, are usually neither pro- gnathous nor prominent-browed. Some Bushmen have fairly long skulls; others have head-forms markedly round and brachicephalic. Possibly these varieties in the shape of the skull may indicate a fusion of Negroid types, some of which stood low in the scale of humanity, especially in language. There are apparently two features (besides steatopygy) characteristic of the Bush race which all these varying types hold in common: one is. the configuration of the ear, and the other is peciliarities in both the male and female external genitalia. I do not know whether the “Bushman ear” has been definitely noted in other Negro or Negroid races, but the peculiarities of the genitalia can be noted here and there up the eastern side of Africa until the eastern Mediterranean is reached. : The Bushmen, indeed, seem to have entered Fic. 4.—Head of a North Kalahari Bushman, Africa—no doubt very anciently—from the direc- tion of Arabia or Syria, and to have wandered down the eastern side of the continent until they settled in South-east and South-west Africa. The Hottentots. came very much _ later—the, forest Negroes and the Nilotics may have pre- ceded them in East and South-west Africa. They, arose probably from a blending somewhere in eastern equatorial Africa between the Bushman’ type, the Hamitic or Nilotic Negroids, and the forest Negroes. Their push southwards seems to have been diagonal, first from the regions. south of the Victoria Nyanza to the Nyasa-Tan-. ganyika plateau, and thence to South-west Africa. . Finally, they advanced along the coast of South- west Africa to the lands south of the Orange’ River. Like the Bushmen, they formed tribes that differed much in facial appearance., Those that the Portuguese and Dutch found established — sn eS ise, NOVEMBER 20, 1919 | NATURE. 317 an Cape Colony were lighter in colour and far less ugly than the Hottentots farther to the north-west or inland, and their culture was higher, as though they had preserved more of the Nilotic or Hamitic intermixture. : The pygmies of the Nile Delta, of prehistoric Egypt, seem certainly to have been Negroid, but more like the Asiatic Negroes, and presenting few resemblances to the Bushmen. The steatopygy of Bushmen and Hottentots developed into a local exaggeration (chiefly in the women), but occa- sionally appears in the Congo pygmies, the East African Bantu, the Nilotic Negroes, and even the Whiteman races of the Mediterranean, I cannot quite share Dr. Theal’s theories con- cerning the origin of the Bantu languages, but as I have already exceeded the space allotted to me, J must deal with my points of difference else- Fic. 5.—Portrait of a Cape Bushman of the orthognathic type. where. On the other hand, I am obstinately in agreement with his views.on the subject of the earlier stone buildings of South-east Africa, of the Zimbabwe type; they were never (the earlier and more elaborate) built by Negroes, Bantu or Hottentot; they were—so far as we can be certain on any subject that has not at. present conclusive proof—built bya non-Negro people, possibly the Phoenicians coming: from: some. base in southern Arabia. The secondary and. much later, work was very likely done by Arab gold- seekers prior to the Islamic period. All that the more intelligent Bantu peoples, such as_ the Karafa or their allies, did on the verge of their entry into the history of South Africa was:to carry on very clumsily surface gold-mining and the use of stone for building rough, low walls ‘and circular. huts. The accompanying reproductions illustrate my NO. 2612, VOL. 104] own as well as Dr. Theal’s theories. | The first is copied from Péringuey and Shrubsall’s ‘Stone Age in South Africa’; the second was given me by Prof. Flinders Petrie; the third by Mr. Leo Weinthal; the fourth is from a photo by Dr. Leonhard Schultz; and the fifth is from the collection of the Royal Anthropological Institute. H. H. Jounston. LET COE: BBs Eo KEELING: Y the death of Lt.-Col. Keelirg Surveyor: _, General of Egypt, that country has lost one of its ablest officials. Lt.-Col. Keeling was born in -1880, and educated at. Bradford Grammar _ School and at Trinity College, Cambridge, where | he took firsts in the Natural Sciences and Me- | chanical | leaving Cambridge he went to the Royal Arsenal, Science (Engineering) Triposes. On Woolwich, and then to the National Physical Laboratory, where he worked especially on metrology. In 1904 Keeling joined the Egyptian Survey Department, where he took charge of the major triangulation, and in the next year of the Helwan Observatory also. Here he designed and built the comparator houses for the comparison of the standards of the Survey, and organised the geo- detic survey of Egypt,:in connection with which a gravity survey of the Nile Valley and neighbour- ing regions was undertaken. He also started precise levelling in Egypt, and under his direction a network of bench-marks has been formed in the Delta of the greatest value to irrigation. An. in- vestigation into the subsoil water-level of. the Nile Valley, and its effect on the cotton crop, came also under his direction, while his work on standards of length led to the formation of the Weights and Measures Office under his direction. In meteorology Keeling introduced research on the upper air at Helwan Observatory, where kites and pilot balloons were regularly used, and in 1908 he made a journey to the Upper Nile for the | study of the upper-air currents during the rainy season. In 1913 the more scientific branches of the work carried out in the Survey Department were amalgamated to form the Physical Service, with Keeling as director, and in 1915 this service | was transferred to the Ministry of Public Works as a separate Department. In December, 1914, Keeling left Egypt in order to take up military duties, and received a com- mission in the Royal Engineers. He was at. first attached to the Ordnance Survey, and placed in charge of the map publication department; but it was his keen desire to serve at the front, and | in February, 1916, he joined a Field Survey com- pany in France. He was wounded in the autumn of 1916, and did not return to Fr-nce until 1917, | when he commanded first the Depét Field Survey Conipany, and then the 3rd [Field Survey Bat- talion; he was promoted to the rank of lieutenant- colonel. The Survey battalions were now organ- a 318 NATURE [ NovEMBER 20, 1919 ising new methods of ranging by sound and observation, and by his force of character Keeling was particularly successful in gaining the con- fidence of the artillery in these methods, and it would be difficult to over-estimate the effect on many operations which he thus exercised. He was present at the Somme battle, the attack on Cambrai, the great German attack in 1918, and the subsequent British advance. Keeling returned to Egypt in April, 1919, as head of the Survey of Egypt, having also been appointed chairman of the newly formed Board of Cotton Research, and with his accustomed zeal had already started to develop geodetic and other lines of work in the Department. He was a man of unbounded energy, who combined foresight and skill in administration with a sound scientific training, and his loss is a serious one to Egypt. He had only recently been married, and the sym- pathies of all are with his widow. H. G. Lyons. NOTES. A CONFERENCE of delegates representing the Mediter- ranean nations is about to meet at Madrid to organise an international scheme of fishery investigations and to set up a central office for the co-ordination of the results and their publication in French, Spanish, Italian, and English. Four exploring ships are to be at the disposal of the office—the Hirondelle II. be- longing to the Prince of Monaco, a specially built Italian ship, and two other vessels provided by France and Spain. In the meantime, while the full scheme is being elaborated, the Italian Government is beginning investigations in the Dardanelles. In the main, the object of the researches will be the develop- ment of the sea-fishing industries, and the results primarily sought will relate to the life-histories of edible fishes. Hydrographic work will also be carried out. Several big expeditions have made investigations of this nature in the past, but there is still much to be discovered, and sustained research is, of course, imperative in the study of variability of the produc- tivity of the fisheries. WE note with great regret that Mr. S. D. Chalmers died on Friday, November 7. Born at Wallsend, near Newcastle, New South Wales, Mr. Chalmers had a brilliant career at the University of Sydney, whence a travelling fellowship took him to Cambridge. There he graduated as thirteenth Wrangler in a very strong year. After holding lecturerships in mathematics at Owens College, Manchester, and at the Royal Naval College, Greenwich, he became the first head of the newly organised department of technical optics at the Northampton Polytechnic Institute at Clerkenwell, a post which he held until his premature death at the age of forty-two. Since 1903 Mr. Chalmers’s work had been entirely devoted to optics, and his activities were largely identified with the Optical Society of London, of which he was for a time honorary secre- tary, and in 1909—10 president; and also with the two Optical Conventions of 1905 and 1912. His published work, his teaching, and his personal advice and example have done much for the optical industry of this country, and it is greatly to be regretted that one of the ablest workers in this field has been lost to us at a time when that industry needs all its strength. During the war Mr. Chalmers not only assisted the industry by personal advice and help, and NO, 2612, VOL. 104] by a large amount of responsible testing work, but he also organised and supervised a special training work- irls were trained to become skilled shop in which i There can be no grinders and p doubt that his untimel ishers of lenses. of many students and an inadequacy of staff. : ALL those interested in the afforestation question in this country, and cognisant of the vital economic and social problems bound up with it, will have been relieved at the answer given by Mr. Bonar Law, in reply to Sir Philip Magnus, on the subject of the Commissioners to be appointed under the For Act: It will be remembered that the Forestry Bili was passed by the House of Commons in August last, having been previously accepted by the House of Lords. The Act provided for the appointment of a Central Forestry Commission, consisting of eight Commissioners who should be responsible for the forest policy in Great Britain and Ireland, and anxiety as to the non-appointment of the Commissioners was being felt. The names of the eight Commissioners were announced in last week’s NaTuRE, The member ; of the Commission who has had a al and scientific forestry training is Mr. R. L. Robinson, the Cabinet having accepted the principle that at least one Commissioner should possess a scientific training in forestry. We should like to have seen a representa- tive of the purely scientific side of forestry upon the Commission, and also a second expert member pos- sessing a practical and wide knowledge of forestry conditions throughout the British Empire and ot parts of the world outside western continental Europe. The advice such a member could tender on many points of vital importance in connection with the afforesting of the great waste areas in this country would prove invaluable. This is a weak spot Commission, a disability which, it may be , will be quickly realised by such a bro ae a and capable administrator as the chairman, Li Lovat, has already proved himself to be. In other respects the selection of the Commissioners gives every promise of assuring the fulfilment of the desired results. ee WE much regret to record the death, on Novem. ber 14, at eighty years of age, of Dr. John Aitken, F.R.S., a frequent contributor to our ) columns, and distinguished for his lifelong researches on the nuclei of cloudy condensation and related sub- jects of meteorological physics. Tne ninety-fourth course of juvenile lectures founded by Faraday at the Royal Institution will be delivered this Christmas by Prof. W. H. Bragg on “The World of Sound.” : ANNOUNCEMENT is made in the Times that Prof. M. Planck, Berlin University, and Prof. H. Stark, Griefs- wald University, have been respectively awarded the 1918 and_1919 Nobel prizes for physics, and Prof. F. Haber, Berlin University, the 1918 Nobel prize for chemistry. Pror. Ws. Berryman Scort, president of the American Philosophical Society, sends us the follow- ing congratulatory message from Princeton :—‘*I am very glad to congratulate you, officially, upon the com- pletion of the first half-century of NaTuRE’s career, to express the cordial wish and hope that that career may long continue in ever-increasing honour and use- fulness, and to give some appreciation of the very great services which the journal has rendered to t , death is to be ascribed to the excessive strain of these activities, followed by the further strain arising from a combination of a pressure a a Nt it n the 3 of the English-spea NOVEMBER 20, 1919] NATURE 319 scientific men eee ool world, especially to those ing lands.” Tue second annual general meeting of the British _ Association of Chemists was held on November 15 in Manchester, Prof. J. W. Hinchley, the president, _ presiding. The council is giving much thought to the _ important question of the representation of chemists _ and technical workers generally on the joint industrial councils formed under the Whitley scheme, and was able. to report that, as a result of the labours of its special sub-committee, a federation of scientific and technical organisations has been formed for the pur- pose of advancing the claims of brain-workers to representation alongside capital and labour. ~~ APPLICATIONS are invited by St. Bartholomew’s Hospital Medical School for election to the Rose research fellowship, which is of the yearly value of 6ool., exclusive of laboratory expenses. The subject of the research is ‘The Pathology and Treatment of : _ Lymphadenoma.’’ The person appointed must devote the whole of his time to the fellowship. Applications, with not more than three testimonials, the names of three referees, and particulars of the lines upon which the applicant’s proposed research is to be carried out, must reach the Dean of the school not later than December 15 next. Tue retirement of Mr. George A. Macmillan from the honorary secretaryship of the Society for the Promotion of Hellenic Studies should not be aliowed to pass without notice in these columns. It was on Mr. Macmillan’s initiative, due to the enthusiasm for _ Greek art and archeology kindled by a visit as a _ young man to Greece, that the society was founded forty years ago, and during those forty years he has acted as its secretary and been the mainspring of its activities. He has worked in close partnership with all the leading Greek archeologists of this _ generation, encouraged numberless young men, _ and afforded generous financial assistance to many enterprises. He is a shining example of one who, having put his hand to a task, does not weary in well-doing, but carries it on through the working years of a lifetime. Even now Mr. Mac- millan is not wholly withdrawing from the work of the society, for in vacating the secretaryship he has accepted the honorary treasurership, and his counsel will still be available for the cause for which he has done so much, Baron Roranp von Eérvés, Hungary’s greatest - man of science, died on April 8 last in Budapest. _ The son of the Hungarian writer and politician, Baron Josef von Eétvés, he was born at Buda on July 27, 1848. He began his university career at the Univer- sity of Budapest, and continued his studies under Kirchhoff, Helmholtz, and Bunsen at the University | of Heidelberg. He also spent a short time at KGnigs- obtained the berg under Franz Neumann. Havin eidelberg, von degree of doctor of philosophy at 1 Eotvés became a Dozent in physics at Budapest Uni- j : versity, and in 1872 he was elected to the chair of theoretical physics at that university. Some years later he was also elected to the chair in experimental physics, and for a short period was Minister of Educa- _ tion in Hungary. Von Eétvés occupied the position _ of president of the Hungarian Academy of Science for _ many years, and in 1891 he founded the Hungarian . Mathematical and Physical Society, the presidency of _ which he held until his death. He was also the Hun- _ garian representative of the International Commission for earth measurement. NO, 2612, VOL. 104] Tue Hunterian Society celebrated its centenary on November 12 by a dinner at the Trocadero Restaurant. Dr. Langdon Brown, the president, was in the chair, and Sir Norman Moore (the president of the Royal College of Physicians), Dr. Addison, Sir George Newman, Sir Archibald Garrod, and Sir Frank Dyson (the Astronomer Royal) were among the guests. The society’s annual silver medal was presented to Mr. John Adams for his work in connection with the Cor- poration of London’s Thavies Inn clinic for the treat- ment of expectant mothers and their infants affected by syphilis. The Hunterian Society was founded in 1819 by Sir Thomas Blizard, an admirer of the Hunters, and especially of John Hunter, and has numbered among its presidents Dr. Bright. (from whom Bright’s disease derives its name), John Hilton (the surgeon), Hughlings Jackson, and Sir Thomas Crosby (a former Lord Mayor). In earlier days con- sultants resided mostly within the City boundaries, and the society has always kept in touch with the City of London, and resolved to make to Mr. Adams a special centenary award of its medal. Tue British Cotton Industry Research Association was formed some months ago to promote scientific research in connection with the cotton industry, in co-operation with the scheme of the Government Department of Scientific and Industrial Research. The first problem before the association after its in- corporation was to secure the services of a man of the highest attainments, who would be able not only to undertake the direction of the association’s researches, but also in the difficult initial stages to construct sound foundations for the building up of the institute of the future. As mentioned last week, the council has made this appointment, and by securing the ser- vices of Dr. A. W. Crossley, C.M.G., F.R.S., Daniel professor of chemistry at King’s College, London, as director of research, the association is making a very fortunate and promising start. In his new post Dr, Crossley will be responsible to the council for the direction of all the research and for the whole internal management of the institution. It will probably not be possible for him to devote his whole time to the work before Easter, but he will no doubt be able to give the association preliminary assistance before then. Tue President of the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries (ord Lee of Fareham) has now approved of the reorganisation of the Board and the regrouping of its functions into five main Departments. each under an executive head responsible, in the case of the three Agricultural Departments, to the President direct, and in the case of the Fisheries and Welsh Departments to the President through the Parliamen- tary Secretary (Sir A. Griffith-Boscawen, M.P.)._ Sir A, Griffith-Boscawen, in addition to his duties as Par- liamentary Secretary, has been appointed Deputy- Minister of Fisheries. The following appointments have also been made:—Sir A. Daniel Hall, Chief Scientific Adviser to the Board and Director-General of the Intelligence Department; Mr. Lawrence Weaver, Chief Commercial Adviser to the Board and Director-General of the Land and Supplies Depart- ment; Mr. F. L. C. Floud, General Secretary to the Board and Director-General of the Finance and Economics Department; Mr. H. G. Maurice, Fisheries Secretary and Principal Assistant Secretary to the Board; and Mr. C. Bryner Jones, Welsh Secretary, in special charge of the Welsh Office. Mr. R. J. Thompson and Mr. H. L. French have been appointed Assistant Secretaries to the Board to fill the vacancies created by the promotions of Mr. F. L. C. Floud and Mr. H. G. Maurice. 320 NATURE [NovEMBER 20, 1919 In continuation of the excellent work left unfinished by the late Major Bendire on the life-histories of North American birds, there has recently been issued by the United States National Museum (Bulletin 107, Washington: Government Printing Office) an instal- ment devoted to the Nearctic diving birds of the crder Pygopodes, prepared by Mr. Arthur Cleveland Bent with the co-operation of numerous well-known ornithologists. This volume affords much valuable and up-to-date information relating to the courtship, nesting, eggs, period of incubation, young, plumages, food, behaviour, breeding range, winter range, migra- tions, egg-dates, etc., of thirty-six species, one-third of which are members of the British avifauna. Among the mass of important and interesting in- formation afforded only a few items can be referred to. It may be mentioned that the comparatively little known large-billed puffin, the haunts of which are con- fined to a limited portion of the Arctic Ocean, has recently greatly increased in numbers on the north- west coast of Greenland, which is regarded as being the westerly limit of its range. Welcome particulars are given relating to the life-history of the vellow- billed loon or Adam’s diver, the eggs and nest of which are figured. There is also an excellent summarised history of the extinct great auk, and a figure of the egg, now in America, which was formerly in the collection of the late Sir William Milner, Bart. The author is to be congratulated on the able manner in which he has presented the results of his studies of the extensive and valuable material at his dis- posal, and also on the interesting series of pictures of bird-life, about eighty in number, from photographs taken direct from Nature. The volume is further enriched hy thirteen coloured plates of eggs. Messrs. MacmMILLan anD Co., Lrp., have in pre- paration a ‘‘Dictionary of Applied Physics,’’ to be issued probably in four volumes, under the editorship of Sir Richard Glazebrook, who will have the assist- ance of a number of distinguished contributors. The work is intended to include the range of physical science in its application to engineering and manu- facture; it will cover, therefore, a wide ground, and needs the co-operation of many writers. It should appeal to many workers, for the fact that scientific investigation and inquiry form the foundations of new methods of manufacture and are required before any marked advance is possible is now very fully realised. It is hoped, in the various sections of the Dictionary, not-only to supply up-to-date information as to what has been done in the past, but also to give some indication of pioneering directions for further progress. The present is a suitable time for such a work; new industries are springing up, old industries are being reconstructed, and there are few which do not involve some process or processes based on the discoveries of physics. Pure science, as the president of the Royal Society stated some little time back, may cause a revolution in an industry. It will be the object of the Dictionary to indicate in a concise form the application of the most recent advances of physics to trade and manufacture. WE have received a catalogue of X-ray and electro- medical apparatus from Messrs. Watson and Sons, Ltd., comprising. 369. pages, well illustrated, The whole range of appliances, radiological and electrical, now in use for therapeutic and diagnostic purposes is covered, together with numerous parts of apparatus suitable for research purposes. Prominent among the latter are high-tension transformers which the modern investigations in radio-metallurgy. have de- manded. Useful information is also to be found in these pages as to the careful use and appropriate NO, 2612, VOL. 104] technique of many of the appliances, as witness the — remarks upon intensifying screens and the manage- — ment of the various types of Coolidge tubes now — available. A considerable section is devoted to stereo- scopy; fluoroscopic examinations embodying stereo- — scopic vision are now possible with comparatively little addition to the installations generally found in a hos- pital department, wiherese Mr. Rocer T. Situ gave his presidential address _ to the Institution of Electrical Engineers on Novem- — ber 13. As the railways of this country are shortly to be subjected to fresh legislation, the choice of a — railway electrical engineer as president was a h one. Mr. Smith considered the question of super- — seding the steam locomotive by the electric locomotive both for passenger and goods services. The coal necessary to produce a given hauling effect on the — railway by means of an electric locomotive is at the — most 40 per cent. of the coal burnt in the furnace of — a.steam locomotive to produce the same result. This — would mean a saving of between 7,000,000 and 8,000,000 tons of coal each year. It has been estimated that to electrify all the railways in Great Britain © would cost 300,000,0001. If coal ever rose to 45s. — per ton, the saving of fuel would itself pay 5 per cent. on the investment. The average cost of running a locomotive in 1913 was 1240l., the cost of coal and water being about 37 per cent. of the total cost. The average capital cost of a steam locomotive this year is 7oool., but the average cost of an — locomotive, including electric equipment of line, but exclusive of power-house and high-tension lines, would be about 35,oool. Mr. Smith calculated that to en- able the electric train to earn the present revenue per train-mile, the passenger electric train would have to — weigh more than half as much again as the steam train, and the electric goods train would have to be at least — tooo tons in weight, which is much heavier than the ~ average steam train for goods. He considered only main-line electrification, and he admitted that some of his data are controversial. He emphasised the im- portance of standardisation in main-line electrification, and, judging from our present knowl , he sug- gested that the direct-current system, working at 1500, or possibly 3000, volts, would be the most economic for use over the whole country.. The problem is of the greatest national importance. In the future the demand for scientifically trained traction engineers will be very great. Tue annual report of Lloyd’s Register of Shipping for the year ending June 30 last is discussed in the Engineer for October 31. During the year 1251 vessels of 3,801,221 tons gross were classified by the com- mittee, including 294 vessels for Government service. The United States headed the list with 470 vessels of 1,883,759 tons. Included in the total were 156 vessels of 943,487 tons built upon the Isherwood system of longitudinal framing, of which 35 were intended for carrying oil-fuel in bulk. It is of interest to note that, owing to the difficulty of obtaining a sufficient number of cylindrical boilers, the greater portion of the vessels built in America and all the wood vessels built in Canada during the war were fitted with water-tube boilers. Also a large proportion of the vessels built in America were fitted with geared turbines, most of them being of the double-reduction type. Besides their ordinary. work, the surveyors rendered great assistance to the Admiralty in the design, construction, and pro- duction of special types of vessels, and also to the French Government in the inspection of shell steel, — of which 1,401,114 tons were passed by the society’s surveyors. More than 200 German vessels taken over under the peace terms have ‘been surveyed by the _ garet Street, W.1. The 1018 works listed range over _ logy and palzontologv, astronomy, physics, etc., geo- to see the Catalogue (No. 183) just issued by Messrs. _ from those at which they were originally published are NoveEMBER 20, 1919] NATURE 321 committee’s surveyors. The collective capacity of new cold stores and extensions carried out under Lloyd’s survey amounts to 7,500,000 cub. ft. The committee has also undertaken research work at its own expense, one of the subjects at present engaging the attention _ of the special sub-committee on research being the effect of a fluid cargo in the form of oil in bulk on the behaviour of a ship in a seaway, and the manner in which energy passes between the ship and the _ fluid in the ‘holds. The report is voluminous, and it __ is only possible to touch upon a few of the leading items of interest. THE new monthly Conquest, of which the first number has just been issued, will fill a want long felt by the British public for a magazine giving, in popular language, an account of the scientific and technical achievements of the day. - Readers having a technical bent were obliged to glean what information they could from the technical journals proper, or, if they read French sufficiently well, to subscribe to a well-known French periodical which fulfils the same function. The first number contains well-written and illustrated articles on the running of the London tubes, the technique of film-making, the internal structure of metals (by Dr. Walter Rosenhain), and other interesting contributions. The -Cambridge University Press hopes to have vol. iii. of the ‘‘Cambridge British Flora ’’ ready for publication before the end of the year. Other an- nouncements of the same publishers are a new edition of Prof. A. H. Keane’s ‘‘Man, Past and Present,’’ completely revised and largely rewritten by Mrs. _ Quiggin, with the assistance of Dr. A. C, Haddon; “*Pleasure—Unpleasure,”” an experimental investiga- tion on the feeling-elements, Dr. A. Wohlgemuth; “Chemistry for Textile Students,” Prof. B. North and N. Bland; “Machine Drawing for Electrical Engineers,’ E. Blythe; ‘Food Poisoning and Food Infections,” Dr. W. G. Savage;. ‘‘ Practical Exercises on the Weather and Climate of the British Isles,” W. F. Stacey; ‘The Physiology of Farm Animals, Part i. (General),” Dr. F. H. A. Marshall; ‘‘ General Psychology,” W. S. Hunter; ‘‘ Practical Geometry,” C. Godfrey and A. W. Siddons; and ‘‘The Elements of Analytical Conics,” Dr. C. Davison. The Library Press, Ltd., has nearly ready for inclusion in its Manufacturing Problem Series ‘‘The Management Problem,” E. T. Elbourne, and in preparation “The Reorganisation Problem,” J. E. Powell, and ‘‘The Workers’ Problem,” W. Wilkinson. The S.P.C.K. will publish ‘‘Woodcraft Scouting in Town and Suburb,” the Rev. W. Bren (‘Silver Wolf”). A cataLocue (No. 78) interesting not only by reason _of its contents, but also from the fact that many of the volumes offered for sale are from the libraries of the late Prof. T. McKenny Hughes and Mr. W. E. Balston, and that the geological portion of the library of Dr. Henry Woodward is included, has just been _ circulated by Messrs. Dulau and Co., Ltd., 34-36 Mar- _ the subjects of zoology, botany and horticulture, geo- raphy and travel. Many scarce books are on sale, but the majority of the volumes offered are obtain- _ able for reasonable prices. Reapers of Nature on the Icok-out for bargains in books for personal use or for presents would do well W. Heffer and Sons, Ltd., Cambridge. All the works listed are new copies, and the reductions in price NO, 2612, VOL. 104] in many cases remarkable. Most branches of litera- ture are represented, and many well-known books of science of comparatively recent publication are included. Mr. F. Epwarps, 83 High Street, Marylebone, W.1, has just published an_ illustrated Catalogue (No. 395) of valuable early English and foreign books. The sections most likely to appeal to readers of Nature are those referring to works dealing with Africa, America, Medicine, Herbals, Husbandry, and Natural History. THE Society of Glass Technology should have been included in the list of scientific societies founded in the last fifty years given in the jubilee issue of NATURE. The society was founded in November, 1916, and has 550 members. Its work has frequently received favourable notice in our columns. OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN, Larce Firesart.—On November 2, at 7.6 p.m., a fireball of considerable brilliancy was .seen by Mr. C. P. Adamson, of Wimborne, Dorset. Its observed flight was from 40°+7° to 51°+4°, and it had an extremely slow motion, its visible duration being care- fully estimated as five seconds. The nucleus left a short train behind it. The same object was observed by Dr. Cowper at Shanklin, Isle of Wight. The meteor was comparable with a football in regard to apparent size and shape. It fell in due east in a nearly vertical direction. From these details it is not possible to deduce exact values for the height, etc., and further observations are required. Probably the radiant was at 312°+14°; and the height, 56 to 29 miles; path, 39 miles; and velocity, 10 miles. The object was over France in the region 45 miles east of Boulogne, Comets.—Mr. Sassaki, of Kyoto, Japan, discovered a comet on October 25 in R.A. 20h. 17m. 20s., south declination 27° 11’, the G.M.T. being October 24d. 23h. It was reobserved on November 9 by M. Schaumasse at the Nice Observatory, and was then found to be identical with Finlay’s periodic comet, for which the Nice Observatory had already published a search ephemeris. As the comet’s period is close to 63 years, it is well placed every thirteen years, and usually escapes observation at the intervening return. On November 11 it approached the earth within some 15,000,000 miles, its apparent magnitude being 9-0. The following is an ephemeris for Greenwich mid. night :-— ‘ R.A. N, Decl. Log ~ Log A en SS ies O35 NOES EO 35 O 5 15 0:0606 9°3149 BE igre 4. 20 924 00713 9°3657 202s L283" 4 12 38 00818 9°4166 |B Fee | Ss are Ye eee 0:0920 9°4658 Deiny Dix Oo IS Lok 01020 9°5140 The following is a continuation of the ephemeris of Schaumasse’s periodic comet 1911 VII. for Greenwich midnight. The magnitude is about 12-5 :— R.A. N. Decl: Log Log A h m s. Paty Nov. 19 .... 13 15 41 2 32 o-1081 0:2671 Agia ER 28. 47 1 28 27... 13 4130 026 of198 0:2710 S. Decl. 12 opine GARD INK ea8 © 34 5 14 549 I 32 0°1329 0:2745 The above ephemerides do not claim great accuracy, and some sweeping may be necessary to find the comets, 322 NATURE ips f [NovEMBER 20, I919 Later.—The Finlay ephemeris needs corrections of —24m. R.A., —3° decl. M. Ebell gives the following orbit of Kopff’s comet 1g19a, from observations 1919 July 31, August 20, September 16 (Ast. Nach., 5016) :— T =1919 June 28'210 G.M.T, ® = 19° 43 510" ) §=263° 48’ 51°4” -1919'0 p == 30° 56 406" # =538'904" log a=0'545664 t= 8° 41'.30'1". Period =6°5841 years The. mean observed period between 1906 and 1919 is 65766 years. UNVEILING OF LISTER MEMORIAL TABLETS, Bee mention was made last week of the unveiling at University College, London, of two bas-relief tablets in memory of Lord Lister, one of the most distinguished alumni of the college. There were present the Duke of Bedford (president of the Lister Memorial Committee), the president of the Royal Society, the president of the Royal College of Surgeons, Sir William Lister, the Misses Lister, and Miss Godlee (relatives of the late Lord Lister), the Lister Memorial Tablet at University College, London. A similar tablet n secured for University College Hospital, where Lister was student and house surgeon in 1843-52. Vice-Chancellor of the University, the Provost of University College and Lady Foster, Sir John Brad- ford, Sir George Thane, Sir Thomas Barlow, Sir John Tweedy, Sir Ernest Hatch, and many others. The proceedings were opened by the Duke of Bedford, who referred to Lister’s connection with Uni- versity College, and commented upon the great value of Lister’s presence in the House of Lords. Before unveiling the tablet destined to be erected at University College Hospital, where Lister was once house surgeon, Sir George Makins outlined the main events of Lister’s life, the success of which was due to his thorough training as a student. Sir NO, 2612, VOL. 104] ry . Joseph Thomson unveiled the tablet for University — College. He said that Lister, one of the glories of British science, began his connection with the Royal — Society at the early age of thirty-three, when he was elected a fellow. During Lister’s five years’ tenure ofthe presidency of the society much excellent ad- ministrative work was carried out, and this epoch saw the inception of several famous biological inves- tigations organised by the society. The Provost (Sir Gregory Foster) then invited Sir Edwin Cooper Perry ; (the Vice-Chancellor), Sir George Thane, Sir Ernest Hatch, and Mr. Raymond Johnson to accept the tablets — 4 on behalf of the bodies they represented. Sir George Thane, in reply, mentioned that University College had _ that day been presented with one of Lister’s prizes re- ceived whilst a student, and he expressed the hope that — owners of Lister mementoes might present them to the college. On behalf of the memorial committee Sir John Tweedy conveyed the thanks of the sub- | scribers to the sculptor, Prof. Havard Thomas. — ere sak THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION AT BOURNEMOUTH. —— SECTION I. eae oy PHYSIOLOGY. osm! 4 OpeNING ADDRESS (ABSTRACTED) BY PRor. D, Noiit — Paton, M.D., F.R.S., PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION. In the advance of every science certain difficulties and dangers which must be encountered tend to make the progress of knowledge somewhat devious, some- what zigzag in character. Mies) (1) The study of the metabolism of proteins in the — animal body, especially when they are considered as a source of energy, illustrates this in a striking manner. Liebig’s teaching insisted on their prime importance. The investigations of Voit and of Fick — and Wislicenus—unsatisfactory as the latter were— caused a swing to the other extreme, to the view that carbohydrates, not proteins, are the main source wf energy. The work of Pfliiger and of his school brought about a temporary swing back to Liebig’s teaching. Only when it became possible to study the respiratory exchanges along with the excretion He nitrogen was a true knowledge gained of the relative importance of proteins and of the other two proximate principles. . (2) As regards the use of proteins in the buil and repair of the tissues, progress has been more eh and has ultimately led to the recognition of the im- portance of the constituent amino-acids as the “‘ building stones” of the proteins. In this connection the im- portance of the diamino-acids lysin, histidin, and arginin must be recognised. Their presence shown to be necessary for growth. The presence of guanidin in the arginin molecule requires more atten- tion than it has yet received. bE Tao has been Ley (3) An aspect of protein metabolism which has been — | more recently elucidated is the physiological activity of the constituent amino-acids in explaining the stimulat- _ ing action—the specific dynamic action—of_ proteins upon the general metabolism and upon heat p: The evidence of whether guanidin may be a product manifesting a physiological action in the body is worth of study. The investigations of Kossel and Dakin a1 the earlier work of Thompson do not negative the probability of the liberation of guanidin from in in muscle, while the more recent work of Inouye and of Thompson indicate that guanidin may be split off from arginin. The formation of guanidin, either free or combined, from: non-protein sources was de- monstrated by Burns to occur in the hen’s egg during : * uction, __ Novemser 20, 1919] NATURE $23 the first twelve days of incubation up to the time of the appearance of creatin. -That the cholin of the lecithin of the yolk is the precursor is rendered probable by the evidence adduced by Reisser and by Baumann ines and Marker that creatin is formed from cholin. _ That free methyl-guanidin is a normal constituent _ of muscle has been shown by the work of various in- _ vestigators, and these results have been confirmed re- cently by Henderson. It is a normal constituent of _ the urine, even of such animals as the horse, which _ lives upon a creatin-free diet. Guanidin and methyl-guanidin have marked physio- logical actions. They stimulate the efferent neurons of the spinal cord, causing tremors, jerkings, and extensor tonus. In large doses applied to the spinal cord, they paralyse. On the nerve-endings in muscle they have first a stimulating effect, so that the elec- trical excitability is increased, but later and in large doses they have a curare-like action. The symptoms are similar to those following ablation of the para- thyreoids and to those of idiopathic tetany in children. In the blood and in the urine of parathyreoid ectomised dogs and in the urine of children with tetany, Burns and Sharpe demonstrated an enormous increase in the amount of guanidin present, an increase to which Koch had previously directed attention. The conclusion seems to be that, under normal con- ditions, free methyl-guanidin maintains a tonic action on the efferent neurons and so on the muscles, and that the amount of guanidin is controlled by the parathyreoids. ; : ' The few observations so far made point to the ex- cretion unchanged of only a part of injected guanidin. A possible explanation of this seems to be that part is linked with acetic acid and so converted to creatin and then rendered inert. 4 Previous work on the formation of creatin from _ glycocyamin, guanidin acetic acid, renders this prob- able. Recently in my laboratory Wishart has found a _ distinct increase in the creatin content of the muscles after the injection of guanidin sulphate, thus proving _ the conversion. _ . The nature of the combination of creatin in muscle _ is not yet known. Folin maintains that creatin is an integral part of the muscle substance, and that it is _ liberated as muscle dies and disintegrates. Evidence _ of this is lacking, and some recent experiments by Wishart show that in muscle frozen during life and extracted near the freezing-point the creatin content _ is the same as in muscle treated in the usual way. _ Folin’s own work on the concentration of creatin in __ muscle does not seem to support his theory. _ In the light of these results and of this view of the _ mode of formation of creatin from guanidin, what 1s the significance of the creatin which appears in the urine? This problem may best be investigated in _ animals in which the question of the relationship of _ creatin to creatinin need not be considered. Meissner in 1868 maintained that this is the case in birds, and his conclusion I verified in 1910. It has since been further substantiated by the work of Thompson. In _ birds during fasting the excretion of creatin is in- creased, just as in mammals the excretion of the com- _ bined creatin and creatinin is generally increased. _ Myers and Fine claim that the creatin excreted is _ derived from the creatin present in muscle at the be- ginning of the fast, while Stanley Benedict and Oster- _ berg maintain that there is a constant fresh formation _ of creatin. The experimental basis of the latter con- elusion seems to be unsubstantial, since they adminis- _ tered protein containing arginin and therefore guani- _ diri, from which the creatin might have been formed. _ In 1910 I maintained that, from the amount of NO. 2612, VOL. 104] creatin excreted by the bird during a fast, the amount of muscle disintegrated might be calculated. Whether the liberated creatin is simply excreted, or whether its resynthesis into muscles is prevented, the amount in the urine indicates the breakdown and non-regenera- tion of muscle, i.e. the actual disintegration. Hence a study of the relationship of the creatin nitrogen to the total nitrogen excreted enables a conclusion to be drawn as to whether the loss is falling chiefly upon muscle or upon other organs of the body. A study of the metabolism of the bird in fasting shows that such conclusions may be drawn, and, accepting Folin’s most recent view of the significance of urinary creatin and creatinin, the excretion of the nitrogen in these sub- stances, taken along with the total excretion of nitrogen, affords a means of elucidating further the progress of protein metabolism in fasting. The work of Cathcart and others seems to show that creatin, in the presence of carbohydrates,:-may be re- synthesised into the muscle substance. This in no way invalidates the view that it is formed to detoxicate guanidin. Lecithin, which is undoubtedly used in the construction of the tissues, plays a like part in de- toxicating cholin. As regards the relationship of creatin to creatinin, in spite of the very considerable literature which has appeared upon the subject, our knowledge has advanced little since the time of Meissner. The mass of evi- dence seems to favour the view ‘that the creatinin daily excreted is derived from the creatin of muscle, but that the power of conversion is very limited, and that it varies in different individuals and ‘in different species of animal. j The considerations here adduced’ seem to point to the conclusions :—(1) That creatin is formed from excess guanidin or methyl-guanidin in order to limit the toxic action of these; (2) that it is to a limited extent stored in muscle, any excess being excreted in the urine, either unchanged as in the bird, or in the form of creatinin in the mammal; (3) that during fasting and in the absence of carbohydrates’ it is liberated as the muscle disintegrates; and (4) that it may be re- combined into the muscle molecule if the supply of carbohydrates is adequate. © , RADIOTELEGRAPHY DURING THE SOLAR ECLIPSE OF MAY 29.1 iy connection with the solar eclipse of May 29 the committee arranged for the carrying out of ex- periments on the effect of the eclipse on signals trans- mitted: across the central line. The British Admiralty stations ,at-Ascension and the Azores transmitted con- tinuously during the transit of the umbra across the Atlantic Ocean. Observing stations north. of the equator were for the most part asked to listen to Ascension for at least an hour round about the time when the umbra passed. between themselves and Ascension; observers south of the equator were asked for the most part to listen to the Azores. Certain selected stations north of the equator were also asked to listen to the Azores, so as to afford check observa- tions upon the variations which might be observed in signals passing across the central line of the eclipse, and, similarly, selected stations south of the central line were asked to listen to Ascension. The American station at Sayville also transmitted a programme during a portion of the period of the eclipse, and arrangements were made for special experiments between Darien and the Falklands, and between an Egyptian station and a South African station, 1 Report of a Committee of the British Association presented to Section A at the Bournemouth meeting, September 1919. Fn ik LE + 324 NATURE [NovEMBER 20, 1919 The main portion of the experiment hinged upon Ascension. The umbral cone passed from west to east, and was expected to affect in succession the strength in which signals were received at such Stations as Demerara, Jamaica, the stations on the coast of the United States and Canada, stations in Ireland, England, France, Italy, the Mediterranean, and Egypt. The shadow of the moon struck the earth first at dawn on’the coast of South America and swept across the continent in the course of half an hour, at first ‘with enormous velocity, but losing speed as_ the Atlantic ‘Ocean was approached. About the middie of the Atlantic Ocean and near the equator the speed of the shadow was about one-third of a mile per second. On crossing the African continent from the Gulf of Guinea to the Mozambique Channel the speed gradually increased, and the eclipse finished at sunset near Madagascar. The effects of the moving shadow were investigated under three heads :— 1) Strays. 2) Signals not crossing the denser parts of the shadow. (3) Signals crossing through or near the umbra. Strays. These were bad on the day of the eclipse and on the preceding day in Europe, North America, and temperate latitudes on the Atlantic Ocean. They were very few in Central and South America and in the central equatorial Atlantic. In Central America the conditions were exceptional meteorologically, the day having less rain than nearly every day of the pre- ceding three weeks. The preliminary survey of the results recorded throughout the part of the globe reaching from Constantinople to Rio de Janeiro sug- gests that there was no outstanding occurrence in regard to frequency or intensity of strays that could be directly ascribed to the passage of the shadow. Signals not Traversing the Dense Shadow. Many observations were made in northern Europe and America on the signals from the Azores, which were arc-signals of 4700 metres wave-length. The observing points extended from Berlin through Hol- land, France, Italy, Spain, and Great Britain to stations near the Atlantic coast of the United States. There were no unusual variations in the strength of the signals from the Azores. Another class of experiment comes under this head- ing. It was suggested by the effect sometimes ob- served at sunset or sunrise, in which the twilight band when on one side of a transmitting station appears to strengthen as if by reflection the waves received at a station on the other side of the transmitting station. In order to test whether such reflections occurred during an eclipse certain stations on the south of the central line of the eclipse were asked to listen to Ascension, which was also south of the central line. The stations at Durban and Port Nolloth (South- West Africa) found no trace of the effect, and, in fact, the former concluded that the signals from Ascension were rather worse after the eclipse began. An analogous experiment on.the northern side was carried out by one of the Malta stations and also at Rosvth, listening to Cairo, with similar conclusions. : Effect of Signals Passing across the Central Line. . Arrangements. were made for .the transmission of signals from the Darien station of the Panama Canal zone, and several stations in South America attempted to receive the signals. The revort from the Falldand Islands has not yet come to hand, and the other Stations in South America did not succeed in picking NO, 2612. VOL.. 104 | up the signals. The only observation made on the earlier stages of the eclipse are those of Demerara — listening to Ascension. ° Fluctuations in signal — strength are reported, but no steady increase or de-— crease in strength. Ships at sea within the penumbra — report a strengthening of all signals during the eclipse. e most Mts results were obtained at some of — the stations in France, Malta, and Teneriffe. At Meudon and at Rousillon the signals from Ascension — were received practically only while the eclipse was in — progress. Both Malta and Teneriffe found that the — eclipse produced a great improvement in the te of signals. On the other hand, Durban was Ne to pick up Cairo, though this is usually possible, but — Aden was picked up with greater intensity than normal. On the whole, the records show that the — improvement in signal ‘strength reached its highest value long before-the umbra intervened between the stations, and this value persisted after the umbra had — passed; that is to say, if ionising processes are the — cause of the change in the strength of signals, the — results indicate that the processes are practically fully — accomplished in a given region of the air before the arrival of the umbra at that place, so that there — appears to be nothing left for the umbra to do in the few minutes of complete shadow it brings. | a The thanks of the committee are due especially to — the Admiralty for arranging that their stations at — Ascension and the Azores should transmit the neces- — sary signals, and also to the American Government — for making similar arrangements regarding Sayville and Darien. Thanks are due also to the (ae French, and Italian Governments, the Admiralty, the War Office, the Air Ministry, and Marconi’s Wire- less Telegraph Co., Ltd., for undertaking va and recording the variations in signal strength. — UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL INTELLIGENCE. f : CAMBRIDGE.—The council of the Senate reports that, after consultation: with Sir W. J. Pope, it is con- sidered desirable to establish a professorship of — physical chemistry, the stipend of 1oool. per annum to be furnished out of the benefaction of the British Oil Companies. ge bree Se The General Board of Studies has recommended the appointment of Mr. A. Amos, of Downing College, as University lecturer in agriculture. This appoiat- — ment is proposed in view of the new scheme of study in agriculture, extending over three years, and the — large increase of students in the department of agri- _ culture. pat Giascow.—President Poincaré was installed as Rector of the University on November 14, and de- — livered his rectorial address in English to an assembly of four thousand students and other members and — friends of the University in St. Andrews Hall. The proceedings were conducted in admirable order, the — students recognising that M. Poincaré was not oe their Rector, but also the honoured chief of an Allied State, visiting this country as_ his Moje a : The Vice-Chancellor, Sir Donald MacAlister, KCB. conferred on him the degree of LL.D. honoris causa — before the installation. The Vice-Chancellor wore the Cross of Commander of the Legion of Honour, with which the President had privately invested him before the public ceremony. , At a meeting of the University Court held after: — wards, the Rector in the chair, a number of important gifts to the University were announced. Among them were contributions amounting to about 20,0001. for the erection of a memorial chapel in commemoration NovEMBER 20, 1919 | f£ graduates and students who had fallen in the war; al ¢ 20001. from Mr. Bonar Law and other heirs of the late Mr. J. R. K. Law, of Glasgow, for the founda- tion of a gre acer studentship in applied science, to be held by bachelors of science pursuing advanced study or research at universities or scientific institu- tions in Canada, the United States, or France. The - Rector was also asked to accept, on behalf of the _ French Government, a collection of about 500 volumes, __ chiefly Scottish, illustrative. of the ancient Franco- Scottish alliance. These had been contributed by ' members of the University as a fraternal gift to the _ University of Nancy, in M. Poincaré’s native pro- vince of Lorraine, the library of which had been completely destroyed by a German incendiary bomb in October, 1918, a. few days before the armistice. The Rector accepted the gift, and presented to the _ University of Glasgow a fine Sévres vase for the _ Hunterian Museum as a souvenir of his visit. In the afternoon President Poincaré was made an honorary freeman of the City of Glasgow. E Mr. John T. Cargill has offered the Universitv a gift of 20,000l. to found a chair of applied physics. Dr. R. H. Pickarp, F.R.S., principal of the Muni- _ cipal Technical School, Blackburn, has been appointed principal of the Battersea Polytechnic. 7 Mrs. Marta Loutsa Meptey has bequeathed 2o,oo00l. to the University of Oxford to be applied for a George Webb Medley scholarship for the promotion of the study of political economy. _ _ Lorp Mirner, Secretary of State for the Colonies, _ has appointed a Committee to consider whether the _ staff of the Agricultural Departments in the Colonial Services is adequate, and, if necessary, to recommend _ increases of staff; to consider whether the rates of _ salary offered to the agricultural staff are adequate, and, if necessary, to suggest improvements; and to _ make recommendations for improving the arrange- ments for recruiting ‘agricultural staffs for the _ Colonies. The members of the Committee are :—Sir _ Herbert Read, Assistant Under-Secretary, Colonial _ Office (chairman); Lt.-Col. Sir David Prain, director of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew; Sir Henry _ Birchenough, chairman of the Empire Cotton-growing _ Committee; Prof. J. B. Farmer, professor of botany, Imperial College of Science; Sir Francis Watts, Imperial Commissioner of Agriculture for the West Indies; Major R. D. Furse, Assistant Private Secre- _ tary (Appointments), Colonial Office; and Mr. F. L. _ Sidebotham, of the Colonial Office (secretary). _ Tue KincG has approved the appointment of Royal _ Commissioners to consider the applications which have _ been made by the Universities of Oxford and Cam- bridge for financial assistance from the State, and for _ this purpose to inquire into the financial resources of the Universities and of the colleges and halls therein, into the administration and application of these re- _ sources, into the government of the Universities, and _ into the relations of the colleges and halls to the Universities and to each other, and to make recom- mendations. The Commissioners constitute one body, _ but are authorised to sit for purposes of inquiry in three separate committees. ‘They consist of the fol- lowing :— Chairman of Commission: Mr. H. H. _ Asquith. Oxford Committee: Mr. H. H. Asquith - (chairman), Lord Chalmers, Sir John A. Simon, the _ Very Rev. T. B. Strong (Dean of Christ Church, Oxford), Sir H. A. Miers (Vice-Chancellor of Man- chester University), Prof. W. H. Bragg (Quain pro- _ fessor of physics in London University), Prof..W. G. S. _ Adams (Gladstone professor of political theory and stitutions, Oxford), Miss Emily Penrose: (Principal NO, 2612, VOL. 104] NATURE 325 of Somerville College, Oxford), and Mr. Albert Mans« bridge. Cambridge Committee: Mr. G. W. Balfour (chairman), Mr. Arthur Henderson, Sir W. Morley Fletcher (fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge), Sir Horace Darwin, Mr. G..M. Trevelyan, Dr. H. K. Anderson (Master of Gonville and Caius College, Cam- bridge), Miss B. A. Clough (Vice-Principal of Newn- ham College, Cambridge), Dr. Montagu R. James ie of Eton College), and Prof. A. Schuster secretary of the Royal Society). Commitiee on Estates Management: Lord Ernle (chairman), the Hon. Edward Strutt, Sir Howard Frank, Sir A iis = Oakley (past-president of the Surveyors’ Institution), and Mr. H. M. Cobb (fellow and member of the council of the Surveyors’ Institution). The secretary of the Commission is Mr. C. L. Stocks. There are three assistant secretaries, namely :—For the Oxford Committee, Mr. Marcus N. Tod, fellow and tutor of Oriel College, Oxford; for the Cambridge Committee, Mr. Edward Bullough, fellow of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge; and for the Estates Committee, Mr. C. B. Marshall. The offices of the Commission Lonpon. Physical Society, October 24.—Prof. C. H. Lees, president, in the chair—Dr. N. W. McLachlan: The effect of pressure and temperature on a meter for measuring the rate of flow of a gas. The theory of an instrument for measuring the rate of flow -of a gas is outlined, the effects of variation in the temperature and pressure of the gas being taken into consideration. This theory is tested experimentally for pressures varying from 1250 to 250 mm. Hg, and for tempera- tures from 10° C. to 100° C.. It is found to be fairly accurate. The results are applied to the measurement of the rate of flow of gas on an aeroplane in the upper atmosphere, where a_ reduction in temperature and pressure is encountered. It is shown that the instru- ment reading for a certain N.T.P. volume of gas depends on the altitude, but that this volume can be: “obtained by using a correction factor.—Capt. J. H. Shaxby: A cheap and simple microbalance. he in- strument, devised for bacteriological use, had to be cheap and moderately robust. It consists of a long horizontal fibre joining the lower ends of two vertical beams, each pivoted very little above its centre of mass. A small weight acting at the middle of. the fibre thus causes a considerable depression. This is read off by arranging a slider on a vertical millimetre scale about 2 ft. in front, so that the middle of the fibre and a second short fibre placed just behind it are in line with a “peephole’”’ on the slider. Adjustment is provided for quickly and largely altering the sensi- tiveness. The deflections are converted to masses by the use of calibrating weights. The apparatus is built up from a ‘‘Meccano’’ set.—J. W. T. Walsh: The resolution of a curve into a number of exponential components. The paper gives a method for the resolu- tion of a curve of the compound exponential form na B= 3a,e°™? into its components, the values of a and 1 dX for the. n different, exponential terms being found from 2m values of. B. equidistant, along the. axis of t. A method is also given for finding the most probable yalues of these constants from any number.(>2n) of observed values of B taken at irregular intervals of t Aristotelian Society, November 3.—Prof. James Ward) president, in the chair.—The President: !naugural ad dress ; In the beginning . : . The problem that the uni- s 326 NATURE [NovEMBER 20, 1919 verse sets us is an inverse problem. But the two most distinguished philosophers amongst us, starting from the Absolute as their criterion, declare the whole world as we know it, including ourselves, as infected with con- tradictions, which are only resolved in the Absolute. Precisely how resolved we do not know, and never can know. But at least everything is blended and transformed into one perfect experience in which no finite centres of experience as such are respected or retained, Is the Absolute, then, making sport of us, it is asked, since the untransformed, discrepant ‘‘ appear- ances,”’ it would seem, must ever remain to perplex us? No, it is replied; for these appearances are the Absolute’s revelation to us. Moreover, in the unifica- tion of our originally disjointed experiences which underlies all human. development, and again in the ever-increasing mutual ‘transparency ’’ of formally distinct individuals—who are thereby ever more and more enabled to think and feel and act as one—we can see the beginning of the process that in the Abso- - lute is eternally accomplished. But, it was rejoined, the progress of knowledge shows no sign of reducing the categories of thought to the mere “adjective’’ with which, perhaps, it began. Nor does our advance to a higher unity show any tendency to replace stability and originality of character by mere ‘‘con- nections of content.’’ In conclusion, it was urged that it is hopeless to attempt to begin from the point of view which only a completed philosophy could occupy. To advance continuously and be coherent— that should be our golden rule. The whole procedure would be tentative—that must always be the case with inverse problems. Crises, too, there would be again, as in the past; but such crises, after all, would only be cases of ‘‘sloughing an outgrown skin,’’ not of radical disease. Philosophy on the whole had _ pro- gressed; and so long as it followed the method which Nature herself observes—to make no leaps—why should it not progress still? Mineralogical Society, November 4 (Anniversary Meet- ing).—Sir William P. Beale, Bart., president, in the chair, —Dr. W. R. Schoeller and A. R. Powell: Villamaninite, ‘a new mineral. The new mineral, which occurs, dis- seminated in black grains and plates, with a distinct cleavage, and in small nodules with a radially fibrous structure, in a crystalline dolomite near Villamanin, Carmenes district, Leén province, Spain, has probably a composition corresponding with (Cu, Ni,Co,Fe){S,Se).. Its streak is sooty-black, hardness 43, and specific gravity 4:4-4-5; it is opaque.—A. Russell: The occur- rence of phenakite and scheelite at Wheal Cock, St. Just, Cornwall. The author found good specimens of these minerals in 1914 at Wheal Cock, which is the locality whence came the crystal (undoubtedly phena- kite) described by Sowerby in 1804 as argilla electrica or white tourmaline. Phenakite was not known until 1833 as a distinct species.—L. J. Spencer : New crystal- forms on pyrites, calcite, and epidote. On pyrites the dyakis-dodecahedron (641) occurs as large, well- developed faces on five specimens, one of them from Traversella, Piedmont, and the others from coal- shales of unknown locality. On 424 crystallised speci- mens of pyrites in the British Museum. collection, 35 crystal-forms were noted. Faces of the cube are present on 76-6 per cent. of the specimens, the octa- hedron on 62-7 per cent., the pentagonal-dodecahedron (210) on 54-7 per cent., and the dvakis-dodecahedron (321) on 36:1 per cent. As simple forms, not in com- bination with other forms, they are represented by 12, 2, 2%, and $ per cent. respectively. The decomposition of specimens of pyrites in collections was discussed. Calcite, a clear scalenohedral crystal, probably from Iceland, consists of a combination of the two scaleno- hedra (201) and (12.0.7), both largely developed, and NO, 2612, VOL. 104] ‘crystal-forms.—Dr. G. F. Herbert Smith: A curious with an angle of only 43° between correspondi faces. Epidote, a crystal, probably from Ala, Pied. mont, closely resembling in appearance the yellow prismatic crystals of anatase, carries a minute face _ (134) (Dana’s orientation) in addition to twenty other — crystal from the Binnental. The crystal, which was _ found with a few loose sartorite crystals in the Trech- mann collection, is twinned and tabular in habit, and — shows signs of corrosion. The symmetry is peculiar, — since, although a face occurs at right angles to the — prism edge, it is neither a plane nor a pole of sym- — metry, and the crystal appears to represent a new species of sulpharsenite. eee a MANCHESTER. cal et be Literary and Philosophical Society, October 7-—Mr. 4 Francis Jones, vice-president, in the chair.—Sir Henry A. Miers: The future of the Manchester — Literary and Philosophical Society. Attention was especially directed to the urgent need in societies for informal discussions, a work performed by such socie- — ties in their pioneer days. With the increase of scientific knowledge the tendency has been for scientific people to segregate into special groups. Asa result: of — this, the papers read at modern specialist societies are _ calculated to appeal only to experts. A reaction is indicated by recent attempts at co-operation between the humanities and sciences. Great work could be done by making the most recent advances in science _ understood by those who were not experts, and by promoting meetings at which new ideas can be expressed in language intelligible to all. There is — danger of a scientific hierarchy, and of a cleavage between specialists and amateurs. Investigators might be encouraged to give popular expositions of their — own discoveries to a general audience, in addition to the more severely scientific paper intended for pub- lication. sta Es Paris. Academy of Sciences, October 27.—M. Léon Guignard in the chair.—C. Moureu and A. Lepape: ‘The stabilisation of acrolein. An empirical method of stabilisation. The crude aldehyde is shaken with 10 per cent. of its weight of dry sodium bicarbonate. The acidity is reduced to 5 per cent. of its original value, and the acrolein so produced is mee stable.—A. Chatelet: Hypercomplex numbers with — associative and commutative multiplication.—E. T. Bell: Particular representations by some quadratic forms of Liouville.—P. Chevenard: The viscosity of steels at high temperatures. A chrome-nickel steel — wire was maintained at a constant temperature in an — atmosphere of nitrogen, and the elongation under a fixed load measured photographically as a function of the time.—H. Vanderlinden ; Observations of Borrelly’s — comet 1919¢c. Measurements were made at the Royal — Belgian Observatory at Uccle on October 18, 22, and 23. On October 22 the comet appeared as a nebulosity of 1’ diameter. The nucleus was clear, and of m a tude about 9.—J. Volmat: The application of aerial — photography to hydrographic surveys. Pho’ from ‘an aeroplane of the sea-floor in the neighbour- — hood of Brest proved the great possibilities of this method of marine surveying. Several points of rock which had escaped previous careful surveys were dis- covered with ease.—L. Majorana: Experiments on gravitation.—E. Perucca: Plane waves laterally in- definite, with pendular vibrations, which reflection and refraction associate with one or two given analogous systems of incident waves.—H. Muraour: The com- parison of explosion temperatures calculated starting from the specific heats with those calculated starting NoveMBER 20, 1919] NATURE 327 _ with the explosive pressures.—M. Chelle: The trans- formation of hydrocyanic acid into thiocyanic acid in the course of cadaveric putrefactions; experiments _ made in vitro. In putrefactive phenomena hydrocyanic acid is in part transformed into thiocyanate. In some - experiments in vitro with known quantities of cyanide added to normal blood, after ten days the hydrocyanic acid had apparently disappeared, but could be almost wholly recovered by oxidising the thiocyanate formed. —L. Joleaud: The tectonic of the neighbourhood of Tilouanet (Oran).—C. E. Brazier: The relations of the wind with gradient in the lower layers of the atmo- sphere.—J. Ubach: Observations made at Buenos Aires during the annular eclipse of the sun of Decem- ber 3, 1918. Details of variations of the magnetic _ The influence of the conditions of the medium on the slarve of Palaemonetes varians microgenitor.—J. Nageotte: Osteogenesis in grafts of dead cartilage.— A. Paillot: Karyokinetosis; mew facts and general considerations.—A. Marie, C. Levaditi, and G. Banu: New attempts to transmit the treponeme of general paralysis to the rabbit. BOOKS RECEIVED. The Physiology of Muscular Exercise. F. A. Bainbridge. Pp. ix+215. and Co.) tos. 6d. net. 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By. Prof. L. C. Karpinski, Prof. H. Y. Benedict, and Prof. J. W. Cathoun. Pp. viii+ 522. (London: G. G. Harrap and Co., Ltd.) tos. 6d, net. . Groundwork of Surgery. (For First-Year Students.) By A. Cooke. Pp. viii+ 183. (Cambridge: W. Heffer and Sons,. Ltd.) Riicklaufige Differenzierung und Entwicklung. By A. Cohen-Kysper. Pp. 85. (Leipzig: J. A. Barth.) 3 marks. Handbook of Mineralogy, Blowpipe Analysis, and Geometrical Crystallography. By Prof. G. M. Butler. Pp. ix+311; v+80; viiit155. (New York: J. Wiley and Sons, Inc.; London: Chapman and Hall, Ltd.) 16s. 6d. net. : An Introduction to Theoretical and Applied Colloid Chemistry. By Dr. W. Ostwald. Translated by Prof. M. H. Fischer. Pp. xv+232. (New York: J. Wiley and Sons, Inc.; London: Chapman and Hall, Ltd.) 11s. 6d. net. i The Chemistry of Colloids. By Prof. R. Zsigmondy and Prof. E. B. Spear. And a Chapter on Colloidal Chemistry and Sanitation. By Dr. J. F. Norton. Pp. viit+288. (New York: J. 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(New York: The Macmillan Co.; London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd.) 10s. 6d. net. Profit _and Sport in British East Africa: Being a Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged, of ‘A Colony in. the Making.” By Capt. the Lord Cranworth. Pp. xvi+503. (London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd.) 21s. net. A ied be Rendered of Work Done and Things Seen. J. Y. Buchanan. Po. lviit+435+3 plates. (Cam- oe At the University Press.) 21s. net. - Paleontology : Invertebrate. By H. Woods. Fifth edition. Pp. “viii+4r1, (Cambridge: At the Univer- sitv Press.) 12s. 6d. net: A Geogravhical Bibliography of British Ornithology from the Earliest Times to the End of tarts. By W. H. Mullens, H. Kirke Swann, and Rev. F. C. R. Jourdain. Part i. Pp. 96. (London: Witherby and Co.) 6s. net. The Art of Anzsthesia. By Dr. P. T. Flagg. Second edition Pp. xviii+267. (Philadelohia and London: J. B. Livpincott Co.) 18s. net. Atlas of Operative Gynxcolosv. Bv Prof. B. C. Hirst. Pp vi+202. (Philadelphia and London: J. B. Linvincott Co.) os. net. The Mvysterv of Easter Island: The Storv of an Expedition. By. Mrs. Scoreshy Routledge. Pn: xxi+ 4e4. (London :: Sifton, Praed, and Co., Ltd.) ars. 6d. net. DIARY OF SOCIETIES: THURSDAY, NovemBER 20. Roya Society, at 4.30.—W. J. Johnston: A Linear Associative Algebra suitable for Electro- ‘magnetic Relations and the Theory of Relativity. —Sir Joseph Larmor: Note on Mr. W. J. Jobnston’s Calculus for Generalised Relativity.—G. E. Bairsto : On the Variation with Frequency of the Conductivity and Disleee Constant of Dielectrics for High Frequency Oscillations.—F. J: W. Whipple : Equal Parallel Cylindrical Conductors in, Electrical Problems.—G. A. Schott: The Scattering of X- and y-Rays by Rings of Electrons. A Crucial Test’ of the Electron Ring Theory of Atoms. Royai. Sociziy ofr MEpIcInE (Dermatology Section), at, 4. 30.—Cases } Dr. Bunch: Case of Linear Morphcocra.—Dr. MacLeod : (1) Melanotic Lesion on Sole of Foot ; 3 (2) Case for Diagnosis.—Dr. Barber: (x) Case ‘for Diagnosis - Blastomycosis (23. (2) Erythrodermie Congenitale Ichtyosiforme. Linnean Soctety, at 5.—K. Patten: Plants collected: in Mesopotamia and in“Southern India.—C: C. Lacaita: Orchis, maculata from Monte Gargans, Italy.—Dr..G._C. Druce:. ‘Iwo New British Plants.—Miss Trower: Paintings of British Rwdii—Prof. R.C. McLean: Sex and Soma. InstTituTION OF MINING AND METALLURGY (at Geological Society), at 5/30.—H. L. Sulman: A Contribution to the Study of Flotation. Cuitp Stupy Society (at Royal Sanitary Institute), at 6.—Dr. D. Forsyth: The Pre-School Girl. CHenicAt Society (and Informal Meeting), at 8. FRIDAY, Novemper 21. Hoven Society oF MEDICINE (Otology Section), at 5.—H. Tilley Presidential Address—A Plea for the Better Education of the Medical ‘Student in Oto-Rhino-Laryngology. LnstiruTion: oF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS, at 6.—C. G. Conradi: The Present Position of Mechanical Road Traction. InstiTuTION oF EtecrricaL EnGineers (Students’ Meeting) (at the 6 ret and Guilds (Engineering) College), at 7.—A. P. Tro: ter: Opening ress. NO, 2612, VOL. 104] . in I TUTION OF ENGINEERS (at Royal Society of Arts), at Fi Motes Jusniru or MEDICINE ar Obtaining Mor ties son. at ee ‘Dr. G. B. Batten : Apparatus for taining wae ve 3 Static Modalities from a Coil.— Major G. Cooper: The Artificial smal tion of Muscle, with Demonstration of a New Form of Faradic Coll. A Fa 5 gh sie 24. Oia Fund. TUESDAY, NovEMbER 25. ItLuminatinG ENGINEERING Society (at Royal Society-of Arts at 530. —L. Gaster : The Works of Lambert.—The Hon. Secretary : Progress. : Twerrersion or Civit Recluse He ei Meeting), at 5.30.—H. H. r. Gordon: Metropolitan Road an ail Traffic. - Rovat ANTHROPOLOGICAL INSTITUTION, at 8.15.—Dr. W. Strong : Some Personal Experiences in British New Guinea. oy a WEDNESDAY, Novemser 26. RovaL UNITED yin INsTITUTION, at 3.—Maj.-Gen. Sir George | Aston : Combined rations. Rovat Society oF Axts, at 4.30.—Dr. H. B. Morse: British Trade ins China. 1 Wire ess Sociery or LONDON (at Institution of Civil Engineers), ao : J. Scott-Taggart : A System for the Reception of Continuous Waves. Royat ArronauticaL Society (at Royal cif of Arts), at r BAG. Brewer: Some Kite-Balloon Experiments. THURSDAY, NovemBer me Rovat CoLuKGE or SurGcEons, at 3.—Annual Meeting of Fellows and Members. INSTITUTION OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERS (at Institution of Civil Engineers), at 6.—C. C. Paterson, J. W. T. Walsh, A. K. Taylor, and W. ‘ Carbon Arcs for Searchlights. FRIDAY, November 28. - PuysicaL Society, at 5.—Discussion on Lubrication. bee by. aay Dr. T. E. Stanton, Speakers include Princi Misnyytand Bs ee c F. W. Lanchester, and H. M. Martin.- sitors are in Meeting. CONTENTS... (217: ant = Vertebrate Embryology. ByS.J.H... . ie The Rarer Elements. By J. H. Gardiner . . Race and Nationality. By Prof. A. Keith, ERS. SAN Eee Our Bookshelf . ; oe Letters to the editor +25 Percussion Figures in Isotropic Solids. (Iltustrated.) —James Weir French. pee The Breeding of the King Penguin.—T.. H. Gillespie on A Helium Series in the Extreme Ultra-Violet.— Tneodore Lyman i by three important colleges at Cambridge of « ploying a common estate office con E the School of Agriculture. The pr of awarding scholarships, the subject | degrees, the finances of the women’ and the cost of living of the average U to be decided. Whatever may ‘be ‘ee purse their deliberations, however, it is clear that ( bridge will not be encouraged, as it mig been under another type of Commission, its national function as a home of merely of technical ingiencliias t the Commission may have will lie, not ii best sense, but in a rather conservativ and an inability to understand the urgency really radical changes, in an insufficient appre 5 tion of the needs and demands of the great labour ee ing. classes of the country, and in lack of unde standing of the point of view of the “ae generation, ' The Principles underlying ‘Radio-commanaa n Radio Pamphlet No. 40. December 10, Signal Corps, U.S. Army. Pp. 355. a ington: Government Printing Office, 191 Price 55 cents. @ Bat book has been prepared by the Buren ‘ of Standards, Washington, under the direc- r tion of the Chief ‘Signal Officer of the Training — NovVEMBER 27, 1919] NATURE 331 Section of the United States Army. It gives an __accurate survey of the theory of electromagnetism _ with special stress on its application to practical _ radio-communication. Very little mathematical knowledge is assumed on the part of the reader, and the familiar analogies given will be a great help to beginners. _ vésumé of elementary electricity and the working of dynamos. In the third chapter radio-circuits are described, stress being laid on coupled circuits, oscillations, damping and effective resist- ance. The fourth chapter describes electro- magnetic waves, and the academic theorist will be surprised at the simplicity and accuracy of the transmission formule used in practice. Descrip- tions of the best types of antennz and of open and closed coil aerials are also given. In chap. v. the apparatus used in transmission and reception is described, and it is carefully stated which is suitable for ‘damped and which for undamped waves. Chap. vi., the final chapter in the book, _ will be very helpful to many, as it gives an excel. lent account of the various types of vacuum tubes now in use. By means of the characteristic curves the working of the three-electrode tube is simply explained. Its use as an amplifier, modulator, and generator of oscillations is fully described. The _ method of connecting vacuum tubes in cascade is also given. _. Many fail to recognise how easy it is to detect _ radio-waves, and how simple is the necessary _ apparatus. For damped waves, all that is re- quired is a telephone receiver, a rectifier (crystal _ “detector,” or, better, a vacuum tube), and a _ tuning coil. It seems to us to be foolish for the _ Post Office to keep up the comedy of pretending _ to regulate the use of such sets. Now that the _ licences to technical colleges have been formally _ withdrawn it would be politic to issue new ones _ without any further delay. _ The latest developments of radio-communication make the subject of absorbing interest to the engineer and the man of science. For instance, _ the power involved in the sound-waves generated in ordinary speech is of the order of the hundred- _ millionth of a watt, and yet in radio-telephony this controls several ‘thousands of watts, the alter- _ hating currents being at radio frequency. In the _ pre-war days the use of crystal rectifiers intro- _ duced an element of uncertainty into everyday _ working. This was ®ercome by the Fleming valve, which is now replaced by the three-elec- ' trode. vacuum tube. For measurement purposes _ the vacuum tube is far superior to the “buzzer ” -as a source of oscillations. If several tubes are used in the same circuit,: and each tube has its own battery, then the amplitude and frequency of the current-waves can be made practically con- stant. _ There are very many interesting and novel facts > given which will be of great value to the radio _ engineer. The book can be heartily recommended to every man of science who wishes to know the latest practical developments. A. R: NO, 2613, VOL. 104] The first and second chapters give a_ clear ROUND THE WREKIN. Shropshire: The Geography of the County. By Prof. W. W. Watts. Pp. x+254. (Shrews- bury: Wilding: and Son, Ltd., 1919.) Price 2s. 6d. net. HROPSHIRE, in its combination of moun- tain and plain, in the varied flow and scenery of its river, for which the whole county serves as catchment basin, in the extent of its stratified rocks from pre-Cambrian to Lias, in their yield of coal, building-stones, metals, and workable clays, lends itself admirably to treat- -ment by a geographer who is also a geologist, and it is needless to say that Prof. Watts, whose geological studies of the county alone or in con- junction with Prof. Lapworth have been a guide to so many, avails himself thoroughly of the opportunity. The rich and beautiful forests, the meres, and the rocky uplands support a multiform assemblage of birds. The more important among these and other animals are noted, but it might have been mentioned that a complete series of the vertebrate fauna has been collected and placed on exhibition by Mr..H. E. Forrest in the Shrews- bury Museum. The diversified agriculture and the numerous industries down to the making of “churchwardens’’ are briefly correlated with rocks and soil. But Prof. Watts recognises that the great interest of Shropshire lies in its human inhabitants and their history. Though Palzolithic man has left no trace in the county, his Neolithic suc- cessors are known, not merely from their weapons, stone circles, and barrows, but from their many descendants in the present population. The Brythons, who became the Cymry to themselves, the Welsh to their enemies, are now represented by about one-tenth of the inhabitants. Their coracle is still used by Severn fishermen. It was the struggle between them and the English com- pound of Angles and Normans that so long made Shrewsbury a city of prime importance. All this eventful history and its relation to the physical features is clearly summarised by Prof. Watts. The beautiful half-timbered houses of the fifteenth, sixteenth, and seventeenth centuries are famous, but such stone mansions as those of Benthall and Condover, such castles as Stokesay, Ludlow, and Shrewsbury, and the fine ecclesi- astical architecture of Buildwas, Wenlock, Lud- low, and Shrewsbury, receive description and illustration so far as space admits. A chapter on the place-names is of peculiar interest, and the sections on communications and the origins of the chief towns are excellent lessons in political geo- graphy. Coloured physical and geological maps form the end-papers of the book. There is an index, but it has not helped a re- viewer fresh from his home-county to find the explanation of “ Meole, ” the meaning of the “ Weeping Cross,” the origin of Bomer and similar “pools,” or any reference to the ‘‘ Burries ” or Burgs of Bayston Hill. Farquhar’s “ Recruit- ing Sergeant ” might be worth a line. A Salopian Acer ni eee ere RC a A SEW LRN SIA REE RO AON S Aine a Sie WEL ld NT 337 ‘ NATURE [NoveMBER 27, 1919 also may suggest that the hills once studied by Prof. Watts should be called “the Breidden,” not “the Breiddens.” But these remarks are not criticisms. The book will prove a charming and trustworthy companion to any observant traveller in the beautiful native county of Charles Darwin, OUR BOOKSHELF. Trilingual Artillery Dictionary. By E. S. Hodgson. With introduction by Col. J. H. Mansell. In three volumes. Vol. i., English- French-Italian. Pp. viii+92. (London: Charles Griffin and Co., Ltd., 1918.) Price 5s. net. Wirth the progress of every department of engineering, new technical terms are being con- tinually introduced into the languages of various nations. In the case of artillery, the difficulty of intercommunication which thus arises is con- siderably increased owing to the conditions under which international relations become necessary in the progress of military operations. Any reader who thinks himself to be a good French or Italian scholar will receive a rude awakening if he opens any. page of this book. Even among the most commonplace technical terms he will find the French and Italian equivalents to be quite different from anything that would naturally have been imagined. It is quite evident that much of the work of preparing such a book falls within the definition of original research. It might be possible for officers of various nations to make each other understand their meaning by pointing to a gun or a model or a drawing, but the use of the telephone renders ‘this method inadequate. By making this dictionary of the size of a quarter- plate photograph, Mr. Hodgson has given officers a book which they can easily carry about and use in communicating with their French and Italian colleagues. The latter ought, of course, to have corresponding books also. It is,moreover, quite certain that a companion volume for German will be urgently needed under any conditions which the future may have in store. Apropos of dictionaries, the following sugges- tion is not without a certain significant aspect, namely, that a dictionary is wanted between the language of the Tripos type of mathematical examination paper and the language of the engineering factory.. The difference of language certainly does harm. G. H. Bryan. The Mycetozoa: A Short History of their Study in Britain; an Account of their Habitats Gene- rally; and a List of Species Recorded from Essex. By Gulielma Lister. (Essex Field Club Special Memoirs, vol. vi.) Pp. 54. (Stratford, Essex: The Essex Field Club; London: Simpkin, Marshall, and Co., Ltd., 1918.) Price 3s. net. Tue Essex Field Club has done well to reprint as a whole the subject-matter of Miss Lister’s two NO, 2613, VOL. 104] presidential addresses, and in this way to render them available to a larger public than the readers of the Essex Naturalist. The list of species recorded from Essex is mainly of county interest, but it is the county — to which Miss Lister and a number of friends whe shave been inspired by her work and that of her a father have devoted special attention, and there-- fore serves as an object-lesson to naturalists in other counties. of the book of the species recorded from similar areas in the Home Counties, the West of England, and the North of Scotland respectively, indicate what may be done by a few enthusiasts in the study of this interesting little group at the base of organised life. But the greater part of the volume is of wider interest. The first section, on the study of Myce-— tozoa in Britain, is an historical résumé of their study in this country, from the time of John Ray, who refers to one of our commoner’ species in his. _ “Synopsis of British Plants’’ in 1696, and of Dillenius, who figures several species in an en- larged edition of the “Synopsis ’’ in 1724, to the: classic ‘‘ Descriptive Catalogue of the Mycetozoa,”’ by Mr. Arthur Lister, in 1894. This monograph, in the preparation of which Miss Lister shared, and the handy little “Guide to the British Species ’’ have done much to extend the study of the group, both in Great Britain and abroad, — as is indicated by the rapidly increasing number — The tabulated lists at the end. of species in successive editions of the “Guide,’’ the fourth of which is now being issued by the Trustees of the British Museum. ee : The second section, on the habitats of the Mycetozoa, will be of great service to workers it: indicating where to look for these organisms, and - what species are likely to be found in special The habitat varies remarkably, including woodlands, alpine pastures, moorland, environments. rocks, bare earth, sawdust- and straw-heaps, ns manure, and even bone. A useful list gives a selection of the habitats with the associated species. : Guide to the Study of the Ionic Value: Showing: its Development and Application to Wireless — By W. D. Owen. | (London: Sir Isaac Pitman and Telegraphy and Telephony. Pp. vii+59. Sons, Ltd., n.d.) Price 2s. 6d. net. ae Tuis little book is divided into fifteen chapters, each chapter consisting @f three or four para- graphs of large print describing the historical development of the ionic valve, the principles on which it works, and the various types of valve that are now used in wireless telegraphy. The diagrams are clear, of large size, and not over- crowded with details. of valves and their developments. The book can be recommended to all who intend to take up the serious study of radio-telegraphy, as it will im- press the main facts about the ionic valve on their minds. : Vey She aera vers Pint References are given to the original papers describing the various forms — NovemBer a7: 1919] NATURE 333 LETTERS TO THE EDITOR. {The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manuscripts intended for this or any other part of Nature. No notice is taken of anonymous communications.] Holland and International Rivers. In Nature of October 16 is published an address on * The International Rivers of Europe,’ read at the British Association by Prof. L. W. Lyde. in ie a everyday moods. nag - NOTES. Tue Electricity (Supply) Bill, which passed ‘ stage in the House of Commons on Tuesday, laudable attempt by the Government at c economy. In almost every business, combination standardisation lead to great economies, — applies in a very special manner to the supply tricity. An attempt was made on Monday to f that the Bill in its present form was a breach agreement made in the Act of 1888 whereby a of forty-two ‘years was granted to the compa carry on their supply without Government ‘inter er- ence. This is perhaps technically right, but the com- panies have no real grievance. The Bill leaves their — distributing business undisturbed, and guarantees to supply them with electricity as cheaply as they c ld . generate it for themselves. Lord Moulton and others — have laid great stress on the economy, from the p nt of view of the conservation of coal, of using gas fc heating instead of electricity. Many See € gineers will agree with this view. But prrion é trical supply companies will provide energy for —generally at prohibitive rates—when they are asked, they regard the heating load as Pryrcpen importance. Electrical heating forms only one of the manifold uses of electricity. Every engineer knows: that cheap power is essential to many of our important industries. Our supremacy as a ‘commer¢ nation depends on a plentiful supply being available A cheap and abundant supply would soon effect a | industrial revolution, and be a special boon to the — 3 manual workers. Another objection that has Aygo | urged against the Bill is the danger of strikes. If national system of supply were adopted, and if, electric workers went on strike, the work of the na could be held up at any moment and the nation forced ; to grant the demands of the workers, however un- — reasonable they were. The experience gained by the | workers, however, during the recent railway strike ought to discourage similar action against the boss munity in the future. x Unper a Bill introduced by the Government or : week, power is given to the Board of Trade to safe-— guard ‘‘key” industries in this country by prohibiting — the importation of certain articles. Of chief scientific — interest among these are analytical reagents, photo- — ae - NoveMBER 27, 1919| NATURE : 339 sraphic and various other ‘‘fine’’ chemicals, cptical lass, laboratory porcelain, scientific and optical in- uments, synthetic drugs and perfumes, coal-tar dyes, and dyestuff intermediate products. The method prohibition is by means of an Order of the Board, such Orders are to be subject to the approval of Trade Regulation Committee, consisting of four litical heads of. Departments, three permanent ficials, and ten Members of Parliament. Licences the importation of any of the prohibited articles y be granted, either generally or in respect of “specific quantities or shipments. The proposals appear to be carefully and fairly devised to meet what is admittedly a difficult situation. They have been ferred to as measures injurious to scientific teaching and research, but if the industries producing the articles in question are not to be strangled out of existence in this country they must for a time be pro- ted against ‘‘dumping”’; while the power to allow importation when this appears necessary should act as a check upon excessive prices and prevent scarcity of particular products. The measure in question is eminently one in which very much will depend upon judicious administration. : ’ AmoNcst the younger generation of naturalists this country there would seem to be a great dearth ‘of men well qualified by training and experience to study entomology, not merely as a pastime or for the pleasure and delight they may find in it, but as one of those sciences of life which are of the greatest ‘present value to the State and to humanity at large, and full of potentialities for the future. There was a time when, to one seeking a profession or other means of livelihood, the prospect presented by entomo- logy looked very black indeed, but, according to a letter from Sir Alfred Keogh which appeared in the Times of November 20, a number of reasonably well- paid posts are now open to trained young entomo- logists. The difficulty in finding men properly qualified fo fill them need not be a cause of surprise when it is considered that until recently there was scarcely a professional post of the kind in this country outside he British Museum, and that the few in the museum vere by no means well-paid. They appear to ye no better paid now.. Another correspondent, whose etter signed ‘‘F.R.S.”? was published by our contem- orary on Saturday last, points out that the pay of an assistant in the museum begins at little more than one-third of the pay of a lieutenant in the R.A.M.C., and never, while he remains an assistant, does it reach a higher level than the pay at which that lieutenant begins. He might have added that an assistant in he Natural History Museum very rarely has a chance get beyond that stage, since the higher apvoint- nts are so extremely few in both number and pro- ion compared with those in other branches of the vil Service. There is one only in entomology, which is the second largest department, and the other depart- nents in the same branch of the British Museum are rcely better off in that respect. It is astonishing t, at a time when the value of science is becoming v more and more appreciated even by the general public, this state of affairs should continue to exist one of our leading scientific institutions. Ar the invitation of Lord Glenconner, a very dis- tinguished company assembled at his house in Queen nne’s Gate on Monday last to hear an exposition of subject of relativity by Sir Oliver Lodge. To a non-mathematical explanation of the principle ind show how it leads to the prediction of changes in he perihelion of Mercury’s orbit, which are unex- lained by Newtonian theory, the deflection of a of light from a star passing near the sun, and NO, 2613, VOL. 104] the displacement of lines of solar and stellar spectra towards the red, was obviously impossible, and Sir Oliver did not attempt it. He limited himself to a statement of the close agreement between the pre- dicted and measured deflections of star places derived from the photographs of the total solar eclipse of May 29 last, and to an explanation of the effect on dynamical principles. If gravitation is assumed to affect the refractive index of the ether, so that at every point p—1=v"/c*, where m is the refractivity, v the velocity of free fall from infinity, and c the velocity of light, this condition would give the Einstein deflection. Gravitation cannot increase the velocity of light, but Sir Oliver thought that there might be a kind of gyrostatic effect upon a beam coming, from infinity the result of which would be a deflection such as has been observed. He preferred to endeavour to explain the observations on dynamical principles before bringing in a new theory. Prof. Schuster, however, at the close of the address, urged that the best way to deal with a theory was to accept it as a working hypothesis and put all its consequences to the test. The announcement of the eclipse results has brought the relativity principle into prominence in the general Press, and many people have con- sequently become interested in it. For several years scarcely a volume of Nature has been without con- tributions on the principle, and we would direct par- ticular attention to two articles in our columns of Tune 11 and 18, 1914, by Mr. E. Cunningham, a Royal Institution discourse by Prof. A. S. Eddington in the issues of March 7 and 14, 1918, and one by Sir Oliver Lodge in those of September 4 and 25 last. As was to be expected, the results of the Eclipse Expedition confirming Einstein’s theory of gravitation have called forth discussion, support, and opposition from those who find their own particular. point of view, physical or metaphysical, in agreement with or in opposition to Einstein’s. .On the physical side further contributions to the question of the displace- ments predicted in the solar spectrum are eagerly looked for, and we are glad to note that Sir Joseph Larmor had something of ‘value to communicate to the Royal Society on this point last week. On the metaphysical side the columns of the Times have been opened to Mr. Frederic Harrison, reminding us of the views of Comte on the relativity of space and his opposition to the conception of an ether filling all space. At the same time Mr. Thomas Case stoutly defends the view that Newton’s definitions and com- ments on absolute space and time are sound philo- sophy and firm foundations of his fame; while Prof. Wildon Carr points out that all the modern relativist arguments can be found in Descartes’ ‘‘ Principles.” At a meeting of the Cambridge Philosophical Society on November 24 Prof. Eddington gave an exposition of Einstein’s theory to a crowded and eager audience of students. In the discussion following, Prof. Hobson remarked that the abstractness of a theory of the phvsical universe is in no sense an objection to its validity, any theory or hypothesis being in its essence an abstract. scheme built up by the mind to fit those phenomena which have been examined up to date. Tue chairman of council of the Royal Society of Arts, Sir Henry Trueman Wood, in an interesting and thoughtful address at the annual meeting on November 19, reviewed the progress which has been made in the development of our natural resources and in the application of science to industry since the foundation of the society more than a hundred and sixty years ago. He pointed to one outstanding fact, that “all our progress was accomplished by indi- vidual action, not by State organisation or control.’’ 340 NATURE | NovEMBER 27, 1919 Latterly, of course, owing to the increase of scientific knowledge, there had been considerable modification of procedure, the introduction of new methods, and the rise of new industries. Now, partly as a result of witnessing the advantages of organisation and of State aid in relation to German industries, there is an increasing demand in this country for similar organisation and help. The State in its attitude towards invention has been, until quite recent times, merely obstructive to progress. Now there seems some risk of running to the opposite extreme. How- ever, as remarked by Sir Henry, it appears to be ‘‘ the nature of man to swing from one extreme to another like a pendulum,” and we have ‘‘to remember that if the pendulum swings to and fro, making no advance, still, all the same, the clock goes steadily on.” He directed attention to the work of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research (already described in Narure), and spoke hopefully of the work carried out under its auspices by the industrial research asso- ciations which have been established in connection with various trades. One ,of the most important, which seems at last to be about to start effective operations, is the Association for Cotton Research, the headquarters of which will be in Manchester. Tue council of the Royal Meteorological Society has awarded the Symons memorial gold medal for 1920 to Prof, H. H. Hildebrandsson for distinguished work in connection with meteorological science. Sir Henry A. Miers, Vice-Chancellor of the Vic- toria University of Manchester, has been elected presi- dent of the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society. Dr. J. E. Sreap has been nominated by the council of the Iron and Steel Institute as president for next year in succession to Mr. Eugene Schneider. The date of the annual meeting of the institute has been fixed for Thursday and Friday, May 6 and 7, 1920. Pror. J. C. McLennan, professor of physics and director of the physical laboratory in the University of Toronto, has since 1917 been lent to the Admiralty by the University, and since January last has been acting as Scientific Adviser to the Board of Admiralty. It is now announced that the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty have received with much regret Prof. McLennan’s resignation of this post. Sir NatHanteL Duntop, whose death in _ his ninetieth year is recorded in the Engineer for Novem- ber 21, entered early the service of the Allan Line Co., and rose to be deputy chairman. He was also chairman of the Clyde Trust from 1905 to 1907, and received his knighthood shortly after the opening of the Rothesay Dock. Amongst his other activities he was the first chairman of the British Corporation for the Registry of Shipping, and was its honorary presi- dent until the last. He served on a number of Royal Commissions appointed to inquire into shipping ques- tions, and was frequently a witness before other Com- missions. Capt. P. R. Lowe has recently been appointed by the Principal Trustees of the British Museum to be assistant in charge of the bird-room at the Natural History Museum in succession to Mr. W. R. Osilvie- Grant. Capt. Lowe has for many years devoted him- self to ornithological research at the Natural History Museum, the Royal College of Surgeons, and Cam- bridge Universitv, and has made extensive collections of, and observations on. birds in Madeira, the Canaries, the Azores, the Cane de Verde Islands, the NO. 2613, VOL. 104] West Indies, Mexico, Florida, the Mediterra islands and coasts, South Africa,, and the B Islands. He has published numerous paper$ on ornitho logy, and is the author of “Our Common Sea-Bi s, *“\ Naturalist on Desert Islands,” and of the coming works ‘In the Track of Columbus” ‘The Waders.’? During the war Capt. Lowe s in the R.A.M.C., and was for two and a in’ command of Princess Christian’s hospital train Wir the object of promoting the technical and practical development of commercial aeronautics, a Institute of Aeronautical Engineers has been founded. It will be developed largely in the interests of aero- plane mechanics and pilots. Like certain existing institutes of a similar character in other branches of engineering and in chemistry, admission to the various grades of membership is to be by tion, i which piloting experience will be a qualification as well as laboratory work and knowledge of mechanical science. The work of the institute is to commenc with next year, when an opening address will be delivered by Prof. Bryan, the president-elect for 1920. The secretary is Capt. Douglas Shaw, and the offices are at 32 Charing Cross, Whitehall, London. — AccorDING to a Bulletin issued hy the Nai Research Council of the United States, and r duced in Science for October 24, the Council decided, with the’ co-operation of the American Physic: and Chemical Societies, to compile and issue an American Compendium of Physical and — mical Constants. It is to be both critical and O- a and to this end the universities and research labora tories of America are to be asked to supply the ec stants at present known. The business and in rial concerns are then to be asked what other constants are required in their work, and the joint committee charged with the issue of the Compendium will se that they are determined and included in the w The cost is estimated at 20,000l., and this will, it expected, be obtained from private sources. We not emphasise here the great value such a Com pendium would have for scientific and industri | re search in this country. Tables of constants from which untrustworthy values were excluded have been much needed in the past half-dozen years. Tue Secretary of State for the Colonies has, with the approval of the Cabinet, appointed a Committee to’ prepare a complete scheme of Imperial wireless com- munications in the light of modern wireless science and Imperial needs. The Committee will (1) e sider what high-power wireless stations it is desirabl on commercial or strategic grounds that the Sat nt should ultimately possess ; (2) prepare estimates of the capital and annual costs of each station—the life of the plant and buildings, as taken for the calculation of depreciation, to include an adequate allowance for obsolescence; (3) examine the probable amount of traffic and revenue which may be expected 1 ea moe station; and (4) place the stations recom their order of urgency. The Committee is composed as follows:—The Right Hon. Sir Henry Norman, Bart, (chairman), Mr. F. J. Brown, Rear-Admiral F. L. Field, Sir John Snell, Prof. J. E. Petavel, Dr. W. ‘HA Eccles, Mr. J. Swinburne, and Mr. L. B. Turner. The secretary is Brig.-Gen. S. H. Wilson, and the assistant secretary Lt.-Col. C. G. Crawley. All com- munications in connection with the Committee should iy ais to the Secretary, 2 Whitehall Gardens, .W.1. THe work of the National Union of Scientific Workers is described in the first’ annual report of the _Novemser 27, 1919] NATURE 341° he union consists at present of 603 members dis- ributed among a large number of local branches, and ws evidence of great activity in various directions. ong the more interesting are those concerned with steps taken whereby the union may be registered a trade union and secure representation on the itley councils set up by the Government for its n employees. The status and payment of a living economic wage to research workers have been the bject of consideration, and the union may in this direction prove a much-needed corrective to the grow- ing exploitation of junior workers and their diminish- ing power to protect themselves. As a healthy revolt against a situation that has become intolerable, and which the official spokesmen of science have taken only desultory interest, the formation and work of this union are among the most characteristic signs of ‘the times, and its further career will be watched with keen interest. Experience from the early history of ther trade and professional unions shows that it is the first step that counts, and the report seems to indicate that the initial difficulties are in course of being surmounted. In a recent Smithsonian publication (Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, vol. Ixix., No. 11) Dr. Alés Hrdliéka, curator of physical anthropology in the U.S. National Museum, Washington, sums up the results of a study of historical and anthropological data relat- ing to the population of Russia. From the point of view of an anthropologist Dr. Hrdliéka concludes that, though the ‘‘Russian giant may have his Delilahs ternally as well as externally,’’ nothing can prevent e population of Russia from coming by its potential owers. re more than 100,000,000 Russian Slavs, and that every year their birth-rate adds 1,700,000 to their total numbers. ‘Such a rate of increase of this strong and ‘able portion of the white stock means a_ biological momentum which in the end must prevail over all opposition.’ Dr. Hrdlitka also notes the fact that there is neither anthropological nor linguistic reasons for the separation of the Ukrainians from the other Slavs of Russia. This is only another example of the fact that claims for national recognition need have no basis in racial differentiation. _ A CORRESPONDENT of the Morning Post (Novem- ber 12-13) describes the results of a series of excava- tions in Mesopotamia conducted by officers of the British Museum. At the beginning of the war the ork was in charge of Capt. Campbell Thompson, d it was intended that on his departure on leave should be replaced by Prof. King, but on the mented death of that scholar the veteran explorer, r. H. R. Hall, took his place. The result is that irty-two huge cases of antiquities have safely ached England, and throw new and welcome light Sumerian culture. The most remarkable dis- weries were made at Tell Obeid, close to the Biblical r of the Chaldees, and include a basalt statue of a g or viceroy who lived five hundred years before dea, about 3000 B.c., and a wonderful copper plaque representing a lion-headed eagle, the symbol of the city of Lachish. At Maqayya or Ur a royal palace ilt about 2400 B.c. has been excavated, and Capt. pbell Thompson has unearthed a_ remarkable ries of bricks and other artefacts at Abu Shahrein, 1e city of the Sumerian deity En-ki, god of earth and ater. With this material available English archzo- sts have no longer to depend on the discoveries de by American and French explorers. It may be 1oped that strong pressure will be put on the Office of NO, 2613, VOL. 104] xecutive for the year ending September 30, 1919. } He bases his forecast on the fact that there. Works to vacate the museum galleries and permit a public exhibition of these valuable antiquities. In the Kew Bulletin (No. 8, 1919) M. N. Owen gives an account of one of the minor diseases of potato-tubers, which has never been thoroughly in- vestigated. It is known as skin-spot, the tubers becoming dotted with small dark spots during storage. It is found to be due to. a minute species of mould- fungus hitherto undescribed (Oospora pustulans). The author describes in detail the structure and development of the fungus as determined from -arti- ficial cultures. The disease is confined to the surface layers of the tubers, and, besides disfigurement, may cause serious injury by weakening or destruction of the eyes. , OF economic importance is a report on the paper- making qualities of Hawaian bagasse, or sugar-cane refuse, by A. D. Little (Report of the American Station of the Hawaian Sugar Plante,ss’ Association, Bulletin No. 40). The author discusses various previous attempts to use the waste fibre of the cane as paper- making material, the technique involved, and the commercial aspect of the question. As a result of the investigation it is his opinion that, technically, there are no difficulties which could not fairly easily be overcome, and from an economic point of view the use of bagasse might present under normal conditions an attractive commercial venture. Tue unfailing energy of Prof. Pearson’s depart- ment at University College, London, has now resulted in the production of a series of tracts published by the Cambridge University Press. The objects of this new series are not only to publish new tables (as well as to republish old and inaccessible tables), but also in due course to issue works on interpolation, mechanical quadratures, calculating machines, and other matters of importance to the practical computer. The first of the series is before us, and is entitled ‘Tables of the Digamma and Trigamma Functions,’’ by Eleanor Pairman. The werk contains tables of the logarithmic derivate of the Gaussian I-function and of its derivate, in addition to some useful mis- cellaneous information concérning these two func- tions. The functions are tabulated to eight places of decimals at intervals of 0-02 from o to 16, with tables of second differences. There seems no doubt that this series will be of extreme value to computers, and we must feel deep gratitude to Prof. Pearson for using the resources at his disposal in producing it. Finally, it should be said that the appearance of the first of the series is up to the standard which we have grown accustomed to expect from the Cambridge University Press. In making sulphuric acid by the ‘‘contact’’ process, sulphur dioxide is converted into the trioxide by cata- lytic oxidation and the product absorbed in water to form the acid. A short account of the very effective ‘““Grillo’’ plant, erected for the purpose in> this country by the Ministry of Munitions, is given by Mr. Raymond Curtis in the Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry for October 15. The catalyst em- ployed is platinum, deposited on granules of calcined magnesium sulphate in the proportion of o-3 per cent. The purified gases from the*sulphur burners, heated to about 350° C., are passed through two converters in parallel, each containing 10;000 lb. of the platinised mass distributed on four trays. For absorbing the trioxide produced, towers packed with quartz are used, and practically perfect absorption can be ob- tained. The purification of the gases, which is im- portant in preventing deterioration of the catalyst, “342 ‘ NATURE [Novemper 27, 191 is effected by passing the cooled vapours through coke columns and sulphuric acid drying-towers; arsenic is thus eliminated, and less than o-o2 per cent. of other impurity (water and inert dust) retained. Details of efficiency and production costs are given. ALTHOUGH salvarsan (dihydroxydiaminoarsenobenzene dihydrochloride) has proved to be an effective remedy for syphilis, its use in medicine is open to the objec- tion that its administration involves the use of a some- what elaborate technique. Various attempts have been made to overcome this difficulty, the most successful of which is probably the substitution of the sodium N-methylenesulphinate (neo-salvarsan) for the parent compound. Medical opinion on the whole is, however, in favour of the view that salvarsan is more powerful and more certain in its action than neo-salvarsan, though the latter is not without its advocates. In continuation of work begun in 1907 by Prof. F. L. Pyman and his collaborators, Messrs, Baxter and Fargher, of the Wellcome Chemical Research Labora- tories, described at the last meeting of the Chemical Society a number of arsenic compounds prepared in the hope that they would be suitable for direct intra- venous injection in simple aqueous solution. These compounds are arsenobenzenes of a new type obtained by the reduction of benzodiazolearsinic acids, which in turn are produced by the action of acetic or formic acid on diaminophenylarsinic acid and its homologues. The new arsenobenzenes form dihydrochlorides which are soluble in water, but, though they exhibit a reduced acidity as compared with salvarsan, they still prove to be too acid for direct intravenous injection. These experiments are, however, of considerable interest, forming as they do the nucleus of further work on the replacement of amino-groups by heterocyclic nuclei in arsenobenzenes. One of the. latest of the many developments of the Mallet type of locomotive on American railways is a simple or non-compound engine for ote and banking service, built at the works of the Pennsylvania Rail- road. From an article in the Engineer for Novem- ber 7 we extract some particulars of this locomotive, which weighs 287 tons, or just above 400 tons with the tender. There are four cylinders, 30:5 in. by 32 in.; the driving-wheels are 62 in, in diameter; the boiler-pressure is 205 lb. per sq. in.; and with a maximum cut-off of 50 per cent. the maximum trac- tive effort is about 135,000 Ib. The size of the boiler is notable; its overall length'is 54 ft., including a 14°5-ft. fire-box, 11-5-ft. combustion chamber, 20-ft. barrel, and 8-ft, smoke-box. The barrel diameter is from 8-25 ft. to 9 ft. Expansion movements in the great length of the firebox and combustion chamber are provided for by a folded connection plate forming a U-shaped pocket. A mechanical stoker is used, and the fire-box has a shaking grate operated by power. The grate area is 112 sq. ft., the heating surface 6656 sq. ft., and the area of the superheater surface 3136 sq. ft. The short cut-off employed in the Mallet engine as a substitute for compounding has been criticised by writers, who consider that the system does not possess the advantages which it may realise when applied to the usual type of simple locomotive. Messrs. Blackie and Son, Ltd., announce ‘‘ Triumphs of Invention,’ C. Hall. The Cambridge University Press will shortly ptblish ‘‘The Foundations of Music,” Dr. H. J. Watt. Messrs. Hodder and Stoughton are to publish “Aerial Transport,” H. Thomas, and “ Applied Aeronautics,” G. P. Thomson. Messrs. Longmans and Co. announce a new edition of Prof. W. Watson’s ‘A Text-book of Physics,” NO, 2613, VOL. 104| revised by H. Moss. Sir Isaac Pitman | Ltd., have nearly ready ‘Electric Lightin Home,” L. Gaster and J. S. Dow, and “Co Air Power,”’ A. W. and Z. W. Daw of London Press, Litd., promise * : (being Book iii, of the New Regional Series). It will include the British Isles < boundaries resulting from the Pe section relating to the British Isles wi separately. ‘ In the official announcement of of the Board of Agriculture and Fi published in last week’s NaTure, it shor stated that Sir A. Griffith-Boscawen h pointed deputy chairman, and Sir vice-chairman, of the President’s Council. - OUR ASTRONOMICAL Tue Lronip METEORIC SHOWER. the middle of the present month of the meteors were visible, and that th prolonged beyond its usual duration. ( November 15, in 22 hours, Mr. — watching from Wimborne, Dorset, r Leonids radiating from 151°+22°. ) he saw five Leonids near their The latter result corroborates an November 19-22 at Bristol by Mr. D five Leonids from 149°+22°. The appear to prove that there is no the radiant similar to that affecti great Perseid stream. A _ brilliant by Mr. Adamson on November 19 It gave a series of flashes near the course, which was from 120° traversed in two seconds. Two Stars with Larce Para Schlesinger gives particulars in Astr of two stars within 14’ of each other large parallaxes and proper moti apparently quite independent of brighter star is B.D.+4-123°, which y years ago to have an annual P.M. ¢ lowing determinations of parallax have bi Name Parallax Schlesinger ... Boe O15 Chase ay ie SD Flint ee tou peOVE Ran The other star is of the twelfth 1 was independently found by van Maanen anc have an annual P.M. of 3:0’. R.A. oh. 43m. 538., N. decl. 4° The following determinations ¢ made :— Name Parallax | Schlesinger ... see 0:27 van Maanen ses O244 There would seem to be a fair presumption faint star is considerably nearer than the ~ and hence that their close juxtaposition in accidental. : ey The second star is one of the twenty ste to the solar system, and is evidently (like the and Innes stars) in the extreme dwarf stage. would be of interest to determine its visual ma tude, which is likely to be brighter than the graphic one, : aa haere November 27, 1919] NATURE 343 “ApHELIA or Praners aND Comers.—Mr. C. D. errine examines the grouping of these aphelia in roc. Nat. Acad. Sci., U.S.A., September, 1919. The ngly marked maximum in longitude 195° has been nted out before. It is shown that the aphelia of forty-five short-period comets are grouped in the ame manner. It is further remarked as a coincidence it can scarcely be more) that the aphelia of the eight major planets are all situated in the same half of the ecliptic, their centre of mean position being in the longitude of the apex of solar motion. The aphelia of the long-period comets appear to be grouped about two axima, the most strongly marked being near longi- de go°, the other near longitude 270°. Mr. Perrine otes that these are respectively the- longitudes of the ntapex and apex, and deduces a theory that the comets are captured from interstellar space. The ‘obvious difficulty presents itself that the great majority of such objects would enter the sun’s domain with independent velocities of the order of several miles per second, and their orbits would, in consequence, be strongly hyperbolic. Mr. Perrine escapes from this difficulty by suggesting that practically all these hyper- bolic comets would pass too far from the sun for us to see them; we should only see those the independent velocity of which was practically zero. These last would, however, be only a very small fraction (perhaps one in ten thousand) of the comets entering the sun’s Z domain, so the number of these would have to be immensely large to supply the number of parabolic comets that we see. The latter number is two or three a year, so the former number would need to be eckoned by millions every century. THE BRITISH SCIENCE EXHIBITION, ¥ GLASGOW. J\ N exhibition on similar lines to those of the British 2 Science Guild’s Exhibition of last summer is ‘now being held by the Corporation of Glasgow, ‘With the assistance of a scientific advisory committee. The Kelvin Hall, in which the exhibition is held, was erected for the purpose of holding a series of indus- trial exhibitions, and the Corporation has a special department for their organisation. The exhibits are housed in a single building and on one level, so that there is ample space for their display, and power is vailable for setting machinery in motion and allow- ing demonstrations of high-temperature operations. The exhibits are, therefore, seen under very favour- able conditions, and the response to the invitation to exhibit has been very gratifying. Owing to an un- fortunate combination of circumstances, several firms ' which were represented in London have been unable to appear, and the absence of some of the leading instrument firms is noticeable; but many of the London exhibits reappear, in some cases in an en- larged form, whilst there have been many additions, especially in regard to engineering and shipbuiiding. _A very large area is covered, and an inspection of exhibition convinces a visitor that the objects shown were well worth bringing together. The ormous progress made during the war and since the armistice in the manufacture of products for which ve were entirely dependent on importation is evident, as is the ingenuity displayed in the design of new struments and machines, both for warlike and for aceful use. The relaxation of restrictions in regard fo secrecy has made it possible to show many improve- ments which had been kept secret for military easons, so that there is a most interesting series of struments illustrating recent developments in wire- NO, 2613, vor. 104] rouping of aphelia of the minor planets about a_ less telegraphy and telephony, and a very extensive display of modern improvements in aircraft, as shown by the work of firms in the Clyde area. Steam turbines and oil engines are well represented, as well as such interesting inventions in marine en- gineering as variable-speed gearing and hydraulic transmitters. Many systems of high-temperature welding, especially with the electric arc, are shown in operation, and examples of varied uses of this process are shown, including the junction of the vertical framing and the roof principals in a_ steel-frame building. The coal industry is represented by a full- sized model of a coal seam with electric coal-cutters at work, and there are also exhibits illustrating the utilisation of the iron ores and oil-fuel supplies of this country. The chemical exhibits are, in the main, the same as those which were shown in London, whilst the metal- lurgical industries naturally receive special attention. The Health Department of the city shows a large and instructive collection of preparations illustrating the relation between micro-organisms and disease, as well as diagrams relating to the smoke nuisance. Several Government Departments and universities are repre- sented by stands, at some of which demonstrations are carried on. A kinematograph hall is used for showing films of scientific interest in connection with engineer- ing, shipbuilding, and metallurgy, as well as with bac- teriology. The educational value of the exhibition is very great, and a most remarkable picture is presented of the capacity of British manufacturers to accomplish good work when. advantage of scientific guidance is taken. The opening ceremony was performed on Monday, November 17, by Sir Charles Parsons, the Lord Pro- vost of Glasgow presiding, and testimony was then given as to the importance of science to industrial progress. The exhibition has the advantage of fol- lowing closely on a most successful housing exhibi- tion, also held by the Corporation, and visited by enormous numbers of people, so that there is every reason to expect results which will be beneficial to science and to industry alike by bringing the two into closer contact, and in educating the public as to the necessity for a close co-operation between them. The exhibition remains open until December 6. g A NEW ASTRONOMICAL MODEL. HE illustrious scholar Gerbert (A.D. 940-1003), afterwards Pope under the name of Sylvester IT., was apparently the first of the schoolmen who illus- trated his theoretical lessons on astronomy by the use of globes, which he constructed with his own hands. About the year a.p. 1700 George Graham in- vented a machine to show the movements of the earth and planets about the sun, a copy of which was made for Charles Boyle, the Earl of Orrery. Hence the name of an apparatus very useful for illustrating lessons in astronomy, although Sir John Herschel did call orreries ‘‘very childish toys.’’ But surely the difficulty in teaching astronomy is to make the young pupil think in three dimensions. What are we going to do when the relativists would have us imagine phenomena in four dimensions? Some forty years ago the prospectuses of schools generally advertised among the subjects taught “the use of the globes and deportment.’’ Presumably the orderly arrangement of the solar’ system was, to be reflected in the conduct of the pupils. The ‘use of the globes’? seems to have disappeared from the apparatus of pedagogy, although the teaching of geo- graphy and the elementary notions of astronomy are very much facilitated by their employment. But ag aT SRE aan CN nae aad SN Sy DS eS i ee ere pies at Naar Sea Sta mh hata oiar 344. e NATURE -[NovEMBER ae 191 if ae. astronomy as a tiie sahieet of Evnetal education has unfortunately suffered a lamentable eclipse. Globes have been ousted by calorimeters. Hence the ignor- ance of even otherwise cultured people of the very elements of the science. Lately there have been wel- come signs of a recognition of its educational value, both in the elementary and in the secondary schools. In the Middle Ages astronomy was one of the seven sub- jects in the curriculum of a liberal education. Those who were privileged to ‘listen to the charming dis- course of Prof. Nunn to the Association of Mathe- matical Masters last January were able to understand how much can be done With cardboard, cylinders, cubes, and other simple appliances to illustrate the chief motions of the heavenly bodies, the observations being made and recorded by the pupils themselves. Very heartily then do we welcome, for both its scientific and its educational capabilities, the excellent model lately constructed by Dr. William Wilson, and exhibited to the Royal’ and Royal Astronomical Societies, the British Association, and most of the leading educational and astronomical societies. Every- one who has seen the model has given it_unstinted praise. The mechanism is very good. Gearing is done away with, its place being ingeniously supplied by cords and pulleys, with. tension regulators and ad- justable driving-wheels. There is nothing much ‘o get out of order in the machine. If it does, it can easily be repaired. But the great value of the model is in the orderly sequence of the astronomical phenomena which can be illustrated by its aid. The pupil is made to advance gradually from the simple to the more complex move- ments of sun, earth, and moon, illustrating such topics as the vear, month, seasons, phases of the moon, motions of the earth, and eclipses, until finally he reaches such phenomena as the retrograde motion of the moon’s nodes, the forward motion of the line of apsides of the moon’s orbit, and the nature, number, and character of the eclipses possible in any year. It would be a mistake to set up the whole model at once. The curiosity of the pupil should be aroused and his interest sustained by adding the parts gradually and in due order, beginning with the simpler parts, and then advancing to the more complex move- ments. Dr. Wilson is to be heartily congratulated on haying produced such a _ valuable, workable astronomical model. So many science masters—excellent omen !— have desired to acquire it that he has felt justified in putting it unon the market and getting it made in quantities. The price is 221. net, carriage paid to any part of the United Kingdom. All communica- tions regarding the model should be addressed to Dr. Wilson himself at 43 Fellows Road, London. N.W.3. A. L. Corte. UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL INTELLIGENCE. Giascow.—At a_ graduation ceremony held on November 18, honorary degrees were conferred an the American Ambassador, Lord Weir, Sir Joseph Maclay, the Duchess of Atholl, Dame Helen Gwynne-Vaughan, and others, in recognition of war service. Lreeps.—The following honorary degrees have been conferred :—D.Sc.: Admiral Sir Henry Jackson, First Sea Lord, 1915-16; Surg.-Gen. Sir Alfred Keogh; Sir Altmroth Wright; Prof. W. H. Bragg; and Mr. J. G. Baker. Lonpon.—The Senate has avpointed Sir Cooper Perry to-the post of principal officer, which has been in abeyance since Sir Henry Miers’s resignation ia the summer of 1915. NO, 2613, VOL. 104] Sir Cooper Perry has repre- University. sented the faculty of medicine on the Senate from 1 Ligpol to 1905, and again from 1915 to the present time, and has been Vice-Chancellor of the University since June, 1917. He will take up his new duties on | Februa okt next, < “i The Senate has adopted a resolution exp preciation of the generosity of the Worsh pany of Goldsmiths in presenting to Hospital Medical College 15,0001. National for the endowment of a University chair o logy bearing the name of the company a at that college. The thanks of the Senate been accorded to Lord Cowdray for a_ 10,0001. towards the fund for the reconste re-equipment of the engineering buildin sity College, and for a promise of an a 01 tion of the same amount to be given when t sum collected in response to the appeal for reaches 70,000l. A bequest of approximately 3000l. is mai will of the late Mr. T. S. Hughes for the | ment by scholarships or otherwise of research at the University. ‘fe # In recognition of the munificent Of 34,506 Sir Ralph Fovater, Bart., to the hii for the building and equipment at University College, been resolved that the organic department — chemical laboratories should be known by Bigs The degree of D.Sc. (Economics) has b upon Mr. R. C. Rawlley, an internal “bude ent, 0 London School of Economics. for a fess, “Economics of the Silk Industry.’”? — i The Graham Legacy Committee he regulations for the administration of the Graham Medical Research Fund, made the first a of the gold medal to Dr. Charles Balton- 1 tion of the original work in experimental ] which he has conducted in the medical University College ner The prehistoric record Bi he be divided into a | period of natural subsistence, marked by little cha " of condition, and a shorter period of conq - Nature, which was rapid and fateful. The oath the first period, both bodily and mental, being some respects unsuitable for the problem resolved itself in effect into a cor hs inherited instinct and present conditions, — i of both racial and national feeling pays bs contact of different peoples were given ae negroes of North America, the French-Canadic their relation to the surrounding white popuilation Europeans and’ Maoris in New berie= ae mingling of blood in South America appeared been socially less successful than the mainte racial frontiers in the north. Racial feeling, c col ; the lecturer, is implanted by Nature for si own pur- poses of evolution. capt (ale Dr. J. Proupman has been appointed professor. 2 applied mathematics in the University of Liverpool. — TuE Toronto correspondent of the Times sone on November 24 that the buildings of the Laval U versitv at Montreal have been destroyed by fire, and the damage is estimated at 400,000l. The chief. damage was done in the medical department of the eS ee _ NoveMseR 27, 1919] NATURE : 345 SEVERAL representatives of British universities are ow in Belgium as guests of the Belgian Government, order to examine, among other matters, an arrange- ent for the exchange of teachers and_ students between British and Belgian universities. _ Tue under-mentioned staff appointments have been made at the Bradford Technical College :—Head of Department of Chemistry: Prof. R. B., Abell. Lec- turer in Chemistry: Mr. H. P. Starck. Head of Department of Biology: Mr. A. Malins Smith. Head of Department of Dyeing: Dr. L. L. Lloyd. On November 22 President Poincaré inaugurated he French University of Strasbourg. Every en- deavour is to be made to attract .to the University English and Scottish students who before the war found their way to Bonn, Heidelberg, and Gottingen. The Paris correspondent of the Times says that the Germans have left behind them credits amounting to early 30,000,000 francs (1,200,0001.), which are avail- able for the improvement of the scientific equipment of the University. SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES. Lonpon. Royal Society, November 13.—Sir J. J. Thomson, president, in the chair.—Lt.-Col. R, McCarrison: The genesis of cedema in beri-beri. Conclusions previously reached by physiological methods of adrenalin estima- tion are confirmed by chemical methods. Deficiency of certain accessory food factors gives rise to a greatly increased production of adrenalin. Whatever the function of adrenal medulla may be, excessive pro- duction of adrenalin, under conditions of “ vitaminic”? deficiency, is concerned with causation of cedema.— W~. Robinson : The microscopical features of mechanical Strains in timber and the bearing of these on the structure of the cell-wall in plants. The gross and icroscopic characteristics of failure in compression re described for spruce, ash, and pitch pine. It is shown that failure is initiated by the development of “microscopic planes of slipping in the cell-walls of the wood. The appearance of the slip planes in the cell- alls is accompanied by profound changes in the behaviour of the latter towards many stains and re- agents. These changes are discussed in relation to their possible bearing on the process of lignification of cell-walls. In addition to compression, the failures in longitudinal tension. and longitudinal shearing are described.—W. B. Bottomley: The effect of nitrogen- fixing organisms and nucleic acid derivatives on plant- growth. The products of the nitrogen-fixing organism, Azotobacter chroococcum, are shown te have a marked effect in increasing the rate of growth of plants of ‘Lemna minor in water culture; and the derivatives /of nucleic acid, which the author has found can be extracted from raw peat, are also able to act’ as acces- sory food substances. The addition of these two ‘Separate materials to the culture solution increased the number of plants from 1817 in mineral solutions ‘only to 96,921 and 80,179 respectively in the liquids ntaining these substances. Not only was the rate multiplication increased by these organic materials, but the plants supplied with them also maintained their normal size and health. The nitrogen-fixing organism, Bacillus radicicola, is found to have a “similar effect to that of Azotobacter chroococcum. A ‘similar series of experiments was carried out with the ash of the crude nucleic acid derivatives and of the ‘otobacter growth, and neither of these materials had the slightest effect on the rate of multiplication or the health of the Lemna plants. It is therefore the NO, 2613, VOL. 104] organic material which is so essential for the complete metabolism of these plants, and they cannot main- tain their normal growth and vigour for any length of time without the presence of small quantities of organic substances.—Agnes Arber: The vegetative morphology of Pistia and the Lemnacez. Anatomical examination of the ‘“‘limb’’ of the leaf of Pistia stratiotes, L., the river lettuce, shows that, in addition to normally orientated vascular bundles, there is a series of inverted bundles towards the upper surface. This fact is regarded as indicating that the leaf is of the nature of a petiolar phyllode. This interpretation is extended to the distal part of the frond of the Lemnaceze (duckweeds).—W. J. Young, A. Breinl, J. J. Harris, and W. A. Osborne: Effects of exercise and humid heat upon the pulse rate, blood pressure, body temperature, and blood concentration. The results point to the fact that both exercise and humid heat play a part in producing a rise in blood pressure, pulse rate, and rectal temperature. The degree of rise, however, is controlled by atmospheric conditions, which influence the rate of cooling of the body. Zoological Society, November 4.—-Dr. A. Smith Woodward, vice-president, in the chair.—F. Martin Duncan: Photographs showing the actinic quality of the light from a living Pyrovhorus beetle. In describ- ing the method employed to obtain the records, the author stated that photospectroscopically the greatest intensity of light action appeared to be in the vellow- green region.—E, Heron-Allen: Skiagraphs of the foraminiferan genus Verneuilina from examples grown in a hypertonic tank.—Miss Joan B. Proctor: The variation in the number of dorsal scale-rows in our British snakes.—Dr. G. A. Boulenger: Some new fishes from near the west coast of Lake Tanganyika. —Dr. G. Marshall: The svecies of the Balaninus occurring in Borneo (Coleoptera, Curculionida).—The Hon. P. Methuen: Description of a new snake from the Transvaal, together with a new diagnosis and key of the genus Xenocalamus, and of some Batrachia from Madagascar.—Prof. J. P. Hill: The placenta- tion of ‘Tarsius.—R. I. Pocock: The externat characters of Tarsius. Geological Society, November 5.—Mr. G. W. Lamplugh, president, in the chair—H. H. Thomas: Some features in the topography and geological his- tory of Palestine. A perfectly new method of illus- trating and investigating some branches of physical geology is afforded by aeroplane photography. It seems, first, to illustrate in a very striking and con- vincing form many geological phenomena, such as the structure of a volcano or the land-forms resulting from erosion, and may be of value in the teaching of the science. In the second place it may, in certain cir- cumstances, become a valuable means of research, especially in connection with river development or denudation in a region which is somewhat inaccessible, or where the surface of the ground is very complicated and the main features are obscured by a mass of less important detail. The lecture dealt principally with the illustration of the physical features of Palestine, and owes its origin to the systematic photo survey made over Central Palestine during the war. The lacustrine deposits of the Jordan Valley and _ their weathering were shown, and also the form of the drainage channels running down into the main valley. The depression of the Dead Sea with reference to the surrounding country has resulted in cafion forma- tion in many vlaces. Some evidences of faulting at different periods can be distinguished. The Jordan at present forms an interesting study in river develop- ment, and many of its main features were demon- strated. The relation of the Jordan to the Orontes 346 NATURE [NovemBer 27, 1919 : has been considered, and an aeroplane photographic survey of the country between the two rivers indicates that the Jordan probably originated in northern Syria in earlier times. The Syrian portion of the stream has been captured by the younger Orontes, and this has had a very important effect on the whole topo- graphy of the Jordan Valley. Linnean Society, November 6.—Dr. A. Smith Wood- ward, president, in the chair.—Col. H. E. Rawson: Plant-sports produced at will. The author had ob- served near Cape Town that shrubs of Kei-apple - (Aberia caffra) died when they were deprived of the full sun up to a certain altitude in the early morning. This led to experiments in ‘scréening plants about this hour for various periods. ‘‘Selective screening ”’ resulted in various sports in form and modifications of colour in Tropaeolum majus. A special form of Papaver rhoeas was obtained and fixed, and other experiments were detailed. The author sums up thus :—-The intensity of the light regulates and modifies the coloured bands upon all parts of the plant which have been excited by interference. In Nature selective screening prevails universally, and these. experiments suggest that it is deserving of study to bring out its latent potentialities—L. Hogben : Nuclear phenomena in the oocytes of Neuroterus, a gall-fly. The atypical separation of polar bodies in the Hymenoptera parasitica is a consequence of the interruption of the first polar metaphase which appears precociously before the egg is laid. There is no evidence for ‘‘amitosis’’ in the germ-cells of Hymenoptera.—L. V. Lester-Garland; A revision of the genus Baphia, Afzel. The author had studied the rich material in the herbaria of the British Museum and at Kew, the number of known species having increased from six (Bentham and Hooker fil. in 1865) to sixty in the present enumeration. The genus is practically confined to tropical Africa, one outlier reaching as far south as Natal, and another as far east as Borneo. Royal Meteorological Society, November 7.—Sir Napier Shaw, president, in the chair.—Prof. Vilhelm Bjerknes ; The structure of the atmosphere when rain is falling. Though a comprehensive mathematical analysis of atmospheric movements might be slow in yielding a general solution of the problem of weather forecasting, yet results of practical value were likely to be obtained during the course of the analysis. Such results had been applied to the forecasting of rain in Norway with a fair measure of success. The basis of the method consisted in drawing “‘lines of flow’’ of the air and noting where these showed regions of con- vergence or divergence. Such lines of flow indicated two lines of convergence in a typical depression : (1) where a warm south-westerly wind blows almost normally against the flank of a relatively cold south- easterly current (the warm air rising over the cold here leads to steady rain over a belt some hundreds of kilometres in breadth); and (2) where the cold south- easterly current, curving round the north side Of the centre of depression, cuts under the warm south- westerly wind. This causes a region of squally and showery weather along a_ second narrower belt. Another important application of the lines of flow lies in. the forecasting of thunderstorms. Experience showed that in quiet weather in Norway under the system of diurnal breezes certain points regularly become centres of convergence, and it was at these points that thunderstorms first developed, spreading later to surrounding regions. : Royal Anthropological Institute, November 11.—Sir Everard im Thurn, president, in the chair.—S. H. Warren: A _ stone-axe factory at Graig-lwyd, Pen- NO, 2613, VOL. 104] colour-printing, and the present-day pai \« maenmawr. | Stone axes of Neolithic types w extensively .manufactured out of the fin (andesitic) margin of the Penmaenmawr intrus igneous rock. Blocks of scree, many of large size, which fell. from the crags were g flaked down in successive stages until a : stone-axe blade, ready for polishing, w. There are examples showing every | satisfactory: Under the last heading thickness of the blade which was the gre: of trouble. Many of the unfinished ‘* broken in half, producing the segmental fo tions of which the unfortunate names of and “‘toe-cap” have been applied. Among of the axe-making industry, which is found in great profusion on the mountain-side, the resem ces to Mousterian flake industries are very striking. iqually instructive parallels are to be observed ar 1g t Bil “wasters ’’ with characteristic examples of | au fier Paleolithic industries, notably with the ear all, or the pre-Chelles. Axes made of the Grai k 4 are being identified from other localities, | research along these lines is expected to give ing results. ree MANCHESTER. Literary and Philosophical Society (Chemi October 24.--Sir Henry A, Miers in the William J. Pope: The photography of coloure Previous to the war all the various methods photography—the first of which was devis Joly, of Dublin—the modern processes of ph photographic methods for obtaining a correct in monochrome of parti-coloured objects, w upon the success which has been attaine ing sensitiveness throughout the visual the ordinary blue-sensitive photographic staining the plate with erythrosine it becomes to green and orange; plates so treated at orthochromatic. A number of dyestuffs h Methods for producing the ordinary sen stuffs on a technical scale were devised, sensitisers used by the Allies have been pi the Cambridge laboratories since the Germ portation ceased. The best panchromatic plate in pre-war days possessed about one-third the tiveness to red as to blue light. At the pr a very rapid panchromatic plate is on- which is much faster to red than to blue rapidity of the plate to red light has — increased about fourfold. Dustin. Royal Irish Academy, November 11.—Prof. Carpenter in the chair.—Mrs. Lilian Porter: f development in Tricuspidaria lanceolata. Both penta- merous and hexamerous flowers occur. The c 7 quincuncial or irregularly imbricated; the corolla — usually induplicate-valvate, but shows a tendency — contortion; the stamens arise on an enlargement o the receptacle in groups of three alternating with © petals; one stamen is terminal and two are lateral, as_ in early stages of Tilia, thus emphasising the relation- ship between Elzeocarpaceze and Tiliacea. NOVEMBER 27, 1919 | NATURE | 347 Paris. _ Academy of Sciences, November 3.—M. Léon _ Guignard in the chair.—H, Deslandres | Remarks on _ the constitution of the atom and the properties of _ band spectra. The concluding paper of four com- - munications on the same subject. A model atom is _ proposed, the vibrations of which would fall in with _ the observed regularities in band spectra,—P.\Termier and G. Friedel: The structure of the coal basin of _ Gard.—P. Sabatier and A. Mailhe: The catalytic reduc- tion of the halogen acetic esters. At 300° C. ethyl _ chloroacetate can be reduced by hydrogen in presence _ of nickel to ethyl acetate, some aldehyde and ethylene _ being formed by secondary reactions. Under similar conditions ethyl dichloroacetate can be reduced to the ~ monochloroacetate, and ultimately to ethyl acetate. The _ reaction can also be applied to ethyl trichloroacetate and ethyl bromoacetate.—G. Bouligand: Limited and _ harmonic functions in an infinite domain, zero on _ the frontier.—S. Stoilow: A classification of ensembles _ of zero measure.—E. Kogbetliantz: The unicity of ultra-spherical developments.—N. E. Nérlund: “The calculus of finite differences.—T. Carleman: Integral equations.—C. Frémont: A new method for testing _ the fragility of metallic tubes. Two new methods of testing notched tubes by shock are detailed.—M. _ Amans: Thrust and power of rotating blades un- . opal bent.—G, Fayet and A. Schaumasse: Return _ of the periodic comet 1911 VII. (Schaumasse). This comet came under the influence of Jupiter, and its _ elements were, in consequence, considerably modified, _ and, although the perturbations have been calculated, _ the exact position of the comet was a matter of un- certainty. After some months’ searching a feeble - comet (magnitude 12-5) was discovered on October 29, _ which is very probably the 1911 VII. comet advanced _ eighteen days. The positions on October 29 and 30 _ are given, together with the positions of the com- i. parison stars.—G. Sagnac: Comparison of experiment with the mechanical theory of the undulatory zther.— _ G. Bruhat: Separators of radiations: application to _ spectro-polarimetry.—MM. Ledoux-Lebard and Dauvil- lier: The fundamental constants of the spectrometry _ of the X-rays. Different values for the reticular distance d, for calcite vary between 3-0279 and 3-04 (in to~* cm.). The results of Bragg, Webster, Compton, Uhler, and Cooksey and Siegbahn are reviewed and in part recalculated, and give 3-0346,10-* cm. as the most probable figure.—P. Loisel: The radio-activity of the water from the large spring at Bagnoles-de- _VOrne and its variations. The amount of radium present .in this water varies between 22 and _ 109,10-™ g. per litre, with a mean of 68. The cause of the variation is unknown.—J. A. Muller: Remarks * on chemical decompositions, simultaneous or succes- sive, provoked by physical agents.—J. Guyot and J. J. ‘Simon: The action of sulphuric anhydride and of oleum on methyl alcohol. The preparation of dimethyl sulphate. The action of 60 per cent. fuming sulphuric _acid upon pure methyl alcohol in the proportions indicated in the paper gives a yield of more than per cent. of methyl sulphate-—E. Léger: _é6-cinchonine and its isomers: its relations with niquine.—M. Stuart-Menteath: Some points on the _ geology of the Pyrenees.—J. de Lapparent ; Devonian _ rocks containing radiolaria in the valley of Bruche pec Vosges).—P. Mazé, M. Vila, and M. oigne: The action of cyanamide and dicyanodi- amide on the development of maize. Cyanamide {0-162 gram per litre), with or without nitrate, kills the seedling. Dicyanodiamide at the same concen- tration does not kill the: plant, and in presence of nitrate is not toxic. Neither acts as a plant-food.—M. Ringelmann: Researches on the resistance to wear of NO, 2613, VOL. 104] parts of agricultural machines.—J. Pellegrin: The fresh-water fishes of Morocco.—J. Legendre: The food of Eleotris, Legendrei. This fish is strictly carni- vorous, and during the winter eats its own species.— V. Galippe: Micro-organisms living in paper: their resistance to the action of heat and of. time. Living organisms were obtained from filter-paper which had been sterilised in an autoclave at 120° C. Living organisms were also obtained from paper of various ages, the oldest being a papyrus dating from about 200 B.c.—-F. d’Hérelle: An epidemic of bird-typhus. MELBOURNE. Royal Society of Victoria, October 9.—Mr. J. A. Kershaw, president, in the chair.—F. Chapman: Notes on a collection of Tertiary fossils from the Ooldea Soak, South Australia. The author identifies two sets of fossils, the older series being Miocene (Janjukian), and the younger a raised beach deposit of older Pleistocene age. The most remarkable of the Miocene fossils is Orbicella (Heliastraea) tas- maniensis, which hitherto has been confined to the Miocene of Tasmania. This appears to indicate the former existence of land across the Great Bight con- necting a lost remnant of the former southerly exten- sion of the Australian continent. The later, Pleisto- cene, deposits at Ooldea contain the foraminifer Orbitolites, now extinct in these latitudes. The Mio- > cene determinations in this area confirm Prof. J. W. Gregory’s and Mr. J. T. Jutson’s views of the age of similar limestones in Western Australia.—A. J. Ewart and J. R. Tovey: Contributions to the flora of Australia, No. 28. Two new species are described, Casuarina Helmsi and Plagianthus monoica, and the appearance of a number of new: naturalised aliens, of which one, Lolium subulatum, has proved a useful grass in dry districts. An observation is recorded on a Moreton Bay fig, a large trée of which was ringed at the outbreak of the great war, but did not die until the declaration of peace. The death of the tree was due to the starvation of the roots, and as the young wood was removed the older wood retained the power of conducting water indefinitely. Data are also given in regard to the growth-expansion of an elm which appear to throw doubt upon Trowbridge and Weil’s conclusion that frost cracks are formed, not by the expansion of frozen water, but by~ the contraction of the wood of the tree. SYDNEY. Royal Society of New South Wales, October 1.—Prof. C. E. Fawsitt, president, in the chair.—G. J. Burrows: The hydrolysis of urea hydrochloride.— Prof. O. U. Vonwiller: Notes on the elastic properties of selenium. Selenium in the vitreous form shows viscosity effects like those of pitch. When distorting forces are applied, in addition to the immediate elastic strain, disappearing with removal of the forces, there is a continuous yielding, the distortion increasing so long as the forces are applied. The rate of move- ment is much greater when the substance is illu- minated than when it is in darkness. This effect of light has not hitherto been recorded. Selenium in the crystalline form shows. the viscosity effect, but it is very much less than with the vitreous modification. BOOKS RECEIVED. Elementary Calculus. ByC. H. P. Mayo. Pp. xx+ 345+(Answers) xxxix. (London: Rivingtons.) tos. School Mechanics. Part. i. School Statics. By W. G. Borchardt. Pp. viii+266. (London: Riving- tons.) 6s. Manganese Ores. By A. H. Curtis. Pp. x+118. (London: J. Murray.) 3s. 6d. net. aa 348 NATURE [November 27, 191 ‘ Tin. Ores. By G, M. Davies. Pp. x+111. (London: J. Murray.) , 3s. 6d. net. Alcohol: Its Production, Properties, Chemistry, and Industrial Applications. With Chapters on Methyl Alcohol, Fusel Oil, and Spirituous Beverages. By C. Simmonds. Pp. xx+574. (London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd.) 21s. net. Snapshots of the Wild. By F. St. Mars. Pp. vii+ 244. (London and Edinburgh: W, and R, Chambers, Ltd.) 5s. net. Manual ‘of Meteorology By Sir Napier Shaw. Part iv.: The Relation of the Wind to the Distribu- tion of Barometric Pressure. Pp. xvit+166+ iii plates. (Cambridge: At the University Press.) 12s. 6d. net. Examples in Heat and Heat Engines. By T. Peel. Pp. iii+104. (Cambridge: At the University Press.) 5s. net. Justice and the Poor. By R. H. Smith. Pp. xiv+ 271. (New York City: The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching.) A Naturalist’s Sketch Book. By A. Thorburn. Pp. viiit+72+60 plates. (London: Longmans and Go.) 616s. net. Zinc and its Alloys. By Dr. T. E. Lones. Pp. ix+ 127. (London: Sir I. Pitman and Sons, Ltd.) 2s. 6d. net. The Transmutation of Bacteria. By Dr. S. Gurney- Dixon. Pp. xviiit179. (Cambridge: At the Univer- sitv Press.) tos. net. Opere di Evangelista Torricelli. Edited by G. Loria and G. Vassura. Vol. i., Parte i. Pp xxxviiit+ 407. Vol..i., Parte ii. Pp. 482." Vol. ii. | Pp.-320. Vol. iti. Pp. 521. (Faenza: G. Montanari.) 60 franchi the 3 vols. Animal Life under Water. By Dr. F. Ward. Pp. x+178. (London: Cassell and Co., Ltd.) 7s. 6d. net. Enjoving Life: and Other Literary Remains of W. N. P. Barbellion. Pp. xvi+246.. (London: Chatto and Windus.) 6s. net. Twenty-four Nature Pictures. By E. 1. Detmold. (London: J. M..Dent and Sons, Ltd.) 51. 5s. net. DIARY OF SOCIETIES. THURSDAY, NovemBER 27. Rovat CoL_LEGE oF SuRGEONS, at 3.—Annual Meeting of Fellows and Members. InsTITUTION oF ELEcTRiCcAT. ExGIneERS (at Institution of Civil Engineers), at 6.—C. C. Paterson, J. W. T. Walsh, A. K. Taylor, and W. Barnett: Carbon Arcs for Searchlights. FRIDAY, Novemper 28. Rovat Society or Menicine (Study of Disease in Children Section), : ee E. ibe a ape ahaa shat | of Pylorus with other ssociated H ypertrophies ; (2 ertrophy of Lo End of (s s Buoy Papilloma of Cardia. 2 sais kc wie antag tap: HYSICAL Soctsrv, at 5.—Discussion on Lubrication. To be opened b Dr. T, E. Stanton. Speakers include Principal Skinner, W. Re Hardy, F. W. Lanchester, and H..M. Martin. Visitors are invited to this Meeting. Royar. Society or Mepicine (Epidemiology and State Medicine Section at 8.30.—Col. W. Hunter : The Epidemiology of Typhus Fever in Sot MONDAY, NDeEcEMBER 1. Roya Sociery, at 4.—Anniversary Meeting. Roya InstiruTION, at '5.—General Meeting of Members. Society OF ENGINEERS (at Geological Society), at §+30.-~Capt.- Ré Twelvetrees : Mechanical ‘Vransport in the War. ARISTOTELIAN Society (at 22 Albemarle Street, W.1), at 8.—G. Cator: A The Nature of Inference. X ‘ OYAL InstITUTE oF British ARCHITECTS (Members’ Meeti _ Architects’ Fees for Housing Schemes. ; err Royar Society or Arts, at 8.—Dr. J. T. Hewitt: Synthetic Drugs . (Cantor Lecture). OCcIETY OF CHEMICAL INDusTRY (at Chemical Societv). at 8.— A. Henning: Ethyl Chloride.—C. E. Barrs: ‘he Influence of Impurities in Lead when it is Heated with Concentrated Sulphuric Acid. Roya. Gerocrapnicat Society (at Aolian Hall), at 8.30.—H. Wilson Fox : Development of Transport on the Great Lakes of Africa. TUESDAY, DeEcEMBER 2. Roya Horticunturat Society (at Vincent Square), at 3 beat dba or Civi. ENGINEERS, at 5.30. ONTGEN Sociery (at Medical Society of London), at 8.15.—Dr. FE. Taylo: Jones: The Action of Induction Coils —Major Cooper E Description sae NO. 2613, VOL. 104] _- Demonstration of New High-speed Interrupter for Induction Apparatus and Frimandeau Coils. 7 hers if WEDNESDAY, DECEMBER 3- Rovat UNITED SERVICE INSTITUTION, at 3.—Air Brooke-Popham; The Air Force. : RovaL rage lb OF ARTS, at 4.30.—J. W. Pearson: Crushing Industry. Megat RovAL CoLLece oF SURGEONS, at 5.—Sir John Tweedy: The Tradition (Thomas Vicary Lae ieee GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY, at 5.30. oe eee Instirurson oF AUTOMOBUE ENGINEERS (at Institution of Engineers), at 8.-E. N. Duffield: Car Design and Car Us Point of View of the Majority of Owner Drivers. 96 Society oF Pustic ANALYSTS AND OTHER ANALYTICAL Chemical Society), at 8.—G. van B. Gilmour: New Distillation Met! for Detecting Adulteration in Butter and for Estimating Fais } Coconut Group.—F. S. Sinnatt and L. Slater: An onterg inf the Composition of the Unsaturated Hydrocarbons Present in Coz —B.S. Evans: A New Process for the Determination of Ars 4 Notes on the Chemistry of the Marsh-Berzelius Process. é -THURSDAY, DkCEMBER 4... Roya Society, at 4.30.—Probable Papers.—A. M. Willi Adsorption of Gases at Low and Moderate Concentration: Deduction of the Theoretical Adsorption Isotere and Isoth Experimental Verification of the Form of the Theoretical I Isotherms. (2) The Adsorption of Gases at Low and Moderate trations: Part 111. Experimental Verification of the Const Theoretical Adsorption Isotere.—T. R. Merton: (1) The Spectrum of Hydrogen ; (2) The Spectra of lege F. and T. P. Hilditch: A Study of Catalytic Actions at Solid_ Part If.—F. Horton and Ann C. Davies: An Experimental D tion of the Critical Electron Velocities for the Production and Ionisation on Collision with Argon Atoms. CHEMICAL Society, at 8, FRIDAY, TECEMBER 5.° i InsTiTuTION OF ELecrricAL ENGINEERS (Students’ Meeting) City and Guilds Technical College, Leonard Street), at 7. ‘ Barlow: Thermionic Magnifiers. Ree he TECHNICAL INSPECTION ASSOCIATION (at Royal pape gt oe ts), a R. D. Summerfieldand H. J. Davey : Inspection and ing CONTENTS. The Royal Commission on the Unive: ti Oxford and Cambridge 22.7.9 ae Principles of Radio-communication. By A. Round thé Wrekin =.) 0 Ne eae Our Bookshelf . SPP ASS St er Letters to the Editor:— | on Baas Holland and International Rivers.—Dr. P. and Piof. £.: We Lyde (0 09). tyc eee The Colours of Racehorses. —Sir Wm. Ridgew Gravitation and Light.—Sir Oliver Lodge, F.I Variation of Refractive Indices.—Sir Henry Miers, EROS.) 45.55 atv eee oes Neon. —F. W; ‘Aston 05. 2.055: oo oes Bird Migration.—Dr. Michael C. Grabham — Luminous Worms.—Rev. Hilderic Friend. . . The Doubly Kefracting Structure of Silica Glass. Robert W. ‘Lawson (04.20.0525 ; The Antiquity of Man.—J. Reid Moir and Smith Woodward, F.R.S. .....) Western Turkestan. By S. Casson... . The British Association and Scientific Re Dr. John Aitken, F.R.S. By C.G.K.... NOtes so). aa eee ocho ee Our Astronomical Column :— Beet ‘The Leonid Meteoric Shower... . ++. | Two Stars with Large Parallaxes . . . . . - Aphelia of Planets and Comets . Ve ee The British Science Exhibition, Glasgow . A New Astronomical Model. By Rev. Cortie, S.J. o5 Pp eee a oe University and Educational Intelligence Societies and Academies, ......... Books: Received). ise vais aaas ane Diary of Societies . Beret Editorial and Publishing Offices: — MACMILLAN AND CO., Ltp., s ST. MARTIN’S STREET, LONDON, W.C.2. Advertisements and business letters to be addressed to Publishers. ; ' Editorial Communications to the Editor, ~~ Telegraphic Address: Puusts, LOnpDoN. Telephone Number: GERRARD 8830. eae tee NATURE 349 THURSDAY, DECEMBER 4, 109109. THE NURTURE OF. KEY INDUSTRIES. HE Bill “to constitute a Trade Regulation & Committee, to regulate the importation of ' goods with a view to prevent dumping, safe- _ guarding key industries and industries affected by the depreciation of a foreign currency,” which _ Sir Auckland Geddes introduced in the House of ~ Commons on November 19, will no doubt meet _ with strenuous opposition. It is, of course, anathema to the out-and-out Free Trader, and will be viewed with some doubt and suspicion _ even by those who, while not hide-bound by fiscal _ shibboleths, are yet distrustful of the bureaucratic ~ control which the Bill would seem to entail. The _ terms of the amendment for its rejection on second _ reading, tabled by Mr. Wallace, one of the Coali- tion Liberals, are obviously drafted so as to secure the support, not only of the convinced Free Trader, but also, if possible, of those who object to all departmental control of our commercial rela- tions. As regards the Bourbons of the Manchester -school, who learn nothing and forget nothing, Mr. Wallace is preaching to the converted; prob- ably no argument will have the slightest effect ‘upon them. They will find nothing in the changed conditions of the world, in the circumstances of Empire, or in the influence of the war on our me industries to induce them to modify their nvictions in the smallest degree. To them the basic principle of Free Trade has something of the sanctity of Holy Writ. It has all the force f a natural law as fixed and immutable as seemed them the law of gravitation. But they may be reminded, as recent events have shown, that even the law of gravitation may possibly have a ss stringent universality than we have hitherto en content to assume. How much more prob- ble is it, therefore, that a so-called economic Ww depending upon fallible and transitory human ditions may be at least a ais invalid and The Legislature, under the direction of e Bipeecnsrent. has of late been steadily rivet- ie: ing the chains of this control in a variety of ent. During the continuance of the war, when ie free play of individualism might conceivably iterfere with a united national effort, guidance NO, 2614, VOL. 104] and control by a Government which we had en- trusted with the safeguarding and direction of our destiny were not only accepted, but also generally recognised as imperatively necessary. But under normal conditions the continuance and possible perpetuation of bureaucratic control is wholly opposed to the genius of the English people, as past experience has abundantly proved, and is certain to be fiercely resented sooner or later. It may be argued, of course, that the times are not yet normal, and no doubt this. considera- tion will appeal to many who would otherwise be disposed to reject the Bill sans cérémonie. The allegation that it is bound to impose an in- tolerable burden upon manufacturers, traders, and consumers, and that it is calculated to maintain high prices and arrest our rapid industrial re- covery and development, of course, begs the ques- tion. It is at least arguable that the provisions in the Bill against dumping and for the safe- guarding—we purposely omit the word “protect- ing,” as a term of offence to some people—of key industries are really calculated to assist our industrial development, even although they may tend for a time to maintain high prices. Exces- sive cheapness has not hitherto proved the panacea for all human ills which some, in the past, would appear to have claimed for it. Although the House of Commons is invited by the amendment to reject the Bill, it will be observed that in the Trade Regulation Committee which it is proposed to set up, and which is to be responsible for the working of the measure, the majority is. to consist of members of that House nominated by the House itself. The measure, therefore, is not, strictly speaking, bureaucratic in the sense in which this term is usually understood. It is presumably intended that the representatives of the people, being in the majority, should exercise an effective control of its operations. It rests with the House of Com- mons to nominate persons of knowledge and ex- perience in commercial and industrial matters, who would keep themselves in touch with the views of the trade organisations in the country, and who may be trusted to check any undue de- partmental interference or restriction, and to ex- pedite, when necessary, departmental activity. Is the House so distrustful of its power, or of the ability of its members to cope with the permanent departmental officials, that it is to be asked to reject the measure on the ground that it is too “bureaucratic ” ? There is much in the Bill of a highly technical character, and even experts are certain to differ Q io iene ao 350 NATURE [DECEMBER ‘ 1919 as to the true meaning and effect of some of its provisions. Many of its terms are capable of various interpretations, and cases are certain to arise the equitable solution of which will tax the judgment and wisdom of the Committee. But the general sense of the House will, it is to be hoped, perceive that the measure is based upon the requirements and necessities of the times. surely to mitigate with which it is This consideration ought the factious opposition threatened. No doubt the Bill will be modified in its passage through Parliament. It is certainly capable of amendment in some details. But it is io be hoped that the Government will stand firm in its effort to safeguard the key industries. The list of these named in the Second Schedule is considerably shorter than that drawn up by manufacturers’ associations, and much of it is too technical to be within the comprehension of the average “member of Parliament, who has little or no know- ledge of science. It may be that the events of the last four or five years have made him acquainted with a certain amount of chemical ter- minology, but the list of articles enumerated in the first two sections of the Schedule dealing with synthetic colouring matters, drugs, “inter- mediates,” and ‘fine chemicals,” is sufficiently deterrent to the lay mind, and scarcely lends itself to effective party debate. It is to be regretted that at the present juncture no acknowledged representative of chemical science is a member of the House—no one of the authority and know- ledge, perspicacity and breadth of view, for ex- ample, of the late Lord Playfair or of the late Sir Henry Roscoe. It is certain that, whatever might have been the views of these distinguished men concerning the fiscal policy of the Bill, they would be in hearty sympathy with the effort to resusci- tate and strengthen an industry which had its rise in this country, and in all probability would never have sunk into partial insignificance had Parliament dealt earlier with the admitted defici- encies in our system of national education. The Schedule may be said to have its origin in the war, and to embody some of its lessons. It is the direct result of the painful experience of our shortcomings as revealed to us on its outbreak. Some of the industries with which it: is concerned are at present not much beyond their initiatory stage, but, as has been proved, they are all more or less necessary to our national welfare, and in the light of our recent experience it would be the height of unwisdom not to do everything in our power to place them on a permanent and independent basis. We are at the parting of the NO, 2614, VOL. 104] ways, and on the House of Commons rests serious responsibility of choosing the right To neglect the present opportunity, or to be to its significance, would be an_ irrep: disaster. Al THE DRAGON OF MYTHOLOGY. The Evolution of the Dragon. By Prof. G. Ell Smith. Pp. xx+234. (Manchester: A University Press; London: Longmans, and Co., 1919.) Price 10s. 6d, net. ‘THE dragon may be regarded as the n venerable symbol employed in orname art, and it has been the inspiration of much o the world’s great literature in every age and clime The dragon-myth also represents the earlies doctrine or systematic theory of astronomy 2 meteorology. The study of dragon-lore thus le us back to some of the most primitive working: of the human mind, and embraces many subje which at first sight seem to have little connecti with the end in view. Prof. Elliot Smith’s y on the evolution of the dragon, indeed, alludes almost every aspect of primitive thought myth, and the author discusses questions vary from the origin of embalming to the wor: of the cow, the elixir of life, the swastika, and reasons for wearing clothes. His volume con of notes of three lectures delivered in the Rylands Library, Manchester, illustrated by bea tiful reproductions of an appropriate se drawings. The chapters are entitled respecti Incense and Libations, Dragons and Rain and The Birth of Aphrodite. Ge: Prof. Elliot Smith maintains that the was originally a beneficent creature, the px fication of water. The fundamental element dragon’s powers was the control of water, whe rivers or seas, pools or wells, or clouds on the of mountains. The substratum of its anat usually consists of a serpent or a crocodile, the scales of a fish for covering, the feet and wi (sometimes also the head) of an eagle or ha and the fore-limbs (sometimes also the heacl) lion. All the parts are symbols of the vario attributes and uses of water in Nature. Wi various slight additions and modifications, — composite wonder-beast ranges from we: Europe to the far east of Asia, and thence the Pacific to America. It must, indeed, had a common origin, and Prof. Elliot | particularly emphasises the interest of the Ame can version, which he regards as having gradue evolved from several successive importations ideas from the Old World. He remarks. “one and the same fundamental idea, such as tl attributes of the serpent as a water-god, reach¢ America in an infinite variety of guises, Egyptian Babylonian, Indian, Indonesian, Chinese, am Japanese; and from this amazing jumble of con fusion the local priesthood of Central Amerie: built up a system of beliefs which is distinctivel: American, though most of the ingredients and th q Decemmer 4, 1919| NATURE #351 principles of synthetic composition were borrowed from the Old World.” _ The lecture notes are unfortunately somewhat “scrappy, and Prof. Elliot Smith apologises for the circumstances which led both to this defect and to the not infrequent repetitions. The book also lacks an index, which would add much to its use- fulness. It is, however, a veritable mine of in- formation on the subjects with which it deals, with numerous references to literature, and science indebted to the John Rylands Library for under- taking the publication. , EUGENICS. (1) Lectures on Sex and Heredity delivered in _ Glasgow, 1917-18. By F. O. Bower, J. Graham Kerr, and W. E. Agar. Pp. vi+119. (Lon- don: Macmillan and Co., Ltd., r919.) Price «5S. net. . 2) Eugenics and Environment. By Prof. C. Lloyd _ Morgan. Pp. 82. (London: John Bale, Sons, __ and Danielsson, Ltd., 1919.) Price 2s. net. ) La Sélection Humaine. By Prof. Charles Richet. (Bibliotheque Scientifique _Inter- _ nationale.) Pp. iii+262. (Paris: Librairie _ Félix Alcan, 1919.) Price 6.60 francs. : ‘HESE three books illustrate three somewhat different methods of setting the problem of genics before the general reader. The aim of the excellent little book by Prof. Bower, Prof. Graham Kerr, and Dr. Agar is to set forth the ispensable facts and principles, and leave the der to draw the moral. It is not perhaps in- ded to deal with eugenics at all, but it is one which enthusiasts for eugenic propaganda will ind very valuable. It consists of six lectures on the more elementary facts of sex, reproduction, ind heredity in plants and animals. The first four ectures, two on plants and two on animals, deal with the subject in the two kingdoms in similar ashion, beginning with examples of reproduction nd conjugation (syngamy) in the Protista, and assing through the simpler Metaphyta and (letazoa to the more complex phenomena of the highest plants and animals. No one who has a latural interest in living things, but has had Mo systematic training in biology, can fail to find these lectures interesting; those on plants are perhaps unnecessarily technical here and there, with the assistance of the excellent illustra- ons any reasonably educated person should find em easy and interesting to read. In the last two lectures Dr. Agar takes up the ubject of heredity, begins with the phenomena fertilisation, cleavage, and the early segregation the germ-cells in Cyclops as an introduction to conceptions of soma and germ-plasm and the erial basis of inheritance, and then proceeds 9 give a short but lucid account of Mendel’s law. the last lecture he takes up heredity in Man. points out that, since the characters in Man vhich are known to follow Mendel’s law are com- aratively few, and in general of small practical mportance, human heredity must be studied in NO, 2614, VoL. 104] practice chiefly by the statistical methods of the biometric school. Of these he gives a lucid elementary description, illustrated by actual examples taken from the papers of Pearson, Heron, Schuster, and others, and shortly points out the bearing of the facts on eugenic proposals. (2) Prof. Lloyd Morgan’s little book is frankly an elementary text-book of eugenics. It deals with variation in human characters as illustrated by the normal curve of error, the principles of cor- relation, and the method of finding the correla- tion coefficient, very shortly with Mendelian heredity, and finally with acquired characters, selection, and the relation of biological characters to social tradition and civilisation. It is written in a pleasant and almost colloquial style, but suffers not infrequently from a certain obscurity of dic- tion—e.g. in describing a correlation table (p. 33) : “Along the left-hand vertical side the stature of the sons is given in ascending order read down- wards ”’ (our italics). Again, on p. 32 a mislead- ing definition of perfect correlation is given, which is corrected at the bottom of the same page, a treatment which does not conduce to clearness. On p. 47 there is, doubtless by a slip, the mislead- ing statement: “If blue eyes mate with brown eyes, one child in four may be blue-eyed.” We feel also that the booklet suffers from being: illus- trated by purely imaginary examples the simplicity of which may give a false impression. Dr. Agar’s account of biometric methods compares fayour- ably with it in this respect. Nevertheless, it is in most respects an admirable elementary intro- duction to the subject, such as might well be used by those who wish to follow it up more fully by further reading. (3) Prof. Richet’s book has more of the char- acter of an essay. It does not profess to set forth specific facts, but takes the facts for granted, and discusses the conclusions to be drawn from them. The main thesis of the author is that if selection can do such great things with domestic animals and plants, it could, if applied, do equally great things with man, and that the only hope for mankind in the future is in its application. The aim of life is happiness; progress is the increase of total happiness; this can be gained through science alone; it is limited only by the limits of the human mind, and these limits might be almost indefinitely extended by suitable selection. Selection must be of several kinds. In the first place, the white race is indisputably superior, and crossing with black or yellow gives bad results. All race-crosses must therefore be pro- hibited. Within the white race all defectives must be prevented from reproducing ; seriously defective infants must not be allowed to live, and those found defective in later life must be segregated. Finally, positive encouragement must be given to marriage of the superior, especially between those superior in the same.respect. The author’s enthusiasm leads him at times to rather wild state- ments. He calls deaf-mutes (sourds-muets) “ces ébauches d’humanité, ces produits disgraciés . . . ces pauvres avortons,” words which can only dis- a eee ERT MEI 352 NATURE [DECEMBER 4, 1919 gust those who know the brilliant gifts of some who are thus afflicted. He states categorically that the mental improvement due to education is transmitted to offspring, and recommends late marriage of the highly educated in order that the effects of education may be more fully handed on. And neither Prof. Richet nor Prof. Lloyd Morgan seems to realise the extreme difficulty of eliminating an undesirable character if it is re- cessive in inheritance. In a stable population, if 1 per cent. show a recessive character, 18 per cent. will bear this character concealed by the corresponding dominant, and by preventing the reproduction of the 1 per cent. in which the re- cessive is homozygous, only very slow progress will be made in eliminating it. Prof. Richet is an enthusiast for eugenics, and has written an entertaining book, but one which is scarcely suffi- ciently abreast of modern work on heredity. me Led, OUR BOOKSHELF. Essays in Common-sense | Philosophy. By CR. Me Joad... Pp: 252. | (ondon:)) The Swarthmore Press, Ltd., 1919.) Price 8s. 6d. net. Ir any man of science, perplexed at the disturb- ing challenge which philosophy throws down to the assumptions as to plain matter of fact on which science rests, wants comfort and support for his intellectual framework from within philo- sophy itself, he will find and certainly enjoy it in the delightfully clear essays of Mr. Joad. It is a somewhat unusual thing for a young writer to make his début in philosophy by rejecting every temptation to paradox and any attempt to startle the ‘“‘plain man,” and setting himself the ap- parently easy but really very difficult task of con- vincing the ‘plain man” that his views about the universe are not likely to be very far removed from truth. Yet this is what Mr. Joad sets out to do. Mr. Joad is not a very trustworthy guide when he discusses famous philosophical theories. He adopts too easy a classification, with the conse- quence that we find ourselves in strange company. All philosophers, past and present, are in his view -representationists, solipsists, or realists. But this does not in the least spoil our enjoyment of the concise and easy way in which the writer finds himself at home in philosophy, of the keenness of his wit, and of the dexterity of his cut and thrust. There is only one of us who comes in for unstinted praise—Prof. Dawes Hicks —-and we believe he does not recognise his theory in Mr. Joad’s exposition. The rest of us—Berg- sonians, pragmatists, absolutists—are all alike well trounced. There is one thing in Mr. Joad’s own view, however, which is very puzzling, not to say dis- concerting. He tells us that sensible objects exist “very much” as we know them. But why not altogether so? If there is any difference at all, why is he so confident it can only be a very little one? H. W. C, NO, 2614, VOL. 104] : that type is necessary.” Modern Engineering Workshop Practic Text-book for the Use of Engineering Stud Apprentices, and Engineers engaged in P tical Work. By Herbert Thompson. (Gri Scientific Text-books.) Pp. xi+ 328. (Le Charles Griffin and Co., Ltd., 1919.) Pric Tus book is an attempt to give a fait prehensive view of modern engineering practice, and includes sections dealing w general methods and machines, and others: de ing with special processes and machin turret lathes, spiral milling, grinding, har tempering, annealing, autogenous an welding, and soldering and brazing. T is quite at home in these branches. The tions are clear, and whilst many of th tions are half-tone reproductions of pho of machines and appliances, there is a § number of line drawings to enable the read understand the construction. The author so happy in chap. i., which deals with Thus, on p. 3 we read, under the paragrap ing ‘Malleable-iron Castings”: “If an ir ing, made out of the right kind of pig iroa, be heated to a red heat in an iron box surrounde by some carbonaceous material for from ! at 24 hours, the surface of the material becomes verted into a form of steel. The casting has lost its extreme brittleness, and becc or less malleable. The castings are g bedded in red hematite.” In view o ment, it is of interest to note that lat in dealing with case-hardening, the aut that his knowledge is sound, as regards both process and the changes which take place d the progress of case-hardening. Despite ishes of this kind, the young ong n will find much that is instructive and of in in the book. ead: Science and War: The Rede Lecture, 1919. the Rt. Hon. Lord Moulton. Pp. 59. _ bridge: At the University Press, 1919.) 2s. 6d. net. Coes Lorp Mou tton’s lecture gives a striking p of the manner in which the methods of w: have been transformed by the applicati tary purposes of the results of the 1 of chemical and_ physical baribilnn advances in engineering and medical sci during the last half-century. Not unnaturally considerable part of the discourse is devotec the subject of explosives, on which the lect can speak with special authority, and the ing which he gives as to the importance « lishing the manufacture of nitric acid from spheric nitrogen in this country is one th deserves serious attention. Lord Moulton’s fi conclusion is that man, “endowed with the powers that science has given him, will self-destructive unless his social instincts | become sufficiently strong to induce him. volt tarily to submit to those powers being fettered.” “Tt is easy to criticise the League of Nations, but let us never forget that some combined action of —_ ia | _ DECEMBER 4, 1919] » ar NATURE 353 _ LETTERS TO THE EDITOR. Hditor does not hold himself responsible for opinions ex- _ pressed by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manu- "scripts intended for this or any other part of Nature. o notice is taken of anonymous communications. ] ; Progress of the Natural History Museum. HE admirable survey of scientific progress pub- in the jubilee number of Nature on November 6 received the most cordial appreciation of your erous readers. May I be allowed to direct atten- on to one or two omissions, without being supposed Teg myself from. the universal chorus of rova ‘Lhe removal of the natural history collections of British Museum from Bloomsbury and the increase their importance afterwards are events which e notice, even though the South Kensington ch of the museum was perhaps omitted from survey on the ground that it was a new homie existing collections, and not an institution which ated during the period under review. The actual moval took place in 1882-83, and the years which e followed have been marked by an extraordinary h in the collections, associated with a record of tific research which is equally remarkable. It t not be forgotten that the accurate discrimination f the species of animals, plants, and minerals is a ndamental part of the respective sciences. Even ugh the philosophical biologist is sometimes inclined _underrate the work of the systematist, he is fre- ntly obliged to turn to him for information with rd to the facts from which he derives his results. far-reaching conclusions which are based on the y of geographical distribution lose their value if Ie: depend on erroneous determinations of species, le the study of evolution is equally dependent on labours of the systematist. In bringing together | unrivalled collection of specimens and in publishing / notable series of memoirs dealing with it, the aturalists of the British Museum have taken their full e in the scientific progress of the last fifty years. [The number of specimens in the department of logy (including entomology), omitting those re- as duplicates, has been estimated as having about 1,400,000 at the time of the removal to th Kensington in 1882-83. . Successive estimates been 2,245,000 in 1895, 3,060,000 in 1904, 60,000 in 1917, and about 6,000,000 at the time of iting. The other departments of the museum have increased at a rapid rate. Thousands of forms to science have been described, and the type- mens are preserved in the collection. In spite of 2 magnitude of the task, the specimens have been nged so carefully that most of them can be found out difficulty when they are required for study. addition to this side of its activities, the museum done much for scientific education by the way in ch a part of its treasures have been exhibited in public galleries. The requirements of visitors who principally interested in the systematic arrange- nt of natural history objects are amply provided and, to take a single instance, the exhibited es of large mammals is not equalled in any other m. Other exhibits of a more general nature are in the central hall, where may be seen illustra- of the principal types of structure found in the classes of vertebrates, inaugurated by the late H. Flower, a former Director; a series of cases ‘ining objects bearing on the theory of evolution ; -and specimens of insects and Arachnids instru- tal in carrying diseases; and other exhibits of ral interest. ‘The evolution of animals, as illus- NO, 2614, VOL. 104] Oo i 00 hy i % t trated by their geological history, can be’ studied in the paleontological galleries, and particular attention may be directed to the series of elephants and their presumed ancestors to be found among the treasures of the gallery of fossil mammals. The series of nesting-birds and eggs, arranged on a system which was itself a new departure, deserves special mention, Attention may also be directed to the great develop- ment of the collection of domesticated animals, and to the wonderful series of specimens in the mineral gallery. In noting the progress of the Natural History Museum it is appropriate to refer to the fundamental alteration which has taken place during the last fifty years in the conception of the functions of museums in general. It is now admitted that the museum is a place which ought to exercise an educational influence, and there is an increasing desire to arrange the ex- hibits in such a way as to teach some definite lesson. It has, moreover, been recognised that the bio- logical sciences are of great economic importance, as is shown, for instance, by the extraordinary advances which have been made in preventive medicine by the’ discovery that the parasitic organisms giving rise to certain diseases are transmitted by blood-sucking animals. In this field of research the work ‘of the systematic zoologist is of special importance, since it is essential to be able to distinguish the species of insect or other carrier of the pathogenic organism from its near allies which are harmless in this respect. In dealing with economic questions of this kind, and of many others, the Natural History Museum has done its full share, and its function as a consultative body capable of giving valuable information on matters of practical moment has become an important side of its activities. The action of the then Secretary of State for the Colonies in calling a meeting in 1909 for placing entomological research in our tropical Possessions in Africa on a proper basis is an event which ought not to pass unrecorded. The immediate result was the establishment of the Entomological Research Com- mittee (Tropical Africa), now the Imperial Bureau of Entomology. Short as its life has been at present, the Bureau has fully justified its existence, and it has become an important centre of research, the utility of which is cordially recognised in all parts of the Empire. It ‘alreadv possesses a wide influence, and it may fairly be antitipated that it will become increasingly im- portant in promoting researches tending to reduce the ravages of sleeping sickness, malaria, and many other diseases which have taken a heavy toll of the life of man and domesticated animals in the past. The Trustees of the British Museum associated themselves from the first with this new departure, and provided such accommodation at the Natural History Museum as they were able to svare for the Director of the Bureau and a part of his staff. Mav I. in conclusion, direct attention to another side of biological activity which deserves notice? The foundation of the Marine Biological Association in 1884 led to the erection of the Plymouth Laboratory. which has had a most successful career, in spite of the difficulties due to insufficient funds, in promoting the study of marine biology, including practical ques- tions of great importance connected with the fishing industry. Although not the first institution of this kind to be founded in this country, the Plymouth Laboratory, with those on the Clyde, in the Isle of Man, and at St. Andrews and Cullercoats, has become an indisnensable part of the biological equip- ment of Great Britain. S. F. Harmer. British Museum (Natural History), November 17. NATURE ‘[DecemBEr 4, 191g . Gravitation and Light. As 1 said last week (p. 334), and also in the December Phil. Mag. (p. 737), the refractivity »—1, necessary at every point of a gravitational field to produce the Einstein deflection, is the ratio of the energy of a constant-mass particle fallen there from infinity to the energy of the same particle moving with the speed of light; but it is not permissible to say that the solar gravitational field acts like a lens, for it has no focal length. If the sun were backed by a nebula or any luminous area, the light grazing the rim all round would be brought to a focus at a place seventeen times the distance of Neptune, while light from any larger circle would focus still further off in proportion to the area of the circle. So from a_ uniformly luminous area there would result a focal line of con- stant brightness. The moon is, unfortunately, im- potent to make an annular eclipse interesting. For an extended solar atmosphere to produce the deflection, its density would have to vary with the inverse distance, which seems unlikely; but this is _ just the way in which an zther tension ought to vary in order to cause gravitation—as Newton knew. The extra zther-tension factor, “*—1, would be twice the refractivity. Possibly the concluding sentence in the Phil. Mag. article above referred to is not expressed with sufficient clearness. Permit me to explain my points thus :— (1) The quasi-elasticity of zther—the property which enables it to transmit light and to effect elec- trical discharge—is probably due to exceedingly fine- grained constitutional vorticity with high-speed cir- culation, as argued in my book ‘The Ether of Space.”’ Consequently it would have facility for gyrostatic action, yielding a perpendicular result to an acting force. (2) That a gravitational force acting obliquely on light would probably be unable to alter speed, but, through the co-operation of its transverse and longitudinal com- ponents, it might be expected to produce an extra dose of deflection—assuming light to be subject to gravita- tion, as Newton surmised. So that by the time a beam of light coming from infinity had arrived at its nearest point to the sun, it would already have been deflected as much as an ordinary heavy particle would be deflected alons its whole course. I am aware that these are only suggestions for working out. * 3 Einstein’s equations, based on the impossibility of observing motion through ether, seem powerful instruments for extracting results; just as more familiar equations, based on the impossibility of ‘perpetual motion,” have proved themselves effective ; but neither set of equations explains, nor attempts to explain, the mechanism. of the consequences they deduce. Dynamics have served us $0 well in the past that it must be still legitimate to try, wherever possible, to apply well-established principles to new phenomena. OLIVER J. LODGE. Edgbaston, Birmingham, November 30. The Displacement of Light Rays Passing near the Sun. Tue part of the earth’s atmosphere within the conical shadow of the moon during a total solar eclipse may be regarded as approximately a right cir- cular cylinder, the area of the base of which depends on the length of the shadow. Observations have shown that there are temperature and pressure gradients in this cylinder. The latter gradient at the surface of the earth is usually slight, but the temperature gradient may be considerable, so that, assuming that there is equilibrium, we have, roughly speaking, a cylinder of air the density of which decreases outwards NO, 2614, VOL. 104] in all directions perpendicular to its axis... When we remember that the light from stars at small angi | distances from the sun’s centre makes small angles — with the axis of this cylinder, it is easy to see that a — very small density gradient would be sufficient to account for the displacements that were observed in — the total solar eclipse of the present year. Suppose the cylinder to be made up of two ] an inner and an outer, the common bou be ng a . coaxial cylinder, and let a ray of light in the outs portion inclined at a small angle a to the axis the boundary, the deviation 6 is given by cos a=pcos(a+é), ERS felt where p is the index of refraction for rays passing from the outer portion to the inner. shrine) Rapes Since 8 is very small in comparison with a, — have, approximately, ar ua! _4—! very nearly, |e ptana tana iva since » does not differ much from unity. If a=30’ and 6=1-7", we get p=it+6tana, 8 being expressed in circular measure. mi een Thus j+1-00000007, and for small values of a is clear that 8 is inversely proportional to the angular distance of the star from the centre of the sun’s disc. If we take p,, the absolute index of refraction o the outer portion, to be 1-0003, /2, the lute index of refraction of the inner portion, will be 1-00030007, and consequently aaa) Be ae #2—1! _}-0002, Lae Penis which will be the ratio of the density of the air the inside portion to the density of the air in the on side portion. On the assumption that there is n gradient of pressure, this would imply. a difference « temperature of about. 1/18° C., a ve small arnount when it is remembered that the lowering of tempera- ture at the surface of the earth during an eclip: : ma be as much as 5° C. eee tee In the actual case the path of a ray will be a curve but the above remarks will serve to show that density gradient would probably be sufficient to | duce the observed effect. It is clear, too, that displacement in the actual case will be inversely portional to the angular distance of the star from sun’s centre, and that it will depend on local cor tions, so that the amount of displacement will” different for different places. i shone. a I think it is quite ke if pe eget of the atmosphere of the earth due to dens _ changes during weg eclipse could be accurately obtained and allowed for, it would be found that there. ds no Einstein effect at all. ALEXR. ANDERSON, 7 University College, Galway. peariae viz . IE EINSTEIN’S RELATIVITY THEORY OF GRAVITATION. na Dea HE results of the Solar Eclipse Expeditions T announced at the joint meeting of the Royal Society and Royal ‘Astronomical Society on November 6 brought for the first time to the notice of the general public the consummation of Einstein’s new theory of gravitation. The theory was already in being before the war; it is one of the few pieces of pure scientific knowledge which l have not been set aside in the emergency; pre- ; of speculation ceased for a time. peering into the secrets of the atom. no longer a mighty vacuum in the cold emptiness _ part with restless energy. DECEMBER 4, 1919] NATURE 355 - parations for this expedition were in progress before the war had ceased. Before attempting to understand the theory which, if we are to beliéve the daily Press, has dimmed the fame of Newton, it may be worth while to recall what it was that he did. It was not so much that he, first among men, used the differential calculus. That claim was disputed by Leibniz. Nor did he first conceive the exact relations of inertia and force. Of these, Galileo certainly had an inkling. Kepler, long before, had a vague suspicion of a universal gravitation, and the law of the inverse square had, at any rate, been mooted by Hooke before the “ Principia ” saw the light. The outstanding feature of New- ton’s work was that it drew together so many loose threads. It unified phenomena so diverse as the planetary motions, exactly described by Kepler, the everyday facts of falling bodies, the rise and fall of the tides, the top-like motion of the earth’s axis, besides many minor irregularities in lunar and planetary motions. With all these drawn into such a simple scheme as the three laws of motion combined with the compact law of the inverse square, it is no wonder that flights The universe seemed simple and satisfying. For a century at least there was little to do but formal develop- ment of Newton’s dynamics. Inthe mid-eighteenth century Maupertuis hinted at a new physical doc- trine. He was not content to think of the universe as a great clock the wheels of which turned in- _ evitably and irrevocably according to a fixed rule. Surely there must be some purpose, Some divine economy in all its motions. So he propounded a principle of least action. But it soon appeared _ that this was only Newton’s laws in a new guise; _ and so the eighteenth century closed. _ The nineteenth saw great changes. _ closed, the age of electricity had come. When it Men were Space was of which rolled the planets. It was filled in every Ether, not matter, was the last reality. Mass and matter were elec- _ trical at bottom. A great problem was set for _ the present generation: to reconcile one with the _ other the new laws of electricity and the classical * dynamics of Newton. At this point the principle _ of least action began to assume greater import- - ance; for the old and the new schemes of the uni- _ verse had this in common, that in each of them the _ time average of the difference between the kinetic _ and the potential energies appears to be a minimum. One of the main difficulties encountered by the . electrical theory of matter has been the obstinate _ refusal of gravitation to come within its scope. - Quietly obeying the law of the inverse square, _ it heeded not the bustle and excitement of the _ new physics of the atom, but remained, indepen- _ dent and inevitable, a constant challenge to rash _ claimants to the key of the universe. The elec- _ trical theory seemed on the way to explain very property of matter yet known, except the one most universal of them all. It could trace to NO, 2614, VOL. 104] its origins the difference between copper and glass, but not the common fact of their weight; and now the ether began silently to steal away. One matter that has seriously troubled men in Newton’s picture of the universe is its failure to accord with the philosophic doctrine of the rela- tivity of space and time. The vital quantity im dynamics is the acceleration, the change of motiom of a body. This does not mean that Newton assumed the existence of some ultimate frame- work in ‘space relative to which the actual velocity of a body can be uniquely specified, for no difference is made to his laws if any arbitrary constant velocity is added to the velocity of every particle of matter at all time. The seri- ous matter is that the laws cannot possibly have the same simplicity of form relative to two frame- works of which one is in rotation or non-uniform motion relative to the other. It seems, for in- stance, that if Newton were right, the term “ fixed direction” in space means something, but ‘fixed position” means nothing. It seems as if the two must stand or fall together. And yet the physical relations certainly make a distinction. Why this should be so has not yet been made known to us- Whatever new theory we adopt must take account of the fact. It was with some feeling of relief that men hailed the advent of the ether as ‘a substitute for empty space, though we may note in passing that some philosophers—Comte, for example— have held that the concept of an ether, infinite and intangible, is as illogical as that of an abso- lute space. But, jumping at the notion, physicists proposed to measure all velocities and rotations relative to it. Alas! the ether refused to dis- close the measurements. Explanations were soon forthcoming to account for its reluctance; but these were so far-reaching that they explained away the ether itself in the sense in which it was commonly understood. At any rate, they proved that this creature of the scientific imagination was not one, but many. It quite failed to satisfy the cravings for a permanent standard against which motion might be measured. The problem was left exactly where it was before. This was pre- war relativity, summarised by Einstein in 1905. The physicists complained loudly that he was taking away their ether. Let it not be thought, however, that the results of the hypothesis then advanced were purely nega- tive. They showed quite clearly that many current ideas must be modified, and in what direction this must be done. Most notably it emphasised the fact that inertia is not a fundamental and invari- able property of matter; rather it must be sup- posed that it is consequent upon the property of energy. And, again, energy is a relative term- One absolute quantity alone remained; one only stood independent of the taste or fancy of the observer, and that was “action.” hile the zther and the associated system of measurement could be selected as any one of a legion, the prin- ciple of least action was satisfied in each of them, and the magnitude of the action was the same in all. NATURE [DECEMBER 4, 1919 But, still, gravitation had to be left out; and the question from which Einstein began the great advance now consummated in success was this. If energy and inertia are inseparable, may not gravitation, too, be rooted in energy? If the energy in a beam of light has momentum, may it not also have weight? The mere thought was revolutionary, crude though it be. For if at all possible it means re- considering the hypothesis of the constancy and universality of the velocity of light. This hypo- thesis was essential to the yet infant principle of relativity. But if called in question, if the velocity of light is only approximately constant because of our ordinary ways of measuring, the principle of relativity, general as it is, becomes itself an approximation. But to what? It can only be to something more general still. Is it possible to maintain anything at all of the principle with that essential limitation removed? Here was exactly the point at which philo- sophers had criticised the original work of Ein- stein. For the physicist it did too much, For the philosopher it was not nearly drastic enough. He asked for an out-and-out relativity of space and time. He would have it that there is no ulti- mate criterion of the equality of space intervals or time intervals, save complete coincidence. All that is asked is that the order in which an ob- server perceives occurrences to happen and objects to be arranged shall not be disturbed. Subject to this, any way of measuring will do. The globe may be mapped on a Mercator projection, a gno- monic, a stereographic, or any other projection; but no one can say that one is a truer map than another. Each is a safe guide to the mariner or the aviator. So there are many ways of mapping out the sequences of events in space and time, all of which are equally true pictures and equally faithful servants. This, then, was the mathematical problem pre- sented to Einstein and solved. The pure mathe- matics required was already in existence. An absolute differential calculus, the theory of differ- ential invariants, was. already known. In pages of pure mathematics that the majority must always take as read, Riemann, Christoffel, Ricci, and Levi-Civita supplied him with the necessary machinery. It remained out of their equations and expressions to select some which had the nearest kinship to those of mathematical physics and to see what could be done with them. E. Cunnincuam. DISCOVERY OF A MINOAN PALACE AT MALIA, IN CRETE, Leer ee of great importance have been made during the course of excavations carried out this year in Crete by M. Joseph Hatzidakis, at a site one kilometre from the shore, near the village of Malia, about twenty miles east of Candia. The site of a palace of the Middle Minoan epoch has been uncovered, and numerous objects found. The containing walls of the palace, the lower courses of which consist of poros stone, can all NO, 2614, VOL. 104] be traced, the dimensions of the building being’ 110 metres in length and 80 metres in width. The interior walls, which are of bricks and rubble, are 2°30 metres in thickness, and the floor of the palace — is composed of a layer of white earth upon which : is a stratum of chalk and sand with a top surface of red chalk paste. The outside of the containing — walls was covered with a white chalk wash, The palace was destroyed by fire shortly after the end of the Middle Minoan epoch, and probably suffered from the depredations of looters for a _ considerable time after its destruction. In conse- quence, few objects of value, and nothing intact, have so far been discovered. A very large number — of small fragments of gold leaf, however, have _ been found. For many years past similar frag- ments have been found by the peasants from time to time, and the site became known as “‘Chryso- lakkos,” “The ditch of gold.” Capt. Spratt early last century noted the prevalence of such gold fragments on this site. The fragments are derived — in all probability from some large bone or wooden objects which were decorated with gold leaf. Bronze was rare, only a dagger blade, a brooch, and a band having been found. eae Tt The fields between the shore and the palace show traces of walls, and in one case a complete house, all of the same date as the palace, and — clearly belonging to the town in which the palace was situated. The site of a necropolis was found — near the shore, where one grave containing pot-_ tery of the same date as the palace was opened. — Minoan pictographic or graphic signs were found cut on various stone blocks in the palace. — The double-axe occurred on a large tetragonal pillar, which was of the type found at Knossos, but twice the size. A six-rayed star of a knowa type also occurred; a similar star with a spray at — the end of one of the rays represents a sign not hitherto known. es ap The pottery so far discovered is disappointing, — no complete or even well-preserved pieces having been found. The best fragments, mostly of cups — of the Middle Minoan periods, were found in what — appears to have been a shrine. | 20S es Three kilometres to the west of the palace a— number of graves of the third Late Minoan or Mycenean period were found. One of these graves was opened, and was found to contain five rect-_ angular “larnakes,” in each of which was a skeleton. Re The importance of the site lies in the fact that — this is the only example hitherto found of a palace — of the Middle Minoan epoch without an overlying — building of later date. The Middle Minoan parts _ of the palaces of Phzestos and Knossos are over- built with walls of the Late Minoan periods, and the - plans and details of the Middle Minoan palaces at _ these places cannot, in consequence, be definitely — ascertained. The existence of a city and necro-— polis of the same date as the palace increases the — importance of the site. The Late Minoan city is clearly to be found some distance away. The excavations will be continued, and promise im- portant results. ; : 3 a . ’ 4 a reise ee ae NATURE or DEcEMBER 4, 1919] NOTES. _ Tue desirability of fostering scientific research as a result of experience gained during the war was _ recently urged upon various Government Departments _ by the British Association. There is reason to believe : “that measures are being taken to this end in various _ directions; in particular, the association has received _ from the Admiralty a communication in the course of _ which it is stated that the authorities there “are __ keenly alive to the supreme importance of research in _ its bearing on naval requirements, and that the _ organisation of suitable arrangements for this purpose - is now engaging, and will continue to engage, their _ earnest attention. Rapid progress is now being made in the elaboration of a complete scheme which will _ provide, on one hand, for systematic and continuous _ development in research and experimental establish- ments controlled by the Department, and, on the other, for an effective relation between these estab- lishments and scientific institutions throughout the country.”’ Tue collection of precious stones which was formed _by the late Sir Arthur H. Church, and presented by his widow to the Trustees of the British Museum, has recently been placed in a special case under the arch- way leading from the main gallery of minerals to the meteorites pavilion at the Natural History Museum, Sir Arthur Church was for thirty-two years professor of chemistry at the Royal Academy of Arts, and his leaning towards art led him from his early days to take an interest in rare gem-stones. In consequence, the collection was at his death exceptionally rich in specimens of mineral species seldom seen in ordinary jewelry, as well as in unusual specimens of familiar species. he pride of the collection is the brilliant orange-coloured spessartite, which is all but unique, since only one other such stone (cut, in fact, from the - same original crystal) is known to exist. The collec- _ tion is very rich in zircons. Together with the four stones which Sir Arthur Church presented in his life- time, the collection numbers 207 specimens, without _ counting the eight diamond points and the twenty-one _ diamond brilliants used in the setting of a zircon and a peridot ring respectively; of them, 170 are set in _ 162 gold rings and 37 are unset. Dr. O. Hotrepaut is organising a Norwegian ex- _ ploring expedition to Novaya Zemlya, and hopes to sail in June next year. Dr, Holtedahl, who has had previous polar experience in geological explora- tion in Spitsbergen, has laid his plans before the Norwegian Academy of Sciences, where they obtained _ the support of Dr. F. Nansen, who advocated a State grant. According to the Morning Post, Dr. Holtedahl will make the base of his expedition on Matochkin _ Shar, the strait between the two large islands, where there is a small Samoyede settlement. A botanist, a zoologist, and a meteorologist will accompany the _ expedition, while the leader will devote his time to _ geology and geophysical problems. Novaya Zemlya is by no means a terra incognita; Russian explorers have frequently visited it, particularly in search of minerals. But. the results of their work have only ‘partly been published, and the collections and obser- _ vations have probably been destroyed. In 1916 the Russian Government proposed to erect two perma- nent meteorological stations in Novaya Zemlya, one at the north end and the other at Matochkin Shar; - but nothing has yet been done. Dr. Holtedahl rightly insists. on the usefulness of a permanent _ station. He would also like to see one on the island _ of Jan Mayen, between Iceland and Spitsbergen. NO, 2614, VOL. 104] A LETTER has been received by us from Dr. Th. Mortensen, the distinguished curator of the zoological collections in the Royal Museum, Copenhagen, pro- testing against the use of the German word ‘‘ Anlage ” in zoological papers written in English. It is rather curious that it should have been left to a friendly neutral to protest against this disfigurement of the English language. Dr. Mortensen suggests that the English word ‘‘ rudiment ’’ conveys exactly the mean- ing of ‘‘ Anlage,’’ and he hazards the supposition that the reason why ‘“‘ rudiment ’’ is not more largely used in this sense is that it has been customary in the past to employ the phrase ‘‘ rudimentary organ ”’ to signify the disappearing remnant of a once functional structure. In both his views we heartily concur with Dr. Mortensen. Unfortunately, the phrase ‘‘ rudi- mentary organ’’ is found embedded in our great classic of biology, the ‘‘ Origin of Species,’’ and it is probably for this reason that some years ago leading American zoologists, who disliked the word “Anlage,’’ attempted to replace it by the English word ‘‘fundament,’’ an attempt which excited only amusement in the zoological world in general. To us it seems that only a little perseverance is required in order to establish the word ‘‘ rudiment ’’ as the English equivalent of ‘‘Anlage,’’ whilst the equally good English word “ vestige ’’ can be used to signify the remnant of a disappearing organ. This usage has already been adopted by some of our most recent writers on embryology, and it is to be hoped that it will spread until it becomes universally recognised. Tue appeal which is being made by the Research Institute in Dairying, attached to University College, Reading, for funds to purchase a suitable farm and ~ to provide research laboratories and a dairy is deserving of support, not only by those connected with the dairying industry, but also by the public at large. A good supply of pure milk at a moderate price is most important for the nation, and it is only by a systematic inquiry conducted with proper equip- ment by skilled workers that the problem will be solved. The formation of a research institute on dairying dates only from 1912, and, naturally, the work which has been undertaken up, to the present has. been seriously handicapped by war conditions. Now, however, the staff of the institute is in a posi- tion to press forward the various inquiries which have in many cases already been commenced. An excellent start was made with an investigation of the causes which lead annually to heavy losses when mill sours prematurely. As would be expected, cleanliness and a low temperature have been proved to be the chief agents in the prevention of, these avoidable losses. The reports already issued from the institute sive some very striking illustrations of the high “keeping ’’ pro- perties of clean milk. In cheese-making the Research Institute has also a most promising field of investiga- tion, for although many of the best varieties of cheese in the world have had their origin in this country, very little is known of the details of the processes. The higher price of milk makes it imperative that there should be no avoidable losses either in the milk supply or in the articles made from milk, the high food value (to say nothing of the physiological value) of which is now so generally recognised. Tue death has occurred, at the age of sixty-nine, of Dr. John Vose Hazen, who had recently resigned the chair of civil engineering and graphics at Dart- mouth College, New Hampshire, after a long tenure. Dr. W. G. Bissett, whose death is reported in his fiftieth year, had been chief of the Bureau of Bac- teriology in the city of Buffalo since 1894. He was 358 NATURE _ [DEcEMBER “ 1919. " president of the New York State Sanitary Officers’ Association. At the ordinary scientific meeting of the Chemical Society to be held on Thursday, December 18, Prof. J. Walker will deliver a lecture entitled ‘‘ War Experi- ences in the Manufacture of Nitric Acid and the Recovery of Nitrous Fumes.”’ Dr. Pavut Sapatier (Toulouse), Dr. Pierre Paul Emile Roux (Paris), Dr. Jacques Loeb (New York), Dr. Robert Andrews Millikan (Chicago), Dr. Arthur Gordon Webster (Harvard), and Dr. William Wallace Campbell (California) have been elected honorary members of the Royal Institution. Tue death is announced, in his eighty-fourth year, of Dr. Charles Henry Hitchcock, professor of geology at Dartmouth College, U.S.A., from 1868 to igoS. Dr. Hitchcock was widely known as the compiler of several geological maps of the United States, and for his researches in ichnology, geology of the crystalline schists, and glacial geology. During the winter of 1870-71 he established, on the top of Mount Washing- ton, the first high mountain observatory in the United States. Among his many publications were memoirs upon the fossil tracks of the Connecticut Valley. On his retirement he went to live in Hawaii (where he died), and in 1909 he published a book on the vol- canoes of that territory. Tue following are among the lecture arrangements at the Royal Institution before Easter, 1920 :—Prof. W. H. Bragg, six lectures adapted to a juvenile audi- tory on The World of Sound; Sir John Cadman, two > lectures on (1) Modern Development of the Miner’s Safety Lamp and (2) Petroleum and the War; Prof. G. Elliot Smith, three lectures on The Evolution of Man and the Early History of Civilisation; Prof. Ernest Wilson, two lectures on Magnetic Susceptibility ; Prof. Arthur Keith, four lectures on British Ethnology : The Invaders of England; Prof. A. E. Conrady, two lectures on Recent Progress in Photography; Prof. A. H. Smith, two lectures on Illustrations of Ancient Greek and Roman Life in the British Museum; Lt.-Col, E. Gold, two lectures on The Upper Air; Sir F. W. Dyson, Astronomer Royal, three lectures on The Astronomical Evidence bearing on Einstein’s Theory of Gravitation; and Sir J. J. Thomson, six lectures on Positive Rays. The Friday evening dis- courses will begin on Friday, January 16, 1920, at g o’clock, when Sir James Dewar will deliver a dis- course on Low-temperature Studies. Succeeding dis- courses will probably be given by Sir C. A. Parsons, Mr. S. G. Brown, Prof. W. M. Bayliss, Dr. E. J. Russell, Mr. W. B. Hardy, the Hon. J. W. Fortescue, Prof. J. A. Fleming, Mr. E. McCurdy, Sir J. J. Thomson, and others. é WE learn with regret of the death on November 25 of Mr. Frederick Webb Headley, at the age of sixty- three years. Educated at Harrow and Caius College, Cambridge, where he obtained a First Class in the Classical Tripos, Mr. Headley spent nearly forty years of his life as an assistant master at Haileybury Col- lege, where, so recently as June 30 last, he delivered his last lecture to the College Natural History Society on his favourite subject, ‘‘The Pedigree and Lifé of Birds.” Through the instrumentality of this. society and of the museum he succeeded in maintaining, generation after generation, a body of active boy- naturalists in the college, and few men were better able to fan into enthusiasm the spark of what so often proves but the passing hobby of a young boy. Of Headley’s published works two, namely, ‘‘The Struc- ture and Life of Birds” and ‘‘ Life and Evolution,” are NO. 2614, VOL. 104] very largely the finished product of lectures delivered to the boys. The variety of subjects handled is eloquent _ testimony to the wide sympathy and biological know- — ledge of the man—a classic by early training. The doctrine of evolution made a mind, as is evidenced by his ‘‘ Problems o and by “Darwinism and Modern Socialism.” But it — was “birds” and ‘flight’? that more than all else _ attracted him. The war prevented the execution of a projected tour abroad with “birds ’’ as a main object, — and kept him at Haileybury longer than he had in- tended. final retirement last July. Dis aliter visum. Ar the meeting of the Illuminating Engineering Society on November 25, a short address on ‘* Lambert — and Photometry’ was given by the president, Mr. A. P. Trotter, who raised the question whether Lam- bert ever devised a photometer, inclining, however, to the view that Bouguer was the first to contrive an apparatus for measuring light. Later in the evening — Mr. Haydn T. Harrison exhibited a new form o photometer which had_ several interesting features, notably the use of an illuminated scale. eater part of the evening was given up to exhibits, ingluding a new form of “daylight”? or colour-matching lamp, shown by Mr, L. C. Martin. This device, which is due to Mr. Sheringham, the well-known artist, in- volves the projection upwards of light from an electric _ lamp to a surface carrying a chessboard pattern in various colours. The reflected light closely resembles daylight in colour, and is stated to be well adapted to colour-matching processes. The indirect method thus — utilised is considered very suitable for use were : galleries, etc. Other exhibits included a of tungsten arc (‘‘ pointolite ’’) lamps exhibited by Mr. P. — Freedman, of the Ediswan laboratory. This form of lamp utilises an arc between tungsten electrodes within a hermetically sealed bulb, and has proved very suit- able for optical projection. manufacture larger tungsten globules, facilitating much higher candle-powers, have been prepared. Lamps giving up to 1000 c.p. have already been usec, and a special 4000-c.p. unit,. which it is hoped will — prove specially suitable for kinema work, was shown — at the meeting. Ae a ae Tue retirement of Dr. Cecil Lyster from the posi-— tion of head of the electro-therapeutic department of — the Middlesex Hospital was announced at a mecng ¥ of the governors of the hospital. The chairman, Lord Athlone, said that Dr. Lyster was now lying in a critical condition directly due to his self-sacrificing — devotion to duty. Dr. Lyster was one of the pioneers of scientific research, and applied himself to the ‘study ioe : of X-rays and radium and their use in the treatment of disease, especially cancer. By exposure to the ree : in the early days he fell a victim to the disease he sought to conquer. Though suffering, he declined to be set aside from his purpose, and continued his good work until now, when work for a time was no longer possible. Mr. Sampson Handley spoke of the high esteem in which Dr. Lyster was held by his colleagues on the staff of the hospital. Dr. Lyster was president — of the section of electro-therapeutics of the Royal Society of Medes for the year which ended in October last. Mfis colleagues in the domain of X-rays and electro-therapeutics had occasion to appreciate his invariable tact and sympathy at the meetings over which he presided. At the joint meeting of his section with the Institution of Electrical Engineers on March 21 last he remarked, in introducing the presi- y dent of the institution and asking him to take the chair: ‘We are amateurs in electricity, and we are at last asking the professional electrician to tell owerful appeal to his - f Evolution Tasks Another such tour was planned after his lan eae ee By improved methods of a —— ee a oe — 8 DECEMBER 4, 1919 | NATURE 30? us what we want. I hope meetings of this sort will be continued in years to come, and that we shall be able to interest the Institution of Electrical Engineers ‘in our work as electro-therapeutists and radiologists. It is a fascinating subject, and a far-reaching one for humanity—that is, the future of the electrical and radiological treatment of disease Perhaps my optimism is enormous.”’ It is this spirit of optimism that has buoyed up Dr. Lyster through his times of suffering, and caused him to remain at his post to the last. Dr. J. Watter Fewxes, Chief of the Bureau of American Ethnology, has recently returned from two months’ field-work on the Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado. This park is the only one reserved by the U.S. Government for the protection of aboriginal buildings, and for the last decade the Department of the Interior and the Smithsonian Institution have co-operated in the excavation and repair of ruins in order that they may be preserved for posterity, after having been put in a condition to show their _ structural features. The field-work of last summer was devoted to a cliff-dwelling called Square Tower House from a high tower situated midway in its length. This tower is 4o ft. high, and is the highest building constructed of masonry by Indians north of Mexico before the coming of the whites. It adds to this unique feature the best-known example of pre- historic masonry, shown in the construction of the roofs of two circular rooms.. The original rafters are still in place, showing the marks of stone im- plements used by the builders. The whole ruin, which measures 136 ft. in length, is most picturesquely situated, and has already become one of the greatest attractions of the park. An unexpected result of the field-work was the discovery of many inconspicuous buildings among the cedars on top of the plateau. The evidences of these buildings before excavating were very obscure, but they are so numerous in certain areas that there is scarcely a square quarter-mile in which one of them does not occur. One of these small buildings when excavated was found to belong to a very ancient type, probably the oldest on the mesa. WE have received the second number of Medical Science, a monthly periodical of abstracts and reviews of medical science published by the Medical Research Committee. The present issue contains, among ‘others, reviews on diphtheria, tuberculosis, gastric ulceration, influenza, and cerebro-spinal fever. In the last-named, Dr. Rolleston surveys the epidemio- logy, symptoms, and treatment of the disease, par- ticularly with serum. This, in the hands of numerous observers, has proved to be of benefit, reducing the mortality provided it is administered early enough. A suort, but very welcome, account of the court- ship of the dabchick, by Mr. Julian Huxley, appears in British Birds for November. The author was too late to witness the earlier phases of the courtship, but he contrived to glean much information as to their behaviour after pairing-up had taken place. These birds, lacking the frills and crests characteristic of other species of grebes, display none of the posturing which takes place in the more resplendent species, but content themselves with the performance of duets re- calling the neighing of a horse. They also spend much time in long excursions on the water, swimming side by side. Jt is to be hoped that next year it will be possible to start observations earlier in order that the initial stages of the courtship may be studied. Mr. Huxley’s studies on the courtship of the great crested grebe are known to all ornithologists, and his able handling of this theme makes us the more anxious to have the complementary picture. NO, 2614, VOL. 104] In an important memoir on a new type of nephridium found in Indian earthworms of the genus Pheretima (Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science, vol. Ixiv., part 1) Mr. Karm Narayan Bahl gives a very interest- ing description of the excretory system of Pheretima posthuma. He finds three distinct kinds of nephridia in this worm: septal, pharyngeal, and integumentary. Although the nephridia are very numerous and ail small (micronephridia), the system is not plectonephric, each nephridium being a separate organ. The chief novelty of the author’s work lies in the discovery that the septal nephridia open into the intestine, instead of on to the surface of the body, by segmentally arranged apertures, not directly, but through a system of ducts, of which the most important are a pair of longitudinal” excretory canals lying above the intestine, one on each side of the mid-dorsal line. The author applies the term ‘‘enteronephric ’’ to this remarkable type of nephridial system, and puts forward the suggestion —due to Prof, W. N. F. Woodland—that the dis- charge of the excretory products into the intestine may be a special adaptation for the conservation of mois- ture in a dry climate. Tue Journal of the Board of Agriculture for October contains a preliminary report on the recent Lincoln tractor trials. The excellent work done by the machines and the large attendance of farmers show that the industry has now passed the pioneer stage. The tendency of the manufacturers is less to novelty of design than to development in accordance with the experience obtained in this country, chiefly as the result of the operation of the Government tractor scheme. Close attention is being paid to the reduction of weight, to the increased accessibility of the vital parts of the machinery, and to the provision of protection from the effect of weather and dirt. Interesting comparisons were made of the ploughing done by tractors fitted respectively with high-speed vertical and low-speed horizontal engines, with wheels and caterpillar-tracks, and between self-contained machines and independent tractors. The use of the tractor is‘not restricted to ploughing, and there were important haulage tests and threshing demonstrations. Great as is the value of the present trials from the commercial and educational points of view, further trials extending over a considerable interval, and giving greater uniformity of task and conditions, will be necessary before the capacity of the various machines can be defined. : . Tue Kew Bulletin. (Nos. 6 and 7, 1919) contains an account of recent investigations by J. Bintner on the symptoms and distribution of silver-leaf disease. There has been much controversy as to the cause. of the disease, which is now established as mainly due to the growth in the tissues of the mycelium of the fungus Stereum purpureum. Mr. Bintner demon- strates the presence of the fungus in the wood of diseased branches, which show the ‘brown coloration beneath the bark characteristic of the disease. No trace of the fungus has been found in the leaves, and it is suggested that the separation of the cells, which gives the silver effect, is caused by the production of some diffusible toxin by the fungus, which is con- veyed to the leaves in the water-conducting channels. Infection takes place through open wounds above ground and immediately below ground-level, and inoculation experiments confirm the view that injured superficial roots can be infected. Localised silvering of a branch results from local infection which has not yet spread to the main stem, and excision of the diseased branch may save the tree. On the other hand, silvered suckers springing from a healthy tree indicate root-infection, and where root or stem is 3€0 NATURE [DECEMBER 4, 1919 infected there is no hope of saving the tree. The disease has been proved to occur on a number of plants besides plum, apple, and other: members of the family Rosacea, including species of laburnum, horse-chestnut, and cultivated varieties of gooseberries and currants. As a preventive measure good cultiva- tion is recommended; careless pruning, unsatisfactory drainage, and deficiency of lime are especially to be avoided. The author also indicates an apparently dis- tinct disease which he calls ‘‘ false silver-leaf,’? which may be mistaken for the disease caused by Stereum, but no trace of this fungus has been found in the plants affected. It is suggested that false silver-leaf, from which plants recover under careful treatment, is due to physiological weakness. It has been observed in cultivated varieties of apple, cherry, peach, and plum. A NOTEWORTHY addition to our knowledge of Eocene foraminifera is made by the publication of the late Mr. E. Halkyard’s “Fossil Foraminifera of the Blue Marl of the Céte des Basques, Biarritz,’? under the care of Messrs. E. Heron-Allen and A. Earland (Mem. Manchester Lit. and Phil. Soc., vol. Ixii., part ii.). Megalospheric and microspheric forms are discussed among the nummulites. Messrs. F. F. Grour and T. M. Broderick (Amer. Journ. Sci., vol. xlviii., p. 199, 1919) describe struc- tures in the Huronian iron-bearing strata of the Mesabie range in Minnesota as due to alg. In this they have the support of Dr. C. Walcott,. who writes that the iron-ore was evidently separated out of marine waters through the metabolism of the algal growths, which he compares with Cryptozoén. In the American Journal of Science (vol. xlviii., p- 136, 1919) Prof. R. A. Daly replies to recent criticisms of his ‘‘ glacial-control” theory of the growth of coral-reefs. He urges that the general absence of cliffs on the island spurs may be due to the protec- tion afforded by rapidly growing fringing reefs in late Cainozoic time; these would have to be scoured away before the Pleistocene sea could attack the volcanic masses. Variations in the depths of lagoons, again, may be expected even on a general platform of*erosion, owing to the presence of drowned valleys, fault- troughs, and volcanically formed depressions not yet filled with detritus. Lagoon depths greater than 50 or 60 fathoms are, however, rare. Tue Times of November 28 contains an article from Prof. Einstein on his generalised principle of relativity. Prof. Einstein remarks at the- beginning of the article: ‘‘After the lamentable breach in the former international relations existing among men of science, it is with joy and gratefulness that I accept this opportunity of communication with English astro- nomers and physicists. It was in accordance with the high and proud tradition of English science that English scientific men should have given their time and labour, and that English institutions should have provided the material means, to test a theory that had been completed and published in the country of their enemies in the midst of the war.’? After a_ brief account of the general nature of the theory, which does not add anything to what has been summarised by Prof. Eddington in his report to the Physical Society, Prof. Einstein concludes: ‘‘The great attrac- tion of the theory is its logical consistency. If any deduction from it. should prove untenable, it must be given up. i1,, whilst if it be aQ endothermic m, the sun would estimate the period of vibration of an atom there to be the same that he would find for a similar atom in the earth’s field if he trans- ported himself thither. But on transferring him- self he automatically changes his scale of time; in the new scale of time the solar atom vibrates differently, and, therefore, is not synchronous with the terrestrial atom. Observations of the solar spectrum so far are adverse to the existence of such an effect. What, then, is to be said? Is the theory wrong at this point? If so, it must be given up, in spite of its extraordinary success in respect of the other two phenomena. Sir Joseph Larmor, however, is of opinion that Einstein’s theory itself does not in reality predict the displacement at all. The present writer shares his opinion. Imagine, in fact, two identical atoms originally at a great distance from both sun and earth. They have the same period. Let an ob- server A accompany one of these into the gravita- tional field of the sun, and an observer B accom- pany the other into the field of the earth. In consequence of A and B having moved into dif- ferent gravitational fields, they make different changes in their scales of time, so that actually the solar observer A will find a different period for the solar atom from that which B, on the earth, attributes to his atom. It is only when the two observers choose so to measure space and time that they consider themselves to be in identical gravitational fields that they will esti- mate the periods of the atoms alike. This is exactly what would happen if B transferred him- self to the same position as A. Thus, though an important point remains to be cleared up, it cannot be said that it is one which at present weighs against Einstein’s theory. gia E, CUNNINGHAM. 396 NATURE [DecEMBER 18, 1919 THE INHERITANCE OF THE NAVAL OFFICER. | Be seems good sense to say that a man who dislikes the sea and all that therein is, who has no spirit of adventure, who is, in short, a low- spirited land-lubber, is not in the least iikely to make a distinguished naval officer. You never can tell, of course, for Nelson was always sea- sick and often pessimistic, but the chances are against a man such as we have pictured hecom- ing a bright and shining light in the Navy. And that is what Dr. Davenport and his assistant have said, only they have said it very learnedly with a lot of technicalities about “thalassophilia,’’ “hyperkinetism,’’ “nomadism,’’ and “reces- sives.’’ The study of heredity does not foster a sense of humour, and we cannot wonder. It is a rather dismal science. But the memoir before us goes much further than we have indicated. It is argued from sixty- eight biographies that distinguished: naval officers have clear-cut special gifts, which are more or less Mendelian characters. They are expressed in the lineage, direct or collateral, and likewise find appropriate expression in early youth. If the number sixty-eight affords a sufficiently broad basis for secure induction, and if such characters as a love for the sea are really crisply defined, _non-blending, unit characters, then the conclu- _ sions reached are of high interest. Both for theory and for action it is very important to know how : much a man is made and how much he is born, and this latest product of the industry and enthusiasm of the Cold Spring Harbour labora- tory for the experimental study of evolution and heredity,is a contribution to the answer to this question. We should notice that, apart from the non-inclusion of those distinguished officers whose _ biographies failed to furnish any details of lineage or of boyhood, no selection of names was made. Dr. Davenport set out without any theory save the preconception which previous studies have warranted, that the hereditary make-up of a dis- tinguished man is likely to include definite traits, being not so much a melange as a mosaic. ' What, then, are the features which may be regarded as part of the natural inheritance of a distinguished naval officer, as contrasted with, let us say, a distinguished clergyman? The first is a love for the sea, a specific susceptibility to its call, a “‘thalassophilia.’’ Unless this, or some analogous characteristic, such as nomadism, is in the blood, the chances are against the boy becoming a distinguished naval officer. Such is the verdict of biography. The second feature is some form of the spirit of adventure, a willine- ness to incur responsibilities, ’a capacity for ravid decision and action in’ face of difficulties. A few cases of persistent sea-sickness in admirals may ~be found—Nelson’s is known to all—but there seems to be no instance of a distinguished naval officer without some form of the spirit of adven- 1 {Naval Officers: ‘Their Heredity and. Development.” By Charles Benedict Davenport and Marv There's Scudder. Publication No, 259 Pp. iv-pa.6. (Ca nee e In itution of Washington, 1919.) NO. 2616, VOL. 104] | ture. Very rarely has it taken the form of quarrelsomeness, or of pugnacity, or of devil-may- _ care rashness—though instances of these are known—hbut a distinguished naval officer without the quality at all is a contradiction in terms. The - third character that is normally present is the sanguine or buoyant temperament, which is tech- nically described as hyperkinetic in contrast to the melancholic and fatalistic hypokinetic. Now, v. it is an interesting fact that a small minority among the sixty-eight were of the hypokinetic type—reserved, taciturn, melancholic, fatalistic— and that two or three of the greatest were strange mixtures of both, like Nelson, passing from the . crests to the troughs of temperamental waves, probably enough correlated with changes in blood- pressure that would kill an ordinary man. But the great majority of the famous sea-captains have been markedly hyperkinetic, not only daring pilots when the waves ran high, but also positively defiant in danger. As it seems to us, Dr. Davenport is too readily satisfied with the evidence that this or that char- acter exhibits Mendelian inheritance, and that he attaches far too little importance to the family tradition and conversation in defining the lines of a boy’s development; but he states a strong case in support of the view, which is more convincing in negative than in positive form, that “unless a love of the sea appears on at least one side of the house, hyperkinesis in at least one parent, or, in the case of an eminent naval man, among the male relatives of the mother, one is justified in doubting if the applicant for a naval commis- sion will become an eminent officer.”’ It is easy enough to make fun of this contribution to “the pedigree of the sea-dogs,’’ but the number of round men in square holes is one of the tragedies of the world, and we wonder gravely how long it will be before wasteful methods of selection are replaced by those suggested by expert study of lineage and of childhood. As Mahan once said ~—and he had a great knowledge of naval officers —“ Each man has his special gift, and to succeed must act in accordance with it.’’ Dr. Davenport’s | memoir is a contribution to the art of discovering svecial gifts, or of estimating the probability of their presence: By) NOTES. THE newspapers have lately published a big-game hunter’s report that a gigantic dinosaurian reptile related to the extinct Brontosaurus and Di lodocus — has been seen living in the Congo region of Africa. Palseontologists, however, receive the story with in- credulity, and are decidedly of opinion that it must be founded on mistaken observations. The Dinosauria and all their gigantic reptilian contemporaries, whether on land, in the sea, or in the air, disappeared from every part of the world at the end of the Cretaceous period. If any had survived, some fragments of them would ere this have been found in the Tertiary forma- tions which record the progress of life between that period and the present day. It is no contrary argu- ment to quote Sir Harry Johnston’s discovery of the okapi in the Congo forest, for this is merely a kind of ancestral giraffe which is known by fossils to have DECEMBER 18, 1919] t NATURE 397 / existed so far north as Greece so recently as the _ beginning of the Pliocene Tertiary. The okapi is a —¢ongruous African animal, but a dinosaur would be _ an anachronism. In his Trueman Wood lecture delivered before the _ Royal Society of Arts on December to, Sir Oliver | Lodge dealt with “ Sources of Power Known and Unknown.”’ Power or energy, he said, is the most pressing materiai need of man. His entire material _ activity consists in moving matter, and food is mainly _ used by an animal for developing energy before it has _ assumed the form of heat. The best engines hitherto devised leave much to be desired in that respect. Even _ the internal-combustion engine is imperfect so long _ as it requires a cooling jacket. By the second law of thermodynamics, heat is most efficiently utilised at the highest temperatures. The sun’s temperature being _ 6000° C. approximately, its direct utilisation would _ offer an efficiency closely approaching unity. The leaves of trees, and vegetables generally, are able to absorb and utilise solar energy in producing wood, coal, and food, and they seem to be able to do this without much regard to any hampering law of efficiency. There are two sources of energy not q derived from the sun—the internal heat of the _ earth and the tides. A beginning has been made in utilising volcanic heat in Italy, but the utilisation of tides involves a use of reclaimed land which might be more valuable for other purposes. Dealing finaliy _ with atomic energy, Sir Oliver Lodge gave an admir- _ ably lucid account of the ‘‘ planetary”? atom on the - basis of Bohr’s model, showing that electrons can be _ “evaporated” or ejected with comparative ease, whereas the projection of an a-particle amounts to a veritable explosion. So far, the vast store of atomic _ energy becomes available only in radio-active sub- _ stances, and this is already utilised for therapeutic _ and other purposes. There is, however, the control of - electrons emitted from hot bodies, which has been brilliantly applied to the construction of ‘‘ valves ’’ for many electric purposes, among them being long-dis- tance wireless telephony. Tue successful termination of Capt. Ross-Smith’s flight from Hounslow to Port Darwin marks a great _ advance in the history of aeronautics, and is a good ‘omen for the future of commercial aviation. This _ remarkable accomplishment leaves no doubt as to _ the possibilities of the aeroplane with regard to rapid _ transit to distant parts of the earth, especially when it is noted that. the weather conditions were by no _ means good over the greater portion of the route. The ~ machine used was a Vickers ‘‘ Vimy,” fitted with two _ Rolis-Royce ‘‘ Eagle’? engines of 350 horse-power _ each, and the greatest credit is due to the two firms _ for the remarkable endurance of their products under _ very trying conditions of both flying et landing. The | difficulties attending such a flight are very different _ from those of the trans-Atlantic journey. In the latter _ase an endurance of 2000 miles without landing was ssential, involving the carrying of an enormous load _ of fuel. The cross-country route to Australia, on the other hand, provided many possible landing places, but endurance of a different kind was necessary, inas- “much as the machine had to fly day after day with little time for attention and repairs, if the flight was to be completed within the specified time limit. Capt. Ross-Smith left Hounslow on November 12. and reached Port Darwin on December 10, having traversed a distance of 11,294 miles, steady progress being maintained throughout the flight. The feat will rank as one of the greatest in the development of the aeroplane, and the heartiest congratulations are due the pilot and his companions for their. remarkable dition to the list of aeronautical triumphs. NO. 2616, vot. 104] oe On Monday, December 15, one of the galleries of the new building for the Science Museum, South Ken- sington, was opened for the exhibition of the existing aeronautics section of the collections and for the development of that section by additions which are being selected under the guidance of a number of expert advisers. The occasion was marked by the formal presentation of the Vickers ‘‘ Vimy ” Rolls-R oyce aeroplane which crossed the Atlantic. In the absence of the President of the Board of Education, Dr. Ogil- vie, Director of the museum, took the chair and referred briefly to the building scheme which had been put in hand for the museum in 1913, but. was inter- rupted by the war. The gallery now occupied was, he said, in the temporary state in which it had been used for war purposes; it was, however, spacious and well-lit, and its use by the museum for a time now weuld give an opportunity of preparing a more ade- quate representation of the applications of science in aeronautics. Sir Richard Glazebrook, a member of the Advisory Council for the museum, reviewed recent progress in aviation, and stated that if this country. was to hold the place it had taken in the forefront of aeronautics a complete exposition of the subject must be made available for reference in a central museum, such as the Science Museum. It’ was a matter for great gratification that the Government was giving setious attention to the promotion of research, and one of the functions of the museum was to aid in this by bringing together examples of the ways in which science gave help to industry and commerce, In pre- senting the aeroplane to the nation, Mr. Douglas Vickers, for Messrs. Vickers, Ltd., explained that it was one of the Vickers ‘‘ Vimy ” machines—bombing machines to carry a crew of three and a ton of bombs for 1000 miles on a non-stop flight. That standard miachine had been varied only so as to take, instead, a crew of two with fuel for a journey of 2500 miles. Mr. W. Wa ker has been appointed Chief Inspector of Mines in succession to Sir Richard Redmayne, whose impending resignation we announced last week. Mr. T. W.- Reaper has been selected by the Geo- logists’ Association as the first recipient of the Foulerton award. The sum of money which has enabled the association to make this award is the recent generous gift of Miss Foulerton in accordance with the wishes of her late uncle, Dr. John Foulerton, who was for many years secretary to the association: Pror. H. G. Greenisu, Dean of the Pharmaceutical Society’s School of Pharmacy, has, we learn from the Pharmaceutical Journal, been nominated by the Board of Professors of 1’Ecole Supérieure de Pharmacie de Paris as one of five foreign men of science upon whom the University of Paris has decided to confer the diploma of ‘* Docteur honoris causa?’ on the occa- sion of ‘‘ Une Séance Solennelle de rentrée pour féter le retour des étudiants des diverses Facultés,” on Saturday, December 20. On Wednesday, December 10, a memorial tablet with a medallion portrait and a suitable inscription was unveiled in memory of Sir William Ramsay in the presence of Lady Ramsay and a large number of friends and members of the University of Glasgow. The address of presentation was delivered by Prof, G. G. Henderson, of the Regius chair of chemistry, and the custody of the memorial was accepted on behalf of the University Court by the Vice-Chancellor. The medallion is the work of Mr. Paulin, and is an excellent likeness; the design of the memorial is due to Sir John J. Burnet. The mural tablet is placed at the head of the great staircase leading to the Bute Hall and the Hunterian Museum. It is set in an arched recess lined with grey marble, and bears reliefs 398 NATURE [December 18, 1919 © illustrating Sir William Ramsay’s numerous decora- tions and honours. : AN influential committee, with Sir F. G. Kenyon as its chairman, has issued an appeal for the founda- | tion of a school of archzology at Jerusalem to con- duct exploration in Palestine, Syria, and Mesopotamia. The school will facilitate the work of scholars, train students, excavators, and administrators, and assist in every way the Palestine Exploration Fund. Its researches will extend from the Stone age and the early cultures down to the later Mohammedan period. The school will catalogue existing remains and co: operate with the archzological departments which, it is hoped, the new Governments will establish. It will hold itself aloof from politics and religious contro- versies. A site has been secured for the necessary buildings at Jerusalem, and Prof. J. Garstang, of the University of Liverpool, who has already visited Palestine, has been provisionally appointed the first director. The scheme is in every way commendable, and the necessary funds will doubtless be provided without difficulty. Communications should be ad- dressed to the Secretary, British School, c/o Palestine Exploration Fund, 2 Hinde Street, Manchester Square, W.t. A DOZEN years ago the expressions ‘‘ newer physics ” and ‘‘newer chemistry ’’ would have been taken to refer to those branches of the subjects which centred round the words ‘electron’? and ‘“‘radium”’ as op- posed to those dealing with surface tension, sound, etc., or with atomic weights and _ constitutional formule to which the term ‘“‘older’’ might have been applied. It is interesting to note how the last few years have rendered the two terms inappropriate, and how fields which were considered worked out, or at least not likely to produce returns which would justify the time spent on further research, have proved them- selves not merely fertile, but also worthy of cultiva- tion for many years to come. A revision of astronomy and physics in the light of the theory of relativity has to be carried out; the hydrophone has brought new problems in elasticity to light; we want more know- ledge of atomic weights, of the action of catalysts, and of the synthesis of nitrates. On surface tension and contact angles a whole industry has been founded, some of the problems of which are dealt with by Mr. H. L. Sulman.in a paper read before the Institution of Mining and Metallurgy on ‘‘Flotation,’? a sum- mary of which appears elsewhere in this issue. Tue foundation of the Saiters’ Institute of Industrial Chemistry about a year ago was celebrated on Decem- ber 11 by a dinner given by the Salters’ Company to a number of leading representatives of applied chem- istry, the Master, Mr. W. B. M. Bird, presiding. Salters or drysalters have for centuries been the recog- nised dealers in potashes, dyestuffs, and almost every chemical preparation; and their livery of the City of London has taken a prominent part in the promotion of technical education and of research in chemistry. The Company does this because, as Mr. Bird remarked at the dinner, it believes in the progress of chemical industry through scientific knowledge, and considers it a privilege as well as a duty to assist in such develop- ment. The institute established last year is not.a building or a laboratory, but a foundation for the award of fellowships to enable post-graduate students to con- tinue their studies, or suitably equipped chemists to carry on research in chemical industry. Grants are also made to artisans attending evening classes for the purchase of books and like assistance in their studies. The director of the institute is Dr. M. O. Forster, and under his capable and sympathetic guidance, with the liberal support of the Salters’ Company, the fellow- No. 2616, VoL. 104] ships, which are of the value of 250l. a year, promise — to exert the same effective influence upon chemical science that the 1851 Exhibitions have upon scientific research generally. The scheme was wisely conceived, and its formation gives worthy cause of congratulation to all who are concerned with it. Bane $ | ie Halifax, Yorkshire, in 1549, was, from 1585 until his f Merton College, Oxford, of which he had been made a fellow in 1570. He founded the Savilian professorships in 1619, and the first holders of them were Briggs and Bainbridge, the former of whom had been the first Gresham professor of geometry. Briggs, who, like Savile, was born near _ Halifax, is best known for his notable works on logarithms and his intimacy with Napier, and the details of his life are generally familiar. Bainbridge did not rise to the same celebrity as his colleague, — which may be partly accounted for by the fact that he was trained as a physician, and while Savilian professor of astronomy he was also Linacre reader in medicine. He was born in Leicestershire in 1582, and died in 1643, twelve years after Briggs. Savile, besides being Warden of Merton, was from 156 _ Provost of Eton, where he died and is buried. He is commemorated by a monument in the choir of Merton College, close beneath which are the tombs of Briggs and Bainbridge, the former of whom died in the college, and the latter in a house just opposite. Mr. C. T. WuirMett, the well-known amateur astronomer, who died at Leeds on December to after a brief illness, graduated at Cambridge in 1872, being placed in the First Class in the Natural Sciences Tripos and Senior Optime in the Mathematical Tripos. He was a prominent member of the British Astrono- mical Association, and contributed very largely to its journal. His interests lay in the mathematical rather than in the observational side of astronomy, though his long series of observations of the phenomenon known | as the ‘ green flash’ are almost unique. Mr. Whit-_ mell acted as director of the expedition to Spain organ- — ised by the British Astronomical Association for the purpose of viewing the solar eclipse in May, -1900. He was a fellow of the Royal Astronomical ty and published several papers in the Monthly Notices. His careful determination of the maximum duration of totality of a solar eclipse supersedes De Sejour’s. erroneous value. On his appointment as Ho te | spector of Schools in Leeds in 1897 he identified him- 4% self with many of the scientific societies in that city The Leeds Astronomical Society, which owes mu to his interest and devotion, elected him as preside: in 1898-99. In his earlier years Mr. Whitmell did fair amount of geological fieldwork, both in England and abroad. He was an active member of the Leeds Geological Association, of which he was at one time president. j A NOTABLE figure in the engineering world passed away on December 14 in the person of Sir John Jack- sen. Born in 1851, Sir John was destined to become DeceMBeER 18, 1919]: NATURE | : 399 one of the most potent agencies of his day in direct- ing the forces of Nature and adapting them to the service of man. As a contractor for large public works, he was responsible for the carrying out of gigantic engineering schemes, which have appreciably altered the topography of many lands, and remain a permanent record for the admiration of future genera- tions. His most notable achievements include the great railway across the Andes from Arica to La Paz, the Hindiat barrage across the Euphrates near Baby- lon, harbours at Singapore and Simon’s Bay, the Keyham docks at Devonport, irrigation works in Mesopotamia, the foundations of the Tower Bridge, London, and the last section of the Manchester Ship Canal. Sir John took a prominent part in political life, being M.P. for Devonport from 1910 to 1918. He was a member of the Royal Commission appointed to inquire into the South African War. Another Royal Commission recently exonerated his firm from the charge brought by the Public Accounts Committee that it had unfairly secured contracts which were not thrown open to competition. Sir John was knighted in 1895, and created a C.V.O. in 1911. Edu- cated at York and Edinburgh University, the degree of LL.D. was conferred upon him by the latter. He was also a fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. A CONFERENCE of research associations—thé second of a series—organiséd by the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, was held on December 12 in the lecture-theatre of the Institution of Civil En- gineers. The Right Hon. A. J. Balfour, Lord President of the Council, appropriately presided, the Depart- ment of Scientific and Industrial Research being a Committee of the Privy Council. Mr. Balfour, who was warmly greeted on his first public appearance in his capacity of head of the Department, delivered a short introductory address on the national need for scientific’ research, especially in its application to industry. Three points emphasised by Mr. Balfour were that, though man does not live by bread alone, the amelioration of the material lot of mankind can _ come only through progress in scientific knowledge; _ that we must not imitate, but follow the example of _ the Germans in realising a helpful and close alliance between science and industry; and that, in the prosecu- tion of this aim, the paramount, interests of pure science must not be overlooked. Papers were after- wards read by Major H. J. W. Bliss, director of the British Research Association for the Woollen and Worsted Industries, on ‘‘Research Associations and Consulting Work and the Collection and Indexing of Information,’”? and by Dr. W. Lawrence Balls on “The Equipment of Research Laboratories.’’? There was a general discussion on the subject-matter of the two papers, from which it was clear that, although there is a large common measure of agreement among the different associations, there is also enough variety of circumstance and character to make it desirable for each association to work out its own salvation in many problems of organisation and method. It is the intention of the Department of Scientific and Indus- trial Research to continue periodically these conferences of research associations. As the Department, in fos- tering the associations, is engaged in a novel adven- - ture in Government enterprise, the research associa- tions have to set sail on uncharted seas, without maps or precedent experience to guide them, and these periodical conferences must be of great help to’ them in mapping out their courses and taking their _ soundings. WEP ehh na Tue important question of the future of wheat pro- uction, with special reference to the Empire, is dealt th at length in the current number of the Bulletin No. 2616, vor. 104] of the Imperial Institute. The annual production of wheat in the world prior to the war amounted to about 110,000,000 tons, the largest producers being the Russian Empire, with an output of 22,000,000 tons, and the United States, which provided nearly 19,000,000 tons. During the war the production in Europe as a whole, and in Russia in particular, decreased considerably, but outside Europe there was a great expansion. The. acreage under wheat in Canada, the United States, Argentina, India, and Australia in 1918 was more than 25 per cent. larger than the average acreage for the five years before the war, and it is considered that at the present time there is a sufficiency of wheat, even without the help of Russia, to meet the requirements of the world. As regards the future also there is reason for optimism. There are vast areas of land suitable for wheat- growing yet to be opened up in Canada, Australia, South America, Siberia, and other countries, whilst the present low average yield of thirteen bushels per acre is susceptible of great improvement. In recent years the increase in the world’s production has been due to a great extent to an increased yield per acre, and there is every reason to believe that with the intro- duction of improved drought- and rust-resistant varie- ties the rise will be even more rapid in the future. In the current number of Parasitology (vol. xi., Nos. 3 and 4) Dr. D. Keilin describes the larval struc- ture and the complete life-history of a species of fly, Melinda cognata, Meig., the larvee of which live as parasites in the snail, Helicella virgata, and he gives a short account of various other dipterous larve that have been found in living or dead snails and other molluscs. But the most generally interesting part of his paper is, perhaps, the additional note relating to snails and house-fly larva, to which Dr. C. J. Gahan has directed attention in a letter to the Times. For if the observations made by M. E. Séguy, which are now for the first time made known, turn out to be correct, as they probably will, a solution of the mystery surrounding the hibernation of the house-fly cannot: be far distant. That from nine out of fifty snails collected in midwinter larve of Musca domestica were obtained may be an unexpected, but is not at all an incredible, statement. If true, the fact would at once go far to explain why the search in winter for larvz or living pupz of house-flies in or near the places in which they are usually to be found in summer has hitherto always met with failure; for no evidence has ever been obtained to show that house- flies go through the winter in the adult stage, and they must go through it somehow. The larve of some flies are known to live only in one species of mollusc, but there is no reason to think that this will be found true of the house-fly. Those who may search for its larva this winter would do well not to confine their attention to one or two common species of snail only; and should they look out also for its pupz they may find them, not inside the body of the snail, as has been absurdly suggested, but in the earth near by, or in the sheltered hole in the wall where the snail itself is found. A HIGHLy interesting paper on ‘The Direct Re- placement of Glycerol in Fats by Higher Polyhydric Alcohols”? is contributed to the Biochemical Journal for November by Prof. A. Lapworth and Mr. L. K. Pearson. The work described is the outcome cf an endeavour to convert the large quantities of fatty acids produced during the war in the manufacture. of glycerol into an edible foodstuff. These authors found that when olein or stearin is distilled under reduced pressure with mannitol in: the presence of a little sodium ethoxide, almost the whole of the glycerol present in the original fatty compound is expelled, the 400 NATURE [DEcEMBER 18, 1919 greatest yield being attained when the proportion of fat to mannitol corresponds with two molecules of the former to three of the latter. The other products of the reaction are chiefly water, a little alcohol, and a substance many properties of which are similar to those of the original fat. The composition of this latter substance corresponds with that of a mixture of the di-oleates (or distearates) of mannitan and iso- mannide. Tue first number of the N.P.L. Review, edited by members of the staff of the National Physical Labora- tory, Teddington, appeared in November. Its thirty- six pages contain a large amount of information on the scientific and other activities of the staff, much of which will prove of interest to the general public as well as to those for whom it is primarily intended. Now that the laboratory is a Government institution, it seems reasonable that its work should be more widely known than it has been in the past, and readers of the review will find in it a clear statement of the way in which the laboratory has been fitted into the organisation of the Scientific and Industrial Research Department. From the articles on the old and new directors it appears that the process of fitting has necessitated a decrease in the responsibility of the office, and under Treasury regulations there seem now to be difficulties in the way of rewarding merit by increase of salary. Seven or eight pages are devoted to notes on the most important work passing through the various departments. All are interesting, and show clearly how the scientific problems of the indus- tries are being solved. The staff of the laboratory is to be congratulated on its new publication. THE power required for actuating the plant and machinery of the Panama Canal is obtained by utilis- ing the flow of surplus water over the Gatun Dam, the height of which above sea-level enables an average effective head of 75 ft. to be realised throughout the year. The power plant at first installed comprised three turbines, each of a rated capacity of 2250 kilo- watts when running at 250 revs. per minute and supplied with 500 cu. ft. of water per second. A flow of 500 cusecs, with a fall of 75 ft., produces nominally 3160 kilowatts, so that there is an efficiency margin of 37 per cent. The demand has been found to be much under-estimated, and it has become neces- sary not only to provide three additional machines of greater capacity, but also to increase the output of the existing generators. Of the three additional machines only one is yet in position, but when the installation is complete there will be three units of 2880 kw. each and three units of 4500 kw. each, totalling 22,140 kw., and requiring a supply of just over 4000 cu. ft. of water per second. The electric energy is employed to drive the machinery of the locks at Gatun, Miraflores, and Pedro Miguel, of the haulage locomotives, of the permanent machine-shops, of the dry dock, and of the coal-handling plant, besides lighting the locks and many towns comprised within the canal zone—a stretch of country ten miles in width across the isthmus. We are indebted for the foregoing particulars to an article in the Engineer of December 5. Mr. E. A. Martin, the author of ‘‘ Dew-Ponds,”’ is bringing out through Messrs. Allen and Donaldson, Ltd.. 57 Marsham Street, S.W.1, a book entitled “Life in a Sussex Windmill,’ recounting his experi- ences of three years in a somewhat unusual dwelling, and giving particulars of his observations of Nature on the Sussex Downs. The portions of the book which will be of special interest to readers of NATURE are the chapters devoted to the geology of the Downs, | No. 2616, VoL. 104] the problem of the dry combes, prehistoric man and marling, water-supply, fossil oysters, Sussex iron and wood, and the possible discovery of coal in the county. ‘ : Tur Cambridge University Press has in preparation — “The Cambridge Ancient History,” the general plan ~ of which will be similar to that of the Cambridge Modern and Medieval Histories. It will be in eign volumes, and, beginning with an account of archzo- — logical discovery, will trace the history of Egypt and — Babylonia, Assyria and Persia, Greece and Rome, to 324 A.D. The work will be edited by Prof. J. B. Bury — and Messrs. S. A. Cook and F. E. Adcock. : 3 OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN. Tue DecemBer Meteoric Suower.—Mr. Denning writes that this display was well observed at Bristol on the night following December 13. The early evening was overcast, but after a storm of rain at to p.m. the sky cleared, and between toh. gom. and — midnight meteors were observed to be falling at the rate of thirty-five per hour. The moon rose just before 12h., and during the next hour, when her light and films of thin cloud obscured some of the smaller meteors, the horary rate decreased to seventeen. There were two radiants, viz. at m14°+333° (eighteen _ meteors) and at 107°+24° (twelve meteors), but the — marked differences in aspect of the members of the two streams were very pronounced. The first-named radiant represented the true Geminids, and they are of moderate speed, with short paths sometimes stellar in aspect, and of a sparkling silvery-white colour. — A brilliant Geminid was seen at 1th. 4om. ne from 131°+ 10° to 138°+0°, and giving a succession of flashes. It lit up the foggy, humid atmosphere, and was much brighter than Jupiter, slightly to the east — of it. This meteor must have been a splendid object as seen from the Eastern Counties of England, and it is hoped that further observations will come to hand. A very conspicuous lunar halo was visible during the early morning hours of December 14. © Discussion ON ReExativity.—The meeting of the Royal Astronomical Society on December 12 was entirely devoted to the consideration of the theory of relativity. The discussion was opened by Prof. Eddington, who said that while on the first relativity ~ theory time was adopted as the fourth co-ordinate merely as a convenient system, in Einstein’s theory — the time-space continuum was inextricably blended, so that what was pure time to one observer was resolved into partly time, partly space for another, differently circumstanced. The distinction between — past and future was, however, for sentient beings somewhat greater than that between right and left. If space were re-entrant and finite, the section of the © continuum in the time direction would be hyperbolic, so that time would not repeat itself after an enormous ~ interval, Dr. Jeans said that physicists had other than astro-— nomical grounds for asserting that the foundation- stone of the new system was ‘‘well and truly laid.” It was originally built on experiments, and since its enunciation further experiments truth. He gave the expressions for a wave-front of light, stating that an observer initially at its source — i remained central in spite of his own movement. Sir Oliver Lodge referred to some of the apparent paradoxes that had been uttered, and said he preferred — to take the zther, not the observer. as his base of reference, instancing the confused idea of the land- scave that one obtained when travelling by train. Dr. Silberstein pointed out that’ the star displace- had confirmed its — 4 DEcEMBER 18, 1919] NATURE 401 ments on the plates were not exactly radial, which he took to mean that they were not due to gravity, but to some irregular refracting medium. He further said that Einstein himself regarded the shift of the solar spectral lines as vital to his theory. . Prof. Lindemann and Dr. Jeffreys agreed in thinking: that the experiments were by no means decisive against the existence of the spectral shift. The latter further stated that a medium capable of producing the observed shift of the stars by refraction would reflect: a great deal of sunlight, whereas the plates showed no trace of such matter near « Tauri. FLOTATION PRINCIPLES OF ORE EXTRACTION. T the meeting of the Institution of Mining and Metallurgy, held on November 20, a paper entitled ‘A Contribution to the Study of Flotation” was presented by Mr. H. Livingstone Sulman. After giving a brief historical review of the development of flotation as applied to ore extraction, with the problems that arose in connection with successive phases of the process, Mr. Sulman dealt principally with froth flotation, which he characterised as the final link in a long chain of effort. The essentials of this process are that an aqueous pulp shall be agitated with certain reagents which may be classified as a ‘‘froth- producing” material, a *‘ froth-stabilising ’’ substance, and a ‘‘gangue-modifying ’’ addition. The explanation of flotation may be based on the differences shown by various substances in the degree to which they are ‘‘wetted’’ by water and other liquids. ‘‘ Wetting ’’ is a condition of wide variability, and a theory of flotation must be based largely upon the physics of wetting. The degree of wetting may be influenced by the molecular porosity of the solid surface, and indicated more or less quantitatively by the “contact: angle’? made between the free surface of the liquid and that of its interface with the solid. Reviewing the various problems encountered in dealing with flotation, Mr. Sulman devoted consider- able attention to the molecular constitution of liquids and solids, gravitation and molecular forces, surface energy and surface tension, interfacial tension which involves consideration of the effects of complete avetting. and differential wetting, hysteresis, adsorp- tion, the réle played by immiscible oil, and the action of modifying agents such as acids. In this last con- nection the theories of flocculation and deflocculation’ have to be taken into account, including their elec- trical relationship. Film flotation and differentiai flotation receive separate attention, The general summary of the paper gives promin- ence to the following findings :—Flotation reactions result from the molecular forces acting at the sur- faces of solids and liquids; these arise from un- balanced molecular attractions in the surface layers, which in turn are in functional relation to the balanced molecular attractions constituting cohesion for a solid or a liquid. Every solid or liquid, there- fore, possesses excess energy at its surface, which may be exhibited in adhesion effects. Liquid-solid adhesion is broadly reciprocal to interfacial tension. The degree of wetting can be relatively quantified within certain limits by the contact angle made between the free surface of the liquid and that of the. solid. Contact angles have a minimum and a maximum value; the angular difference between these values is the hysteresis of the contact angle, which permits a wider range of equilibrium for a floating particle. The dynamical aspect of the subject is concerned with the molecular constitution of the interfaces, with NO, 2616, vor. 104] the kinetic effects of molecular motion at the surfaces and interfaces of solids and liquids, and with ‘those in the interior of liquids. Solid surfaces are probably penetrable by the molecules of liquids, which enhances the adhesions between them; such penetrations may give rise to a persistent tendency for the solid: 'to'!be again wetted by the same liquid. Concentration’ 6f foreign molecules at the surface of a pure or homd- geneous liquid (positive adsorption) reduces the surface -tension of the liquid and confers upon it:the property of * frothing.” Frothing reagents useful in flotation produce a froth with water, yet leave a partial strain (mineral- adsorptive energy) at the bubble surface. The mineral adsorption now stabilises the film, especially if the mineral be minutely oil-filmed; still more so if floc- culated. To be employed effectively the bubble system must be disseminated throughout the mass of ore-pulp. When water-strain is completely removed from the surface of suspended particles, deflocculation results. Flocculation is greatly increased by mechanical agita- tion, by minutely oiling the particles, and by contact with air; these are factors necessary to produce standard mineralised froths. Generally, if a substarice can be flocculated it can be floated. Electrical pheno- mena are concomitants of minor order. Flotation depends on bringing about the most advantageous selective adhesions, selective adsorptions, and selective flocculations between the complex of particles-in an ore-pulp. 7 i THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION AT BOURNEMOUTH. - SECTION L. EDUCATIONAL SCIENCE. OPENING ADDRESS (ABRIDGED) BY Sir NapiER SHaw, LL.D., Sc.D., F.R.S., PrResmpENT OF THE SECTION, Educational Ideals and the Ancient Universities. A PRESIDENTIAL address before the Educational Sec- tion of the British Association is an undertaking that might fairly daunt the bravest of those who are really acquainted with its difficulties. The vast range and variety of the problems of education; the enormous amount of effort that is already expended upon them; the torrents of advice and criticism that are offered by those who are familiar with the details of the various curricula, who know how things ought to be done—if I had had time and capacity to become acquainted with all these things, 1 suppose I must have avoided the duty of making an address. It is, perhaps, the detachment of my present position from any responsibility for details which gives me the courage to recall experiences, now twenty years old, acquired during a lengthy service in various capacities at Cambridge, and matured by twenty years of the consciousness of the dire need of educational discipline and training for those whose business it isto use science in the service of the State. With a certain amount of assurance I can even be glad that I am not in touch with the educational con- troversies of the hour, and confidently trust that my deficiencies will be made good by the contributions of those who know to the discussions which will take place in the Section, but the difficulty that I cannot get ovet just now is that, from the unavoidable circum- stances of the present time, a presidential address is a ‘back number’ before it is delivered, for the simple réason that, according to tradition, it must be printed in advance. In this particular year there is an almost immeasurable gulf of experience between the time of my appointment in 1917 and the delivery of. this ‘the teaching of modern languages. -tion Act has been passed, and the poverty of the Sod NATURE | DECEMBER 18, 1919 address; the president himself is in many ways a different person from him who undertook the duty of addressing you two years and a half ago. ‘At that time I had been a good deal moved by the wearying controversy about the relative merits of classics and science in education, because the physical sciences as taught were such a doleful misrepresenta- tion of the spirit of inquiry about the universe which has moved men in all ages and is as clamant to-day as ever. The mysteries of the firmament, the mid- night sky, the storm and calm, the earthquake and the thunder, the sunshine, the rainbow and the halo, the intolerable heat and the pitiless cold, the mariner’s compass, the aurora and the mirage, are still as wonderful as ever to the wayfarer and the seafarer, and even the dweller in towns wants to know more about them. Yet our educational system, as 1 knew it, passed all these subjects by and offered instead the determination of the specific heat of copper, with other things that the specific heat of copper stands for. The same, I believe, is true for many of the most interesting subjects of scholarship in ancient and modern civilisations, learning, and languages. And if an inquirer, young or old, should ask whether, if he went there, the great universities could tell him all about the things of wonder or of beauty that he is conscious of, or about the reminiscences of past generations that he finds around him as he travels through life, he could only be told that in consequence of the perverse malignitv of external circumstances they had no money to devote to his enlightenment. The capacity would be there in abundance, but not the means. In three years they would put him in a posi- tion to pursue intelligently for himself if he pleased any of the subjects in which his interest had been excited, but the facilities for education would extend only to the point where his interest began. So I wrote a little pamphlet on “The Lack of Science in Education, with Some Hints of What Might Be,” and when I was invited to occupy this chair I thought I might be of some service to educa- tion if I pressed the subject further and endeavoured to show how, in spite of the good will of nearly evervbody concerned, the peculiar constitution of our chief universities was really standing in the way of the lofty ideal of higher education which must find expression if the education which we all want is really to come to pass in this country. Circumstances have already vastly changed. Com- mittees have sat upon the teaching of science and A great Educa- universities has overstepped the limits of starvation and a Commission of Inquiry is promised. So we are now on the high road to making presidential addresses matters of quite subordinate interest. Still, you may be interested to hear what I wrote two vears and a half ago in explanation of the peculiar difficul- ties of our educational svstem; so here it is. It makes a good deal of play of a certain scene in ‘‘'The Mer- chant of Venice,’’ which I shall beg you to regard, for a few minutes only, as a satire upon the state of the universities in the spacious times of Queen Eliza- beth, after a period of magnificent activity on the part of founders and benefactors and after a succession of statutes for the universities made by successive monarchs for the governance of those institutions, which were then recognised as of the highest import- ance in the State. Such a period of reconstruction seems to have come again in our time, and the satire, if it be one, is as true to-day as it was three centuries ago, I was arrested by the curious sentiment, ‘Tf to do were as easy as to know what were good to do, chapels had been churches and poor men’s cottages No. 2616, VoL. 104] princes’ palaces.’? I wondered whether Portia was in fact intended to personify a liberal education. For other subjects of human activity he- statement is — palpably absurd. All the experience of the British race indicates to us that the acute divisions between — people arise in discussions as to what were good to do; the actual doing is easy if the preliminary ques- tion ‘‘what were good to do” is reas decided. Can anyone doubt that after our experience of the war? But if it were education that Shakespeare ‘ thinking about, chapels and churches, poor eek cottages and princes’ palaces are not inappropriate in that connection; the sentiment stimulates the imagina- — tion. Certainly in education to know what were good — to do does seem in practice to be infinitely easier than — to do. From time to time the newspapers are full’ of reports of conferences, meetings, congresses, and assemblies all fully assured that they know what were } good to do, yet very little happens. Our scheme of education is still unsatisfying. Why? iat ae That is the question which I propose for your con- — sideration. Why is it that all the pious opinions about education come to nothing or to so little? First of all it must be noted that the resolutions and proposals are not addressed to anybody in par- ticular. Presumably they are intended to form publi opinion, but public opinion has no authoritative voice 4 with those who are in charge of the higher educa- tional institutions. The resolutions are sent out like wireless signals from a ship at sea. Any educational — institution with a receiver tuned to the proper wave-— length can take them in, but if the receiver is not — tuned or the operator is inattentive, nothing happens. — There is no corporate responsibility for the aggregate of our higher educational institutions. jihaie sae) We may, I think, agree that if we wish for ideals in education in this country we must find them in the universities. If the universities give the encourage- ment of their example and their licence to teach only — to men and women who are really educated in the best sense of the word, their influence will leaven the © whole of education throughout the country; and, on the contrary, if when they leave the universities the men and women who have to teach, or to control teachers, are themselves imperfectly educated, it is hopeless to expect a well-balanced, living educational system. Among the universities, for reasons good oy — ill, into which I need not enter, the older Universities of Cambridge and Oxford have a preponderant — influence. ue oe Tie And, to my mind, the outstanding characteristic of — the organisation of the older universities is the lack _ of any recognised door by which their corporate — responsibility can be reached. In each case the uni- — versity is itself a corporate educational institution — which includes some twenty colleges, which are also — separate corporate educational institutions. You — never can tell whether the persons with whom you — have business are the university or the colleges, and — it is quite possible that when you think to address the one you find yourself confronted with the other. — The universities in their corporate capacity are con- strained by statutes and traditions handed down by our forefathers to look on in comparative impotence — while their ideals are distorted or concealed by the interplay of the interests of the many corporations — of which they are composed. The whole complex scheme of management forms a sort of craft or mystery which very few even of the initiated really comprehend. ; In January of 1917 the Headmasters’ Conference (which consists of men with some academic experi- ence) passed a resolution to the effect that Greek should no longer be uired for the entrance examination of the Universities of Oxford and Cam- DEcEMBER 18, 1919] NATURE 403 bridge, and thereupon the Master of University Col- lege, Oxford, spent half a column of the Times in explaining that the University of Oxford had no entrance examination at all. This veil of mystery about matters of national con- cern is very perplexing for those who want things done in education, but do not know the technicalities of the universities. What is true, for Cambridge at least, is that the university qua university has no examination for entrance; it is obliged by its statutes to accept as a member without any question anyone presented by the recognised authority of a college, regardless altogether of his qualification or dis- qualification for a university career. It is a very remarkable arrangement. The university makes no inquiry as to a student’s fitness to profit by its educational system; it leaves all that to the colleges, and many, if not all, of the colleges have an entrance examination. So I offer this paradox for the logician who is interested in higher education, The university consists of the members of its con- stituent colleges and a few others. At the discretion of the several colleges, or the non-collegiate students’ board, 75 per cent. of the members of the university are required to pass an entrance examination before they are accepted for presentation to the university for matriculation. There are at least four examina- tions of the university which are accepted by colleges on occasions in lieu of their own entrance examina- tions. Yet there is no entrance examination for the university. And this does not end the matter. With the power of selecting its students vested in twentv different bodies, the university becomes a controlling body rather than an educational institution with a definite purpose and programme. The regulations for its students are nearly all of them of a negative character. The discipline and the regimen of the university rest upon the assumption that a student desires to secure from the university not so much attainment as a stamp for his attainments. A member of the univer- sity cannot be admitted to a degree unless he has satisfied certain conditions of residence, and also satisfies certain examiners; his name is not accepted for the: final examination unless he has satisfied cer- tain other examiners. There is nothing in the regula- tions or administration of the university to secure that a matriculated student shall study or aspire to take a degree. He might live on in idleness and ignor- ance for the rest of his natural life; the university has no choice in the matter so long as his college pays the periodical fees. It trusts to the colleges to see that idle or unsuitable undergraduates are invited to go elsewhere. Here we have one of the many instances of the division of jurisdiction between the colleges and the university which hides the ideals of our svstem of hisher education in an impenetrable fog. The universitv is governed by the colleges according to a system which goes back to the time when “The Merchant of Venice’? was written, so let us revert ~ . to the conversation between Portia and Nerissa which expounds the lottery of the caskets in the well-known scene. ‘The position of the universitv in the matter of the selection or rejection of its members is exactly that which Portia bewailed to Nerissa. Let me invite vou to regard the evisode of the caskets as a figurative representation of the lottery by which the University of Cambridge selects those upon whom she bestows her inherited riches—lucem et pocula sacra... Cam. bridge. like Portia, the heiress of all the learning of the good and the great, bound by the fantasy of her ancestral -tradition never to choose for herself. Let us think of Portia as the Vice-Chancellor of NO. 2616, vot. 104] the University of Cambridge, desiring above all things the advancement of learning, and of Nerissa as a proctor, whose duty it is, as representing the Senate, the collective body of members of the colleges, to see that the statutes and ordinances are duly attended to. Listen to the conversation :— ‘* Portia |V.-C.]: O me, the word ‘choose’! I may neither choose whom I would nor refuse whom I dis- like; so is the will of a living daughter curbed by the will of a dead father. Is it not hard, Nerissa, that I cannot choose one nor refuse none? Nerissa | Proctor]: Your father was ever virtuous; and holy men at their death have good inspirations; therefore the lottery that he hath devised in these three chests of gold, silver, and lead, whereof who chooses his meaning chooses you, will, no doubt, never be chosen by any ‘rightly but one who shall rightly love... . ‘Portia [V.-C.]: If I live to be as old as Sibylla, I will die as chaste as Diana, unless 1 be obtained by the manner of my father’s will.”’ I need scarcely say that I should not spend so much time over what may seem to many of you far- fetched, and ,perhaps unseemly jesting, if I did not believe that this fantastic view of the lottery of the caskets contains the suggestion of an element in the governance of our highest educational institutions which deserves your gravest and most serious con- sideration. What I have in mind at the moment is the unforeseen and undesired result of the competi- tion of the colleges within the university itself as quasi-independent educational institutions. It is this small matter, from some points of view of quite minor importance, which, so far as I can see, prevents our great universities from taking the leading part which they might take in exemplifving the ideals of a co- ordinated national system of education, and makes the success or failure of those great institutions some- thing of the nature of a lottery. They may offer ten thousand different avenues from matriculation to a degree, and yet the student may find himself imper- fectly educated in the end. One may, indeed one must, picture to oneself the idea of the colleges as a number of educational institu- tions co-operating in an. avowed and_ transparent common purpose of the universitv to display the highest educational ideals. So I think, if they were willing, they might be, without any sacrifice of their individuality or of those magnificent traditions which have fulfilled the high, purrose of their pious founders and henefactors. Let us keen that picture for a while in mind. IT have taken from the Cambridge University Calendar for tor8 a list of subiects selected for teach- ing in the university and colleges, with the number of professors, readers. lecturers, or teachers assigned to the several subjects. I find that there are 175 university teachers (nro- fessors, readers, lecturers, etc.) and 176 college lec- turers. I find that the 175 universitv teachers between them deal with 72 subjects. an average of 24 per suhiect, and are distributed between subjects in the following manner :— Number of university teachers assigned for a subject 2 Say Anche ee ae eee Pe Number of subjects which have the number of teachers specified in the upper line ee Ait _ The 176 college lecturers deal with only 23 sub- jects, an average of 73 ver subject... They are: dis- tributed as follows :— 3 8 10 42 404 NATURE [DecemBER 18, 1919 3 Number of college lecturers assigned for a subject 33 30 23 18 17 I0 272k Number of subjects that have the number of teachers specified in the upper line bee Gee SO Gaaas ek wk py Sea ek pata Here we see at once a great difference between the educational systems. The university is obviously striving to meet so far as possible its higher educa- tional responsibilities. There is great differentiation of duty; 42 teachers are responsible each for a single subject; there are only two cases in which ‘a subject has so many as nine teachers, whereas in the col- leges the tendency is for the same subject to have a great number of exponents. The favoured subjects are :—-Classics 33, mathematics and natural philo- sophy 30, history and economics 23, natural sciences 18, and divinity 17. All those subjects are also provided for, to some extent at least, in the programme of the university. There may be, and indeed must be, some differentiation within these totals, but it is a differentiation which the college authorities do not think it necessary to disclose. Whatever allowance may be made for that, I think it is obvious that the colleges tend to repeat many times over a stereotyped form, and not to distribute their energies over sub- jects which, for lack of funds or some other reason, are not represented in the university list. Three sub- jects appear in the college list and not in the univer- sity list, namely, modern Greek, Celtic, and military history. We may be sure that the 176 college lec- turers are in themselves fully competent to represent subjects of profound human interest which the uni- versity disregards for want of means. ‘That it is the system and not the lecturers that account for this convergence upon a few subjects was evident enough during the war, when Cambridge lecturers were to be found among the most proficient and _ successful workers with their brains in many departments of activity. The needs of peace are not less urgent than the needs of war. No one can think that the distribution of teachers and subjects would be what it is if the educational system of the university and the colleges were under the control of a single competent body bent upon mani- festing a true ideal of the use of educational endow- ments, whether in money or men. Suppose, for example, that the council of the Senate were recognised as responsible to the country for the educational system of the university and the colleges jointly; that, once appointed, they were freed from the referendum of every item of their procedure to the lottery of a vote in the Senate. Imagine what would happen if the university really had an entrance examination and the colleges had to select their members from among the successful candidates. One may speculate upon what such a body would produce, but it is scarcely imaginable that they would plump for concentrating so much of the college teaching in general terms upon classics, mathematics, history, and divinity. : And, in support of the contention that diversity of intellectual effort is'a pertinent consideration, I would point out that if recondite subjects are to be studied at all it must be at our own great centres of learning. If there is any part of the world where old customs are dying out. or interesting species becoming rare or extinct, it is for highlv centralised countries like ours, at a distance from the scene of action, to take care that the subject is studied while there is yet time. On the spot, where no doubt the material is more readily available, people are too much preoccupied to notice the ultimate effect of their own personal activity. If we should, for example, set about exter- minating the vermin of London houses (which, by the NO. 2616, VoL. 104] way, is above all things a most urgent question of re- _ housing), it is not from any Londoner, or even from — our near neighbours in Cambridge, however interest- ing the minor horrors of war may be to their bio- logists, that any protest will be raised about the out- rage which the extermination would entail upon the — province of natural history. Pa ea I have looked through that interesting volume “The Yearbook of the Universities of the to see whether the older universities of this country and the Empire had a notably extended or dite range of subjects. The differences are mostly in name _ or in the differentiation of medical and theologica subjects. It is interesting to note the gradual forma- tion of university teaching in new lands. It seems ~ to begin with medicine and theology, law, engineer- ing, architecture, commerce, and banking; and next to take in our old college friends mathematics, classics, and natural sciences, but it seldom shows any par- — ticular characteristics of local scholarship or specialised _ learning; in the older institutions there are some suggestive subjects, as Assyrian and Babylonian archeology, classical archeology, African languages — (Swahili and Bantu), Irish language and literature, © Dutch language and literature, Japanese, Portuguese, — Scandinavian languages and Thibetan, phonetics, library science, ancient Indian history at ulture, Colonial history, Irish history, Scots history, civic — design and civic law, scholastic philosophy, Zend philosophy, rhetoric and oratory, geodesics, acoustics, — meteorology, and epidemiology in various forms. __ Among the subjects which I have noticed in other connections as not represented by name in any of th universities of the Empire, but still claiming attention from those who’ would help to make the facilities for - education complete, there are, in the first place, the his- tory of the various arts and sciences and of medicine, — for which some provision has recently been made at Oxford under Dr. Singer; oceanography, which, — through the generosity of Prof. Herdman, has now _ obtained a footing in Liverpool; geodynamies, for — which Cambridge wishes to make provision, historical — geography and exploration; Malay and Polynesian — languages and antiquities, aerodynamics, meteoro- logical optics, now neglected in this country; terres- — trial magnetism, seismology, climatology (past and — present), particularly of the Empire; illumination and — photography, metrology, British archeology and dialects; and perhaps the © technical subjects of radio-telegraphy, ballistics, and ventilation. « deal, and the country is ill-provided until the educa- tional authorities co-operate to supply between them — what is needed. To secure this object T am not at all convinced that State aid is the only possibility. The pious benefactor is no more extinct than he was in the days of Henry VITI. and Queen Elizabeth, but while the universities and their colleges speak with two voices and leave us uncertain as to their ideals, it is impossible that he should not be discouraged. As one passes in review our own educational institutions, one may judge of their ideals by their results. Judging in that way, and looking at the education of our public schools, we may fairly say that the social or ethical ideal is splendid. presses the principle of excellence which I take to mean success in fair competition. It is no doubt Hel- lenic rather than Christian; it is based upon the literature of the ancient Greeks, and has still strength enough to call forth the most devoted self-sacrifice. In the universities also the same ideal is quite easily recognised. There, if anywhere, you can see the wor- ship of success in fair competition develoned into a mpire, 1914,” ; the science of precision, — These are subjects with which alone a — fully equipped university is competent adequately to — ete ini mie It. ex: fe ’ DECEMBER 18, 1919 | NATURE 405. real religion.. For a long time I have thought that we should be much nearer understanding our real position in these things if we could persuade the classical scholars to do for Greek religion what the compilers and translators of the Bible did for the Hebrew—that is, to collect together in the best avail- able translation the literature of the Greeks which formed the basis of their guides to conduct. The appropriate contents of such a collection were sketched out by Dr. James Adam, a college colleague of mine at Cambridge, whose untimely death is still deplored, in his Gifford lectures on the religion of the Greeks. With him the subject was a source of unbounded enthusiasm, and his lectures are a series of sermons on the Testament of the Greeks. But we ordinary readers, unlearned in the Greek literature, are in the position of those who are offered sermons on the Old ‘Testament instead of the Old Testament itself. If -you imagine where we should stand if the Old. Testament were denied to us except in the original Hebrew, you will understand the posi- tion the vast majority of us must occupy with regard to Greek ethics, which are, in fact, the ethics of our _ruling classes in the old sense. Therefore I use this opportunity to beg those who are enthusiastic for Hel- lenistic studies to give us such a Testament. I feel sure it will enable us to understand the ideals of the public schools and universities, and throw an entirely new light upon the supposed conflict of classical and scientific studies, which is possibly only another phase of the other perennial dispute about religious education. : The ethical ideals of our schools and universities are clear, excellent in themselves, and appreciated every- where. They ‘ manifestly excite enthusiasm and develop the spirit of self-sacrifice for their mainten- ance. But what of the intellectual ideals? The sub- ject is important, because the cultivation of the intel- lect is the avowed purpose of academic institutions, and the part of education which is necessary for carry- ing on the world’s work. Looking at the actual practice of the universities, we can see that the intel- lectual ideals are obscured, confused, and enfeebled by the very process of competition between colleges which is so eminently successful in developing the ethical spirit. ; But the opportunity for strengthening and clearing our intellectual ideals is now. It may require some sacrifice of prejudices and traditions as between col- leges and the university, but the reward will certainly be great. : I suppose that the character of any distinguished educationist a century ago would be summed up in the words, ‘‘He spared not the rod”; and to-day perhaps the highest praise is expressed by saying that “He spared neither the ratepayer nor the taxpayer,” but even that is not enough. Money without motive power does not make education. We may reserve our highest praise for those educational establishments of which it may be said that in the pursuit of a true ideal they spared ‘‘neither their prejudices nor their inherited privileges... It may sound sacrilegious, but it must be said: the Portia of our dreams will not become the alma mater that the nation needs if she can never be obtained except after the manner of her father’s will. UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL INTELLIGENCE. SHEFFIELD.—Prof. C. H. Desch has been appointed professor of metallurgy in succession to Prof. J. O. Arnold. Since September, 1918, Prof. Desch has been professor of metallurgy in the Royal Technical Col- lege, Glasgow, and he was previously Graham Young NO, 2616, voL. 104] ' i ! i ‘ ‘active service. lecturer in metallurgical chemistry in the University of Glasgow. Viscount HALDANE, as president of Birkbeck College, was in the chair at the founder’s day celebration on December 12. Fifty-eight of the graduates of the college who have taken their degrees at the University of London since 1914, totalling, 138, were presented to the president. ‘The Principal (Dr. George Senter), in his report, said that 600 Birkbeck men were known to‘have been on Of these 331 obtained commissions, and 87 names were on the roll of honour. During the war the chemistry department of the college pro- vided certain drugs necded for war purposes, and the physics department tested more than two thousand optical instruments. Four-fifths of the students in normal times were evening students. Lord Haldane gave an address on ‘‘ What is Truth?” He said this was a topic on which he had been reflecting for forty- five years—ever since he first entered a university. This question was bound up with another, the same thirg in another form, the relativity of knowledge, of which we had heard a great deal just lately. Einstein had told them about it, but he had dealt only with a fragment of the problem of rela- tivity, which covered the whole field of knowledge. The problem of relativity went far beyond the mathe- matics of astronomy. What was it that Einstein had been trying to tell the world?) Even when you could put truth into a nutshell, it was not always possible to keep it there. The problem which Einstein had raised was not new. People had thought of time and space as something they knew all about, of a straight line as the shortest distance between two points. He then explained that to answer the ques- tion ‘‘What is Truth?’’ we must realise that the principle of relativity had shown us that the reality and our conception of it are not wholly separate. The observer and the observed could not be separated, and account must be taken of the observer. Sir Frederic Kenyon moved a vote of thanks, which was seconded by Mr. James C. N. White. Tur Manchester Municipal College of Technology is making an appeal to the industrial and commercial community of Manchester and of south-east Lanca- shire for the sum of 150,000l., with a view to the extension of the present building and equipment on land adjoining the college bought some years ago for that purpose at a cost of 44,oool. The present teaching resources of the college are taxed to over- flowing with full-time day students, who now exceed five hundred, the majority of whom are proceeding to degrees in the faculty of technology in the Univer- sity, whilst others are engaged in whole-time post- graduate scientific industrial research. There is every prospect that this number will be considerably aug- mented in the near future, and the governing body is de- sirous of making the fullest preparation for the increase, having regard to the serious competition of the chief foreign nations, notably America, Germany, Switzer- land, and Japan, in the overseas markets. The urgent need for this extension has been commended by several important firms representative of the chief industries of the area, notably those engaged in the chemical, engineering, and textile trades; and at a_ recent meeting of the local branch of the Federation of British Industries held in the city the fol- lowing resolution was unanimously passed :—" That, having regard ‘to the fact that the Manchester College of Technology was the first technical institu- tion of university rank to be established in | this country, and being firmly of opinion that the develop- ment of the invaluable work of the College of Techno- 406 NATURE [Decemser 18, 1919 ‘logy’is of vital importance to the well-being of the industries of the district and county, the executive committee of the Manchester District Branch of the Federation of British Industries confidently commends the appeal for 150,000l. (of which 26,0001, has been promised absolutely and conditionally) to extend the College of Technology to the sympathetic consideration of all Lancashire producers, being of opinion that lack of whole-hearted support will be to the prejudice of Lancashire industry.” This welcome change in the attitude of great industrial firms towards technical training and research leads to the hope that this appeal may meet with the cordial support which its serious and essential importance demands. SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES. Lonpon. Royal Society, December 4.—Sir J. J. Thomson, president, in the chair.—A, M. Williams; The adsorp- tion of gases at low and moderate concentrations. Part i.: Deduction of the theoretical adsorption iso- stere and isotherm. Part ii.: Experimental verifica- tion of the form of the theoretical isosteres and iso- therms.—A. M. Williams: The adsorption of gases at low and moderate concentrations. Part iii.: Experi- mental verification of the constant in the theoretical adsorption isostere.—T. R. Merton; The secondary spectrum of hydrogen. It has been found that the presence of a large quantity of helium in vacuum tubes containing hydrogen modifies the secondary hydrogen spectrum in the sense that the relative intensities of the lines are completely altered, some lines being extremely weak in the spectrum of the mixture, whilst others are greatly enhanced and a number of new lines appear. Measurements have been made of the lines which are enhanced or unaffected by the admix- ture of helium; the changes are shown in a reproduc- tion of a photograph of the two spectra in juxtaposi- tion with a wave-length scale, by means of which the lines which are weaker in the spectrum of the mixture can be identified by reference to Watson’s measure- ments of the spectrum. The secondary hydrogen spectrum is of such complexity that the segregation of its lines into series of mathematically related lines is a task which offers great difficulties. These difficulties can doubtless be lessened by the aid of physical methods of separating the lines into different classes.—T: R. Merton: The spectra of isotopes. (1) Interferometer measurements of the principal line in the spectrum of ordinary lead and lead from pitch- blende show that in the latter case the line is less refrangible by o-o050 A.+0-0007 A., in close agreement with the results of Aronberg. (2) In the case of lead from Ceylon thorite it has been found that the line is more refrangible than in ordinary lead by 0-c022 A.+ o-0008 A. (3) The positions of the lines are arranged in the order of their atomic weights. (4) Spectro- scopic measurements seem to provide a favourable method of distinguishing isotopic elements. (5) A comparison has been made of the wave-lengths of the principal line in ordinary thallium: and thallium from pitchblende residues. The wave-length of the line in the spectrum of thallium from pitchblende has been found to be more refrangible than the line in ordinary thallium by 0-0055A.+o0-0010A. In the case of thallium the measurements may possibly be affected by certain disturbing factors which do not apply to the measurements of the lines of lead. Unless the results are affected by these disturbing factors, it would seem likely that the thallium in pitchblende is an isotope of ordinary thallium.—E. F. Armstrong and T. P. Hilditch: A study of catalytic actions at solid surfaces. Part ii. It is.shown that the catalytic NO. 2616, VOL. 104] | action of- metals, like that of certain a emi Ma ich are reversible; in other words, compounds w saturated in the ordinary sense are capable of inter acting with the metal to form a system which breaiss” down into a more stable equilibrium consisting — hydrogen and a less saturated compound. This readily demonstrated in the case of cyclohexanol; whi a mixture of cyclohexanol and methyl cinnamate heated at 180° in presence of nickel, a consider transference into cyclohexanone and methyl propionate is effected. It is necessary that both cor ponents of the system should be present in the liquid state. methyl cinnamate in presence of nickel; in these cases — a temperature of 230° is required. At this temperature small quantities of an ethyl oleate of unknown struc- ture are obtained from ethyl stearate ——F. Horton and Ann C. Davies: An experimental determination of the critical electron velocities for the production of radia- tion and ionisation on collision with argon atoms. The critical velocities for electrons in argon were investigated by methods Similar to those ee eine in a previous research for the determination of the cor- responding values in helium, the earlier form of ap- paratus being modified somewhat to facilitate the detection of the beginnings of radiation and ionisation. As the result of many experiments under different conditions, the values 11-5 volts and 15-1 volts were obtained for minimum radiation velocity and minimum No sudden increase of _ radiation at the second critical velocity was detected, — ionisation velocity respectively. and it was shown that no detectable amount of ionisa- tion was produced at 11-5 volts. The limiting wave- length of the argon spectrum, calculated from the value, 15-1 volts, found for the minimum ionisation velocity, is in agreement with the limit observed — spectroscopically in the recent experiments of Lyman. Royal Microscopical Society, November 19.—-Mr. . E. Barnard, president, in the chair.—H. MM. Carleton: Note on the Cajal formalin-silver nitrate impregnation method for’ the Golgi apparatus. The theory of silver impregnation in general was briefly outlined and the technique of the Cajal method described. Mention was made of the impregnation of cell-constituents other than the Golgi reticulum, while the problem of the production o various methods used for demonstrating the Golgi apparatus was discussed. Finally, mention was made — of the various changes undergone by the Goli ses, apparatus during certain physiological i.e. glandular secretion, intracellular fat sented by Sir Robert Hadfield, Bart. gestion was made that the society might further interest, and perhaps research, in metallography. To this end Sir: Robert Hadfield presented the socie! with a collection of specimens. These were pol at the Royal School of Mines by permission of Prof. — Carpenter, and it is intended that they shall be avail- able for microscopic examination by fellows, in much the same way as the general collection. A catalogue is being prepared, which will be ready shortly, giving brief details of the microstructures, etc. ; Linnean Society, November 20.—Dr. A. Smith Wood- ward, president, in the chair.—Dr. G. C, Druce: occurrence in Britain as native plants of Ajuga gene-— vensis and Centaurium scilloides, Druce, var. portense (Brot.). Although there are previous records of Ajuga genevensis from Britain, the records are probably mistakes for pyramidalis or other species, and in one instance due to a garden-escape of the true plant. Dehydrogenation has also been effected in the — -case of hexahydroxylene and dihydropinene mixed with — artefacts by the — ormation, ossifraction, etc.—-F, I. G. Rawlins: Report on the collection of mtetallurgical specimens recently pre-_ In 1918 a sug- | i te -DEcEmBER 18, 1919] NATURE 407 This discovery of genevensis on the Berkshire downs is an undoubted evidence of it as a British species. Centaurium scilloides is the Erythraea diffusa of Joseph Woods, who discovered it near Morlaix, in ‘Brittany. It occurs on the edge of a headland near Newport, Pembroke.—Prof. R. C. McLean: Sex and soma, The author enlarged upon the recently dis- covered phase of multinucleosis in the developin soma cell of higher plants. The genetic interest of the phenomenon has not received sufficient considera- tion, and the present paper was designed to direct attention to the possibilities involved. Aristotelian Society, December 1.—Prof. Wildon Carr, vice-president, in the chair.—G. Cater: The nature of inference. The logic of the concrete universal as the medium of judgment and inference was criticised. It was shown by analysis of examples that it does not really succeed in making contact with its differences; their content is only imputed to it. On the other hand, the instrument of inference is always an inter- mediating representation, particular and not universal. Absolutism, the outcome of the theory that the active dominant concrete universal is. the instrument of inference, ends in the concept of reality, under the form of eternity, as an exhaustive system of differ- ences, without character, a contentless limit. Paris. Academy of Sciences, November 24.—M. Léon Guignard in the chair.—L. Maquenne and E. Demoussy : The richness in copper of cultivated soils. The soils examined were in two classes, ordinary arable soil and soil on which fruit-growing had been carried out, and which was therefore liable to contain copper from the liquids used for spraying. All the soils contained copper, but the arable soils some millionths only of their weight. The soil from vine- yards was compared with soil from the same district untreated with preparations, and the results from a considerable number of districts are tabulated. One fact was brought out by these investigations: the copper applied in spraying is mainly found in the surface layers, and penetrates the ground with great difficulty. At 30 cm. below the surface the soil of a vineyard contains no more copper than soil from a similar depth ina field growing cereals.—A. Blondel : The amplitude of the bag ta. current produced by audion generators.—Ch. D. Walcott was elected a foreign associate in succession to the late M. Metchni- koff.—E. Kogbetliantz; The unicity of ultra-spherical ,developments.—L. E. J. Brouwer: The classification of closed ensembles situated on a_ surface.—M. Portevin: Study of the influence of various factors on the creation of internal longitudinal strains during the rapid cooling of steel cylinders. The determina- tion of the: internal longitudinal strains was carried out by measuring the variations in length produced during the removal of concentric layers of the cylinder by turning. The strains produced depend on a number of factors, including the temperature of immersion, the ‘nature of thé liquid (oil, water), the temperature of the water, time of immersion, and diameter of the cylinders. The results are summarised qualitatively in the present communication; full numerical data will be published elsewhere.—R. Bayeux: The ozo- genic power of the solar radiation at the altitude of the Mont Blanc Observatory. At an altitude of 4360 metres sunlight does not produce ozone from oxygen. Hence it is concluded that the ozone found at lower altitudes is not formed by the direct action of the sun, and the therapeutic effects of the sun- cure cannot be attributed to ozone.—E. Henriot: The calculation of double refraction.—M. de Broglie: The X-ray spectrum of tungsten.—MM. Ledoux-Lebard and NO, 2616, VOL. 104] A. Dauvillier: The reticular distance of calcite and its influence on the determination of h. A re- calculation of some data given in an earlier com- munication.—G. Baume and M. Robert: Some pro- perties of pure nitrous anhydride and of its solution in nitrogen peroxide. The fusibility diagram of the system (N,O,—N,0O,) is normal, with a single eutectic near the freezing point of pure nitrogen peroxide. Pure nitrous anhydride does not appear to be capable of existence except at very low temperatures in the solid state, or in the liquid state under a pressure of nitric oxide. At temperatures above —100° C, N,O, dissociates, the liquid phase containing N,O,, and the gaseous phase NO.—W. A. Noyes, jun. : The potential necessary for electrolysing solutions of iron. In a cell composed of iron anode and cathode and a solu- tion of a ferrous salt absolutely free from ferric salt, it is impossible to deposit iron with a lower voltage than 0-66 volt. This is reduced by increase of tem- perature, falling to a minimum value of 0-13 at 109° C.—L. Chelle: The detection and estimation of traces of hydrocyanic and thiocyanic acids in a com- plex medium. Hydrocyanic acid can be completely removed by a rapid current, and retained by washing the air with alkali. Chromic acid converts thiocyanic acid into hydrocyanic acid. The results of quantitative experiments are given.—A. Goris and Ch. Vischniac : The constitution of primeverose, primeverine, and primulaverine.—J. Bougault and P. Robin: The oxidation of the hydramides. A study of the oxida- tion of benzhydramide, anishydramide, and_piper- hydramide by iodine and sodium carbonate. The cor- responding cyanidine is produced in each case.—G. Mouret: Some effects of the lamination of rocks observed in the western part of the Central Massif of France.—P. Morin: The coefficients of flow of the watercourses in the Central Massif.—M. Dechevrens : Modification and complement to the method of ob- servation of telluric currents with the aid of naked subterranean conductors.—L. Daniel: Experimental researches on the causes of the immersion of the leaves of the water-lilv. The immersion of the leaves instead of floating on the surface is not due, as has been sug- gested, to the effect of the depth of water.—M. Molliard : The action of acids on the composition of the ash of Sterigmatocystis nigra.—H. Guilleminot : The second postulate of the calculus of probabilities and the law of option in the evolution of living matter.—L, Boutan: The rotation of the anal region of the larval shell in Gasteropods.—A. Pézard: The modifving factor of normal growth and the law of compensation.—M. Barthélémy: The definite survival of dogs bled white, obtained by a means other than blood transfusion. The solution injected was a 6 per cent. solution of gum arabic containing 6 parts of sodium chloride per tooo. SYDNEY. Linnean Society of New South Wales, September 24.— Mr. J. J. Fletcher, president, in the chair.—K. G. Blair: Notes on the Australian genus Cestrinus, Er. (fam. Tenebrionidze), and some allied genera. The paper discusses the synonymy of the somewhat obscure genus Cestrinus, Er. (fam. Tenebrionide), as well as Achora, Pasc., and Adelodemus, Haag.— Dr. H. S. H. Wardlaw: The venous oxygen content of the alkaline reserve of the blood in pneumonic influenza. The skin of persons suffering from pneu- monic influenza often assumes a distinctly bluish or plum-coloured tinge, and several hvpotheses have been put forward to account for this. One question which arises is whether this colouring of the skin is a cyanosis in the generally accepted sense of the word, i.e. whether the colour is due to an abnormally large NATURE [DECEMBER 18, 1919 ; proportion of reduced hemoglobin in the blood. In the paper the results are given of investigations in- volving determinations of the oxygen capacity and degree of oxygen. saturation of the venous blood of persons suffering from pneumonic influenza; in some cases the acidity and reactivity were determined by means of the hydrogen electrode. The samples of venous blood from cases of pneumonic’ influenza showed no indication of decreased exygen capacity or of deficient oxygenation. The concentration of | hydrogen ion produced by the addition of a measured quantity of acid showed no indication of acidosis; the alkaline reserve was not reduced.—Dr. R. J. Tillyard : The Panorpoid complex. -Part 3: The wing-venation. Amongst the new discoveries may be mentioned the proof that the basal cell of the forewing in the butter- flies is an areocel of very specialised construction, and that all the higher groups have had the venation of the anal area of the “hindwing reduced, not by loss of 3A, as hitherto supposed, but bv loss of 1A after fusion with 2A to form a Y-vein. A summarv is given of the phylogenetic results, and a phylogenetic table with the positions of the more important fossils marked along the lines of descents. The Trichoptera and Lepidoptera are shown to. be very closely allied, being a true dichotomy from a common ancestral! stem, probably in the Trias. The Megalontera and Planipennia are even more closely allied, and can onlv doubtfully be kept as separate orders. The Diptera | are traced back-to the Triassic Paratrichontera, them-_ selves an early offshoot of the older Mecopterous stem. The three orders Mecoptera, Paratrichoptera, and Diptera differ from all the rest in having the cubitus | only two-branched, and thus lie outside the main line of advance of the complex. BOOKS RECEIVED. Calculation of Electric Conductors. Taylor. Pp. 34. (London: Ios. 6d. net. The Present Position of the Theory. of Ionisation. By. WoT: Constable and Co., Ltd.) Pp. 178. (London: The Faraday Society.) 12s. 6d. Action de la Chaleur et du Froid: Sur 1’Activité | des Etres Vivants. By G. Matisse. Pp. ii+556. (Paris: E. Larose.) | The. Theory of Relativity. By H. L. Brose. Pp. 32. | (Oxford: B. H. Blackwell.) Is. 6d. net, | Timbers and their Uses. By W. Winn. Pp. vii+ | 333- _ (London: G. Routledge and Sons, Ltd.) | Ios. 6d. net. The Adventurer’s Handbook : Being. the Manual | of the Order of Wooderaft Chivalry. Pp.. xiv+119. (London : The Swarthmore Press, Ltd.) 2s. 6d. net. | The Hill of Vision: A Forecast of the Great War | and of Social Revolution with the Coming of the New | Race. By F. B. Bond. Pp. XXV+ 134. Constable and Co., Ltd.) 7s. 6d. net. The Coal Consumption of Power Plants, Bonuses for Coal Saving. By R. H. Parsons. Pp. 23. | (London: The Electrical Review, Ltd.) 1s. net. | Musings of an Idle Man. By Sir R. H. Firth. | Pp. xii+359. (London: John. Bale, Ltd.) 7s. 6d. | | (London : and | net. Engineering Descriptive Geometry and Drawing. | By Capt. F. W. Bartlett and Prof. T. W. Johnson. 3. parts. Pp. viit206; v+207-374; V+375-617. | (New York: John Wiley and Sana. Inc.; London: | Chapman and Hall, Ltd.) 27s. 6d. net. | The Psychology of the Future. Bv E. Boirac. | Translated and edited, with an introduction, by W. de Kerlor. Pp. xiiit+322. (London: Kegan Paul and ; Co;, TAL)" tos 6d. net. | NO, 2616, VoL. 104] _ Mathematics, Particular and General, | The Inheritance of the Naval Officer | Our Astronomical Column :— | The British Association at Bournemouth :— | Societies and Academies Pictorial Atlas of English History. Arranged | E. J. S. Lay. Pp. 48. (London: Macmillan and C Ltd.) 1s. 6d. Experiments. with Plants. By J. B. Ph Pp. 207. (Oxford: At the Clarendon Press.) net. - one DIARY OF SOCIETIES. THURSDAY, December 18. Roya Society oF Arts, at 4.30—P. J. Hartog: Some aaten ‘ Indian Education. aah Rovat Society or MEpICcINE a Section’ & 5. RovaL InsriTruTE oF. Puptic HEALTH, at 5.—Dr. J. D. "Grant : Tol ‘ culosis of the Larynx: Treatment, especially in the Home. InstiTUTION oF ‘MINING AND MevatLurcy (at G iy oi, 5.30.-—Adjourned Discussion on A Contribution to the’ ; H. L. Selman: INSTITUTION OF ar ENGINEERS (at Tnstitntion oF Civil M. at . Hutchison and ayte: Electricity in : Mining. ConcreETE INSTITUTE, at 7.30.—M. S. R. Adare 2 The Use. of Elliptical Vaulting as a Primary Factor in ‘Prof, Ada rchitecture. eS SocieTy oF ARCHITECTS, at 8.—Prof. ry ho The Need for M Care in Warehouse Design. ARISTOTELIAN SOCIETY ae 22 *Albeviacle Street), at 8. —Dr. G. E. Moore: War Experiences &xternal and Internal Relations. Cuemicat Society, at 8.—Prof. J. “Walker : Manufacture of Nitric Acid and the Recovery ‘of Nitrous F FRIDAY, DECEMBER 19. peg ahd OF reper oak MeO at 6.—G. w. 3 Power of Lathe Turning Tools, Part e Junior INSTITUTION OF ENGINEERS (at Royal United Service Insite at 7.30.—Sir E. Vennyson d’Eyncourt: The Influence of the 9 Engineering (Presidential Address). ~ ie Royal. Society oF Mepicine, (Electro-therapeutics Section), 1t 8.30.— Dr. J. C. Mottram: The Leucocytic Content in Radium Workers —Adjourned Discussion on Major. Cooper's Pe pe ac k's Stimulation of Muscle, with Demonstration of a c. Coil. * (cist S4TURDAY, DECEMBER 20. ; Puysiotocicat Society (at St; Thomas's Hospital), at. eT me CONTENTS. Physiology and Medicine. By Bayliss, F.R.S. a4 Go ‘ty ‘Dr. Ss. i Brodetsky ... Ay Our Bookshelf . Letters to the Editor :— Power from the Sun.—A, A. Bie eo 4 1 Swinton, F.R.S, Paps F. G. Donnan, F.R.S. A Helium. Series in the Extreme. Ultia-Vioiet — Prof. W. M. Hicks, F.R.S, . ¥ The Constitution of the Elements.—Dr. F. Ww. Aston 0 eS ee eee douse erage ae The Deflection “ Light during a Solar Feclipee. <= W. H. Dines, F. a a Lewis it Richardson ; 1 Prof, Alexr, Anderson “ 3 Einstein’s Relativity Theory of Gravitation, Wt The Crucial Fhenomena, By Ey Coenen Notes The December Meteoric Shower... . . Discussion'on Relativity...) . 2)... 2 Flotation Principles of Ore Extraction . AS PS Adds , Sc.D., Hee Section. L—Educational Science—Opening ite by Sir Napier Shaw, LL. F.R.S., President of the Section Univers ity and. Educational sere htsi Be Books Received 2 ares (al a eee Diary of Societies aa a eae . Editorial and Publishing Offices: MACMILLAN AND CO., Ltp., : ST. MARTIN’S STREET, LONDON, W.C.2. | Advertisements and business letters to be’ addressed fo the Publishers. amt Editorial Communications to the Editor. i Telegraphic Address: Puusts, Lonpon. Telephone Number: GERRARD 8830. : | NATURE i “THURSDAY, DECEMBER 25, 1910. ‘I q THE PROFESSION. OF CHEMISTRY. The Profession of Chemistry. By Richard B. Pilcher. Pp. xiv+ig9. (London: Constable ' and Co., Ltd., 1919.) Price 6s. 6d. net. : HE late Sir Henry Roscoe, in his autobio- a graphy, relates that when he had made up ha his mind to follow chemistry as a profession his 'decision caused astonishment and even dismay ‘among his friends and relations, who asked him if he intended to open a shop with red and blue glass bottles in the window. This, he added, was not an extraordinary question in the early ’fifties. Some persons would consider it as not more extra- ordinary to-day. Fairly well informed people have gradually learned to understand that there is a distinction between the professional chemist and ‘the pharmacist, but the general community still regards the shopkeeper who dispenses medicines and sells drugs and anything else that he thinks may appeal to his clients as a chemist, because he calls himself such. This needless confusion in the public mind exists nowhere else in Europe, and would not exist here if our Legislature and the Public Departments concerned with the issue of | Royal charters, and, it may be added, our lay Press, were better acquainted with the functions and aims of the science of chemistry as distin- guished from the art and craft of pharmacy. An eminent foreign physicist, passing through ‘one of our country towns in company with the writer of this review, chanced to see, on the facia of the local druggist, the term ‘‘ Family Chemist,” whereat he was considerably astonished and _per- plexed. The appellation was wholly unintelligible until it was suggested, as the only way of escape from a laboured explanation, that it might pos- _sibly mean a “chemist with a family.” As he glanced in turn at the heterogeneous objects in the window—the photographic appliances, hot- ‘water bottles, weed-killers, toilet soaps, electric ‘torches, safety razors, vanishing cream, egg- preservatives, hair-brushes and sponges—and | commented on the character of the show-cards his Why a man who dealt in such wonder grew. articles should term himself a chemist was incom- -prehensible to a fellow-countryman of Scheele, who, by the way, always called himself an A pote- kare; and, further, why the soi-disant chemist ‘should advertise himself for the purposes of business as “a family man” was still more | inexplicable, unless, as was surmised, he con- sidered it as some justification for his charges. But he was evidently a man of enterprise, since, in addition to his other activities, he traded in _ spectacles and sheep-dips, sold British and foreign wines, developed photographs, and was the local agent of one of the smaller insurance companies. That the misunderstanding as to the true voca- tion of a chemist is widespread is the common experience of teachers when consulted by the parents of boys who have developed a taste for NO. 2617, VOL. 104] scientific chemistry. The “man in the street,” as a rule, has a very hazy idea of the department of knowledge or of human activity with which chemistry is concerned. He cannot be wholly ignorant of its applications, but he seldom knows them as such. Even generally well-informed people are unaware what the profession of chemistry comprehends. It is to meet this lack of knowledge that the registrar and secretary of the Institute of Chemistry has been induced to put together this book. In a special chapter Mr. Pilcher deals with the claim of pharmacists to the title “chemist,” and shows how it has arisen. They base it appar- ently on the teaching of Paracelsus—no. very reputable authority—that “the true use of chem- istry was not to make gold, but to prepare medi- cines.” But chemistry was studied, as an art, long prior to the fifteenth century, and was applied to industry and manufacture by the ancient Egyptians and Far Eastern nations centuries before the Christian era. Many of the earliest chemists, it is true, were physicians, and prac- tised their art, like Paracelsus, in connection with their profession. But there was never any ex- clusive association of chemistry with medicine, and there is no. justification, therefore, for the vendors of drugs on this score to assume the title of chemist. Strictly speaking, the pharmacists are the direct descendants of the Apothecaries, who in their turn were descended from the thirteenth-century Spicers, who dealt in galenicals —i.e. roots, herbs, and other vegetable products. The Apothecaries gradually took upon themselves the functions of the physicians, whilst the drug- vendors usurped those of the Apothecaries in pre- paring and compounding medicines. The Apothe- caries were originally incorporated with the grocers, and down to the beginning of the reign of James I. such drugs and medicines as were | then in use were sold in common by the grocers. In 1617 the Apothecaries obtained their charter, which enacted that the grocers should no longer keep an Apothecary’s shop, and that no surgeon should sell medicines. The Society of Apothecaries then proceeded to take action. against the frauds and artifices of the grocers and drug-vendors, and established a manufactory of medicinal prepara- tions for the use of their own members. Although Robert Boyle drew a clear distinction in his writ- ings between chemists and the druggists or drug- sters, as he indifferently calls them, by the middle of the eighteenth century the popular confusion was such as to draw forth a protest from Berken- hout, who complained that “persons, who know nothing more of chemistry than thé name, natur- ally suppose it to be a trade exercised by shop- keepers called Druggists and Chemists, who are thought to be chiefly employed in preparing medi- cines. Chemistry, therefore, they imagine belongs exclusively to physic.” Space will not permit us to follow Mr. Pilcher’s historical account in further detail, but it is inter- esting to note that it was only after the Chemical Society was established in February, 1841, that 7 a 410 NATURE [DECEMBER 25, 1919 the “Chemists and Druggists ” began to organise themselves, and ‘“‘at a public meeting of the Trade held at the Crown and Anchor Tavern on April 15th” of the same year, it was resolved “that for the purpose of protecting the permanent interests, and increasing the respectability of Chemists and Druggists, an Association be now formed under the title of the Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain.” Notwithstanding the various Pharmacy Acts, it cannot be seriously contended that the pharmacist has established any prior or prescriptive rights to the title “‘chemist.” Scientific chemists existed in this country long before 1852, and were so termed: we have only to name Boyle, Black, Priestley, Cavendish, Dalton, Davy, and Wollas- ton in proof of this fact; pharmacists themselves could only designate such men as chemists, but they were in nowise pharmacists or druggists. Perhaps, therefore, the pharmacists would still further increase their respectability by dropping their pretensions to a title to which they have no valid right. The chemist, properly so-called, will - find little in Mr. Pilcher’s book with which he is not already familiar, or will not wholly agree. The work, indeed, is not specially addressed to him. It is primarily intended for those who in- tend to take up chemistry as a- profession, and to practise ultimately either as a consultant or as an analytical chemist, research chemist, or works chemist, or who seek to enter one of the Govern- ment Departmental or Municipal Laboratories, etc., and on leaving school wish to begin’ the necessary training. The book may be recom- mended to parents and also to schoolmasters, who are often the best judges of a boy’s aptitudes, but, from their lack of knowledge of the many openings that chemistry affords, and of the proper course to pursue in order to enter the profession, are at a loss to offer sound advice. Mr. Pilcher has a pleasant literary style; his book is eminently readable, and contains many facts of general interest. It is not often that he will be found tripping, but the sentence at the bottom of p. 120 concerning the appointment of Medical Officers of Health as Public Analysts requires amendment. Certain of the lines have apparently been transposed either in the galley or during the paging of the book. : FLOWERING PLANTS AND FERNS. (1) A Dictionary of the Flowering Plants and Ferns. By Dr. J. C. Willis. (Cambridge Bio- logical Series.) Fourth edition, revised and re- written. Pp. xii+712+iv. (Cambridge: At the University Press, 1919.) Price 20s. net. (2) The Living Cycads. By Prof. C. J. Chamber- lain. (University of Chicago Science Series.) Pp. xiv+172. (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press; London: Cambridge University Press, 1919.) Price 1.50 dollars net. (3) British Ferns and How to Identify Them. NO, 2617, VOL. 104 | By J. H. Crabtree. Pp. 64. (London: The Epworth Press: J. Alfred Sharp, n.d.) Price 1s. 6d, net. = (1) ] N the fourth edition of his “ Dictionary of — the Flowering Plants and Ferns,” Dr. — Willis has achieved the ideal form in arrange- — ment, the sweeping together of the whole of the — material into one alphabetical sequence. Part i. — of the original edition, a somewhat sketchy and — unequal account of the morphology, natural history, taxonomy, distribution, and economic uses. of the phanerogams and ferns, has been — eliminated, and the gain of space has been use-— fully employed in enlarging the scope of the main — portion of the work. Dr. Willis claims that he — has now found it possible to include all the genera, and though the expert in taxonomy may note a few omissions, the general botanist or — student for whom the work is intended will not be critical on this heading. The book is, in fact, — a remarkable compendium of botanical informa-_ tion, including not only the genera, which are re-_ ferred to their family, and accorded some deserip-— tive matter varying from a bare statement of geo-— graphical distribution to a paragraph, but also. the families, which are treated in detail according” to their relative size and importance. A useful feature is the inclusion of a great many popular names of plants and a large number of botanical 3 terms, though the latter are much more ex- | haustively treated in Dr. Daydon Jackson’s classic work. There’ are also a few general | articles, such as one on “ Collecting,” and on con- | cepts such as the leaf, inflorescence, fruit, etc., in which numerous cross-references are given to other headings. f 2 al There are occasional suggestions that the author might perhaps have spread his net a little more widely for his sources of information ; and a brief list of standard works of reference, such as Dr. Jackson’s “Glossary of Botanic Terms,” Britten and Holland’s “Dictionary of English Plant Names,” and others, might with advantage © have occupied one of the blank spaces at the beginning or end of the volume. cise (2) The little volume entitled “The Living” Cycads” is one of the University of Chicago Science Series, which aims at providing a medium ~ of publication intermediate between the short | article of the technical journal and the elaborate treatise; the volumes are written not only for the” specialist, but also for the educated layman. Prof. Chamberlain has travelled round the world in order to study in their native habitats the widely © separate genera of this group, remarkable for Me : peculiar habit, form, and structure of the plants, © and for their great botanical interest as the sur-— viving remnants of a line which reaches back through Mesozoic into Paleozoic times. During” the last fifteen years the author has spent long periods of study in Mexico, Cuba, Africa, and Australia, and the work in the field has been con-— tinued in the laboratory by himself and his — pupils. The subject-matter is divided into three — 3 _ DECEMBER 25, I919| NATURE 411 parts. an eminently readable account of the different genera and species in their homes, illustrated by some excellent photographs. It will interest the educated layman as well as the botanist. Part ii., “The Life History,” is a concise account of the _ Cycads in their various stages, including vegeta- ive structures, reproductive structures, fertilisa- ion, and the embryo and seedling. It is written with great clearness and is also well illustrated, but the mere educated layman will not get far beyond ) the first chapter. In part iii., “The Evolution and + Phylogeny of the Group,” we pass from the record of fact to speculation. This will interest the botanical student, who will follow easily at any ate the development of the different types of emale sporophyll from the foliage*leaf, while he will be struck with the comparative uniformity of the male cone throughout the group. The evolu- tion of the gametophyte and of embryogeny presents greater difficulty. Botanists will look _ forward to reading the much more extended tech- _ nical account of the living Cycads on which the author has been at work for many years; and the results of this work will be of the greatest interest ‘to those who are investigating the evolution and phylogeny of the Gymnosperms. : (3) Mr. Crabtree’s little book on the British ferns makes a delightful introduction to their col- ction and study. The habitat and form are described in twenty-eight species (about three- fourths of the British species), and each descrip- tion is accompanied by a full-page photographic reproduction of the plant as it grows and of a portion of a fertile leaf showing the sori on the _ pinne. The latter are sometimes wanting in clear _ definition. An introduction gives a very brief account of the life-history of a fern, and also directions for collecting, drying, and mounting. _ The author recommends mounting in a_ book. “This was the custom in the old herbaria, but the plan of mounting on separate sheets which may kept in a box or portfolio is much to be pre- ferred. It allows intercalation of additional speci- mens or replacement of old ones, as well as altera- tions in arrangement, all of which are imprac- _ ticable with the book-form. OUR BOOKSHELF. dreland: The Outpost. By Prof. Grenville A. J. Cole. Pp. 78. (London: Oxford University Press; Humphrey Milford, 1919.) Price 3S. Od. net. A BRAVE and poetic effort is here made to present what Vidal de la Blache would call the personality of Ireland. The country is viewed as an outpost of Eurasia, from which her people and her civilisa- tion have been derived in successive and over- lapping waves. Prof. Cole’s name assures the picturesque interest of the structural sections, and the maps and views are most helpful. A laudable effort is also made to set forth the present state of the problem of the peopling of Ireland, and this chapter is a welcome change from the too mmon fanciful remarks about Celts. No two NO, 2617, VOL. 104] Part i., “Collecting the Material,” gives writers would make the same sketch on this subject, and several would dissent from Prof. Cole’s identification of the archeologically named Beaker folk with the “Bronze age” invaders of Ireland and with the monuments of New Grange. Nevertheless, Prof. Cole has made a suggestive summary that may well make a basis for discus- sion. The very short mention of Roman times and of the days of the saints is a little disappoint- ing perhaps, as the story of those days emphasises the initiative of Ireland. Separate accounts of the barrier of Leinster and the Irish plain, the uplands of the north and the Armorican ranges of the south, are full of interest with many a picturesque phrase and much fine human sympathy. The section on exits and en- trances and communications hints at future de- ” velopments of train ferries and of trans-Atlantic services from the West, while it gives a fresh criticism of the railway system. The book should promote a more sympathetic understanding of Ireland’s problems, and must be useful to the student and teacher, as well as to the general body of British citizens. Hiaye Ds British Rainfall, 1918. On the Distribution of Rain in Space and Time over the British Isles during the Year 1918. By Hugh Robert Mill and M. de Carle S. Salter. The Fifty-eighth Annual Volume. Pp. 242. (London: Edward Stanford, Ltd., 1919.) Price ros. TABULAR matter of great precision and of con- siderable scientific value as recorded by about 5000 observers constitutes the bulk of the information set out in this volume. The British’ Rainfall Organisation is to be congratulated on the high standard of the work which for the last time is produced under practically private management. Dr. H. R. Mill, after acting as director of the Organisation for nearly twenty years, has given over the control, which has now passed to the Meteorological Office. An article on the development. of the British Rainfall Organisation since 1910 shows con- siderable activity in the production of rainfall maps. A series showing the annual rainfall of the British Isles from 1865 to 1914, on a scale of nineteen miles to an inch, has been completed. A map on the scale of half an inch to a mile, showing the relation of rainfall to geographical features, is stated to be in contemplation. Mr. Carle Salter contributes an article on ‘‘ The Relation of Rainfall to Configuration,” and he deals with the physical processes of rain forma- tion. Rainfall maps are given for each month, show- ing the actual fall in inches and the percentage of average. A coloured map shows the relation of rainfall in 1918 to the average of 1875-1909. The rainfall was more than 30 per cent. above the average in Merionethshire, Central ‘and North Lancashire, North Dumfriesshire, and part of co. Kerry. The areas of deficient rainfall | during 1918 occurred chiefly in the east of Great Britain. C.F. 412 NATURE | [DECEMBER 25, 1919. LETTERS TO THE EDITOR. [The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed by his correspondents, Neither can he undertake to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manuscripts intended for this or any other part of Nature. No notice is taken of anonymous communications.] Polarisation of Light Scattered by Helium Atoms. ABovut a year and a half ago I published an experi- mental investigation of the degree of polarisation in the light scattered at right angles by various dust-free gases (Proc. Roy. Soc., A, vol. xcv., p. 155). I believe the results then obtained to be in the main quite correct, but there is an important point on which I have completely to withdraw what 1 then said. This refers to the results on helium, which was then found to behave. differently from the other gases, giving much less complete polarisation than any of them. The result given was that the weak image (vibrations parallel to incident beam) had 42 per cent. of the intensity of the strong image (perpendicular vibra- tions). This was given on the results of two inde- pendent series of photographs, which were, indeed, obtained under conditions much more difficult than those for the common gases, but were considered at the time to give adequate evidence. I do not even now know what. was wrong with them; but on repeating the work with a much improved apparatus, which it has taken many months to design and con- struct, I have obtained an entirely different, I might Say opposite, result. I now find no intensity large enough to be observed in the weak image, and certainly not 3 per cent, of the intensity in the strong image. It may be possible to lower this limit still further; but, in any case, if helium is outstanding at all, it is in the direction of polarising more, and not less, completely than the generality of gases. The details will be published later, but I write to make the correction as soon as possible, so that no one who speculates theoretically on the subject may be misled by reliance on my former result. RAYLEIGH. December 21. Gravitation and Light. It should perhaps be stated, in connection with Mr. Cunningham’s remarks (Nature, December 18, p- 395), that my difficulty with regard to Dr. Ein- stein’s theory must extend to the deviation of light by the sun .as well as to its change of period. Ac- cording to the theory, the velocity of light diminishes near the sun; on the other hand, the scale of time is increased, so that the wave-length is not altered. Now, the space being nearly flat, the path of a ray is, with such heterogeneous time, determined funda- mentally by minimum number of waves, and not by minimum time; therefore, it should not be altered. On the other hand, passing from kinematics to dynamics, Dr. Einstein requires in another connection that light should consist of discrete bundles or quanta of energy. Let it afso be granted that inertia and gravitation are attributes of all energy. It seems to follow that each of these bundles of energy will swing round the sun in a hynerbolic orbit, and that its velocity will be increased when near the sun. It is well. known that this would account for haif the observed deflection. But, again, physical optics could not exist without the idea of transverse waves and their phases, which must be grafted on somehow to the bundles of energy. Now the supposed gravita- tional derangement of the fourfold extension from the NO. 2617, VOL. 104] flat being very slight, it can be agreed that the change in. See of each element of it is of the second order. — The expansion of scale of time near the sun requires — thus a compensating shrinkage of radial lengths; and } this second-order effect, the cause of the adjustment | for Mercury, will, on the phase-principle of Huygens, just double the previous result. This would amount in § all to the observed deflection of the rays. Lp But amid these uncertainties and apparent contra- dictions the view asserts itself that the very rtant — astronomical determination is to be regarded as a- guide towards future theory rather than as the verifica-_ tion of the particular theory which suggested it. JosepH Larmor. ie TPE Cambridge, December 20. Radio-activity and Gravitation. ee In connection with the interesting letter of Prof. Donnan in Nature of December 18, it may be of interest to mention some experimental results which — have a bearing on this question. Some years hy Oe Dr. Schuster suggested to one of us that it would be | of interest to test whether the rate of transformation of radio-active substances was influenced by the intensity of gravitation. An accurate method of — testing the rate of decay of radium emanation over a — period of about a hundred days was developed, and — it was intended to compare the rate of decay of samples which had been transported to suitable por-— tions of the earth’s surface. The outbreak of the war interfered with this plan. past ae one Since, according to Einstein’s theory, a gravitational — acceleration is in no sense different from a centrifugal. acceleration, experiments have been performed in the — Cavendish Laboratory to test whether the rate of decay — of radio-active substances is affected by subjecting them to the high centrifugal acceleration at the edge f of a spinning disc. For the purpose of measurement the y-ray activity was determined by a sensitive-balance— method. Although the radio-active material was sub- jected to an acceleration of more than 20,000 times gravity, the change observed, if any, was certainly less than one part in a thousand. : nee eee This result is not in disaccord with the relation deduced by Prof. Donnan, for a simple calculation shows that his relation predicts an effect very much ~ smaller than can be detected by measurements of this character. v5 fond E. RUTHERFORD. — A. H. Compton. | Cavendish Laboratory, December 19- a > Mortality among Snails and the Appearance of Blue~ — hottle Flies. hs Tue residential parts of Calcutta are remarkably — free, as a rule, from both house-flies (Musca, — spp.) and blue-bottles. This is doubtless due to the _ exceilence of the municipal sanitary arrangements, for _ at Sibpur, a few miles away, blue-bottles (Pycnonoma _ or Lucilia dux) are not only extremely troublesome in_ the houses, but are also probably connected ter pate , quent epidemics of enteric, unknown in the better parts” compound of the Indian Museum that Sone, aan from time to time becomes relatively numerous, and — on several occasions I have been able to trace the flies” to their breeding-ground. This has always been the dead bodies of the snail Achatina fulica, the largest land mollusc in Bengal. : A. fulica, the shell of which may attain a length of at least 4 in., is not an indigenous species, but was introduced for purposes of dissection by a keen DECEMBER 25, 1919] NATURE 413 malacologist some sixty-five years ago from Mauritius, whither it had been brought in some unknown manner from tropical Africa, its original home. Col. Godwin Austen’ has told the story of its introduction into ‘Calcutta, while Mr. E. E. Green? has published a report on its prodigious increase in Ceylon, when once its eggs had been carried (accidentally on a cabbage- leaf) into a suitable iocality. Fortunately, it is largely a feeder on decaying vegetable and animal matter, and therefore does little harm to crops or gardens, and has _ even its value as a scavenger. Since, however, I found the maggots in the dead snails, I have noticed that the appearance of blue-bottles in this part of Calcutta invariably coincides with a heavy mortality in the moi- lusc, which appears to be subject occasionally to some ‘Kind of fatal epidemic and also perishes in large num- bers after egg-laying at the beginning of the rainy “season and during dry spells in and at the end of that “season. In one instance investigated the mortality ‘Was due not to disease or weakness or to meteorologi- cal conditions, but merely to the fact that the snail ‘Was enormously abundant and that large numbers of individuals were crushed by people walking on garden paths in the evening. | I have thought these facts worth putting on record as illustrating the delicate balance of Nature and the danger of introducing apparently harmless or even _ Seemingly beneficial animals into a new country. 3 N. ANNANDALE. Indian Museum, Calcutta, November 19. Remains of a Fossil Lion in Ipswich. In .1910 I discovered a rich bone-bed in a section of Stoke Hill at Ipswich, the deposit in which it occurred being 30. ft. below the surface. The results of the researches then undertaken were published in vol, xiv., part 1, of the Proceedings of the Suffolk Institute of Archeology and Natural History. As a portion of Stoke Hill is now being cut away for railway sidings, a continuation of the same section th the exception of the Crayford specimen in the urrell collection. These were identified for me by . Smith Woodward and Dr. Andrews, who also amined and named a large assortment of teeth and mes from the site. The list of remains is daily being ided to, and a massive skull of deer, with other bones, a tooth, and an antler with a base measuring to in. in circumference, still await identification. The Osition of the tines suggests reindeer. With the help a grant from the Percy Sladen Research Fund, I able to continue the work with the care that it ires, and am employing special workmen for the pose. ; ; sot _The question of the relation of Glacial deposits to lese ancient land-surfaces is, of course, of paramount nportance, especially as a small number of worked nts have been found closely associated with the limal remains. For this purpose pits are being dug _a considerable depth below our present ground- el in order to ascertain the constituents of the a below, Nina F. Layarp. Rookwood, Ipswich, December 17. , d Mal. Soc., vol. viii., . 147 (1008). “Report on the Outbreak of Achatina fulica” in Circulars and Agri- | Journal of the Royal Botanical Gardens, Ceylon (1910). NO. 2617, VOL. 104] Promotion of a Plumage Bill. May I announce through the columns of Nattre the formation of a ‘‘ Plumage Bill Group,” designed to fight the plumage trade by means of publicity to the facts and of pressure upon the Government to bring in a Bill forbidding the importation of all birds’ skins for millinery purposes, except poultry, ostrich, and eider-duck? Sir Charles Hobhouse is the president of this group; Lt.-Col. Swinburne, of 23 Eaton Place, S.W.1, its treasurer; and Mr. W. Dewar, of 8 Kenil- worth Court, Putney, S.W.15, its hon. secretary. The group is in need both of funds and of assistance, and the former will be very gratefully received by the treasurer, and the latter as gratefully considered by the secretary and the committee. We feel that a vigorous effort must be made to end the yearly massacre of the world’s most beautiful and interesting species of wild bird—a massacre so merci- less and extensive as seriously to threaten the exter- mination of a large number of species, and thus to throw out of gear the great work of evolution. Nor is there any honest or valid argument for the traffic, since this immense drain upon natural resources is for no other purpose than to feed the profits of a small band of East End traders and to satisfy the frivolity of some women, H. J. MAsstncHam. December 17. The Deflection of Light during a Solar Eclipse. TuerreE can scarcely be a downward rush of cold air in places deprived of the sun’s radiation during an eclipse as suggested by Prof. Anderson. This would happen only if the upper layers of the atmosphere were cooled more than the lower, and if the cooling were sufficient to bring the temperature-gradient near to the adiabatic. As it is, however, the effect of an eclipse should be to cool the lower layers more, than the upper, and so to decrease the temperature-gradient. Moreover, if cooling caused convection movements, we should have upward currents as well as downward, and a development of cumulus clouds would result from the passage of the moon’s shadow. C.J. Ps Cave: Ditcham Park, Petersfield, December 19. iY INDUSTRIAL RESOURCES OF INDIA. A S explained in a preface by Sir Thomas H. Holland, the president of the Indian Muni- tions Board, this handbook was originally pre- pared in connection with the exhibit of the Board at the exhibitions held in Bombay and Madras in the winter of 1917-18. It was intended to show what had been done to develop India’s industrial resources for war purposes. It has now been enlarged so as, in some measure, to indicate the general industrial development which has taken place during, and on account of, the war, and it discusses the possibility of future. progress. The Board was created in 1917 with the view of relieving the United Kingdom, so far as pos- sible, from the necessity of meeting India’s demands for war purposes, and particularly for the supply. of the forces in India, Mesopotamia, and Egypt. Its functions consisted not only in utilising Indian resources to the utmost extent, but also in controlling and regulating imported ‘1 Indian Munitions Board. Industrial Handbook, 1919. Revised Edition. (Calcutta: Superintendent; Government Printing, ro19.) Price as, 3d. 414 NATURE [DECEMBER 25, 1919 material so as to avoid waste and overlapping on the part of different departments of the public service. : After a short account of the history and organ- isation of the Board and of its relations to indi- genous industries, we have a series of reviews of industrial development in Bengal, Madras, Bom- bay, the United Provinces, the Punjab, Burma, and the Central Provinces. The book then deals with specific industries, viz. the chemical and metallurgical industries; the future of hydro- electric power in India; electrical and engineering manufactures; hides, tanning, and leather; tan- stuffs and tannin extracts; the supply of timber and bamboos; textiles; shipbuilding; railway material; petroleum; calcium carbide; paper- making; paints; glass; the coconut industries ‘of the west coast of the Madras Presidency; soap; bitterns; Portland cement; lac; glue and gelatine; industrial alcohol; medical and surgical appliances; jute, hemp, and _ flax; pine resin; magnesite and mica; hardware; sandalwood oil; and it concludes with an account of miscellaneous articles purchased by the Indian Munitions Board, and a description ot the Tata iron and steel works at Jamshedpur (Sakchi). With regard to the reports of development in the several presidencies and provinces, each has been entrusted to a member of the Indian Civil Service, usually the Director of Industries or the Controller of Munitions. With one exception, all tell the same story of the strong stimulus which has been given to native industry by the war. “It has taught India its dependence on other countries and the danger of such dependence,’’ writes Mr. Peterson; “it has tended to make the Presidency (Madras) more self-supporting and less dependent on the United Kingdom’’; while it has arrested temporarily the development of some industries, it has opened up’ new possibilities, » and diverted energy into new channels (Mr. Innes); Mr. Mead reports that the cotton mills in Bombay, Ahmedabad, and other places in the Presidency have prospered exceedingly during the war; glass-works have been established, and there have been considerable increases in the export of castor, ground-nut, and sesamum oils, and of castor and ground-nut cake; large quantities of casein are being exported, mainly to the United Kingdom and America, and the industry is rapidly extending; chemical manufactures have been established, with the result that many pro- ducts formerly imported are now made success- fully in India. There has been a great develop- ment in the utilisation of indigenous timber, and the ample deposits of suitable clays have been turned to increasing account in the production of tiles, bricks, and pottery. Mr. Silver states that “the war has given a strong stimulus to various industries in the United Provinces. The mills and factories of Cawnpore have been engaged almost entirely on war work,’’ working continually, night and day, providing the many woollen and cotton items required for Army purposes. In spite NO, 2617, VOL. 104] of the very large call for men for the Army, ‘the Punjab has undoubtedly developed some of its industries very considerably ’’ during the war, writes Mr. Townsend. This is especially seen in the manufacture of textiles, wood and metal work, cutlery, glass, leather, and certain minor industries. The Controller is sanguine that “the experience gained by many thousands of un- skilled labourers in the manufacture of useful articles will prove to be not without its value to them after the war.’’ “The effect of the in developing industries in Burma was less mar. than in some other Indian Provinces,’’ r Mr. Hardiman. This was due partly to ee distance from war theatres, but mainly to the small extent to which its raw material is worked up owing to the shortage and high cost of labour, the lack of cheap fuel, and the paucity of roads. and railways. The chief assets of Burma are its exportable surplus of rice; the large area of its reserved forests; its minerala and oil-bearing regions. Burma is largely undeveloped, but it has evidently great possibilities; at present it suffers from lack of capital and the reluctance of the Burman to submit to the discipline of an organised industry. The effect of the war on the industrial develop- ment of the Central Provinces has, in the opinion of Mr. Corbett, been adverse, owing, he thinks, to the depletion of staffs both in the Government service and in private employment, the im bility of recruiting experts, the difficulty o: | curing machinery and stores, and the sho fuel and of transport. It has retarded the growtl of agriculture, and has not permanently benefit forestry. On the other hand, the collection o tanstuffs has undoubtedly derived great impetu from war demands, and has been put on a mor scientific and permanent basis. Cement — a 1 pottery works are now established as very profit able industries, but a number of smaller industrie¢ have suffered from the lack of expert supervisio: and the impossibility of obtaining adequate plant, The general impression one derives from th reports of the provincial controllers is confirmec and amplified by the reports of the experts or the. present condition and future prospects t main industries of India. These latter report: constitute a very valuable feature of the book, an are of great interest. We would specially indi cate the detailed account of the chemical "ice 1s tries of India by Profs. Sudborough and Simo sen; the report on the metallurgical industries b Dr. Leigh Fermor; that on the leather industi and on tanstuffs by Mr. McWatters and Mr. Fra’ mouth; on petroleum by Mr. Watt; on Portlan' cement by Messrs. Musgrave and Davy; and the) several reports on lac products, glue and gelatin | and industrial alcohol by Dr. Gilbert Fowler, « the Bangalore Institute of Science. Lastly, we) would refer to the account of the Tata iron and steel works at Sakchi (Jamshedpur) by M Tutwiler, the general manager. These wer started in 1912. They are on a very large scale properly organised and laid out, and fitted witl DECEMBER 25, 1919] NATURE 415 modern appliances and labour-saving machinery. _ They are being rapidly extended and developed, and are certain to exert a profound influence on the industry of the East, not only in India, but also in Ceylon, Java, Manchuria, China, Japan, Australia, the United States, the Argentine, etc., with all of which countries they are building up an export trade in iron and steel castings, machinery, _ fencing wire, nails, tools, galvanised products, tinplate and enamel ware, etc. An interesting feature is the description of what is being done to promote the intellectual and physical well- being of the workers by the provision of hospitals, convalescent homes, schools, co-operative stores, eredit societies, an industrial bank, a concert hall, a restaurant, a reading room, etc, There can be no question that India is on the eve of most momentous changes, political, social, and industrial—changes which have been largely affected and accelerated by the war. All who are interested in her future will do well to study care- fully this official account of her present industrial position. It will amply repay perusal. THE REFORM OF THE CALENDAR. HOSE who have concerned themselves with the question of a reformed calendar will find much interesting matter in a report! published by a committee which was appointed early in the year by the Paris Société d’Encouragement pour | V’Industrie nationale. In 1884 the Abbé Croze, _ chaplain of La Roquette prison, suggested a com- petition of schemes to M. Flammarion’s journal, L’Astronomie, and presented anonymously prizes to the value of 5000 francs, with the rather in- compatible conditions that the first day of the year should be always a Sunday, and that the week of seven days and the year of twelve months should be retained. From that time until the out- break of war, enthusiasts had been making pro- posals, and, though they had reached little agree- ment among themselves, they had succeeded in 1910 in inducing the International Congress of _ Chambers of Commerce at London to pass a reso- - lution in favour of reform, and the Swiss Govern- ment to promise diplomatic action. The projects _ have been reported from time to time in these columns. Since the close of the war, proposals of the kind have been renewed, and the report of _ the French committee is a useful document. 4 For the Western world there are two calendars _ of importance existing. There is the Gregorian _ calendar and there is the ecclesiastical calendar, _ founded on the Council of Nicea, which rules the : _ movable festivals of the Churches. Hence there are _ two quite distinct questions before the refotmers. One is to remove the conventional luni-solar element from the latter, and to fix Easter so far as possible relative to the Gregorian calendar. Another is to reform the Gregorian calendar itself, more or less drastically. But yet a third plan has been proposed by a French engineer, M. Paul As ! “Commission pour la réforme du calendrier.” Bulletin de la Société __ 4'Encouragement pour I'Industrie nationale, tome cxxxi., p. 70. NO. 2617, VOL. 104] Delaporte, which consists practically in ignoring these questions and in using a special subsidiary calendar purely for the purposes of industry. The French committee, under Gen. Sebert, has formulated a number of resolutions which appear sensible and on the whole conservative. This is perhaps natural, in view of the peculiar French experience of ill-considered calendars. It supports the proposal to keep the variation of Easter within the narrowest possible limits—a week instead of a lunar month. This view has the assent of all lay opinion, and it is believed that it is no longer opposed by any ecclesiastical authority. On this point agreement in detail should be reached quickly and carried into effect without delay. Another resolution favours the substitution of the Gregorian for the Julian calendar, a hope which political events may have brought nearer to realisation. On the general manner of reform the committee expresses itself in favour of the continuity of the week. This excludes at once a number of schemes, the latest of which was proposed by M. Deslandres. At the same time, it threatens to make the change so slight as scarcely to be worth making at all. But it leaves open such a possibility of a perpetual calendar as the succession of thirty-five, twenty-eight, twenty- eight days in the month, with thirty-five days in December when the date ends in o or 5 generally and twenty-eight days in all other years, with the addition of those dates ending in twenty- five and seventy-five and those divisible by 400. This rule is not more complicated than the corre- sponding Gregorian rule, and the objection lies not so much to the variation in the length of the year as to the unequal months. Of course, a symmetrical calendar is out of the question, and no change in the present system can offer serious advantage without raising some such objection and meeting with firm opposition in consequence. M. Delaporte, mentioned above, is properly impressed with the difficulty of ousting the present calendar, and suggests his scheme as an auxiliary, not as a substitute for it. Strictly speaking, his project does not seem to be a calendar at all, because it lacks continuity. He takes the Gregorian year as he finds it, and divides it from the beginning into thirteen months of four weeks each. This is the Comtist calendar without trim- mings, but the one or two days at the end of the year must be provided for “a part.” He furnishes in the report different mechanical and tabular modes of exhibiting the correspondence between his scheme or “Chronos” and the Gregorian calendar for a year. He claims that the method of reckoning weeks continuously through the year has proved itself advantageous in industrial prac- tice. It is very possible. No doubt the advan- tage would be increased by uniformity of practice secured by agreement over a wide area. But the ordinary diary gives for each date the number of days elapsing from the beginning of the year, and if on this basis a business man cannot divide up his year to suit the requirements of his calling, suggestions from outside will scarcely help him. 416 NATURE [DECEMBER 25, 1919 At any rate, no scientific liability is involved if he persists in the use of the necessarily unequal calendar month when a more convenient uniform period might be substituted. The French com- mittee approves of M. Delaporte’s economic calendar for its own special purposes, and recog- nises that it stands apart from the question of a civil calendar properly so called. H.C. NOTES. PROMINENCE has been given in the daily papers to an interview with Dr. J. O. Arnold, who has recently resigned from the chair of metallurgy at the Univer- sity of Sheffield, relating to a new alloy tool-steel, the cutting powers of which are claimed to be far in advance of those of any rapid-cutting tools at present in the market. The element conferring this property is stated to be molybdenum. It was reported in the interview that Dr. Arnold had taken out British and American patents, but that, owing to the veto of the War Office, the Admiralty, and the Ministry of Muni- tions, he was not allowed to exploit his discovery, and that he was forbidden to communicate its details except under censorship to anyone in Great Britain. Meanwhile, representatives of the United States Government were said to be conducting inquiries in Sheffield. On December 19 it was announced, how- ever, that Dr. Arnold had received notice from the Government that the restrictions had been removed. Until more information is forthcoming as to the pre- cise chemical composition of the steel tools in question it will be well to suspend judgment on the matter. That rapid-cutting tools can be made with molyb- denum as the alloy basis has been known for many years. Such tools, however, have hitherto been regarded as peculiarly sensitive to heat conditions, and therefore liable to injury by improper treatment. This has stood in the way of their exploitation in practice. More than ninety years ago alcohol was synthesised from ethylene gas by Hennel. The gas was absorbed in sulphuric acid, with which it combined to form ethyl hydrogen sulphate. On distilling this with water alcohol was obtained in the distillate. Until recently the process has remained a purely laboratory opera- tion. During the war, however, investigations were made into the practicability of utilising for the com- mercial production of alcohol the small proportion of ethylene present in the gas given off from coke- ovens. A good deal of progress was made and the possibility proved, but the process was not fully worked out. It appears that this has now been successfully accomplished. In a paper read at a meeting of the Cleveland Institution of Engineers, Middlesbrough, Mr.. E. Bury, of the Skinningrove Iron and Steel Works, states that practical working has given a yield of 16 gallons of alcohol per ton of coal carbonised. The best results were obtained by absorbing the ethylene at a temperature of 60°-80° C. It is cai- culated that the coal used for coke-making in this country would yield more than 23,000,000 gallons of alcohol vearly, and the ethylene present in ordinary coal-gas, if similarly treated, would supply a further 27,000,000 gallons. WE have received from the Royal Statistical Society a copy of a petition which has been forwarded to the Prime Minister urging the immediate appointment of a Royal Commission or Select Committee to inquire into the existing methods of the collection and presentation of public statistics and to report on the means of improvement. The lack of co-operation NO. 2617, VOL. 104] between the different Departments charged with the preparation of statistics, and the consequent lack of co-ordination between their publications, excellent though these are in many respects, and the absence of any sufficient information on points that are now — of the first importance (e.g. wages, incomes, and — home production), are so notorious that some action in the direction indicated is most urgently called for. Adequate information is the very basis of right reform, but in scarcely any case is it forthcoming. The ats tion received the most widespread support from members of both Houses, from learned societies, from county and municipal authorities, and from those interested in social questions and the use of statistics generally—support which will, we hope, secure its acceptance. “ Tue Electricity Supply Bill has had many vicissi- tudes in its passage through Parliament. In its final form it elicited little opposition, if no great enthusiasm. The appointment of Commissioners is universally wel- comed. They can do much to co-ordinate the working of new schemes, and can effect great economies by standardisation. They will erect one or two super- stations which will effect an economy of fuel. They will probably also use a certain number of internal- combustion engines, which, theoretically at least, have a higher economy than steam turbines. The appoirt- ment of district boards with powers of compulsory purchase was strongly opposed by the electric supply companies, mainly on the ground that it was a breach of the Parliamentary: bargain made in 1888. It was pointed out that electric supply was initiated by private enterprise, and that many of the pioneer com- panies had an anxious and unremunerative time in their early days. To take away the opportunity they had of bettering their financial position in the few remaining years of their concession was not just. The Government, influenced by the strong opposition to the suggested district boards, and possibly also by the approach of the end of the session, dropped «il the contentious proposals. There is now a golden opportunity for the companies; both private and mupi- cipal, to enter into combination as “joint electricit authorities ’’ for themselves, and it would be goc policy for them to make a move in this direction, but at present we see no signs of such a movement. The — proposals for district boards, which were all thoroughly _ discussed in Committee, will doubtless be revived either in this or in a future Parliament. : Tue report of the Council of British hthalmo- logists on the desirability of a special qualification in” ophthalmology presents a strong and well-considered _ case. The qualifications required by the pansest hospitals of candidates for the post of ophthalmic surgeon—usually the fellowship of the College of Surgeons of England, Edinburgh, or Ire 4 no evidence of special knowledge of ophthalmology. — The council concludes that there should be a special — examination for those who propose to devote them- selves to this branch of medicine; and that, owing to- the importance of a sound knowledge of the general principles of surgery, pathology, etc., this examination should form part of the examination for a higher degree or diploma, such as the M.S. or F.R.C.S., — rather than that it should be a special examination — in ophthalmology alone. The council rightly lays stress upon an exhaustive curriculum, including — anatomy, pathology, optics, systematic and clinical ophthalmology, and operative surgery. The Council of British Ophthalmologists is doing excellent worl: in striving to improve the teaching and practice of ophthalmology. It has already reported upon. the teaching of these subjects to undergraduates, the lighting of test types, and other matters. It deals en ee Nite ; DECEMBER 25, 1919] ‘ NATURE 417 with aspects of medicine which are not catered for by the ordinary medical societies, but are of great importance to medical men in their relationship to the general public. It is eminently desirable that the excellent example which the council has set should be followed by other branches of medicine. Tue last day of this year marks the bicentenary of the death of John Flamsteed, first Astronomer Royal of England, and the rector of the parish of Burstow, Surrey, where he is buried, uncommemorated, we understand, by any monument. Flamsteed was born four years after Newton, and was a native of Derby- shire, being the son of a well-to-do maltster. Though prevented by illness from attending a university, he was devoted to mathematical studies, and in 1671 sent a paper to the Royal Society. Three years later he published his ‘‘ Ephemerides,” a copy of which, being resented to Charles II. by Sir Jonas Moore, led to lamsteed being appointed on March 4, 1675, ‘‘our Astronomical Observer’’ at a salary of tool. per annum, his duty being ‘forthwith to apply himself with the most exact care and diligence to the rectify- ing the tables of the motions of the heavens and the places of the fixed stars, so as to find out the so much desired longitude of places for the perfecting the art of navigation.’? The observatory at Greenwich, con- structed partly of brick from old Tilbury Fort and of timber and lead from the Tower of London, was designed by Wren and built at a cost of 52o0l., the money being derived from the sale of spoilt gun- powder. The struggles and disputes, the dogged per- severance, and the memorable achievements of Flam- steed have their place in the history of astronomy, but it, may safely be said that never has king or Government made a better investment than when Greenwich was built and Flamsteed made passing rich on tool. a year. Ar the general meeting of the Association of Economic Biologists on December to and 11 more than seventy new members were proposed, and Sir David Prain was elected president for the forthcoming year. Exhibits were made by Messrs. W. F. Bewley, E. E. Green, A. D. Cotton, and W. B. Brierley. Papers were read by Mr. W. F. Bewley .on “ Sleepy Disease, or Wilt of Tomato,” Mr. W. E. Hiley on “A New Instrument for Measuring the Light Intensity in Woods,” and Mr. F. R. Petherbridge on “The Life- history of the Strawberry Tortrix, Acalla comariana.’” December 11 was devoted to a symposium on ‘The Integration of Mycological Research with Practice in Agriculture, Horticulture, and Forestry.’’ Sir Daniel Hall discussed the administrative problems involved and the organisation which the Board of Agriculture proposes in this connection. The training of investi- gators was treated by Prof. V. H. Blackman. The special needs and difficulties of agriculture were dealt with by Dr. E. J. Russell, of horticulture by Mr. F.. J. Chittenden, and of forestry by Prof. W. Somer- ville. Sir David Prain discussed the part which the newly formed Imperial Bureau of Mycology will play in linking the investigator with the practical man. The meeting was presided over by Prof. F. W. Keeble, and in the discussion following the principal speakers a large number of members took part. The sym- posium was of great value in co-ordinating many divergent lines of thought, and there can be little doubt that the more frequent adoption of this method at scientific meetings would be conducive to that syn- thesis which is so great a desideratum in all natural science. > An interesting and valuable gift which has more than a local interest has just been received by the Plymouth Institution. This is the fine vase presented NO, 2617, VOL. 104] to Sir William Snow Harris in 1845 by the Emperor Nicholas I. of Russia. Harris, .who was born in Piymouth and educated at the Grammar School there, was trained as a doctor in Edinburgh, and for a time practised in his native town. After his mar- riage in 1824, however, he abandoned his profession to devote himself to the study of electricity. From 1819 onwards he was a frequent lecturer at the Ply- mouth Institution, where in 1822 his subject was ‘‘ The Application of Fixed Conductors to Ships’ Masts.” In 1827 the Lord High Admiral—afterwards William IV. —while on a tour of inspection to the dockyards, visited the institution, and with some naval officers witnessed Harris’s experiments. Two years later a Royal Society committee under Davy reported favour- ably on the proposals, but it was not until 1839, when the matter was referred to another committee, that Harris’s new conductors were introduced into the British Navy, although the Russian Navy was already using them. The Copley medal had been ee to Harris in 1835, and other honours followed. e was awarded a Civil List pension in 1841; the Emperor of Russia gave him a valuable ring and the vase in 1845; two years later he was knighted, and the Government afterwards made him a grant of soool. He died in the house overlooking the Hoe in 1867, and his name is inscribed on one of the panels in the Plymouth Guildhall. Harris’s fixed conductors replaced the temporary conductors introduced by Watson in 1762, and led to a great diminution in the loss of ships through lightning. His scientific work and his improvements are a notable instance of the benefits conferred upon the community by local scientific societies, and no fitter place for the pre- servation of the beautiful vase presented to Harris could be found than the institution which saw the birth of his discoveries. Ir is announced in Science that Dr. Frank Schlesinger, director of the Allegheny Observatory of the University of Pittsburgh, has been elected director of the Yale Observatory. Tue Physical and Optical Societies’ annual exhibition, to be held on Wednesday and Thursday, January 7 and 8, 1920, at the Imperial College of Science, South Kensington, will be open both in the afternoon (from 3 to 6 p.m.) and in the evening (from > to 10 p.m.). Prof. F. J. Cheshire will give a dis- course on ‘Some Polarisation Experiments” at 8 p.m. on January 7 and at 4 p.m. on January 8, and Prof. A. O. Rankine will give a discourse on “ The Use of Light in the Transmission and Reproduction of Speech”? at 4 p.m, on January 7 and at 8 p.m, on January 8. Admission in all cases will be by ticket only, obtainable by members of various, societies through the secretaries. Others interested should apply direct to the Secretary of the Physical Society, National Physical Laboratory, Teddington, S.W. Tue weather of the past autumn was so abnormal that a few facts concerning it are worth recording. At Greenwich for the whole autumn the mean tem- perature was 47-7°, which is 3-0° below the normal. There are only three autumns’ in the last hundred years with lower means—46-8° in 1829, 47-4° in 1840, and 47:0° in 1887. The autumn rainfall was 3°23 in., which is 49 per cent. of the average. There have been only two autumns in the last hundred years with a smaller rainfall—1834 with 2-84 in., and 1858 with 280 in. October was the driest month of the year with the exception of May, whereas it is normally the wettest of the tweive months. From Octo- ber 26 to November 16 inclusive, twenty-two days, the maximum témperature at Greenwich was 418 NATURE [DECEMBER 25, 1919 below 50°, and from November 10-16, seven days, it was below 40°. There has been no similarly long period without a temperature of 50° at the correspond- ing time of year during the last seventy-eight years. This cold period was due to an abnormal distribution of atmospheric pressure, the barometer being high over Iceland and the neighbourhood, whilst it was low to the south-east and south of England, causing a steady drift of cold north-east and east winds over the British Isles. In the Journal of the Bihar and Orissa Research Society for September last Mr. M. H. Shastri dis- cusses the contributions of Bengal to Hindu civilisa- tion. In the religious sphere western Bengal was the scene of origin of Buddhism and Jainism. It was the aborigines of Bengal who taught the Vedic Aryans how to tame the elephant and to manufacture silk and cotton cloth. It was from the: local performances ’ of mystery plays that the Indian theatre was founded in Bengal. The writer’s views in some instances may be open to comment, but the article is an interesting contribution to Indian history. WE have received the annual report of Livingstone College for the year 1918-19. The college gives train- ing in elementary medicine, surgery, and hygiene to missionaries going to spheres of work abroad far from medical aid. During the war the college was transformed into an auxiliary hospital, but has now resumed its proper work. The fees of students do not suffice to cover expenses, the deficit being met by donations, and further donations to the college funds are urgently needed. In the Quarterly Journal of Experimental Physio- logy (vol. xii., No. 3) Sir E. Sharpey Schafer shows that the fatal result of section of both vagus nerves is due not to pneumonia, resulting from absence of sensation in the parts supplied by these nerves and lack of protection from foreign matter entering the lungs, but to paralysis of certain muscles of the larynx, leading to obstruction of the glottis and slow asphyxia. If this obstruction is prevented, animals live indefinitely with scarcely any abnormal symptoms. In the same journal Prof. Halliburton points out that the waves in the blood-pressure seen during asphyxia are correctly designated as ‘‘Traube” waves. Those described by S. Mayer are of a different nature, and being artificial have no physiological significance. - THE Veterinary Review for: November (vol. iii., No. 4) provides a valuable summary of literature on current veterinary science and practice. Among the reviews is one giving a full_ résumé of the methods employed in the examination of milk at the Inter- communal Laboratory at Brussels, with details of the method of scoring: A maximum of 150 points is given for all kinds of milk, and samples of sterilised and pasteurised milk must obtain not fewer than 120 points; aseptic raw milk, 115 points; and ordinary milk, 100 points. The scoring is based upon number of bacteria present, catalase test, reduction test, fer- mentation test, microscopic characters of films, and kind of bacteria present. Tue Thomas Vicary lecture on ‘t The Surgical Tradi- tion.’’ was delivered in the Royal College of Surgeons of England on December 3 by Sir John Tweedy: In 1646 Mr. Edward Arris, and in 1655. Mr. John Gale, gave sums of money to the Company of Barbers and Surgeons for the purpose of lectureships. In 1745, on the dissolution of the union between the Barbers and the Surgeons, these funds became vested in the Surgeons, and afterwards in the Royal College of Surgeons, and ‘‘Arris and Gale’’ lectures have been NO. 2617, VOL. 104] r delivered ever since 1810. of Thomas Vicary, Master of the Barbers’ Company in 1540, and the former association between the Barbers and the Surgeons. a past-president of the Royal College of Surgeons and a past-master of the Barbers’ Company, first re- viewed the life of Vicary, who was Serjeant-Surgeon — to Henry VIII., Edward VI., Mary, and Elizabeth, and also resident surgical governor to St. Bartholo- Ay Sir John Tweedy then surveyed the — mew’s Hospital. progress of surgery from the period of Egypt and Greece, dealing in succession with the times of Celsus and Galen, the Arabian writers, Lanfranc and Am- broise Paré, concluding with a notice of Dr. J. F. D. Jones, who discovered the true principles of the liga- ture of arteries in 1805. ; Some very interesting notes on the migration of | birds over the Mediterranean Sea, by Mr. C. Suffern, appear in British Birds for December. The author holds that there are at least three main routes of migration, apart from the’ Gibraltar line. One of these runs from Cape Bon to Sardinia, Corsica, and the Riviera. Another from Egypt to Crete and Greece. The third seems to run from Africa to Malta, Sicily, and Italy. Mr. M. A. C. Hinton, in the Scottish Naturalist for November-December, describes a new species of field-mouse from. Foula, thus adding another. to the list of insular forms which have been brought to light by an intensive study of these northern islets. Foula field-mouse (Apodemus fridariensis thuleo)—one of the Apodemus sylvaticus group—most nearly resem- bles the field-mouse of Fair Isle, from which it differs in its smaller size and conspicuously larger feet. Very carefully prepared tables of external and _ internal measurements enable an exact comparison to be made with other British species of the sylvaticus group. Tue 1918 Report of the Agricultural and Horticul- tural Research Station, Long Ashton, Bristol, states that, as is the case with all such stations, the normal — work has been considerably interrupted owing to war conditions, and its place has been taken by technical and advisory work, as well as by some few instruction courses for officers. This outside work included in- vestigations into the utilisation of cider-fruit by the jam trade and for other purposes, miscellaneous ex- periments in connection with fruit and vegetable pre- servation, and an extensive series of experiments on potato-spraying for the prevention of potato disease. The last-named experiments include investigations into the use of Burgundy mixture and of other copper sprays, and discuss what proportions of soda and copper sulphate are most advantageous in the former mix- ture. The normal experimental work with cider for the season 1917-18 had to be reduced considerably, and the varieties tested were those which had been examined in former years. The trial orchards for cider- production have received rather scant attention, though some new orchards have been added. Other work includes the study of “reversion” and resistance to . “big bud’? in black currants; the preserving value of various spices and essential oils; the influence of concentration of sugar solutions upon the growth of micro-organisms; as well as a large amount of ad- visory work and several special investigations which arose out of it. SoME improvements on his well-known classification of climates are proposed by M. W. Koppen. A sum- mary of his suggestions, without a map, is given in © Early in the present year — the Barbers’ Company founded a lectureship at the Royal College of ia 89 to perpetuate the memory © Sir John Tweedy, who is — es y | il El ei LS . DECEMBER 25, 1919] NATURE 419 Revue générale des Sciences for October 15. The three main divisions are tropical or zone méga- thermique, temperate or zone mésothermique, and _ cold or zone microthermique. These are based on _ considerations of temperature. Two other divisions are placed on the same level, one embracing hot _ deserts and the other cold deserts, but in their case _ amount of precipitation is an important determining - factor. Subdividing these zones, M. Koppen finds eleven principal climates, which he names as follows : _ (1) Tropical forests, (2) savannas, (3) steppes, (4) _ deserts, (5) temperate with dry winter, (6) temperate with dry summer, (7) temperate humid, (8) cold with wet winter, (9) cold with dry winter, (10) tundra, and (11) perpetual ice. In addition to these main climates M. Koppen recognises a large number of secondary and transition climates. With the help of these lists he gives two or three reference letters to every climate on the globe. We gather from the summary that he distinguishes some fifty different climates. Thus the climate of Brisbane is indexed as Cfa, which designates a warm temperate climate with _ rainfall at all seasons, and the mean of the warmest _. month not above 22° C. Cairo is indexed BWh, which means an arid’ climate of the desert type, with a mean annual temperature above 18? C. In a paper read before the London Mathematical Society in 1903 Sir Joseph Larmor showed that when the disturbance propagated into a medium is deter- mined by considering each element of an advancing wave-front to constitute a source of disturbance, as Huygens did two centuries ago, the problem of finding the strengths of these sources was indefinite from an analytical point of view. Many distributions could be found over the wave-front which would give _ the same total effect. In a further paper read before the society on November 13 Sir Joseph shows that, although analytically the problem is indefinite, physically one specification only is permissible. In the Biochemical Journal for November Prof. _W. D. Halliburton and Messrs. J. C. Drummond and R. K. Cannan describe some experiments made to ascertain the food value, if any, of the synthetic pro- duct prepared from olive oil and mannitol by Lapworth and Seer The synthetic oil possessed a taste and odour recalling those of olive-oil, but somewhat less _ pleasant; insufficient oil was at hand to make experi- - ments on the higher animals, so rats were employed in the work described. From the results so obtained Halliburton, Drummond, and Cannan conclude that “‘mannitol olive-oil”’ is utilised by the animal organism practically to the same extent as olive-oil itself, and no toxic action was observed to follow its prolonged administration to rats. A sHort account of the methods used in France at _ the present time for the production of radium bromide _ and other radio-active substances is given by M. _ Demenitroux in La Nature for November 1. Pitchblende _ from Joachimsthal being no longer obtainable, the indus- _ try is dependent on carnotite from Colorado, autunite from Portugal, and certain rare-earth minerals from Madagascar. These contain fewer than 15, and in some cases not more than 4, milligrams of active material per ton. The first operation consists in the separation of the barium, and this process is a long and costly one. The radio-active materials are separated with _ the barium, and the second operation is the separa- _ tion of the two from each other. This is done by _ fractional crystallisation, a tedious but certain process _which involves, as a rule, 500 successive crystallisa- tions of the material. Finally, one of the tubes used in medicine containing 100 milligrams of radium romide is obtained from 12 tons of the ore, 3 tons of NO, 2617, VOL. 104] hydrochloric and 1 ton of sulphuric acid, 5 tons of carbonate of soda, and ro tons of coal. The present cost in France of the hydrated bromide of radium, RaBr,,2H,O, is 500 francs per milligram. HiTHERTO it has been stated in the literature that chloropicrin can be distilled unchanged at ordinary pressure. Messrs, J. A. Gardner and F. W. Fox have observed, however (Journal of the Chemical Society for October), that when the pure anhydrous substance is distilled at atmospheric pressure a small amount of a yellowish-red gas, resembling diluted nitrous fumes, is invariably produced, and can be seen in the atmosphere of the condenser and receiver. ‘These authors show that this is due to a slow decomposi- tion of the boiling chloropicrin into carbonyl and nitrosyl chlorides, according to the equation CCl,.NO,=COCI, + NOCI. If 200 c.c. of the substance are boiled gently, the rate of decomposition is approximately 2 c.c. per day. This observation will account for the divergence between statements made on the physiological activity of chloropicrin. Further, the experiments of Frank- land, Challenger, and Nicholls, showing that under some conditions chloropicrin is quantitatively reduced to methylamine, and under others to ammonia, would be explained by the reduction in the first case of chloropicrin per se, and in the second of its decom- position products. In some reactions. chloropicrin seems to act as a nitro-compound, e.g. it can be sub- stituted for nitrobenzene in Skraup’s method of pre- paring quinoline; whilst in others the results can be explained as due to the carbonyl -and nitrosyl chlorides. Tue latest catalogue of second-hand books of Messrs. W. Heffer and Sons, Ltd., Cambridge (No. 184), comprises a number of works on history and economics from the library of the late Rev. Dr. W. Cunningham; also books on architecture and archzo- logy, and old travels to the East. Mr. Francts Epwarps, 83 High Street, Marylebone, W.1, has just circulated a Catalogue (No. 396) of autograph letters, historical documents, and manu- scripts. Many of the letters are the work of ex- plorers and mén of science. The section devoted to manuscripts contains several items of great historical value. AmoncG forthcoming books of science we notice the following :—A ‘‘ Peat Industry Reference Book,’’ the late F. T. Gissing (Charles Griffin and Co., Ltd.); ‘The Life and Inventions of Sir Hiram S. Maxim,” P. F. Mottelay (John Lane); ‘‘ Military Psychiatry in Peace and War,” Dr. C. S. Read (H. K. Lewis and Co., Ltd.); ‘‘The Life and Letters of Silvanus Phillips Thompson, F.R.S.,’’ Jane S. and Helen G. Thomp- son (T. Fisher Unwin, Ltd.); and ‘The Life of Sir William White, K.C.B., F.R.S.,” F. Manning (John Murray). In reference to our notice of the Daily Telegraph Victory. Atlas (November 13, p. 276), Messrs. Geo- graphia, Ltd., take exception to the remark that ‘‘a mistake is made in the area of the Slesvig plebiscite.” This criticism, which had reference to the course of the frontier of that area, was based on the abstract of the Treaty of Versailles published in Treaty Series, No. 4, and our reviewer wishes to examine the German large-scale maps of Slesvig before accepting the boundary shown by Messrs: Geographia, Ltd. Mean- while, we regret if his reading of the text and maps of the abstract gave a wrong impression of the accuracy of the Daily Telegraph Atlas. 420 “NATURE [DECEMBER 25, 1919 OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN. BaRNARD’s Proper-Motion Star.—It was shown in Mon. Not. for November, 1916, that this star was observed by Lamont at Munich in 1842, being Mun. (1) 15040. Further confirmation of this is given by K. Graff in Ast. Nach. (4989 and 5007). He has surveyed the region with the 60-cm. refractor at Bergedorf, and gives visual magnitudes on the Har- vard scale, and colour on the Osthoff scale, of twenty-eight stars in the region. The Barnard star is of mag. 9-37 and colour 3-4, being the reddest star in the field. There are nineteen individual measures of its magnitude, ranging from 9-22 to 9°60, but they are not grouped in a manner suggesting variability. The magnitude of the star Mun. (2) 6966, which Bauschinger observed in 1886 in an_ unsuccessful search for Mun. (1) 15040, is 10-79 and colour 2-0. Its proper motion is small, and it must have been extremely near the Barnard star in 1843. As there was some doubt whether the star B.D. +4°3561 was the Barnard star or Mun. (2) 6966, Prof. Kustner has re-examined the original zones at Bonn, with the following interesting result. Zone 462 was observed on 1854 May 30, the air being very clear. The fol- lowing two stars were recorded in the region :— Mag. Sapo 1855'0 N. Decl. 1855'0 ; Ree oe (a) 1 OS 17 50 438 +4 165 (b) wit 95 17 50 443 +4 17-9 Zone 472 was observed on 1854 July 24, the air again being clear; on this night a single object was recorded in the place, thus :— (c) + 93 17 50 41-9 +4 173 In editing the B.D. it was assumed that objects (a) and (c) were the same, and their mean was taken as the position of +4° 3561, while object (b) was omitted as insufficiently observed. However, making use of our later knowledge, it is fairly certain that (a) is Mun. (2) 6966, (b) is the Barnard star, while (c) is probably the two objects observed as one (the tele- scope was small and the magnifying power low). This would account for the greater brightness recorded on July 24, which is unquestionably too high for Mun. (2) 6966. In view of these facts, the two stars must divide the claim to the title B.D.+4° 3561, but another early observation of the Barnard star (1854 May 30) has been established with tolerable certainty. Mr. Graff estimates the diameter of the Barnard star as 1/20 of the sun’s, or half that of Jupiter. This is based on its absolute magnitude and an esti- mate of its surface brightness from the character of the spectrum. It seems, however, unlikely that so small a body could ever attain the temperature neces- sary for a sun-like state. Prof. Eddington considered. that a mass 1/8 of the sun was the minimum for the attaining of a sun-like condition. If we assume a density eight times the sun’s, or: twice that of the earth, this would give a diameter 1/4 of the sun’s. It seems unlikely that the actual value is less than this. Tue GREAT SOLAR PROMINENCE OF Last May.— Several reproductions of the photographs of this object, taken by the eclipse expeditions, have recently appeared (Observatory, November, and the British Astronomical Association’s Journal, October). The Monthly Notices for June contained some photographs taken with the Cambridge spectroheliograph. The Astrophysical Journal for October gives some beauti- ful photographs taken at short intervals with the Yerkes 4o-in. refractor. The first photograph was taken. at th. 17m. G.M.T., about midway between the Sobral and Principe pictures. The prominence then formed a great arch, extending from —42° to +6° No. 2617, VOL. 104] in latitude, and 45 high. It was rising rapidly, and 1xh, later it had broken away from its terminal columns. Successive plates show that the rising con- tinued steadily, and at 7h. 57m. G.M.T. its height was 17’, or more than a solar radius. It rose from 200,000 km. to 760,000 km. in 6h. g4om. Mr. Ever- shed also secured many photographs of the object at Kodaikanal, but the longitude of Yerkes was more favourable for securing its most dramatic stage. The prominence had been in existence since March, but on the eclipse day it suddenly changed from the quiescent to the eruptive type. The Yerkes observers direct attention to a claw-like marking at the base of one of the columns, from which they infer that this base was exactly on the sun’s limb. AU ATOMIC DISINTEGRATION AND HEAT ENERGY. IR OLIVER LODGE, in the Trueman Wood lecture to the Royal Society of Arts, referred to last week, asked whether atomic energy may not already be being unconsciously utilised. recogni- tion of radio-activity as a process of natural transmuta- tion, in which a large and previously unknown store of energy associated with the atomic structure is released in the disintegration of the atom and its change into totally different kinds of atoms, dates, of course, from the early years of the century. The natural conclusion is that, before this energy can be rendered available, artificial transmutation must be possible, and that this transmutation certainly does not occur in any other case than in that of the radio-elements, and then only spontaneously and in a manner not to be altered by artificial means. be ie Sir Oliver Lodge appears, however, to think that internal atomic energy may be being already uncon- sciously made use of, and cites two possible casts. The first is vision. The retina is supposed to contain a substance the atoms of which are capable of accumu- lating a few million impulses of zther-waves of luminous frequency. This causes the atom to eject one or more electrons, and it is these electrons rather than the original light-waves which stimulate the nerve-endings. Even accepting this as an in ting: and suggestive new photo-electric theory of vision, which accounts satisfactorily for the extreme sensitive- ness of the eye, the energy involved is surely the energy of the exciting radiation rather than internal atomic energy. Photo-electric effects in general are not supposed to be different from or more fundamental in character than other electro-chemical effects. In the other example it is the energy of the electrons: emitted by an incandescent wire which is in question. It is possible to welcome and recognise the very great advance which the use of this phenomenon, by means of the thermionic valve, has achieved in wireless telegraphy and telephony, without accepting the view that any new form of energy is utilised. The emission of elec- trons is, indeed, described as analogous to the evapora- tion of molecules from a surface, the velocities, being: distributed in accordance with Maxwell’s law for a monatomic gas. It would seem sufficient to ascribe: the energy of the electrons to heat energy, at ; until it is proved that it is not so derived. The mere latter-dav interpretation of many of the changes” studied by the chemist and electro-chemist in terms. of the electron does not alter their character, which is well understood by chemists not to be of the type they would regard as transmutational, or to involve the kind of energy disclosed by radio-activitv, or, indeed, any other kind than what has been familiar im chemical, electro-chemical, and physical changes since these subjects began to be studied. ne i la ce DECEMBER 25, 1919] NATURE 421 THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION AT BOURNEMOUTH. SECTION M. AGRICULTURE, OPENING AppRESS (ABRIDGED) By Pror. W. SOMER- VILLE, D.Sc., PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION. Dvurine the past four years—or since the ploughing programme began to take shape—grass-land has been officially cold-shouldered in no small degree. The cause was obvious and the reasons were good. The result of compulsory and voluntary ploughing has been that, whereas in 1914 the total area in Great Britain under temporary and permanent grass (hay and pas- ture) was practically 21,500,000 acres, it was barely 19,500,000 acres in 1918, a reduction, namely, of about 2,000,000 acres. During the same period the arable area, other than temporary grass, increased from about 10,500,000 acres to 12,500,000 acres. In Ireland during these years the area under grass (permanent and temporary) fell from about 12,500,000 acres to less than 11,250,000 acres. The United Kingdom at the present time comprises about 30,500,000 acres of permanent and temporary grass and 15,500,000 acres of land under crops other than grass and clover. This is over and above some 16,000,000 acres of mountain land used for grazing. A considerable proportion of the grass-land of this country is of so high a quality that any improvement, and certainly any economic improvement, is hard of accomplishment. Satisfactory as are the high-class pastures of this country, it by no means follows that there is nothing more to learn about them. It is often very difficult to determine the factor or factors that go to the making of high-class pastures. Such pastures are to be found on most of the geological formations of this country; they are met with north, south, east, and west; and even altitude, within the limit of at least 7oo ft., seems to have littlé effect. An immense amount of attention has been given to the botanical composition of the herbage of the more famous of the pastures of Britain. The result that ‘emerges most conspicuously from these researches is that one may have a dozen pastures which are about equal in feeding value and yet may vary widely in respect of botanical composition. Thus Fream found that in the case of forty-eight English and eight Irish pastures, each of which was the “best? in the district selected, the Graminez might be as low as 11 per cent, and as high as too per cent.; Leguminose might be entirely absent or as high as 38 per cent. ; while of miscellaneous herbage, most of which would be designated as ‘‘ weeds,’’ there might be none or up to 89 per cent. As regards individual genera and species, Fream found, for instance, that Agrostis was almost always present, and on five occasions was the most abundant plant; while Holcus lanatus gave an almost identical result. By a different method Carruthers arrived at a very similar conclusion. The latter also found that Hordeum pratense was the most abundant species on what is perhaps the finest grazing in England, namely, Pawlett Hams, near the mouth of the Parret, in Somerset. This investigator even found that on one of the “famous ancient pastures of Eng- land’? the predominant grasses were Fiorin and Hassock, and in this connection makes the following remark, ‘‘In this field the hassock-grass, which made up a large proportion of the pasture, was freely eaten, and the cattle were in good condition.” In Hall and Russell’s investigations Agrostis and Holcus might on occasion each exceed 20 per cent., and it is stated that ‘wherever Holcus lanatus occurs NO, 2617, VOL. 104] it is more abundant on the fatting fields.’”’ Even miscellaneous herbage could bulk more than 29 per cent. on a pasture so good that it could fatten tive bullocks on four acres without cake. Armstrong found in a field representative of “the richest type of old grazing land found in the Market Harborough district '’ that, amongst grasses, Poa annua came second (12-3 per cent.) in point of abundance. There will be general agreement that four of the grasses just mentioned, Fiorin, Yorkshire Fog, Squirrel ‘Vail, and Hassock, are accounted “‘bad,’’ and yet it is hard to apply this term to plants which are the most abundant constituents of some of the finest pastures in England. While there is much that is disconcert- ing in these investigations, some facts do emerge with satisfactory consistency :—(1) Ihat the great majority of high-class pastures contain a large preportion of perennial ryegrass and white clover; (2) that crested dogstaik is almost always present, though rarely pre- dominant; (3) that meadow fescue is_ practically negligible; and (4) that of the two Poas, pratensis and trivialis, the tormer is very rare, while the latter is very common. The obvious deduction to be drawn from these investigations is that the quality of a permanent pas- ture is only in a minor degree determined by the relative abundance of its constituent plants, or, in the words of Hall and Russell, ‘‘We can only con- clude that the feeding value of a pasture is largely independent of the floral type.’’ Factors of much greater weight are depth and physical character of the soil, soil moisture and temperature, density of the herbage, and the natural or induced composition of the soil as regards plant-food, and especially in respect of phosphoric acid.’ It seems that the lesson that may be learned from a study of, the old pastures of England is that we need not include in a seeds mixture for permanent purposes plants which never bulk to any considerable extent in old grass-land, but that we should include all those which are usually naturally abundant. Take, as an illustration, the case of perennial rye- grass. In the eighties of last century, when much interest was taken in the subject of the best way to lay down land to grass, an almost violent controversy arose over the desirability or otherwise of including perennial ryegrass in a seeds mixture for permanent pasture. The main opponents of ryegrass were Faunce de Laune and Carruthers, who would have excluded this species in all circumstances. It is a common experience of those who have laid land away to grass with ordinary commercial seed that perennial ryegrass does not persist, but neither, for the matter of that, does white clover. And the: probability is that the cause in both cases is to be found in the same direction. ‘Both these plants, as usually grown in this and other countries for seed, are the progeny of a long line of cultivated ancestors, grown under somewhat forcing conditions which may be said to undermine the ‘‘constitution.’’ They have adapted themselves to their artificial environment, and such adaptation has taken the form of early’ maturity and the production of a large yield of ‘hold’? seed which is easily marketed. Gilchrist has, of late years, directed attention to the merits of wild white clover, which, as regards persistency, is on an altogether different plane from the cultivated or Dutch white. The price that farmers are willing to pay for the seed of wild white clover is the best proof of the sharp distinction which they draw between the two varieties. What we now want is similar work. on grasses, and particularly on perennial ryegrass, and it is satisfactory to know that such work has actually been started. i ee et te al eee aie neat NATURE [DECEMBER 25, I919 Important as is the position of the fine old pastures of England in the agricultural economy of the country, and interesting though it may be to examine questions: of seeding, a much more important line of inquiry is opened up by the problem of the improve- ment of our second- and third-rate pastures. What proportion of the grass-land of the country falls into the lower categories it is impossible to say, but the most superficial acquaintance with rural England is sufficient to carry conviction that the aggregate area of such land is enormous. Most of the poor grass- land of the country is associated with the heavier classes of soil, and has been abandoned to grass on account of the high costs of cultivation, including, in many cases, the necessity of drainage. It is, for arable purposes, essentially wheat-land, with an occa- sional crop of beans, and the regular intervention at comparatively short intervals of a bare fallow. Other areas of poor pasture, smaller in aggregate extent than the clays, but still of much importance, are to be found on all the geological formations of the country. Of the 14,500,000 acres of permanent grass in England and Wales, 70 per cent. is under pasture and only 30 per cent. under hay, and of the poorer classes of grass-land it is certain that the proportion that is grazed is still greater. It is evident, therefore, that the improvement of pasture is relatively a more urgent matter than the improvement of meadows, though with more than 4,250,000 acres of permanent grass made into hay in England and Wales during 1918, the latter problem is also one of enormous importance. The most famous experiments on the effects of manure on permanent hay are those started in 1856 by Lawes and Gilbert on the meadow at Rothamsted, and continued ever since on the lines originally laid down. The results have thrown a flood of light’ on the principles of manuring, which has been of the greatest assistance in the elucidation of problems in agricultural chemistry and soil physics. They have also shown unmistakably the effects of the more important elements of plant-food on the yield of hay and on its botanical composition, but, even sup- ported as they were by elaborate chemical analysis of the produce, they leave us uncertain in regard to the feeding value of the herbage. A very large number of experiments have been carried out which had for their object the determina- tion of the quantitative results attributable to the use of manures, singly and in combination. In many cases these experiments were supported by a botanical, and not infrequently by a chemical, analysis of the resultant herbage, but it was felt that we were still in a state of much uncertainty in respect of the quality of the hay—that is to say, its effect on animals consuming it. This induced Middleton in the winter of 1900-1 to carry out a feeding experiment with sheep at Cockle Park, and in 1905-6 and 1907-8 Gil- christ continued and amplified this work. The sheep were accommodated in a special house, The various lots of sheep all got equal quantities of roots, cake, and hay. The hay employed was the produce of variously manured plots on old grass-land which I laid out in 1897. The soil is a clay loam on a boulder clay subsoil. This set of experiments includes the eight-plot test, and it may be interesting to see what influence nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash respectively have on the produce. The quantitative figures refer to the average annual yield for twenty- one vears, 1897-1917, while the figures which indicate the relative values of the produce, as determined by the live-weight increase of sheep, are based upon the feeding tests already specified. The hay from the unmanured plot, No. 6. is assumed to be worth al. per ton. The results are set out in the accom- panying table :— NO. 2617, VOL. 104] Value per ton — Averageannual ofthayas Plot Manuring per acre per annum yield of hay Fei oy! y cwt. s. 6 Unmanured ee nie ave 194 80 ns 7 30 1b. N in Sulphate of Ammonia 23 720 8 50 1b. P.O; usually in Basic Slag 20 93 0° 9 501b. K,O in Muriate of Potash... 16 800 10 30lb.N+50lb. P.O; ... aes 30} 840 11 30lb,.N+50 1b. KU... ae 21 72 0 12 50 1b. P,O;+50 lb. K,O... oes 26 Iol 9 13 30 1b, N+5o0lb. P,O,+501b. K,0 304 sg 2 Nitrogen derived from sulphate of ammonia, and used at the rate of 30 lb, per acre per annum, has consistently increased the yield and as consistently reduced the quality. When used alone the nitrogen has increased the crop by 32 cwt. per acre, and reduced the feeding value of the hay by 8s. per ton. When added to phosphates, the nitrogen has increased the reduced the quality by gs. per ton. added to potash the yield has been raised by 5 cwt. per acre, and the value lowered by 8s. per ton. When used as an addition to both phosphates and potash the nitrogen has increased the yield 5 4} cwt. per acre, while the value has fallen by 12s. 7d. per ton, Even if the quality of the hay be & is- regarded, yield by 4% cwt. and the use of nitrogen has always been attended by an adverse financial balance; when quality is taken into account this undesirable result is greatly emphasised. As regards phosphoric acid, an increased yield has been consistently obtained by its use, accompanied in every case by a marked improvement in the quality of the hay. Taking the arithmetical mean, the in- crease in quantity has been nearly 83 cwt. per acre, while the increase in quality is represented by 16s. per ton. Te hites The behaviour of potash is rather peculiar. It has quite distinctly reduced the yield when used alone or when used in combination with nitrogen only, while in both these sets of circumstances it has had no influence one way or other on the quality of the hay. — When added to phosphates it has proved powerless to increase the yield, but it has raised the feeding value of the hay by 8s. 9d. per ton. both nitrogen and phosphates the potash has been practically inoperative so far as yield is concerned, but it has improved the quality by 5s, 2d. per ton. These results show that very erroneous conclusions _ may be reached if, in experimental work on meadow hay, attention is given only to the weights of pro- duce secured. Thus, in these Cockle Park experi- ments, on the average of twenty-one years, if quantity alone be regarded, sulphate of ammonia used by itself has involved an annual loss of 6s. 4d. per acre, whereas, if the reduced quality of the hay be taken into account, the loss is increased to I5s. 7d. per se On the other hand, a quantitative gain of 4s. 2d, per acre per annum from the use of phosphate acre. and potash is raised to one of 32s. 5d. owing to the superior quality of the hay. While there is a certain relationship between the chemical composition, the botanical analysis, and the feeding value of the hay, — there will probably be general agreement with Middleton when he says that “without an appeal to the animal, the relative values of samples grown under different treatment cannot be measured.’? In mv view, this form of research may, with advantage. be largely extended. Turning now to the improvement of pastures, as contrasted with meadows, it may be remarked that while no sharp line can be drawn between these two classes of grass-land in respect of ameliorative treat- . When nitrogen was — When added to Pete een Cal eee EN OTS ee ee a nA ee Ie al iD a a Amati Soe DECEMBER 25, 1919 | NATURE 423 ment, there are certain distinctions which must be kept in view. In a meadow the plants are allowed to grow up to full maturity, whereas in a pasture they are cut over daily, or at least very frequently, by the grazing of the animals. It is difficult to arrive at a decision as to whether a larger gross weight of dry material is got from a given area treated as pas- ture, in contrast to being hayed, but the probability is that the aggregate quantity is greater. Take the analogy of a patch of lucerne. Cut three or four times in the season, it may yield six tons of dry matter per acre, cut once it would certainly yield much less. Or take the case of cocksfoot; this springs so quickly in the aftermath that the foliage may shoot up 6 in. almost .in as many days, whereas there would be no such growth were the hay not cut over. It is a matter of observation, too, how quickly red clover springs up after cutting, and trees and shrubs which may be growing only a few inches annually when unrestrained may send up stool shoots several feet in length if cut over. It is difficult, how- ever, to bring the question to the test of figures. If there is any doubt as to the greatey weight of dry matter produced under a system of grazing, there can be none in respect of its digestibility. This would appear to be the reason why sheep and cattle will fatten on a pasture, whereas the animals would only remain in store condition on the herbage if made into hay. At one time experiments on the improvement of pasture took the form of temporarily enclosing an area, to which different methods of treatment were applied and of determining the results in terms of hay. Supplementary to such quantitative determina- tion, chemical analysis and botanical separations were often made, but it is evident from the work of the investigators already quoted that the results so ob- tained may be a very untrustworthy index of the feeding value of the herbage. In any case, the com- petition between the various classes of plants may be very different in a hay field and in a well-grazed pasture. Again, in a hay field the produce is reaped and cleared off with all the plant food which it con- tains. Ina pasture, on the other hand, there is the daily conversion of vegetable substance into manure and its immediate return to the land. Reflections of that sort induced me in 1896 to arrange a series of experiments where a direct appeal was made to the animal. We all know that among a lot of animals there are certain individuals which possess idiosyncra- sies which result in their thriving better or worse than the others. By careful selection, however, and especially by keeping them under observation for a probationary period, this objection may be largely eliminated. The greater the number of animals, the more completely is any disturbance due to individual peculiarities got rid of, and for this reason sheep are usually employed in preference to cattle. No one who looks into the details of these “‘manuring for meat ’’ experiments can doubt that, not only in broad outline, but even in the finer details, the results are perfectly trustworthy. Involving as they do con. siderable outlay on fencing, water, weighing machines, etc., and necessitating the use of large areas of uniform land, such experiments were not likely to be undertaken with great frequency, but I have been able to find reports of nine in England, twelve in Scotland, two in Ireland, and one in New Zealand. Two of them are situated at Cockle Park, of which the original in Tree Field has now completed its twenty-third season, while the other in Hanging Leaves has a record of sixteen years. The outstanding feature of these experiments is the great and profitable effect of phosphates. In this NO. 2617, VOL. 104] material the tarmer is placed in possession of an agent of production the enects of which on the out- put of meat, milk, and work trom the pastures of this country are only limited by the supplies. in many cases the increase of meat is treblea, and even quadrupled, with a return on the original outlay that runs into hundreds per cent. As between the various sources of phosphate there is unmistakable evidence that basic slag is the most ettective, not only in respect of aggregate yield of meat, but also, and more particularly, when the net financial return is considered. ‘This conclusion is also reached by Car- ruthers and Voelcker in a long series of pasture experiments carried out in 1896-99 for the Royal Agricultural Society of England. In these experi- ments, however, the effects were only estimated by ocular inspection. The primary effect of phosphates is due to the marked stimulus that they give to the growth of clovers and other Leguminose, and as these plants revel in a non-acid soil the alkaline character of basic slag appears exactly to suit their requirements. in regard to the quantity of phosphatic manure that can most effectively be employed per acre, it would appear that in the case of inferior pasture a heavy initial dressing, say 200 Ib. of phosphoric acid or more per acre, is likely to be nearly twice as effec- tive as half this dressing, and therefore actually much more profitable. To secure the best results the Leguminosz must be rapidly brought up to their maximum vigour, so that they may fully occupy the ground before the grasses have had time to react to the effects of the accumulated nitrogen. One of the most striking results of these pasture experiments is the long period over which the action of phosphates persists. Even at the end of nine years the meat-producing power of half a ton per acre of basic slag is far from being exhausted. It is not suggested that this persistent action of slag—and no doubt this applies also to any other effective phosphate —is due to unappropriated residues. It is much more probably due to two other causes: (a) to the fact that on a pasture, in contrast to a meadow, manurial elements are kept in circulation from the soil to the plant, and from the plant to the animal, and so, to a large extent, back to the soil again; and (b) to the accumulation of nitrogen in the form of humus. Poor, unprofitable grass is chiefly associated with clay, and it is fortunate that it is precisely on such land that clover responds so markedly to phosphatic manuring. But conspicuous results have also been obtained on deep peat, on light stony loam, on thin chalk, and on chalk covered by clay with flints. Middleton has very fully discussed the conditions under which phosphatic dressings may be expected to give results, and ascribes an important place to soil moisture, on which white clover is directly very dependent. The only conspicuous case of failure of phosphates to inrprove pasture was encountered in Norfolk, where a ‘“manuring-for-mutton’’ experi- ment was started in 1901. The soil at that station was a hot, dry, sandy gravel containing 60 per cent. of sand, and there both the basic slag and_ super- phosphate were unable to produce any improvement. Wood and Berry attribute this result partly to the presence of abundant natural supplies of citric soluble phosphoric acid, but chiefly to lack of moisture. In reporting on the R.A.S.E. experiments Carruthers and Voelcker in tg00 had already directed attention to the dependence of basic slag on soil moisture. We may now look at the effect of supplementing phosphates with certain other substances. And, first of all, as regards potash. At most of the manuring- for-mutton stations, both in England and Scotland, 424 NATURE [DecEMBER 25, 1919 there was a plot devoted to the elucidation of the effect of this “substance, and although in the great majority of cases the phosphate-plus-potash plot has shown more live-weight increase than phosphates alone, it is only in very rare instances that the gain has been a profitable one. Even on thin soil over- lying chalk, potash has had little action on pasture. There are several rather conspicuous instances of quite moderate dressings of potash doing positive harm. Thus, at Cockle Park, whereas potash gave an appreciable increase in live-weight in the first nine years, it proved positively and progressively injurious during the next two six-year periods. Even on a “light stony loam ”’ in Perthshire, Wright found that, although in the first two years potash when added to slag gave a conspicuous return, in the next three years ‘‘the advantage was wholly with the slag-alone plot.’”? The most notable beneficial effect of potash was obtained in Dumfriesshire on a station where the mineral soil was overlaid by 10 ft. of peat. There the use of kainit supplying 100 lb. of potash per acre at the beginning of the experiment has in. seven years produced 7o per cent. more meat than phosphate (slag) alone, while the financial gain has been im- proved by nearly 50 per cent. Potash has had great influence both on the yield and composition of the hay on the meadow at Rothamsted, and it would seem that this substance has more effect on a meadow than on a _ pasture. The reason is probably to seek in the fact that in a pasture the top layers of the soil are constantly being enriched by the potash brought from the subsoil by plants and returned through their excreta. In any case, pasture plants on clay soil are in possession of abundant supplies of potash, and it is only where pasture occupies sandy, gravelly, or peaty soil that this manurial element need be seriously considered. Lime as an addition to superphosphate was tested at the three original manuring-for-mutton experi- ment stations, a total of 30 cwt. per acre being applied in three dressings in nine years. A notice- able effect was produced at all stations, and at two of them the gain was a profitable one. The effects of lime can be followed for twenty-one years at Cockle Park, where the soil naturally contains 0-59 per cent. of calcium carbonate. During that period an aggre- gate of 5} tons per acre was applied in seven dress- ings, the phosphate to which it was added _ being superphosphate in the first nine years and basic slag in the next twelve. The area receiving the lime was the same throughout. The action of the lime has proved to be a progressively decreasing one. On the average it produced an annual increase of 22 Ib. live- weight in the first nine years, and of 8 Ib. in the next six years, whereas in the concluding six years of the period it has actually caused a reduction in live- weight of 8 lb. per acre per annum. The addition to superphosphate of moderate dress- ings of nitrogen in the form of sulphate of ammonia or of nitrate of soda was tried at the three main manuring-for-mutton stations, and at two others. There. is no need to go into a detailed discussion of the results. The evidence is overwhelmingly against the use of nitrogen on pastures. It undoubtedly stimulates the vigour of the non-leguminous herbage, but this reacts on the growth of the clovers, with the result that the production of meat is sometimes, as at Cockle Park, actually and substantially reduced. At the three original stations dissolved bones were also tried, the comparison being with equal quantities (200 lb. per acre in nine years) of phosphoric acid derived respectively from basic slag and super- phosphate. The dissolved bones supplied in addition from about 20 lb. to 4o lb. of organic nitrogen. All NO, 2617, VOL. 104] manures were applied as to half in the first vear, and, as to the other half, at the commencement of the fourth season, the experiment being continued for nine years at Cockle Park and Sevington (Hants) and for eight years at Cransley (Northants). At Cockle Park slag acted substantially better than dissolved bones, though the latter surpassed the effect of super- phosphate; at Sevington dissolved bones proved inferior. to both the other manures; while at Cransley the position was reversed. But when the cost is con- sidered there is no question of the superior merits of basic slag. This superiority is continued and em- phasised at Cockle Park, where the experiments are — now at the end of their twenty-third year. A similar result was also obtained in the series of pasture experiments conducted by the Royal Agricultural Society of England already referred to. There dis- solved bones or bone-meal was tried at ten centres, with the result that ‘‘in Herefordshire some benefit was observed, but in the other places no real im- provement could be detected as compared with the unmanured part of the field. So far as these inves- tigations go, therefore, they indicate that no further expe, need be made with bones on pasture and. With these results before us it is needless to pause to consider whether the comparative failure of bones, dissolved or raw, is due to the inferior quality of their phosphate or to the fact that they supply the land with nitrogen. i A form. of pasture improvement which has had, and still has, much support amongst farmers is feeding with cake. The manure applied to the land through cake residues is a “ general’? manure, supplying nitrogen, phosphates, and potash, of which that which has the highest value attached to it is the nitrogen, At eleven of the stations in England and Scotland — reported on in the Supplement to the. Journal of the — Board of Agriculture in 1911, linseed or cotton cake, or a mixture of these cakes, was used for two, four, or five years, and at every one of them the live-weight gain secured was insufficient to pay for the outlay, ‘the debit balance per acre per annum being in one case nearly a pound. In connection with the improve- ment of pasture, however, it is the residual effect of the cake that has most interest. This matter was put to the test at eight of the manuring-for-mutton stations in the following manner. At the three original stations cake was fed all through the season for two vears, and none given for the next four. At five of the other stations cake was fed for two or four years, and was then suspended for one, two, or three years. In this way the improvement of the herbage effected during the years when cake was fed had an opportunity of manifesting itself in the form of live-weight increase in the years immediately suc- ceeding, when no cake was given. In every case the residual effect was found to be appreciable, having a money value per ton of cake consumed of as much as 4l. 14s. at one station, and 3]. 11s. at another, the A average for the three stations where the residues were followed for four years being fully 3/. per ton, a figure which is of the same order as, though some- what higher than, those adopted by Voelcker and Hall in their revised table of 1902. A method of improvement of poor pasture that deserves notice consists in scattering the seed of a “renovating ’’ mixture over the surface, usually with — concurrent harrowing, rolling, and manuring. This procedure was practised in the series of experiments conducted by the Royal Agricultural Society of Eng- land, the seed mixture consisting of four natural grasses in addition to white clover and yarrow. In their final report Carruthers and Voelcker stated that eee ee ee. f ; ee ee ey DECEMBER 25, 1919] NATURE 425 re-seeding had not been successful, a result which they thought was ‘‘entirely due to the prevalence of dry seasons, the germinating plants being killed before they could get hold of the soil.’ A more successful result is reported by Middleton, who on a poor pas- ture on clay soil in Essex sowed, in the spring of 1903, 12 lb. per acre of wild white clover seed, with and without basic slag, kainit, and lime, this treat- ment being unaccompanied by harrowing. There were no Leguminose naturally present in the field. _Helped by abundant rain in the summer of 1903, the seed germinated well, and ‘in 1904 the results were very marked.’’ It was, however,’ only’ when the seeding had been accompanied by basic slag that “there was the luxuriant growth which one expects in pastures where Leguminose are present.’’ I also have reported on an experiment where renovating a thin, poor pasture with 6 Ib, per acre of wild white clover seed was entirely successful, and here, too, the beneficial effects were only secured in the presence of basic slag. _ When a responsive pasture is treated for the first time with, say, half a ton of basic slag per acre, the effects reach their maximum usually in the third season. From then onwards there is a_ steady diminution in the yield, though even after nine years from the time of the initial dressing the improvement is far from being exhausted. At Cockle Park, for instance, the plot dressed once with half a ton of slag was, at the end of nine years, producing three times as much mutton as the continuously unmanured ground, while at Sevington and Cransley the yield at the end of nine and eight years respectively was 7O per cent. to 80 per cent. greater. None of the other stations was carried on for so long a period, but up to the end of the sixth year, most of them show residual fertility which is as great as the original rental value of the land. That is a very important result, but in the interests of the country it is still more important to endeavour to secure that the level reached at the period of maximum produc- tivity shall be maintained. From this rapid survey of grass-land experiments the following conclusions may legitimately be drawn :— ‘ : ; (1) That the quality of a pagture is not primarily dependent on its botanical composition, though, as a rule, the presence of white clover and other Legu- minosz is indicative of high feeding value. (2) That poor pastures, especially on clay soil, can be rapidly and profitably improved by the use of phosphates, especially. basic slag. (3) That, as a rule, phosphates alone are necessary to effect and maintain the improvement, and that, of supplementary substances; potash and lime are occa- sionally worthy of attention. (4) That the improvement of poor pasture is very dependent on the presence of Leguminosze, and especially of white clover. (5) That renovating with the seed of wild white clover may, in the absence of natural Leguminosz, be a necessary preliminary or concurrent operation. (6) That cake can rarely be used at a profit, and that, asean agent in improving poor pasture, it occupies an unsatisfactory position. (7) That nitrogen, whetber in the form of artificial manure or as cake residues, when added to phos- phates for pasture, is always unnecessary and fre- quently detrimental. (8) That in the case of hay on permanent grass- land, equal weights of produce may have very different feeding values. (9) That few forms of agricultural expenditure are more certain in their results than the judicious use of manures on grass-land, and that the meat- and milk- NO. 2617, VOL. 104] producing capacity of the country can be largely and rapidly increased, with great pecuniary gain to the farmer, and still greater economic advantage to the nation. UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL INTELLIGENCE. BirmincHaM.—Mr. C. Grant Robertson, tutor in modern history since 1905 to Magdalen College, Oxford, and a stimulating lecturer upon national development, has been appointed to succeed Sir Oliver Lodge as Principal of the University, Campripce.—Mr. K. J. J. Mackenzie has been re- appointed reader in agriculture. Other appointments ave :—Mr. W. J. Harrison, University lecturer in mathematics; Mr. A. Wood, University lecturer in experimental physics; Mr. A. G. Tansley, University lecturer in botany; and Mr. F. Balfour Browne, Uni- versity lecturer in zoology. DurHaM.—Members of the University are invited to help in compiling the definitive edition of the Roll of Service and Roll of Honour. The latest date for receiving forms framed to include all details of mili- tary service is December 31. The address of the University offices is 38 North Bailey, Durham. EpDINBURGH.—The University Court has made the following appointments to three newly instituted chairs :—Dr. G. M. Robertson to the professorship of psychiatry, Dr. J. H. Ashworth to the professorship of zoology, and Mr. T. P. Laird to the professorship of accounting and business method. The following appointments have also been made :— Dr. F. E. Jardine as lecturer on applied anatomy, and Dr. David Lees as lecturer on venereal diseases. The Right Hon, Lord Lyell of Kinnordy has pre- sented to the geology department forty-six volumes which had formed part of Sir Charles Lyell’s library when he was preparing his ‘‘ Principles of Geology.”’ - The late Mr. Samuel Elliott, of New York, has bequeathed to the University Court the sum of 15ool. to be held in trust by it for the purpose of applying the income in providing scholarships or prizes in con- nection with the classes of the professors of rhetoric and English literature and of ancient history and palaography, the scholarships or prizes to be known as the James Elliott scholarships or prizes, in memory of the testator’s brother, James Elliott, who was a student and graduate of the University. y At the last meeting of the Munitions Committee, South-East of Scotland Area, a.sum of 5o0o0l. was set aside to be expended in providing additional equip- ment for the engineering laboratory. Liverpoot.—Mr. T, E. Peet has been appointed to the Brunner chair of Egyptology, and Dr. J. Share Jones to the chair of veterinary anatomy. : Lonpon.—Dr. Sydney Russell Wells has_ been elected Vice-Chancellor in succession to Sir Cooper Perry, who has been appointed to the post of Principal Officer. Sir Richard Glazebrook has been appointed to the Zaharoff chair of aviation tenable at the Imperial College of Science and Technology, founded by Sir Basil Zaharoff, who gave to the University the sum of 25,0001. for this purpose. Dr. A. P. Newton has been appointed, as from September 1, 1020, the first occupant of the newly established Rhodes chair of Imperial history tenable at King’s College. Prof. W. Bulloch has been appointed, as from January 1, 1920, the first occupant of the newly established Goldsmiths’ Company’s chair of bac- 426 NATURE [DECEMBER 25, 1919 teriology tenable at the London Hospital Medical College. The following doctorates have been conferred :— D.Sc. in Applied Statistics: Mr. E. H. Chap- man, an internal student, of the Sir John Cass Technical Institute, for a thesis entitled ‘The Application of Statistical Methods to Meteorological Problems.”” D.Sc. in Botany: Mr. S. C. Harland, an internal student, of King’s College, for a thesis entitled ‘*Manurial Experiments. with Sea Island Cotton in St. Vincent.’ D.Sc. (Engineering): ‘Mr. N. A, V. Piercy, an internal student, of East London College, for a thesis entitled ‘On the Flow in the Rear of Aerofoils.” Dr. Thomas Lewis, of the cardicgraphic depart- ment of University College, has been awarded the William Julius Mickle fellowship, of the value. of 200l., in recognition of the important work which he has carried out on the nervous mechanism of the heart. : Oxrorp.—Dr. F. W. Keeble, who has been elected to the Sherardian professorship of botany in succes- sion to Prof. S. H. Vines, was formerly professor of botany and dean of the faculty of science at Univer- sity College, Reading. In 1914 he was appointed Director of the Royal Horticultural Society’s gardens at Wisley, and in the following year became concur- rently Director of Horticulture in the Food Produc- tion Department of the Board of Agriculture. Since last vear he has been Assistant Secretary to the Board. Dr. Fritz Panetu has recently been appointed to a professorship in chemistry at the University of Ham- burg, which was founded in the spring of this year. After obtaining his doctorate at the University of Vienna Dr. Paneth proceeded to England, and worked for some time in the laboratories of Prof. Soddy at Glasgow, and of Sir Ernest Rutherford at Manchester, Later he was chemical assistant in the Radium Insti- tute at Vienna, and after the appointment of Prof. Hénigschmid to a chair of chemistry at the Univer- sity of Munich in 1917, Dr. Paneth directed the work of the chemistry department of the German Technical High School in Prague. Tue University of Manchester, which before the war was preparing to issue an appeal for funds to enable it to make due provision to meet its expanding needs, has now made, in addition to that of the College of Technology, which requires 150,o00l. for its much needed extension, an appeal for a sum of 500,000l., towards which 76,0001, has been promised, in addition to 10,000l. for a chair of colloid chemistry as an- nounced at the public meeting held in the Town Hall on December 9, to meet the urgent demands which, among other claims, the great influx of students in all departments has made upon its resources. There was recently opened a large new building for the faculty of arts (languages, literature, history, and philosophy), which, as a consequence, enables the departments of chemistry, engineering, medicine, and commerce to be accommodated more adequately. But the pressure, especially in respect of students in medi- cine and chemistry, and the growing need for facilities in economics, sociology, and courses of training for social work, cannot be satisfactorily met in present circumstances. A new system of post-graduate train- ing has been instituted and a new degree therein estab- lished, which is certain to retain and attract a large body of well-prepared students to the great advantage of the University and of all concerned. The provision of hostels is an urgent need, together with that of extra-mural teaching in tutorial classes, for which there is a strong demand on the part of working men NO, 2617, VOL. 104] and women throughout the area covered by the Uni- versity. A considerable increase in equipment, and especially in that of the teaching staff, in all depart-— ments is a pressing requirement, and altogether, — having regard to the supremely and increasingly im-, portant place the ‘University takes in the life of the city and district, makes this appeal for a large addi- tion to its financial resources one that should comme: itself to the liberal support of the great and wealthy a Be community which it so effectively serves. A DEPUTATION of members of the povermig body of the Imperial Collége of Science and duced by Lord Crewe, and received on December 15 by Mr. Balfour and Mr. Fisher, put forward the request that the college should be empowered to award degrees, either by being constituted a university or by granting its own degrees as a college. At present each of. the constituent colleges of the Imperial Col- lege grants its own diplomas in the form of associate- ships of the Royal College of Science, the Royal School of Mines, and the City and Guilds’ Institute respectively, while the Imperial College itself awards a diploma for a course of advanced work. There is, however, a great difference in the market values of a diploma and a degree, and it is on this account that the movement to make the college a degree- conferring institution has the support of most past and present students. The question of constituting _ another university in London has already been con- sidered by two Royal Commissions and adversely reported upon, and the demand for the foundation of the new university will need to be strongly supported before it can have the promise of success in the face of these two reports and of the certain opposition of London University. The simplest course, and the one that would arouse least opposition, would be to grant the college the power of conferring degrees. — Whichever plan is adopted, it is to be hoped that the position of past students of the constituent colleges will be effectively safeguarded. We assume that, — whether the Imperial College grants a degree or a — diploma, adequate provision will continue to be y made for the study of pure science. It is becoming increasingly difficult’ to obtain the neces- sary funds for carrvmg on scientific research not directly concerned with industry, and the neglect of this part of the work of the college would eventually have a disastrous effect on technical education and industrial progress. A strong case can, no doubt, be made out for several distinct universities in London, and the appeal made on behalf of the Imperial College has been followed by a letter from Profs. W. H. Bragg and E. H. Starling in the Times of December 22, in which like claims are made. for the freedom of King’s College and’ University College ‘‘as regards teaching, research, and the granting of degrees.” : SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES, Lonpbon. Royal Society, December 11.—Sir J. J. study of chromosome dimensions. The degree of somatic complexity of an animal cannot be correlated with (a) the lengths of the chromosomes composing — its complex; (b) the diameters of the chromosomes Let composing its complex; (c) the total volume of the chromosomes composing its complex; and (d) the number of the chromosomes composing its complex. There are many different chromosome diameters. The chromosomes composing the spermatogonial ‘complex of an animal are not necessarily identical in_ echnology, intro- Thomson, | 3 president, in the chair._-C. F. U. Meek: A further . DECEMBER 25, 1919] . NATURE 427 diameter with those composing its secondary sperm cyte complex. All atau sens sosgoning Ma ind. vidual complex are not necessarily of the same diameter.—]. M. H, Campbell, C. G. Douglas, and F. G, Hobson: The respiratory exchange of man during and after muscular exercise. Support is given to the view that muscular work may involve the metabolism of a higher proportion of carbohydrate to fat than is the case during rest. In the case of the severer degrees of work, serious shortage of oxygen as indicated by the production of lactic acid may lead in the earlier stages of the exercise to temporary great exaggeration of the hyperpncea, accompanied by washing out of preformed CO, from the body and an abnormally high respiratory quotient, phenomena which are absent in the case of lighter work.—A. D ‘ional The energy output of dock labourers during “a work. Part i. The paper contains the results # soybannaia on dock labourers by a_ simplified Se seal = consists in measurements of the CO, working day or night with the least possi i ruption of work.—J. Gray: The eslétion. of passable zoa to certain electrolytes (ii.). an attempt to apply the facts of i the behaviour of the living oil, distance — is misleading, for ‘enemy ” The enactment which made this — z ee I am aware of two institutions at least, which made — application for, and obtained from the Austrian Foreign Office, the necessary permission; and in neither instance was any difficulty experienced. The Radium Institute of Vienna was one of the institutions concerned, although at that time several Poles (one of them a Russian subject) and the writer of this letter were working there. What is more, the Austrian Foreign Office was not unaware of this — ‘“quasi-international ’? character of the Radium Institute ! Books were also obtainable, and I know of several men of science of Vienna, Budapest, and even Prague, who were granted permission and obtained : books from France and England through neutral countries. A few months before the armistice I remember sitting in a Viennese restaurant at the same table as — a gentleman, who was voraciously devouring the con- tents of the Sketch and the Illustrated London News. To judge from his frequent unsuppressed laughter, one would have thought he was scanning the pages of Punch.. _Not having seen these periodicals for nearly fivé years, my interest and curiosity were aroused, and I asked this gentleman’s permission to sigh pa oat 9 Sree 2 Se { JANUARY I, 1920] NATURE 437 see them. His reply was very emphatic: ‘‘ Das ist ja ! ganz unmdglich!’’ I gathered from his further con- versation that he belonged to the Intelligence Bureau of the Austrian Foreign Office,.and that his work con- sisted in reading such journals. I envied him, but could not suppress my feelings of astonishment at his reading such ‘ganz geheimen Dokumente ”’ in a public restaurant. It may be mentioned in conclusion that Germany was much more liberal than Austria about the cir- culation of Entente publications.’ At least until the later months of the war, it was possible to go into any of the larger cafés of the German cities and enjoy a cup of coffee-substitute over a copy of the Times, Le Temps, Secolo, and various other news- papers of the Allied countries. Rosert W. Lawson. The University, Sheffield, December 17. Royal Meteorological Society’s Phenological Returns. WitH 1920 the phenological returns complete the thirty, years, which period is a recognised critical epoch in meteorological records, : In consequence of the war, our observing stations: fell to 110 in 1918, against the high-water mark of 132 in 1914. We are most anxious now to recover lost ground, and would in this respect like to make 1920 preparatory to the years to follow. A_ ‘reasonable total would include at least 220 stations, an average of twenty only for the eleven Meteorological Office districts. At present we are short of this in all but South-east England and the Midlands. The six districts forming Scotland, Ireland, and North-east England average only 3} each. Wales has two stations only, both in the south-west. The observations asked for refer to the blooming of thirteen common flowers and the appearances of six birds and six insects. Other migrant records and notes are also invited, but these are of secondary import- ance. A copy of the observing form and of a recent report will be sent with pleasure (the reports so far as they are available) to any readers of Nature who would be interested to help. We especially suggest the value for all interested in Nature-study and regional survey classes. Inquiries should be addressed to one of us, or to the Assistant Secretary, Royal Meteorological Society, 70 Victoria Street, S.W.1. H. B. Apames, 33 Holcombe Road, Ilford, Essex. J. Epmunp Crark, “ Asgarth,” Purley, Surrey. Einstein’s Theory and a Mao Analogue. I am _ grateful to the Director-General of the Ordnance Survey for directing my attention to an inaccuracy in my article in Nature of December 11, p. 375- It was there stated that it is not possible to strain a map of the earth’s surface so that all great circles become straight lines, This is clearly contrary to the known fact of the central projection. As a matter of fact, the sphere is one of the limited class of surfaces for which it is possible to strain all geodesics into straight lines. For an arbitrary surface this is not+true. The difference between the properties of the sphere and of the general surface gives a fair indication of the geometrical notions at the back of Einstein’s theory. : E. CUNNINGHAM. NO. 2618, vol. 104] ) first and only religion of the Sioux, THE SUN DANCE OF THE TETON SIOUX. S man advances in the scale of culture he loses his dependence on Nature. The dweller in a modern city relies chiefly on artificial means for his pleasure and comfort, but the American Indian realised that his whole success depended on his co-operation with naturel forces. He studied his surroundings and evolved a system of reasoning by which he attempted to explain them. A thoughtful Sioux Indian said to the writer: “When we see the changes of day and night, the sun, moon, and stars in the sky, and the changing seasons upon the earth, with their ripening fruits, anyone must realise that it is the work of someone more powerful than man. Greatest of all is the sun, without which we could not live. The birds and the beasts, the trees and the rocks, are the work of some great power.’’' Having recognised a creative power with the sun as its most im- portant manifestation, it was a natural step in native logic to regard the sun with a reverence that is best expressed by the word ‘“‘ worship.” While the worship of the sun, in various forms, was widespread among the Indians of North America, the sun dance was a ceremony the observance of which was limited to certain plains tribes. The sun dance among the Santee Sioux differed in some respects from that of the ’Teton Sioux, which is herewith presented, but the under- lying idea is the same. The sun dance was “the ” and even at the present time it is considered too sacred a subject for ordinary conversation. At the opening of the writer’s study a member of the tribe said : “Tf we were to talk of the sun dance there should be at least twelve persons present, so that no disrespect would be shown, and no young people should be allowed to come from curiosity.” The purpose of the sun dance was the public offering to Wakan‘tanka (Great Mystery) of what was strongest in the nature and training of the Indian—namely, his ability to endure physical pain. He.did this in fulfilment of a vow made in : time of great anxiety or danger, usually when on the warpath. The time of the sun dance was the full moon of midsummer, “when all Nature and even man is rejoicing.’’ Into this joy and beauty, as though to give a greater contrast, the Indian projected his personal suffering. For a month before the sun dance it was customary for the medicine men to “pray for fair weather,” singing their songs of magic power, burning sweet grass, and offering their pipes to the sky, the earth, and the cardinal points as they made their petitions. It is said that the oldest men cannot remember the falling of rain during a sun dance. From long distances the people came and made their camp in a great circle. ’The dance enclosure was in the centre of this circle, and was about 50 ft. in diameter. Around it was erected a shelter 1 “ Teton Sioux Music.” By Frances Densmore. Bulletin 61, Bureau of American Fthnoogv, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, P.C., p. 96. Other direct quotations, as well as the facts herein presented, are from the same work, The Bureav of American Frhnology has kindly given per- mission to reproduce the illustrations used in this article. 438 NATURE [ JANUARY I, 1920 for those who witnessed the ceremony. The sun- dance pole was placed in the centre of the dance enclosure, and near its entrance, which was toward the east, a large drum was placed, the singers being seated around this drum. About 15 ft. west of the pole a square of exposed and finely pulverised earth was located. This was called the “sacred place,” and its preparation, as well as the securing and erection of the sun-dance pole, were accompanied by ceremonial songs and action. The tree for the sun-dance pole was sought as men seek an enemy. It could be cut only by a virgin selected carefully from the tribe, and the song while it was being felled was a song of war. The branches were-cut off, and in a triumphal manner the pole was carried to the camp, where it was painted in vertical red stripes by the leader of the bunches of downy white eagle feathers. West of this was spread a bed of fresh sage, on which a buffalo skull would be laid during the ceremony, and between the two was a “ pipe-rack ”” to support the stem of the ceremonial pipe. The people watched this also in silence, and the leader sang the following song: ‘Four times to the earth I prayed. A place | will prepare, O tribe, behold.” The sun-dance pipe (Fig. 1) was decorated in a prescribed manner by one of the most skilful women of the tribe. This pipe was carried by the leader of the dancers. Those who took part in the dance wore their ‘hair loose after the custom of men who had recently killed an enemy. Each man wore a deer-skin apron that extended to his knees back and front. An eagle-bone whistle was hung around his neck,°and on this whistle he blew as he danced. bic. 1.—Sun-dance pipe. ceremony. The people watched the painting and erection of the pole with deep reverence, and listened while the leader sang the sacred songs that | had come down to him through many generations —the songs of Dreamer-of-the-Sun. In one of these songs the pole speaks, saying: ‘Sacred (made holy) I stand”; and after the pole was in position the words of the song were: “Grand- father, at the places of the four winds may you be reverenced. You made me wear something sacred. The tribe sitting in reverence, they wish to live.” . The “sacred place” was then prepared, the earth being finely pulverised and two inter- secting lines drawn in it, forming a cross. In | £ these lines tobacco was placed, then covered with vermilion paint-powder, and over this was spread powdered gypsum, shining white in colour. At the intersection and ends of the lines were placed NO. 2618, VOL. 104] Fic. 2.—Knife used in i: flicting sun-dance torture, The torture of the sun dance was inflicted by the insertion of a short stick or skewer through the flesh of the chest or back, and placing a strain upon this until the flesh tore, releasing the man. While the word ‘‘flesh”’ is commonly used as suggesting the severity of the ordeal, the Indians said that “the stick was put through the skin.” It probably penetrated also the subcutaneous fascia. A knife used in making the incisions is shown in Fig. 2, together with the shield covering the point of the knife when not in use. A man accustomed to the work lifted a small portion of the man’s flesh (or “ skin”) between his thumb and finger, thrust the knife through it, following this with the pointed stick. The strain on the stick was secured by tying to it the ends of thongs that hung from the cross-bar of the sun-dance pole, the length of these being such that the man ete td TNO ee ee : a ’ . that the stick be tied to his horse. JANUARY I, 1920] NATURE 439 was only relieved from the strain by rising on his toes. He was, however, expected to dance until the flesh gave way. Others dragged buffalo skulls attached to their backs, and a man might request Another form of torture consisted in the cutting of gashes in arms and body. A man when making his vow designated the manner of its fulfilment, and those who witnessed the vow were expected to see that it was carried out. After a man released himself it was customary suspension from the pole and the carrying of buffalo skulls are seen, though the buffalo skulls were usually allowed to drag on the ground. The pole is decorated with streamers, and from the cross-bar are hung two effigies cut from raw hide, one representing a man (an enemy), and the other a buffalo. The drum is seen at the right with two singers beside it, and in the upper left-hand corner two women are carrying kettles of food. Feasts were often given in honour of young men taking part in the sun dance for the first time, and in the Fic. 3.—Native drawing of sun-dance. to apply a powdered herb to the wound, which healed in a short time; it is said that even a swell- . | camp there were various events taking place ing of the wound was unknown among’ the Sioux. | The man then resumed dancing with eyes steadily | fixed upon the sun, and continued dancing without food or water during that day and the following night. As the sun rose on the second day it was greeted by the leader with this song: “Here am I, behold me. I am the sun, behold me.” The scene of a sun dance, while the men are still dancing, is shown in Fig. 3, a drawing by a man who had taken part in the dance. The NO. 2618, VOL. 104] | underlying it. during the dances. During the second day the men fell from ex- haustion, and after being carried into the shade they gradually regained consciousness. The even- ing of that day saw the sun-dance ground deserted, as it was the custom that all the people take their departure before sunset of that day. While the element of pain forces itself on our thought, it is interesting to note the unselfishness As the men were dancing they “prayed for all in the tribe, especially the sick and 440 NATURE | JANUARY 1, 1920 the old,” believing that “an act performed publicly is more effective than the same thing done In private.’’ The men who had taken part in the sun dance were men of fine character. White- Fic. 4.—White-buffalo-walking, who took part in a sun-dance. buffalo-walking (Fig. 4) was one of those who fulfilled a vow in the last sun dance ever held by the Teton Sioux, that splendid tribe of the rapidly vanishing race. FRANCES DENSMORE. THE INTERNATIONAL HYDROGRAPHIC CONFERENCE. Bib: International Hydrographic Conference, which was held in London between June 24 and July 16, will, it is believed, mark a new erain hydrography. The revival of trade, with the consequent increased traffic on the high seas which will accompany it, makes the present time most opportune for the discussion of the methods of charting the seas and the publication of in- formation to ensure safe navigation. Thanks to the initiative of the Admiralty, it was found pos- sible to bring together most of the chief hydro- | graphic experts of the world, and the decisions they have arrived at in the conference, and the general interchange of ideas which took place, will be fraught with good to the seamen of the world. Twenty-three countries were represented at the conference, amongst the representatives of which were the Hydrographers of Denmark, France, Great Britain, Greece, Holland, Norway, Sweden, and the United States of America. The subjects to which the conference devoted its attention were “ Charts,” ‘‘ Sailing Directions,” NO, 2618, VOL. 104] “Light Lists,” “Notices to Mariners,” “Time Signals, Distance Tables, and Other Miscellane- ous Hydrographic Publications,” “Tide Tables,” “Instruments Used for Surveying on Shore and at Sea,” ‘“Time-measuring Instruments,” “The Interchange of Publications,” and “The Estab-_ lishment of an International Hydrographic Bureau.” The subjects, it will be seen, practically covered the whole field of hydrography, and the main object of the conference was to compare the prac- tices of all countries, with a view to the adoption by all of the best methods, and so more or less to standardise the hydrographic publications of the world. All seamen will appreciate the benefit which must accrue from the adoption of common methods of producing all information required for their use to ensure safe navigation. The conference therefore divided itself into committees on the various subjects, and from day to day these committees pursued their investigations, finally reporting fo the con- ference the agreements at which they had arrived. The conference, after discussing the committees” reports, recorded its decisions in a series of resolutions, to which the hydrographic authorities of each country will, it is hoped, give effect without delay. “The result will be practically to standardise all published hydrographic works, and will amply justify the holding of the conference. It is not possible in this brief account to enu- merate all the decisions of the conference, and only a few of the most important can be noted. Under the head of “Charts,” agreement as to the use of a common set of signs and abbrevia- tions which denote the various features on a chart was arrived at. The adoption of the metric system of measurement for depths and heights was discussed at length, but whilst the confer- ence unanimously expressed the opinion that all nations should, as soon as convenient, adopt it in their charts and publications, it was recognised that it was not possible for the countries not usiag it in their charts to do so until the metre had been adopted as the general standard of measurement in their respective countries, and it was therefore agreed that those countries not using the metre should insert on their charts tables for the conver- sion of the measurements used to the equivalent measurements of the metric system, and that in their sailing directions, light lists, etc., the metric measurements should follow the national measure- ments. The transcription of names received at- tention, and it was agreed that generally the literal, and not the phonetic, transcription was desirable. i Under the head of “Sailing Directions,” the general arrangement of these important addenda — to the charts was discussed, and the necessity for the publication of an annual supplement to each volume to bring it up to date was recog- nised. An improved method of describing tida) streams and currents was adopted. Bearings, it JANUARY I, 1920] NATURE 441 . was agreed, should be given as “true” only, and from o° to 360° measured clockwise. The arrangement of the British “Notice to Mariners ” met with universal approval, and its form was adopted as the standard for all countries. With regard to the “Light Lists,” the principal alterations and additions agreed to were the in- clusion in the lists of “light buoys,” “wireless direction-finding stations,” and ‘“sound-ranging signal stations.” The desirability of finding a satisfactory formula for describing visibility as limited by the intensity of light was recognised, ee ee ee observations and collect data in order that the matter might be dealt with by the International Hydrographic Bureau if ultimately established. The subject of “Tides”? was carefully con- sidered, and the necessity recognised for the adoption of a uniform zero from which heights should be measured, which should also be the datum for soundings on the charts, and of uni- form methods of publishing tidal information. A rule for determining a “universal datum plane,” to be called “international low water,” was sug- gested for the further consideration of hydro- graphers, and decisions were reached regarding information to be published in tide tables, and on charts at places where the semi-diurnal tide pre- _ dominates, but it was unfortunately found that - modern tidal knowledge was insufficient for any recommendation to be made as to information which should be given on charts at places where the semi-diurnal is not the predominating tide- wave; this question was therefore left for further investigation. Interchange of publications, a most important matter to all countries, as each country freely copies the publications of the others, received consideration, and steps were taken tc put the matter on a more satisfactory footing. A number of ‘instruments used by various countries in hydrographic surveying were ex- hibited, and useful comparisons made and _ in- _ formation exchanged. The adoption by all countries of a system of “time zones” to regulate the time kept at sea, such as have already been adopted by France, Great Britain, and Italy, was recommended. The last item on the programme of the confer- ence was the establishment of an “International _ Hydrographic Bureau,” and as the work of the conference progressed, the necessity for such an institution became more and more evident. Ques- _ tions arose upon which an agreement in principle was arrived at, but time would not permit of the necessary details to give effect to the decisions _ being worked out by the conference, nor was such a large body as the latter found to be a suitable medium for doing so. On the necessity for the ~ establishment of a bureau, which should be a purely advisory body with no executive powers, and of the existence of sufficient work to employ t, there was unanimous agreement. Such a body, t was felt, was urgently required to consider and NO. 2618, VOL. 104] and it was agreed that each nation should make. _Offices. make proposals for the co-ordination of the work of the whole of the Hydrographic Offices, to study the numerous questions not fully solved by the conference, to act as an authority to which ques- tions could be submitted for advice, to take steps as required to obtain the assistance and co-opera- tion of Governments and Hydrographic Offices when required for the execution of any particular work or research desirable in the common inter- ests of all countries, and generally to watch over and advance the science of hydrography. As a result of its deliberations the conference decided to appoint a committee consisting of Rear- Admiral Sir J. F. Parry, K.C.B. (then Hydro- grapher of the British Navy), Monsieur. J. Renaud, the French Hydrographer, and Rear- Admiral E. Simpson, the Hydrographer of the United States Navy, to prepare for presentation to the various Governments the case for the establishment of a bureau, and to take the neces- sary steps for its formation when the various countries should have signified their approval of its institution. With this final act the conference concluded its labours, which, from a hydrographical point of view, cannot be over-estimated, and the results of which will, it is hoped, speedily be apparent in the publications of the various Hydrographic A SHAKESPEAREAN GARDEN. E learn with interest that the trustees and guardians of Shakespeare’s birthplace are laying out the “Great Garden” attached to his house, “New Place,” as an Elizabethan garden. The trustees are naturally anxious to plant the garden with those old-fashioned flowers which were grown in English gardens in Shakespeare’s day, and they appeal to lovers of Shakespeare and of gardens to help them by contributing the flowers needed to restore the garden, so far as possible, to its original aspect. Such a garden of old-fashioned flowers is much to be desired in these days, when so many of the old-fashioned, beautiful, sweet-scented flowers are almost lost to cultivation in gardens, owing to their being ousted by the modern creations of florists. No doubt present-day flowers are larger and more brilliant, but we have to a great extent lost the charm, scent, and elegance of the old garden flowers as a result of what may be termed the vulgarity of present-day tastes. The desire for masses of colour and for mag- nificence of form no doubt accounts for the lack of interest in the old-fashioned plants, n.any of which are now scarcely known. Among the plants which the trustees desire to obtain are “sweet musk roses,” ‘roses damask’d red and white,” the “crimson rose” and ‘“milk-white rose,” all alluded to by Shakespeare. Crown imperials, “lilies of all kinds’’—but those known in Shake- speare’s time were only a tithe of what are now’ found in gardens; daffodils—again only a few— and “fleur-de-luce ” are all referred to by Shake- 442 NATURE [JANUARY I, 1920 Of shrubs, rosemary, speare, and may be sent. qnd lavender, lavender cotton, box, woodbine, many others should be planted. The trustees, in their circular, refer to several early gardening books which give accounts of the plants in cultivation in the latter part of the sixteenth century, but they omit to mention the excellent book by the late Canon Ellacombe, a keen student of Shakespeare, whose ‘ Plant-lore and Garden Craft of Shakespeare” is a mine of useful information on the plants in cultivation in Shakespeare’s day. The list of plants grown in the garden at Bitton vicarage in 1831, reprinted in the recently published memoir of Canon Ellacombe, might also well represent what would have been found in a garden three hundred years ago, and should be referred to by those anxious to assist in the good work. Fortunately, there are still collections of the old roses from which it may be possible to supply plants for the “Great Garden.” Anyone having any of the old-fashioned plants suitable for the garden should send them to Mr. Frederick C. Wellstood, secretary to the trust, Shakespeare’s Great Garden, New Place, Stratford-on-Avon, by whom they will be gratefully acknowledged. The names of the donors will be preserved at Nash’s House, adjoining New Place, which was once the property of Thomas Nash, the husband of Shakespeare’s granddaughter Elizabeth. There are probably many people who would wish to take part in this interesting tribute to Shakespeare’s memory, but have no flowers to send; contributions in money from such will be equally acceptable, and shauld be sent to the secretary to the trust. A RESEARCH INSTITUTE FOR NEW ZEALAND. NDER the will of the late Thomas Cawthorn, of Nelson, New Zealand, the sum _ of 240,0001, was left for the founding of a technical institute. The trustees were unanimous in desir- ing that the Cawthorn Institute should be a re- search institution, and appointed a private com- mission of scientific men to advise as to the best method of procedure. The commission consisted of Sir J. C. Wilson, President of the N.Z. Board of Agriculture, Profs. Benham, Easterfield, Mar- shall, and Worley, and Dr. Leonard Cockayne. At the request of the trustees, the commissioners have consented to become an honorary advisory board. The main recommendations of the com- mission have been adopted by the trustees. The chief work of the institute is to be ‘‘ instruction in and performance of scientific research; such re- search to be definitely related to the industries of Nelson and of the Dominion.”’’ A beautiful, well-wooded site overlooking Tas- man Bay has been secured, the area being ap- proximately 20 acres and the distance from Nelson about three miles. It is expected that the build- ings will be commenced at an early date. At the last meeting of the trustees it was decided, with NO, 2618, VOL. 104] the approval of the advisory board, to offer the position of director to Prof. T. H. Easterfield, professor of chemistry at Victoria College (Uni-— versity of New Zealand), Wellington, who has accepted the position. Mr, T. Rigg, of the Cam- — bridge School of Agriculture, a New Zealand 1851 — Exhibitioner, has been appointed agricultural chemist; other ‘staff appointments will be made _ shortly. , A liberal scheme of scholarships and fellowships — is arranged, so that university graduates may be attracted to carry out investigations under the guidance of members of the staff. ; An annual “ Cawthorn Lecture ’’ has been estab- lished. The 1917 lecture was delivered by Prof. Easterfield on ‘‘The Aims and Ideals of the Caw- thorn Institute”; the next lecturer was Prof. Benham, and the lecturer in 1919 was Dr. L. Cockayne. 3 ; Questions having been raised as to the legal right of the trustees to establish a research insti- tute, an originating summons was taken out under the Declaratory Judgments Act. The decision of Mr. Justice Chapman was to the effect that the scheme set out in the report of the commissioners — falls, in its main features, within the terms of the testator’s intentions. It is proposed to introduce a Bill embodying the chief points of the judgment in the New Zealand Parliament next session. — i Though it is intended that the work of the insti- tute is to have a distinct economic bearing, it has been made clear that the trustees recognise thi’ no sharp line can be drawn between technical and scientific research, and that the term ‘‘ technical ”” will be understood in a broad and liberal sense. Se “ea CE eS a ee ee ee ee DR. CYRIL G. HOPKINS. ~TUDENTS of agricultural science in ail countries will learn with regret of the death on October 6 of Dr. Cyril G. Hopkins, the distin- guished head of the departmeat of agronomy in the University of Illinois. Dr. Hopkins had for the past twelve months been studying the ex- hausted soils of Greece under the auspices of the American Red Cross. He had written his report, — seen it translated into Greek, and received a — decoration from the King of the Hellenes. He was — on his way home, but when three days out from - Gibraltar was suddenly struck down with con- — gestion of the brain, with malarial complications. Dr. Hopkins’s chief service to agriculture was his urgent and persistent advocacy of the need for the honest and adequate use of fertilisers. His region of operations was the State of Illinois, of — which he had a very extensive knowledge. It was — the present writer’s privilege to accompany him on an agricultural tour through this State in 1912, _ and to learn at first hand some of his interesting — agricultural deductions and conclusions. Dr. — Hopkins’s critical scientific outlook was mani- — fested in his lectures and writings. Besides being popular with his students, he had a great faculty for getting on well with farmers, and was obvi- ously a welcome guest in their homes. English agri- January I, 1920] NATURE 7 443 \ cultural students will remember with pride his high opinion of the work of the Rothamsted Experi- mental Station, with which he was unusually well acquainted. The Rothamsted data were constantly used by him in lectures and writings, and he main- tained his personal interest in the work right up to the time of starting for Greece. Two of Dr. Hopkins’s books are well known in this country. One—‘The Story of the Soil ”— was written in the main during his long railway journeys in the States; it is an attempt to intro- duce scientific facts about the soil into the dialogue of a novel. It is not less attractive than other novels written with a purpose, and it is light read- ing. His more serious book is entitled ‘ Soil-Fer- tility and Permanent Agriculture”; it contains valuable summaries of the results of the more important field experiments, and an interesting and illuminating discussion. His own view was narrower than would be usually accepted by the younger generation of workers in America or in this country; he considered soil fertility to be essentially a matter of nitrogen, phosphate, and potash, and to be expressible in the terms of the actual weights of these substances in the soil. There are cases where this view would suffice, and many appear to have come within Dr. Hopkins’s experience. These, however, would now be regarded as limiting rather than “as normal cases, and more generally fertility would be considered to be the outcome of many factors, some chemical, some physical, others, again, biological. But Dr. Hopkins did much good work, training a_ splendid body of students, and developing a department which has added lustre to the great University of Illinois. E. J. RUSSELL. NOTES. WE announce with deepest regret the death on Monday, December 29, at seventy years of age, of Sir William Osler, Bart., F.R.S., Regius professor of medicine in the University of Oxford. Mr. R. Natuan, late Indian Civil Service and author of works on the history of plague in India and the progress of education in India, has been promoted by the King to the rank of K.C.S.I.; and Mr. G. S. Sankey, Inspector-General of Forests to the Government of India, has been given the honour of K.B.E. Dr. F. Brot has been appointed professor of geology and palzontology in the University of Munich in succession to the late Prof. A. Rothpletz. Dr. Broili was a pupil of the late Prof. K. A. von Zittel, and is well known for his numerous contributions to vertebrate palzontology. We learn from Dr. Tolmatcheff, a Custos of the ‘Russian Academy of Sciences, who is now in London, that when he left Petrograd early last summer the col- lections and libraries of the Academy, the School of Mines, and the Geological Survey were intact, and the Bolshevik Government. The most important specimens of the Permian reptiles collected by the late Prof. Amalitsky in northern Russia had been removed from Warsaw to the museum of the Academy of Sciences at Petrograd. Tue death is announced, in his sixtieth year, of Dr. Louis Valentine Pirsson, who had been professor of physical geology since 1897 at the Sheffield Scientific School at Yale, where for several years previously he had held various minor posts. Prof. Pirsson was a geologist on the staff of the U.S. Geological Survey and an associate editor of the American Journal of Science. He was the author of numerous scientific memoirs, text-books, and papers on geological and mineralogical subjects. Tue Photographic Arts and Crafts Exhibition, which was held annually until the war intervened, is to be resumed in the coming ‘spring. It is re- named the Photographic Fair, and will be held at the Horticultural Hall, Westminster, on April 16 to 24. As usual, the Professional Photographers’ Association will hold a congress at the same time in connection with the exhibition, while the Photographic Dealers’ Association will, for the first time, organise a con- gress of photographic dealers. It is intended to afford dealers special facilities for examining the exhibits. The organising secretary of the fair is Mr. Arthur C. Brookes, Sicilian House, Southampton Row, W.C.1. Tue death of Mr. J. Hartley Wicksteed on Decem- ber 16, at seventy-seven years of age, is announced. Engineering for December 19 gives some particulars of his career. Probably his inventions which have: had most bearing on engineering progress are his vertical single-lever testing machine and his horizontal universal testing machine. Mr. Wicksteed was con- nected with the Institution of Mechanical Engineers for more than fifty years, and was president in 1903-4. He was one of the first members of council of the Yorkshire College, Leeds, afterwards becoming a life governor of the University; and through this and other local activities he exercised a wide influence. He became a member of the Institution of Civil Engineers in 1889. By the death of Dr. Harold Cecil Greenwood a few weeks ago, at thirty-two years of age, British en- gineering chemistry has lost one of its most promising younger members. Dr. Greenwood was always a careful and accurate worker, and applied that charac- teristic to even the smallest detail in every problem which he took up. As a result his work was exact ; his data’ on the boiling points of metals, published in 1909, are generally accepted as the most accurate existing upon the subject. During the last three years of his life Dr. Greenwood was engaged on behalf of the Government on an extremely laborious under- taking: the construction of an experimental synthetic ammonia plant for the preparation of ammonia from its elements. In this work his training with Prof. Haber at Karlsruhe stood him in good stead, but it was no easy matter to translate laboratory experi- scientific men were being sympathetically treated by | mental work to: the semi-technical working-plant NO, 2618, VoL. 104] 444 NATURE [JANUARY I, 1920 model producing 1 kg. per hour of ammonia, desired by the authorities. It was at this stage that his industrial experience with Messrs. Hutton at Sheffield aided him both in the choice of suitable materials and in the proper design of apparatus. No member of Dr. Greenwood’s staff had had previous experience with the operation of gases under very high pressures or with the design of suitable: plant, yet he not only brought his work to a successful issue, but he also effected the training of the staff in such a way that they could operate the extremely complicated plant unaided. This in itself is a tribute to his technical and executive abilities; and his work on ‘ Industrial Gases,” published since his death, is a worthy record of his knowledge of an important department of applied chemistry. Tue loss of that keen geologist, Prof. Joseph Barrell, of Yale, who died at the comparatively early age of fifty on May 4 of last year, will be felt far beyond those who met him and appreciated at first hand his mental energy and accuracy of perception. A sym- pathetic memorial of Prof. Barrell’s work, with a por- trait and bibliography, appears in the issue of the American Journal of Science for October last, and it is followed by two important papers by him on the theory of isostasy. An obituary notice of Barrell by Prof. Schuchert appears in Science (vol. xlix., p. 605, 1919). It is here pointed out that his reasoning powers were applied to the relations of climate to organic evolution, as well as to those problems of earth-structure that he made peculiarly his own. Tue Government of India has appointed a Com- mittee, consisting of European and Indian experts, to inquire into the conditions and prospects of the sugar industry. At present most of the sugai pro- duced is locally consumed in the crude form of ‘“‘jaggery,’’ but there seems little doubt that if capital and modern methods of manufacture could be intro- duced India might become one of the great sugar- producing areas in the world. The annual consump- tion of sugar in India, as elsewhere, has rapidly in- creased. India until recent years stcod first of all the countries in the world in its area under sugar- cane and its estimated yield of cane-sugar, and even now ranks second only to Cuba. Yet it is notorious that the yield both of cane and raw sugar per acre and the available sugar extracted from the cane are undesirably low. In view of the conservative habits of the Indian peasant, the Government, in inducing him to adopt improved methods, has a difficult task to encounter. At a conversazione of the Eton College Scientific Society, held on December 15, a presentation from past and present members was made to the retiring president, Mr. W. D. Eggar, who, in returning thanks, referred to the losses which the society had suffered since the last conversazione in 1914, and in particular mentioned the names of W. S. Stewart, A. G. Parsons, and H. G. J. Moseley. Henry Moseley was ‘‘in college’’ with a brilliant band of classical scholars. He obtained his scholarship at Trinity, Oxford, in chemistry and ‘physics, but ‘the No, 2618, VOL. 104] ‘only paper which he contributed to the society was on — deep-sea fishes. At the 1905 conversazione he demon- strated the simpler properties of those X-rays which afterwards he investigated to such purpose that his _ name, like that of Robert Boyle, links Eton with a After attending the British Associa- — tion meeting in Australia, Moseley hurried back to law of Nature. join the Army, and fell in Gallipoli on August 10, 1915. Dr. Leonard Hill, who demonstrated in an amusing and instructive lecture the advantages of oxygen for ee deplored the loss to science in Moseley’s "Dr. R. Whytlaw Gray is the new acteaiges: athletes, death. of the society. Tue council of the Scottish Meteorological Society proposes to hold a series of meetings, mainly in Edin- burgh, at which lectures on popular lines will be given or discussions opened on questions of meteoro- lonicad interest. The first of these lectures has, indeed, already been given in Glasgow by Capt. Franklin, who opened the winter session of the Royal Philosophical Society of Glasgow by an address on — “The Study of Meteorology in Schools and Universi- ties.” The report of the council, adopted at the annual business meeting on December 19, refers to climatological stations maintained by voluntary observers, and says it has become evident that the country should no longer depend so largely on volun- — tary effort for a record of important economic factors. It is felt that those who may be in charge of any scheme of reconstruction should regard it as a vital matter that there should be a_ sufficient skeleton network of stations the permanence of which is guaranteed by some local authority or by some Government Department the interests of which are — directly concerned. The president of the society for the ensuing year is Dr. C. G. Knott; vice-presidents, Prof. T. Hudson Beare and Mr. D. A. Stevenson; and hon. secretary, Dr. E. M. Wedderburn. THE executive committee of the National Union of Scientific Workers has appointed Major A. Church to be whole-time secretary of the union, the ape to date from January 1, 1920. : A NEw era of prosperity for the Zoological Society of London seems to have dawned. At the last monthly general meeting, held on December 17, it was announced that the number of visitors to the gardens from January 1 to November 30 showed an increase of 653,187 as compared with the previous — year, while the money received for admission in the gardens during the same period showed an increase of 22,9771. as compared with the corresponding period in 1918. WE are glad to note that vigorous measures are to” be taken to suppress the practice of bird-liming in Lower Egypt. The Ministry of Public Works, Egypt, has just issued a report by Mr. J. Lewis Bonhote setting forth the hideousness of this traffic and the grave results to agriculture which must follow unless - it is speedily stopped, for the victims are almost exclusively small, insectivorous birds. In an iniro- duction to the report Major Stanley Flower, Director of the Zoological Service, remarks that in the past, in — JANUARY I, 1920] NATURE 445 every normal year, practically the whole surface of the country was flooded, so that both the insect and rat population was swept away and drowned, with the exception of such comparatively small numbers as could survive by taking refuge in villages, in the tops of banks and trees, and on the desert fringes. The conditions within the last century have changed, and are becoming increasingly favourable for the spread of pests of agriculture. But there are serious difficulties to be overcome in certain districts in enforcing the law, as at Damietta, Fuwa, and Rosetta, owing to the ‘unpatriotic and uncivilised behaviour ’’ of the local authorities. Mr. T. SHepparpD has reprinted from the Trans- actions of the East Riding Antiquarian Society (vol. xxii.) a paper on Danes’ Dyke, the remarkable earth- work stretching across the triangular Flamborough headland from north to south. It is certainly much more ancient than the Danish period. Its shape and mode of construction demonstrate that it is not Roman. But in the same area, and associated with the earthwork, are numerous barrows, the implements, weapons, and ornaments found in them belonging to the Bronze age, though they also contain many fine stone implements, the use of which continued into the Bronze age. The results of some excavations made by Major-Gen. Pitt Rivers in October, 1879, are pub- lished in the Journal of the Anthropological Institute for 1880. Sir W. Ripceway describes in the November issue of Man a remarkable Irish decorated and socketed bronze axe, of which the provenance is doubtful, but it probably came from Co. Westmeath. The axe, 60 mm. (23 in.) long, is remarkable because the maker made a careful scheme of ornamentation for the whole of its surface, dividing it into four compartments by means of four fine curved lines in relief, and adding the main feature, a band or frieze of chevrons, in refined and delicate relief running along the top of each side immediately under the delicate line running below the mouth of the socket. There is no similar specimen in the Irish National Museum or in the British Museum collections, now enriched by that of the late Canon Greenwell, nor does Sir John Evans describe any such in his “Bronze Implements.’? But Canon Greenwell possessed an Irish socketed axe with ela- borate and refined decoration. This agrees fairly well with Sir W. Ridgewady’s specimen, which is said to have come from Rathdéwen;/ Co. Westmeath, and there is at least some probability that the Ridgeway axe may have been made in that area. Tue progress of boundary delimitation in Europe is the subject of a short article and a useful slketch-map by Mr. A. R. Hinks in the Geographical Journal for December (vol. liv., No. 6). The Treaty of Versailles delimited the boundaries of Germany, subject, of course, to the result of the plebiscites in Schleswig, East Prussia, Silesia, and, in fifteen years’ time, in the Sarre basin. The Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye delimited the boundaries of Austria subject to the result of the Klagenfurt plebiscite. The new frontier of Italy is not yet fixed in the north-east; the frontier NO, 2618, VoL. 104] of Hungary is fixed only in the west. Czecho-Slovakia’s and Poland’s frontiers are incompletely delimited. In Eastern Europe the frontiers are still vague. It is proposed to revise the sketch-map and reissue it from time to time in the Geographical Journal. Tue Ordnance Survey decided in 1911 to undertake the levelling of an entirely new network in the British Isles to form the basis for a new series of bench marks and heights shown on the map. Experience has shown that many of the bench marks have altered their heights, either from subsidence or actual displace- ment; others have disappeared. The instruments and methods decided on for this work were described in a paper on ‘Precise Levelling’’ by Major E. O. Henrici read at the Institution of Civil Engineers cn December 17. The new lines are laid out so that it is possible to erect special ‘ fundamental’ bench marks at intervals of about twenty-five miles. The marks of ° these will be’ fixed on solid rock or on concrete founded on rock. These marks have three reference points, one consisting of a metal bolt let into the top of a granite pillar, for general use, and two lower marks which are buried, and are for the use of the Survey only; they will serve in time to come to check — the height of the upper mark. The probable error of the difference of height between any two consecutive “ fundamental’? marks may be about o-o1 ft. Initer- mediate bench marks take the form of gun-métal plates let into the surface of walls. In his new pamphlet (‘The Stanton Drew Stones,’ Bristol, 1s.) Mr. E. Sibree returns to the theme of his former publication (‘‘ Stanton Drew: A Calendar in Stone’’), treating it in greater detail and with an abundant wealth of literary scholarship and interest- ing foll-lore. ‘The circles of 30, 12, and 8 stones respectively are referred to the days of the month, the months of the year, and the years of the Venus cycle of intercalation. Eight years of 12 months, each of 30 days, contain 2880 days; if to these are added 12+30 days we get 2922 days, very nearly eight solar years. Mr. Sibree shows that the same number is obtained from the Carnac stone calendar in Brit- tany. He draws the conclusion that the Stanton Drew calendar was erected by Romans or by Romanised Britons in about the fifth century. Some confirmation is afforded by the fact that the diameters of the circles are 375, 150, and too Roman feet respec- tively, proportional to the numbers of stones in. the circles, and by the presence of the Guild of Calendaries at Bristol in about a.p. 700. Much of the lore of Merlin and of the Welsh mythology is invoked to: support this conclusion. It must be urged, however, that the lateness of the author’s date is ... . 454 Chemistry at the British Association .... .. Zoology at the British Association. By Prof. J. H. Asbworth,-F: RS) os55 ae ei a ec University and Educational Intelligence. .. Societies and Academies... . Pertwee Books Received Diary of Societies Editorial and Publishing Offices: ine MACMILLAN AND CO., Lrp., Pe ST. MARTIN’S STREET, LONDON, W.C.2. Advertisements and business letters to be addressed to the Publishers. Editoria]. Communications to the Editor. Telegraphic Address: Puusis, LONDON. Telephone Number: GErrarD 8830. | NATURE 461 THURSDAY, JANUARY 8, 1920. WATER-POWER AND DARTMOOR. HE proposal to ‘develop electrical energy from water-powet on Dartmoor has led to a strong protest against interference with the amenity of the moor as appreciated by the lovers of solitary places. Mr. Eden Phillpotts first directed attention to the matter by a letter in the Times of December 10, in which he called on the Duchy of Cornwall, the landlords of Dartmoor, to act quickly “and help to create a body of Parlia- mentary opinicn; otherwise the destructive and ill- considered enterprise. may receive sanction from an indifferent House of Commons next session.” A Plymouth correspondent supplied to the Times of December 23 an account of the scope of the pro- posed scheme, and on later days other writers ex- pressed their strong disapproval of the project from local, engineering, or esthetic points of view. Unfortunately for a journal which desires to review the situation justly, the supporters of the scheme - have not taken part in the newspaper discussion, and as we have not seen the Bill in question we ~ can judge of its provision’ only from the state- & _ ments of its opponents, and must accordingly assume an attitude which may appear more critical of the upholders of the status quo than our sym- pathies would have dictated had we access to both ides of the question. To many lovers of Nature, Dartmoor has already ‘suffered disenchantment by the grim associations of the prison which has been established there for a century, and there may be some who object to 7 the system of leats which for a still longer period has supplied water to the towns on its fringes. _ The correspondence referred to does touch. un- _ favourably on the modern waterworks which supply Plymouth, Torquay, and Paignton, but ¥ these are accomplished facts, and serve merely | to strengthen the opposition to new interference with the moor and its rivers. _ The scheme of the Dartmoor and_ District _ Hydro-electric Supply Company is briefly to utilise | the great rainfall and high altitude of Dartmoor _ in the generation of electricity at several power ' stations situated on different streams, to convey erect industrial establishments where current 5 “might be used for electrolytic or power purposes. It is claimed that this work will furnish needed employment for the population of the district, NO. 2619, VOL. 104] provide» a continuous and economical — supply of electricity for lighting, traction, and heating, reduce the congestion of railway traffic by diminishing the demand for coal, and gener- ally increase prosperity and confer public benefits more than sufficient to counterbalance any inter- ference with agriculture, fishing rights, or the pleasure of visitors to the Moor. The general, and especially the local, public is not qualified to weigh the rival claims, and as things now stand Parliament must proceed by the old, cumbrous, and very costly method of hearing eloquent advocates and technical experts on all the points raised. No one is now likely to deny the general ap- . plicability of the rule that private convenience must give way to public advantage; but there is still a great deal of confusion as to the criteria by which the conflicting claims should be judged. It is in our opinion essential that all matters con- nected with the use of natural resources should be investigated by. experts whose personal in- terests are not involved in the case. It is of equal importance that full and impartial information should be available before a decision is arrived at. In the present instance no one knows what the available rainfall on Dartmoor really is, but this can be ascertained if an average rainfall map is constructed from the data which are accessible and according to methods which have been estab- lished. The available fall between reservoirs and power-houses can be found by direct surveys guided by the existing Ordnance Survey maps. The cost of the necessary engineering works is a more difficult and practically a more important question, as no one can foresee the price of materials or the value of the pound note during the years which must elapse before the works can be completed. The size of the dams required in forming reservoirs and the depth of their founda- tions, on which any estimate of cost must be based, can be ascertained only by detailed surveys and numerous borings, which experience of private Bill legislation has taught us are not always carried out before the Bill is deposited. The danger of underestimating the cost is less likely to be in- curred by a company which depends on the scheme showing a profit when carried out than by a public authority which does not labour under that wholesome disability. In other aspects, however, the exploitation of natural resources by public ‘authorities is more likely to be to the public in- terest, and certainly more likely to secure general confidence, x 462 NATURE [January 8, 1920. At present the whole question of the water resources, and especially of the water-power, of the British Isles is being investigated by a Com- mittee of the Board of Trade, and on this account Parliament may be inclined to postpone the con- sideration of private Bills dealing with water, if not of special urgency, until the Committee has reported. There are few areas in England where an unused gathering-ground exists at an altitude allowing of the development of water-power, and it may well be considered inexpedient to allocate them finally before a hydrometric survey has been carried out to enable the available power and its cost to be calculated on a sure basis before work is commenced. RADIO-COMMUNICATION AND THE THERMIONIC VALVE. (1) The Thermionic Valve and its Developments in Radiotelegraphy and Telephony. By Prof. J. A. Fleming. Pp. xv+279. (London: The Wire- less Press, Ltd., 1919.) Price 155s. net. (2) Text-book on Wireless Telegraphy. By Prof. Rupert Stanley. New edition in two volumes. Vol. i. : General Theory and Practice. Pp. xiii+ 471. Vol. ii: Valves and Valve Apparatus. Pp. ix+357. (London: Longmans, Green, and Co., 1919.) Price 15s. net per vol. (t)Q\CIENTIFIC workers who desire to learn something about the latest developments in radio-communication generally find that books on the subject are either scientific but too tech- nical, or not sufficiently scientific and so useless for their purpose. It is little use to have illustrations of the kenotron, the pliodynatron, the ultra-audion, and the tungar, with diagrams of their connec- tions, unless we have also-some reasoned account of their mode of action. |The reader soon tires also ‘of vague accounts of the electron theory, which is regarded by some authors as a kind of fetish which must never be criticised and the mere men- tion of which is supposed to explain everything. In the first chapter Prof. Fleming gives an inter- esting and instructive historical introduction. So far back as 1883 he read a paper to the Physical Society describing the molecular radiation in incan- descent lamps with horse-shoe filaments. He proved that the blackening of the bulb was due to the scattering in straight lines of carbon par- ticles from the filaments, one leg of the horse-shoe filament protecting a long strip of:the bulb from being blackened. Later in the same year Edison discovered that a current would flow between the positive terminal of the filament and a metal plate sealéd in the bulb. In those pre-electron days the phenomenon was NO. 2619, VOL. 104} considered by electricians hopelessly puzzling. In 1897 Sir J. J. Thomson first published an account of his demonstration that negative electricity is — always associated with certain masses about 1800° times smaller than the mass of an atom of hydro- ; gen, and that under certain conditions these elec- tric corpuscles are emitted from hot bodies, Tt then became possible to give a scientific explana: tion of the Edison effect. It was not, however, until 1904 that Prof. Fleming published his master patent, which proved the utility of the Edison _ effect in radio-telegraphy. The Fleming valve, which is the parent of all” the thermionic valves, allows electricity to_ flow | from a heated filament to a cylinder, both being enclosed in a vacuum bulb, provided the cylinder — be at a higher potential than the filament. If the potential be lower than that of the filament, then : practically no current flows. The device thus ects as a true valve, allowing current to flow in one — direction, but not in the other. The high-frequexcy ; currents in the aerial can thus be rectified, and the | : CoE IPRs ee ii sik as en Soe consequent gushes of electricity in one direction can magnetise the electromagnet of the telephone and thus produce a sound. in In chap. iii. a description is given Pe several | types of three-electrode valve and of the various ways they can be connected up. Special stress is laid on the historical side of the development of | this valve. In chap. iv. we are told of the dis-— covery that the three-electrode thermionic valve | could in certain circumstances act as a generator” of oscillations. It would be of interest to know who suggested to Meissner that he should try whether it was possible to make the thermionic” relay into a generator. Whoever it was deserves : great credit for his suggestion. Prof. Fleming points out how analogous the action of the generator valve is to that’ of the ‘humming telephone,’ which has been known to electricians for the last twenty-five years, ‘and also, but not so obviously, to that of = di a detector in practical work is that it is not liable to be damaged by electric atmospheric discharges, which often cause endless trouble when coherers or crystal detectors are employed. In chap. v. the uses of the thermionic detector in radio-telephony are described, the complicated diagrams being quite easy to follow, partly because of the use of the excellent system of symbols standardised by radio-engineers. In chap. vi. descriptions are given of the methods of using thermionic devices in radio-telephony. We are pleased to rote that due credit is given to*H. J. Round, of the Mar- coni Co., for his numerous inventions. ; arc it | The great advantage of the thermionic valve as January 8, 1920] NATURE 463 In the concluding chapter an account is given of ome recent improvements in thermionic devices mainly developed during the war. There are several suggestive methods of testing the effici- ency of radio-apparatus described in the book, | some of which are due to the author. There is Jalso, perhaps naturally, a great deal about the law case between the Marconi Co. and the | De Forest Radio Co., which ended so triumphantly for Prof. Fleming. We can heartily recommend the book to all scientific readers. : (2) The development of the art of radio-com- ) munication during the war has forced the author to expand his text-book into two volumes, the second “volume being mainly devoted to vacuum valves -and valve circuits. In writing the first volume | Prof. Stanley had in view the needs of wire- less operators and amateurs. He was impressed by the lack of a text-book on electricity and mag- _netism suitable for radio-students. We are told ‘that the existing text-books do not discuss suffi- ciently fully induction, oscillatory currents, and the true significance of ‘‘ magnetic or electric lines of strain in the all-pervading ether.’’ In the _ author’s opinion the electron theory will present fewer difficulties to the student than the ‘‘ vague uid theories which it has replaced.’’ The reviewer ead, therefore, his introductory chapters, giving an elementary résumé of the latest theories, with an open mind and with considerable interest. _ The impression produced on him, however, was _ very disappointing. The student is at once intro- duced to electrons. He is told that there are 10% free electrons in a centimetre cube of metal, that Eb ciricity is a constituent of all forms of matter, and that “a unit of negative charge is an electron, and a unit of positive charge, etc.’’ He is told is before negative or positive charges are de- ned. On p. 13 he has to answer the question, *‘Tf the electron theory is taken as the correct ‘one, what is electricity? ’? Potential (p. 23) is ‘defined as follows: ‘‘ The electric strain in the ether available for making an electric current flow hrough the medium is called the electric pressure, r potential, and is measured in units called Volts.’’’ This is certainly not the academic efinition of potential, but it is getting perilously ‘near the ‘‘ vague fluid theories.’’ We are told that ‘‘if two bodies of the same size are charged ‘equally with ‘ positive or negative electrification ’ there is no difference of potential between them.”’ This is misleading, It-is true in free space, but if there are any other bodies in the neighbourhood is probably not true. Some of the definitions are carelessly given. he joule, for instance, is defined to be the work done by one ampere of current in Sawing between NO, 2619, VOL. 104] two points, A and B, when the difference of poten- tial between A and B is one volt. Similarly, in the definition of the erg (p. 42), the ‘‘ per second ”’ is left out. The dielectric constant is defined (p. 55) as ‘‘its effect when used as a dielectric as compared with an air dielectric.’’? This is unintelli- gible. The formula for measuring the mutual inductance between two coils (p. 78) is wrong; it should be M=(L,—L,)/4. There is a misprint also in the formula for the time given on p. 82. The rest of the first volume is mainly concerned with ordinary radio-practice and is readable. Some of the diagrams are admirably clear. In the second volume the author begins, very properly, with a recapitulatory chapter on ‘‘ elec- trons.’’ The theory of the thermionic valve is ae _mainly concerned with the passage of electricity through gases, and the electron theory explains this admirably. As the author was chief wireless instructor with the B.E.F. in France he is thor- oughly at home when describing the systems and apparatus used by the Allies in their wireless ser- vices. Radio-engineers will find the chapters on continuous wave (c.w.) transmission and on radio- telephony useful. A. R. CATALYSIS. Catalysis in Theory and Practice. By Dr. Eric K. Rideal and Prof. Hugh S. Taylor. Pp. xv+ 496. (London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd., 1919.) Price 17s. net. HE whole subject of catalysis stands in a peculiar position. For many years it has attracted investigators on the purely scientific side, who have added greatly to its scope in respect both of new material and of theo- retical speculation. It is being actively pursued along both lines at the present time. There are also its vast technical applications, many of them already well known, to which addition is being constantly made, and wherein new fields are rapidly opening up, of which the modern chemist must take cognisance. Yet, in spite of all this, we should be hard put to it to distinguish clearly between a catalytic and a non-catalytic process. The so-called catalytic criteria are not really very helpful. Ultimately the term “catalysis ” will prob- ably vanish from chemical literature. as our know- ledge of the mechanism of chemical processes advances, though the term may remain for long as a convenient, though arbitrary, term of classi- fication. But we are very far from this state of affairs at present, and there is the greatest pos- sible need that the importance of the subject should be emphasised and its immense possibili- ties clearly indicated. We find this well brought 464 NATURE [ JANUARY 8, 1920 out in the book before us. of the contents will give an idea of what ‘the authors have attempted. After a short historical outline and a considera- | tion of catalytic criteria, we are brought to the subject of promoters. There is a brief discussion of the possible mechanism of promoters, and it is pointed out that the beneficial effect of several promoters present simultaneously “may be due to the greater range of temperature over which at least one of the oxides is unstable or labile.” In connection with induced or mutual effects, Liveing’s views are given their just prominence. Chap. iii. contains: valuable information of a kind not usually met with in a text-book—.e. such points as space-velocity and space-time yield— together with a short description of the authors’ apparatus for the quantitative measurement of heterogeneous catalytic processes. _ In the succeeding chapter oxidation processes are considered, viz. the manufacture of sulphuric acid, salt cake, the oxidation of ammonia ‘to nitric acid, the manufacture of chlorine, the oxida- tion of sulphuretted hydrogen, the purification of illuminating gas and gaseous fuels, surface com- bustion, catalytic oxidation in the dye industry, the drying of oils, and other processes. Inci- dentally, the necessity of a sound knowledge of the thermodynamics of physico-chemical processes is made evident. Chaps. v. and vi. deal with the manufacture of hydrogen and with processes of hydrogenation and dehydrogenation. These include some of the most recent and important developments of ap- plied chemistry. The authors in these chapters, as elsewhere in the book, have added greatly to the interest and value of their work by useful suggestions regarding the directions along which further advances are likely to be made or are most urgently required. (As a minor point one might query the meaning of the data attributed to Rittman on p. 217.) In chap. vii. we pass to a consideration of the all-important problem of the fixation of nitrogen, especially by the Haber process, which has attracted so much attention recently in the Allied countries, and upon which the authors write from first-hand knowledge, though too briefly. After dealing with hydration and hydrolysis in chap. viii., in which such subjects as synthetic alcohol, the manufacture of glucose, and the Twitchell process are dealt with, the authors return in chap. ix. to reactions of the “Sabatier ”’ type in their account of dehydration processes, consideration being given at the same time to dehydrations in homogeneous systems. To a very large extent the preceding chapters NO. 2619, VOL, 104] A brief enumeration | are devoted to catalytic processes of technical im- portance—actual or potential. In chap. x our attention is directed to a different aspect of the — field, namely, the réle of catalysis in organic © synthesis, in which such topics as the Grignard reagent, the Friedel-Crafts reaction, halogend-— tion, the aldol and _ benzoin condensations, — dynamic isomerism, racemisation, and muta-rota- — tion are discussed, on the whole, rather too beet ; perhaps. In chap. xi. ferment and enzyme action is ich up. Here we find catalysis the dominant charac- teristic, serving as the link between chemistry on one hand, and physiology and bacteriology — on the other. This chapter is particularly good. The authors acknowledge their indebtedness — to Prof. Bayliss for his criticism of the treatment — given. In the next chapter we are brought to the con- sideration of yet another field—namely, catalysis in electrochemistry, a subject in which catalysis plays an important but, on the whole, little recog- nised part. It is of the greatest value to have this aspect emphasised. The problems dealt with are: cathodic FeuGS OD _anodic oxidation, — and passivity. The concluding chapter is entitled “Catalysis in Analytical Chemistry.” It is a familiar subject considered from a somewhat novel point of view. The treatment is comprehensive and sufficiently detailed to give the reader a true impression of 3 the réle of catalysis in this fundamental bean ; of chemical training and practice. 1 The book is excellent. It is indispensable, in 4 fact, to everyone interested in chemical science — whether on the academic or on the applied side. W. C. MeCoL.= THE NEGLECTED STUDY OF PROBABILITIES, Calcolo delle Probabiliti. By Prof. Guido Castel- nuovo. Pp. xxiii+373. (Milano-Roma-Napoli : Societa Editrice Dante Alighieri di Albrighi, Segati e C., 1919.) Price 20 lire. = MONG the sins of omission for which mathe- maticians and teachers of mathematics might be charged, there is probably none which has so vitally affected our national welfare as the neglect of the study of probabilities. Into every” event of ordinary life considerations of probability _ enter in a greater or less degree, and for this — reason every boy or girl who has learnt to use — vulgar fractions ought to be taught to apply them to simple games of chance, and in this way to illustrate the rules for fractional addition, multi- plication, and so forth. In default of this know- ledge, millions of pounds are spent on postal January 8, 1920] NATURE 405 _ orders in response to attractive offers of hundred- pound prizes the expectation value of which is not one-tenth of the price paid. Yet it was only re- cently that the Central Welsh Board excluded probabilities from an examination syllabus in algebra which was simply loaded up with ques- tions on collections of letters and symbols that could convey no meaning to the victims of the examination system. Other applications are to such problems as life assurance and _ statistics. In the former the calculations must, of course, be largely left to experts, but the public ought to acquire an intimate familiarity with the nature and meaning of probability and expectation and their numerical representation in order properly to appreciate the transactions. This elementary knowledge should come under arithmetic, not algebra. As for statistical applications, the systematic way in which parliamentary electors are misled for lack of understanding these things is evident. They have not realised that when wages go up prices also go up. ; Now Prof. Castelnuovo’s treatise strikes the re- viewer as just the kind of book of which it would be worth while to publish an English translation. It is a long time since we had a standard work on the subject on similar lines, and in the interval our notions on teaching mathematics have certainly moved in a_ practical direction. Prof, Castelnuovo’s book well meets the situation. Of course, the treatment is mathematical and the calculus is freely used, but the formule are intro- duced as statements of principles rather than as | purely algebraic relations, and the whole treat- ment centres largely round practical applications. Any B.Sc. candidate would find the book quite easy reading, and the subject very useful in con- nection with physics, biology, philosophy, or, indeed, any branch of science, even including that all-embracing subject, aeronautics. A_ special feature on the more advanced side is the account given at the end of the discoveries of Tchebychef, who is quoted as having made the greatest con- tributions to the subject after Laplace. Of course, the initial difficulty lies in the defini- tion of probability, regarding which Prof. Castel- nuovo’s treatment both in the preface and at the beginning of the text is probably as good as the circumstances permit. There is no unique defini- tion of probability, and in most cases no unique measure of its value. The old definition by an event which may happen in m ways and fail in n ways postulates a preconceived condition of “equal probability ” for the m and n ways. There are, as Prof. Castelnuovo points out, many cases, NO. 2619, VOL. 104] in particular in games of chance, in which this postulate is admissible and the measure of proba- bility has something like a unique value. But in most cases the estimated probability of an event depends on the extent of knowledge possessed by the person making the estimate, and, indeed, is a continually varying quantity depending on the pro- gress of previous events. No two people would assign the same measure to the probability of a certain candidate passing an examination, and, indeed, the estimated chance varies continuously until the appearance of the list (sometimes even afterwards !). All that we can do in place of a definition is to substitute numerous examples in which the measure of probability is free from ambiguity. The nearest approach to a definition is given by the rules for compounding probabili- ties, of which the above-mentioned old definition is a particular case, with the additional convention that the probability always lies between o and 1, and that after an event has happened we must substitute 1 for the probability of its happening and o for the probability of its failing in our future estimates of the probabilities of dependent events. In fact, the theory: of probability owes its existence to ignorance of future, and partial igno- rance of past, events. Attention has been frequently directed by the reviewer to energy running to waste among our mathematicians which could be utilised in con- nection with aeroplanes. In our universities a great deal of waste energy in the departments of pure mathematics could also be utilised by turning out graduates with a knowledge of probabilities and statistics which would filter down through the teachers to the elementary schools and thus to the citizens of the future. And for a start at the top of the ladder, Prof. Castelnuovo’s book seems excellent. G. H. Bryan. THE STUDY OF THE FAMILIAR. A Source Book of Biological Nature-Study. By Elliot Rowland Downing. (The University of Chicago Nature-Study Series.) Pp. xxi+ 503. (Chicago, Illinois: The University of Chicago Press; London: The Cambridge University Press, 1919.) Price 3 dollars net. T is encouraging to read that never before has there been in America “so insistent a demand for a more thorough and more comprehensive system of instruction in practical science.” To direct this demand, Mr. Downing is editing a Nature-study series, and has written a source book for the biological side. It aims at showing students in schools of education and teachers at work what materials are readily available and ae Te Le ob ee se eee 466 NATURE [January 8, 1920! how these-may be effectively used. “It under- takes to make significant some of the common- place environment and to suggest ways in which living material may serve educational ends.” Great prominence is given to material which has social and practical interest, but the danger of fostering a one-sided utilitarian outlook is guarded against. “The great contributions of science to the life of mankind are: its emphasis on the scientific mode of thinking or the problem- seeing, problem-solving attitude of mind; a mass of scientific knowledge that serves as the basis for desirable skills; and‘an interpretation of Nature productive of an inspiring appreciation,- both intellectual and esthetic, of her phenomena. Science instruction needs to assure these things to the individual pupil.” These are clearly defined aims, and the book appears to us to be highly siecesetil in all the three directions indicated—in setting problems and cultivating the curious spirit; in showing that Nature-study makes for efficiency as well as for understanding; and in cultivating a reasonable love of Nature. A note with fine resonance is struck when the author declares his ambition to treat his material so that “the everyday things nay stand revealed as the wonders they really are.’ The book deals with animals of pond and - stream, insects and their allies, birds, gregarious animals, wayside flowers, common trees, seeds and seedlings, the garden, and _ spore-bearing plants. Each chapter has its list of references; there are practical hints as to material; the illus- trations are abundant and interesting. They in- clude some pupils’ drawings. There is a genuine attempt throughout to get at the child’s point of view and to use its judgment of values, “The teacher needs to take much of the foolishness of childhood along with her, and needs also to be persuaded that it is not altogether foolish.” But there is no namby-pamby nonsense. We wonder a little, however, at some of the phrases which are unfamiliar to us, such as the chick’s egg or the chicken’s egg. Why not the hen’s egg, and be done with it? Of the many features which are admirable, we may give a few illustrations: (a) There is an em- barrassment of living creatures in many country places. The author’s plan is to make sure of the commonest—let us say, a score of the butter- flies, birds, or frees. (b) There are many subjects which are so little understood that the cautious teacher is often inclined 'to leave them alone. The author’s advice is rather to tackle them, to con- fess them as unsolved problems, and to leave them as seeds in.the mind. We refer to such subjects as the migration of birds. . (c) The author NO. 2619, VOL. 104] is not afraid of sounding the note of wonder. “To watch the germination of an inert seed, the development therefrom of the tiny plant, the — growth of bursting bud and flower, is to cross’ the threshold of Nature’s impenetrable mysteries.” He quotes the sentence: ‘“‘ The love of a flower in~ aie the heart of a child is the highest thing that Nature-study can hope to develop.” But the sug- gestion of this mood is not inconsistent with learn-- _ ing quite precisely how to graft or with under- standing the work of Mendel or of Pasteur. We i are sure that teachers of Nature-study will find Mr. Downing’s book very profitable, and they ought also to know his almost perfect introduction to heredity, ‘“‘The Third and Fourth Generation.” - VACCINE-THERAPY. Practical Vaccine Treatment for the General Prac- titioner.. By Dr. R. W. Allen. Pp. xii+ 308.. (London: H. K. Lewis and Co., a 1919) Price 7s. 6d. net. ie HE author of this little work is well coe fe as an enthusiastic advocate of vaccine- therapy, on which subject he has already written widely. In the present volume he addresses him- self more particularly to the general practitioner, i for whose benefit and guidance he explains in ~ lucid and forcible terms his methods and practice. The one theme which runs through the whole volume, and colours his frequent comments on_ the experience and teaching of other vaccinists, — is his insistence on the necessity for adequate — dosage capable of exciting focal or general re- — actions and its control by the closest observation _ of the patient’s responses and clinical symptoms. _ He asks his readers to follow his methods and thereby assist vaccine-therapy “to take its rightful __ position as the most truly scientific therapeutic agent in the doctor’s armamentarium.’’ Unfor-_ tunately, however, the book contains scarcely one pessimistic note, and, again; the unbiassed reader, who otherwise wishes vaccine-therapy well, is left with the reflection that, so long as the results of vaccine-therapy continue to be assessed by the un- — scientifically accumulated personal impressions of vaccinists, so long will vaccine-therapy continue to hold no higher position than that of an empirical — remedy, in spite of its undoubted scientific basis. On this point the author, referring to vaccine a treatment in respiratory diseases, remarks: ‘‘No ie physician has the right to play about with cases” of pneumonia to satisfy statisticians or opponents — of vaccine treatment. It thus becomes necessary . to rely on the clinical impressions of reliable observers.’’ Such impressions, we believe, carry less and less weight when we come to evaluate January 8, 1920] NATURE 467 the results of specific therapy in its widest sense, and it is not unlikely that, as our knowledge of the non-specific as well as the specific therapeutic effects arising from the introduction into the animal body of a bacterial protein accumulates, many of the deductions so glibly drawn by ardent vaccinists may go by the board. None the less, ~ as an exposition of the faith of an enthusiastic and somewhat over-confident vaccinist, the book is well worthy of perusal, and contains what, on the whole, appears to be sound advice. The early chapters are devoted to general ques- tions connected with the nature, preparation, and administration of vaccines, and are excellently written. For the chapter dealing with the best methods for securing material from various sources for culture and preparation of vaccine, the reviewer has nothing but praise, the laudable object being to secure “the right kind of material in the right kind of way.’’ Chapters follow on the use of vaccines in prophylaxis and in the treatment of the carrier-state, but the greater part of the book is devoted to vaccines. as therapeutic agents in practically every microbic disease. There would appear to be no microbic disease, whether of acute or chronic character, which is not amenable to vaccine-therapy when employed in the manner indicated by the author. OUR BOOKSHELF. The Stars Night by Night: Being the Journal of a Star Gazer. By J. H. Elgie. (First published as “Night Skies of a Year,” 1910.) Pp. xiv+ 247. (London: C. Arthur Pearson, Ltd., 1919.) Price 1s. 6d. net. THERE are many ways of being an astronomer, of which perhaps the easiest is to learn the stars and know them by position and name—and there ‘are grades even in that. We do not imply that this defines Mr. Elgie’s limitations, but he has written a very pleasant and useful book to help others to attain this degree of astronomical know- ledge. Of such books there are many, but this is somewhat unusual. Written in a chatty manner on the model of White’s “Selborne,” it describes the author’s experiences as a star-gazer or naked-eye. observer throughout a year, with much quotation, anecdote, and general astronomical information ° intermingled. | There are more thaa a hundred dia- grams, showing the constellations as they appear with reference to the horizon at different dates. Naturally, the diagrams apply to any and all years, so the year when the observations were made is not given, except incidentally in’the index, but the fact that the author saw Mira Ceti at maxi- mum early in January, and that it was then as bright as y Cygni, is fairly conclusive evi- dence that it was 1907; ~ : : The book is a cheap reprint of an earlier one published in 1910, “The Night Skies of the Year,” NO. 2619, VOL. 104] which still remains as the page-heading, -and it is not surprising that this reprint should have been considered advisable. It should command a large sale, for both the general reader and the astronomer of any category will find something of interest in its pages. The Examination of Milk for Public Health Pur- poses. By Joseph Race. Pp. vi+ 224. (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc.; London: Chapman and Hall, Ltd., 1918.) Price 8s. 6d. net, : Tuts book gives a very useful summary of the chemistry and bacteriology of milk. The chemical portion includes the composition of milk and the chemistry of the various constituents, enzymes, immune bodies, mineral salts, etc., with details for their detection and estimation. Milk standards are considered, as well as preservatives. In_ the bacteriological portion a general account is given of the bacteria of milk and of methods for their enumeration. Chapters are devoted to excre- mental organisms and to streptococci, to the tubercle bacillus and other pathogenic organisms which may occur in milk, to cells, dirt, débris, etc. Chap. ix. deals with pasteurised milk and aciduric bacilli; and directions for the preparation of culture media and tables of specific gravity, for the conversion of cuprous oxide and copper to lactose, etc., are given in an appendix. The descriptions throughout are clear and concise, and the ana- lytical methods are clearly set out. The book, which contains within its compass an extraordinary amount of information, is most useful, and can be strongly recommended as a laboratory: hand- book for the teacher and student. Rin kes Insect Pests and Plant Diseases in the Vegetable and Fruit Garden. By F, Martin Duncan, Pp. 95+12 plates. (London: Constable and Co., Ltd., 1919.) Price 3s. 6d. net. Tue object of this little volume is to provide gar- deners and allotment-holders with a simple account of the commoner insect and fungoid pests. The descriptions of the various harmful species appear to be on the whole trustworthy, and some approved methods for eradicating them are recommended. But the book’s value is diminished by want of revi- sion in the’ light of modern work. For example, the author is content with Curtis’s determination of the potato aphid, and states that the larva of Anthomyia radicum is a common pest on cabbage roots, which, despite the name of the fly, is not the case. The account of the infection of potato by Phytophthora and the denial of sexual repro- duction in this fungus also require modification. The seven orders (including the comprehensive ‘‘Neuroptera’’ of old-time entomology) into which jnsects are said in the introduction to be “eenerally grouped ’’ would not be accepted as an adequate systematic arrangement by. any student of to-day. “The illustrations include some.good photographs and some indifferently executed draw- ings. nae 468 NATURE OS LETTERS TO THE EDITOR. [The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manuscripts intended for this or any other part of Nature. No notice is taken of anonymous communications.] The Deflection of Light during a Solar Eclipse. In discussing the effects of atmospheric refraction during solar eclipses Prof. Anderson disregards the shallowness of the effective layer of air as compared with the diameter of the moon’s shadow. Unless the sun be very near the horizon, a line of sight drawn fram the centre of the umbra to a point in the corona will remain within the umbra right through this layer. This consideration vitiates the method of solution adopted by Prof. Anderson, and consequently its results. On reading his first letter (NatuRE, Decem- ber 4, 1919) I was struck by the ingenuity of his explanation, more especially as I believe he under- valued the amount of the angular deviation arrived at on his theory through taking the sun’s radius to be half, instead of a quarter of, a degree. In view of the importance of the subject, a fuller investigation seemed to be required. I hope soon to publish a note giving the complete solution of the problem, and may therefore confine myself here to a statement of the result, which is quite fatal to Prof. Anderson’s explanation. I take the altitude of the sun to be 45° and, the maximum fall of temperature 4°; the figures given may easily be modified to suit other condi- tions. I further assume the most favourable distribu- tion of temperature, which is that adopted by Prof. Anderson, when the line of maximum fall of tempera- ture is parallel to the edges of the moon’s shadow and independent of altitude. Two stars at a distance of three solar.diameters from each other might then show an increase in apparent distance owing to refrac- tion amounting to the 240,oooth part of a second of arc. If the diminution of the temperature effect with altitude be taken into account, this figure should be divided by 4. ARTHUR SCHUSTER. The Magnetic Storm of August 11-12, 1919. THE principal question raised by Mr. Evershed in Nature of January 1, viz. the simultaneity of S.C.s (sudden commencements of magnetic. storms) at different parts of the globe, has already a considerable literature. It has been. discussed by Prof. S. Chap- man and myself in the Proceedings of the Physical Society (vol. xxx., p. 205; vol. xxvi., p. 137; and vol. xxiii., p. 49). It scarcely admits, perhaps, of a precise answer. S.C.s vary from one part of the earth to another, not merely in size, but also in type. In India, for instance, they are normally unidirectional, and much larger in H (horizontal force) than in the other - elements. At Kew, and still more at Eskdalemuir, they are often oscillatory, the main movement, a rise in H, being preceded by a shorter and smaller fall. In the Antarctic (Scott’s stations) they seem to be always oscillatory and of similar magnitude in the different elements. The time when a movement be- comes visible depends on its size and the sensitiveness of the magnetograph. Magnetographs differ widely in sensitiveness and vary in type. An oscillatory move- ment that is very small or of very short period cannot be recorded by an ordinary magnetograph. Whether the time of the S.C. is. affected by the meridian position of the sun, i.e. by the local ‘time, has been discussed by Prof. Chapman. Whether the NO, 2619, VOL. 104] results he got implied any real difference is a matter of opinion, but if any difference existed it was a question, not of minutes, but of seconds. If any difference existed in the times, one would expect it to. be at least as conspicuous in the amplitudes. As I have lately shown, the type of the S.C. recorded in the Antarctic does seem to depend on the local time. — Eleven S.C.s which occurred between 11h. 59m. and 17h. 20m. G.M.T. agreed in type; while six which occurred between 21h. 3m. and 23h, 25m. also agreed in type; but the two types were fundamentally The first class represent noon and the earlier afternoon at Eskdalemuir, but midnight or early morning in the Antarctic; while the second class — different. represent hours near noon in the Antarctic. Complete measurements of the horizontal amplitudes of the S.C. movements exist for eight of the first and three of the second class. sum, we get 0-43 for the first class and 0-42 for the second, the mean from all the S.C.s of which I have complete records at both stations during 1911-12 being 0-42. The values of the ratio vary greatly for .individual $.C.s, so that the coincidence in the above figures must be largely accidental. But, at all events, it seems incompatible with any conspicuous influence of local time on the amplitude. : ; an As to the particular S.C. of August 11-12, 1919, when first measuring the Kew curves I made the time slightly before 7h. G.M.T., whether one or two minutes before I now forget. Remeasuring it now, with as little prejudice as possible, I make the time — 6h. 58m., agreeing with the value got by Dr. Crichton _ The time-breaks at Esk- dalemuir occur on the curve itself, so the estimate - there is free from the uncertainty to which, I presume, — Mr. Evershed refers, which is usually known as — ‘parallax’? between the curve and time lines. This — source of uncertainty is also practically non-existent at Kew, but the train and tram disturbances now experi- enced there make all measurements less certain than they used to be. The S.C. on August 11 was, however, so large, and the discontinuity in the H curve so con-_ spicuous, that I think the uncertainty might fairly be The uncertainty of the ordinary measurement at the average observatory, even for S.C.s, is certainly not less than this, and is probably a Mitchell for Eskdalemuir. put at +o-5 minute. good deal larger. C. CHREE. Relativity and Radio-activity. Wir regard to some of the postulates of relativity, 4 it seems interesting to ask if radio-active instability might not be capable of providing a timekeeper which 4 would retain its uniformity independently of motion relative to the ether. : As to how such a clock might be made practical or 2 whether it must remain theoretical is beside the — So also is the degree of accuracy present question. which might be attainable. Primarily, we might si pose the radio-active clocks rated one with another by = a simple count of the a-rays emitted over a certain — solid angle and during a certain time interval, the Thereafter these clocks being in the one locality. : clocks would serve to define simultaneity in widely separated localities, the diminishing quantity of the — radio-active substance notwithstanding. - As I say, the primary question is not so much one of practical application, but as to whether it would be theoretically possible in this way to observe motion relative to the ether. Or is radio-activity also ‘tin the conspiracy ’’? Jory. Trinity College, Dublin. [January 8, 1920 © : Dividing the sum of the Esk- dalemuir movements by the corresponding Antarctic — ee q January 8, 1920] NATURE 469 British Botanic Gardens and Stations. In the article on British botanic gardens and stations in the jubilee number of Nature (p. 263) the statement is made that by the middle of the eighteenth century, when Kew and the Botanic Garden at St. Vincent were founded, ‘tthe purpose of botanical col- lections had become largely limited to the assemblage of plants interesting because of their rarity. Presently a healthy reaction against this rather narrow outlook. ” arose ...,’’ and the example is quoted of the Cal- cutta Garden, founded in 1786 for the purpose, not of collecting rare plants as articles of curiosity, etc. “‘ but for establishing a stock for disseminating such articles as may prove beneficial to the inhabitants, as well as to the natives of Great Britain, and which ultimately may tend to the extension of the national commerce and riches.” Your contributor appears to have over- looked the fact that a very similar purpose underlay the founding of the St. Vincent Garden, as shown by the advertisement which appeared in the Transactions of the Society of Arts for 1762, offering a reward ‘‘to anyone who would cutivate a spot in the West Indies in which plants useful as medicine and profitable as articles of commerce might be propagated, and where nurseries of the valuable productions of Asia and other distant. parts might be formed for the benefit of his Majesty’s Colonies.” I am glad to add that the Royal Botanic Gardens, Trinidad, attained its centenary this year. W. E. FREEMAN, Director of Agriculture. St. Clair Experiment Station, Port-of-Spain, December 6. I am very grateful to Dr. Freeman for having directed attention to the existence of this interesting documentary evidence that West Indian public opinion in 1762 was a quarter of a century in advance of official opinion in the East Indies. This conclusion is pointed to by the circumstance that there was a demand in the West Indies for such sumptuous works as ‘The Natural History of Barbados,’ by Griffith Hughes, published in 1750; ‘tThe Natural History -of Carolina, Florida. and the Bahamas,” written by Mark Catesby, revised after Catesby’s death by G. Edwards, and published in 1754; and ‘The Natural History of Tamaica,’’ by Patrick Browne, published in 1756, of which a second edition was called for in 1780. It is important to have this con- clusion definitely confirmed. THe WRITER OF THE ARTICLE. NATURAL HISTORY OF SOUTH AFRICA.! R. FITZSIMONS’S volumes are not strictly zoological treatises. They are intended to supply information about the ways and habits of the creatures of veld, forest, mountain, and stream. It sounds somewhat strange to hear mammals referred to as belonging to the “lower animal kingdom.” The author speaks sometimes of “animals and birds’; in other places he alludes to “birds and mammals,’’ while the bats are spoken of as “flying mammals.” Since this work is addressed to school teachers, senior pupils, and the general public, it would have been better to explain what is meant by ‘‘mammals”’ and retain the term throughout. Mr. Fitzsimons holds the view that the leopards in wild countries unin- 1 The Natural History of South Africa.” By F. W. Fitzsimons. ‘*Mammals.”” In four volumes. Vol. i., pp xix+ 178; Vol. ii., pp. xi+195. (London : Longmans, Green, and Co., tgtg.) Price 9s. each vol. ‘NO, 2619, VOL. 104] habited by man “‘are still fulfilling the mission for which the Creator evolved them” (i., p. 120), and that “it is essential that the old, decrepit, or mal- formed animals should not be allowed to live and breed, otherwise the great plan of the Creator in perfecting the various forms of life would be marred ”’ (ii., p. 79). These and other views may not be acceptable to the modern zoologist, but there can be no doubt about the importance and interest of these two volumes to all lovers of natural history, and par- ticularly to those who keep monkeys and other mammals as pets and to the guardians of our Zoological Gardens. A charm of style and a freedom from errors distinguish the volumes. The vivid descriptions of the habits of the blue ape and the Chacma baboon, as well as of those of i aM Fic. 1 —A baby Vervet monkey, born at the Port Elizabeth Museum, From ‘“ The Natural History of South Africa,” many other species, are fascinating to read. The author gives us further particulars of the wonder- ful story we heard long ago of “Jack,” the Chacma which acted as signalman on a South African. railway line. When his master, to whom he was devotedly attached, became incapaci- tated, owing to an injury, “Jack” took over his duties. He worked even the levers on the line by himself (i., pp. 61-67), and finally pushed his master home every night on a little railway truck. This marvellous story is fully substantiated by credit- able witnesses. Mr. Fitzsimons had a serval which was as tame as any domestic cat, and even when full- | grown it did not lose any of its playfulness, and 470 NATURE [January 8, 1920 nothing gave it keener joy than to be romped and played with. It had, however, to be kept in partial confinement on account of its fondness for poultry. The author makes some appropriate re- marks on the subject of keeping animals in con- finement. Some people consider it distinctly cruel to aeprive animals of their liberty, although they may be con- fined in large, roomy, comfortable cages and all their physical needs provided for. Such folk know little or nothing of the hardships which most animals in | habits of wild mammals. It is interesting to note that the aardwolf lives almost entirely on termites; that the Cape hunting dog will scour the country for days, doing perchance more than 100 miles a day, on a perfectly empty stomach; and that the Cape otter seems to be slowly aban- doning its aquatic habits. Some mammals, like the ratel, exhibit an unusual amount of intelli- gence, if the reports can be credited that it follows the movements of a little bird known as the honey guidé in its search for honey. “Of all the animals Fic. 2.—The Cape Hunting Dog, which is as big as a mastiff. From ‘‘ The Natural History of South Africa.” their native haunts are called upon to undergo in the shape of scarcity of food, inclement weather, and the necessity to be at all times on their guard against the many enemies by which they are surrounded. The feelings of the lower animals cannot be gauged by those of us who have the mental, moral, and spiritual faculties and an advanced condition of development. If the physical needs of the lower animals, and even the primitive races of man, are provided for, they are then in a condition of perfect happiness. No one would imagine that lions could live on vegetables, and yet the late Dr. Livingstone pointed out that the lion of Central Africa frequently feeds on the desert water-melon. Mr. Fitzsimons is wrong in his statement that the lioness produces no more than five young at a birth (i., p. 123). On several occasions a lioness in the Dublin Zoo- ogical Gardens had a litter of six cubs. There seems to’ be evidence to show that the African wild cat breeds freely with the domestic cat, and this would strengthen the view that the former is the ancestor of the European domestic cat. The two volumes which have been issued con- tain a most valuable store of information on the NO, 2619, VOL. 104] _ known to me,” says the author, “the ratel has the | most energy, endurance, and perseverance.” Many of the illustrations are of a high standard, and add to the value of this welcome work. INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH. [eRe the past few years manufacturers have tended to lift the veil of secrecy behind which they were wont to hide their works pro- cesses and operations. Under the menace of war, and with the partial removal of ordinary inter- competitive conditions, rival manufacturers who were faced with problems incident to the fabrica- tion of new war products turned to each other for mutual guidance and assistance, and a very considerable interchange of knowledge and ex- perience resulted, to the benefit of all concerned. The tendency to secrecy, which prevented manu- facturers from sharing their knowledge for the common benefit of the industry and for the better combating of foreign competition, was one of the 1 Report of the Committee of the Privy Council for Scientific and Industrial Research for the Year 1918-19. Pp. 94. (London: His Majesty’s Stationery Office, 91g.) Price 6d. net. a January 8, 1920] NATURE 471 greatest obstacles in the way of organising indus- trial research on a scale and of a character re- quisite for the needs of industry as a whole. It is therefore most interesting to note, from the recently published report of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, what success has attended the efforts to establish research associations. These associations are organised and supported by manufacturers in specific indus- tries, and some financial aid is granted by the Department for a limited period of time, of an amount about equal to that contributed annually by the firms comprising the associations. Through such means research bearing on prob- lems of common interest in the several industries may effectively be carried out, and those channels for the interchange of knowledge and experience with which we have become familiar during the war, and which are so essential if the greatest benefits are to be obtained, will be maintained. Already a number of the most important indus- .tries have established research associations, and most of the remainder are giving this matter earnest consideration. Some question might be raised on the soundness of the policy of conduct- ing research in this manner, whereby each in- dustry is more or less self-contained, so that diffi- culties arise in the ready interchange of special knowledge which, though acquired in the first instance by and for one special industry, would be, if readily available, of the very greatest in- terest and value in others. One might anticipate, however, that the present type of organisation will be only a step towards an ultimate goal, pos- sibly a centralised scheme which will effectively provide for that interchange of thought and knowledge between research workers without which the whole benefit of their knowledge and discoveries cannot be secured. The widespread variety of researches coming under the survey of the Department is worthy of note; of these, none is of greater importance than that relating to medical work. Jointly with the Medical Research Committee, the Industrial Fatigue Research Board has been established, in order to carry out investigations in industry con- cerned with. output, timekeeping, labour, wastage, and such data as will serve as indices of fatigue. The enormous waste of human effort arising from inefficient application in almost every kind of mental and manual operation has long been recognised. Much of this inefficiency has been due to a lack of knowledge of the fundamental conditions governing fatigue, and at this time there is no investigation of greater importance than that which concerns the conservation of human effort, especially having regard to the far- reaching effects of fatigue, manifested in ill- health, increased risk of accidents, and loss of production. The results of researches falling within the scope of the Industrial Research Board may prove of outstanding value, not only as affording a scientific basis for the determination of the real working capacity of individuals, but also as indicating the laws underlying the most NO. 2619, VOL. 104] — economical application of human effort, the observ- ance of which will reduce to a minimum all the physiological and psychological reactions arising from fatigue, which are such potent factors in the cause of industrial discord and unrest. It is gratifying to note the increased attention given by the Department to the financial assist- ance of those students who desire to qualify for research work. The lack of sufficient numbers of really sound research workers is acutely felt in industry, and money expended in bringing to maturity the powers of young men who exhibit an inherent capacity for scientific investigation will be wisely spent. A further interesting feature of the report is the organisation of means for co-operating with the extensive scientific investigation that is being conducted by research organisations in the over- seas Dominions. It is not sufficiently realised by consumers in this country that it is just as im- portant for research to be conducted towards the efficient production of raw material as towards cheapening the more advanced processes of manu- facture. In this connection every encouragement should be given to maintaining the closest pos- sible relation with research in the Colonies. A matter to which one would like to see greater attention given is a means for developing and maintaining an acute interest in scientific research on the part of the manual workers in industry and by the general public. As the report truly points out, a marked change is taking place im the attitude in industry towards scientific re- search, but this attitude has largely been the result of scientific achievement during the war, and unless efforts are made to stimulate and maintain it this interest is likely to suffer eclipse as other problems arise. Probably no_ better means could be devised for achieving this purpose than such displays as the admirably conducted British Scientific Products Exhibitions of the last two years, coupled with systematic propaganda in the daily and technical Press. A. P. M. FLEMING. SERICULTURE IN INDIA} eee long past, the decline of the Indian silk industry has given rise to considerable anxiety. The main feature of the situation has been a serious falling off in the production of raw silk in Bengal (hitherto the principal silk- producing province of India) involving a restricted use of Bengal silk in India itself and a great decline in the overseas exports of raw silk. The place of these exports has in part been taken by the excellent silk now produced in Kashmir, but the quantity is small compared with the Bengal exports of former years. The unfortunate result has been a great advance in the import into India 1 Report on an Inquiry into the Silk Industry in India. By H. Maxwell- Lefroy and E. C. Ansorge. Vol. i., ‘The Silk Industry.” B: Maxwell-Lefroy. (1916.) Pp. ii+2rr. Price Rs. 2, or 3s. Vol. ii, “Present Condition of the Silk Trade of India.” By E, C, Ansorge. (1916.) *. vi+i1s5. Price Rs. 1 As. 6, or 2s. Vol. iii., Appendices to Vol. i. y H. Maxwell-Lefroy. (1o16.) Pp. 227. (Calcutta : Super- intendent Government Printing, India, 1917.) Price Rs. 2 As, 12, or 4s. 2d. 472 NATURE [JANUARY 8, 1920 of raw silk from foreign countries (especially Japan), and, more unfortunate still, a startling increase in the import of manufactured silk piece goods, also from Japan. When it is added that, with notable exceptions, the Indian raw silk is so defective as regards reeling and other characters as to hold but a low place in the estimation of manufacturers, it will be evident that the position of the Indian silk industry is indeed serious. With the view of ascertaining whether, and by what methods, the revival of the industry is pos- sible, the Government of India in 1915 decided upon a comprehensive survey of the whole ques- tion in both its sericultural and industrial aspects. Prof. Maxwell-Lefroy and Mr. C. E. Ansorge were appointed to conduct this inquiry, and their exhaustive reports are now available. Prof. Lefroy’s inquiry was mainly concerned with seri- cultural and technical questions, while Mr. Ansorge’s investigations have provided an ad- mirable account of the industrial aspect of the industry. India possesses great advantages as a_ silk- producing country. The enormous areas suited to the worms and their food-plants (in addition to the cultivated mulberry silk she has at least one promising “wild” silk), the abundance of cheap labour, the local market, and, not least, an experi- ence extending over many centuries, should place India in the forefront of the silk countries of the world. Her present unfortunate position (result- ing mainly from the decline in the Bengal pro- duction) is ascribed by Prof. Lefroy to four main causes, viz., (1) the increased production of silk in Japan, (2) disease among the worms, (3) in- creased value of other crops, (4) the inferiority of the Bengal worm. We suspect that (2) and (4) are the fundamental causes of the existing state of affairs. With expert organisation, the compulsory and exclusive use of disease-free seed and the improvement or replacement of inferior races of worm would unquestionably result in the relative rise in value of silk as a crop, and enable the competition of Japan to be more successfully met. Unmistakable object-lessons are afforded by the results of the scientific management of the industry in the native States of Kashmir and Patiala, both of which now produce an excellent mulberry silk. : These facts are recognised by Prof. Lefroy in making his recommendations. His principal sug- gestion is for the establishment of a central silk institute to investigate all branches of sericulture with a view to improvement; to study processes of weaving, dyeing, and finishing; and to afford expert advice on all phases of the industry, includ- ing the questions of trade and possible new markets. It is possible that the results of Prof. Lefroy’s investigations may not be regarded officially as indicating a clear case for a strong forward silk policy in India. The fact that the decline in silk is in part attributed to the increased value of the other crops will naturally result in hesitation to embark on a large development of sericulture NO, 2619, VOL. 104] absorbing an amount of energy which conceivably might be more profitably utilised in other direc- tions. It must not be overlooked, however, that silk-raising can be successfully carried on only as a cottage industry, and that without deflecting a single worker from any other crop scientific organ- isation and control of the present sericultural industry would add enormously to the quantity and quality of the output of raw silk. The ques- tion is, however, admittedly difficult. Unfor- tunately, the fact is that for a large part of India’s _ requirements the quality of the local silk is “good enough,” and there may be a disposition to leave it at that. In doing so, exceptional opportunities —commercial, industrial, imperial—will be ignored. With the measures suggested by Prof. Lefroy (notably the establishment of a silk in- stitute), India should be able to replace with locally-produced silk much of the raw material imported from Japan, and enable the growing import of silk fabrics to be reduced. As regards the overseas export of raw silk, India would find markets ready to take all the silk she could spare so long as it conformed to accepted standards of quality, reeling, and cleanliness. Within the last few years there has been a remarkable develop- ment in the world’s consumption of silk (espe- cially in America), and manufacturers would welcome with open arms new sources of supply of the raw material. The situation offers unique opportunities for India to establish her position as an Imperial source of merchantable raw silk; and before finally deciding as to the future silk policy of the country the authorities would be well advised to consider the changes that are taking place in the economic conditions of the world’s silk trade. | SIR WILLIAM OSLER, BART., F.R-:S. CLAND, Burdon Sanderson, Osler; and if to these we add—in a chair closely allied to theirs—George Rolleston, we look upon — a procession of men of rare distinction of character and accomplishments; and each in his very dis- tinction different from the others. Of such children Oxford may well be proud. For if Osler by birth was a Canadian, and in much of his life American, yet his temper and culture were also of the best Oxford could give; Oxford whose gifts are lavished abroad far beyond the narrow limits of her own walls. Thus Osler, “after a sleep and a forgetting,” and “trailing clouds of glory ” from the old West Country of his fathers, came to Oxford as to a spiritual home. And Oxford took him to her heart as her own; there, as one of her own, he rested; but bringing with him, as gifts from the New World, an openness and simplicity of mind and conversation, a frankness and gener- osity of temper, a freedom from the frost and weight of custom, and a pioneer’s command of affairs which made him as delightful a fellow- worker as he was clear-sighted and effectual. Children loved him, for in him they found the best part of themselves, Osler happened to be } January 8, 1920] NATURE 473 visiting in Oxford with the present writer when Sanderson intimated his intention to retire from his chair; a few hours later, after some hints from his friends, Osler felt the call of the bounteous mother; and not the least of the warrants of his qualities was in this, that his friends in Oxford almost sprang upon him, as they realised that before them they had a man worthy to succeed his honoured predecessors. And if Osler had not also to capture Great Britain, as he captured Oxford, it was because Great Britain was already his mistress. Indeed, there was not a school of medicine in the Old World where his presence was not almost as well known, and his friendship as precious, as in the New. It was characteristic of him that a few years later he obtained leave from Oxford to spend some months in Paris, during which period he regularly attended the clinics of the great hos- pitals, at 7.30 a.m., like an ordinary student. Of Osler’s contributions to knowledge it is as hard to make a list as it would be for Socrates. They were many, no doubt, but consisted even more in his insemination of other minds, in per- sonal teaching and influence upon his disciples. His great text-book, for many years,’ and still, the guide of every English-speaking student, had many and almost singular merits. Although within its compass no particular subject could be dealt with at large—for every subject had to be kept in subordination to the whole—yet in the successive editions it was always helpful in any quest to turn to “Osler,” because, if it were but in a word, or the turn of a sentence, one perceived that the latest and best researches, if not presented in detail, were known to the author. Thus the work was not a provider only, but also to the wise an indicator. The reader feels as he reads that both whole and parts were being continually re-adapted to the developing phases of knowledge. Perhaps the author’s most original and valuable researches were in the field of the diseases of the spleen and blood; but he made eminent contributions also to the study of infections of the heart, of angina pectoris, of malaria, and of many minor maladies. But, the most modest of men, kis conversation was always of the good work of others, silent on his own. It is to be hoped that some one of his pupils will prepare a bibliographical list of his essays and papers, and, furthermore, of his literary essays, such as are contained in the delightful volume entitled “ A2quanimitas.” It is said that a great part of the revision of the text- book for the new edition, on which he was at work, is written. Osler’s work for others was so incessant, and his hospitality so unbounded, that one always wondered when and where he amassed and made use of his learning; learning which, in particular, would discover itself, as it were, by accident, unless, indeed, his companions were expert enough to see it under the surface of his talk. Somehow or other he was not only in sympathy with various subjects of study other than medicine, especially with literary pursuits, but was able NO. 2619, VOL. 104] ' also to converse on something like equal terms with the masters of them. When in Cambridge, he found himself thus quite at home with Aldis Wright in the literature of the seventeenth cen- tury; and his proficiency in the history of medicine, well known to all students of the subject, gave breadth and living interest to all his teaching. His apprehension must have been as quick as his memory was tenacious and orderly and his power of expression felicitous.. His address last year to the Classical Association was ds sparkling as it was profoundly humane; eminent for the depth | of its sympathies and for the compass of its under- standing, it was no tour de force; the speaker made no pretence to technical scholarship, his discourse had a more free air, was more of the world, more comprehensive than is common with such addresses, but yet on its own ground was a brilliant oration. A quality that made Osler so fascinating a companion, his teaching so vivid and telling, and his parts in debate often so lively, was his wit and humour; the sharpness of the wit tempered by the sweetness of the humour. Indeed, much of his playfulness and whimsical mystifications were, in naturalist’s phrase, a protective colouring to cover deep sensibilities. In its finesse his con- versation resembled that of Henry Sidgwick; not a more or less laboured deliverance of epigrams, but a light, nimble play of insight and fun: Much of its piquancy lay in the half-concealment of the , treasures of the mind. It is a touching thought that with all these attainments, all these accomplishments, we are mourning at this moment, not, or not merely, the skilful doctor, the great scholar, the research student, or even the wise and tactful reformer, but far more the sympathetic friend of all and of a few; one in whom this expansion of his friend- ship made him none the less a dear brother to those who were nearest to him. The loss of his one child, an undergraduate of Oxford who was killed in action, smote Osler to the heart. His son had inherited his father’s abilities and character, and shared his literary tastes and his pride in the fine library which had been always the library Gulielmi Osler et ami- corum. This blow to him and Lady Osler was beyond healing; but last summer, during some fine weeks in Guernsey, he regained much bodily health. A fine swimmer, he drew life from the sea. Unhappily, a little later he was caught by the ruthlessly sudden strike of the railwaymen, and had to travel in an open motor-car from New- castle to Oxford. He reached home chilled and weary, and was attacked by a broncho-pneumonia, which, after many phases and some transient signs of amendment, ended rather unexpectedly in death on December 29. Two days before had arrived in Oxford the “Festschrift,” compiled by his friends for his seventieth birthday. This volume, which had been presented in form but delayed in completion, he was never to see; it is now a monument, one among many, to his ' memory. A 474 NATURE [January 8, 1920 NOTES. Tue list of New Year Honours includes one earl, three barons, seven Privy Councillors and three in Ireland, nineteen baronets, and a number of appoint- ments to orders of knighthood. Sir Bertrand Dawson, Physician in Ordinary to the King, and Dean of the medical faculty of the University of London, is one of the new peers. Among the new knights are Prof. Arthur Schuster; Dr. E. A. Wallis Budge, Keeper of Egyp- tian and Assyrian Antiquities, British Museum; Col. W. A. Churchman, Ministry of Munitions Explosives Department; Dr. J. Court, known by his researches on diseases of miners; Mr. F. C. Danson, chairman of the Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine; Mr. D. E. Hutchins, for his services to forestry; Mr. _ James Kemnal, for public services in connection with the manufacture of munitions; Mr. F. S. Lister, research bacteriologist, South African Institute for Medical Research; Mr. H. J. Mackinder, M.P.; and Dr. F. G. Ogilvie, Director of the Science Museum, South Kensington. Prof. S. J. Chapman, Joint Per- manent Secretary, Board of Trade, and Sir Richard Glazebrook have been promoted from C.B. to K.C.B. Dr. G. R. Parkin has been promoted to the rank of K.C.M.G., and Mr. H. N. Thompson, Chief Con- servator of Forests, Nigeria, has received the honour of C.M.G, WE regret to announce the death on January 4, at seventy-eight years of age, of Sir Thomas R. Fraser, F.R.S., emeritus professor of materia medica, Uni- versity of Edinburgh, and Honorary Physician-in- Ordinary to H.M. the King in Scotland. Tue Prince oF Waters, who has recently become vice-patron of the Royal Geographical Society, will be present at the meeting of the society on Monday, February 2, at the Central Hall, Westminster, at 8.30 p.m., when a paper will be read by Major-Gen. Sir Frederick Sykes on ‘Air Routes of the Empire.” Tue Times correspondent at New York reports that violent earthquake shocks were felt over the greater part of the Mexican Republic on Saturday night and Sunday, January 3-4. The State of Vera Cruz seems to have suffered most. The Mexican Government Observatory places the centre of the disturbance near the volcano of Orizaba. A shock was recorded by the seismograph at Kew Observatory at 5.25 a.m. on January 4. On Tuesday next, January 13, at 3 o’clock, Sir John Cadman will deliver the first of two lectures at the Royal Institution on (1) ‘“‘ Modern Development of the Miner’s Safety Lamp,” and (2) ‘Petroleum and the War.” The Friday evening discourse on January 16, at 9 o’clock, will be delivered by Sir James Dewar on ‘‘ Low-temperature Studies,’’ and on January 23 by the Hon. Sir ‘Researches at High Pressures and Temperatures.” Tue Ramsay Memorial Fund has received: from Prof, H. Kamerlingh Onnes a very substantial con- tribution of 15711. 9s. 5d., which has been given or promised by donors in Holland. These generous con- Charles Parsons on for British science and scientific workers, and the respect so widely felt in that country for the memory ° of the late Sir William Ramsay. Among the sub- scriptions are:—Philips Gloeslampenfabriek, 5ool. ; Fransch Hollandsche Oliefabrieken, Delft, 30cé. ; Neder- landsche Gist & Spiritusfabriek, Delft, 300l.; Van den Bergh’s Fabrieken, Rotterdam, 3o00l.; and Lym & Gelatinefabriek, Delft, tool. ANNOUNCEMENT is made in the British Medical Journal that the eighty-eighth annual meeting of the British Medical Association will be held at Cambridge next summer, under the presidency of Sir Clifford Allbutt, Regius professor of physic in the University, who will deliver his address on the evening of Tues- day, June 29... The sectional meetings for scientific and clinical work will be held on June 30, July 1, and July 2, the mornings being given up to discussions, and the afternoons to clinical and laboratory demon- strations. There will be twelve sessions, of which five will meet on each of the three days, and the remainder each on one day. The annual representa- tive meeting will begin on June 25. The annual dinner has been fixed for July 1, and on the evening of July 2 Dr. G. S. Graham-Smith will give the popular lecture. Saturday, July 3, the last day of the meeting, has been set apart for excursions to places of interest in the neighbourhood. FurTHER excavations at the well-known ‘Anglo Saati site of Ravensbury Manor, Mitcham, have brought to light numerous remains of the period. The old gravel- pit is being extended, and further relics will no doubt be found. Six graves have so far been opened up, with the bones of two giant chieftains and a cripple with a diseased thigh-bone. Two swords, a bronze buckle, and an earthenware jar have been found. At earlier excavations no. fewer than a hundred skeletons were exhumed. The first discovery was made in 1848, — and in 1895 the opening-up of a new gravel-pit by Mr. G. P. Bidder brought to light a quantity of | objects. Later digging by Col. H. F. Bidder produced knives, spear-heads, a few swords, pottery, shield-— bosses, saucer-shaped brooches, and some beads, whilst a number of female skeletons were found to have been thrown carelessly into the graves of the men. One grave contained a coin of Constantius II., and Mr. Reginald Smith was of opinion that the date of the cemetery was the first half of the fifth century. Great care will, it is understood, be taken to preserve any- thing of value that comes to light, but at seit nothing new has been found. Tue annual meeting of the Iron and Steel Institute will be held on Thursday and Friday, May 6 and 7, at the Institution of Civil Engineers, Great George Street, London, S.W.1. The retiring president, Mr. Eugene Schneider, will induct into the chair Dr. J. E. Stead, the new president-elect. The council is prepared to consider applications for grants from the Carnegie Fund in aid of research work, of such value as may appear expedient, but usually of the value of rool..in any one year. The awards are , made irrespective of sex or nationality. Special forms, tributions are evidence of the sympathy felt in Holland | 0n which candidates should apply before the end of NO. 2619, VOL. 104] + 4 - January 8, 1920] NATURE 475 February, can be obtained from the secretary of the institute. The research work must be on some sub- ject of practical importance relating to the metal- lurgy of iron and steel and allied subjects. ‘The results ~ of research work must be communicated to the insti- tute in the form of a report. By the invitation of the retiring president, Mr. Eugene Schneider, arrange- ments are in ‘progress for holding the autumn meeting in France next September, provided no unforeseen contingency occurs. Early notice will be given of the precise date and place of meeting and the localities which will be visited. WE note with much satisfaction that the Govern- ment of New Zealand has extended the absolute pro- tection of seals in the area under its control for a period of three years, and that the Prime Minister of Tasmania has decided not to renew the lease of Macquarie Island to the company which so mercilessly exploited the wild life over which it had obtained control. Quite apart from the hideousness of the methods of slaughter, this protection has barely come in time to save these creatures from extermination. Although this danger has, time and again, been pointed out, the authorities allowed commercial in- terests to prevail. Yet the penguins, seals, sea-lions, and sea-elephants which contrived to maintain a hold on life in those inhospitable regions represent types of animal life which it was our bounden duty to pre- serve. A hope has been expressed that Macquarie Island may be set apart as an inviolable sanctuary for Antarctic life, and we trust not only that this will be done, but also that steps will be taken to guard against marauders who may be tempted to make occasional raids for the sake of the profits to be gained. To this end the island might be used for the purposes of a biological and meteorological station. Before it is too late we hope that the matter of pro- tection for the whales in the Antarctic seas will also speedily find a place on the Statute-book. The sub- ject has been long under consideration, but as yet nothing has been done on account of the opposition of commercial interests. Durinc 1919 many meteorological features of special interest occurred, and some of these introduced problems well worth discussing. In July and October the weather was exceptionally cold and dry over the British Isles, and the rainfall in both months for the whole country was only 55 per cent. of the normal for the thirty-five years ended 1909. The cold in the autumn was quite remarkable. The Greenwich ob- servations show that the mean temperature for the year was 488° F., which is 1-3° colder than the normal for the thirty-five years ended 1915; the mean maximum temperature was 567°, and the mean minimum 40:9°. May, June, August, and December were the only months with an excess of temperature. The warmest month was August and the coldest February. There were four months, February, July, October, and November, with a deficiency of tem- perature amounting to 4° or more. December was 2-4° warmer than the normal, and 3-4° warmer than November, when there were only five days with 50° or above, whilst December had thirteen such days. NO, 2619, VOL. 104] The total rainfall for the year was 23-4 in., which is o-r in. less than the normal. December was the wettest month of the year, and the other months with an excess of rain were January, February, March, and April. The driest month was May with 0-36 in. March and December both registered precipitation on twenty-two days; during the year precipitation was measured on 175 days. Bright sunshine was regis- tered for 1489 hours, which is eleven hours more than the normal for the year. May had the greatest dura- | tion of sunshine, 268 hours, and December the least, 21 hours. Tue Report of the Director-General of Public Health, New South Wales, for the year ended December 31, 1917, has recently reached us. It con- tains the usual full statistical data of the health of the State, and reports on the work of the micro- biological laboratory. The latter is chiefly devoted (pp. 150-280) to an exhaustive inquiry on an epidemic of acute polio-encephalo-myelitis. Some 134 cases occurred, mostly in children, of whom 94 died. The chief features were fever in all cases, convulsions in many, and paralysis in a few, with rigidity and mental lethargy, confusion, and drowsiness as a rule. The disease was proved to be the meningitic or cerebral form of acute poliomyelitis (infantile paralysis, Heine- Medin disease). In the Journal of the Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland (vol. xlix., part 3, June, 1919) Mr. H. S. Crawford publishes a well-illustrated article on the mural paintings and inscriptions at Knockmoy Abbey, which are now partially destroyed, but once covered the entire northern wall of the chancel of the abbey church. The writer adduces arguments to show that they probably date from the sixteenth century. ‘‘ At an earlier period pictures would hardly have been allowed in a Cistercian church, and at a later the costumes of the figures and the forms of the inscrip- tions would probably have been different.” In the Journal of the Royal Anthropological Insti- tute (vol. xlix., 1919, January-June) Prof. F. G. Parsons presents the results of his anthropological examination of a number of German prisoners of war interned in England. He thus states his conclusions : “The more one thinks of it, the more one ‘is con- vinced that since the sixth century the broad-headed Alpine race has been slowly and steadily supplanting the long-headed Nordic type, not only in Prussia, but in every part of Germany, and the prisoners at our disposal give no reason for thinking that there is any part of Germany in which the Alpine or Slav charac- teristics have not dominated the Teutonic or Nordic.” This view is based on head and face shape and colora- tion, and, so far as the evidence goes, it is supported by that of stature. The tall provinces are in the north and west of Germany, while the shorter men inhabit the south and east. Curiously enough, after what we have heard of the Pomeranians, they are a short race, the average height being 5 ft. 6-4 in. Of course, it is possible that the exceptionally tall men were drafted into special corps, such as the Guards and Marine Artil- | lery, and that these were not fully represented in the material at the Prisoners’ Bureau. t } | ae NATURE [January 8, 1920 Sir E. Brasroox has reprinted from the Anglo- French Review for October an interesting article entitled ‘‘ The Anthropological Institutes of France and the United Kingdom.” The Société d’Ethnologie de Paris was founded in 1839, and the Ethnological Society of London in 1844. In 1859 the Société d’Anthro- pologie de Paris was founded by Pierre Paul Broca, and the Anthropological Society of London by James Hunt in 1863. The London society had at first a chequered career; the question of the plurality of races had a political bearing, and some communications made to the society on the characteristics of the negro race were thought to overstep the line which restricts scientific societies in their choice and treatment of subjects for discussion. The question was finally solved by the foundation of the Anthropological (now Royal Anthropological) Institute of Great Britain and Ireland in 1870, which has since enjoyed a useful and prosperous career, though it has never received a State grant such as is enjoyed by its French sister, and has not obtained adequate support from those interested in the problems of our Indian and Colonial Empires. A project has recently been initiated for the establish- ment among the anthropologists of the Allied nations _of a permanent central office of the International Institute of Anthropology, a scheme which, if framed on satisfactory lines, will do much to co-ordinate the work now carried on in Great Britain and on the Con- tinent. Whether Germany will ultimately be invited to share in this organisation depends on the future conduct of that country. Pror, A. KeirH’s important twenty-first Robert Boyle lecture, entitled ‘‘ Nationality and Race from an Anthropologist’s Point of View,’ has been pub- lished by the Oxford University Press (price 2s. net). Prof. Keith begins by classifying the progress of human culture into two stages: that of natural and artificial subsistence. ‘‘Man’s great bowel, including the caecum, appendix, and colon, which answered his needs well when his dietary was coarse and uncooked, is ill-contrived to deal with foods which are artificially prepared and highly concentrated.’’ The thesis which he proposes is that ‘“‘in our modern racial strifes and national agitations we see man’s “inherited tribal instincts. at war with his present-day conditions of life.’? This he illustrates by a survey of racial and national. problems in the United States, Canada, Spanish America, Australia and New Zealand, South Africa—where ‘“‘the problems of race and of nationality appear in a more acute and tangled form than any- where else in the world’’—and Europe, and by a reference to the Jewish question. As regards the Irish problem, Prof. Keith remarks that, ‘except for a trick of speech or a local mannerism, the most expert anthropologist cannot tell Celt from Saxon, or an Irishman from a Scotsman. There are, to be sure, certain physical types which prevail in one country more than in another; but I - do not know of any feature of the body or any trait of the mind, or of any combination of features or traits, which will permit an expert, on surveying groups. of university students, to say this group is from Scotland, that from Wales, the third from Ireland, NO, 2619, VOL. 104} and the fourth from England.”’ Prof. Keith ends by a strong plea that a knowledge of tribal and racial spirit is essential for statesmen. Pror. W. TRELEASE discusses the bearing of ‘the. distribution of some elements of the existing flora of Central America and the Antilles on former land con-— nections in this area (Bull, Geol. Soc. Amer., No. 29, The most important evidence is supplied — by the genus Agave, which includes the familiar Its chief centre is Mexico, but it ranges from Arizona to the Isthmus of Panama, and_ occurs also in tropical Florida and northern equatorial It is represented in the West Indies by about fifty endemic species comprising six distinct | types, and from their distribution in the islands the author concludes that the genus was derived from the — pp- 649-56). century plant. America. mainland of Central America at some late Tertiary or early Quaternary time when islands and con- — they spread tinents were continuous. Later through the chain over continuous land; the con- tinuity was broken by subsidence or faults when the verv deep Anegada Passage, which separates th: islands of St. Thomas and St. Croix, was formed, and later subsidences have caused in succession the deeper and lesser water gaps by which the Antilles are divided into groups successively more or less distinct in their — These conclusions harmonise with the — that the greatest break between the northern and southern elements in the © Antillean flora coincides with the deepest, and pre- Agave flora. fact indicated by Eggers: ea ele — 9 sumably the oldest, break in the Antillean bite now “i represented by the Anegada Passage. Tur geological work on the Western Front fot the subject of an interesting paper by Mr. W. B. R. — Journal for October — Mr. King was Geologist at General © Headquarters in France for more than three vears, His problems were mainly concerned with water-— supply, which at times presented much difficulty in~ The advice of the © geologist was also of great importance in mining and — King in the (vol. liv., No. 4). Geographical view of the amount required. tunnelling operations and in the construction of dug: outs. WE have received a copy of the Rain Map of Aus- tralia for the year 1918, published by the Common- wealth Government. It gives the total rainfall for the year and separate maps for each month. Some small inset maps show the areas with rainfall above the average in recent years. In some respects it resembled 1915, when there was severe drought in the interior of New South Wales © and Queensland. Rainfall was good until the end of February, when drought set in over the central and eastern parts of Australia. The westerly, or, as this chart names it, the Antarctic, rainfall in the south seems to have been fairly normal, south-east. South Australia suffered from drought, and throughout ‘the wheat-belt there was a serious deficiency in spring rains. A cool spring, however, minimised this want, and cereal crops were fairly good but its influence — was restricted to the coasts in the south-west and ~ The year 1918 was in marked contrast to the two preceding years, both of which had an unusual amount of precipitation. — dvi a rere January 8, 1920] NATURE 477 in Western Australia, South Australia, and Victoria, but largely a failure in New South Wales and Queens- land. Tue shortage of potassium salts and nitrates during the war has directed attention to many possible sources of supply previously neglected. In Memoir 14 of the Geological Survey of South Africa Messrs. Frood and Hall discuss the deposits of saltpetre found as an interstitial filling along the bedding planes at the base of the valleys in a region of hard ferruginous shale near Prieska and Hay, Cape Province. No satisfactory estimate is available of the average com- position and depth of the deposits. Nitrification of the animal excreta accumulating near the sheltered portions of the cliffs is believed to be the source of the nitrate, which then passed in solution along the joint planes, producing irregular encrustations and pockets. If this be the correct explanation of their origin, it is improbable that the deposits could be of any great depth. Tue Summary of Progress of the Geological Survey of Great Britain for 1918 (issued in 1919) is of special interest through its description of the bauxitic nature of certain Carboniferous strata in Ayrshire. A clay of Millstone Grit age has been found to be a good refractory, with 26-50 per cent. of alumina, 28-5o per cent. of silica, and combined water 7-5-15 per cent. Most of the alumina is combined with silica, probably ° as kaolin, hyit there remains an excess, as in bauxitic clays. This excess is, however, not easily soluble in hydrochloric acid, unlike that in bauxite. Oolitic varieties of the bed contain most free alumina. Basaltic lavas underlie the clay, and the conditions that produce laterite and bauxite seem to have pre- vailed in southern Scotland in Upper Carboniferous times. The discovery and value of this material will stimulate observation in other localities of Car- boniferous rocks, It is pointed out that the quality of the material may vary considérably, and that the presence of titanium dioxide, which occurs as rutile, in a greater proportion than 5 per cent. reduces the refractory property considerably. In the same Sum- mary of Progress a record is given of the personal and official services rendered by the staff of the Geo- logical Survey during the five years of war. Among others, our congratulations go out to Capts. E. B. Bailey and J. E. Richey. In a valuable paper read before the Royal Society of Edinburgh (Proceedings, vol. xxxix., 1919, pp. 157— 208), Prof. C. G. Knott continues his investigations on the propagation of earthquake-waves through the body of the earth. In his new analysis Prof. Knott does not assume any relation between the velocity of propagation and the distance from the earth’s centre. His work, which must have been most laborious, leads him to the following conclusions. He finds that the seismic rays of both the condensational and the distor- tional waves are concave outwards until they reach a depth of about three-tenths of the earth’s radius. To this depth, then, the velocity of propagation must increase with the depth. It then becomes nearly con- stant, but at still greater depths it decreases a little, so that the rays there are slightly convex outwards. NO, 2619, VOL. 104] The data furnished by seismological observatories en- able him to trace the rays to a depth of six-tenths of the earth’s radius, but not beyond. At or near this depth the distortional wave seems to die out, for at arcual distances of more than 120° from the epicentre their characteristic appearance in our seismograms is lost. Dr. Knott thus arrives at a conception of the earth’s interior which is practically the same as. that advanced by Mr. Oldham thirteen years earlier: that the earth consists of an elastic solid shell down to a depth of about half the earth’s radius, that here the rigidity breaks down, and that at a depth of about six-tenths of the earth’s radius the elastic solid shell gives place to a non-rigid nucleus of measurable com- pressibility. SourHport, by its report of the meteorological observations made at the Fernley Observatory during the year 1918 and discussed by Mr. Joseph Baxendell, the meteorologist to the Borough Corporation, adds much to our knowledge of the weather at one of the principal English health resorts. The report contains more than detailed observations of the weather, and now that the observatory has continued for forty-seven years the results yield values of much importance. Two local atmospheric pollution stations were started during the year, one to be representative of urban and the other of rural Southport. Hourly wind-direction- frequency normals are given numerically, as well as in diagram form as a frontispiece; they show a pre- ponderance of southerly winds in the winter and of westerly and north-westerly winds from off the sea during the day-hours in the summer months. Mr. Baxendell hopes definitely to establish a marked and persistent meteorological periodicity of nearly 5-1 years, which, he states, is especially noticeable in wind direc- tion. The year 1918 was marked by general warmth and wetness, resulting from a very abnormal pre- dominance of winds from the warmer and more humid half of the compass (south-east through south to west). The table giving the rainfall with different wind direc- tions shows that 78 per cent. of the total amount of rain was with winds from these directions, Tue Fifth and Sixth Reports of the Director of Veterinary Research of the Union of South Africa contain an account by Mr. H. H. Green of an im- proved method for the estimation of small quantities of arsenic by micro-titration with iodine. It was used for determining the fate of ingested and injected arsenic in sheep. Bacteria capable of oxidising sodium arsenite and reducing sodium arsenate have been isolated from arsenical cattle-dipping tanks. Examina- tion of maize-milling products by dietetic experiments upon pigeons shows a close parallelism between the distribution of vitamine and phosphorus in individual maize-kernels, but not in different samples of maize. In the absence of information about the original grain and the extent of milling, microscopic examination would provide a safer test than the estimation of phosphoric acid. An extensive study of diets con- taining varying amounts of vitamine shows that the daily demand of pigeons for vitamine is not constant, but depends upon the extent of exogenous meta- bolism. 478 NATURE [January 8, 1920 TrecHnoLocic Paper No. 139 of the Bureau of Standards, Washington, U.S.A., contains an account of tests of light aluminium casting alloys. Among other tests, a number were carried out to determine to what extent the mechanical properties of cast alloys could be improved by heat treatment as follows :— Heating- for two hours at 500° C., following by cooling in air, the specimens then being left to age several days before testing. Some thirty specimens were so treated, and in all but five or six cases there was a resulting increase in tensile strength of from 5 to 50 per cent. In cases where the heat treatment showed a decrease in strength, the whole group of bars of the heat was of inferior quality, cast and heat-treated ones alike. The hardness was increased by the heat treatment. The effect on elongation was more erratic, but in general a decreased elongation was found in the heat-treated specimens. It would appear that the treatment of light aluminium castings has commercial possibilities. Copies of the paper may be obtained by addressing a request to the Bureau of Standards. , Tue Technical Book Review Index issued by the Carnegie Library at Pittsburgh, U.S.A., appears quarterly, and is a useful guide to new books on pure and applied science. The compilers have not had the actual books before them while preparing the index, but have obtained their information entirely: from reviews that have appeared in scientific and technical journals. The accuracy of the information given depends therefore, in each case, upon the care taken in the review consulted. Books are arranged in the alphabetical order of the authors’ names. The title of each book is followed by full reference to journals where reviews of the book may be found, and a short quotation from each review, giving, where possible, some idea of the scope and object of the work. The compilers have wisely refrained from expressing any opinion of their own as to the value of each book, although it appears that an attempt in this direction is made upon the index-cards of the library at Pittsburgh from which this review index has been prepared. It will, however, be found that the extracts quoted from reviews give, in most cases, adequate assistance in forming an opinion as to the merits of each work. PHOTO-ELECTRIC activity seems destined to play an important part in technical photometry. In No. 349 of the Scientific Papers of the U.S. Bureau of Standards Mr. K. S. Gibson gives an account of ex- periments on photo-electric spectrophotometry by the null method, using potassium hydride cells now on the market. Such cells give a maximum _ response, usually near 4604p; consequently, the method admir- ably supplements the visual and _ photographic methods, being best in the blue and violet parts of the spectrum, where they become poor, and becoming poor only .after they have become trustworthy. By employing the null method, first brought out by Richtmyer, errors due to want of direct proportionality between photo-electric current and exciting radiant power, and to the current through the cell when not irradiated, are eliminated. Experiments have also NO, 2619, VOL. 104 | : been carried out on diffuse spectral reflection, and the method is applicable to the measurement of the rela- tive radiant power of two sources and to the measure- ment of fluorescence. In another publication of the same series (No. 344) Messrs. W. W. Coblentz and H. Kahler give data as to the change in the electrical resistance of the sulphide of silver and of bismuth when exposed to radiations of wave-lengths extending — from o6u to 34. Galena, cylindrite, pyrites, and jamesonite did not show any noticeable sensitivity. At very low temperatures the intrinsic sensitivity of silver sulphide was greatly increased—a result of in-— terest in connection with the fact that some substances exhibit luminescence only at low temperatures. Part ii. of a paper on the cutting power of lathe- — turning tools was read at the Institution of Mechanical — Engineers on December 19 by Mr. George W. Burley, of Sheffield University. Part i. was read in 1913 by Prof, W. Ripper, and a number of points raised in the discussion are dealt with in the present paper, which gives an account of the continuation of the series of experiments. which it is impossible to obtain a satisfactory finished surface on plain-carbon steels by the use of tools of ‘plain-carbon tool-steel, ordinary (non-vanadium) high- speed steel, or superior (vanadium) high-speed steel, but there are upper limits as follows :—For finishing mild steel, 48 ft. to 58 ft. per minute for eachgof the three varieties of tool-steel ; to-.28 ft:; 17 ft,to-27 ft, minute respectively for the three varieties of tool-stcel mentioned above. The cutting power of a high-speed lathe tool is influenced by both the cross-sectional area of the shank of the tool and the nose-radius, but the influence of the latter factor predominates. Thus, with a number of different sections of tool-steel, an increase of 100 per cent. in nose-radius produced an average increase of cutting power of 45 per cent.; whereas an increase of the shank cross-section of the tool of 500 per cent. with a constant nose-radius pro- duced an average increase in the cutting power of There is no marked difference in the net amounts of energy required per cubic inch — of material removed from mild-steel and pare ¥ only 85 per cent. bars at high and low cutting speeds. Messrs. January Longmans and Co, “Applied Aero-Dynamics,’”’ L. Bairstow; “The Design of Screw Propellers, with aS Refer- C. ‘Watts; — ‘‘Telephonic Transmission, Theoretical a Apuied! ee (The Extremities) of “A — Manual of Practical Anatomy,” Prof. T. Walmsley. — ence to their Adaptation for Aircraft,” J. G. Hill; and vol. i. Others books, in the press or in preparation, by the for finishing hard steel, 23 ft. — and 28 ft. to 34 ft. per expect to publish in ‘ St Among the conclusions arrived at is the fact that there is no practical cutting speed below same house are :—‘‘An Introduction to the Study of — Terra Sigillata, Treated from a Chronological Stand- point,” Dr. F. Oswald and T. D. Pryce; * Structural Steelwork,” E. G. Beck; ‘‘ Tuberculosis and Public Health,” Dr: He 7H. Thomson; “Food Supplies in Peace and War,” Sir R. H. Rew; vols. ii. and iii. of “A Manual of Practical Anatomy,” Prof. T. Walms- ley; and, as already announced, “ The Life and Work of Sir Jagadis Chandra Bose,” Prof. P. Geddes. a ORES January 8, 1920] NATURE 479 OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN. Tue BirtH or THE Moon.—Prof. W. H. Pickering in Popular Astronomy (October, 1919) endeavours to reconcile Sir George Darwin’s estimate of the moon’s age (less than 60,000,000 years) with recent geological opinion, which demands a period of 1,200,000,000 years since the formation of the earth’s crust. He suggests that the matter of the moon left the earth at that remote epoch, but remained for ages circulating round the earth as a cloud of fragments. In this form its tidal influence would be small, and the earth would for long retain its assumed primitive rotation _ period of some four hours. Gravity in the tropics would be much reduced by centrifugal force. Prof. Pickering seeks thus to’ explain the existence of the huge reptiles like the Atlantosaurus and the Diplodocus, also the fact that heavy reptiles like the Pterodactyls had the power of flight. He suggests that the moon was consolidated from the cloud of fragments in the middle of the Cretaceous period, and quotes geological authorities for a great invasion of land areas by the sea and tremendous volcanic activity at that epoch, which he ascribes to the great tides which the moon would have raised when so near the earth. That epoch would agree well enough with Sir George Darwin’s estimate of the moon’s age, supposing it to date from its consolidation, not from its leaving the earth. DISTANCES OF THE Stars’ or Type F.—Mr. C. F. Lundahl discusses the distances of these stars in Meddel. Lunds Astr. Obs. (series ii., No. 21). He works on the same lines as Prof. Charlier in his recent memoir of the B stars; that is, he assumes a constant absolute magnitude, and deduces, the dis- tance of each star from its apparent magnitude. The F stars have a wider range of absolute magnitude than those of type B, but the great majority of them are included in a range of about 2 mag.; hence toler- able. results for the distances may be expected. In fact, he states that 60 per cent. of the stars the parallax of which has been measured agree with his values within the limits of probable error. He quotes Prof. Plummer’s research on the same stars, which was based on the assumption that they were moving parallel to the galactic plane. As that method showed an agreement with measured values for only 40 per cent. of the stars, Mr. Lundahl concludes that his own assumption is nearer the truth. He notes from his results that €Tucanz and 7 Cassiopeize are evidently dwarf stars, while Polaris and still more Canopus are notable giants. The density of distribution of F stars is estimated by. two independent methods, which give respectively 8 and 4 cubic siriometers for one star of this type (a sir.=1,000,000 astr. units). ABSOLUTE MAGNITUDE AS A FUNCTION OF COLOUR.— Mr. F. H. Seares indicates a relation between colour and absolute magnitude in stars of the same spectral tvpe (Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., July, 1919). The colour is determined photographically by taking graduated exposures of the star on an isochromatic plate with and without a vellow filter. The ratio of exposure times that give images of equal intensity in the two cases is a measure of the colour. The method has been tested on about 150 stars the absolute magnitude of which has been otherwise determined. The fol- lowing are the results deduced :—Giant stars of types G and K are decidedly redder than dwarfs: also in type B the brighter stars are redder, but the difference is less marked. On the other hand, in type A the fainter stars are redder, while in tvpes F and M the curve is too flat to permit of the absolute magnitude being found from the colour. Thus the method can be applied only if the spectral tvpe is known, but it NO, 2619, VOL. 104] promises to be a useful supplement to the spectroscopic method. Experiments are being made to examine whether the necessity of knowledge of the spectral type can be evaded by taking three series of exposures with screens of different colours; if this were possible, the method could be applied to much fainter stars. CROSS-CIRCULATION AS A PHYSIO- LOGICAL METHOD. EN the mutual co-ordination and inteBration of the physiological processes in a complex organism, in which actions exerted by the environment on a par- ticular part affect the whole and the functional activity of one organ has its influence on numerous others, there are two chief methods adopted. One is by means of the central nervous system, in which mes- sages received from the periphery along certain nerve- fibres are reflected back, as it were, to outgoing nerve- fibres, setting into play the appropriate muscular or other response, it may be in a distant part of the organism. This method has been compared to a telephone exchange. The other is by means of the blood. Owing to the continual circulation of the same mass of liquid through all parts of the body, it will readily be seen that a chemical substance, produced in any one part and passing into the blood-vessels supply- ing this part, must be carried, sooner or later, to all other parts, and give rise to effects in any tissue or organ sensitive to it. We have here an actual trans- port of material, the materials carried, when they result in changes in distant organs, being known as “chemical messengers’’ or ‘‘ hormones.” In many cases there is difficulty in discovering to which of these modes of communication a particular reaction is due. Thus when muscular exercise’ is taken, the depth and rate of breathing increase. We know that carbon dioxide is produced in the combus- tion process that affords the energy for the muscular work. This passes into the blood, and may be in itself sufficient to set into greater activity the nerve- centre controlling the muscles of respiration. On the other hand, it might be that sensory nerves in the muscle. are stimulated by the movements, and that the appropriate message is conveyed by nervous channels, or both chemical and nervous factors may be involved. Perhaps a clearer case is that of the pancreas, which pours its powerful digestive juice into the small intestine as the food arrives there from the stomach. We know now that the chief, if not the only, way by which this co-ordination is effected is that the acid of the gastric contents causes the forma- tion of a chemical messenger in the walls of the intes- tine. This, passing into the blood, ultimately reaches the pancreas and excites it to activity, but it was for a long time believed to be a nervous reflex. Again, the origin of wound-shock has recently been shown to lie mainly in the production in the injured tissues of poisonous compounds, which are carried by the blood to the rest of the body and cause widespread damage to the capillary blood-vessels, resulting in a failure of blood-supply throughout the body. At the same time the co-operation of nervous factors has not been altogether excluded. The analysis of many problems of this kind has been greatly assisted by the various methods known as “‘cross-circulation.”’ It is obvious that if we can make a connection between the blood-vessels of one animal (A) and those of another (B), any chemical messenger produced in A must affect B also, whereas a process in A brought about entirely by the nervous system will have no effect on B. In this mode of experiment the blood of A may either be allowed to circulate through the whole of B, and vice versa, or 480 some particular organ only of B may be supplied from A, this organ being cut off from the circulation of B. The details of the procedure cannot be described here, but some recent improvements in the technique may be referred to. The chief difficulty lies in the fact that when the blood comes into contact with any foreign surface that is wetted by it, such as the glass or india-rubber tubes connecting the two animals, clotting occurs. This may be obviated by making the blood incapable of clotting. A substance extracted from. the heads of leeches will do this, but it is at the present time almost impossible to obtain it. Other substances having the same effect are too poisonous. Since the blood does not clot in the uninjured blood- vessels themselves, Hédon in France and Dale and Laidlaw in this country have made use of pieces of vein to connect the blood-vessels required. ‘The latter workers desired only to divert the blood from one vein of an animal into another of the same animal, so that no great internal pressure was present, and it was sufficient to pass a short metallic tube (Crile’s canula) over each end of the piece of vein, reflecting the ends over the tube and tying them. When this is done, and the tube is introduced into a_ blood- vessel, the blood comes into contact only with the lining of a normal blood-vessel. Hédon, wishing to connect the artery of one animal with that of another, took a metallic tube long enough to enclose nearly the whole length of the piece of vein and reflected the ends over this. The vein was thus adequately sup- ported against the pressure of the blood in the arteries. Bazett and Quinby, in the current issue-of the Quarterly Journal of Experimental Physiology (vol. xii., No, 3), describe a method in which the fact is made use of that if blood is in contact only with a foreign surface not wetted by it, clotting is absent for a long time. They coated the interior of the glass and rubber tubes used with a mixture of paraffin and vaseline, and by interposing a specially constructed stopcock were able to connect the circulation of the two animals or return to normal at will. These improvements in the technique of cross- circulation should render it possible to investigate problems hitherto difficult to solve. There is one dis- advantage in it which must not be overlooked, This is the fact that a fall in the blood-pressure in one animal causes an inflow from the other when there is complete intercommunication between the two. Thus one of the animals may be seriously depleted if the low pressure lasts for any length of time. For this reason the production of wound-shock in one animal by the products of tissue-injury of another seems im- possible, because the fall of blood-pressure, which is the most marked symptom of the state, would in itself drain blood from the normal animal and produce a similar state merely by loss of blood, apart from the action of a chemical substance. W. M. Baytiss. NICKEL-CHROMIUM STEEL FORGINGS. URING the war there. was a considerable develop- ment of the use of alloy steels, in particular of those containing nickel and chromium. These uses were of the most varied kinds, not the least important being in the construction of internal-combustion engines used in aircraft, where service conditions are verv severe. It is not surprising, .therefore, that difficulty in complying with the specifications was en- countered in manufacture, and much novel experience has heen accumulated by technical workers in this field of steel metallurgy. At the autumn meeting of the Iron and Steel Insti- tute two important papers relating to this class of steel were presented; .one was by Messrs. Andrew, Greenwood, and Green, of the metallurgical research NO. 2619, VOL. 104] NATURE [January 8, 1920 department of Sir W. G. Armstrong, Whitworth, and Co.; the other by Mr. R. H. Greaves, of the research department, Woolwich’ Arsenal. significant to note that the latter paper is entitled ‘Metallurgical Communication No. 1, from the Re- search Department, Woolwich.’’ Messrs. Andrew, Greenwood, and Green, who took up the investigation of defects in the final tests of nickel-chromium forgings, have carried out their work in a most thorough and exhaustive way, followin up the manufacture of these from the origin casting to the finished article. It needs considerable courage for the pacity mated in a works to pt evidence showing manifest defects in the products of the firm’s work, and the authors are to be com- mended for their honesty in taking this step. It is put rarely that such cases are met with. ; The manufacture of a hollow forging may be divided broadly into three distinct sets of operations : casting, forging, and heat treatment. The authors emphasise the operation of casting as the most im- portant of all, because any defects present in the ingot, generally speaking, persist throughout up to the final treatment. \ but also the mould-walls should be clean, and that alf loose sand must be prevented from getting into the mould. As a method of assisting in the achievement of these results, the authors suggest the use of a tun- dish with sloping walls lined with basic material. They say that if the metal were run directly into this It is interesting and Tt is essential that not only the metal from the iron ladle, the sloping walls of basic material — would act as a cleanser, since the slag would adhere to the sides of the dish. The cleansing. action would — be similar to that brought about with mercury when poured through a paver cone with a fine orifice at the bottom. They recommend that ingots should be cast — wide-end up, and that the smallest size consistent with requirements should be used. They recommend further a high-ladle, but a low-casting, temperature, since this is found to be advantageous in cleansing the metal. The macrostructure of the ingot is deter- mined by the temperature and method of casting. High-casting temperatures are to be avoided because they give rise to excessive segregation, ghost lines, etc., and coarse crystallisation. : The authors advise that, after casting, the ingot should not be allowed to cool more than is unavoid- able, but should be solid forged as soon as possible. — This breaks up the crystals, thus refining them. It also assists in the diffusion of the carbon and thus renders the mass more homogeneous. The effect - to produce a much stronger material the thermal treatment of which can be undertaken with greater safetv. In carrying this out with large forgings, very slow heating uv to the temperature range, 730-760° C., must be adopted. Above this the rate of heating may be .quicker. The. authors suggest further that they have obtained evidence that. mechanical work can be overdone, and that the. greater the amount the more prone is the tendency to .a laminated fracture. A somewhat similar point was made by M. Charpy in a recent paver published on ‘“‘The Hot Deformation of Iron and Steel.’’ é treatment the authors say that the temperature of oil- hardening appears to make little or no difference to the mechanical properties; the important factor is: the time at the temperature.in question. This should be as.short as possible, since a prolonged heating even at 8x0° C. deterioration in properties. The paver bv Mr, Greaves is coarsens the grain-size and causes a With regard to the final heat deals with the ‘‘temper — brittleness’? of a nickel-chromium steel containing — 3:5 per. cent. of nickel, 06 per cent. of chromium, o-5. per cent.. of manganese, and o25 per cent. of carbon. This term is applied to the condition induced dla tes 5. Pe eee Oe al ' e. January 8, 1920] NATURE 481 in such a stéel by slow cooling from the tempering temperature, and is revealed by a low absorption of energy in the single-blow impact test on notched bars. The author has found that wide differences in the impact figure with almost identical tensile test results can be produced by suitable heat treatment. He has also found that whereas, after hardening, every tem- pering treatment involving a final rapid cooling from 600° C. or above produced good impact figures, a final slow cooling produced a considerably lower, and often a bad, impact figure; further, that in any given steel the degree of brittleness which can be produced by a given condition of tempering depends «on the original hardening temperature. The higher this is, the lower is the impact figure. He has also found that reheating to about 520° C. produces brittleness, whatever the subsequent rate of cooling, and that this can be removed by reheating to between 600° C. and 670° C. and cooling rapidly. These results can be explained on the assumption that a critical temperature or temperature range exists in the neighbourhood of 550° C., above which the tough, and below which the brittle, condition is stable. Quick cooling through this tempera- ture retards this change, and the unstable tough condition is retained. Slow cooling results in the production of the stable brittle condition. If the tough material is heated to a temperature rather below the change point, the rate of change to the brittle condition is at a maximum, and brittleness results. The rate diminishes rapidly with fall of the tem- perature, and below 450° is negligible. Provided, there- fore, the critical temperature is not exceeded, the rate of cooling after this reheating is immaterial. Mr. Greaves does not show any cooling or heating curves of his steel. Those published by. Messrs. Andrew, Greenwood, and Green on a steel of approximately the same composition indicate that the carbon-change point on cooling occurs between about 490° and 465° C. The character of the curve obtained depends upon the initial temperature from which the steel is cooled. Hy Cit €: CEPHALODISCUS AND THE ARCHICHORDATES.1 TH history of Cephalodiscus, dredged at 245 fathoms in the Strait of Magellan by the Challenger, and at first taken for an Alga, and then for a compound Ascidian, goes back only three dozen years. Moreover, the sole species (C. dodecalophus) held the field for twenty-one years before the other species made their appearance; but now, with Dr. Ridewood’s memoir before us, the total number of species reaches from twelve to sixteen, though further research may reduce that number. It is noteworthy that whilst the majority group themselves around the South Pole, four occur in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. In the present memoir Dr. Ridewood, already known as an authority on the subject, keeps to the classification adopted previously, the group Ptero- branchia (Aspidophora of Allman) having three sub- genera of Cephalodiscus, viz. Demothecia, colony branched, with a continuous cavity throughout the coencecium; Idiothecia, colony branched, but each aperture leading into a tube occupied bv one zooid and its buds; and Orthothecus, in which the colony is cake- or cone-like. each aperture entering a_ tube holding a zooid and its buds. The author first treats 1 “British Antarctic (Tera Nova) Expedition, 1gto. Cephalodiscus, Ry Dr. W. G. Ridewood. With 12 text-figures, 5 plates, and a map (Published by the Trustees of the British Museum (Natural History), 1918.) Price 12s. is NO. 2619, VOL. 104] of the structure of the zooids, the similarity of which throughout the whole series is noteworthy; only in the reduced male zooids of C. sibogae, Harmer, is there a divergence. This fact alone would give differ- ences due to variations in the coencecium less weight. Amongst other features of interest are the enlarge- ments at the ends of the tentacles, for instance, in the original species, which the author terms ‘“ end- swellings with refractive beads,” and it is curious that no special function has been assigned to them. Similar enlargements at the tips of the branchial filaments are prominent features in Filograna and the so-called Salmacina, and great weight has been placed on them specifically, and even generically, by certain observers. In all probability they are sense-organs in both groups, since they are not connected with secretion, nor do they perform the function of opercula in Filograna (a Serpulid), in which form they are present or absent with puzzling indifference, for the plasticity of the species is phenomenal. The changes in the character of the epithelium on the dorsal and neural surfaces of the arms, and on the two surfaces of the post-oral lamella, are probably due, as in other forms (e.g. the Serpulids), to differences in function. The length of the testis is thought by the author to be a specific character, but that of the ovary is not. Details are given of a new species, C. evansi, a branched form, in which each ostium leads into a tube ending blindly in the middle of the branch. The other three species procured in the expedition were formerly known, viz. C. nigrescens, Lankester, C. densus, Andersson (which the author considers to be a variety of the next), and C. hodgsoni, Ridewood. Thereafter a discussion on the Demothecia occurs, the species being extremely difficult to distinguish either by coencecium or zooids, and it is possible that future observers may reduce the number of species, since the variations of both ccencecium and zooids in a single species are considerable. No new feacure is given in connection with repro- duction and development further than that the author thinks there is no certain relation between the number of arms and the sex, as Andersson did, and that in C. hodgsoni the short stalk of the egg spreads over the egg-shell. Males, females, and hermaphrodites _are found in C. hodgsoni, C. aequatus, C. nigrescens, C. solidus, and C. densus, whilst no males have yet been found in C. dodecalophus, C. levinseni, and C. gracilis. In C. sibogae and C. agglutinans only males are known, and in C. gilchristi and C. evansi both sexes frequent the same colony. The author makes no allusion to the systematic position of Cephalodiscus in zoological classification, or to the homologies of the organs which have re- ceived the attention of many zoologists in connection with that classification. Dr. Masterman’s Archi- chordata (Trimetamera), therefore, stands as before, with its two classes (1) Hemichordata (e.g. Balano- glossus) and (2) Diplochordata (e.g. Phoronis, Cephalo- discus, and Rhabdopleura), though not without dubiety in certain aspects, which even the labours of Spengel, Weldon, Cori, Fowler, De Selys - Longchamps, Lankester, Harmer, Gilchrist, Ridewood, Schepotieff, Davidoff, Hill, Gravier, Pixell, and Roule have not quite elucidated. Much of the dubiety is connected with the notochord and the gill-slits. Dr. Harmer thought that the proboscis-vesicle and ‘‘heart,”’ with the notochord, essentially agreed with the condition in Balanoglossus, as described by Mr. Bateson; but Dr. Masterman, keenly working at Actinotrocha, Tornaria, Phoronis, and the young forms of Cephalo- discus, held that the primitive types had a double noto- chord, and his beautiful and accurate drawings speak for themselves whatever interpretation may be put 482 NATURE [JANUARY 8, 1920 on them. Dr. Harmer’s notochord, proboscis-vesicle, and heart are Dr. Masterman’s subneural gland, sub- neural sinus, and preoral sac respectively, and Master- man has demonstrated that the subneural gland of Cephalodiscus and the “ Eicheldarm”’ of Balanoglossus - occupy entirely different relationships from the sur- rounding organs in each case, and therefore cannot be homologous. In both Balanoglossus and Actino- trocha there is a large subneural sinus. The presence of pleurochords in Cephalodiscus, of lateral grooves in Tornaria, and of pharyngeal pleurochords in Rhabdopleura, terminating (as in Tornaria) in oral grooves, which Morgan has shown grow outward into serial pouches, are points of interest in connection with Dr. Masterman’s view. Besides, in Balano- glossus there are other chordoid parts in addition to the notochord of Bateson. and Harmer. Larval Enteropneusta, again, have a pharynx with simple, paired pleurochords terminating in lateral grooves. It has to be borne in mind that’ Davidoff describes the notochords and nervous system in certain Tunicates as arising from paired rudiments, and the same observa- tion has been made by Brooks in Salpa. In any case, as Masterman shows, Roule’s view that Actino- trocha is a trochophore cannot be held, since the cavity of the latter is a hamocele, whereas the hamocele of Actinotrocha is restricted to a small space between the coelomic sacs. The whole subject is a complex one, yet it may be that further research will weld these diverse views into harmony. Meanwhile, Masterman’s opinions have much in their favour. The memoir concludes with a useful synopsis of the species of Cephalodiscus, and the five plates are excel- lently drawn and lithographed, the map at the end showing at a glance the distribution of the various species, the whole forming a worthy tribute to the methodical and patient industry of the author, who, along with Dr. Harmer, of the same great museum, has done so much to extend our knowledge of this very remarkable group. ; THE ITHACA AGRICULTURAL EXPERI- MENTAL STATION.} AGRIC UPTE RG experts visiting the United i States always include the Ithaca Experimental Station in their programme if they can possibly manage to do so, for it is one of the finest and largest in that country of large institutions. Incidentally also, it appeals to all who read and loved Fenimore Cooper in. their younger days, for it is situated in the lake country, and still preserves some of the waterfalls and woods associated with his heroic, if somewhat mythical, warriors. The reports before us are bulky volumes, each of a thousand or twelve hundred pages; they are in keep- ing in point of size with the whole institution. ‘The list of the staff occupies four closely printed pages, and includes nearly two hundred names. The number of printed copies of bulletins, reports, etc., sent out during one year only was 3,014,000. The State grant “was 450,000 dollars in 1913; it rose during the war to 779,401 dollars for the year 1917-18. An English- man reading these figures, and realising how greatly the income of this one institution exceeds that of all English agricultural colleges and experimental stations put together, begins to gasp when he finds the acting Dean declaring :—‘tThe greatest single need of the college at the present time is more funds for re- search’’; and again, ‘‘In common with other col- leges in the University, the.College of Agriculture is 1 Reports of the Agricultural Experiinental Station, Ithaca, New York, for the Years 1914-17. NO. 2619,-VOL. 104] suffering because of the inadequate salaries which members of the staff are receiving.’”’ — Bde tise aan The investigations cover the whole field of agricul- ture, but as no summaries are given it is not easy to find one’s way through them. bP sees A large number of the bulletins deal with diseases and pests of farm and garden crops, devoting special attention to practical methods of coping with them. In this type of work the American investigator ex: ave ; we have scarcely begun to make provision for field. ewe work in plant pathology in Great Britain, although a promising start has been made with the more funda- mental investigations. An extended series of observa- — tions on the nodule organism (Bacillus radicicola) of soybean is given in Bull. 386; the general result is that nodule formation can be considerably checked or stimulated by the presence or absence of certain salts and by variations in the amount of soil-moisture. — Chlorides, phosphates, calcium salts, and certain organic compounds such as sugars, starch, oxalic, — lactic, and citric acids, increase the amount of nodule formation; increases in moisture-content had a notable effect also. On the other hand, nitrates, ammonia compounds, and sulphates reduce it, though they do not kill the organism. The direct assimilation of certain carbohydrates ly green plants is discussed in Memoir 9 (1916). Sac- charose, glucose, maltose, and fructose are directly absorbed and utilised by plants (green maize, Canada field pea, timothy, radish, vetch, etc.); moreover, — they produce a characteristic branched-root system. It is suggested that the absorbed sugar is largely — utilised in the root itself, but little\ migrating to the stems and leaves; this diminishes the downward migration of the sugar produced by photosynthesis and leads to increased top growth. Certain plants, — such as radishes, vetch, and Canada field pea, are — able to utilise lactose, although this sugar has not — been found in the vegetable kingdom. Curiously — enough, however, galactose is toxic to green plants, although it is utilised by various fungi. The bearing of the results on the old question of the source of carbon for plants. is obvious, and the author con- cludes, as Laurent did in 1904, that the organic matter of soil plays a direct part in the nutrition of green plants, and in certain circumstances, notably in glass- house work, this part may be very important. The soil surveys of Oneida County (Bull. 362) and of Orange County (Bull. 351) are typical of this kind of work as done in America. They form interesting — reading, and would be helpful to a young man wish- ing to settle on the land but uncertain to which part of the country to turn. cape | Costs of production of farm crops form the subject of an important investigation (Bull. 377, 1916). In o 1912 and 1913 the average costs of producing oats per acre in New York State were respectively 23-51 dollars and 22-34 dollars per acre, te, 4l. 18s. — and 4l. 13s. respectively. It is interesting to compar these figures with the Rothamsted data, where the © cost in 1913 was 61, 4s. per acre. In both cases one — of the largest single items is labour; in New York State it was 3-60 dollars per acre (15s.), at Rotham-_ sted 21s. 4d. per acre, although the rate of wages — paid in New York was double that paid in this” country. The New York yield was 335 bushels per acre, that at Rothamsted 48 bushels. Bh ns Bull. 338 contains an interesting study of fertile and infertile soil otherwise similar in character; it was found that the former more readily accumulated nitrates — than the latter. The most obvious cause was the difference in compactness of the soil, the fertile being less compact and having a smaller volume-weisht than the less fertile one. An extensive bacteriological Ik JANUARY 3 1920] examination was made by H. J. Conn, but it led to no result, indicating the weakness of present-day methods. The bacterial numbers fluctuated with the moisture-content, as at othér centres. Some interest- ing soil-moisture relationships are brought to light in ~ Bull. 352 (1914). ‘E. J. RusseEy. THE RAINFALL OF THE UNITED STATES. ROF. ROBERT DE C. WARD, of Harvard Uni- ; versity, contributes an article on “Some Charac- teristics of the Rainfall of the United States”’ to the Scientific Monthly for September. The article is essentially of a popular character, but it is dealt with in a strictly scientific manner, and references to the several works from which the information is selected are given throughout, so that a closer and more minute study can be made where thought desirable. Many of the characteristics dealt with are among the most important, and certainly the most interesting, asso- ciated with rainfall. There is an endeavour to explain the cause of the special characteristics, a feature in many discussions of the present day. It has often been said in the past, with respect to, meteorology, that there are bricks enough, but that we now require builders. Those who have been familiar with meteoro- logy for the last half-century note with satisfaction its practical development. Referring to the annual and monthly rainfall, Prof. Ward associates the varying amounts with the tracks of cyclones and the general pressure distribution which constitute the rain-producing conditions. The ratio of wettest and driest years to the mean fall is given for _ the United States generally. Where the annual rain- fall ranges from 5 in. to 30 in. the fall in the wettest years may be expected to amount to about 180 per cent. of the average, whilst in the driest years the total is not likely to be less than about 55 per cent. of the average. Years with precipitation above the mean are less frequent than years with precipitation below the mean. It is emphasised that it is always instructive to investigate the weather-map conditions in all cases of unusually wet or dry periods, and to follow especially the tracks of low-pressure systems. Dealing with periods with or without precipitation, the article states that ‘‘over most of the country the number of consecutive rainy days has been between to and 20. . . . On the north-western coast (Western _ Oregon), where the rainfall is heavy and the cyclonic _ activity is marked, more than 30 days in succession - (30 to 40) have been rainy. .. .” It is said that droughts may occur anywhere in _ the United States, especially where cyclonic controls _ of precipitation are weak. There is a distinct relation _ between droughts and forest fires—‘‘a pre-requisite of a forest fire is a drought.’’ 3 The Government meteorological reports, such as the ' Annual Report of the Chief of the Weather Bureau - and the Monthly Weather Review, give much valuable material with respect to rainfall. As a rough-and- ready classification of excessive rainfalls, mention is made of to in. or rhore in a month; 2°50 in. or more in _ twenty-four hours; and 1 in. or more in an hour. _ Referring to secular variation of rainfall, it is pointed out that trustworthy conclusions cannot be drawn, as _ few observations go back to 1850. and most observa- _ tions date from later than 1870. A period of observa- tions for twenty-five years, 1887-1911, for all districts of the United States “lends no colour to the theory of a cycle in precipitation,”’ and curves for New Eng- ~ land, the Western Gulf, and North Carolina for 1879- tg1r ‘show no approach to uniformity of distribution n time or space,’’ For non-instrumental evidence ‘a NO, 2619, VOL. 104] study has been made of the “rings’’ of trees in Arizona and California, “it being assumed that the thickness of the annual layers of tree-growth gives an approximate measure of the annual amount of precipitation. . . . The fact that the ‘big trees’ have continued to thrive for three thousand years has been taken to indicate a remarkable uniformity of climatic conditions rather than a series of oscillations.” Cutt RETIREMENT OF SIR OLIVER LODGE. ©* January 1 the City of Birmingham gave expres- sion to its high appreciation of the work of Sir Oliver Lodge as Principal of the University. At a meeting in the Council House, at which the Lord Mayor (Alderman William Cadbury) presided over a representative gathering of the leading citizens, an illuminated address was presented to Sir Oliver and Lady Lodge. The address, which was read by Sir Gilbert Barling (Vice-Chancellor of the University), was as follows:—‘To Sir Oliver Lodge, F.R-S., LL.D., and Lady Lodge: On the eve of your depar- ture from Birmingham we desire to express to you our deep sense of loss, our sincere appreciation of your great services, and our warmest wishes for your happiness and well-being in your new home. To you, Sir Oliver, we owe much as a physicist. Your dis- tinction has added lustre to our city. As academic leader you have started our University on its career with lofty ideals. You have done much to form public opinion as to the meaning of true education in all its forms and among all classes, and your ethical teaching has ever been directed towards social amelioration. You may be satisfied that your labours of nearly twenty years have left a deep and lasting mark on the community which you have so long adorned. To both of you we wish good-bye with the deepest regret, and our most kindly feelings accom- pany you.” Sir Gilbert added that it was the intention of the subscribers to present also more substantial evidence of their kind feelings in the form of a motor-car, and a jewel for Lady Lodge. He remindéd his audience of the greatness of the task which Mr. Joseph Cham- berlain had set before the first Principal of the Uni- versity, and he bore eloquent testimony to the admir- able way in which Sir Oliver had realised the ideals of that statesman and justified his choice. Sir Oliver Lodge in his reply emphasised the debt which the city owed to those public-spirited men who had gone before. He hoped the city had become proud of the University which it had brought into being. It took a little time always to know what an institution was worth, but the University was the crown of the city. He referred to the difficulties under which the University had laboured through lack of funds, but he believed that a better day was dawning. The State and the city were co-operating to a greater extent than before. One of the first uses he proposed to make of his freedom was to visit America. He had often been asked to go, but had never before been free to do so. THE CHIPPAWA-QUEENSTON HYDRO- ELECTRIC DEVELOPMENT SCHEME. AMONG the whole of the world’s sources’ of water-power the Niagara Falls stand in a posi- tion of unigue importance. Not only is the gross capacity of 5;000,000 h.p. a magnificent industrial asset of unrivalled proportions, but. the actual develop- ment’ of the Falls at the: present time has enabled 484 . ONATORE [January 8, 1920 _ the Hydro-Electric Power Commission of Ontario to create the largest system of electric transmission in the world. There are altogether ten plants belonging to the commission in various parts of the province, aggregating 248,000 h.p., and supplying nearly 200 municipalities, to which Niagara contributes the supply for 118. The transmission lines comprise 455 miles of 110,000 voltage, double circuit, and 2100 miles of low tension. Such has been the achieve- ment of the commission up to the end of last year. Thete is now in hand a most important extension of this remarkable system. The Chippawa- Queenston project, as it is designated, will within a few years’ time increase the serviceable capacity by from 200,000 h.p. to 300,000 h.p., and, ultimately, by 1,000,009 h.p. The first instalment of the work is expected to be ready by the spring of 1921, at an estimated cost of 5,000,000l1. We gather the following interesting particulars of the project from a_ recent series of articles in the Engineer :— Instead of the relatively small head (between 135 ft. and 165 ft.) of the actual Falls, it is proposed to utilise nearly the full difference in level, amounting to 330 ft., between the surfaces of Lakes Erie and Ontario. In order to effect this, a canal nine miles in length will be excavated so as to connect the Wel- land River with the Niagara River at Queenston, and the Welland River itself will be widened and deepened for 44 miles from its mouth. The channel thus formed will deliver water to a power-house below the Falls under a head of 305 ft., which will enable 30 h.p. to be developed for each cusec of flow instead of the 14 h.p. per cusec which is all that is available from the existing installation. The mean velocity of flow will be 2 ft. per sec. in the Welland River and 6 ft. to 7 ft. per sec. in the canal, resulting in a discharge of 10,000 cusecs at low-water level. The canal route lies mainly in the solid rock of the Niagara Limestone formation, with the remainder (14 miles) in earth and loose material. In rock the cross-section will be rectangular, 48 ft. in width; in earth it will be prismatic, with a bottom width of zo ft. and side-slopes of 1 in 12, pitched with stone facing. f At the delivery end of the canal a forebay will be formed in solid rock 1000 ft. long, widening to 300 ft. at the extremity. Penstocks of riveted steel plates, 14 ft. in diameter and about 450 ft. in length, will extend down to the power-house at the foot of the river-bank. The initial generating plant will consist of 4 to 6 units of 50,000 h.p. each. On each turbine-shaft there will be a 3-phase, 25-cycle, 12,000-volt internal revolving field generator of 43,900 kilovolt-amperes at a power factor of 85 per cent. Brysson CUNNINGHAM. THE ORGANISATION OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRIES. AS the meeting of the London Section of the Society of Chemical Industry, held at Burlington House on Monday, January 5, two interesting papers were read by Mr. E. V. Evans and Dr. G. S. Wal- pole on the present position of the chemical industry of Germany. The authors of these papers were deputed to visit a number of important chemical fac- tories in the Rhine Valley in the early part of last year. They are well-known chemists with consider- able experience of chemical plant on a large scale. The information which they were able to disclose was valuable and suggestive. Mr. Evans and Dr. Walpole described the German chemical factories as being maintained in a state of perfection, but paralysed at the moment through lack of labour and raw materials. NO, 2619, VOL. 104] ’ They contrasted the huge and well-staifed factories in Germany with the smaller equipments in this country, and dealt in particular with the manufacture of dye- stuffs and intermediate products which has — i developed in this country since the outbreak of yf ae During the war the demand of the country for raw materials for war purposes was so great as to make it impossible to organise this new industry on a scale adequate to compete with the German chemical _ industry. The authors of the papers were satisfied that the ability and knowledge of British chemists — were at least equal to those of their German competi- _ tors, but they directed attention to the fact that it was — not possible in the long run for a number of firms in this country, each producing a limited number of products in comparatively small quantities, to com- — pete successfully with the huge German factories, all amalgamated into one organisation and capable of — turning out in a relatively small number of places the huge quantities of dyes required by the world. _ To enable this country to retain the trade in dye- stuffs and intermediates which were now being manu- factured here, and to enable it to do a certain amount of export trade in these commodities, there must be an organisation comparable with that of Germany, and time would be required to build up such an ~ organisation. Meanwhile, some protection against the — importation of German dyestuffs and intermediate products was necessary, and the trade could rot — flourish until some of the existing Government restric- tions were removed. Sa gies then oe The action of the Government in licensing the im-— portations of German dyestuffs was a useful measure and had been of great value. It is to be hoped Wigs these important papers will stimulate the chemical trade of this country and the Government Depart _ | ments concerned to study the better organisation of chemical industries here and to put forward some care- _ fully considered scheme. Be { 25 GEOLOGY AT THE BRITISH Go @ _ ASSOCIATION. One ‘THE break in the continuity of sectional procerd- ings due to war conditions had, to a great extent, prevented those interested in geology through- _ out the country from keeping in touch with one ~ another, and full advantage was taken of the o 3 tunity for reunion offered by the Bournemouth meet- _ ing. Although arranged at short notice, the standard ; ‘| 2 of former years was well maintained in the com- mouth Bay, coupled with Mr. H. Bury’s contribution on the history of the Chines, gave rise to considerable discussion. Important records of the rate of marine erosion at the present time and in recent years were contributed by many of those taking part in the dis-— cussion, and the Borough Engineer’s measurements taken a short time ago were confirmed by collateral — evidence. ine ‘Mr. Reginald Smith’s paper on the Post-Tertiary _ geology of the area round Bournemouth, with special ve reference to the worked flints collected from many of the beds, was introductory to a joint discussion with — Section H, and produced a very animated controversy. An admirable exhibit of such flint implements was arranged specially for this meeting by Mr. Scott, and added point to many of the remarks. i A second joint meeting, namely, with Section D January 8, 1920] NATURE 485 - (Zoology), ont subjects of less local interest, stimulated the most important discussions held during the pro- ceedings of the Section. Mr. C. Tate Regan initiated one of these on the past history of continents as indicated by the distribution of fresh-water fishes; and Mr. -D. M. S. Watson, a second, on paleontology and the evolution theory. Mr. Watson submitted that the data of paleontology cannot suggest the mechanism of evolution in the way that experimental biology and genetics can, but any evolutionary scheme must be consistent with these palzontological facts. The fossil record shows that intermediate groups rarely occur between two types; that innovations in any form, once initiated, tend to persist; and that innovations only arise from the more primitive members of a stock, i.e. from those which have retained their evolu- tionary plasticity. ; The suggestion offered from the paleontological argument is that evolution is due to the operation of a variety of non-correlated factors, and that the initia- tion of a great group may be brought about by a set of nearly contemporaneous saltations.- Most of the speakers who followed commented on conditions seen in the groups they were specially interested in, and cases of convergence, divergence, homoplasy, rejuvenation, and extinction were in- stanced from the biological and _ paleontological records, all of which had to be taken info considera- tion in formulating any scheme of evolution. As showing the difficulties to be overcome, the case of the great auk was mentioned. Here a well-known bird had become extinct, yet no reason could be assigned save by postulating that a racial senility had set in, with a consequent loss of plasticity. The difficulties confronting the explanation of extinction in former ages were correspondingly greater in that we could not know accurately the conditions prevailing at those times. The consensus of opinion was, however, that a re- statement of the paleontological record in the light of present biological experimental results had become necessary, and the hope was expressed that this dis- cussion might stimulate some such work. Two exceedingly valuable contributions on aspects of geological research in our Colonies were presented by Dr. Miller on the pre-Cambrian rocks of Central Canada, and by Mr. A, E. Kitson on the discovery of diamonds in the Gold Coast. The former’ paper records a reasoned attempt to place the correlation *of the pre-Cambrian rocks of Canada on a sound basis. This is very important in view of the fact that many minerals of economic value are associated with that series. The author directed attention to certain points where .he had altered former correlations of these rocks, and especially to the discarding of the term ‘‘ Huronian,’’ The reason justifying the changed nomenclature is that Logan’s name ‘‘ Huronian” included two. series of rocks, and later writers have applied it sometimes to one set and sometimes to the other, thus leading to confusion. New names have, therefore, been adopted for each set. Mr. Kitson’s discovery of diamonds in the Gold Coast was made so recently that no estimate can be made of its ultimate importance. Unfortunately, the paper was read at the end of the sectional proceedings, and there was not sufficient opportunity for discussion of the many interesting points raised. The whole question of the conditions of production of diamond in Nature is again opened up by the fact that no important basic igneous rocks, like the kimberlite of South Africa, occur in the whole surveyed area of the Gold Coast. The specimens so far obtained were exhibited, and all were small, but exploitation of the diamantiferous gravels may lead to the discovery of larger and more valuable specimens. NO, 2619, VOL. 104] Other interesting communications on British geology were presented by Prof. S. H. Reynolds on the Lower Carboniferous rocks of the Avon section, Clifton; by Dr. Evans on the correlation of the marine Devonian rocks of North Devon and Somerset; and by Prof. Kendall and Dr. Gilligan on types of faults in the Coal Measures. Two important papers have been left for considera- tion until the end, though they were read at an early part of the proceedings. In such an interesting dis- trict from a geological point of view it was felt that the Sectional Excursions ought to bulk largely, and consequently the general arrangement of the pro- gramme was correlated with the excursions to be held during the meeting. The first day’s programme, therefore, included a description of the Tertiary rocks of the Hampshire basin by Dr. W. T. Ord, and was followed by an excursion under his leadership to the Bournemouth cliffs, where the Lower Tertiary rocks were examined. This examination was continued, three davs afterwards, by a visit to Barton and Hordle led by Mr. H. W. Monckton, when the Upper Eocene beds, long famous for their marine fossils, were searched by many of the party with considerable success. The lecture by Sir Aubrey Strahan on the geology of the Mesozoic rocks of the Bournemouth area was introductory, to visits to Swanage, Lulworth, and Kimmeridge, the first two led by the author and the last by Dr. J. W. Evans. On these various excursions the structures which dominate the whole trend of the southern coastline were demonstrated, as was the manner in which the effect of these structures had been modified by subsequent denudation. Several of the curious. natural phenomena, such as Lulworth Cove, Stair Cove, Durdle Door, etc., familiar to most geological students through the activity of the Com- mittee for the Collection of Geological Photographs, were fully explained in the field. The classic section at Kimmeridge was visited on the day following the official termination of the meet- ing, but, none the less, a large party was led by Dr. Evans along a most interesting coast section. ASSOCIATION. pes the meeting of the British Association held. in Bournemouth last September, Sir Hugh Bell pre- sided over Section F (Economics), and in his presidential address emphasised the need for increased production, holding that by thus serving the common weal each one would at the same time be serving his own best interests. In the discussion of problems of labour and capital a paper was read by the Right Hon. F. Huth Jackson on ‘“ The National Alliance of Employers and Em- pioyed.’’ Comparison was made between the objects of the alliance and those of the Whitley Committees. While the latter stood for improvement in the commercial and working conditions in single indus- tries, the former was also intended to bring together the employers and employed in all industries in a par- ticular area with the object of improving not only the industrial, but also the housing, educational, and recreational conditions of the district. Problems arising out of the war conditions were dealt with from three sides. The Hon. Sir Charles G. Wade approached the question of prices from the side of Government control, making special reference to’ the experience of Australia. The degree of success attained by the method of price-fixing during the war must not, he held, be taken as a guide for peace con- ditions. Apart from complete State control of indus- 486 NATURE [January 8,. 1920 try, the effect of price-fixing had always been, and in- evitably would be, the création of a scarcity of the article the price of which was fixed; and moreover, the regulation of the price of any one commodity would necessitate the application of similar control to every link in the chain of production of that article. The only way to maintain an adequate supply of capital and sufficient production under a system of fixed prices’ was to institute complete State control of all produc- tion and distribution, but this was impracticable. His remedy, therefore, was, while refraining from any controi of prices, to apply publicity to costs and profits by means of profiteering tribunals. Dr. J. C. Stamp was also on the track of the pro- fiteer, but rather with the aim of making up. the deficit in the national revertue. _ For this purpose he be- lieved a substantial increase in the income- and super- taxes would result either in a hindrance to the accu- mulation of capital or in a great addition to working- class burdens, and was therefore inadvisable. Nor did he argue for the levy on capital, which would fail, he believed, to bring about distributive justice. His solu- tion of the problem lay in the taxation of the profits of all businesses in excess, not of their own pre-war profits, but of a normal rate of interest on capital. He believed that in this way it would be possible to reach these businesses which, through good fortune, received abnormal profits, and therefore had a high capacity for bearing taxation without ill-effects to the com- munity. The elimination of the gold standard during the war destroyed the system under which goid and credit were interchangeable, and wrecked the stability of the system of debts based on the gold unit. The gold standard, Mr. R. G. Hawtrey maintained, must be restored, but this must be done with judgment... The business community was hostile. to deflation through fear of contraction of trade; the sudden re-introduc- tion of the gold unit and the reduction of the value of paper below its face value involved an increase in the burden of debts, which would bring serious difficulties ; and the reduction of the gold value of the monetary unit below its former nominal value was open to the iniputation that public faith had been broken. His argument was that to make possible an unvarying gold currency unit, without which the stability of debts was impossible, it was necessary that the demand for gold currency should be kept as steady as possible. | For this purpose, international co-operation was required, with the object of stabilising the general level of prices as measured by index numbers, and of regulating the actual amount of note issue in each country. Such international co-operation need not be universal; the inclusion of the financially strong countries ,would be sufficient; and this could be begun so soon as the Anglo-American exchange could be brought to par. ENGINEERING AT THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION. ae none of the meetings of the British Association in recent years have such large numbers’ been attracted to the Engineering Section as at Bourne- mouth during the meeting in September last. Not only was the hall inwhich the meetings were held uncom- fortably crowded almost throughout the whole of the proceedings, but on the last day many members were unable to gain admission. This was probably due to the fact that many of the papers were of a popular and descriptive nature, and dealt with matters of great interest in connection with the war. The authors in all cases were leading authorities who { had been mainly responsible for the development of | NO, 2619, VOL. 104] the special branches with which their ba ers. de: ij The British Association, being for the pha: ones ier advancement of science among the gi al public, — should encourage this type of paper rather than the highly specialised technical type which is better suited” for the various learned and technical societies. Prof. Petavel’s presidential address was followed by — the report of the Committee on Complex Stress. This * : report embodied six important papers by members of —— the committee, viz. the strength of tubular struts; stresses in aeroplane wing frameworks; the soap- film method of stress estimation; eccentric loading; effect of low-frequency aliernations of tensile strength; and the strain energy function and the elastic limit. — A summary of the work was and Dr. Haigh. Of the three papers read on the Wednesday, the Be first was ‘‘An Account of the British Tanks Used in the War” by Sir E. H. Tennyson-d’Eyncourt, — the Director of Naval Construction, who traced) — the history of these devices from the war chariots of — the ancients, through the one horse-power one-man ‘tank’? of the Battle of Hastings, viz. the knight in armour, down to the highly developed vehicle Which proved such a valuable ally to our infantry during — the great war. The author dealt frankly with the — thorny questions concerning the development of the Tanks from the time that they were first proposed — to Mr. Churchill until they appeared on the Somme — in September, 1916. The various types were ex-— plained and the reasons given for the successive modifications, i ey eee Prof. Inglis read a paper on portable military — bridges, describing in detail the type of bridge with which his name is associated, and which proved so valuable in the final advance of our armies on the Western front. In connection with this ‘pap rae: oe demonstration was given at the Christchurch dging centre on the same Wednesday afternoon, when Inglis bridges of various types were constructed and used to — convey Tanks across the river. The final paper on that day was by Mr. R. J. Walker, entitled ‘‘ The Develop. ment of Geared Turbines for the Propulsion of Ships,” in which the great advantages obtained by the substitution of turbines for reciprocating engines — were clearly shown. © ! - Thursday morning (September 11) was devoted to aeronautics, and opened with a paper on. airships — by Wing-Comdr. Cave-Browne-Cave, who discussed , the questions of rigid and non-rigid types, fabric materials, gases, fire risk, etc. Mr. Bairstow, of the National Physical Laboratory, traced the progress of the scientific development of aviation during the war, and explained the various instruments devised for the investigation of the stresses on the aeroplane structure during various evolutions, and also of the inherent stability of aeroplanes when uncontrolled by — the pilot. It would appear that although the factor of safety is ample for normal flight, it is reduced to a very small margin by unskilful handling in the air, and no aeroplane has vet been devised which could not be crumpled in the air by suitable mishandling. Col. Tizard dealt with the problem of the reduction _ of engine performance at a great height to a standard pressure, density, and temperature; at present this reduction involves a great deal of uncertainty. Prof. Bryan gave a summary of investigations which he has carried out on the sound emitted by air-screws when running with tip speeds exceeding the velocity of sound. Under such conditions the sounds emitted at various parts of the revolution reach the ear simul- taneously and give rise to unpleasant sensations. Capt. Rolleston West read an interesting paper on the application of air-brakes to aeroplanes so as to given by Prof. Coker _ é * we January 8, 1920] NATURE 437 enable them to make steep landings and short runs when alighting in a restricted space. The morning of Friday (September 12) was devoted to electrical papers, and opened with a paper by Capt. J. Robinson on directive wireless telegraphy as applied to aircraft, in which, after explaining the principles involved, he described the various improve- ments developed mainly by himself during the war. This will undoubtedly find an extensive application, not only for aerial, but also for marine navigation. Prof. Fortescue explained the application of the three- electrode thermionic valve as a generator of high- frequency alternating current, and described, with the aid of numerous lantern-slides, the various arrange- ments adopted by the Navy embodying this device for the purposes of radio-telegraphy and telephony. Dr. Eccles followed with two papers describing special arrangements of three electrode valves, one being an improvement on the ordinary method of connection as explained in the previous paper, and the other a relay device whereby a snap of the finger and thumb several feet from a telephone receiver is caused to upset the stability of the device and operate a relay. A paver on the ignition of gases by hot wires was read by Dr. Thornton, who reported briefly on some unexpected results obtained, and indicated the lines along which the orobable explanation might be found. ‘The final day opened with a paper by Comdr. Gwynne on submarine mining; our pre-war mining policy was referred to and compared with that of other countries, as was also our position at the out- break of war. The author discussed the develop- ment of the various types of mines during the war in so far as was permissible. This was very aptly followed by a paper on the paravane or otter, which was devised by Comdr. Burney, and proved a very effective weapon against both mines and submarines. Mr. R. F. McKay, the author of the paper, also showed a number of kinematograph films illustrating the various stages in their manufacture and applica- tion. Prof. Thornton read a very interesting and suggestive paper on the relation between the thermal conductivity and the velocity of sound in insulating materials. The meetings concluded with a short note by Prof. Bryan on the improvement of the efficiency of radiators in the heating of rooms. ; ANTHROPOLOGY AT THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION. Ls Section H (Anthropology), which met under the presidency of Prof. Arthur Keith, communica- tions were fewer in number than usual, as one after- noon’s session was given up to an excursion to the museum at Dorchester. In quality, however, they were quite up to the average. The meetings were well attended, and, as a rule, a high level of dis- cussion was maintained. Several papers dealt with physical anthropology and questions relating to racial distribution. Prof. F. G. Parsons, in his paper on ‘‘ Racial Characters of the Modern Briton,’’ raised the question of the relative value and practicability in use of the various methods of estimating race. In discussing the value of the cranial index he insisted on the contrast between the typical German population and that of the British Isles; the modern Briton had, on the average, the lowest cranial index in Europe, while a methodical examination. of German prisoners of war had revealed that the Germans, even in, Schleswig-Holstein, were round-headed. .The .Germans,. in association with their Pan-Germanic views, had refused to collect or publish the evidence which showed the facts. NO. 2619, VOL. 104] Prof, H. J. Fleure, in a comparison of an ancient and a surviving type of man, recorded the survival in remote parts of Wales of a primitive type which, in common with those found in similar ‘nests’’ in Europe and North Africa, resembled in many ways pre-Neolithic types such as that of Combe Capelle. This type, it was suggested, may have contributed to a considerable degree towards the evolution of the Mediterranean and the Nordic types. Mr. L. H. Dudley Buxton submitted the results of measure- ments, both of the living and of ancient skulls, made in Cyprus. Both series of measureménts showed a common differentiation into two distinct types. An important communication on the Finnic problem by Mr, H. Peake dealt with the origin and relation of the Nordic and Mongoloid elements in the Finnic population in the light of a fresh examination of the archeological evidence. The first wave of these Mongoloid people would appear to have arrived in the Baltic region on the retreat of the Ice Sheet; towards the close of the Neolithic age they were driven northward by the arrival of the Nordic people in Scania and West Gothland. In the middle of the Bronze age further Mongoloid peoples were occupy- ing the margins of the Finnish lakes. The present Nordic element in the population was traceable to an immigration of Nordic people from Sweden which took place about A.D. 1000. Miss M. A. Czaplicka discussed the relation of history and ethnology with special reference to North Central Asia. The present classification for Eastern Europe and North and Central Asia was historical rather than ethnological, and an uncritical adoption of the history of the Jinghis Khan period had led to the use of such terms-as ‘‘ Mongolic type,’’ although such an original type did not exist in the sense in which there was a “Tungusic’’ or a ‘Turkic ’’ type. In prehistoric archeology a communication by Dr. R. R. Marett described recent excavations in Jersey on the site of La Cotte de St. Brelade, and also in a recently discovered cave on the north coast of the island. In the latter, shells of various species, in- cluding Astralium rugosum, which is at present con- fined to southern waters, and pieces of antler, which Dr. Andrews is disposed to bring into close relation with Pliocene deer from Auvergne, have been found in hard breccia, associated with small stalactites of unique occurrence in the island. A communication from Mr. T. W. M. de \Guérin described a sculptured human figure recently discovered on the dolmen of Déhus, Guernsey. There is evidence that the wor- ship of the divinity represented existed for a very long period in the island, extending probably from the Enolithic until well into the Iron age. In a joint meeting with Section C (Geology) Dr. Reginald Smith opened a discussion on the age of the flint implements of the Bournemouth district. In Mediterranean archeology Prof. J. L. Myres described excavations on sites in Cyprus in 1913, among them being the necropolis at Lapathos on the north coast, in which a sequence of tombs was ob- tained covering the “early’’ and ‘‘middle’’ periods of the Bronze age. The date-marks showed that the ‘middle’? period began not earlier than the twelfth dynasty of Egypt. Mr. Stanley Casson ably summarised the results of discoveries (mostly in Macedonia) made in the Balkans during the war. It is interesting to note that the evidence. thus obtained goes to show that’ the early culture of Macedonia pertains to the north rather than to the south. — A number of papers dealt with primitive religious cults, amongst them being a detailed study of the death ritual of Eddystone Island of the Solomons by Mr. A. M. Hocart, and an examination of the ~ al —- 488 NATURE [January 8, 1920 mother-cults of India by Dr. W. Crooke. Mr. Peake’s | by expenditure of time, or by diminution of profes- — communication on “Santiago: The Evolution of a Patron Saint’’ dealt with the survival of a menhir cult in the Iberian peninsula and its association and confusion with the cult of St. James. In a joint meeting with the Psychology sub-section, Prof. Carveth Read read a paper on “ Magic and Science,’’ and the Rev, H. J. D. Astley a paper en the relation of primitive art and magic. Papers of a general ethnographic character were few in number. Mr. F. J. Richards’s paper on the Badaga clans of Southern India was a valuable and comprehensive study, which included a _ detailed account of an interesting and important harvest fes- tival. Mr. E. W. Pearson Chinnery in his paper on ‘Stonework and Goldfields in New Guinea”’ described a number of stone objects, including pestles and mortars, which showed that the country was visited at some time, presumably in search of gold, by a stone-using people, differing in many respects from the present inhabitants. In a second paper Mr. Chinnery described the people of the hilly country of the interior, and maintained that there was in these regions an extensive Negrito element similar to the Mafulu described by Williamson. An afternoon session was devoted to a visit to the Dorchester Museum, where the party was hospitably entertained by the Curator and Mrs. Acland. A visit was also paid to the Maumbury Rings, where the results of the excavations were explained by Mr. C. Prideaux. REWARDS FOR MEDICAL DISCOVERY.} I, Derinirions.—Medical discovery may here be defined as being: (1) The ascertainment of new facts or theorems bearing on the human body in health, and the nature, prevention, cure, or mitiga- tion of injuries and diseases of human has oh (2) The invention of new methods or instruments for the improvement of sanitary, medical, and surgical practice, or of scientific and pathological work. Il. Reasons ror REwarpiInGc MepicaL Discovery. —These are: (1) To encourage medical investigation. (2) To discharge a moral obligation incurred by the public for its use of private effort. III. Various PossisteE Types OF REWARDS.— (1) Titles and honours given by the State, by universi- ties, and by other public bodies. (2) Prizes and medals. (3) Patents. (4) Promotions and appointments. (5) Pecuniary awards by the State. 1V. GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF ASSESSMENT.—It will probably be agreed that in the interests of the public all medical discoveries should, if possible, receive some kind of acknowledgment or recompense. But in view of the very variable conditions, nature, and effects of particular investigations, it will often. be difficult to assess the kind of recompense most suitable for each. In the first place, a distinction should be drawn between compensation and reward. By compensation is meant an act of justice done for the purpose of re- imbursement of losses; by reward, an act of grace in appreciation of services rendered. The following different cases should next be con- sidered :— A. Discoveries involving pecuniary or other loss to an investigator, either by direct monetary sacrifice, or 1 Report presented by the Joint Committee of the British Medical Asso- ciation and the British Science Guild on Awards for Medical Discovery. The members of the joint committee are :—Representing the B.M.A.: Sir T. Clifford Allbutt, K.C.B., F.R.S.; Or. R. T. Leiper ; Prof. Benjamin Moore, F.R.S.; Mr. E. B. Turner ; and Prof. J. S. Haldane, F.R.S. Representing the B.S.G.: Lt.-Gen. Sir Alfred Keogh, G.C.B.; Col. Sir Ronald Ross, K.C.B8., K.C.M.G., F.R.S.; Prof. W. Bayliss, F.R.S. ; Dr, D. Sommerville ; Sic Richard Gregory ; and Lt.-Col. O'Meara, C.M.G. NO, 2619, VOL. 104] sional practice, without corresponding pecuniary gains. _ A great example is that of Edward Jenner, who occu- pied himself so closely with the investigation of vac- cination against smallpox that he lost most of his medical practice, and also considerable sums in ex- penses. The plea for compensation in such cases is unanswerable; and in 1802 and 1807 Parliament fully acknowledged its obligations under this head by givin Jenner compensation in two. sums of 10,0001. anc 20,0001, ae , B. Discoveries which have increased the professional emoluments of the investigator by anole practice or other means. Such are, frequently, improvements in surgical operations or medical treatment, which lead to increased practice. Another case is that of serums, etc., which may have been protected and put on the market. Here compensation cannot be demanded, and pecuniary awards may be generally held to be un- necessary. On the other hand, honours are often, and justly, bestowed upon such work, ; C. Discoveries which involve neither gain nor loss to the investigator. This class includes most of the good, and sometimes great, clinical, pathological, and sanitary discoveries achieved in the world. Here also compensation can scarcely be demanded, and honours are already often given; but pecuniary awards should be sometimes bestowed as an act of grace when the value of a discovery to the public (or to a Govern- ment) greatly exceeds the emoluments of the investi- gator; and this principle should hold even in the case of men who were directly paid for undertaking the researches which led to their discoveries, ppc when such payment was (as usual) small and th resulting discovery great. Piaget RS The following particular cases, which sometimes occur, should be specifically noted :—(1) Men who have _ refused lucrative posts,in order to complete their re- searches. (2) Men who have refused to protect their — work for fear of limiting its application. (3) Men — who have carried out investigations for Governments for little or no payment on patriotic grounds. The following considerations must generally be borne | in mind :— : f (a) Honours (which are always much esteemed) are usually given as much (or more) for clinical success as _ for medical discoveries, though the latter possess a far wider influence and application than do the former. (b) When given for clinical work or for discoveries under class B, honours often confer distinct pecuniary advantages by enhancement of practice, but for dis- coveries under classes A and C they have no such ~ effect, and cases are on record where they tend to reduce emoluments by unfitting recipients for certain posts. > Son (c) Most people enter the medical profession (at con- siderable expense) not only from altruistic motives, but also to make a living, and it is usually only at a later period that they take up scientific investigation—either from a sense of duty, or from predilection, or merel because a good opportunity offers. When, therefore, — a man finds that his scientific work, however successful and important it may have been, has actually yielded ~ him less emolument than he might have obtained from ordinary clinical work, he feels naturally discouraged, and his experience prevents young men of ability from following his example, and therefore tends to check the prosecution of studies which are of the highest — value to humanity. : (d) In the public interest, then, this committee begs to insist upon the principles:—(1) That no medical discovery should be allowed to entail financial loss upon him who has made it. (2) That the compensa- tion or reward which he deserves should be assessed BN od NE aa a ey, ee ee a ee ‘ January 8, 1920] NATURE 489 as being equal to the difference between the emolu- ments which he has actually received and those which _ a successful clinician might have received in the same time. This is obviously the principle which was accepted by Parliament in the case of Jenner in 1802 and 1807. Additional reasons for insisting upon this principle are :—(1) That few medical discoveries are patentable. (2) That such discoveries seldom give good grounds for promotion or for administrative appointments in the public services. V. ParticULaR ASSESSMENTS.—Whether a particular discovery should receive a large or small assessment will depend not only on the considerations given above, but also on the following :— (1) Width of Application For example, the work of many of the older anatomists, physiologists, and parasitologists, of Pasteur, and of investigators of immunity has affected most recent discovery. Dis- coveries on widespread diseases, such as the work of Lister, of Laveran, and of Koch, are often, though not always, more important than those on more limited maladies, (2) Difficulty of the Work Dohe.—For example, the solution of a difficult problem requires more study and also more time and cost, and therefore deserves more recompense, than a lucky chance observation. (3) Immediate Practical Utility —A strong plea for State remuneration can be made on behalf of cases of this kind, unless they come under class B. It is strange that at present they never receive it, while academical recognition is also often not forthcoming for them. (4) Scientific Importance.—Discoveriés which are “not of present practical utility may become so at any moment, and should obviously be included in the scheme if they are sound and of wide application. Medical discoveries made by persons who do not themselves belong to the medical profession should be included in all schemes of reward. Of course, each case must be judged on its merits, and the assessment will not always be easy. VI. Strate Awarps FOR MepicaL Discovery.— Honours, prizes, and medals, being bestowed by H.M. the King or by public bedies and learned societies, are acts of grace which are generally given after much consideration, and the committee does not purpose to consider them. But the subject of pecuniary awards lies entirely within its province. During the last few years the British Government has disbursed an annual grant of about 60,000l., under the Medical Research Committee, for subsidising investigations in progress authorised by the committee and carried on by workers selected by it. This grant does not remunerate discoveries already made, but pro- ceeds upon the principle of payment for benefits already received, deserves close attention, and has been recognised ‘in other countries. We think that both principles are sound, but they apply to two different classes of research, and are, indeed, complementary of each other. Payment for prospective benefits is ‘‘ good business” only when some return is almost certain; and for this reason subsidised researches must frequently deal with simple and straightforward questions, admitting of immediate experimental reply. But, as a matter of fact, most of the greatest medical discoveries were built upon a much more speculative and uncertain basis, and were achievéd by men who neither sought nor received sub- sidies for those investigations—as, for instance, Kiichenmeister, Jenner, Simpson, Lister, Koch, Laveran, Bancroft, Manson, Bruce, Mackenzie, and a score of others who have so greatly improved medical practice. Surely the State should encourage this class NO. 2619, VOL. 104] of investigation also, partly because it costs the State nothing in so doing, and partly because it seems to achieve the greatest results. And there is only one way to encourage it: by paying for discoveries when made. Payment for benefits received is always not only ‘‘ good business,’’ but also a moral obligation. There are at present hundreds of medical men and others in this country who possess the knowledge, the brains, and the opportunity for private independent discovery without subsidies, but do not attempt it because medical research work does not pay even when brilliantly successful. Let these men also be brought into the fold of research by offering them reward when they succeed. We therefore suggest that, in addition to assisting investigations in progress, it is proper for the State to ‘emunerate those of its citizens. who have already conferred the benefits of medical discovery upon it, just as it is proper for a patient to pay his doctor. And this policy will be not only an act of justice, but also an act of wisdom. Our proposals are in detail :—(1) That Parliament should follow the precedent of Jenner by paying compensation when due for losses incurred in achieving medical discoveries. (2) That Parliament should pro- vide an annual sum, say of not less than 20,000l., for life-pensions to be given as rewards to such of his Majesty’s subjects as have made worthy medical dis- coveries, such pensions amounting to between 500l. and 1oool. a year. Such pensions would be preferable to donations in capital, and the sums suggested would be sufficient, because men of science seek only such independence as will enable them to employ their talents in the manner they think best. The procedure of allotment should be similar to that used for the Nobel prizes, and for the honours and medals of learned societies—that is, full particulars of the work of all applicants should be kept and con- sidered. Parliament grants large subsidies to soldiers and sailors, has appointed a Commission to consider awards to inventors, and allows patents. It should not, therefore, complain if, the medical profession, which has done so much for the nation during the war, now asks for some similar consideration. (This committee is concerned only with medical research, but recognises that similar awards should be given to workers in other fields.) UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL INTELLIGENCE. BirmMincHaM.—At the beginning of the coming ternt Prof. R. H. Yapp will take up his duties as successor to the late Prof. G. S. West in the Mason chair of botany, and Dr. William Cramp will succeed Prof. Gisbert Kapp in the chair of electrical engineering. Lonpon.—The following courses of advanced lectures in physiology are now commencing :—‘‘ The Regulation of Respiration ’’ (Guy’s Hospital, Borough, S.E.), by Dr. M. S. Pembrey and Mr. J. H. Ryffel, at 4.30 p.m. on Thursdays, January 8, 15, 22, and 29, and February 5, 12, 19, and 26; ‘The Reaction of the Blood and Acidosis”? (St. Bartholomew’s Hospital), by Mr. J. W. Trevan, at 4.30 p.m. on Wednesdays, January 28, February 4, 11, 18, and 2s. and March 3, to, and 17; and ‘Physiologically Balanced Solu- tions” (Physiological Laboratory of the University, South Kensington, S.W.7), by Mr. W. L. Symes, at 5 p.m. on Tuesdays, January 27, February 3, 10, 17, and 24, and March 2, 9, and 16. The lectures are b q A 490 NATURE [January 8, 1920 addressed to advanced students of the University and to others interested in the subject. Admission is free, without ticket, Other advanced courses to be delivered are :—Six “lectures on ‘‘The Physical Properties of Soil’? (Im- perial College of Science and Technology), by Mr. Bernard A. Keen, on Tuesdays at 4.30 p.m., beginning on February 3; and a course on ‘‘A General Survey of the Globe and its Atmosphere,”’ with practical work (Meteorological Office, South Kensington), by Sir Napier Shaw, on Fridays at 3 p.m. during the second term, beginning on January 23. Dr. D. W. Carmatr Jones has been appointed to the chair of systematic medicine in the University of Otago, New Zealand. Miss F. M. G. MickLetHwair has been appointed principal of the Horticultural College, Swanley. Miss Micklethwait holds the diploma of the college, and was a Beit research fellow; number of papers on her researches upon chemical subjects. In connection with the London County Council’s lectures for teachers on recent developments in science, a lecture on ‘‘Aviation’”’ will be given by. Lord Montagu of Beaulieu at King’s College, Strand, W.C.2, on Tuesday, January 13, at 6 p.m. The chair will be taken by Major-Gen. Sir Frederick H. Sykes. Tue Civil Service Commissioners announce that an examination will begin on May 4 next for the purpose of filling ten vacancies for assistant examiners in the Patent Office. The examination will be confined in the main to candidates who have served in his Majesty’s Forces, and will consist of a qualifying examination followed by interview by a selection board. The subjects of the qualifying examination are English composition, précis-writing, general knowledge, and one of the following: General chemistry, electricity and magnetism, mechanics and mechanism. The limits of age are twenty to thirty. Initial salary 1501. a year, together with a war bonus, Copies of the regulations and forms: of application may be obtained by writing to the Secretary, Civil Service Commission, Burlington Gardens, London, W.1. The last day for making application is March 4. In a pamphlet on college studies, published by the Stanford University of California, Prof. H. W. Stuart, professor of philosophy in the University, points out that the old discussion on the relative merits of literary and scientific studies in the training of a well-educated man has now become the problem whether citizenship in the modern world can be based on the contempla- tion, criticism, and enjoyment of life, or whether it requires a capacity for constructive participation in the activities of life in addition. It is remarked that while a literary education supplies a direct acquaint- ance with the characteristic interests and experiences of life, and a scientific education a knowledge of the means and machinery of life, neither recognises adequately those interests which find expression in the family, amongst friends, in play, or in the responsibili- ties of citizenship. Culture, in Prof. Stuart’s opinion, expresses a personal capacity for conduct, not the bedy of knowledge of which the person makes use. It must comprisé both literary and’ scientific discipline and study and experience of social science. The evi- dence of culture in an individual is the proper fulfil- ment of his functions in the society. in which he lives, and each age must have its:own standard of- culture: NO. 2619, VOL. 104] » she has published a | SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES. LonpDon. ¢ ; Aristotelian Society, December 15, 1919.—Prof. A. N. _ Whitehead in the chair.—Dr. G. E. Moore: External and internal relations. The most important part of what is meant by those who say that no relations are purely external seems to be the proposition that every relational property belongs necessarily to every term to which it belongs in part. This proposition is false, the truth being that some only among relational pro; perties belong necessarily to those terms which possess — them. To say that the property P belongs necessarily to the subject S is to say that from the proposition, —_ with regard to any term, A, that it has not got P, it follows that A-is numerically different from S$. And this has been falsely taken to be true of every P and every S, because it is, in fact, true that from the pro- position “ S is P”’ it follows that any term, A, whichhas not got P is, in fact, other than S._ The proposition that if p is true, then the conjunction “q is true and r false’? must be false, has been compared with the proposition that if p is true, then “gq from q. From the proposition ‘‘from ‘p is true’ it follows that ‘q is true and r false’ is false,” it does not follow that, if p is true, then 7 follows from gq. Geological Society, December 17, 1919.—Mr. G. W Lamplugh, president, in the chair.—Prof. S. J. Shand ; A rift-valley in Western Persia. Asmari Mountain, near the oilfields of Maidan-i-Naftun, in the Bakhtiari country of Western Persia, is an inlier of Oligocene limestone among the beds of the Fars system (Miocene), the latter consisting, in the lower part, of bedded gypsum with intercalated shales and a few thin limestones. The mountain is a whale-back, formed by a simple symmetrical anticline plunging at both ends. south-eastern end the fold has collapsed along its | length for a distance of three miles, letting the gypsum-beds down into a trough in the limestone. This trough is bounded by two main faults hading respectively, with an average hade of 20°, and marked by steep The gypsiferous beds which once com- — north-eastwards and south-westwards escarpments. pletely filled the trough have been partly removed by erosion, clearly revealing the fault-walls in the lower part of the valley. « MANCHESTER. Literary and Philosophical Society, December 16, 1919. —Sir Henry A. Miers, president, in the chair.—C. E. Stromeyer: The study of nationalities. Alth structural péculiarities are very useful for differen- tiating non-related species, they are of little use for the purpose of classifying branches of one species, and it is necessary to study their characteristics. There are very marked differences amongst the charac- teristics of different nationalities, i.e. the Semitic and Slavonic races: have wonderful memory gifts, and the Scandinavians are pre-eminently inventive. he author dealt with the vague words employed in defining various characteristics and with the reagents which might be employed for revealing fundamental characteristics of different nationalities—W. J. Perry : The historical process. The study of the geographical distribution of peoples in various stages of culture, and of the migrations of peoples, suggests that the degree of civilisation possessed by any community that has advanced beyond the pure hunting stage is the result, direct or indirect, of cultural influences pro- pagated from some original centre. It seems as is true and r false’ is necessarily false in the sense that r follows The north-western end plunges rather steeply, and shows no abnormal structures; but at the — 7. a Galle: fh § ccinbe ae] aa ee ee a. he @ z January 8, 1920] NATURE 491 though the fundamental arts and crafts of civilisation were invented in one place, and that the knowledge of them was carried to the outlying parts of the earth, thus producing the various degrees of culture pos- sessed by different communities. The study of archzeo- logical remains supports this contention. If this con- clusion be accepted, it becomes possible to regard the study of human society from a point of view different from that commonly adopted. We can examine the effects of various social institutions on behaviour. The hunting tribes, the most primitive men of whom we have direct knowledge, display a uniform type of behaviour: they are peaceful, truthful, monogamous, honest, kind to children and animals, and thus, pre- sumably, represent the normal type of human be- haviour. The people above them in culture have adopted the institutions of civilised peoples to varying degrees, and their modes of behaviour appear to cor- respond to their historical experience. The wide range of culture which exists in the world makes it possible to examine in detail the effects upon human beings of various social institutions, and thus to pave the way for the foundation of a science of society, the ultimate aim of which will be to determine which institutions are fitted to develop men to the greatest possible extent.—Prof, F. E. Weiss: Green jade work by natives of New Zealand. Paris. Academy of Sciences, December 8, 1919.—M. Léon Guignard in the chair.—A. Laveran: Obituary notice of Prof. R. Lépine, correspondant of the Academy of Sciences.—C, Moureu, C. Dnfraisse, and P. Robin: The stabilisation of gcrolein. Part 4. Compounds hindering the formation of disacryl.— C. Richet : bleeding. A criticism of a recent communication by M. Barthélemy. The animal must have lost more than 7o per cent. of its blood before the injection of solution or plasma, or its survival cannot be regarded as decisive.—V. Grignard, G. Rivat, and Ed. Urbain: Researches on the chlorination of methyl formate and methyl chloroformate. Details of a semi-industrial method for the preparation of the ultimate chlorina- tion product, CCl,CO,Cl.—M, Paul Janet was elected a free Academician in succession to the late M. Landouzy.—G. ‘Valiron: Regular ensembles of zero measure.—M, Mesnager; Elementary solution of the rectangular plate fixed at the edges, carrying a load uniformly distributed or concentrated at its centre.— E. Belot: Possible causes of the light curve and the pulsation of Cepheus.—I. Tarazona: Observation of the solar eclipse of November 22, 1919, at the astro- nomical observatory of the University of Valencia, Spain. The first contact was found to be 8-4 seconds earlier than calculated.—J. Guillaume: Observations of the sun made at the Lyons Observatory during the second quarter of 1919. Observations were made on eighty-one days, and the results summarised jn three tables showing, the number of spots, their distribution - in latitude, and the distribution of the faculz in lati- tude.—Ed. Fouché: Search for a characteristic equa- tion applicable to atmospheric air. The equation is of the Clausius form; : [++ ple-4= RT, in which y is a function of the temperature only. The constants n, b, R are determined from experi- ments by Witkowski, pressures ranging from 1 to 130 atmospheres and temperatures from —145° C. to +100° C.—G. A. Hemsalech: The origin of luminous radiations emitted by vapours in an electrical resist- NO, 2619, VOL. 104] Injections of gum or of plasma after |. ance tube furnace. The spectrum sesults from two independent emissions, one of which is of thermal and the other of electrical origin.—P. Jolibois: An apparatus for rapidly mixing homogeneous liquids.— E, Mesnard: Cyclonic formations of the atmosphere. —Ph. Flajolet: Perturbations of the magnetic declina- tion at the Lyons Observatory (Saint-Genis-Laval) during the first and second quarters of 1919.—L. Blaringhem: Floral anomalies observed in hybrid plants from Linaria vulgaris x L. striata.—P. Des- combes: The use of trees in extracting water from the atmosphere. Evidence from various sources of the increased deposit of moisture, as dew, caused by trees.—A. Piédallu: The réle of iron in the blue casse of wines.—Mlle. Lucienne Dehorne : Hermaphroditism and scissiparity.—H. Bierry: Inanition, temperature, and glycemea.—A. Richaud: The action of ouabaine and of strophantine on the salivary secretion, and the mechanism of this action.—A. Clerc and C, Pezzi: The antagonism of adrenalin and quinine.—C. Oberthiir: The symbiosis of ants and the caterpillars of Lycena.—A. Paillot: Natural immunity in insects. Study of a case of humoral immunity.—C. Nicolle, A, Cuénod, and G. Blanc: Experimental demonstra- tion of the réle of flies in the propagation of trachoma (granular conjunctivitis). CarE Town. Royal Society of South Africa, October 1 5.-—Dr. 1. D. F. Gilchrist, president, in the chair.—Sir Thomas Muir: Additional note on the resolvability of the minors of a compound determinant.—J. Moir: Colour and chemical constitution. Part ix. An empirical law af change of colour. The wave-lengths of the absorption spectra of-all the halogen: deriva- tives, and many other derivatives of phenolphthalein and fluorescein, can be calculated from the formula 8s es —o'01 15m — 000003771 N, Ny & in which n=frequency, A=wave-length, m=number of halogens, etc., and N=atomic number of halogen in question. All the groups investigated have very similar effects on the colour, a most remarkable fact. —J. S, Thomson; South African Alcyonacea. BOOKS RECEIVED. Has the North Pole been Discovered? By T. F. Hall. Pp. 539. (Boston, Mass.:.R. G.. Badger.) 2.50 dollars net. Glass Manufacture. By Dr. W. Rosenhain. Second edition. Pp. xv+258. (London: Constable and Co., Ltd.) 12s. 6d. net. { Cours de Chimie A l’usage des Etudiants P.C.N. etS.P.C.N. By Prof. R.de Forcrand. Deuxe. édition. Tome i. Pp. viiit437. Tome ii. Pp. 527. (Paris: Gauthier-Villars et Cie.) 14 francs and 18 francs respectively. Democracy and the Press. By Dr. F. H. Hayward and B. N. Langdon-Davies. Pp. xii+76. (Man- chester and London: The National Labour Press, Ltd.) 1s. 6d. The School Geometry: Matriculation Edition. By W, P. Workman and A: G. Cracknell. Pp. xi+348. (London: W. B. Clive.) 4s. 6d. Pensées sur la Science la Guerre et sur des Sujets trés Variés. By Dr. M. Lecat. Pp. viit478. (Bruxelles: M. Lamertin:) Pre-Palzolithic Man. By J. Reid Moir. Pp. 67+ 29 plates. (Ipswich: W. E. Harrison.) 7s, 6d. 492 NATURE [ JANUARY 8, 1920 DIARY OF SOCIETIES. ~ THURSDAY, January 8. Royvat AERONAUTICAL Society (at the Royal Society of Arts), = 3-— Major H. E. Wimperis: How Airmen Find Their Way (Juvenile Lecture): Rovat Lnstirution or GREAT BRITAIN, at 3.—Prof, W. H. Bragg : The World of Sound : Sounds of the Sea (Christmas Lectures). PuysicaL Society or Lonpon (at Exhibition of Apparatus, in conjunction with the Optical Society, at the Imperial College of Science), at 4.— Prof. F. J. Cheshire: Some Polarisation Experiments; at 8.—Prof. eee The Use of Light in the Transmission and Reproduction of peec! INSTITUTION OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERS (at Institution of Civil Engineers), at 6.—J. Shepherd: Failures of Turbo-Generators and Suggestions “for Improvements. ‘OPTICAL SOCIETY, at 7.30. INSTITUTION OF AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERS (at 28 Victoria Street), at 8.— T. Clarkson: Steam Vehicles. Royat Society or Mepicine (Neurology Section), at 8.30. —Dr. F. M. R. Walshe: Forms of Peripheral: Neuritis among Troops Serving with the Egyptian Expeditionary Force, 1915~1919. FRIDAY, January. 9. GrocraruicaL AssociaTion (at the London Day Training College), at 2. —Prof. R. N. Rudmose Brown : Spitsbergen.—At 6.—Sir Charles P. Lucas: Islands, Penipsulas, and Empires (Presidential Address). Roya AsTRONOMICAL Society, at 5.—J. K. Fotheringham : The Longitude of the Moon from 1627 to 1918. —Prof. H. H. Turner: The Suggested Decrease of Period of Stars in Phillips’s Group II., with particular notes on R Hydrz, S Tauri, U Herculis, R Aquile, x ‘Cyeni, S. Cygni, and S Corone Borealis.—Dr. J. L. E. Dreyer: The Original Form of the Alfonsine Tables. —C. Davidson and W. V. Woodman: An Equatorial Mounting for Eclipse Observations. Roya Socirry oF MEDICINE (Clinical Section), at s.30.—Sir Anthony Bowlby : The Application of War Methods to Civil Practice. ase oGICAL SocreTy oF Lonpon (at the Linnean Society), ar 6.— Dr. S. S. Berry: A New Species of Mitra from California. —Dr. A. E Boycott : Local Variation in Size of Clausilia éidentata and Ena obscura. —H.C. Fulton: Molluscan Notes, IV. PuitoLocicaL Society (at University College), at 8.—Dr. W. Perrett: The Perception of Sound. SATURDAY, JANUARY 10. GEOGRAPHICAL AssociaATION (at Regent Street Polytechnic), at 10.30 a.m, —Capt. C. E, Hodges: Demonstration of the Value of the Cinematograph in Geographical Teaching. GEOGRAPHICAL AssoctaTION (at the London Day Training College), at 3. —™M. de Carle S. Salter: Rainfall as a Geographic Function. Roya InsritutTion.or Great Britain, at 3.—Prof. W. H. Bragg: The World of Sound: Sound in War (Christmas Lectures). MONDAY, JANUARY 12. Roya. Grocrapnicat Society (at Lowther Lodge), at 5.—Capt. H. Thomas : Geographical Reconnaissance by Aeroplane Photography. est Gat or Mecwanicat Enotneers (Graduates’ Association), at 8. R. Munro: Right-angle Belt Drives. euaviece InsTiTuTION, at 8.—E. M. Konstam and C. H. J. Clavton: Land Drainage from the Administrative and Engineering Points of View. TUESDAY, January 13 Rovart Horrticu_rurat. Society (at Vincent Square), at 3. Roya. InstiruTion or GREAT BRITAIN, at 3.—Sir Fotin Cadman : Modern Development of the Miner’s Safety Lamp. InstiTuTION oF Crvit. ENGINEERS, at 5.30.—J. Mitchell ; Whitby Harbour Improvement.— R. F. Hindmarsh: The Design of Harbours and Break- waters with a View to the Reduction of Wave-action Within Them.— J. W. Sandeman: Wave-action in Harbour Areas; with Special Reference to Works for Reducing it at Blyth and Whitby Harbours.—W. Simpson : The Improvement of the Entrance to Sunderland Harbour, with Reference to the Reduction of Wave-action. Rovat Psorocrapuic Society and THE HONESED Society (at the Royal Photographic Society), at 7.-—Major G. C. Kaye and Others: Discussion on Some Aspects of Radiology and Radlenesatocraghy. Rovat ANTHROPOLOGICAL INSTITUTE, at 8.15.—Dr. A. C. Haddon: The Outrigger of Indonesian Canoes (illustrated i Lantern Slides). WEDNESDAY, Janvary 14. Rovar Society or Arts, at 3.—L. Pendred: Railways and Engines (Juvenile Lecture). Roya. Unitrep SERVICE INSTITUTION, at 3.—Major A. Corbett Smith: The Traditions of the British Navy. Farapay Society, Rovar Microscopicat Society, Optica Society, and PHOTOMICROGRAPHIC SOCIETY, in co-operation with the Optical Committee of the British Science Guild (atthe Royal Society), at 4.30 and 8.—Sir Robert Hadfield, J. E. Barnard, Sir Herbert Jackson, Prof. F. J. Cheshire, Prof. A. W. Porter, and Others : Symposium and General Discussion on the Microscope : Its Design, Construction, and Applications. Royat Society or Mep'cinE (History of Medicine Section), at 5.—Mr. Vivian: ‘Thomas Campion: His Works.—Canon Westlake: The Gild of Our Lady of Rouncyval. InstTiTUTION oF FLEcTRICAL ENGINEERS (Wireless Section) (at the Institution of Civil tngineers), at 6.—Capt. H. J. Round: Wireless Direction and Position Finding. THURSDAY, JANUARY 15. Royat Institution oF GREAT BriTAIn, at 3.—Dr, R. R. Terry: Renaissance Music in Italy and England (with Musical Illustrations). Royat Society or Arts (Indian Section), at 4.30. NO. 2619, VOL. 104] LINNEAN Soctety, at 5.—Dr. B. Daydon Jackson; Hethods of Bakbine.* Illustration during Four Centuries (Lantern Lecture) Cuemicat Society, at 8.—L. E. Hinkel and H. densation of Acetoacetic Ester a Dimethy! Ammonia.—G. S. Butler eri ee annicliff : The. the Sulph of Sodium.—M. Cc. W. Ber the — late K. C. R. Daniel: Gani Tone S Lessing : Studies in the Composition of Coal: (1) The Behaviour of the Complenones of Banded © ¢ Bituminous Coal on Coking ; (2) The Mineral Ona of ee I Bituminous Coal.—P. Ray and P. V. Sarkar: ae . cyanates of certain Divalent Metals. Su FRIDAY, January 16. InsTITUTION OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERS ig") sia sh Cy and Guilds (Engineering) College), at 7.—J. H. Reyner: ment of Automatic Telephony. Rovat Institution oF GREAT BRITAIN, at 9.—Sir Janie Dewar : tae: Temperature Studies. SATURDAY, JANUARY 17. Rovat Instr1uTion or GREAT BrivTatn, at 3. —A, Noyes: The Aoale: American Bond of Ti iterature, CONTENTS. tee PAG] Water-power and Dartmoor . . ie leis al Radio-communication and the Thermionic ‘Valve. By A..R. Pee ane Say). Catalysis. By W. ©; McC, L The Neglected Study of Probabilities. By Prof. G. H. Bryan, F.R.S. . 2... . 35 oR ae The Study of the Familiar. 2°. 30". -.77-1 a ee Vaccine-Therapy . >. dh isa eee ee Our Bookshelf . Reheat neta errs yt OP Letters to the Editor:— E The Deflection of Light during a Solar as ab os 3 Sir Arthur Schuster, F.R.S. ee 468 The Magnetic Storm of August “11-12, 1919.— Dr. C. Chree, F.R.S. . . (468 Relativity and Radio-activity. —_Prof. af ‘Joly, F. R S. 468 British Botanic Gardens and Stations.—Dr, W. Freeman ; The Writer ofthe Article . . . 469 rae Natural History of South Africa. (Illustrated.) . . 469 Industrial Research. By A. P, M. Fleming... . Sericulture in India. Pertie ies Sir William Osler, Bart., F.R. s. By c. A. Sila Celie, apa Be Notes 4 oe aie Tee oe Our Astronomical Column :— Fp The Birth of the Moon 5 rr mE er ke Distances of the Stars of Type Waals Ree le : Absolute Magnitude as a Function of Colour AGS ki Cross-circulation as a Physiological Method. By Prof. W. M. Bayliss, F.R.S. . . Nickel-Chromium Steel Forgings. By H. chG Cephalodiscus and the Archichordates. By W. C. M. The Ithaca Agricultural Sorc Station. By ; Dr. E. J. Russell, F.R.S. . . Raietay The Rainfall of the United States. By c. H. : ; Retirement of Sir Oliver Lodge. . G The Chippawa-Queenston Hydro-electric Deve-. lopment Scheme. By Dr, Brysson Cunninghanay 4830 The Organisation of Chemical Industries . . - gag es Geology at the British Association . . ee ae i Economics at the British Association. ...... 48. Engineering at the British Association ...... ; Anthropology at the British Association . . . a Rewards for Medical Discovery... ee University and Educational Intelligence 4 . { Societies and Academies... . 1 S55 Geng am Books Received . 6h RNS Ee ae Diary of Societies: 3.24.°5-5.5 G Widen thee ee Editorial and Publishing Offices: MACMILLAN AND CO., Ltp., ST. MARTIN’S STREET, LONDON, W.C.2. Advertisements and business letters to be addressed to the Publishers. ye: Editorial] Communications to the Editor. Telegraphic Address: Puusis, LONDON. Telephone Number: GERRARD 8830. 493 NATURE THURSDAY, JANUARY 15, 1920. SURGERY OF DEFORMITIES. Menders of the Maimed: The Anatomical and Physiological Principles Underlying the Treat- ment of Injuries to Muscles, Nerves, Bones, and Joints.. By Prof. A. Keith. (Oxford Medical Publications.) Pp. xii+ 335. (London: Henry Frowde; Hodder and Stoughton, 1919.) Price 16s. net. ’ ROF. KEITH’S book is undoubtedly one of the most interesting and instructive which have yet been written on this important branch of sur- gical work. The author treats the subject from an entirely new point of view; instead of following up each forward step and discussing the influence which the various workers in this field had on that progress, he gives us a résumé of the career of the workers who made this advance possible. Nothing could be clearer or more concise than the way in which Prof. Keith has selected from the career of the men who are chiefly responsible for this progress the various points of importance _ in making us understand the influence which these men had on the progress of the surgery of deformities. The book enables us to understand how great was the handicap under which these pioneers had to conduct their studies. It shows us how two men such as John Hunter and Hugh Owen Thomas, whilst working in widely different fields, the one finding most of his data in the dissecting room and the other gathering all his observations from clinical studies at the bedside, each arrived at, practically the same conclusions in regard to the healing of wounds and the cure of disease. These are two men who in their practice had found that the proper treatment for inflamed or injured bones or soft tissues was not the method of movements and massage which was the popular one in their time, but fixation, which promotes rest of the tissues and allows Nature’s reparative changes to come unhindered into action. Hunter perhaps better than any other clearly defined the relationship between fixation and mas- sage in an injured or diseased joint in the principle which is enunciated in his book on “ Diseased and Wounded Joints respecting their Motion,” in which he states that “nothing can promote con- traction of a joint so much as motion before the disease is removed.’’ The subject with which Prof. Keith deals is one that has always interested surgeons, and _ al- though of late years the great advances which have been made in abdominal surgery have tended to overshadow this important branch of surgery, NO. 2620. VOL. 104] yet no more opportune moment could have been selected for the publication of this work. The hundreds, or rather thousands, of soldiers and ex-soldiers who are to-day walking. about in our cities with deformities of joints, with mal- united fractures, or with paralysis of one or more limbs are a constant reminder of the importance of _a clear grasp of the principles for the treatment of these injuries. The great disadvantage under which a medical man labours at the present time is that he can find in no library a trustworthy history of the work of those who have gone before him in any special field. The result is that careful and capable workers in some special branch of surgery or medicine are often found struggling with the solution of a problem which has already been solved, or proved by the work of a forerunner to be of little importance. This is where Prof. Keith’s book is of such great value. He forces us to realise the work which has been accomplished by the men who were the pioneers in the art, and in a few all too short chapters follows up that progress through the careers of those who followed. No part of the book is better conceived than the chapters which Prof. Keith kas devoted to the growth of bone and the practice of bone grafting. Here we follow down through the years the gradual increase of knowledge from the work of Goodsir and Syme to that of Albu and Hey Groves. We see how each succeeding investigator added in some way to what was known of the subject, and built up our present knowledge, which is daily increasing and changing. At no time in the history of the subject has there been such an immense number of cases on which this problem of bone regeneration and bone transplantation can be studied, and in many cases fractures have occurred of a bone graft soon after its implantation, with a’ subsequent union of the parts of the graft. The book is intended primarily as a résumé of the history of the subject, and does not enter into a discussion of treatment except in the broadest sense of the term, and perhaps its one weak spot is the short discussion on the relative values to be placed on different lines of treatment. This is seen in the remarks on the relative advan- tages of the treatment of fractures by means of plating as compared with non-operative methods. Here Prof. Keith follows entirely the report of a commission, and from the purely theoretical point of view decides that the results of the treatment of fractures by plating is superior to those obtained by splints, etc., and does not realise that we are comparing the work of the best surgeons on the Vv 494 NATURE [JANUARY 15, 1920 staff of a hospital, who alone would perform the operation, with, in many cases, the work of a newly qualified house-surgeon. In many respects the book fills a gap in medical literature, and will be of great help not only to the general body of medical workers, but also more particularly to those who are specially en- gaged in this line of work. THE OIL-HARDENING INDUSTRY. The Hydrogenation of Oils: Catalysers and Cata- lysis and the Generation of Hydrogen and Oxy- gen, By Carleton Ellis. Second edition, thor- oughly revised and enlarged. Pp. xvii+767. (London : Constable and Co., Ltd., 1919.) Price 36s. net. ““ TAT hardening ’’ and ‘‘ hydrogenation ’’ are the trade terms for the chemical process of saturating liquid oils with hydrogen in presence of finely divided nickel. These operations, which a few years ago were conducted with great secrecy, are now regarded as more or less normal in every scap factory, and the usual extensive literature has grown up to describe them. Much of this is natur- ally diffuse, and much again inaccurate, so that there was ample room for an authoritative book on the subject. This was provided by Carleton Ellis in 1914, but since its publication the strides made in the oil-hardening industry have been very great, making a second edition, which endeavours to bring the subject up to date and offers sug- gestions of future possibilities, more than wel- come. The book has now swollen to 700 pages, and is replete with information; it is essentially a work of reference for the expert, and necessarily filled with far too much detail to be easily readable by chemists in general. The first edition; reviewed in Nature of May 20, 1915, deservedly established a very high repu- tation for the author, which will be enhanced by the new volume. Doubtless this contains the inevitable printer’s errors and minor inaccuracies, but we are less concerned to seek for these than to thank the author for his unselfish labours on behalf of his future readers. The plan followed is first to discuss the methods of hydrogenation in detail, much of the plant being illustrated and full account taken of the patent literature. The next section, occupying more than 150 pages, is devoted to the many aspects of the subject of the activity of the base metals as catalysers. The vexed question as to whether metallic nickel or nickel oxide is the active agent is fully discussed in so far that the opinions and experiments of the protagonists are given at NO. 2620, VOL. 104 | length, but the author refrains here, as elsewhere in the book, from giving the reader any lead as to which theory is the more probable. There follows an important chapter on the analytical constants of hydrogenated oils. % Although first introduced for providing hard fats for soap-making, hydrogenation has proved equally applicable to edible oils. As fats natur- ally fetch a higher price as foodstuffs than as soap-making materials, their technical production in the edible form’ has been extensively studied. Reference is made to other uses and properties of hardened oils. The hardening process has also been extended to petroleum, where many new problems arise, which are now described. Not only does crude petroleum contain unsaturated constituents, but these are also formed in some quantity during the cracking processes. The first stage in any hardening process is the productioa of hydrogen of the necessary purity and cheapness. A variety of methods for making hydrogen are in practical operation, and still more have been suggested, so that it is not surprising that fully a quarter of the book is devoted to the — description of these. In the future the cheap pro- duction of hydrogen will play a great part in the formation of ammonia from the air, and through ammonia of nitrates, and so influence increased soil fertility. The fat-hardening industry has had more than its share of patent litigation, famous cases having been fought both in this country and more recently in America. The report of the English case is given, substantially as published in the British official journal, in an appendix, whilst the case of The Procter and Gamble Co. v. The Berlin Mills Co. is reprinted in such detail as to occupy eighty pages. By Baas POLITICAL SCIENCE. : A New Chapter in the Science of Government. By Benchara Branford. Pp. xlviii+190. (London: Chatto and Windus, 191g.) Price 5s. net. HIS book is not perhaps likely to become popular. It is defective both in shape and in style; nor is the language of the author free from eccentricity and even ambiguity. It is possible that some reason may be urged for such phrases as ‘‘ Britamerindian Commonweal ’’ or ‘‘ Britamer- iidian re-orientation of politics,’’ in which the author seems to take an especial pleasure. But phrases like ‘‘a spiritual instrument of explora- tion on the rough politico-economie terra incog- nita,” or “feeling of communitary responsi- bility,’’ or ‘‘an extension of our synoptical cate- SA Cae Cee MTP IK: TSP Pa we LT OS TS Oe eee wee eC am Pa eS Pe SN ee a an JANUARY 15, 1920] NATURE 495 gories,’’ or ‘‘a synoptical survey of the grand human bi-directional spiral,’’ are disturbing, and may well be forbidding, to general readers, - Still, Mr. Branford takes a clear and strong _view upon certain points which vitally concern the theory of government. Nothing can be better than the passage in which he defines the guiding spirit of the new era (p. 143). It is almost too late to advocate now the rights of women; for womanhood has already entered upon its political heritage; but he rightly bases the enfranchisement of women upon their interest, which is at least equal to men’s, in the good order of the State (p. 28). Mr. Branford will carry the assent of all wise thinkers in proposing ‘‘to drop the rootedly false distinction between manual work and brain work,’’ a distinction which ‘‘has worked so fatally and so long against the humanisation of all labour, against its higher productivity, and against the social solidarity and happiness of mankind ”’ {p. 100). All that he says about Labour is worthy of serious regard, It is only right, too, to ex- _ press an acknowledgment of the passages (for example, on pp. 79 and 80) ‘in which he defines the successive relations between the family and the _city, the region, the nation, the State, and humanity as a whole. But when the book is judged in the light of its title, as ‘‘a new chapter in the science of govern- ment,’’ it cannot be said that Mr. Branford’s posi- tive reforms are altogether convincing. The most original of them seems to be an inference which he draws from the ‘‘warp and weft,’’ as he calls them, of society, i.e. the geographical or regional and the occupational or industrial divi- sions of mankind. He sees clearly that, so long as mankind is distributed geographically into countries or nations, and into these alone, patriot- ism itself must be exposed, as it was in Germany, to the danger of assuming a selfish, violent, and aggressive character. He finds, or hopes to find, a counter-balancing force in the various occupations of mankind. Thus if all Englishmen are natur- ally united in the cause of England, the miners or the railwaymen, not in England alone, but all the world over, may be united in support of their own industry. There will then be an international or cosmopolitan sense balancing the local patriotic sense of particular countries. This is, or was in the days before the war, the idea of the Labour Party; but when the war broke out, even the Socialists in Germany suffered their vocational or occupational feeling to be merged in their patriot- ism; and so it remained, at least until the scales of victory began to incline against the German Empire. Mr. Branford looks forward to a ‘Grand Coun- NO. 2620, VOL. 104] “ce cil of Humanity,” which he conceives as “a world-bicameral legislature,’ containing, after the manner of the British Constitution, two Chambers, the Lower being geographical and the Upper occupational; and it is through this Grand Coun- cil that he hopes to attain the solution of the poli- tical, social, and industrial problems which are now dislocating the civilised world. Upon the whole, if Mr. Branford cannot be said to have made a solid contribution to political science, he has thrown out a good many suggestive ideas which may well bear fruit in the political history of the new-born age. J. E. C. WELLDon. AMERICAN BOOKS ON AGRICULTURE. (1) Productive Agriculture. By Prof. John H. Gehrs. Pp. xii+436. (New York: The Mac- millan Co.; London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd., 1917.) Price 5s. 6d. net. (2) Farm Concrete. By K. J. T. Ekblaw. Pp. xi+295. (New York: The Macmillan Co.; London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd., 1917.) Price 8s. 6d. net. (3) Peach-growing. By H. P. Gould. (The Rural Science Series.) Pp. xxi+426+xxxii plates. (New York: The Macmillan Co.; London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd., 1918.) Price ros. 6d. net. (1) ROM the house of the Macmillan Co., of New York, there issues a constant flow of good agricultural books, and it is gratifying to find that the three now to hand are fully equal to some of their predecessors. The first book, by Prof. J. H. Gehrs, of the Warrensburg State Normal School of Montana, is written for school children of the upper classes who propose to take up farming as the business of their life. It is frankly vocational: “this is not primarily a book about agriculture, but one on ‘ Productive Agriculture.’ Unless this book helps to increase the average yields, im- prove stock, make for better and more fruit, and promote better farm management, it will have failed of the purpose for which it was written.” It may at once be stated that the book deserves to achieve success. The subject-matter is very interesting; the book is full of bits of old country- lore that always make a strong appeal to the country child and the countryman, and the in- formation so far as we can see is sound. Under the heading “Wheat,” for instance, the author gives a chart showing the production in bushels of the more important wheat countries of the world with the percentage that each contributes to the world’s total. This brings out in striking manner the fact that Europe normally con- 496 NATURE [JANUARY 15, 1920 tributes 51-4 per cent. of the world’s wheat—a sufficient explanation of the present scarcity. North America contributes only 27-6 per cent.— little more than European Russia. A chart is then given to show the production in certain of the States. North Dakota and Kansas easily come first, followed by Nebraska, Minnesota, Washington, etc. In yield per acre it is gratify- ing to note that Great Britain stands first with 33-4 bushels, followed by Germany with 30-7, France with 20-1, and the United States with 15 bushels. The cost of production per bushel is stated to be lower in Great Britain than else- where; but to this English farmers might not agree. The low position of the United States is not to the author’s liking: “Why European countries produce larger yields an acre than the United States is an important question for study. Our natural resources are ordinarily as great as those of European countries.” America scores, however, in the efficiency of the farm labourers and the use of machinery. The portrait of Cyrus H. McCormick, who devised the modern reaper and thus revolutionised the growth of wheat, occupies a prominent place in the book, and much space is rightly devoted to machinery. A table is introduced showing how the time re- quired of man labour to produce and thresh a bushel of wheat has fallen since 1832 from 3% hours to 10 minutes only, and the cost of the labour has fallen from 17% cents to 3% cents. Maize naturally claims a good deal of attention as the most important farm crop in the States in respect both of money value and of food value. The United States contributes no less than 78 per cent. of the world’s supply ;. Iowa and Illinois are the largest producers, but Indiana, Nebraska, Missouri, and Ohio grow large amounts; these and Kansas constitute the famous “corn belt” of the States. Of oats, as of wheat, Europe is the chief producer, growing no less than 61-2 per cent. of the world’s total; but in point of yield Ger- many comes first with 57-4 bushels, followed by the United Kingdom with 44-7, France with 30, and the United States with 29-4 bushels. Later chapters deal with animals; the style is equally good, and the matter equally interesting; a brief history of the principal breeds of live stock is given, with descriptions of their characteristics, valuable features, and methods of treatment. Next come sections on the soil, laying special stress on physical properties, then sections on fertilisers, and finally chapters on choosing a farm. Altogether the book is one of the most suc- cessful for its purpose we have yet seen, and we imagine it will make a vivid appeal to the American students for whom it is written. NO, 2620. VOL. 104] (2) The other two books are more specialised. Mr. Ekblaw writes about farm concrete, a subject of which we are likely to hear much more in this country in the future, for the making of concrete requires only sand, cement, and grave! (or similar substances); it can be moulded to almost any shape and adapted to almost any farm building purpose. The author deals with natural cement, made by calcining and then pulverising natural argillaceous limestone without preliminary mix- ing and grinding; and Portland cement or arti- ficial cement, made by mixing finely ground argil- laceous and calcareous materials in proportions approximately of three parts of calcium carbonate to one of silica, alumina, and iron oxide, then calcining and finely pulverising. Portland cement, it is interesting to note, was invented by an Englishman, Joseph Aspdin, in 1824, and for many years we led the way in its manufacture ; but now the United States leads, surpassing all other countries both in manufacture and in use. Several varieties of concrete are made, but the constituents are always cement, a fine aggregate (usually sand) and a coarse aggregate (usually pebbles or broken stones), the purpose of the fine material being to save cement by filling up more closely the pore spaces; an apparatus called the voidmeter is described for estimating the amount of pore spaces of different materials. Re- inforced concrete as used for buildings is concrete in which steel or other material is embedded to increase its strength. proved very successful. empirical, the underlying principles mot being quite understood, but sufficient useful knowledge — has been gained to reveal its great promise for the future. Great stress is laid on the fire-resistant pro- perties of concrete for building purposes. The building regulations in New York are severe; a building to be considered fireproof must with- stand when fully loaded a temperature of 1700° for four hours, and then be subjected to a stream of water discharged from a 14-in. nozzle under a pressure of 60 Ib. without failure. A number of systems of reinforced concrete have success- fully passed the test. : The rest of the book is devoted to the special mi purposes for which concrete can be used on the farm. . For building purposes it takes the place of both. brick and wood; it can be used for buildings, posts, mangers, floors, yards, and the farmhouse itself. The book will be of great interest to country builders and estate agents who wish to build as cheaply and quickly as possible. (3) The last book on the list, “ Peach-growing,” It was invented by a French gardener, Jean Monier, in 1876, and has — Its use is still somewhat Pe ee Ee Eh ye eT January 15, 1920], NATURE 497 by Mr. H. P. Gould, follows the same lines. as the other special crop-books of the Rural Science Series, of which Dr. L. H. Bailey is the editor. It is a worthy member of the series. Opening with an account of the history and economic posi- tion of the crop, the author proceeds to discuss the details of laying out and managing a peach orchard, the pests, and other details which the intelligent grower ought to know. are given to bulletins of colleges and agricultural experiment stations, where further information can be gained. HANDBOOKS OF CHEMISTRY. (1) Senior Practical Chemistry. By H. W. Bausor. Pp. viii+217. (London: W. B. Clive. Uni- versity Tutorial Press, Ltd., 1919.) Price 3s. 6d. (2) Volumetric Analysis for Students of Pharma- References. { { ceutical and General Chemistry. By Charles H. | Hampshire. Second edition. Pp. 127. (Lon- don: J. and A. Churchill, 1919.) Price 5s. net. (3) The Preparation of Substances Important in Agriculture: A Laboratory Manual of Syn- thetic Agricultural Chemistry. Third edition. By Prof. Charles A. Peters. Pp. vii+8r. (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc. ; Lon- don: Chapman and Hall, Ltd., 1919.) Price 4s. net. (4) Salt and the Salt Industry. By Albert F. Calvert. (Pitman’s Common Commodities and Industries.) Pp. viit+151. (London: Sir Isaac Pitman and Sons, Ltd., n.d.) Price 2s. 6d. net. (5) Industrial Chemistry. By Dr. Clerk Ranken. (The People’s Books.) Pp. 126. (London and Edinburgh: T. C. and E. C. Jack, Ltd. ; T. Nelson and Sons, Ltd., 1919.) Price 1s. 3d. (1) HESE small books differ from each other perhaps as widely as it is possible for five chemical books to differ, except in one matter, namely, that each author seems to be fully competent to deal with his subject. Mr. Bausor disclaims responsibility for the character of the course of work given in his ‘‘ Senior Prac- tical Chemistry,” as it is designed to meet the requirements of the Senior Cambridge Local Examination in Practical Chemistry. We may be old-fashioned, but we still think that the qualita- tive character of things should be studied before an attempt is made to estimate their quantity.” To say the least of it, it appears strange to us that a student, after having made preparations and done experiments some of which demand con- siderable manipulative skill, should then be in- structed how to bend and cut glass tubing, and how to take small quantities of materials out of NO. 2620, VOL. 104 | bottles by means of a spatula. But we suppose that this is a matter of the syllabus. The final section deals with qualitative analysis, but only so far as the detection of the acid and the base of a single salt. (2) The title of Mr. Hampshire's manual suffi- ciently indicates its scope. This author also works to a syllabus, but one that is much more definite and restricted than in the preceding case. In order to make the volume more generally useful, the applications of methods to substances that may be of little importance to those who are not students of pharmacy are printed in smaller type. But the majority of these will be found of interest to any earnest student of analytical chemistry, and those who have to direct their work will find in these small-print examples an excellent help towards getting out of the ruts that “laboratory work” is so apt to suffer from. (3) The three other volumes differ from the first two in that the authors are not guided by sylla- buses prepared by others. Prof. Peters gives within his few pages of large type a really sur- prising amount of information. The substances of which the preparation on a laboratory scale is described are superphosphate, ammonium sulphate, four potassium salts, lead nitrate, lead arsenate, lime-sulphur (the product of boiling lime and sulphur together in water), copper sulphate, Paris green, Bordeaux mixture, and paraffin oil emulsions. But the book will prove far more interesting than if it consisted merely of these practical directions. The use and manner of action of each substance are referred to, or of each con- stituent of a mixture, and the reason for employ- ing the mixture rather than the single active sub- stance. The last line of the preface informs us that “a few simplified spellings have been used.” We have failed entirely to find consistency in these simplifications. Ph is replaced by f in sulphate, but not in phosphate. Final e’s are sometimes omitted, but by no means always, and the same may be said of the e in the final syllable ed. Coold, cald, lims, eg, brot, floc, thot, enuf, thru, volum are examples of the simplifications, while, on the other hand, the author uses feldspar, although in this country the d has been omitted for more than a generation. These peculiarities mar the book, for they cannot fail to distract attention from the main subject. A students’ manual of chemistry is not the place to introduce spelling reforms. (4) Mr. Calvert, in his monograph on “Salt,” restricts himself almost entirely to the history of the Cheshire salt district and its industry. The scant treatment of this subject at the hands of authors in general is ascribed to the comparatively . 498 NATURE [JANUARY 15, 1920 . small group of men engaged in the industry, and their’ jealousies of one another and especially of outsiders. They have endeavoured to keep their secrets as well as their profits. The author says that the story is, for the most part, a chronicle of bitter struggles to maintain a monopoly, even at the cost of ruinous losses, and the stubborn persistence in “obsolete methods.” But the chapter on the “latest methods of salt-making ”’ leads us to hope that these times are now of little more than historic interest. The book is well illustrated, showing ancient works from old prints, salt-mine interiors, subsidences of land consequent on salt mining, and the most modern apparatus. (5) ‘Industrial Chemistry”’ is, of course, a much more extensive subject than any of the pre- ceding. Though the price of this volume is less than half that of any of the others, it is not the smallest book, and, bound in a very presentable green cloth, it shows what is possible in book production even in these times. It is difficult to see how anyone could have got more information into the same space than Dr. Ranken has, or to find any section of this wide subject that he has passed over, and yet the volume is a true “people’s book,” and does not leave any impres- sion of undue condensation. The first chapter, being headed “Catalysis and Catalysts,” may tend to repel the non-technical reader, but he has only to pass over the title and all will be well. The honesty of the author is highly commendable when he says that “there are fashions in chemistry as in other lines, and the views con- cerning catalysis held to-day may be absolutely unfashionable to-morrow.” This is true of other matters than catalysis. Ge \J; FRESH-WATER BIOLOGY. (1) Fresh-water Biology. By Prof. H. B. Ward and Prof. G. C. Whipple. With the collabora- tion of a Staff of Specialists. Pp. ix+a1111. (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc. ; Lon- don: Chapman and Hall, Ltd., 1918.) Price 28s. net. (2) Aquatic Microscopy for Beginners ; or, Common Objects from the Ponds and Ditches. By Dr. A. C. Stokes. Fourth edition, revised and en- larged. Pp. ix+324. (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc.; London: Chapman and Hall, Ltd., 1918.) Price ros. 6d. net. (1) ROFS. WARD AND WHIPPLE and their twenty-five collaborators have produced a volume to which students may refer for precise information upon the organisms met with in fresh water in North America. Introductory chapters NO. 2620, VOL, 104] deal with general biological factors and methods of collecting. Succeeding chapters, devoted re- spectively to single orders or classes, give a general account of the occurrence, a brief descrip- tion of the anatomy (including reference to the features used in classification) and of the life- history and biological relations, and, finally, a key to the genera, and in several cases also to the principal species of the group. The informa- tion in the key about any given genus includes not only the diagnostic characters, but also in most cases an illustration and some reference to the frequency, the range, or other data; thus the © whole information “forms a solid panel and appeals promptly and as a whole to the eye and mind of the student.” Much good work has been put into this book, and especial mention may be made of the excel- lent chapters on Turbellaria, Trematodes and Cestodes, and free-living Nematodes, the last- named noteworthy for the detailed figures. The chapters on Cladocera, Copepoda, Ostracoda, and Mollusca are provided with numerous original illustrations. H. S. Jennings has given a very useful account of the biology and structure of these animals, and a survey of the families, pointing out the various modifications from the Notommatoid type from which the author (with Wesenberg-Lund) con- siders the other families to have been derived. In addition to the notes on habitat given — throughout the book, here and there are short — notes on points of special importance connected — with the distribution. Two of these may be cited as examples. Reference is made to the finding by Prof. Garman, in September, 1916, of large numbers of the fresh-water medusa Craspedacusta (Limnocodium) sowerbii in a creek near Frank- fort, Kentucky. This medusa, first found in 1880 in the Victoria Regia tank in the Botanic Gardens in Regent’s Park, and afterwards in tanks in other gardens in Europe and America, is now recorded for the first time from other than arti-— Dr. Ortmann, in a short — ficial surroundings. note under Mysis relicta, states that, so far as the North American stock of this species is con- cerned, there is no reason to assume that it is a marine relic; it may be regarded as an immigrant into the Great Lakes in Glacial times. _ This excellent treatise should greatly stimulate the study of the fresh-water fauna of North America, and will be very helpful for comparative purposes also to workers in this country. (2) The author, who modestly styles himself “only a beginner” writing for beginners, has given his descriptions of the microscope and its parts and of aquatic organisms in languagé as In the chapter on Rotifers, Prof. — oe elt * oe om I Pe a ee 4 | ig ted Se Sa ey as ” Si al te ~~ a oe ee a. JANUARY 15, 1920] . NATURE 499 little technical as possible. The biology and some elementary points of structure of each group are briefly considered, and useful keys are provided to aid the reader in finding at least the generic name of the more common organisms which the author has collected from a single pond in New Jersey. Special attention has been devoted to certain groups—e.g. Gastrotricha, Rotifera, Polyzoa. Here and there the desire to be non- technical in terminology has been carried a little too far—e.g. the egg-masses of Cyclops should not be called “external ovaries,” and the term “contractile vesicle” is not a good substitute for “contractile vacuole ”—the latter term could have been quite easily defined. Helpful illustrations (198) as aids in diagnosis of the genera are given, but we would suggest that when the book reaches a fifth edition figures should be added of some of the commoner transparent animals, e.g. a rotifer, a polyzoon, Daphnia, in which the chief internal organs are clearly shown and labelled. OUR BOOKSHELF. The Elements of Astronomy for Surveyors, By Prof. R. W. Chapman. Pp. x+248. (London: C. Griffin and Co., Ltd., 1919.) Price 5s. net. Str Joun HerscHEL’s dictum in his well-known panegyric on star-catalogues, that “every well- determined star from the moment its place is registered is as effective for mapping down the intricacies of a petty barony as for adjusting the boundaries of transatlantic empires,”’ may be taken as the raison d’étre of this book. The author is professor of mathematics and mechanics in the University of Adelaide, and doubtless the southern continent gives scope for surveying on a large scale in which astronomical observation is a neces- sity. : The book is on conventional lines, the first six chapters dealing with the elements of geometrical astronomy, including one which explains at some length with examples the conversion of sidereal into mean time and similar arithmetical processes. The latter half of the book consists of chapters on the determination of true meridian, on azimuth of a mark, of latitude, time, and longitude. Most of the recognised methods are concisely explained, and illustrated in some cases by examples taken from actual experience. Use observation of circumpolar stars at elongation for determination of azimuth, and for time the ob- servation of altitude of the sun or a star near the prime vertical is recommended and discussed in full detail. The inclusion of a few pages on the almucantar is a useful addition to the book, which will fulfil its intended purpose of providing an elementary exposition of the principles of the formulz used by the surveyor. — NO. 2620, VoL. 104] Organic Chemistry for Students of Medicine... By Prof. James Walker. Second edition. Pp. xi+ 332. (London: Gurney and Jackson; Edin- burgh: Oliver and Boyd, 1919.) Price tos. 6d. net. Tuts second edition of Prof. Walker’s book for medical students does not differ substantially from the first edition as issued in 1913. It may, how- ever, be useful to direct the attention of medical students and their teachers to a volume which has been written specially to suit their require- ments, and the value of which is shown by the publication of a further issue. LETTERS TO THE EDITOR. {The Editor does not hold himself responsible i opinions expressed by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manuscripts intended for this or any other part of Nature. No notice is taken of anonymous communications.] Promotion of a Plumage Bill. Att lovers of’ animals must sympathise with any efforts to prevent the ruthless destruction of bird-life for trade purposes, referred to by Mr. H. J. Massing- ham in his letter in Nature of December 25. It is open to grave doubt, however, whether the measures announced are the best that can be devised or will meet with a sympathetic following. They are the formation of a ‘‘Plumage Bill group,” designed to fight the plumage trade and to bring pressure upon the Government to introduce a Bill forbidding the importation of all birds’ skins for millinery purposes, with a few exceptions. From time immemorial plumage has been employed to satisfy the decorative and esthetic instincts of mankind, though to-day public opinion is. rightly determined that it must be procured under conditions conforming with our humane sentiments. We may well inquire, therefore, whether the zsthetic demands for plumage can be met without outraging. these. The ostrich in South Africa supplies a forcible case in point, In times past the wild bird was hunted for its precious plumes, and would have become almost extinct ere this had not its domestication been under- taken. As it is, the wild bird is now preserved and is increasing in numbers, and hundreds of thousands of domesticated birds lead a pampered existence on the ostrich farms. A big industry has arisen of the highest importance to agricultural South Africa, repre- | senting in pre-war days an annual export value of is made of the , about 3,000,000l. It is submitted that what has beeri accomplished with the ostrich may be possible with other. birds supplying ornamental plumage; that, like it, others may give rise to industries and yield their plumage in conformity with the highest humane demands. One ventures to suggest that, instead of pursuing a repressive policy, the efforts of Mr. Massingham and his associates would be better directed in instituting studies and investigations as to conditions under which plumage-birds could be reared on an industrial basis. Mr. Massingham appears to have an unworthy view of the issues involved in his announcement, for in the plumage trade he sees ‘‘no other purpose than to feed the profits of a small band of East End traders and to satisfy the frivolity of some women.’’? Though ostrich plumes are exempted from the operations of the proposed Bill, yet so sensitive is the inter-rélationship 500 NATURE [January 15, 1920 between plumage of all kinds that when the Anti- Plumage Bill was introduced in 1913 the trade in- security engendered was so far-reaching as to con- stitute one of the principal causes of the serious slump in the South African ostrich industry, involving the loss of millions of pounds—a slump from which, the war supervening, the Union is only slowly recovering. The introduction of another Bill would be viewed with alarm in South Africa, and would have a _ serious international bearing, particularly .upon our Ally, France, involving thousands of workers and millions of capital. It surely were wise not to attempt it when other measures are possible which would afford a wide stimulus to industry and to the study of bird- life. Royal Colonial Institute, Northumberland Avenue. J. E. DUERDEN. Musical Drums with Harmonic Overtones. Ir is well known that’ percussion instruments as a class ‘give inharmonic overtones, and are thus musically defective. We find on investigation that a special type of musical drum which has long been known and used in India forms a very remarkable exception to | ~ the foregoing rule, as it gives harmonic overtones having the same relation of pitch to the fundamental tone as in stringed instruments. Five such harmonics rom ray of the fundamental tone) can be elicited- rom the drumhead in this type of instrument, the first,.'second, and third harmonics being specially well sustained in intensity and giving a fine musical .effect. The special method of construction of the drumhead which secures this result will be understood from the accompanying illustration (Fig. 1). It will fic. 1.—Drumhead giving harmonic overtones. be noticed (1) that the drumhead carries a symmetrical distributed load, decreasing in superficial density from the centre outwards (this appears as a dark circle in the middle of the membrane, the load consisting of a firmly adherent but flexible composition, in which the principal constituent is finely divided metallic iron); and (2) that a second membrane in the form of a ring is superimposed on the circular membrane round its. margin. The character of the vibrations of this heterogeneous membrane which give rise to its remarkable acoustic NO. 2620, VOL. 104] properties have been investigated by us. It is found, as might have been expected, that the fundamental pitch and the octave are derived respectively from the modes of vibration of the membrane without any nodal lines and with one nodal diameter. The third harmonic, we find, owes its origin to the fact that the next two higher modes of vibration of the drumhead (those with two nodal diameters and with one nodal circle respectively) have identical pitch, this being a twelfth above the fundamental. There is reason to believe that the fourth and fifth harmonics similarly arise from some of the numerous more complex modes of. vibration of the drumhead becoming unified in pitch in consequence of the distributed load at the centre and round the periphery of the membrane. The central load also improves the musical effeet by in- creasing the energy of vibration, and thus prolonging the duration of the tones. C. V. Raman. Srvakatt Kumar. 210 Bowbazaar Street, Calcutta, India, December to. Power from the Sun. Mr, A. A. CampsELL Swinton, in his letter on the above subject in Nature of December 18, states that “it is hopeless to expect to be able to effect anything of this nature with the heat-engine, for with this we should scarcely reach the 2 per cent. efficiency nearly attained by vegetation.”’ For nearly four years immediately preceding the war I was engaged by the Sun Power Co. (Eastern Hemi- sphere), Ltd., and the Shuman Engine Syndicate, Ltd., on the problem of the utilisation of solar energy, upon which these companies spent a considerable sum of money, the experiments being conducted on a large scale in America and Egypt, while the trials of the necessary. low-pressure engine (which made an easy record for such engines) were made in this country.. Thi results of the whole of this work are recorded in mv two papers both bearing the title ‘The Utilisation of Solar Energy,’”’ one being read before the Society of Engineers in April, 1914, and the other before the Royal Society of Arts in April, 1915. At p. 540 of the Journal of the Royal Society of Arts of April 30, 1915, it was shown that the overall thermal efficiency of the sun power plant erected in Egypt was 4:32 per cent., which is to be compared with the performance of the best steam-engine and boiler of 11-5 per cent. At p. 560, ibid., it was shown that the theoretical efficiency of an engine working between the same limits of temperature would be 5:9 per cent., and that, consequently, the relative efficiency of the sun power plant to this ideal engine was no less than 73-2 per cent. From this it will be seen that Mr. Campbell Swinton’s estimate of the thermal efficiency of 2 per cent. for a sun-power steam plant is more than too per cent. too low. It is well that any wrong impression which the lower figure might give should be corrected, for in these days of extremely expensive coal it is desirable that inventors, experimenters, and financiers should not be discouraged from attempting to utilise solar energy, which some of us think is bound to be realised in the future. In the Royal Society of Arts paper. it was shown that the cost of solar energy was equivalent to coal at 3I. 10s. a ton, and from this it is obvious that had the companies had more time in which to develop and construct plants before the war, they would have been paying handsomely, with coal at its present prices, in Egypt, Chile, and other sun-bathed countries. ALFRED S. E. ACKERMANN. 23 Victoria Street, Westminster, S.W.1, January 6- iY +0 les 5 f x + A j JANUARY 15, 1920| NATURE 501 TRIODE VALVES AS ELECTRIC AMPLIFIERS. gi the most exquisite tools that modern wireless telegraphy now proffers to investi- gators working in the fields of pure science, that known as the amplifier stands out as being of the most obvious promise in various directions. The amplifier offers the means of magnifying vary- ing electro-motive forces and currents, otherwise imperceptible, so that they come within the range of ordinary laboratory measuring and_record- ing instruments. It was developed during the war to a high pitch of excellence, not only for the improvement of wireless telegraph signals, but also for other kinds of signalling and for listening under water and under the ground—that is to say, it has been fully developed for the mag- nification of the high-frequency currents used in wireless telegraphy and for currents of telephonic frequency. Descriptions of the apparatus have now been published in many places, and the tool as thus developed will in due course take its place in the laboratory. For many purposes, however, an amplifier that will faithfully magnify slow varia- tions of a current or electro-motive force is de- manded, and since little has been published about such apparatus, the following notes of methods used in the writer’s laboratory during the past few years are now presented. As the term is usually under- stood nowadays, an amplifier consists of one or more of the three-electrode thermionic vacuum valves of wireless tele- graphy associated with auxiliary transformers or analogous ap- acting against the battery. But making the grid positive relative to the filament partially neutral- ises the field of the space charge, and therefore reduces the back electro-motive force. This influ- ence is greater the closer the mesh of the grid; in some commercial triodes one volt on the grid will cancel ten volts of the back electro-motive force, or, in other words, one volt applied to the grid is worth ten volts applied in the anode circuit. At the same time, the current flowing on to the grid when one volt is applied between grid and filament is, perhaps, only a microampere; the multiplication of current performed by the triode is thus a thousandfold. Moreover, since the energy input to the grid is, in the assumed circumstances, 1 x 10-® watt, and the consequent additional energy output of the high-voltage bat- tery in the anode circuit 50x10~% watt, the energy ratio is 50,000. Not all this output is available for use, however; we may, in fact, scarcely hope to use half of it. It is worth while emphasising here a difference between an electro-magnetic transformer and a triode regarded as a transformer. The trans- former may be arranged to give in its secondary circuit a voltage many times that applied to the primary, but the current is correspondingly dim- inished to keep the output of the energy equal to the input (losses being neglected). But in the case , E). i & V+ paratus. This particular kind of valve may for _ brevity be called a triode valve, or even a triode. It comprises a hot filament for supplying electrons, which serves as cathode, a plate, or cylinder, which serves as anode, and an intervening grid, all contained in a highly evacu- ated bulb. The bulbs generally used in amplifiers are about the same size as the common incan- descent filament lamp, but the filament cathode of the triode is proportioned so as to become white hot when a battery of about 5 volts is joined to its terminals to supply about three-quarters of an ampere of current. A battery of, say, 50 volts, connected with its positive pole to the anode and its negative pole to the cathode, causes a current of order one milliampere to flow when the grid is at the same electric potential as the mid-point of the filament, and of perhaps twice this value when the grid is given a potential one volt higher. The- reason for this influence of the grid may be briefly explained as follows: When, in obedi- ence to the electro-motive force applied between anode and filament, an electron current flows from the filament, the distributed electric charge in the space creates an electric field that tends to repel electrons back to the filament, or, in other words, gives rise to a back electro-motive force NO. 2620, VOL. 104] pI Fic. x. of the triode valve the current, as well as the electro-motive force, is multiplied, and ‘the. con- sequently multiplied energy output takes place at the expense of the high-voltage battery. — The most highly developed type of amplifier is that intended for the magnification of currents alternating more than 100 times per second, and consists of a number of triode valves linked in tandem by means of the mutual inductance of transformers. The earliest instruments were prob- ably constructed by de Forest. Excellent instru- ments can now be made for any frequency between 100 and 1,000,000. It is stated that Mr. H. J. Round, of the Marconi Co., has used up to twenty- two triodes in tandem, and obtained magnifica- tions of potential difference of about half-a-million- fold. As already stated, amplifiers for rapidly alternating current have been described elsewhere, and are not the subject of this article. ; The type of amplifier described in Fig. 1 may be used for magnifying currents that vary. slowly. It appears to have been conceived first in the French. Military Radio-telegraphic Laboratory in Paris. In this apparatus the linkage between suc- cessive triode valves is accomplished by means 502 NATURE [ JANUARY 15, 1920 of resistances and batteries. Considering the anode circuit of the first bulb, we see that it con- tains a resistance R, and a high-voltage battery E,. Let E,=80 volts, R,;= 30,000 ohms, and the current be 1 milliampere. At present ignore the bat- teries marked e,, e,'; then the fall of potential along R, is 30,000x 10~-%=30 volts. Such a potential difference applied between the grid and filament of the second triode would put this tube completely out of action. It is therefore neces- sary to introduce a neutralising battery of about 30 volts at the point marked e,, or at the point marked e,'. In the latter case the battery will, in fact, be a portion of the battery E. Suppose OUTPUT Fic. 2 this to be done, and imagine an electro-motive force ey to be applied between the input terminals of the amplifier. Then it can be shown that the consequent increase of current in the anode cir- cuit is So Ryt1/hd where g is the triode’s voltage factor, and hy its differential conductance. These parameters are frequently of the order g=10 and *g=1074. The electro-motive force handed on to the second triode from the terminals of R, is clearly of magnitude Rigo. R,+1/haq Using the value of R, suggested INPUT on the now insulated grid. The complete instru- ment is then usually connected so as to utilise a common battery of 4 or 6 volts for all filaments, and a common battery of about 80 volts for all anodes. Adopting common battery connections, a finished two-stage amplifier is seen in Fig. 2. The grid leak S connected between the first grid and its filament might be about a megohm, and is neces- sary only when the circuits from which the input to the amplifier comes are such as would other- wise leave the grid insulated. According to the computations given above for one stage, the | amplification with this two-stage instrument should be 7-5 7-5 =56-fold. Finally, a mode of connection due to the present writer may be described. It is shown in Fig. 3, arranged to constitute a two-stage amplifier suit- able for use with slowly varying currents. The first triode of the pair has resistances Q;, Ry, Sj, connected so as to constitute with the bulb the four arms of a balanced Wheatstone bridge. The high-voltage battery E, is connected across two opposite corners of the bridge. An electrical stimulus applied to the grid causes the balance to be disturbed, and a corresponding potential difference arises between the lament eae nd the junction of Q, and R,. This difference’ of potential is conveyed to the next triode by direct connections. The magnification is the same a that obtained with the arrangement of Fig. 2 w resistances S,, S, are taken of the same value as — R, in that figure. A grid leak S is used when — necessary, for the reason explained before. In conclusion, it would be well to point ‘ that in deciding upon the resistances and the — voltages to be employed in constructing these amplifiers, the characteristics of the triodes shoul be kept in mind with the view of using them 2 at such adjustments that the relation between input « - 24 ee a os above, we find that the multi- plier of ey becomes 30X10°xI0__. qoxio® 7 The amplification approaches the limit 10 (that is, the value of g) the greater we take the value of R,; but obvious practical reasons limit the magni- tude of this resistance. This type of amplifier, usually spoken of as a resistance cascade amplifier, has been much used by the Americans and the French for amplifying rapidly varying currents, but in that case a con- denser is substituted for the. battery at e,; a “grid leak ” of order a megohm must then be connected between grid and filament in each triode in order to avoid the accumulation of negative electricity NO. 2620, VOL. 104] Fic, 3. and output potential differences is linear, and the magnification therefore free from distortion. W. H. Eccies. INDIAN GEOLOGY.} € Base appearance of a manual of Indian geology of so excellent a character as the present work, written by an Indian geologist, is an event of some importance, since it furnishes a fresh and convincing answer to the argument so often 1 “Geology of India for Students. By D. N. Wadia. P, xx+398+xx plates. (London: Macmillan and Co. Ltd., 1919. _ Price 18s. net. JANUARY 15, 1920] put forward that the Oriental mind, though it may~ assimilate the ideas of Western science with ease, is yet incapable of applying the principles of that science to original research. It is true that the author in his preface modestly admits that the book is in the main a compilation; yet the able manner in which he has marshalled the facts, and the clearness of his reasoning, especially when dealing with matters that are still open to con- troversy, show that-he is by no means lacking in originality of thought and expression. As a text-book for the use of the elementary student, perhaps, the work is not all that is re- quired. There is still room for a book which would lead the student gradually to a knowledge NATURE | preservation is 5o3 are the dry bones of the science; they must be clothed with flesh and blood by comparing the processes and actions which prevailed when they were formed with those which are taking place before our eyes in the world of to-day.. A sand- grain or a_ pebble of the rocks is not a mere particle of inanimate matter, but is ‘a word or phrase in the history of the earth, and has much to tell of a long chain of natural operations ‘which were concerned in its formation. Similarly,» a | fossil shell is not a mere chance relic of an animal that once lived, but a valuable document whose to be reckoned an important event in the history of the earth. we ERE whole passage is tco long to quote, but it fur- of the science, by illustrations drawn from the rich field of observation that lies open to him in India itself. No systematic attempt is made to explain the meaning of geological terms, and the book presupposes a knowledge of the subject which the average student certainly would not possess. To the advanced student, in the sense that every scientific man is a student throughout his life, the book must prove extremely useful. There are many pitfalls awaiting the student who fails to profit by the pertinent advice (p. 41) “not to commit the mistake of merely trying to memorise the dry summary of facts regarding the ‘ rocks ’ or “fossils ’ of a system, or consider that the idea of a geological system is confined to these. These NO. 2620, VOL. 104] nishes a good example of the’author’s style.) In the making of tables of rock-sequence and cor- relation it is impossible to avoid what appear to be definite statements regarding a formation the position of which may be doubtful; and when the student merely learns these tables by heart for examination purposes (a practice which too often defines the limits of the candidate’s know- ledge of the subject), he is apt, having missed | the qualifying explanation given in the text, to unload his modicum of knowledge with results disastrous to himself. Thus, in the general table of formations (p. 47), the rocks of the Simla area, from the Blaini boulder bed upwards, are boldly correlated with the Vindhyans of the peninsula, 504 though it has not yet been proved that this boulder bed is not the equivalent in age of the Carbonifer- ous Talchers. The Simla and Jaunsar slates, the Dalings of Sikkim, and the Shillong quartzites in Assam, are all correlated with the Dharwars of Southern India, and, probable as these correla- tions may be, even as regards lithological re- semblance there is little in common between these formations and the highly altered schists and jaspers of the typical Dharwars. Again, in the table giving the Cambrian succession of the Punjab Salt Range, the salt marl is placed at the base of that system, though it has recently been shown that there is good reason to believe this peculiar formation to be of Tertiary age. NATURE [ JANUARY 15, 1920 Dharwars, which would make them the oldest rocks of the Peninsula (p. 69). Insistence is laid (pp. 135, 150) upon the importance of the strati- graphical break at the close of the Carboniferous period, which separates the Dravidian and Aryan groups of Sir T. Holland’s classification of the Indian geological sequence. Full attention is also given to the recent discovery in Kashmir of beds containing the characteristic flora of the Talcher | series, associated with marine strata, thus fixing | a base limit for the Gondwana system, and closing a long-standing controversy. A useful chapter on “Economic Geology” | closes this part of the work, and then follows a | special chapter on the geology of Kashmir, where, ae As ¥ % ige The arrangement of the lines. The physical features, mountains, glaciers, etc., are each briefly dealt with in the opening chapter. (Some of these are again described in a chapter on “Physiography”’ towards the end of the ‘book (chap. xxv.), a somewhat peculiar arrangement, resulting in a good deal of repeti- tion.) Then follow the various systems from Archzean to Pleistocene and Recent, the informa- tion with regard to each being carefully and clearly given in sufficient detail. Full advantage is taken of recent advances in our knowledge of Indian geology. Allusion is made to the revolu- tionary ideas of Dr. Smeeth and band. of workers in Mysore concerning the of the NO. 2620, VOL. 104! his age book follows the usual | Fic. 2.—‘‘ Marble Rocks” (Dolomite marble), Jabalpur. From “‘ Geology of India for Students.” as the author remarks, “within a small geo- graphical compass one of the finest developments of the stratified record seen in the Indian region and perhaps in the world ” is revealed, in a situa- tion more accessible to the student than any other in the whole length of the Himalaya. It may here be remarked that much remains to be done before the geology of this fascinating country is worked out in detail. The book is written in clear and good English, and is well got up. Very few typographical errors have been noticed, but among them may be men- tioned “Jena,” presumably for “Jura” of Spitii (p. 165); “corrosion” for “corrasion” (p.. 277) ; and twice (pp. 198, 200) “ Physa princepii ” for the — Ue Rieti aa i ———-- = © 5 - ' oh a ee JANUARY 15, 1920] NATURE 505 typical fossil of the intertrappean beds of the ‘Deccan, named in honour of the well-known secretary of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, James Prinsep. Numerous photographic views, diagrams, and maps add to the interest of the work, most of which are taken with due acknowledgment from the publications of the Geological Survey of India. Of the author’s Own views, two have been selected for re- production, one showing a typical landscape in the crystalline area of the peninsula, and the other that unique feature in one of the great peninsular rivers—the falls on the Narbada, near Jabalpur. dey S Mig a a oe METEOROLOGY IN THREE DIMENSIONS.! Be: 1916 Mr. W. H. Dines put together in a concise report the information then available about the pressure, temperature, and density of the atmosphere up to heights of 15-20 kilometres. His report is now published, and should prove _ extremely useful and informing both to the new generation of meteorologists and to the wider . circle whose interest in the atmosphere is non- professional. = The first nine sections deal with the methods | and places of observation, the averages and seasonal variations of pressure, temperature, and density, and the stratosphere and tropo- sphere; short accounts of humidity and atmo- spheric motion are also included. The tenth and eleventh sections are concerned with the results of the statistical treatment of the original data; the interpretation of these results will provoke much discussion. First, the cor- relation: coefficient between (1) the mean tempera- ture of a vertical column extending from a height of 1 km. to a_height of 9 km.. and (2) -the pressure at the top of the column is. 0-95. The hydrostatic equation connecting variations of pressure at 1 km, and 9 km. with variations of the mean temperature of the column of air is dp; ip AST Potife: XE From. this it follows that if a is (1) zero or 1 (2) proportional to Po, then the correlation co- . 9 . . efficient between p, and T is unity. The first condition is not fulfilled in temperate latitudes; the second condition would be satisfied if the isobars at 9 km. were parallel to those at 1 km.—i.c. if fhe wind-directions at these levels were identical. But in the troposphere convec- tion is always tending to make the direction of the wind the same at all levels, so that the magni- tude of the correlation coefficient found by Mr. Dines may be due to the effectiveness of con- vection in regulating the wind. It would be in- teresting to know the differences from parallelism 1 Meteor: logical Office. Geophys‘cal Memoirs, No. 13. “The Charac- i igs of the Free Atmosphere,” (London: Meteorological Office, 1919.) Price 25. net. f . NO, 2620, VOL. 104] permitted by the 005 by which the actual co- efficient falls short of unity. Secondly, if To, Po; Tj, Py, etc., are the tem- peratures and pressures at heights of 0, 1, 2, .._ 13 kilometres, then the correlation coefficients between corresponding T’s and P’s, beginning with Ty, Po, are as follows: -11, -42, -66, -77, -84, +85, -86, -86, -86, -71, -32, —-19, —-36, —-28. It follows that pressure and temperature go up and down together with great regularity at all heights between 3 km. and 9 km. Presumably the same would hold for the surface were it not for ‘the effects of radiation and of the surface water of the ocean upon the surface temperature of the air. Two outstanding deficiencies in the information” available call for comment. There are no records from the United States, India, Australia, South Africa, South America, and Japan. This is no doubt partly due to the difficulties of recovering records in these countries if the ordinary European method of investigation is used; but it is also due to the defects of pre-war international meteorological organisation in which’ no place was found for an active permanent bureau. Further, the informa- tion about atmospheric motion is hopelessly in- adequate. This arises,less from leck of original records than from the absence of any. proper arrangements for summarising the results of pilot- balloon ascents., A young meteorologist seeking a field of independent research might do worse than turn to the statistical treatment: of vectors. Before the war the investigation of the. free atmosphere was, broadly speaking, pure research; the work had no direct application in forecasting or climatology, and the means of investigation were slight and relatively expensive. During the war-a knowledge of the actual conditions of the atmosphere at least up fo 20,000 ft. (6 km.) became essential for heavy artillery and for aviation, and their importance for actual daily forecasting began to be dimly recognised. Now that artillery opera- tions are over and aviation is practically restricted to low levels, there is a great risk of the investi- gation at higher levels by aeroplanes and kite- balloons being neglected; and instead of informa- tion being available an hour or two after it was obtained, records would again creep in months or years out of date, with no possibility of imme- diate practical usefulness. E. Gop. SIR THOMAS R. FRASER, F.R.S. : HEN, in 1877, and then in his thirty-sixth year, Thomas Richard Fraser was called to succeed Sir Robert Christison as professor of materia medica in Edinburgh University, it could scarcely have been anticipated how closely he was to rival his great master in his length of tenure of the chair and in the distinction with which he was to fill it. In his varied spheres of action Fraser attained a commanding position as a physician, as an investigator, and as a professor. Gifted with acute senses and a fearlessly, logical mind, and trained in the habits of accurate ob- | servation and experiment in the laboratory, Fraser 506 NATURE [JANUARY 15, 1920 brought to the hospital wards a rare combination ‘of qualities. He had few equals as a diagnostician and therapeutist. As a teacher, his unswerving scientific attitude to the problems of clinical medi- cine had on the thousands of students who passed through his hands an influence scarcely to be over- estimated. He taught not only accuracy of method, but also precision of language. His gifts as a physician were recognised by his holding, among other distinctions, the offices of physician to the King in Scotland, and of president of the College of Physicians of Edinburgh, of the Asso- ciation of Physicians of Great Britain and Ireland, and of the Indian Plague Commission. He was knighted in rgo2. As an investigator, Fraser was one of the pioneers of experimental pharmacology. His greatest discoveries—from the point of view of their immediate practical application—were those which, in strophanthus and physostigmine, added to our Pharmacopeeia remedies still in everyday use for the purposes for which he recommended them. For far-reaching scientific value they were even exceeded by the monograph which he wrote in collaboration with Prof. Crum Brown on the relation between chemical constitution and physio- logical action, embodying one of the most sug- gestive and fruitful researches in the history of pharmacology. For his researches he was made a laureate and Barbier prizeman of the French Academy of Sciences, and was awarded the Macdougall-Brisbane and Keith prizes of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. . Fraser combined an aptitude for both science and business.. He took a keen interest in educa- tional: problems and an active part in introducing many university reforms. For twenty years he acted as dean of the faculty of medicine, and for ten years represented that faculty on the Uni- versity court, and his University on the General Medical Council. Endowed with a remarkably lucid and quick mind himself, Fraser was intolerant of mental slow- ness in others, sparing of praise, and at times not slow to censure. But he expected a man’s best, and his standard was high. He carried himself —a keen, spare, scholarly figure—with a faint, in- definable hauteur, which may have been to many a barrier to close intimacy. But when this barrier was surmounted, and when he could lay aside the cares of too unremitting labour and of indifferent | health, he would weave a grace and charm which few could resist or forget. Especially in later years he fought a continual battle with bronchitis and emphysema with a fortitude which is surely characteristic of sufferers from this condition. ‘That he was so long permitted to lead an-active life—for he retired only two years ago—was due in no small measure to the loving care and en- couragement of Lady Fraser and the kindly super- vision’ of his staunch friend and physician, Sir James Affleck. Plummer, Gregory, Fowler, Withering, Lister, Simpson, Hughes Bennett, Christison, Brunton, Fraser—alumni or professors of the University of Edinburgh, a roll enviable and for one medical NO. 2620, VOL. 104] school possibly unequalled—file before us in retro- spect. tedge of remedies for disease and for pain stretch from the picturesque twilight of empiricism to the clear light of scientific method. With the passage of the last to that unknown bourn, we salute their memory. , ALG NOTES. A SPECIAL general meeting of the Royal Society will be held on January 22, at 3.30; to admit H.R.H. the Prince of Wales as a fellow of the society. THE meeting of February 5 has been set apart by the council of the Royal Society as a meeting for a discussion on ‘‘The Theory of Relativity,” to be ~ opened by Mr. Jeans and continued by Prof. Edding- ton, the Astronomer Royal, and others. Tue International Research Council has been con- stituted, by successive meetings in London, Paris, and Brussels, as a Federation of National Research Unions. Under its auspices unions are being formed for the organisation of international work and co-operation in different departments of science, the unions already instituted being for astronomy, geodesy and geo- physics, mathematics, and (provisionally) chemistry and biology. The question of international organisa- tion in science is raised, to. a great extent, by Article 282 of the Peace Treaty, which states that ‘treaties, conventions, and agreements of an economic and technical character not included in a specified list cease to be operative.’? That this article was intended to cover conventions on scientific matters appears from the list of exceptions, in which the Metric Convention and the International Agricultural Institute at Rome are included. . With the view of obtaining the opinion of representatives of pure and applied science upon the ~ subject of the co-ordination of international effort and action, a special meeting of the Conjoint Board of Scientific Societies was held at the Royal Society on January 8. After much dis- cussion ‘““(1) That the executive committee be requested to appoint committees for the purpose of considering the desirability of forming in branches of science, as re- commended by the Brussels Conference, international unions connected with the International Research Council, or of joining such Unions if formed inde- pendently. (2) That these committees be authorised to make recommendations with regard to the proposed statutes and the constitution of national research councils. (3) That the committees consist of repre- sentatives nominated by the princjpal societies con- cerned, together with additional members nominated by the executive committee.” WE regret to see the announcement of the death on January 11, at seventy-three years of age, of Father — J. N. Strassmaier, the distinguished Assyriologist, whose work with Father Epping on Assyrian astro- nomy is well known, Tue Scientific Instrument, Glassware, and Potash Production Section of the Board of Trade has been transferred from 7 Seamore Place, W.1, to the main offices at Great George Street, S.W.1. Their achievements in adding to our know- — teenies the following resolutions were passed:— j oe Se eS JaNuary 15, 1920] NATURE aie 507 ' Tue council of the Geological Society of London has this year made the following awards :—Wollaston medal, Prof. Baron Gerard Jakob de Geer (Stock- holm); Murchison medal, Mrs. (Dr.) E. M. Shake- spear; Lyell medal, Mr. E. Greenly; Wollaston fund, Mr. W. B. R: King; Murchison fund, Dr. D. Woola- cott; and Lyell fund, Dr. J. D. Falconer and Mr. E. S. Pinfold. Tue Secretary of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research announces that the Research Association for the British Launderers’ Industry has been approved by the Department as complying with the conditions laid down in the Government scheme for the encouragement of industrial research. As the association is to be registered as a non-profit-sharing company, the promoters have applied to the Board of Trade for the issue of a licence under section 20 of the Companies (Consolidation) Act of 1908. The secretary of the committee engaged in the establishment of this association is Mr. J. J. Stark, 162-165 Bank Chambers, 329 High Holborn, W.C.2. Wiru the approach of a return to normal conditions, the Natural History Museum, we are glad to learn, is developing a policy of adding to the national col- lections by means of exploration. Thus Mr. Wil- loughby Lowe, who has already made several expedi- tions to Africa on behalf of the museum, has recently started on a mission to the West Coast of Africa for the purpose of collecting specimens for South Kensing- ton, and Capt. Hubert Lynes, R.N., has just left England on an expedition to Darfur, where he intends to make a special survey of the avifauna of the Jeb- Maria Mountains, which should yield many forms new to science to the Bird Department. Other similar expeditions are, we believe, contemplated by the museum authorities. A MEETING of surgeons, representing the surgical staffs of all the great teaching hospitals of Britain, assembled in the theatre of the Royal College of Surgeons of England on January 8, under the chair- manship of Sir Rickman J. Godlee, and resolved to form an ‘“‘ Association of Surgeons of Great Britain and Ireland.” British surgeons have thus followed the precedent set by their colleagues the physicians, who formed a similar association a number of years ago, The object of the newly formed association is to permit surgeons on the staffs of the greater hos- pitals to meet together from time to time at various centres in order to exchange observations and com- pare results. The association will stand as the repre- sentative body for British surgeons, and in that capacity will represent British interests at international surgical congresses. Sir John -Bland-Sutton was elected president of the new association. Active steps are now being taken in the movement to establish a memorial to Lord Lister in Edinburgh. The movement had already begun to take shape in 1914, but its progress was arrested by the outbreak of war. The war, which has caused delay, has given at the same time an overwhelming demonstration of the value of Lord Lister’s work. The University and burgh, under the control of which the memorial will be established, have determined to provide an institute for research and teaching in medicine. A site has been secured, and a committee is now being formed to make an appeal to the public for a sum of 250,000l. Mr. Balfour, Chancellor of the University, has con- sented to be president of the committee, with the Duke of Atholl, Lord Rosebery, Lord- Beatty, Lord Glenconner, Lord Leverhulme, and Sir J. Lorne McLeod as vice-presidents. Tue Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences. for December 19 announces that Mr. E. C. McKelvy, of the Chemical Division of the Bureau of Standards, died on November 29, in his thirty-sixth year, as the result of burns caused by an explosion of ammonia- ‘condensing apparatus containing petroleum-ether cooled by liquid air. Mr. McKelvy was born at Upper San- dusky, Ohio, on May 9, 1884. He joined the staff of the Bureau of Standards in July, 1907, and was chief of the physico-chemical section of the Chemistry Division at the time of his death. His work for several years past had been on the physical constants of ammonia and other substances used in commercial refrigeration. He was a member of the Washington Academy of Sciences and one of the associate editors of its Journal, and had been secretary of the American Chemical Society since 1915. Aw exhibition of radiographic prints has been ar- ranged by the Réntgen Society, and is being shown at the Royal Photographic Society’s house at 35 Russell Square, W.C.1. The exhibition is open free to the public until February 7, between 11 a.m. and 5 p.m. daily. The two hundred or so prints which are hung on the walls of the gallery well illustrate present-day practice in both medical and industrial radiology as developed by some of the leading X-ray workers in this country. We hope to make extended reference to the subject in a future issue. Incidentally, the grow- ing custom of holding joint meetings of kindred societies is one much to be commended, and we are glad to note that the Réntgen Society, in addition to its recent joint meeting with the Faraday Society, has similarly co-operated during the present exhibition with the Royal Photographic Society. Furthermore, it has arranged, in the near future, joint meetings with the Institution of Electrical Engineers and the Electro- therapeutic Section of the Royal Society of Medicine. The officers of the Réntgen Society deserve every sup- : port for their energy and enterprise. REFERENCE is made in the Times of January 12 to an exceptionally high velocity, at the rate of 180 miles an hour, attained by the north-west wind at 25,000 ft. over southern England on January 9 as a precursor to the recent rough and stormy weather. Deep cyclonic depressions had spread in from the Atlantic, the central area of one passing over the northern parts of Ireland and England on January 10, and a second disturbance skirted our north-western seaboard on January 11, when the barometer in the Hebrides fell to 28-3 in. The intensity of the storm was greatest in the English Channel. In the Scilly Isles the wind Royal Colleges of Physicians and Surgeons in Edin- ; attained the velocity of 68 miles an hour in a gust NO. 2620, VOL. 104] TOS ee 508 NATURE [JANUARY 15, 1920 during the evening of January 11. Inland the gusts attained an hourly velocity of 50 to 55 miles. Thunder- storms occurred in many parts of the country, and heavy rain was general, whilst in the Shetlands snow covered the ground tothe depthof 6in. On January 13 the Daily Weather Report of the Meteorological Office showed that the wind in the south of England was blowing at 12 miles an hour, whilst at 4ooo ft. it had increased to a rate of 54 miles an hour. During the morning a storm area had its centre over Thorshavn, where the barometer stood at 29:05 in. There were indications of the approach of another disturbance from the Atlantic. The storms have occasioned several wrecks, resulting in serious loss of life. Tue death is announced of the well-known Argen- tine geographer and naturalist, Dr. Francisco P. Moreno. Dr. Moreno was born in Buenos Aires on May 31, 1852, and doubtless inherited his love of natural science from his mother, who was _ the daughter of an English botanist. He spent his early years in exploring Patagonia and various parts of the Andes, and devoted himself especially to the making of anthropological and ethnological collections. His first contribution to science, on the prehistoric ceme- teries of Patagonia, appeared in the Revue d’Anthro- pologie so long ago as 1874. In 1877 Dr. Moreno gave his collection to the Argentine Government to form the beginning of the Anthropological and Archeological Museum of Buenos Aires. In 1880 Buenos Aires became the federal capital, and two years later the city of La Plata was founded to re- place it as the provincial capital. Dr. Moreno then devoted his thoughts and energies to the planning and foundation of a great museum at La Plata which should illustrate the natural history of the Republic. His scheme was realised in 1889, and the well-known publications of the La Plata Museum under his direc- tion began in the following year. In 1898 Dr. Moreno came to London as representative of Argentina in the dispute as to the Argentine-Chilean boundary, which had been referred for settlement to the British Sove- reign; and in 1900 he produced his report in four handsome volumes well illustrated with photographs. At the same time he brought and exhibited to the Zoological Society the famous piece of the skin of an extinct ground-sloth which he had discovered in a Patagonian cave. Dr. Moreno was an honorary corre- sponding member of the Royal Geographical Society, and received the Founder’s medal in 1907. He was also a foreign correspondent of the Geological Society and a corresponding member of the Zoological Society of London. DispatcuEs published in the daily papers last week contain brief accounts of destructive earthquakes that were felt over the greater part of Mexico during the night of January 3-4. The first shock occurred at 9-45 p-m. on January 3; this was followed by a second of great intensity at 10.25, and by a slighter shock at 11 p.m. The epicentral area lies about fifty miles west of the city of Vera Cruz, near the southern end of the Gulf of Mexico, after-shocks being especially frequent to the south of Jalapa. The principal damage, NO, 2620, VOL. 104] so far as is yet known, is at Cordoba, Jalapa, Cos- comatopec, Calcahualco, Teocelo, and Cosautlan, The area within which injury to property occurred is, how- ever, considerable. The city of Vera Cruz is deprived of gas and water, owing to many breaks in the mains, ow and, even so far west as Mexico City (150 miles from _ the coast and nearly 200 miles from Vera Cruz), the walls of large buildings were cracked. As in all destructive shocks, the central area was completely isolated, but the unusual violence of the principal shock is also evident from the change in the course of the River San Francisco, the rupture of water-mains at Vera Cruz, and the uprooting of thousands of trees in a forest twenty-five miles from that city. The loss of life is still unknown, but is sure to be considerable. At Coscomatopec it was increased by the rush of people to the church when the first shocks were felt. According to the officials of the Mexican Government Observatory, the centre of disturbance was situated in the volcano of Orizaba, but the earthquake was clearly tectonic, possessing none of the characteristic features of volcanic earthquakes, though the opening of a new crater in the volcano may be connected with the same movement which caused the earthquake. One point of some interest is its occurrence near the north coast of Mexico, the principal seismic regions lying on the south or Pacific side. In ‘‘ Memoirs of the Bernice Pauahi Bishop sileael. Honolulu,”’ vol. v., part iii., for 1919, Mr. T. G. Thrum publishes a long series of native documents from the Fornander collection, giving the Hawaians’ account of the formation of their islands, the origia of their race, and their migrations. The records now printed in the original language, with English transla- tions, include fifteen mythical tales, twenty-five tra- ditionary stories, and the legend of Kawelo, which extends to six chapters. The publication is of great importance from the points of view of ethnology, folk- lore, and linguistics. In the Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute (vol. xlix., January-June, 1919) Mr. J. Reid Moir dis- cusses ‘the occurrence of humanly fashioned Hints in the Middle Glacial Gravel at Ipswich. These imple- ments and flakes do not exhibit marked signs of abrasion by water action, and the writer regards it as a possibility that the place where these Middle Glacial specimens are now found cannot be far removed from. the. deposits in which they rested in an unabraded state, and that the water which laid down the Middle Glacial deposit did not flow at a turbulent rate. The only dateable artefacts so far recovered from this gravel are some small platessiform flint implements, which, though small, otherwise resemble closely the well- known early Chellean implements. ‘The occurrence of flint implements of early Chellean form in a gravel presumably more ancient than the Glacial Chalky Boulder Clay will no doubt come as a surprise to many archeologists, but there does not seem to be in this case any escape- from such a conclusion.” In the Public Health Journal for November (vol, x., ‘No, 11, Toronto) Prof. Fraser Harris discusses the medical and allied professions as a State service. ese ee ee ae icabitekiyt Soe tt al a ae ie 2 . ET Se ae ea Rt January 15, 1920] NATURE 509 He considers that the advantages of such a service far outweigh the possible disadvantages. Among the advantages are mentioned the speedy exclusion of quacks and irregular practitioners, and of the struggles for existence and rivalries among the regular practi- tioners, while the public health would be maintained as never before; treatment would be prompt and of the highest quality; specialists of all sorts easily accessible; and all manner of special treatments readily available for the rich and poor alike. Tue weekly mortality statistics of the influenza epidemic beginning in the autumn of 1918 for thirty- nine large American cities have been subjected to a preliminary analysis by Prof. Raymond Pearl (Reprint No. 548 from the Public Health Reps., Treasury Dept., U.S. Public Health Service). There was con- siderable variation among the several cities in the relative degree of explosiveness of the outbreak. The analysis appears to demonstrate that an important factor causing this variation was the magnitude of the normal death-rates occurring at the same time as the influenza epidemic in respect of pulmonary tuber- culosis and diseases of the heart and of the kidneys. In Medical Science: Abstracts and Reviews for December (vol. i., No. 3) the influenza epidemic of 1918-19 is reviewed in all its aspects. In the civilian population of the United States the total number of deaths attributable to the epidemic was estimated at not fewer than 450,000, a death-rate of more than 4 per thousand. In the County of London some 22,750 deaths were caused by it. The statistics of the Life Insurance Bank of Gotha show that, whereas in 1889-90 epidemic influenza caused no deaths in the age period 15-30, in 1918 the greater number of deaths occurred in this age period—an experience similar to that which obtained in this country. We have received a copy of the general report of the Survey of India for 1917-18. Shortage of officers necessitated the curtailment of field work. Several officers and survey parties were supplied for Persia, Mesopotamia, and East Africa. New maps. published included 43 one-inch sheets, 65 half-inch sheets, 4 quarter-inch sheets, and 13 sheets of the million map. The report gives useful index maps of all the sheets published up to the present on various scales by the Indian Survey Department. Tue United States Geodetic Survey has published a report on the connection of the arcs of primary triangulation along the ninety-eighth meridian in the United States and in Mexico (Special Publication No. 54). Mr. W. Bowie, the writer of the report, points out that this connection not only makes it pos- sible to compute with greater accuracy than hitherto the dimensions of the earth, but also enables Mexico to extend new areas from the ninety-eighth meridian arc, which can be based on the North American datum, as the United States standard datum is now called. It had been intended to carry out this work in 1913, but the unsettled conditions in Mexico made it neces- ‘sary to postpone the observations until 1916. The arc of the ninety-eighth meridian was completed to the Canadian frontier in 1907. wo * 2620. VOL. 104| Tue value of large-scale maps in war is the subject of an unsigned article in La Géographie (vol. xxxii., No. 7) on the Service Géographique of the French Army. This Service was practically created by the war, when it was realised that the available maps of France were on too small a scale to be of use. Maps on scales of 1/80,c00 and 1/200,000, although valuable for .war in the open, were unsatisfactory for trench warfare. Large-scale plans were available only for the neigh- bourhood of Paris and certain fortified places. It was decided to make maps of the war area on a scale of 1/20,000, 1/10,000, and 1/5000 (plans directeurs). Of these the smallest scale was for artillery use, the second for Staff work in general, and the largest scale, confined to front-line areas, for infantry use. Generally speaking, the 1/20,000 proved to be the most useful. It is hoped that this will be extended to the whole of France and be periodically revised. The urgency of the demand in war-time did not allow of detailed resurvey for this work, so recourse was had to existing survey material, land valuation plans, and aerial photography. Specimen sheets of the maps accompany the article. In the Bulletin of the Central Meteorological Observatory of Japan (vol. iii., No. 1) Prof. T. Okada attempts to discover a forecasting formula, starting from the undoubted fact that in Japan a hot August means a good crop, and a cold August a bad one, resulting in famine in 1902, 1905, and 1913. Prof. Okada connects the temperature of northern Japan with the sun-spot cycle, but more definitely finds a correlation between the August temperature in that region, the March pressure difference between Zika- wei and Miyazaki, and the South American pressure for March to May, using data from Santiago and Buenos Aires. The South American data give larger correlation coefficients (0-5 or 0-6 with P.E.o0-1). Treating the districts of Hokkaido and Tohoku separately, he obtains the yearly varia- tion in the rice crop for the former as 0-53x+0-26y, and for the latter as 0-18x+0-10y, where x is the yearly variation of South American pressure, March to May, and y the yearly variation of pressure gradient, : Zika- wei-Miyazaki. The table of comparative results shows a fair agreement in sign between calculated and actual vields, especially for Hokkaido, and the conclusion is drawn that, in general, abnormally low pressure in the southern part of South America from March to May and abnormally small pressure gradient in March between Zikawei and Miyazaki are followed by a failure of the rice crop in northern Japan. Dr. G. R. Wreranp, in his ‘ Classification of the Cycadophyta”’? (Am. Journ. Sci., vol. xlvii., p. 391, 1919), reviews ‘tthe gymnosperm phylum,’’ and goes much further than this in providing a table in which the evolution of dominant and specialised land-plants is correlated with the climates of successive geological periods. In this suggestive diagram various: types are shown as moving towards ‘‘ascendancy and extinc- tion” or “simplification and reduction,’’. sharply or sently from a prévious parallel course of evolution. — 510 NATURE [ JANUARY 15, 1920 : “Basic or semi-immortal types ’’ of vegetation are represented by a horizontal line running across the bottom of the diagram. Elsewhere Dr. Wieland has lamented the depletion of the already small group of palzobotanists. If he could give us a general treatise on the problems expressed so concisely in his diagram, he might win a keen body of adherents. Mr. GEorGE Barrow, in a paper on “Some Future Work for the Geologists’ Association’? (Proc. Geol. Assoc., vol. xxx., p. I, 1919), revives in a remarkable degree the view that some of the features of the chalk surface round London are due to marine ergsion, acting probably in Pliocene times. It is urged that the quartz-pebbles of the pre-Glacial high-level gravels were washed into the chalk basin by the waters of a shallow sea, which cut passages in the escarpments and thus originated many of the wind-gaps. The chalk escarpments, together with those of the Lower Greensand, were, in their first form, ridges left by the marine denudation of the softer Gault and Eocene strata. If the ‘beach deposits’’ (high-level gravels) are of Pliocene age, no serious post-Pliocene bending of the region can have occurred, since they lie at approximately the same levels. Mr. Barrow suggests that they are little later than the Lenham Beds, and the members of the Geologists’ Association are now invited to prove their age by a diligent search for fossils. Dr. R. E. Stave and Mr. G. I. Higson, of the British Photographic Research Association, communi- cate to the Journal of the Royal Photographic Society {December, 1919) the results of their investigations, which show that the shape of the characteristic curve of a photographic plate depends not only on the thick- ness and opacity of the film and the time and method of development, but also on the relation of the different sizes of grains in the film to each other and the quantity of each size present. This new factor they claim to be the most important. If the grains are all of the same size, the curve is the steepest possible. If the grains are of various sizes, the curve is the sum of the curves due to each group of particles of the same size. The larger grains are more sensi- tive than the smaller grains. Uniformity of grain- size is, therefore, desirable in plates for black-and- white work, and the authors find that the steepness of the curve can be foretold from photomicrographs of the grain. Photomicrographs and curves are given in illustration. In May, 1914, we mentioned in, these columns two methods which had been devised for reducing the measurement of the horizontal component of the earth’s magnetic field to that of an electric current. In the first—due to Prof. Hicks and tested in prac- tice by Mr. W. A. Jenkins (Phil. Mag., October, 1913)—the earth’s field was reversed by the current in a coil, and the reversal determined by the time of oscillation of a small magnet. In the second—due to Sir A. Schuster and tested at the National Physical Laboratory by Mr. F. E. Smith (Terrestrial Magnetism, March, 1914)—the earth’s field was annulled by that of the coil, and a small magnet set itself at right angles to the field. In Terrestrial NO, 2620, VOL. 104] Magnetism for September, 1919, Prof. W. Uljanin, formerly of the Kazan University (from which the staff had to flee on the capture of the town by the Bolsheviks in September, 1918), gives an abstract of a paper he published in Russian in 1915 describing | It retains the sine principle of the Kew magnetometer, but substitutes for the deflecting a third method. magnet a pair of coils through which a standard current measured by the potentiometer method is sent. The method gives results at least as accurate as those given by the magnetometer, and takes only a tenth of the time. Two useful papers on three-electrode thermionic — valves have been published recently by the Bureau of Standards, Washington. The first paper, by Mr. J. M. Miller, discusses the connection between the input impedance ‘of the valve and the load in the plate circuit. Theoretical relations are obtained which enable us to calculate the input impedance when the impedance in the plate-circuit is known. that the results are in excellent accord with experi- ment. It is interesting to notice that when the load in the plate circuit is inductive, the impedance can be represented as a negative resistance, in which case _ the valve can act as a generator. The second paper, by Mr. L. M. Hull, gives a partially successful attempt to obtain a method of rating thermionic-valve genera- tors. A clear theoretical statement of the problem is given, and important theoretical conclusions are deduced, but experimental work is still in progress. The problem is one of considerable commercial im- portance, as thermionic-valve generators are now the standard source of supply for radio-telephone and radio-telegraph systems, except in the few cases when very high power is necessary. The present empirical method used for rating these generators is of little — value. All interested in the subjects discussed in these papers, the numbers of which are 351 and 355 respec- tively, can obtain a copy of them by sending a request to the Bureau. In the U.S. Bureau of Standards Scientific Paper No. 350, entitled ‘Equilibrium Conditions in the System Carbon, Iron Oxide, and Hydrogen in Rela- tion to the Ledebur Method for Oxygen in Steel,” it is shown that mixtures of iron oxide and Acheson graphite are not, and mixtures of iron oxide with ‘‘cemented’’ iron or white iron (annealed or un- annealed) are, reduced at goo° C. by the carbon in- them when hydrogen is passed over them at rates of two litres per hour, or faster. Because of these facts it is probably impossible to determine by the Ledebur — method more than 75 per cent. of the oxygen present in steels as ferrous oxide. passage of hydrogen on the Ledebur oxygen-content of certain steels is shown. The paper can be obtained on application to the Bureau. ; Scientiric Paper No. 347 of the U.S. Bureau of Standards describes an investigation carried out at the Bureau on the heat-treatment of alloys of the duralumin type, and the effect on the mechanical properties observed of variations in the various heat- treatment conditions. Conclusions are also drawn as iil an It is shown The effect of rate of i ae ie ai a aa al ll aimee ll SORE ee a a we PS tS ee, a oe January 15, 1920] NATURE 511 to the best conditions for the commercial heat-treatment of this alloy. A theory of the mechanism of harden- ing during the ageing of duralumin is proposed, based on the decreasing solubility with decrease of tempera- ture of CuAl, in aluminium. The precipitation of this compound, suppressed during quenching, pro- ceeds during ageing, and takes place in a highly dis- persed form. To the presence of this highly dispersed constituent is due the hardness of the aged alloy. Those interested may obtain a copy of the paper on application to the Bureau. A sHort list of books dealing with entomology, con- taining 165 titles, has just been issued by Mr. F. Edwards, 83 High Street, Marylebone, W.1. Many of the books listed are much reduced in price. Tue latest scientific catalogue (New Series, No. 89) of Messrs. J. Wheldon and Co., 38 Great Queen Street, W.C.2, contains upwards of 1500 items relating to pure and applied chemistry, astronomy, electricity, mathematics, meteorology, physics, etc. In addition, particulars are given of many sets and long runs of scientific serials and transactions of scientific societies which Messrs. Wheldon have for disposal. The price of the catalogue is 2d. Tue following are among the announcements of books to be published by Messrs. Macmillan and Co., Ltd., between now and Easter :—‘‘Cytology: With Special Reference to the Metazoan Nucleus,’ Prof. W. E. Agar, illustrated; ‘‘ The Principles of the Phase Theory: Heterogeneous Equilibria between Salts and their Aqueous Solutions,’? D. Clibbens, illustrated; ““The Theory of Determinants in the Historical Order of Development,’”’ Sir Thomas Muir (vol. iii.: The _ Period 1861 to 1880); ‘‘A Manual of the Timbers of the World: Their Characteristics and Uses,” A. L. Howard, to which is appended an account of the Artificial Seasoning of Timber by S. Fitzgerald, illus- trated; ‘‘Essays on the Surgery of the Temporal Bone,”’ Sir Charles A. Ballance, with the assistance of Dr. C. D. Green, 2 vols., illustrated; ‘Space, Time, and Deity’? (Gifford Lectures at Glasgow, 1916-18), Prof. S. Alexander, 2 vols.; ‘‘ Implication and Linear Inference,’ Dr. B. Bosanquet;. ‘‘ Mind- Energy,’ Prof. H. Bergson, translated by Prof. H. Wildon Carr, in collaboration with the author; ‘‘The Idea of Progress: An Inquiry into its Origin and Growth,” Prof. J. B. Bury; ‘Essays in Critical Realism: ’ A Co-operative Study of the Problem of Knowledge,”’ Profs. D. Drake, A. O. Lovejoy, J. B. Pratt, A. K. Rogers, G. Santayana, R. W. Sellars, and C. A. Strong; ‘‘A Critical History of Greek Philosophy,” W. T. Stace; “Through Deserts and Oases of Central Asia,” Miss Ella Sykes and Brig.- Gen. Sir Percy Sykes, illustrated; ‘‘The Handbook to Cyprus,” H. C. Luke and D. J. Jardine, new edition; ‘‘The Ila-speaking Peoples of Northern Rhodesia,” Rev. E. W. Smith and the late Capt. A. M. Dale, 2 vols., illustrated; ‘‘Among the Natives of the Loyalty Group,” Mrs. E, Hadfield, illustrated; ‘‘ Eng- land,” edited by F. Muirhead (The Blue Guides) ;. and “Highways and Byways in Northumbria,” P. A. Graham, illustrated by Hugh Thomson. The Open NO. 2620 vot. toa] Court Co. (Chicago and London) will publish shortly “A History of the Conceptions of Limits and Fluxions in Great Britain from Newton to Wood- house,” Prof. F. Cajori. It will form No. 5 of the Open Court Classics. OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN. SPEcTROSCOPIC DETERMINATION OF STELLAR PARALLAX. —Since this method of parallax determination was devised the number of stars of which the parallax has been measured trigonometrically has increased considerably. With the view of testing the accuracy of the curves used for deducing absolute magnitude from the relative strength of certain spectral lines, Messrs. W. S. Adams and G. Stromberg have made an exhaustive comparison between their spectroscopic parallaxes, which now number some 1500, and the parallaxes deduced from direct measures and proper motions; the results are given in Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., July, 1919. The stars are divided into five spec- tral groups, A7 to F8, Fo to G8, Gg to K3, K4 to Ko, and Ma to Md. The spectroscopic method has not yet been applied to types B, to A,, as suitable spectral lines have not been found. The graphs show very satisfactory accordance, the weakest point being the fainter absolute magnitudes in the first group, where the spectroscopic determinations . of distance are smaller than those measured directly. The last two groups indicate very clearly the division into giant and dwarf stars; this is also faintly indi- cated in the second and third groups, but not,.at all in the first. The authors draw the satisfactory conclusion that “in this large amount of observational material hardly a single serious contradiction has been found between the spectroscopic and trigonometric results.” Minor Pranets.—Dr. F. Cohn gives his annual report on the orbits of recently discovered planets in Astr. Nach., 5030. There are now 914 planets to which permanent numbers have been assigned, besides several hundreds which have been observed insuffi- ciently; approximate orbits have been computed for about eighty of the latter. Two of the freshly num- bered planets are of special interest—No. 898 for its high eccentricity, amounting nearly to 0-4, and No. 911, since it is a sixth member of the Trojan group, the mean motions of which are the same as that of Jupiter. Two others, Nos. 895 and 914, are notable for large inclinations, more than 25° in each case. Lunar PHOTOGRAPHY WITH THE 100-IN. REFLECTOR. Popular Astronomy and Pubs. Astr. Soc. Pacific for December contain reproductions of some _ beautiful photographs taken with the new reflector at Mount Wilson by Mr. F. G. Pease. Silver prints have also been presented to the Royal Astronomical Society, The equivalent focus is 134 ft.; the scale is, therefore, very large, and a wonderful amount of fine detail is shown. Prof. Hale notes that the instrument is to be called the Hooker telescope, in memory of the donor of the optical parts. It is welcome news that its performance comes up to the highest expectations, ‘and that the Mount Wilson conditions of seeing prove equal to standing this most severe test upon them. “The (radial) motions of faint stars in the heart of globular clusters and in the star-clouds of the Milky Way can be measured.’? Nebulium has been found in the variable star R Aquatii, and luminous clouds of calcium vapour are found to surround the star in Hind’s variable nebula in Taurus. It is also possible to study the spectra of the faint companions of close double stars. ——————————————————————————————oeOw0oGVuVGeS_. 512 NATURE [JANUARY I5, 1920 PRIZE AWARDS OF THE PARIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. ek the annual public meeting on December 22, M. Léon Guignard in the chair, the prizes awarded in 1919 were announced as follows :— Mathematics.—The Bordin prize to Salomon Lef- schetz; the Francceur prize to Georges Giraud, for his work on automorph functions. Mechanics.—The Montyon prize to Albert Herdner, for his work on the construction and working of locomotives; the Poncelet prize to Gen. Prosper Charbonnier, for the whole of his work on ballistics. Astronomy.—The Lalande prize to Vesto Melvin Slipher, for his work at the Lowell Observatory, especially his researches on nebulz and star clusters; the Benjamin Valz prize to Félix Boquet, for his work at the Paris Observatory; the G. de Ponté- coulant prize to Arthur Stanley Eddington, for his studies of stellar movements. Geography.—The Gay prize to René Chudeau, for his explorations in Western Africa; the Tchihatchef prize to E. C. Abendanon, for his book entitled ‘ Ex- pédition de la Célébes centrale.” Navigation.—The prize of 6000 francs between Yves Le Prieur and Georges Sugot; the Plumey prize between Georges Raclot (1500 francs), for his experi- mental researches on the longitudinal flexure of ships, Maurice Poincet (1500 francs), for his theoretical and experimental researches on the blades of steam tur- bines, and Alfred Schwartz (1000 francs), for his work as a whole. Physics.—The Kastner-Boursault prize to Marius Latour, for his researches on electric motors; the Gaston Planté prize to Emile Brylinski, for his work in applied electricity; the Hébert prize to Raymond Jouaust, for his work on magnetism, electrical standards, photometry, and wireless telegraphy; the De Parville prize to Louis Décombe, for his worl in various branches of physics; the Hughes prize to Henri Chaumat, for his work on the industrial produc- tion of ozone, the electrolytic reduction of indigo and other dyes, and other work in electrotechnics; the Pierson-Perrin prize to Georges Sagnac, for his work on the secondary X-rays, interference, and other optical phenomena; the Clément Félix foundation to Charles Féry, to enable him to continue his experi- ments on the production of a small dry accumulator. Chemistry.—The Montyon prize (Unhealthy Trades) to Georges Rivat (2500 francs), for his work on the analysis and absorption of asphyxiating gases; an honourable mention to Arnold Lassieur (1500 francs), for his contribution to the identification of the sub- stances contained in the German poison shells; an honourable mention (tooo francs) to Cyrille Toussaint, for his chemical studies connected with the war; the Jecker prize between Ernest Fourneau (5000 francs), for his services relating to the synthetical preparation of medicinal organic compounds, Louis Maillard (2500 francs), for the whole of his work in organic chemistry, and Marcel Sommelet (2500 francs), for his researches on the ether oxides, the homologues of benzyl chloride, alcohols, and aldehydes; the Cahours foundation divided equally between Georges Mignonac and Marcel Murat, for their work in organic chemistry; the Houzeau prize to René Locquin, for similar researches. Mineralogy and Geology.—The Delesse prize ‘to Frédéric Roman, for his geological and paleonto- logical work; the Victor Roulin’ prize to Léonce Joleaud, for the whole of his work; the Joseph Labbé prize to Pierre Pruvost, for his studies on the Coal Measures of Northern France. Botany.—_The Montagne prize between Fernand Moreau (1000 francs) and Gabriel Arnaud (500 francs) ; NO, 2620, VOL. 104] the Jean Thore prize to Auguste Sartory, for his pub- lications on cryptogamic botany; the De it A iat uro-— to C. Houard, for his work on the cecidology o pean Phanerogams; the Jean de Rufz de Lavison prize to Raoul Combes, for his researches on the absorption of glucosides by plants and on plant pig- ments. Anatomy and Zoology.—The Cuvier prize to J. Jolly, — for his work in histology; the Savigny prize to Louis Boutan, for his botanical and zoological studies in the Red Sea and Indo-China. . Medicine and Surgery.—Montyon prizes to Michel Weinberg and Pierre Seguin (2500 francs), for their memoir on gas gangrene; Louis. Martin and Auguste Pettit (2500 francs), for their memoir on ictero- hemorrhagic spirochztosis; Henri Rouvillois, Guil- laume Louis, Albert Pédeprade, and Antoine Basset (2500 francs), for their studies on war surgery. Honour- able mentions (1500 francs) to Jean Fiolle and Jean Delmas, for their book on the discovery of the deeper vessels; to Alfred Boquet and L. Négre, for their work on epizootic lymphangitis; and to H. Gougerot, for his work relating to venereal diseases. The Barbier prize to Albert Goris, for ‘his work on the localisation of glucosides in plants and on the preparation of catgut for surgical purposes; the Bréant prize (arrears) to Paul Ravaut (3000 francs), for his researches on malaria, and to Lucien Camus (2000 frances), for his researches on infection and vaccinal immunity; the Godard prize to Albert Pézard, for his researches on the genital glands; the Chaussier prize between Albert Dustin (3000 francs), for his studies relating to neuro- logy, embryology, and histology, Marcel Frois and Barthélemy Caubet (3000 francs), for a memoir on fatigue in industrial work, Adrien Grigaut (3000 francs), for his memoir on new chemical methods in — pathology and their results, and Hector Marichelle (tooo francs), for his researches on the mode of pro- ment of 300 francs) to Jules Glover; the Bellion prize to the late Georges Demeny, for the whole of his work, and a very honourable mention to Humbert Boucher; the Baron Larrey prize to Camille Lian, for his memoir on the cardiac troubles of soldiers; the Argut prize to Robert Pierret, and a citation to Victor duction of speech sounds; the Mége prize ition pre Raymond and Jacques Parisot, for their memoir on trench-foot. am Physiology.—The Montyon prize to Robert Lévy, for his work on the toxins of genital products of certain animals; the Lallemand prize to Léon Binet, for his monograph on trembling, and a very honourable cita- tion to E. Couvreur and. E. Duroux, for their worl: on nerve-lesions, and to André Léri, for his memoir on war-shock and emotions; the Philipeaux prize to Mme. Lucie Randoin-Fandard, for her researches on blood-sugar; the Fanny Emden prize to. Chevreuil, for his memoir on existence after death. Statistics.—The_ Montyon prize to Arthur Chervin, for his book on Germany of to-morrow. History and Philosophy of the Sciences.—The Binoux prize to the late René Larger, for his pub- lications on the extinction of species by degenerescence and the theory of counter-evolution or degenerescence by pathological heredity. ’ Medals.—The Berthelot medal to Georges Rivat, Louis Maillard, Marcel Sommelet, and René Locquin. General Prizes.—Grand prize of the physical sciences to Louis Roule, for his researches on the migrations of fishes; Petit d’Ormoy prize to Henri: Lebesgue, for his mathematical works; the Estrade Delcros prize to H. Perrier de la Bathie, for his scientific work in Madagascar ; Tuillerat and Emile Gérards; the Saintour prize to Eugéne Pagézy, for his anti-aircraft work; the H. de the J. J. Berger prize between Paul ih aca lia aii did bree | re PN ae ieee aman Pe a A a Te ih ah ee ee January 15, 1920] NATURE 513 Parville prize between Heélois Ollivier (1500 francs), for his course of general physics, and Adrien Loir and H. Legangneux (i500 francs), for their work entitled -**The Products of the Sea’’; the Lonchampt prize to Camille Delezenne, for his work on the a and réle of zinc in animals; the Henry Wilde prize be- tween Jean Rey (1000 francs), for his researches on projectors, and Adrien Bochet (1000 francs), for his mechanical and optical inventions; the Thorlet prize -to Adolphe Richard, for his catalogue of scientific books in the libraries of Paris. Special Foundations.—The Lannelongue foundation to Mme. Cusco and Mme. Ruck. The Laplace prize to ‘Robert Henri Le Besnerais, Maurice Victor Duruy, and the late Charles Marie -Carcopino-Tusoli; the L. E. Rivot prize to Robert Le Besnerais and Maurice Duruy (each 750 francs), Louis Delmas and Henri Pagezy (each 500 francs), Joseph Fontaine and Albert Masselin (each 750 francs), Robert Besse and Henri Lang (each 500 francs). Foundations for Scientific Researches.—The Gegner foundation to René Baire, for his work on the general theory of functions; the Charles Bouchard foundation to Jean Camus, for the continuation of his work on nerve reactions, the regeneration of nerves, and the effect of various poisons on the nerve-centres. [Note.—As in former years, the Bonaparte and Loutreuil foundations have been omitted, and will be dealt with in a separate article.] EDUCATIONAL CONFERENCES. Ep ee eighth annual Conference of Educational Associations was held at University College, London, . on December 31-January io. Three tendencies could be observed in the lengthy list of lectures and discussions arranged for this well- attended conference: the preparation of the citizen, testing for capacity, and care for the artistic side of life. The Master of Balliol took ‘‘The Educa- tion of the Citizen’’ as his topic before the Training College Association, while to the Assistant Mistresses’ Association Mr. Evan Hughes lectured on ‘The Importance of a Wider Knowledge of Economic Principles.’’ Under this head, too, came a discussion of continuation schools and their possibilities. Sir William Ashley, in presiding at a joint conference on this topic, emphasised the difficulty of forecasting the labour demand of different occupations, and of antici- pating the place that skill would occupy within any one industry. Mr. Spurley Hey, Director of Education, Manchester, found his difficulties in the provision of buildings and teachers, and was critical of works schools; whilst Mr. Beresford Ingram was more distressed by the problem presented by the small employer. The Civic Education League also took up this question in a discussion on education and industry, which largely turned upon the problem of the works school, and, in conjunction with the Infant Welfare Association, arranged a course of twelve lec- tures dealing very thoroughly with the whole question of infant care and child nurture. Eugenics entered into this course, but was more specifically treated by Dr. R. Douglas Laurie, who lectured on ‘Eugenics Education in the Training College,”’ and at a later session on ‘‘ Eugenics Educa- tion in the School,’ before the Eugenics Education Society. He would not allow the feeble-minded criminal to hand down his qualities, or the aggravated pauper to pass on his inherent pauperism; and the question of deaf-mutes and epileptics should be considered. The eugenic point of view should be part of the mental constitution of every normal citizen, and to this end he would have some measure of biological training given to every boy or girl. This should begin NO, 2620, VoL. 104] with Nature-study, develop into physiology, and then into hygiene, which should lead on to eugenics. A correlative of such teaching was to be found in a brilliant lecture by Dr. Olive Wheeler to the Assistant Mistresses’ Association on ‘‘New Views of Human Personality.” Dr. Wheeler contrasted the mechanistic tendencies of the nineteenth century with those of a more idealistic charac- ter which were becoming current in the twentieth. This change she traced largely to the development of modern biology and psychology. The child was born with certain dynamic forces: the instincts as described by McDougall, the appetites as outlined by Drever. These powerful impulses needed expression; if repressed, they still existed in the realm’ of the unconscious, and continued to influence conduct. Attention was directed to Bergson’s view that the essential difference between a living organism and a machine was the power of creation and the import- ance he attached to that modification in the ‘“‘ urge,” or dynamic flux, which caused an organism to move in a specific direction. The problem of testing: capacity was first raised by Mr. G. F. Daniell, of the Kent Education Depart- ment, in opening the discussion on ‘‘ The Selection of Elementary Children for Higher Forms of Education.”’ Mr. Daniell favoured a preliminary examination in the elementary schools of pupils between ten and twelve years of age, by which some would be selected for a final examination, to consist of written tests in English and arithmetic. The teacher’s report and the school record should be considered, and an interview arranged in at least all doubtful cases. Psychological tests he held to be useful and valuable in this connection, and he thought that careful inquiry did not support the view that the largely written character of the examination excluded from the secondary schools all who were gifted in artistic work and craftsmanship, though it would be well to include in the examination a test of such ability, could one be devised that was both satisfactory and easily applied. The question of psychological tests was dealt with by Dr. P. B. Ballard in his lecture on ‘‘The Measure- ment of Practical Ability ” before the Educational Hand- work Association. Dr. Ballard’s incidental exhibition of the well-known tapping machine for testing innate motor ability was largely reported in the Press, and equally misunderstood. The whole subject was treated more fully in his lecture on the following Monday to. the British Psychological Society on ‘‘The Develop- ment of Mental Tests,” one of the most successful and largely attended meetings of the conference. He pointed out that the history of mental testing was, in the main, an attempt to introduce mathematics into the solution of the problem of the selection of ability. The earliest attempts were in the direction of finding some physical correlate of mind, as in the phrenology of Gall, the physiognomy of Lavater, and the crimino- logy of Lombroso. But neither such static measure- ments, nor the later applied dynamic measurements of motor response to stimulus, gave results that were valid beyond their own sphere. They had passed from the physical to the psycho-physical, and were now reaching out to the psychical tests. But success in securing standardised tests and measurements de- pended upon three mathematical conceptions: that of a definite scale for the measurement of intelligence first devised by Binet, much abused but much used; that of the law of nérmal distribution enunciated by Quetelet, but first applied to mental traits by Galton; and that of the doctrine of correlation, suggested also by Galton, but elaborated by Prof. Karl Pearson and by Prof. Spearman. The same subject received further treatment by Prof. John Adams in a lecture on “ Tests 514 NATURE [January 15, 1920 of Intelligence ’’ before the Association of sae ven Women Teachers, wherein he pointed out the depend- ence of efficiency of intelligence upon its environment, and the well-marked distinction that tests had revealed between knowledge and capacity; educational attain- ments did not hide lack of intellectual ability. Within the artistic sphere of the conference were embraced play, music, dancing, and the drama, all popular and suggestive topics. Prof. James Shelley ihe a- thoughtful lecture on ‘The Seriousness of lay’? before the Froebel Society; Dr. Somervell treated of ‘‘The Place of Music in Education ’’ before the Girls’ School Music Union, as did Mr. Stewart Macpherson before the Association of Head Mistresses, before which also Mr. Burret Carpenter lectured on “The Place of Art in Education.” Very popular, too, were the lecture, with demonstration, on ‘Folk Hie by Mr. Cecil Sharp before the English Folk Dance Society, and that on ‘‘Eurhythmics”’ by M. Jaques-Dalcroze, and held at the Lyceum Theatre; whilst the British Drama League drew a crowded house to hear Mr. Ben Greet’s account of the great work being done in London in introducing the acted Shakespeare play to children from the elementary and secondary schools in school-time. Altogether it was a very full conference, but those who attempted the whole course could only save them- selves from ‘‘mental indigestion ’’ by applying to the lectures Mr. Fisher’s dictum about books given in his opening address. ‘‘Some books live to be skimmed ; others claim to be studied minutely in whole or in part. The true reader discerns his proper food by intuition.” GEOGRAPHICAL ASSOCIATION. The annual meetings of the Geographical Associa- tion were held in London on January g-10. Sir C. P. Lucas, in his presidential address, opened out fresh lines of thought concerning islands as centres of preservation of human diversities and their relations to peninsulas, all in connection with the development and fate of empires and commonwealths. He sug- gested that the giving of self-government to British Colonies and Dominions might be due to home experi- ence of ‘diversities within the British Isles and of the need for giving each group opportunities of develop- ment in its own way. Dr. R. N. Rudmose Brown emphasised the develop- ment of the coal export trade from Spitsbergen, and estimated that next year 250,000 tons of coal would be shipped. He referred to the extra-territorial rights of British, Swedish, and Russian estates within the new Norwegian dominion of Spitsbergen created by the Paris Conference. The educational side was dealt with by Mr. T. W. F. Parkinson, who urged that the Board of Education should do more to encourage geography in the higher forms of secondary schools, and that more scholarships should be opened to students of geography. The dis- cussion brought out references to the creation of a Geographical Tripos at Cambridge and to the full recognition of geography in the faculties both of arts and of science by the University of Wales, as well as to the new creation of an arts degree (Pass and Honours) at Leeds. and London. An important demonstration of the value of the kinema in geographical teaching was given to a large audience by Capt. C. E. Hodges. Mr. M. de Carle S. Salter, Superintendent of the British Rainfall Organisa- tion, gave a very valuable orfginal paper on rainfall as a geographic function. Science Masters’ ASSOCIATION. The annual general meeting of the Science Masters’ Association was held at the London Day Training College on January 6 and 7. The president (Mr. W. W. Vaughan, Master of Wellington College), in NO 2690 vot. Tos! ' was held on January 7 and 8 at the Imperial College — his address, directed attention to the importance of science as part of a liberal education. But the aim of scientific education must not be commercial prosperity. History taught that utilitarian science always degenerated. The object of education is the i ey 2 of man’s soul. Sees The following subjects were then discussed (1) The teaching of organic chemistry (Mr. W. Gale, King’s College School, Wimbledon). (2) Biology — in the school syllabus. Mr. F. W. Hodges (Coopers School, Bow) urged the necessity of making biology an integral part of school science. Prof. Hickson (Manchester) supported this view, and contended that it was impossible to teach the science of life from plants only. (3) Laboratory management (Mr. H. Preston, Caistor Grammar School). (a) The Training of Assistants.—In order to obtain suitable boys, the — occupation of laboratory assistant must not be allowed to remain such a blind-alley occupation as it is at present. Proper provision should be made to fit these boys for a career, and to provide suitable educa for them. (b) Cost of Apparatus.—The high cost. apparatus is detrimental to the necessary expansic of science teaching at the present time. Mr. Preston considered that the cost was unnecessarily high in many cases, and indicated that science teachers were being exploited or else that British manufacturers — were incapable of producing apparatus at a reasonable cost. As the result of this discussion a committee was appointed to inquire into the matter. © fey, oe In the evening an interesting lecture was delivered by Dr. Crommelin on the British observations — during the solar eclipse of May last. After giving a — brief, but clear, outline of Einstein’s theory and the — experimental work which led up to it, Dr. Crommelin described the measurements of the deflection of light- rays passing close to the sun, as shown by the posi- tions of star images on the photographic plates. On January 7 the subjects discussed were as follows :—(1) Science. teaching in the early stages. Major V. S. Bryant considered that science in pre- paratory schools should be part of the whole t ge and not segregated. In the discussion the conclusions — arrived at were:—To avoid so-called “ al measurement’; to stimulate the boys’ interest, and that not less on the biological than on the mechanical — side ; to avoid restricting natural history to biology 5 and — to give adequate attention to the teaching of English. (2) The divorce of laboratory and class-room courses (Sir Richard Gregory, and Mr. G. D. Dunkerley, Wat- ford Grammar School). Sir Richard Gregory’s paper was mainly a reaction against the idea that the only — science teaching of value is that given in the labora- tory. This view has led to the neglect of those sciences which do not lend themselves to experimental — treatment, and hence the undue prominence given physics and chemistry. The “science for all ”’ courses of the S.M.A. are conceived in the new spirit of science teaching. Laboratory work should not merely be exercises in measurement, but also deal with sub- jects which cannot be treated in any other way. Laboratory work is intended to give an idea of scientific method; class-room courses should give a broad survey of scientific facts, principles, and achievement. 5a THE PHYSICAL AND OPTICAL SOCIETIES’ EXHIBITION. HE tenth annual exhibition of electrical, optical, and other physical apparatus, arranged by the Physical Society of London and the Optical Society, For the first time, we of Science, South Kensington. : The believe, the exhibition extended over two days. JaNuaRY 15, 1920] NATURE 345 extent of the exhibits was also greater, two floors of the physics department of the Imperial College being occupied in place of one, as in previous years, the last being 1913. To some extent this expansion was due to a special reason, namely, the inclusion of a supply of German instruments captured during the war, shown by permission of the Admiralty, the Air _ Ministry, and the War Office. The attendance was very satisfactory. The fact that the annual Conference _ of Educational Associations was meeting in London during the week allowed many teachers the oppor- tunity to pay a visit, and we believe this was taken full advantage of. There are two sides to an exhibition of this kind, the educational and the commercial, and the two react. The visitor is anxious to buy as well as to learn; the exhibiting firms are ready to learn as well as to sell. There is much intercourse and interchange of ideas, which may fructify later in the improvement - of old instruments and in the devising of new. Although business affairs are by no means stabilised as yet, the standard reached by the exhibits shows _ that a keen, progressive, and enterprising spirit is alive amongst makers of scientific appliances. It is not surprising to learn that a ce exhibition of products of the British Empire, to be held in London in 1921, _ is already in hand. _ Two discourses which attracted good attendances _ were given daily; one on ‘“‘The Use of Light in the _ Transmission and Reproduction of Sound,” by Prof. _ A. O. Rankine; the second on ‘‘Some Polarisation ' Experiments,” by Prof. F. J. Cheshire. In the former was given an exposition of an application of the selenium cell, which suggests the possible super- session of the purely mechanical method of reproduc- - tion of speech and music by the gramophone. A marked feature of the exhibition was the large _ number of demonstrations of apparatus in action. _ There is no doubt that this is widely appreciated, and that the effects in stimulating interest and inquiry are fully commensurate with the pains taken by the firms concerned. Amongst these may be mentioned the production of electrical oscillations by the triode - thermionic tube, the indirect compensated illumination - known as “Sheringham daylight,’ and Mr. Darling’s simple device for indicating the quenching tempera- ture in the hardening of steel. The model aeroplane - cabin with its array of instruments in situ (shown by Hughes and Son) was also most instructive. - It is impossible in a brief survey to do justice to all the items of apparatus displayed, or to the firms who participated; only a few can be referred to. First, we would mention thermionic tubes. Few are unaware of the great use that was made of these instruments in the course of the war, and of the many purposes for which they can be employed; and one -was naturally prepared to find, though not less grateful on finding, a fairly complete exhibition of various stages in the evolution of the diode, and especially of the triode, forms of tube. These were shown by the Marconi-Osram Co., the Edison-Swan Co., and H. W. Sullivan, the production of electrical oscillations by use of the triode tube being demonstrated. ' The electrical CO, recorder {the Cambridge and Paul Instrument Co.) for the testing of flue-gases furnishes an interesting example of the application of physical principles in combination. The percentage of carbon dioxide in the flue-gases determines the thermal conductivity of the gas; this determines the rate of cooling of an immersed heated platinum wire; and this in turn determines the current in the galvano- meter of an unbalanced Wheatstone bridge, of which the platinum wire constitutes one arm. This example recalls another instance of the application of indirect measurement, namely, the dionic (?) water-tester NO. 2620, VOL. 104] (Messrs. Evershed and Vignoles), where the electrical conductivity serves to indicate the extent of inorganic impurity present. : A collection of glasses by Chance Bros., though on a modest scale, was of great interest. It included the Crookes spectacle glasses, which protect the eye by cutting out the ultra-violet rays, and an ultra-violet glass, opaque to the visible spectrum, but transmissive of the ultra-violet. Demonstrations of their properties were made by the aid of a nichrome are and a fluorescent screen of barium platinocyanide, Amongst Hilger’s instruments for refined optical measurement we may single out the vacuum spectro- graph (shown by courtesy of Prof. Fowler), which permits of photographing the spectrum in the Schumann region. ’ Optical instruments of high quality were displayed by many firms, including Charles Baker, Hughes and Son, Bellingham and Stanley, Davidson and Co., Watts and Son, W. Ottway and Co., Penrose and Co., Watson and Sons, Newton and Co., and Rheinberg and Co. Exhibits of books by the Cambridge Univer- sity Press, Macmillan and Co., and several other firms were much appreciated. : There is room, we think, for one criticism of the quality of the exhibits. We refer to the comparative absence of simple forms‘of apparatus. There is a great need, for teaching purposes in schools and col- leges, of apparatus, made without elaboration, of an open type that will proclaim its principle at a glance. Dr. Searle’s apparatus occurs to one as a good example of the type desired. Collaboration between teachers and manufacturers would serve to hasten a develop- ment that is urgently required, and we commend this field to the attention of both. D. THE CHARTERS TOWERS GOLDFIELD. ‘THE Geological Survey of Queensland has pub- lished a very complete description of the Charters Towers goldfield by Mr. J. H. Reid (Publication No. 256). Although this was for long the most im- portant goldfield in Queensland, and had, in fact, for many years the largest gold output of any of the individual goldfields in the whole of Australia, no full account of the geology of the field or of the nature of the ore deposits has yet been published, so that the issue of the present monograph is fully justified. Furthermore, had the issue of such a work been. delayed much longer, it could never have been carried out effectually, as many of the mines are now closing down. The goldfield was discovered in 1871, and ten years later the gold production was close upon 45,000 oz. of gold bullion; in 1887 this output had doubled, reaching 151,500 0z.; and in 1899 the highest output, namely, 319,572 oz. of fine gold, was attained. From that time the production has been a steadily . declining one, the drop since 1912 having been par- ticularly rapid, until in 1916 the output was only 33,107 OZ. ; Unfortunately, it is only too clear from the report that this falling off is not a temporary phase, but is due to the very nature of the gold deposits themselves, and that the field is rapidly approaching exhaustion. It is shown that the principal country rock is a grano- diorite of Lower Devonian or pre-Devonian ‘age, traversed by numerous dioritic dykes and by well- marked systems of fault-fissures, the throw of the latter being generally inccnsiderable. Within the zones of shattered rock accompanying these fissures veinlets of auriferous quartz have keen deposited, undoubtedly, according to the author, by hydro-thermal agencies. The veins are, for the most part, narrow, ranging ! as a rule from a few inches to 5 ft, in thickness, 516 NATURE [January 15, 1920 anything more than ‘5 ft. tionally large. There are two main auriferous belts, both running north-east to south-west; the more northerly one, containing all the more famous lodes, such as the Day Dawn and the Brilliant, is about three miles long and three-quarters of a mile wide; the less important southerly belt is of about the same length, but never exceeds 200 yards in width. A small number of scat- tered mines have been worked outside these belts, but most of these are now closed down. The noteworthy feature of all the lodes is that, whilst the fissures per- sist in depth, the gold values do not, the mines as a whole showing progressive impoverishment in depth. To quote the author :—‘It can be affirmed that pay shoots between the surface and the tooo-ft. level were richer than those between t1ooo-ft. and 2000-ft. levels, and that these were correspondingly richer than those found below 2000 ft.”’ being considered: excep- THE NEW ZEALAND SCIENCE CONGRESS, 1919. Ney ZEALAND occupies a unique and advan- tageous position for scientific work. Situated in the midst of the vast Pacific, she has splendid opportunities for the pursuit of the fascinating studies of oceanography and the meteorology and astronomy of the southern hemisphere. Innumerable problems in geography, geology, and physiography, of an en- tirely novel and supremely interesting kind, present themselves, not only in New Zealand itself, but also in the surrounding Pacific and further south in the mys- teries of the Antarctic. In her flora and fauna and native races, in her varied mineral wealth, in her large reserves of water-power, both fluvial and tidal, there are endless opportunities for the man of science. In her political, social, and economic institutions she is bound to make valuable contributions to experimental sociology; and it is the experimental side that chiefly matters and stands most in need of encouragement in these. days of nebulous theories and unsubstantial visions. It is perhaps only natural that, in her present stage of development and in view of the smallness of her population, New Zealand should appear to limit her research outlook chiefly to matters of a practical and utilitarian nature. In such a purely agricultural com- munity it is only to be expected that the biological sciences—applied botany and zoology—should occupy a predominant position, as is clearly evidenced by the election of a distinguished botanist as president of the New Zealand Institute and Science Congress, and also by an analysis of the contents of the first fifty volumes of the institute’s Transactions. Such analysis discloses that, of the papers contributed, zoology claims 1143; botany, 654; geology, 503; anthropology, 204; physics (including astronomy and meteorology), 152; chemistry, 135; engineering, 76; mathematics, 40; economics, 37; history, 34; metaphysics, 22; medicine, 20; literature, 15; education and statistics, 12 each. It must be remembered, however, that many valuable contributions do not appear in the Transac- tions; some are published in scientific journals in Great Britain; the Geological Bulletins and the Pale- ontological Bulletins of the New Zealand Government absorb others. The Polynesian Journal takes most of the papers on anthropology. In commenting on the predominance of the natural history papers, the president, Dr. Cockayne, pointed out that this is only to be expected in a new land with both flora and fauna so little investigated and contain- ing so much that is endemic. Most of the papers are devoted to classification. ‘‘ This must have been so; it NO, 2620, VOL. 104] is the natural evolutionary process in the history of — biological research the world over. . . . As for chem- — istry and physics, which make but a poor showing in — the work of the New Zealand Institute, little oe bic : can be made in these sciences without well-equipped — chemical and physical laboratories and men specially — trained in such, ' Laboratories of this class are now attached to the various university colleges, and chemi- cal and physical contributions—the work of trained — students—are slowly but surely finding a place in the Transactions.’’ pa) San When it is remembered that the institute only — receives the small sum of 500l. per annum as Goyern- — ment grant it is a matter for amazement that so much ~ work has been accomplished. A levy of 2001. was — made on the affiliated societies, which could ill afford — it, but yet there are scarcely funds sufficient to publish — the Transactions. Many papers of great value await — publication, and much work of national interest awaits — initiation. Government financial support and public — sympathy are both badly needed, and it is hoped that — the Science Congress, the first of its kind in New — Zealand, will go far to supply these needs. The Government has, as a matter of fact, promised to do — its utmost to place the institute on a firm financial footing, and has already made special grants for economic science. (es The New Zealand Institute consists of a number of incorporated societies, namely, the Auckland Institute, the Wellington Philosophical Society, the Philosophi- cal Institute of Canterbury, the Otago Institute, the Hawke’s Bay Philosophical Institute, the Poverty Bay — Institute, the Manawatu Philosophical Society, the — Wanganui Philosophical Society, and the Nelson In- — stitute. The management of the New Zealand Insti- tute is vested in a board of governors representative of the incorporated societies and of the Government, — and this board meets annually in Wellington in January. inet ja The Science Congress, organised by the institute this year and held in Canterbury, was the first of its kind in the Dominion, and owed its inception largely to provosals for the reform of the institute made by — Dr. J. Allan Thomson in 1917. Dr. Thomson said: “In its relation to the public the New Zealand Insti- tute should, but does not, hold a position analogous to that of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, the body which most keeps the pune in touch with science, and from which most of the im- provements in the State attitude to science have had their origin. The Australasian Institute for the Ad- vancement of Science meets too seldom in New Zea- land to be effective in this direction.’? The Congress was opened by the Governor-General of the Dominion, who, in his address, enumerated four important matters for investigation and study, namely, (1) et the 4 v oe pu health and pandemic disease; (2) afforestation; (3) mineral oil industry; and (4) fisheries. The H G. W. Russell, Minister of Internal Affairs, urged the development of natural resources, especially hydro- electric power, and promised the institute adequate financial support. ‘‘The State must be p foot the bill. I therefore urge the Science Congre to press upon the Government that without Govern mental expenditure science cannot grow and expand; that scientists cannot live on air or on the hope of posthumous fame; and that therefore, if the Domin is to develop by means of science, adequate funds m be provided for research, for the training of teach and professors, for the equipment of laboratories a staffs, and for the creation of the scientific atmosphe of which I have spoken.’’ rita The president of the Congress (and of the Zealand Institute), Dr. L. Cockayne, gave a , JANUARY 15, 1920| NATURE O47 historical account of the institute and described its immediate aims and ‘aspirations. These are mostly agricultural’ at present, and in such a farming com- munity nothing demands years of close study more than the soil itself. The world over, soil science, not- withstanding many books on the subject, is in its infancy. Chemical analysis of a soil, even with far better methods than those now available, is only one part of the question. The extremely difficult problems of soil-physics at once confront the investigator. Then there is the rich soil-flora and the rich soil- fauna. When more of a fundamental character is known as to the relation of soil-physics, sgil-chem- istry, and soil-biology to one another, then, said the president, undoubtedly new methods of soil-utilisation will be in sight. In the domain of anthropology Dr. Cockayne made the interesting suggestion that there is no need to confine one’s investigations to primi- tive races, for amongst the settlers in a new land evolution in certain directions goes on apace. The question of dialect, for instance, among the white people of New Zealand would form a valuable study. Although the presidential address was mostly bio- logical, it is sufficiently evident, from an examination of the numerous and varied papers read, that other important branches of science are not to be overlooked by the institute. Section 1, Biology and Agriculture, had several papers of value and interest to the agricul- turist, concluding with one by Sir James Wilson on “ Agriculture’s Debt to Science.’’ Section 2, Geology, had papers on ‘‘The Older Gravels of North Canter- bury,” R. Speight; ‘The Significant Features of Rect bordered Coasts,” by W. M. Davis; ‘‘ Rough Ridge, Otago, and its Splintered Fault-scarp,’’ by C. A. Cotton; ‘‘ Natural Features of the Arthur’s Pass Tunnel,’’ by F. W.. Hilgendorf and others; and “Geology of the Middle Clarence and Ure Valleys,” by J. Allan Thomson. These and other papers will ultimately appear in the Transactions. Dr. Thomson also gave some interesting notes on the geology and paleontology of the Palliser Bay district, and a quan- titative study of the silica-saturation of igneous rocks, suggesting a valuable means of comparing rock ana- lyses. About a thousand such analyses have been calculated and plotted, and it is hoped to continue the work with the aid of a Government research grant. Mr. E. K. Lomas dealt with some of the educa- tional aspects of geography, and his opening remarks are well worth quoting: ‘Education, from one point of view, consists in bringing a mind into close touch with its environment through the senses. The more often the mind is roused to activity by excitations from the outside the more it develops. The special section of the environment in which we are particularly in- terested—I speak to a meeting of geologists—is that included under the term ‘ geology’; and the only means we have of introducing our subject into the schools is through the medium of geography, so that this subject should be an object of lively interest to all present. And there is no doubt about it, we shall have to take more interest in the subject for several reasons: (1) it is developing rapidly, (2) it is eminently suitable for educational purposes, (3) the present ignorance of geography is truly alarming and deplor- able.” If this be true of New Zealand, with its ex- cellent educational system, it is still more applicable to this country. One of the most valuable papers in the geology section was ‘‘The Organisation and Functions of a State Geological Survey,”’ by Mr. P. G. Morgan. This gave a brief account of most of the existing State geological surveys in the United King- dom, Europe, India, Canada, the United States, Aus- tralia, and New Zealand, with suggestions for the NO. 2620, VOL. 104] organisation of such surveys in general and for New Zealand in particular. : In. Section 3, Chemistry, Physics, and Engineering, Mr. D. M. Y. Sommerville described an improved planisphere and a slide rule for solving the quadratic equation. Dr. C. E. Adams, Government Astronomer, read a paper on ‘‘ Tables of Mathematical Functions.’ Mr. Evan Parry, Government Electrical Engineer in New Zealand, said these tables constructed by Dr. Adams were of great value, for the ordinary tables of natural logarithms were not sufficiently minute for practical use in electrical work. Dr. Adams also gave another very interesting paper on ‘The Harmonic Analysis of Tidal Observations and the Prediction of Tides.’? No arithmetical approximations are used, so that a criterion is obtained with which to test the application of Fourier’s series to tidal ob- servations. The method of tide-prediction used in New Zealand is a graphic one, controlled by calcula- ‘tion, and is fully illustrated and described in the Survey Reports of the Lands and Survey Department for the years 1910-14. The results for Wellington and Auckland are published in the New Zealand Nautical Almanac by the Marine Department. : In his paper on “The Porosity of Porcelain,’’ with special reference to high-pressure insulators for elec- tric transmission lines, Mr. C. C. Farr said that the tests were made at the suggestion of the engineers of the Lake Coleridge electric supply system, who desired a method for determining whether the porcelain of the insulators was porous or not. The tests were carried out in the physical laboratory of Canterbury College by immersing specimens of porcelain in a fuchsin or red-ink coloured solution under a pressure of 2000 Ib. per square inch, the solution being contained in a hole 3 in. in diameter and 6% in. deep bored in a block of solid steel and covered with a steel cap 1 in. thick and a leather washer by means of eight bolts. Both glazed and unglazed porcelain was subjected to test, and it was concluded from the results that (1) den- sity and porosity have little or no connection with each other, (2) porcelain can be made which shows no penetration after fifty hours’ immersion under the pressure named, (3) porcelain is not always so made, and may contain a porous layer with abrupt edges in the mass of the substance. The experiments are being continued. In a paper on ‘‘ The Interference of Power Circuits with Telephone Circuits’? Mr. E. Parry presented a mathematical treatment of the subject, as complete as possible, with the view of co-ordinating results of past experience and enabling effects to be predicted under given conditions, with special reference to the Lake Coleridge transmission : lines. The New Zealand Public Works Department, together with the Post and Telegraph Department, has for some time been study- ing the influence of power circuits on telegraph and telephone circuits, since the wires for both services are supported on the same poles. In Mr. E. E. Stark’s paper on ‘‘ The Effect of Low Power-factor from the Viewpoint of Electric Power Station Operators’’ it was suggested that. the power stations using ‘the alternating current system should charge the consumer for the total current taken, in- cluding both power-producing and wattless current— that is to say, the charge should be based on kilovolt amperes instead of kilowatts. If it is desired to equalise the rates without raising the price of elec- tricity, an average power factor could be taken on a given system and a reductién made. Mr. H. Hill read a paper on ‘‘ National Hydro-electric Schemes for New Zealand,”’ in which he said it wes difficult to understand the delay in formulating a rational elec- 518 NATURE [JANUARY 15, 1920 itric scheme for the Dominion. Mr. E. Parry’s great North Island scheme should be put in hand at once, including the electrification of the East Coast railway. The people in the South Island also should insist on a national scheme. Dr. Adams, in addition to his papers already noted, read others on (1) ‘‘ Determination of the Posi- tion of the Moon by Photography,’’ illustrated by photographs from the Lick Observatory. The very fine star images secured indicate the high efficiency of the ‘Crossley reflector telescope, which was driven without any guiding, and the photographs prove that the posi- tion of the moon and terrestrial longitude can be determined with high precision. (2) “The Almucantar Method for Determination of Time and Latitude.’ (3) ‘‘A Nomogram for Transit Instrument Star Fac- tors.” Dr. Adams exhibited also some photographs -on glass of the solar corona received by the Hector ‘Observatory from Dr. W. W. Campbell, of the Lick Observatory in California. The photographs were taken by the Crocker Eclipse Expedition on June 8, 1918, at the total eclipse of the sun, with a 4o-ft. camera pointed directly at the sun, and using to in. by 12 in. plates. The Lick Observatory had most remarkably good fortune at this eclipse: the sky had ‘been completely cloudy all day, but cleared up in the neighbourhood of the sun one minute before totality, and this small portion of the sky remained clear until a few seconds after totality. The small region of un- clouded sky containing the totally eclipsed sun seemed to be quite clear and was the bluest sky seen by the -expedition, Section 4, General, had papers on ‘‘ Moriori Art,’’ by ’ Mr. H. D. Skinner, lecturer on ethnology at Otago University ; ‘‘The Language of the Chatham Islands,” by Archdeacon H. W. Williams; and “The Natural _ Laws of Poetry,” by Mr. J.C. Andersen. The following papers, read in the General Section, should more pro- perly have been included in Section 1, viz. ‘t Afforesta- tion in New Zealand,’? by Mr. W. H. Skinner; ‘‘ Some Proposals with regard to Natural Afforestation in a New Zealand Mountain Area,’? by Mr. W. G. Morri- -son; and ‘Preservation of New Zealand Fauna,’’ by Mr. E. G. Stead. THE AFRICAN RIFT VALLEY.} FTER the discovery of Lake Rudolf in 1888, Suess showed that the Jordan, Dead Sea, and Red Sea fractures were not continued along the coast of Africa, but through the East African lake chain, the basins of which had been formed by the foundering of their floors between parallel faults. During an expedition to British East Africa in 1892-93 Prof. Gregory con- firmed Suess’s conclusions, with some modifications as to the age and origin of the Great Rift Valley, the formation of which he attributed to successive faulting during the great earth movements of the Kainozoic ‘era, The Rift Valley has been traced from northern Palestine to southern Africa. Its structure varies with ‘its age and the nature of the country traversed. Thus the fault-scarps are better preserved along the Gulf of Akabah than’ in the older sections which enclose the Red Sea and the Gulf of Suez. The section in southern Abyssinia which connects the Red Sea with Lake Rudolf and the Rift Valley in British East Africa is locally irregular where intersected by the ‘cross fractures that bound the sunk land of the Gulf -of Aden. Across British East Africa the valley is a 1 From a paper read before the Royal Ge »graphical Society on January 5 ‘by Prof. J. W. Gregory, F-R.S. NO, 2620, VOL. 104] comparatively simple trench; its walls are often so — steep that Sir John Bland-Sutton: describes them as ‘‘as _ steep and abrupt as those of a grave,” and for long — the Uganda Railway worked its trains between the valley and plateau by a rope incline, and there is still — no road for wheeled traffic from Nairobi to the floor — of the Rift Valley. ats iar South of British East Africa it has been claimed that the Rift Valley comes to an end, only its western — wall being continued as a fault-scarp. This arrange- ment occurs near Lake Manyara, where the eastern side is a long, smooth slope which ends westward at — the foot of the fault-scarp that bounds the Giant Cauldron Mountains. The structure may be explained as an extreme case of the asymmetry due to the different strengths of the rocks on the two walls. In southern British East Africa at Lage Magadi the : western wall is a high, steep scarp, while the eastern side consists of a number of wide, flat steps due’to — parallel faults. At Lake Manyara, as the rocks on — the eastern side are softer, the scarp has been dressed down to an even slope. This arrangement does not extend far; the eastern wall soon reappears, and, though Suess left a gap of 350 miles long between Lakes Manyara and Nyasa, the Rift Valley has now been traced across most of it. a ae That Nyasa is a Rift Valley basin has been proved — by Andrews and Bailey. Its northern end is joined — by the western branch, which includes Tanganyika, the Albert Nyanza, and the Upper White Nile. In the western branch the valley is in places irre; i as branches run off or the course is deflected along the grain of the country, to which that branch as a whole is oblique. South of the Zambezi the Rift Valley has been traced by Teale and Wilson, who have shown that a post-Eocene rift valley separates the Sheringoma plateau from the eastern front of Rhodesia. The long meridional section of the coast | from Beira to Cape Corrientes appears to have bean determined by the southernmost of the crustal moye- ments of the Great Rift Valley. The valley, therefore, extends from Lebanon to the — Sabi River; its branches reach the mouth of the Gulf — of Aden, and westward include the rift valleys of the Eastern Congo. Its length is about one-sixth of the circumference of the earth; hence it must have had — some world-wide cause, the first clue to which is its age. The view that its history is geologically short — commends itself by the freshness of its walls, by the legends of catastrophes, such as the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah and the drowning of many villages on the formation of Tanganyika, having — occurred along it during the time of man, and also ~ by the fact that many of its faults are certainly recent. Nevertheless, the fuller evidence now available con- — firms the classification advanced in 1896, which attri- — buted some of its lavas to the time of Chalk, and represented some of its faults as older than the uplift — of the Alps. 3 ; : } $ 5 Some beds attributed to the Miocene on physiographical evidence are now proved of that date by the evidence of fossils. The rift valley of the — Red Sea was certainly in existence by the Oligocene, — and the southern end of the valley is shown to be of — the same date by a fossil sea-urchin which has now — been proved to be an East African species. i A The history of the Rift Valley is largely dependent — on the volcanic history of the country traversed.. The — first step in its formation was the uplift of a broad band of highlands extending from Palestine to Natal. The weakening of the support led to the collapse of © the summit of this ridge. The sinking of the key- R stone caused volcanic eruptions along the adjacent — fractures. The earliest of the great eruptions probably : i a . 3 4 : Ne JANUARY 15, 1920] NATURE 519 _ dates from the formation of the Arabian Sea and the breaking up of Gondwanaland, which originally in- cluded both India and Africa. These subsidences became more rapid about the end of the Chalk period, and led to volcanic eruptions on a colossal scale. On _ the eastern side of the foundered area were discharged the Deccan Traps, covering more than 200,000 square miles in India, and probably an equal area under the Indian Ocean. On the northern and western sides volcanic eruptions probably contemporary with the Deccan Traps formed the plateau-lavas of southern Arabia, Abyssinia, and the Kapite Plains in East Africa. These lava plains are older than the Rift Vailey faults, and after them the East African arch fell in and initiated the Rift Valley; then followed eruptions from fewer vents building up higher vol- canoes. They were followed by a lake period, the ra of which is fixed by the remains of Dinotherium obleyi as Miocene. That the whole volcanic history of British East Africa cannot be restricted to the post-Miocene is indicated by the evidence of Mount Kenya, since the glaciation of its valleys shows that they were in existence, the mountain had been deeply dissected before glacial times. It is incredible that the long volcanic history of the country, from the oldest plateau- lavas to the reduction of Kenya to its present form, should be restricted to only one period, the Pliocene. If the first eruptions of the Rift Valley area were contemporary with the Deccan Traps, and therefore of the age of the Chalk, and the faulting lasted from the Oligocene to the Pliocene, the formation of the Rift Valley was connected with two great systems of earth movements, the foundering of the Indian Ocean and the uplift of the Alpine and Himalayan mountain svstems. During the Mesozoic a slow deformation of the earth’s crust caused the downward sagging of the North Polar regions and the buckling of the tropical and temperate zones by broad folds running east and west. Then elevation on lines trending north and south raised the East African highlands, while the collapse of the floor of the Indian Ocean caused widespread volcanic disturbances round the Arabian Sea. Later earth movements, which lasted for about the same time as the faulting of the Rift Valley, buckled the crust into the fold mountains of Europe and Asia. This corrugation was due to pressure, which in Europe was northward and in Asia south- ward. The reversal of direction may be explained by the difference in structure between Eur-Africa and Asia. Africa was a high plateau undergoing further uplift, while regional subsidence was taking place in and off northern Europe. The combined subsidence to north and uplift to south left Europe laterally un- supported on the north: the crust north of Africa was pressed northward, and buckled the country in front of it into. fold mountain chains. In Asia the condi- tions were reversed; the massive plateau was to the north, and the sinking area was to the south in the Indian Ocean; so Asia was corrugated by a south- ward movement. The reversal from the European to the Asiatic direction occurred near the Sea of Azov and due north of the Rift Valley, which is the rift between the segment of the earth moving northward and that moving southward. The structural contrast between Africa and America, due to the difference between the later mountain- forming movements, is explained by the fact that Africa is antipodal to the Pacific Ocean, and by the well-established principle that antipodal areas of the crust are subject to contrary conditions. While the Pacific was sinking, Africa was being upraised. The subsidence of the Pacific buckled its borders into the fold mountain chains of Western America, and those NO, 262¢, VOL. 104] of which fragments can be traced from Japan to New Zealand. As Africa was being stretched by its uplift, and left unsupported on each side by the foundering of the adjacent oceans, it was rent by fractures between which the summit of its highlands fell in and formed the Great Rift Valley. ‘‘ There may,”’ says Sir George Adam Smith, “be something on the surface of another planet to match the Jordan Valley; there is nothing on this.’? That remark may be extended to the whole Rift Valley; for, in addition to the other unique features of Africa, its Rift Valley has no parallel elsewhere on the globe. The character of that valley may be explained by the special stresses in Africa due to its position antipodal to the great subsidence of the Pacific Ocean, while its course was determined by the wrench in the crust between the segment in which the pressure was north- ward against Europe and that pressing southward from the Asiatic highlands towards the infallen basin of the Indian Ocean. PHYSIOLOGY AT THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION. A JOINT discussion with Section F (Economic Science and Statistics) and the Subsection of Psychology on ‘‘The Influence of the Six-hour Day on Industrial Efficiency and Fatigue’? was opened by Dr. H. M. Vernon. It has been suggested by Lord Leverhulme that two six-hour shifts may ke more economical than one eight-hour shift, because the former would obtain twelve hours’ use of expen- sive machinery instead of only eight hours. Examples were given of cases in which shortening of the hours of labour had increased the output, but in other cases the output had been decreased. The determining factor seems to be the amount of mus- cular effort put into the work. Heavy muscular work can be speeded up for shorter hours to produce a greater output, but where heavy labour is not involved the production falls with shorter hours. Mr. P. Sargant Florence gave statistics from the United States which supported the concluding portion of Dr. Vernon’s paper. He further pointed out that the average age of the working population should be taken into account as indicating whether the labour was too long or too heavy. Noise in factories is particularly fatiguing. Prof. E. L. Collis advocated a reduction of working hours for the sake of health, but said that it must be done slowly. Unequal distribution of wealth is being remedied, but output must be increased. Sir Hugh Bell pointed out the difference between various trades. Where the labour bill is only a small part of the cost of the manufactured article, it is easier to increase wages than when wages form the main portion of cost. He objected to legislation and un- informed interference, because agreement between employers and employees had reduced the hours of labour without the bad effects of legislative inter- ference. Miss C. Smith-Rossie advocated a wider educa- tional system on the lines followed by Denmark, so that more interest can be aroused in the working people, thus eliminating fatigue. Dr. H. H. Dale opened a discussion on ‘The Réle of Capillaries in the Regulation of the Blood-flow.” Previously the control of the blood-pressure had been considered to be brought about by the state of con- traction of the arterioles, but it is now necessary to discuss whether the capillaries may or may not take some part in the regulation. Small doses of histamine 520 NATURE [JANUARY 15, 1920 cause a dilatation of capillaries if injected into the circulation, but ‘fail to do so in a perfused organ unless both red-blood corpuscles and adrenaline are present in the perfusion solution. Large doses ot histamine cause a condition like secondary shock. The blood accumulates mainly in the capillaries, so that, although the heart is beating vigorously, so little blood passes through the veins to reach the heart that the blood-pressure falls. Actual counting of capillaries by Krogh shows that during rest only a few capillaries contain blood. During activity many more open up, so that the volume of blood that can be accommodated in them is greatly increased. The discussion was continued by Prof. W. M. Bayliss, Prof. E. H, Starling, Prof. A. D. Waller, and Prof. N. Noél Paton. The trend of the discus- sion was that the arterioles regulate the blood-supply to the larger areas, and that variation in the size of capillaries may allow more or less blood to accumulate in them, thus affecting both the local and general circulation. Three papers on accessory food substances were read before the Section. Prof. W. D: Halliburton contrasted butter and margarine. Margarine can be made from various substances, but liquid oils must be hardened. The hardening process destroys fat- soluble vitamines, so that even if these are present at the outset they are absent from the finished article. Sophistication of food is dangerous because it may remove accessory food substances. Children should be given the butter and milk, as adults can better withstand the absence of fat-soluble vitamines. Dr. E. M. Delf read a paper on the effect of heat on the antiscorbutic food substance. Heating rapidly destroys antiscorbutic substance, but orange-juice withstands heating better than most of the anti- scorbutic substances. Miss A. J. Davey recorded the effect of preserva- tives on the antiscorbutic substance. Lemon-juice is a much more powerful antiscorbutic than lime-juice. Lemon-juice was preserved by metabisulphite or by its own rind-oil. The latter is more stable, and retains its antiscorbutic effect for more than a year without much deterioration. Prof. A. D. Waller demonstrated the decrease in the electrical resistance of the hand that takes place when a disturbance occurs in the central nervous system. Coughing, burning, or even threatening to burn the opposite hand causes a decrease in elec- trical resistance. Some peonle are more imaginative and respond more to the threat than to the actual stimulus, whilst others are more phlegmatic, and give the greater response to the actual stimulus. Prof. Waller also demonstrated the effect of walking, running, and swimming on the output of carbon dioxide. : Dr. H. E. Roaf read a paper on the pathology of pellagra. Pellagra is due probably to the un- suitable nature of the protein in the diet. The symp- toms point to an interference with the sympathetic nervous system. No previous record is known of distinctive pathological changes in pellagra. The sympathetic nervous system showed marked plasmo- lysis of its ganglion cells. It is possible that the sympathetic nervous system may be affected by diet through the adrenal medulla. It is, however, neces- sary to investigate the condition of the sympathetic nervous system in other diseases. Dr. Roaf also showed readings of climatic conditions made in Egypt and in Palestine. Heat loss and the effect of cloth- ing on heat loss were shown by readings made with Prof. Leonard Hill’s katathermometer. The protec- tion by clothing from sun radiation was measured by sun-radiation thermometers. No. 2620, VoL. 104] ‘an account of the desert flora of Western Egypt some © BOTANY AT THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION. — Bisse influence of the great war was distinctly to be noted in the character of the papers pre- sented at the first post-war meeting. The Botanical — Section was fortunate in having a president so well able to review the actual and potential plant pnacnt r 1 of our Empire, and to lay stress upon the pressing — necessity for their scientific development. is note — was struck again in the Forestry discussion, which — took place jointly with the Agricultural Section. To — this discussion Prof. A. Henry contributed a ron the afforestation of water-catchment areas. He urged — the planting of all suitable portions of gathering grounds — (which probably vary in different cases from 10 per cent. to 70 per cent.), largely on account of the para-— mount importance of ensuring the purity of the water- supply, which can so adequately and profitably be done - by this means. The scheme practically necessitates — co-operation between State and corporation for the — acquirement of the necessary land. Soe What may be Bohr as a real war paper was — furnished by Capt. H. Hamshaw Thomas, who gave — twenty-five miles north-west of Cairo. — small | rainfall, coupled with hot days and dewy nights, con- — stitutes a set of conditions unfavourable to plant-life, — so that, unlike the sandy, rocky desert of Eastern © Egypt and Sinai, the Libyan Desert includes vast — stretches totally devoid of vegetation. The pruning — effect of the ‘‘khamseen”’ or sand-storms is very — _marked, and reduces the plants to a dwarfed, tufted — habit. : t Other floral and ecological papers included the flora — of the district of the London Clay, by Mr. Horace W. — Moncton, and the northern invasions of New Zealand, j with special reference to Lord Howe Island, by Dr. — J. C. Willis. Mr. Moncton pointed out that the flora of the London Clay in the Thames basin differs pe from that on contiguous areas of different geological — formation, and he illustrated his point from the sedges. — In addition to the twenty-eight species characterising : the London Clay, there are some twelve others — recorded, which, however, “do not seem to occur where the London Clay forms the actual surface,” i since ‘‘a covering of gravel or sand too slight to — mark on a geological map is sufficient to alter the — flora.”’ ; ; 7 Dr. Willis added to his well-known series of ob- — servations and conclusions concerning the origin of floras data with regard to that of New Zealand and ~ Lord Howe Island, which led him to conclude that the New Zealand flora includes a western invasion, — which probably ‘ followed the ridge upon which stands _ Lord Howe Island.’’ In consonance with his general position, Dr. Willis put forward the view that the ~ endemics of Lord Howe Island are furnished by the — larger (older) families and genera. ef Considerable general as well as local interest was raised in connection with Col. Godfrey’s paper on the — orchids of Hants and Dorset, and the members of the — section were privileged to see on their expedition to — the New Forest one of the rare orchids mentioned, — viz. Malaxis paludosa. The author enumerated a sur- prising number of natural hybrids occurring in the 47 district. ; a As part of the joint discussion with the Zoological Section in the field of Genetics, Mr. W. Brierley and — Dr. Ruggles Gates presented papers in which notable — contributions to our concepts of species and the trans- , mission of characters were put forward. Mr. Brierley — treated of species in relation to his study of fungi, q and claimed that it is the inner physiological constitu- _ i tion rather than the chance morphological facies which ce JANUARY 15, 1920] NATURE 521 _ makes up the true species complex. It can be demon- strated that in certain fungi, at any rate, the morpho- logical expression varies with every medium, i.e. with environment, and must rightly be regarded’ as a resultant of a comparatively fixed physiological con- _ stitution and a variable environment, i.e. of two sets _ of interacting physico-chemical factors. In his paper on mutational versus recapitulatory characters Dr. Gates endeavoured to distinguish between new characters which result from nuclear changes in the germ-cell, which he classed as muta- tional and referred to as ‘‘a new Mendelian charac- ter,’ and new characters which result from ‘the im- press of the environment,’ which he classed as recapitulatory and described as ‘‘ gradually developed, involving adaptation to new conditions, and, if per- manent, the principle of inheritance of acquired characters.’’ He went on to say: ‘The theory of antithetic alternation of generations, which is widely held as regards archegoniate plants, implies a gradual lengthening in the sporophyte through the addition of cell-divisions to its subterminal stages. This can scarcely be supposed to have resulted from an altera- tion in the cell-unit.’ Miss Saunders’s paper on a graded series of forms in Matthiola added very important data bearing on the relation between continuous and discontinuous characters. She has traced the genetic origin of a perfectly continuous series of forms between the glabrous variety and the normal densely hairy plant. These were produced as the result of crossing the familiar glabrous variety with a rare half-hairy form. “The phenomenon is explicable on the supposition of multiple allelomorphs.’’ Dr. Scott, in a paper entitled ‘‘The Relation of the Seed-Plants to the Higher Cryptogams,’’ discussed the prevailing view that the pteridosperms, and hence the ‘spermophytes as a whole, are to be derived from some unknown group of ferns. Dr. Scott combated this view, and took the stand that ‘‘pteridosperms have always been distinct from any of the known phyla of vascular Cryptogams . . . parallel in important aspects to the ferns, but of unknown and remote origin.”” He adduced anatomical and_ geological evidence in support of his view. Another morphological paper concerned itself with the vexed question of the nature and origin of the pith and inner endodermis in medullated ferns. Dr. McLean Thompson concluded from his extensive investigation of Platyzoma microphylla that it fur- nished very good proof of the intrastelar or potentially vascular nature of the pith in this form. Not merely does the basal protostele pass gradually into the medullated condition once in the development of the individual, as in many other forms, but in this species the protostelic structure appears again in later-formed regions. In a paper entitled ‘‘ Monocotyledonous Features of the Ranunculacee, with Special Reference to the Floral Structure,” Dr. Salisbury reviewed the simi- larities met with in the two groups in relation to number of parts, dédoublement, meristic variation, apocarpy, nature of fruits, placentation, etc. As the result of her extensive work on movable- céll inclusions or statoliths, Miss Prankerd has found that they may be (1) starch grains, (2) chloroplasts, or (3) crystals, and that the nucleus may move with these inclusions. Even when this is not so, the nucleus of the statocyte may be markedly differentiated from that of neighbouring cells. Under the heading of ‘Mychorrhiza and the Ericacew,’’ Dr. M. C. Rayne added to her former work new facts tending to establish obligate sym- biosis in Vaccinium similar to that in Calluna, and NO. 2620, VOL. 104] raising the question of the possibility of nitrogen fixa- — tion by the fungus. aie Prof. Priestley put forward a very important con- tribution to the theoretical consideration of the pheno- menon of root-pressure, involving an ingenious use of the rapidly accumulating knowledge of the be- haviour of a colloid gel in respect to its variability towards water. It is hoped that this important sub- ject will come up again for discussion at the Cardiff meeting in 1920. ; The formal meetings of the section were brought to a close by a semi-popular lecture of exceptional interest given by Prof, F. W. Oliver on Spartina and Poole Harbour. EL NE: EDUCATION AT THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION. ae Les the presidential address by Sir Napier Shaw the Section settled down to discuss a varied and interesting programme, which attracted large and appreciative audiences throughout the week. It was a great disappointment that Sir A, Quiller Couch was unable to be present himself, but his paper on the teaching of English admirably expressed a need now widely felt by thoughtful teachers that English should be the root of all learning for an English-speaking child; that until the age of fourteen or fifteen he should practise the language natural to his mind in addition to one other; that the plainest, most everyday speech should be clear, expressive. accurate, graceful whenever possible, and at any rate decent; that a child should learn to define and clarify in his mind the terms in which he thinks, to think in real English, not in jargon. Therefore, to attain this, teachers should aim through English in preference to any foreign language, alive or dead. English should not be treated as a special subject, but should be the basis of all others. _He deprecated the inordinate amount of time given in the lower forms to. lin- guistics and mathematics, since these are mainly ancillary, the former to literature and history, the latter to natural science; they are formal. studies, studies in the abstract, and lacking the content of the other three, employing processes alien to a child’s thought. Mr. W. D. Eggar read a paper on the teaching of English in relation to school science, and claimed that the teaching of English was as much the con- cern of. the science master as that of anv other master—perhaps more so, as he is concerned with the live end of the language. He strongly urged that a broader and more intelligent study of English should take the place of much of the mathematical and lin- guistic work in preparatory schools. : . Prof. H. E. Armstrong opened a discussion on “Method and Substance of Science Teaching’ ‘ty criticising the Government report on the position of | natural science in the educational system of Great Britain. This report he thought would prove of. little value to teachers, and not likelv to influence educa- tional opinion to any degree. He looked: upon it as a lost opportunity for examining and utilising experi- ments already tried. He combated the absurd state- ment made in Paragraph 43 of the report: that the heuristic method involves the rediscovery by the pupil in his school hours of all that he may fairly be expected to know... The method does. however, involve neither more nor less than learning the art of inquiry. .The method employed- must be . disci- plinary—the method of science; scientific outlook must be acquired if scientific knowledge is. to. be of ay avail. peor ul 522 NATURE | January ig 1920 On the same topic Sir Richard Gregory, although advocating heuristic methods, thought that the sub- stance of instruction suffered from concentration upon method, and that laboratory work should be supple- mented by a broad general course of descriptive lessons given quite independently of the practical work. Dr. E. H. Griffiths said he hesitated to accept this divorce of lecture and practical work. Mr. Mangham spoke of the neglect of biological science in education, and asked for a closer co-operation between the lecturers in various branches of science at the universities. Dr. Lilian Clarke gave some interesting details of a sound practical course of elementary science in girls’ schools, showing how the spirit of inquiry can be aroused in botany as well as in chemistry. Her plea for more time should not go unheeded; for it is im- possible to go far in such valuable work with only one to one and a half hours per week. Miss Shove dis- cussed the necessity of a thorough course of clemen- tary chemistry and physics preliminary to a botanical course. A joint session was arranged with Section F, when a paper from Sir Herbert E. Morgan was read. The paper had for its theme the real need of the country for educated men in directing business affairs, men educatel in the right way, with technical training added to sound general knowledge and broad views. Mr. C. R. Fay emphasised the value of university influence in business, and claimed that a central school for all branches of economic science at the university would co-ordinate effort and effect a rapid diffusion of new. methods. Mr. H. N. Sullivan thought that young men entered business too early. Prof. Oldham described the work of the faculty of commerce in Dublin University. Sir Hugh Bell said that the bold step of appointing university men in railway business was a success, but that it was objected to by men whose promotion had thereby been affected. A discussion on continuation schools was opened by Sir Robert Blair, who, speaking from the point cf view of the largest urban district, suggested that for the first two years education should be general, and for the second two may have a technical or commercial bias derived from the occupation; that residence is the basis of obligation on the authority; that the required eight hours per week should be taken in two four-hour periods; that it would be inadvisable to divide the four-year period between two schools, one from fourteen to sixteen, the other from sixteen to eighteen; that schools may be mixed, not dual; that continuation schools will be ends in themselves and, for some, ‘‘stepping-stones’ to higher things. In- terest, he declared, is the key to the problem of in- struction; the schools will be what the staff makes them. Extra class-room activities are no less impor- tant—libraries, clubs, games, and societies will attract the adolescent. Mr. A. P. M. Fleming followed with a paper on works schools, in which he illustrated their advan- tages, such as the close correlation between the school work and the practical training in the works, the increased facilities for the selection for employment, promotion, systematic training, and for ensuring harmonious relations between the management and the worker. Mr. J. S. Rainer took a rather contrary view of works schools, and in a very able paper pre- sented the W.E.A. point of view as being opposed to works schools. He contended that for efficiency and success these schools must be entirely independent of employers’ control; for distrust of the employing interest, as being almost entirely personal and mer. cenary, would prevent such schools from giving sujt- NO, 2620, VOL. 104] able and adequate education. The subjects of study — must be related to the interests of the pupil, and not determined by the needs of trades or industries. Mr. _ G. F. Daniell dealt with the problem in rural dis- tricts, and pointed out the need for transport facilities. | He urged close relations with the village clubs and — institutes, and thought that attendance could be ar-— ranged either for one day per week for forty weeks, ‘| or for a seasonal attendance. Mr. C. A. Buckmaster — pleaded for full liberty to the teachers and for the pro-— vision of school societies and games, and thought that — the content of the curriculum was secondary to the training of character. Lord Malmesbury advocated the gradual elimination of those unable to ees the education provided out of public funds, but would — encourage and spend as much as possible on the best boys and girls. Sire ge Dr. Vincent Naser, of Copenhagen, submitted pro- — posals for an exchange of students between Denmark — and Great Britain, and suggested the formation of — bureaux of international information in connection ‘ with universities. — et Tie Sir Richard Gregory spoke on the educational value of the kinema—not to make learning easy, but to— awaken interest and synthesise instruction. An ex- hibition of some instructive films was given by the Community Picture Bureau. Stndinney hess Bishop Welldon,.in opening a discussion on train- ing in citizenship, said that something must be done — through co-operation or co-partnership to create a fellow-feeling between capital and labour, and that an enlightened patriotism as well as the dignity and — history of the Empire should be taught. Lt.-Gen. Sir Robert Baden-Powell made an bis 8 gps er appeal for the need of out-of-school training en- vironment ‘as auxiliary to education for luci efficient human citizens. The wonderful success of the Boy Scout movement suggests that the most i " { duty of the schoolmaster is to discover what par- — ticular portion of his environment appeals most to each of his pupils, and to use that as the medium — for inducing mental activity. ‘ seat 3 In a valuable paper on fundamental principles in education Prof. A. N. Whitehead claimed that all education is the development of genius, and showed that the true ultimate problem before the educator is how to impart knowledge so as to stimulate genius. — He showed that language is essential, but argued that a child should not study a dead lan, until a modern literature has gripped the imagination; that classical learning is the superstructure of a literary — education, and not the foundation. ' paar Mr. F. S. Preston submitted a paper in which he emphasised the value of literary studies in the — development of imagination and the moral faculties. A paper from Prof. Marcus Hartog on the function of examinations in education followed. The final sitting of the Section was occupied wi two excellent papers on the present position of privat schools in the educational system, one by Mr. R. Hume, the president of the Private Schools Associ tion, the other by Mr. Alex. Devine. These papers, and the discussion that followed, brought out fact, little realised by many, that the number children educated in private schools approaches many places 50 per cent, of the school population Reports by special committees of the section w read and discussed, that on the free-place sys by Mr. C. A. Buckmaster and Mr. D. P. Berridge, that on museums by Mr. Herbert Bolton, and that or the registration of schools by Lady Shaw—all em- bodying valuable information and suggestions for the educational reformer. : Apepat lexicon Dt tee: ees JANUARY 15, 1920] NATURE 273 UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL INTELLIGENCE. In connection with the London County Council addresses to teachers on recent developments in science, Dr. W. Bateson will give a lecture on biology at King’s College, Strand, W.C.2, on Saturday, January 24, at 11 a.m. The chair will be taken by Dr. S. Russell Wells, Vice-Chancellor of the Univer- sity of London. A Wuite Paper (Cd. 221, 1919) just issued sets forth the proposed text of the Order in Council by which, subject to the approval of Parliament, certain powers and duties in relation to public libraries, museums, and gymnasiums, formerly exercised by the Local Government Board and latterly by the Ministry of Health, are to be transferred to the Board of Educa- tion. This forms part of the proposal made by the Re- construction Committee on Adult Education, to which,: as we have previously recorded (NatuRE, October 9, 1g19), exception was taken by the museum officials and librarians. On the face of it, however, the pro- posed Order seems unobjectionable and, indeed, natural. The powers in question relate to the making of various by-laws and to the sales of buildings or land, and there can be no ground for supposing that they will be exercised in other than a liberal spirit conducive to the best ends of the institutions con- cerned. The questions of financial control, apportion- ment of rates, and general management do not seem to fall, within the scope of this Order, and nothing is said in it about bringing museums and libraries under the control of the local education authorities. At the same time, the present step may be regarded __ as only the first of a contemplated series, and as, in any case, the necessary preliminary to those more fundamental changes concerning which opinions differ. Lonpon. Faraday Society, December 15, 1919.—Prof. A. W. Porter, vice-president, in the chair.—A. G. Tarrant: The measurement of physical properties at high tem- peratures. An account is given of experiments made upon refractory materials with the view of measuring certain physical properties at high temperatures, par- ticular attention being paid to thermal expansion, tensile strength, and thermal conductivity.—Lieut. W. A. Macfadyen: An aspect of electrolytic iron deposition. The experiments detailed were carried out ‘in seeking the best conditions for obtaining thick, hard, adherent deposits of iron on steel-mechanism parts which had been machined too much or worn down in a few places, and thus rendered useless, so as to enable the scrapped parts to be replaced in use after treatment.—J. G. Williams: The electrolytic formation of perchlorate. It is pointed out that present practice in electrolytic preparation of per- chlorate uses much higher temperature of liquor and current density than is given in text-books.—Prof. A. W. Porter : vapour pressure of binary niix- tures. In order to remove_ difficulties in connection with the proof of the Duhem-Margules formula for the vapour pressures of binary mixtures, a simplified proof is given which makes clear the extent of the usual approximations in each step of the proof.— Prof. E, D. Campbell: The solution theory of steel and the influence of changes in carbide concentration on the electrical resistivitv. Baly’s force-field theory is applied to the case of the solid solution of the non- ferrous elements in steel. The experimental portion of the paper describes a research on the influence of the decarburisatiun ‘by means of hydrogen of a series of alloy steels on the electrical resistivity, when the NO 262720 vor. tos! metal is in both the annealed and hardened condition. —S. Horiba: Some relations between the solubilities. of solutes and their molecular volumes.—Dr. E. J Hartung: (1) An accurate method for the determina-. tion of vapour pressure. (2) Some properties of copper ferrocyanide. Paris. Academy of Sciences, December 15, 1919.—M. Léon Guignard in the chair.—H. Douvillé: The annular Foraminiferze (Cyclostégnes) of Orbigny, The annular development taken by Orbigny as a basis of classifica-. tion is the result of a particular mode of growth, and. is a secondary character.—G. Bonnier: Comparative culture of seedlings at high altitudes and in the plain. After experiments, lasting thirty or thirty-five years, low-level plants grown on the same soil at different altitudes acquire completely the form and structure of plants of the same species growing naturally at the higher altitude. Detailed examples are given.— E. Ariés: A new improvement of the equation of state of fluids—V. Grignard, G. Rivat, and Ed. - Urbain: The chloro-derivatives of methyl formate and carbonate.—G, Friedel: The calculation of the inten- sity of X-rays diffracted by crystals—M. Louis Lumiére was elected a member of the division of the applications of science to industry.—M. Plancherel : The method of integration of.Ritz.—J. Drach: Deter- mination of the first integrals of the differential equa- tion of geodesic lines, rational with respect to the first differential of the unknown function,—Ed. Fouché : A characteristic equation for atmospheric air. —P. Jolibois: A new method of physico-chemical analysis of precipitates. Application to the study of the calcium phosphates.—A. Recoura: A new complex form of chromic sulphate.—A. Kling, D. Florentin, A. Lassieur, and E. Schmutz: The properties of the chloromethyl chloroformates.——M,. Godchot and F. Taboury : Some new bicyclic ketones. Further applica- tions of the reaction between ketones and calcium hydride.—L. Bertrand and A. Lanquine: The relations between’ chemical composition, microscopic structure,. and the ceramic qualities of clays. The usual method of calculating the proportion of mica in clay from the chemical analyses can be shown by microscopic examination to be erroneous. The chemical composi- tion of a clay is an insufficient guide to its ceramic properties—R. Anthony: The determination of the lobulation of the kidney in mammals.—A. Pézard: Alimentary castration in cocks submitted to an ex- clusively carnivorous diet. A strictly carnivorous diet sets up a slow intoxication to which the genital glands are peculiarly sensitive. The latter are either atrophied or do not develop.—R. Bayeux: The urinary toxicity and its modifications by hypodermic injections of oxygen during a prolonged stay at the Mont Blane Ob- servatory.—F. Bordas: Milk contamination. Remarks on the importance of reducing infant mortality, with especial reference to tuberculosis produced by dirty milk.—P. Achalme and Mme. Phisalix: The preserva- tion of vaccine. . BOOKS RECEIVED, The Child’s Unconscious Mind. By Dr. W. Lay. Pp. vii+329. (London: Kegan Paul and Co., Ltd.) Ios. net. The Elements of Analytical Conics. By Dr. C. Davison. Pp. vii+238. (London: At the Cambridge University Press.) tos. net. A Geographical Bibliography of British Ornithology from the Earliest Times to the End of 1918. By W. H. Mullens, H. Kirke Swann, and Rev. F. C. R. Jourdain. Part ii. Pp. 97-192. (London: Witherby and Co.) 6s. net. : 524 NATURE ; ; i [JANUARY I5, 1920 \ DIARY OF SOCIETIES, THURSDAY, Janvary 15. RoyaL InstiruTion oF GREAT BRITAIN, at 3.—Dr. R. R, Terry: Renaissance Music in Italy and England (with Musical Illustrations). Royat Socrery or Arts (Indian Section), at 4.30. Lonpon Marwematicat Society, at 5.—Major P. A. MacMahon: The Divisors of Numbers.—H. Steinhaus: Fourier Coefficients of Bounded Functions.—S. P. Owen: The Lag of a Thermometer in a Medium whose Temperature is a Linear Function of the Time. Linnean Society, at 5.—Dr. B, Daydon Jackson; Methods of Botanic Illustration during Four Centuries (Lantern Lecture). Roya. Institute oF Pustic Heattn, at 5.—Prof. E. W. Hope : Schemes and Methods in Tuberculosis Work. Cuemicac Society, at 8.—L. E. Hinkel and H. W. Cremer: The Con- densation of Acetoacetic Ester with 4-Dimethylaminobenzaldehyde and Ammonia.—G. S. Butler and H. B. Dunnicliff : The Action of Alcohol on the Sulphates of Sodium.—M. Nierenstein, C. W. Spiers, and, in part, the late K. C. R. Daniel: Guarana Tannin.—R. Lessing: Studies in the Composition of Coal: (1) The Behaviour of the Constituents of Banded Bituminous Coal on Coking; (2) The Mineral Constituents of Banded Bituminous Coal.—P. Ray and P. V. Sarkar: The Hydrazino-thio- cyanates of certain Divalent Metals. FRIDAY, January 16. INSTITUTE OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERS (at the Holborn Hall), at 2.30. *—Prof. G. H. Bryan: Presidential Address, Rovay Society or MeEpictng (Otology Section), at 5.—Dr. A. A. Gray: A Few Anatomical Details of the Anatomy of the Vestibule, not pre- viously described. ‘ ’ institution oF Crvi Encineers (Students’ Meeting), at 6.—R. B. Dunwoody: The Economic Requirements for Inland Navigation Trans- port in the British Isles (Vernon Harcourt Lecture). InstiTuTION OF ELecTricAL ENGINEERS (Students’ Meeting) (at the City and Guilds (Engineering) College), at 7.—J. H. Reyner: The Develop- ment of Automatic Telephony. Junior InstiruTion oF ENGINEERS (at 39 Victoria Street), at 7.30.— B. E, D. Kilburn: Meteorology and Engineering. Roya Society or Mepicine (Electro-Therapeutics Section), at 8.30.— C. Thurstan Holland: Lessons of the War Society or Tropica, Mepicinge ann Hycrens, at 8.30.—Dr, P. Manson- Bahr and Others: Discussion on Bacillary Dysentery. Roya InstituTion oF Great Britain, at 9.—Prof. Sir James Dewar : Low Temperature Studies. , SATURDAY, January 17. Rovat Institution or Great Brirain, at 3.—A. Noyes: The Anglo- American Bond of Literature. MONDAY, Janvary 19. Victoria InstituTE (Committee Room B, Central Hall, Westminster), at 4.30.—Dr. A. T. Schofield: The Psychology of the Female Mind. Royat CoLtLecre oF SurGEons,. at 5.—Prof. A. Keith: John Hunter's Observations and Discoveries in Anatomy and Surgery ; His Contribu- tions to our Knowledge of the Heart and Blood Vessels (Hunterian Lecture). Institution or ELecrricat ENGINEERs (Informal Meeting) (at Chartered Institute of Patent Agents), at 7.—S. M. Hills and Others : Discussion on Functions of a Trade Journal. Surveyors’ Instirution (Junior Meeting), at 7.—R. E. A, Dash: The Housing Question and how it is affected by Recent Regulation. ARISTOTELIAN Socte'ry (at 74 Grosvenor Street), at 8.—Prof, J. A. Smith: The Philosophy of Giovanni Gentile. Rovat Society or Arts, at 8.—Capt. H: Hamshaw Thomas; Aircraft Photography in War and Peace (Cantor Lecture), Roya. Grocrapuicat Society (at Aolian Hall), at 8.30.—Lt.-Col. 53 Tilho: Tibesti to Darfur. ; TUESDAY, January 20. Rovyav InstiruTION or Great Briain, at 3.—Prof. Sir John Cadman: Modern Development of the Miner’s Safety Lamp. - Roya Society or Mepictne (Therapeutics and Pharmacology Section), at 4.30.—J. Barcroft and Others : Discussion on the Therapeutic Uses of Oxygen. Rovac STATISTICAL Society, at 5.15.—G, H. Knibbs: * of Imperial Statistics. MINERALOGICAL Society, at 5.30,—Dr. E. S. Simpson: Gearksutite at Gingin, Western Australia.—C, E. Barrs: Fibroferrite from Cyprus.— Dr. G. T. Prior: The Classification of Meteorites.—A. F. Hailimond: On Torbernite. INSPITUTION OF PETROLEUM TEcHNoLoGisTs (at Royal Society of Arts), at 5.30.—H. Moore : Spontaneous Ignition Temperatures of Liquid Fuels. Roya PHorocrapnic Society or Great Britain (Technical Meeting), at 7.—T. H. B. Scott : Pictorial Suggestions. : WEDNESDAY, January 21. Roya Society or Arts, at 4.30.—A. H. Powell: Ancient Cottages and Modern Requirements. Roya Mergorovocicat Society (at the Royal Astronomical Society) (Annual General Meeting), at 5.—Sir Napier Shaw: Pioneers in the Science of Weather (Presidential Address). Rovat Society or Mepicine (Occasional Lecture), at 5.—Surg.-Comm, K. Digby Bell; The Position of the Medical Profession with regard to National Physical Education. Roya CoLLEGE or SuRGEONS, at 5.—Prof. A. Keith: John Hunter’s Observations and Discoveries in Anatomy and Surgery; His Contribu- tions to our Knowledge of the Lungs and Pleure (Hunterian Lecture). GEOLOGICAL Society or Lonpon, at 5.30. Rovat AERonAvTICAL Society (at the Royal Society of Arts), at 8.— A. P. Cole: Principles of Rigid Airship Construction. Roya Microscoricat SociTy (Annual Meeting), at 8.—J. E. Barnard : The Present Status of Microscopy (Presidential Address). THURSDAY, January 22. Rovat InstiruTion or Great BRITAIN, at 3—Dr. R. R. Terry: Renaissance Music in Italy and England. Rovat Sccigty, at 3.30 (Special General Meeting), At 4.30.— Prof. E. G. Coker and K, C. Chakko: The Stress-strain Properties of Nitro-cellulose NO, 2620, VOL. 104] The Organisation and the Law of its Optical Behaviour.—S. Marsh ; Alternating-Current-— Electrolysis. —W. H. Eecles and J. H, Vincent : The Variations of Waye- length of the Oscillations Generated by the Three-Electrode ‘hermionic ‘Tube due to Changes in Filament Current, Plate Voltage, Grid Voltage, or _ Coupling.—S. D. Carothers ; Plane Strain. e Direct Determin 4 * Stress.—F. Horton and Ann C Davies: An Investigation of the Effects of Electron Collisions with Platinum and with Hydrogen, to Fvawers | j whether the Production of Ionisation from Platinum is due to Hydrogen.—L, Bairstow, R. H. Fowler, and D, R. Hartree.—The Pressure Distribution on the Head of a Shell moying at High goes a INSTITUTION OF MiniNG AND METALLURGY (at the Geolé Sox at 5.30 —W, Broadbridge: Froth Flotation: Its i al Ap n- and its Influence on Modern Concentration and Smelting Practice. = y InstrruTioN oF Evecrricat Enoinrers (at the Institution of Civil — Engineers), at 6.—J. L. Thompson :- Transformers for Electric Furnaces. — FRIDAY, January 23. Gh ae Lee fi Puysicat Society or Lonpon (at the City and Guilds Technical ege, Leonard Street), at'5.—Dr. J. H. Vincent: Maintained Oscillations in — ; Triode Valve Circuits.—Dr. W. Eccles: Measurements of the Chief Parameters of Triode Valves.—F. W. Jordan: Measurement of Ampli- fication of a Radio-frequency Amplifier,—F. E. Smith: The Measure- ment of Amplification given by Triode Amplifiers at Audible and at Radio Frequencies.—Hon. C. W, Stopford and C. R. Darling: Exhibi- tion of a Method of gies iain te Hardening Temperature of Steel.— C. R. Darling : Exhibition of a Thermal Cell of Constant Vi eit ao Rovat CoLLeGE oF SURGEONS, at 5.—Prof. A. Keith: John Hunter's _ Observations and Discoveries in Anatomy and Surgery; His Contribu- ; His tions to our Knowledge of the Alimentary System (Hunterian Lecture). = InsTITUTION OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS, at 6.—E. M. Bergstrom: — : Recent Advances in Utilisation of Water Power. BENS Rar Royvat Society or Meptcing (Epidemiology and State Medicine Section), at 8.30.—Dr. F. G. Crookshank: Principles of Epidemiology.— Dr. Cleland and Dr. ‘Campbell : Epidemiology of Acute poe wore od : Rovat InstiruTION oF GREAT BRITAIN, at 9.—Hon. Researches at High Pressures and Temperatures. - r SATURDAY, JANUARY. 24. Aine Pi Rovat Institution or Great BriTAtn, at 3.—A. Noyes: Aspects of aa Modern Poetry. F " Si Foes PHYSIOLOGICAL Socigty (at King’s College), at 4. : 3 CONTENTS. mat Surgery and Deformities .. ... .. 3 The Oil-hardening Industry. By E.F. A. .... Political Science. By Rt. Rev. Bishop J. E, C.Welldon American Books on Agriculture ......... Handbooks of Chemistry. ByC.J........ Fresh-watet Biology). 0505 ois ssi ee Our Bookshelf. 232 iiics ct. a ee ; Letters to the Editor :— ae tS Promotion of a Plumage Bill.—Prof. J. E. Duerden 499 Musical Drums with Harmonic Overtones. (Ji/us- trated.)—Prof. C. V, Ramanand Sivakali Kumar 5500 Power from the Sun.—Alfred S. E. Ackermann 00 _ Triode Valves as Electric Amplifiers. (Illustrated.) = By Prof.\W.-H. Eccles ©. 2.) 5) ai ee Indian Geology. (Jllustrated.) By T.H.D.L. . . 502 Meteorology in Three Dimensions. By Lt.-Col, EB. Gold. 2. a Sir Thomas R. Fraser, F.R.S. ByJ.A.G..... ae Notes (235°. , os + idan ey ta Stee Our Astronomical Column pa j Seah: ¢ “% Spectroscopic Determination of Stellar Parallax. . . 511 Minor Planets . . t re ats B Lunar Photography with the 100-in. Reflector .-. .. 511 Prize Awards of the Paris Academy of Sciences. . 5 Educational Conferences... .. 1... « §E The Physical and Optical Societies’ Exhibition} By Dy:O. tye ies ots cel ene The Charters Towers Goldfield 2 ai Ee : The New Zealand Science Congress, 1919 ... . The African Rift Valley. By Prof. J. W. Gregory, — Physiology at the British Association. ..... Botany at the British Association. By E. N. T. Education at the British Association’. . .... . University and Educational Intelligence . . . . Societies and Academies. 22.0.8... ess Books Received, iso uessuaerit ph ete, ton Diary of Societies .. Pea GS kt Ra ae Editorial and Publishing Offices: MACMILLAN AND CO., L1tp., ST. MARTIN’S STREET, LONDON, W.C.z2. Advertisements and business letters to be addressed to Publishers: : Editorial Communications to the Editor. Telegraphic Address: Puusis, LONDON. ' Telephone Number: GErRarD 8830. NATURE 525 THURSDAY, JANUARY 22, 1920. WIND AND BAROMETRIC GRADIENT. Manual of Meteorology. Part iv.: The Relation of the Wind to the Distribution of Barometric Pressure. By Sir Napier Shaw. Pp. xvi+166+ 3 plates. (Cambridge: At the bbe cis Press, 191g.) Price 12s. 6d. net. HE other parts of this manual are’ not yet published, but Part iv. deals with the question of the extent to which the motion of the lower strata of the atmosphere can’ be inferred from the ordinary working chart prepared on receipt of the telegraphic information of the sur- face conditions by a meteorological office, a ques-’ tion of great importance to the aircraft service. As the author informs us in the preface, many inquiries of this sort were addressed to his office in London during the war, and he sets out here the extent to which and the means whereby answers to such questions can be given. The matter is a complicated and difficult one, but Sir Napier Shaw is to be congratulated .on the mass of information he has brought together and on the clear way in which he has arranged it and correlated together the different parts, which are sometimes. more or less contradictory. . In chaps. i. to iii. the relation of the surface wind to the isobars is set out. ‘he principle that the motion of the air will be at right angles to the direction of the pressure gradient and have the velocity deduced from the gradient equation is accepted as a working hypothesis, and the reasons why the rule does not hold close to the surface are explained. The principle was set out by the author thus in 1913: “In the upper layers of the atmosphere the Steady, horizontal,motion of the air at any level is along the horizontal section of the isobaric surface at that level, and the velocity is inversely proportional tothe separation of the isobaric lines in the level of the section.’’ How far this principle holds is a fundamental question in meteorology. Admittedly, it only applies to first order terms, and the author, in chap. x., shows that there is a systematic departure from the rule near the centre of a travelling cyclone. On the other hand, if a meteorologist is asked to give the velocity and direction of the wind at 1500 ft. height at any given time and place, it has been found, in the absence of information from pilot balloons, that the best answer he can give is to quote the gradient wind as shown by aa isobaric chart. In chaps. iv. and v. the author discusses the increase of wind with height in the lower strata, and gives G. I. Taylor’s theory of the diffusion NO, 2621, VOL. 104] of eddy motion and its effect.on the wind and on the formation of thin sheets of low cloud. Tay- lor’s formula takes the form W/G=cosa-—sina, where W denotes the actual surface wind, G the geostrophic wind, and @ the angle between them. It will be noticed that this formula makes a value of a exceeding 45° impossible. Chaps. vi. and vii. deal with the variations of the wind in the upper layers and their dependence on the form of the distribution of temperature. It is shown how the cessation of the lapse rate, i.e. the fall of temperature with height, in the strato- sphere, and the higher temperature over the cyclonic area that is found above 1o km., produce the rapid falling off of the wind that is also shown by direct observation. Chap. x. is perhaps the most suggestive in the book, and throws fresh light on the well-worn theme of the mechanics of a travelling cyclone. It is there shown that in what is called a normal cyclone there are three centres: the instantaneous or kinematic centre; the ‘‘ tornado centre,’’ which is the centre of the supposed rolling disc; and the dynamic centre, which is the centre shown by the isobars on the chart. This representation leads to a systematic difference between the true and the gradient wind in the parts that are near the centre, a difference that has been noticed, but was sup- posed to be accidental, on some working charts. In chap. xi. Sir Napier Shaw discusses Rayleigh’s and Aitken’s papers on revolving fluid, and gives diagrams and reproductions of instrumental records relating to some noted storms of the last twenty years or so. Synoptic charts are repro- duced which show a good agreement with the method of treatment in chap. x. The diagrams Figs. 5 and 6, on p. 154, are especially striking ; they. refer to the storm of September 10, 1903, at ‘Holyhead, and show the velocity and direction of the wind on that occasion corrected for the known peculiarities of the exposure due to the local con- figuration. _ In theoretical discussions of the mechanics of a ‘cyclone, especially if there is much mathematical analysis, one is unavoidably compelled to make \hard-and-fast suppositions, and the point. arises as to what extent the real cyclone will submit to be ‘bound by such suppositions. The author questions how far the ‘‘ normal cyclone ’’ of chap. x. is the real cyclone as shown on the charts, and one ‘wonders how far Rayleigh’s conclusions are vitiated by his leaving out the effect of the rotation of the earth. Doing so greatly simplifies the equations of motion, but it is the earth’s rotation which ensures that eyery cyclone in the northern hemisphere without exception shall rotate in one direction only, and every cyclone in the southern Z 526 NATURE [JANUARY 22, 1920 hemisphere in the opposite direction. It must therefore be of supreme importance. Every serious student of meteorology should obtain Part iv. of the manual and read it, and all will hope that the other parts may be published shortly. W. H. Dives. RESEARCHES ON FLUORESCENCE, Researches in Physical Optics. Part ii. Reson- ance Radiation and Resonance Spectra. By Prof. R. W. Wood. (Publication No. 8 of the Ernest Kempton*Adams Fund for Physical Re- search.) Pp. viii+184+x plates. (New York: Columbia University Press, 1919.) HIS is the second instalment of a valuable As re-publication of Prof. Wood’s papers. The first half of the volume deals with the spectroscopic properties of iodine vapour, particularly the study of the fluorescent spectrum with high resolving power. The difficulty with this, as with most other modern optical experimenting, is lack of light, and the success attained in overcoming the obstacle by well-thought-out optical arrangements is very re- markable; but the complexity of the phenomena brought to light is such as may well make theo- retical progress seem almost hopeless. It has been possible to obtain monochromatic stimulation at one particular absorption line of the iodine spectrum by the ingenious but simple device of using the mercury vacuum arc as illuminant. If the arc is run at low-current density, one line only of the iodine spectrum is covered by the green mercury line. Even in this case the result is to stimulate not merely the line primarily excited, but also a series of doublet lines, extending along the spectrum on either side of the latter. Stokes’s law of fluorescence is thus completely violated. All this results from the stimulation of one line only of the iodine spectrum. But this line is one of forty thousand, and it appears that we can scarcely rely on it as being typical, since the iodine lines are of many varieties, as shown by their minute structure and by the Zeeman effect and the, magnetic rotatory proper- ties. No doubt what is wanted for this class of re- search is some means of obtaining intense mono- chromatic stimulation of great purity, and with its frequency under control over a wide range. Prof. Wood is able to do something in this direction by altering the current through the mercury arc, and thereby the width of the green mercury line; this makes it overlap several of the iodine lines, and the complexity of the phenomena is thus greatly increased. It is perhaps worthy of con- sideration whether the Doppler effect obtained by NO. 2621, VOL. 104] moving the source could be of service, but this method would probably be very difficult of execu- tion, and the range that could be hoped for very far short of what is desired. The second half of the volume deals with other’ phenomena of, fluorescence in gases of a miscel- laneous kind, but is marked throughout by the same fertility of resource in devising experimental methods. The re-emission of the mercury radia- tion at wave-length 2536 when cold mercury vapour is stimulated by this radiation is an ob- servation of special importance; the question presses for answer how this resonance is related by the scattering of white light by gases when there is no resonance. ‘R, SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF THE SUGAR GROUP. The Simple Carbohydrates and the: Gbbieostdes By Dr. tion. (Monographs on Biochemistry.) Pp. x+- 239. (London: Longmans, Green, and Co., 1919.) Price 12s. net. HE third edition of Dr. E. F. Armstrong’s monograph is something more than a new = E. Frankland Armstrong. Third edi- and revised issue; it is, to all intents and pur- poses, a new book. Such a statement may not, on first inspection, seem to be well founded, as — the general scheme adopted by the author in the earlier editions has been retained, and the sub- division of the material into chapters remains. much as before. introduced are fundamental, and a reader making his first acquaintance with the specialised chemistry of the carbohydrates through a study of the latest edition will thus acquire not only much new informatio, but also an entirely new per- spective. The seven years which have elapsed since the appearance of the second edition have been marked by considerable activity in sugar research, and the fact that Emil Fischer closed his career by once more directing the work of his school to this subject would almost in itself be sufficient to make a fresh edition necessary. Many novel and unexpected types of compounds have been isolated, and these are now fully described and classified under an improved nomenclature; but this alone does not explain the advances made in the present book. Dr. Armstrong has been ‘quick to realise that the recent recognition of the specially reactive forms of sugars which are regarded as ethylene- oxides has opened out many new fields of inquiry, and has made clear much that has hitherto been oe pie Seep RR A comparative reading of the texts, however, shows that some of the changes. © JaNvaRY 22, 1920] NATURE 527 obscure. He has therefore introduced the new structural ideas at an early stage of his narrative, and keeps them continually before the reader, adding on the way many fresh suggestions and criticisms. His treatment of this difficult subject is extremely lucid, and the result is strikingly successful. Although the book has been considerably ex- panded by the inclusion of much new experi- mental material, little need be said regarding the details of the subject-matter, as nothing of present or potential importance has been overlooked, and the enlargement of the various chapters is well balanced. The high standard of accuracy main- tained throughout the text extends to the com- prehensive bibliography, which is carefully classi- fied according to the topics discussed—a plan which saves time when a rapid search through the original literature is necessary. Monographs suitable for both the research worker and the advanced student play a part of ever-increasing importance in our scientific educa- tion, and the present book is a model of its kind. Considering the magnitude and the wide appeal of carbohydrate chemistry, it is no easy task to compress within narrow limits an accurate account of the most important features of the sugars, and at the same time to avoid the dangers of merely cataloguing compounds or of losing all style in telegraphic brevity. Dr. Armstrong has skilfully avoided these dangers, and has succeeded in making his narrative interesting without sacri- ficing any essentials, and that this has been pos- sible is ample testimony to the excellence of the scheme upon which the original edition was planned. The leanings of the author, as a prac- tical worker in this field, to the biological aspects of sugar chemistry are well known, but Dr. Arm- strong is a firm believer in the value of structural study, and he therefore establishes constitutional principles before proceeding to descriptive details. It is, then, on the elastic framework of struc- tural chemistry that Dr. Armstrong has arranged the complex facts of sugar chemistry, and he has done so systematically, thoroughly, and with scholarly judgment. No point of view is neglected. The organic chemist is not allowed to forget that Nature is the great sugar laboratory, and that he must work in association with the biologist. On the other hand, the biochemist is forced to think in the exact terms of structure, and the lesson is probably necessary. For several years the reviewer has been in a position to appreciate the merits of the earlier editions by observing the use made of them by NO. 2621, VOL. 104] graduates commencing research work on the sugars. The monograph has answered’ most suc-_ cessfully to this practical test, and as the latest edition is a distinct advance on its predecessors, students of the sugar group will have access to a thoroughly satisfactory book—a book written with the authority of the expert and conveying the stimulus of the enthusiast. NUTRITION AND LONGEVITY. (1) The Newer Knowledge of Nutrition: The Use of Food for the Preservation of Vitality and Health. By E. V. McCollum. Pp. ix+199. (New York: The Macmillan Co.; Lon- don: Macmillan and Co., Ltd., 1919.) Price 6s. 6d. net. (2) On Longevity and Means for the Prolongation of Life: Founded ona Lecture delivered before the Royal College of Physicians on December 3, 1903. By Sir Hermann Weber. Edited by Dr. F. Parkes Weber. With a preface by Sir Clifford Allbutt. Fifth (enlarged) edition, re- vised and partly re-written. Pp. xxii+292. (London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd., 1919.) Price 12s, net. (rt) ROF. E. V. McCOLLUM sets forth in volume form the results of, and conclusions to be drawn from, his well-known researches on food accessory bodies, the discovery of which was initiated by Dr. Gowland Hopkins. These bodies, called “vitamines” by Funk, are now realised to be of the greatest importance to growth, health, and resistance to disease, the lack of them making the body susceptible to the rank growth of microbes. Prof. McCollum inclines to doubt that scurvy is due to the lack of a water-soluble accessory body A, strong evidence for the existence of which has been adduced by the workers at the Lister Institute, Dr. Harden, Miss Chick, and others. He lays the greatest stress on the fat- soluble A accessory body, which is of supreme importance for growth, and is to be found in growing cells and in milk, eggs, and the germ of seeds (wheatberry, etc.), substances specially formed with growth principles in them. The miller removes the germ in the preparation of white flour, and, classed as offal, it goes to feed and promote the. growth of pigs and chickens. Dairy produce from cows fed on green leaves and the green leaf itself supply “fat-soluble A,” and are thus the great protective foods, and every endeavour must be made to keep up the supply of these. Green vegetables must not be regarded 528 NATURE [JANUARY 22, 1920 as a luxury, but as a most essential part of the diet. The citizen is divorced from gardens and allotments, and the cost of transport makes a cheap supply of greenstuff prohibitive. Milk has become costly, and even when cheap was not much drunk by the children of the poorer classes. How many schools recognise the imperative needs of children for green vegetables, fruit, and abun- dance of milk? The fatality of the recent epidemics of influenza may have been closely associated with deficiency of fat-soluble A in the diet, for there is none in -the vegetable-oil margarine which has so largely replaced butter. (2) The fifth edition of the late Sir Hermann Weber’s book on longevity, edited by his son, Dr. Parkes Weber, is prefaced by Sir Clifford Allbutt by many wise and illuminating remarks. The motto of the author is no less old than true. “Work, moderation, and contentedness are the main sources of health, happiness, and long life.” A great apostle for open-air exercise, he justly extols walking and climbing above all forms of ‘exercise. He lived to ninety-seven himself, following the wise tenets which he lays down. It is often asserted that longevity is an inborn quality, and the cases of men are cited who have attained old age and yet have been heavy eaters or drinkers. Inquiring into the manner of living and other antecedents of more than 100 persons living to between 86 and 102 years, Weber found that although most of these persons belonged to the well-to-do classes, and were not obliged to restrict themselves, there were not more than six amongst them who had more or less habitu- ally indulged themselves by eating or drinking largely; many, on the contrary, were remarkable for great moderation. He records the cases of many middle-aged people with bad family histories and showing themselves signs of breaking up in health who, by his regimen of open-air exercise and great moderation in food and alcohol, were carried on in good health to eighty years or more, while their brothers and sisters, following no such regimen, died twenty years or so before them. The evidence Weber thus adduces seems strong enough to support his claim that great moderation in eating and drinking, and plenty of open-air exercise, can promote the duration of life of the middle-aged to a marked extent. The degenera- tions of the blood-vessels and other organs which hasten the end of life are primarily due to toxins absorbed from the bowels or from infections— e.g. rheumatic fever, syphilis, etc. A clean, healthy life keeps these away. NO. 2621, VOL. 104] CHEESE- AND. BUTTER-MAKING. (1) The Book of Cheese. By Charles Thom and Prof. Walter W. Fisk. (Rural Text-book Series.) Pp. xvi+392. (New York: The Mac- millan Co.; London: Ltd., 1918.) Price 8s. net. pS (2) Practical Butter-making: Fourth Revision. re Treatise for Butter-makers and Students, By C. W. .Walker-Tisdale and Theodore R. Robinson. Pp. 143. (London: Brothers, Publishers, Ltd., n.d.) ‘Price 5S. 6d. net. (1) HE greater interest which is being ‘ld in the manufacture of cheese will assure a welcome for this volume. It is one of the well- known series edited by Prof. L. H. Bailey, and it thoroughly warrants its inclusion in the list. Practical cheese-making has not had in this. country the study it requires to have, and whilst a number of the standard cheeses have originated here it cannot be said that, apart from Prof. Lloyd’s investigations in the making of Cheddar cheese, any serious attempt has been made to, throw light upon the details of manufacture or to explain the causes of the failures which arise from time to time. In this volume the authors deal systematically with the general method of cheese-making, and state in simple language the process of milk co- agulation and the theories which have been ad- vanced in explanation, A chapter is devoted to “starters,” paring and judging the cultures and noticing the effect upon the cheese of a bad starter. A clean acid starter has a great influence upon the texture. and flavour of the cheese, as is well known, and. a maker who works with a bad starter cannot. hope to produce a first-class cheese. Inability to judge a good starter may mean the continuance of flavours and faults which would have disap- peared had the proper type of starter been used. Amongst the hard cheeses, chief place is natur-_ ally given to Cheddar, as this type is the one com- monly made in America and Canada. The appli- ances suitable for a factory making Cheddar cheese are described, and the process of making the cheese is followed step by step. types of cheese made in different countries, but all prepared upon the Cheddar principle with greater or less modification, are reviewed. The ‘“‘ Book of Cheese ” has many other interest- ing chapters, one even upon the food value of cheese, the method of using it, and recipes for dishes in which cheese plays an important part. Macmillan and Co.,, : Headley and it would be well if our dairy — students could receive greater facilities for pre- — Various” JANUARY 22, 1920] NATURE 529 Milk-testing by the Babcock method is described, and numerous other tests, such as Hart’s test for casein, and the testing of cheese for fat by a modified Babcock method, are given. The accuracy of the latter test is questionable. (2) Butter-making is somewhat under a cloud at the present time, owing to the impossibility of producing it commercially at a profitable price. The information given by the authors is, however, excellent, and the best up-to-date methods and appliances are described. The extension of the practice of selling milk, and the facilities now afforded the farmer by the wholesale dealer or the condensing factory, have not encouraged the breeding of cows giving a high percentage of fat in the milk, and it is diffi- cult to see how butter-making can for some time to come compete with cheese-making or milk- selling. Nevertheless, there will always be a good demand for high-class butter, and it is most neces- sary that the maker should produce an article of prime quality. This volume would not have reached a fourth revision unless it had met with success in previous editions, and both as a manual and a reference book it takes a very high place. OUR BOOKSHELF. Enjoying Life: and Other Literary Remains of W. N. P. Barbellion [B. F.. Cummings}. Pp. xvit+246. (London: Chatto and Windus, 1919.) Price 6s. net. Tu1s book is welcome because it raises a much pleasanter picture of its author than did the rather peevish “Journal” reviewed in these columns in July last. Some of the essays, excluded from the “Journal” for reasons of space, would have illu- minated its shadows. One is called “Crying for the Moon,” but Barbellion wanted to swallow the Universe. Even those of us who would be content with the World have to learn that it is too large an oyster. unattainable. Barbellion had yet to realise that the half is greater than the whole; his only limita- tions were those of a sickly body, and so he seemed to scorn those who restrained the appetite of the soul. Hence, in the diarist, an apparent poverty of human kindness. But in his outward relations, as Cummings, the defect is made good or hidden. There is sympathy as well as skill in his sketches of Spallanzani, Montagu, Rousseau, and Goldsmith of the “Animated Nature,” and even for his colleagues, the Scarabees, he has a good word, for he has begun to realise that the driest museum entomologist may have beneath his dusty coat something of a Barbellion. It. is ungracious to criticise lapses in a post- humous publication, but “Sir Hercules Reed,” “Museo di Stovia Naturale,” and “Sir Francis Galten ” might have been avoided. NO. 2621, VOL. 104] Life is a perpetual renunciation of the | The Manufacture of Chemicals by Electrolysis. By Arthur J. Hale. (A Treatise of Electro- chemistry.) Pp. xi+8o0. (London: Constable and Co., Ltd., 1919.) Price 6s. net. In this monograph a brief account is given of the application of electrolysis to the preparation of chemical products.» Most of the electrolytic pre- parations of which a description has been pub- lished are referred to, and references to the original publications are given throughout, so that the book is likely to prove a useful guide to the literature of the subject. The reader is, however, left to guess that certain groups of preparations, such as chlorine, sodium, and the alkalis, to which no reference at all is made either in the text or in the preface, are to be described in other mono- graphs of the series. This probably accounts for the impression created on reading the text that the academic aspects of the subject have secured in this volume undue prominence as compared with its industrial applications. If, however, all the really productive processes have been reserved for other writers, and the author of the present volume has been left to cultivate only the more barren areas, he cannot be blamed for the unfruit- fulness of so large a proportion of the prepara- tions which he describes, and is rather to be con- gratulated on having given so good an account of the minor applications of electrolysis to chemical industry. A Synoptical List of the Accipitres. (Diurnal Birds of Prey.) Parts i. and ii. By H. Kirke Swann. (London: John Wheldon and Co., 1919.) Price 4s. per part. Tue literature of an attractive Order of birds re- ceives a notable addition in this work. It is now nearly half a century since the late Dr. Bowdler Sharpe’s “Catalogue of the Accipitres,”’ the latest complete work on the subject, appeared. During this long interval innumerable contributions have been made to the knowledge of the Order relating to the discovery of new species, the recognition of numerous racial forms, changes in nomenclature and classification, extension of geographical range, and much else. Thus a treatise, however modest, which might bring the subject down to date was a desideratum, and now, in a measure, has been supplied in a highly epitomised form by this synoptical list, which furnishes concise diagnostic characters of families, genera, species, and sub- species, and also an indication of the geographi- cal range of each bird. For the species, however, it has been found impossible to deal with any but the plumage of adults, for the varied feather changes through which many species pass ere they assume the garb of maturity could only be satisfactorily described in an elaborate monograph on the Order ; as yet there does not appear to be any signs of the advent of such a much needed work: Great care has been bestowed upon the preparation of this list—a task of no small difficulty—and it will be much appreciated by all who are engaged in j Systematic ornithological studies. ‘ 53° NATURE LETTERS TO THE EDITOR, [The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed by his correspondents. _ Neither can he undertake to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manuscripts intended for this or any other part of Nature. No notice is taken of anonymous communications.] Gravitation and Light. In a recent letter (NATURE, December 25, p. 412) and elsewhere I have expressed doubt as to the security of the inferences regarding the influence of gravitation on the light from distant celestial bodies, which are advanced as tests of the Einstein formula- tion. A closer and less sceptical general scrutiny is possible. The difficulty was to recognise how a theory which professes to supersede an zther with its definite space and time, by concepts purely relativist, could manage to effect direct comparison, at a distance and without tracing transmission across the inter- vening space, of the radiations of a molecule at the sun and those of a molecule of the same substance at | the earth. This body of doctrine seems, in fact, to consist of two chapters. A blind man could work out the purely relativist theory, which would indeed repre- sent rather closely the process of groping from point to adjacent point in space and time by which he must - acquire his own scheme of knowledge. But to com- pare his results with the world of experience a prac- tical astronomer is needed, with very different equip- ment;. he relies on the rays of light, in conformity with the optical theory that prescribes their function as messengers across space. It thus appears to be necessary to examine directly what changes in the propagation of rays of light would arise under the modified gravitation, and, if possible, to bring out more explicitly and demonstratively the further postulate that is needed to reconcile them with the proposed test-relations. The postulate which is sufficient to sustain the optical predictions proves to be this: that all the way to the sun and throughout the solar system the formula for the element of fourfold length by which the nature of the space is deter- mined does not contain explicitly that one co-ordinate which is more especially related to time, but involves only its differential. This is, of course, a reasonable assumption; but it is of an absolute type regulating the whole space, assumed to be thus settled in advance on the Newtonian plan, not of the relativist type which would profess only to explore it gradually from place to place as it arises. But we can analyse further and more definitely. The new theory implies that if this quadratic formula characteristic of the space involved in its product terms the differential of that co-ordinate which stands closest to time, then the velocity of the rays of light in any direction at any place would be different according as they are travelling forward or backward. That could only mean that the co-ordinates define at such a locality a frame of reference which is itself in motion. But in motion with reference to what? The relativity of language is doubtless capable of supplying an answering formula; but it would only be wrapping up in abstractions the simple statement that when at any place the quadratic characteristic of the spacial exten- sion involves the differential of the co-ordinate specially related to time in its product terms, then there is latent in it a specification of its own mode of change at that place with respect to uniform space-time. If no such products are contained, the space is not locally in motion, and we may say that the frame of reference is fixed in the ether. That is, the fourfold space-time frame in which we set the universe is everywhere de- formed and awry, but it is then nowhere’in move- NO, 2621, VOL. 104] [JANUARY 22, 1920 ment relative to light; or, in graphic terms, the co- ordinate system would involve a fourfold curvi inear frame instead of a rectangular one when it is set in a uniform fivefold extension, but it is to be nowhere in movement when set in that higher auxiliary Space. The physical properties of the rays of light can scarcely be invoked to obtain an astronomical test of results, by providing in their vibrations a universal scale of time, without becoming to the same degree a criterion of the relation to light of the whole con- struction; if they can settle universal time by optical vibrations, they can equally well be applied to settle absolute space in each locality. . It comes to this, that radiation can be utilised to determine the space and time absolutely, 4 This point of view involves no destructive criticism of the substantial and brilliant mathematical theory, which, of course, ought to evolve correctly the con- sequences of the postulates that are put into it. But it does demur to the popular presentation which asserts that space and time and the ether have now been transcended. The outstanding problem, stripped to its essentials, was to find whether gravitation could be brought into line with radiation in this very arrest- ing feature: that the time which is most appropriate by far for its analytical formulation is a changing local time mixed up definitely, te very slighths with spacial relations. The value of the new theory is that it opened out a way by which this problern could be attacked, while previously no approach was in sight; and, still more important, that it has not improbably led to an answer, in the affirmative. This, of course, is a very remarkable consummation, com- parable to Faraday’s detection of an influence of mag- netism on light, though more fundamental in that it relates to free space; it must promise substantial eae Sad Shia Sachets Judie ape advance as regards the formulations on which we con- ies struct our ultimate plan of physical activity, either along its present lines or some other that would repre- sent the result with equal approximation.. But beyond that the extreme relativist developments, where they are not metaphysical dogmatics, are a very interesting extrapolation towards the possible or probable physical formulation of a universe in which bodies are moving thousands of times as fast as the stars are found to move in our own. Reference may be made to forthcoming Proceedings of the Cambridge Philosophical Society and Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. Cambridge, January 17. The Outlook of British Technical Otics. THE symposium and general discussion on “The Microscope: Its Design, Construction, and Applica- tions,” held in the rooms of the Royal Society at Burlington House on January 14, under the auspices of the Faraday, Royal Microscopical, Optical, and Photomicrographic Societies, in co-operation with the Optical Committee of the British Science Guild, with Sir Robert Hadfield, president of the Faraday Society, in the chair, was a landmark in the history of British optics. Whether judged by the number, value, and variety of the exhibits and the papers contri- buted, or by the number of people who attended, the symposium was a success. 4 ; At the present time the microscope possesses a unique interest for those concerned with British optical industries. It demands greater technical knowledge and skill in its designer and producer than any other optical instrument, and the demand for it, both actually and potentially, for work of the most far- reaching importance is so great that it may fairly be said to be the keystone in the arch of an industry. ‘which has already been recognised as one of such _ JosePH Larmor. — en a JANUARY 22, 1920] NATURE 55! vital national importance as to constrain the Govern- ment to treat it as a ‘“‘key industry.’ But there is no royal road to success even in manufacture and commerce. If this country is ever to stand in the forefront as a producer of microscopes for the world’s needs the position to-day must be boldly and courageously faced. The lessons of the war must not be forgotten. We shiver yet when we remember the single thread upon which the production of optical munitions depended in this country. Our _ glass- makers, beaten by their foreign rivals, receiving neither help, encouragement, nor even recognition from the Government, had been content to continue their patriotic efforts to maintain the industry, on the urgent representations of a few far-seeing scientific men, until long after those efforts held out any promise of pecuniary reward. That danger, happily, has passed, and the complete solution of the optical glass problem is now only a question of time. Many of the glasses now produced in this country compare favourably with the best of those of our foreign rivals. The varieties available are limited, but the leeway is being rapidly made up. It is often stated that the late supremacy of the Germans in optical production was the direct and necessary result of the glass-making labours of Abbe and Schott completed in the year 1886. This is not a correct statement of the case. The fact is that, when Abbe and Schott broke down the barriers to optical progress imposed by the limited varieties of glass available, Germany had in reserve a small army of scientific workers, equipped with the necessary technical knowledge and skill, ready to fill the breach and carry on the work of utilising the new glasses in the invention of new optical systems and in the improvement of old. But the world moves quickly, and inventions and discoveries, however valuable in- trinsically, are likely to remain barren unless a country has a_ sufficient number of men equipped with the necessary knowledge to exploit them instantly and to the full. Indeed, it is only such men that can appreciate the value of inventions and discoveries. The necessity for a broad and generous scheme of national education in optical matters thus becomes apparent. When the users of optical instruments are sufficiently educated to be able to distinguish and appraise good designs and work, makers will be en- couraged to meet their demands. In the absence of such education the faddist has his day, and the maker concerns himself too often in meeting the demands of fashion. It is satisfactory to know, then, that, so far as this country is concerned, a great deal has already been done to foster optical education. The establish- ment of the Technical Optics Committee, which in- cludes representatives of the British Optical Instru- ment Makers’ Association, the War Office, the Admiralty, the National Physical Laboratory, the London County Council, the Royal Society, and the Imperial College of Science, is in itself sufficient evi- dence that the question has been taken up with great thoroughness. The establishment of a department of optical engineering and applied optics at the Imperial College will ensure a supply of capable and well- educated young men for the needs of the industry generally. Prof. Conrady is doing yeoman service in the establishment of an English school of optical designers and computers, the need for which was so acutely felt during the war. The outlook, then, so far as education is concerned, is decidedly promising. Indeed, in some important respects the scheme of education here is already in advance of that of any other country. . When we turn, however, to the purely engineering l side—the production of the microscope as a mechanical NO. 2621, VOL. 104] instrument—the outlook is not so satisfactory. At the present time the Government is pledged to afford pro- tection to the optical industries. This will probably be done by a continuation of the licensing system, which has for the moment been suspended because of Mr. Justice Sankey’s decision, but there is little doubt that the system will-be reimposed, either by the reversal of that decision or by legislative enactment. Now the public at the present time, with just cause, are very suspicious of anything in the nature of Protection. During the past few years Protection has so often resulted in unscrupulous profiteering at the expense of the community that the public may well be excused for looking with suspicion upon oy proposal to con- tinue the system. In the case of the microscope, for example, there is little doubt that at the back of the minds of many people there is a fear that Protection will be taken advantage of by manufacturers to foist upon the market inferior goods at greater prices than could be obtained in’ a free market. But the sym- posium has proved conclusively that this danger, in the case of microscopes at any rate, is a very small one. One or two important makers exhibited new models, designed for mass production, which showed clearly how thoroughly and seriously the problem had been taken up. Microscope production in this country is now a young, vigorous, and promising organism, which, in the course of a year or two, will probably be able to stand up and fight its way in the world without artificial support. The real difficulty at the present moment lies in the fact that efficient production means mass production, and mass production means large enterprises carried on with large capital. Everyone is agreed that pro- ~ duction by the old methods, requiring the employment of a large proportion of highly skilled craftsmen—the artistic method—must be replaced by machine methods. Efficient and successful production in the case of the microscope involves, as it does in so many other cases, specialisation, standardisation, and the use of repeti- tion machinery attended by unskilled labour to pro- duce interchangeable parts, the whole of the activities being supervised and directed by the highest technical knowledge and skill. But this involves the speculative investment of capital. The maker, on the other hand, who can ensure a moderate success with little risk by carrying on producing operations on a small scale to meet the immediate needs of the country is under a great temptation to do so rather than risk every- thing in an attempt to secure large profits by mass production. The present position, therefore, is a serious one for the trade generally. If the mass pro- duction of optical instruments is necessary to the success of the industry and to the realisation of the end and aims of the Government, then it is very unlikely that that success will be achieved by Protec- tion alone. Some much more substantial assistance must be given, and this assistance is not likely to be given by private enterprise. ; An interesting fact brought out by the papers and discussions at the symposium was the urgent demand for greater resolving power in the microscope. This matter was particularly’ dealt with by Mr. J. .E. Barnard, who showed a very interesting series of slides taken with the ultra-violet microscope fo demon- strate the greater resolution obtainable with the shorter wave-length light. The metallographers, on the other hand, in some cases appeared to be insisting upon large magnifications without always clearly recognising that these do not involve greater resolu- tion. The half wave-length limit to resolution, first advanced in effect by Fraunhofer, cannot substantially, at any rate, be evaded, and this fact must be clearly recognised. F. CHESHIRE. Imperial College, South Kensington. 532 NATURE [JANUARY 22, 1920 _ Power from the Sun. Wirti reference to Mr. A. S. E. Ackermann’s letter in Nature of January 15, in which he states that, in putting the possible efficiency of obtaining power from the sun with the heat engine at less than 2 per cent., I have used too low a figure, I may point out that, whereas Mr. Ackermann’s figure of 4-32 per cent. was a’ maximum obtained presumably under specially favourable conditions, and as. I understand in Egypt, in suggesting a figure of less than 2 per cent. I was referring to what could be expected “in this latitude and in this climate ’’—that is to say, in England, and also as an average during the hours of daylight throughout the whole year. For the purpose of my argument, and in comparison with the very much higher efficiencies that are theoretically possible if the radiation can be directly utilised without first turning it to heat, with the con- sequent avoidance of the second law of thermo- dynamics, I do not think that the difference between 2 and 4 per cent. is of much importance; but, even so, I should be surprised to learn that Mr. Ackermann would expect to obtain an efficiency of even 2 per cent. anywhere in England throughout the year. A. A. CAMPBELL SWINTON. 66 Victoria Street, S.W.1, January 17. Sedimentation of Blood Corpuscles. I HAVE noticed lately that if oxalated or defibrinated blood is put to stand in narrow tubes, the corpuscles sediment a good deal faster if the tube is inclined than when it is vertical. Thus with tubes about 2-7 mm. internal diameter there were, after 20 hours, 4, 23, 35, and 42 per cent. of clear serum with tubes inclined at 0°, 224°, 45°, and 672° respectively. In another rough experiment with tubes of different diameters, all filled to a height of 40 mm. with diluted blood, after 5 hours there were the following pro- portions of clear serum :— Vertical 113° 224° 339° mm. diam. Percent. Percent, Percent. Per cent. 2-7 ey ie 6 20 29 51 8 ih bes 5 10 15 21 14 ays pee 4 5 9 12 The phenomenon seems to depend on the vertical height of the columns of blood, and it occurs to me that the slight Brownian movement of the lower corpuscles may interfere with. the sedimentation of those above. But I should be glad if someone would tell me the explanation: the phenomenon. is perhaps well known in some other form. A. E. Boycorr. Medical School, University Coflege Hospital, W.C. The Einstein Theory and Spectral Displacement. One of the “crucial phenomena ” in connection with the Einstein theory is the displacement of the spectral lines towards the red when the emitting atom is in a position where the gravitational potential is large. In the case of the sun this displacement is so small that its existence is a matter of doubt. But the amount of the displacement varies as the mass of the sun or star concerned, divided by its radius, and in the case of giant stars, such as Canopus, Arcturus, or Antares, should give a result corresponding to a reces- sion’ of many hundreds, if not thousands, of kilometres per second, whereas, in fact, these stars show -no abnormal radial velocities. It may be pointed out that the effect varies as the product of the area and density, factors as to which NO. 2621, VOL. 104] the magnitude and spectrum of a star enable astro-. nomers to make a tair approximation, at any rate as to minimum values: F ts These facts must, of course, have been considered by the supporters of the theory, and I think that an explanation would be interesting and useful. 11 King’s Bench Walk, Temple, E.C. Mr. FLetcHER Mouton is quite. correct _ in a tral lines varies as — stating that the shift of the mass/radius, but his expectation of spectral shifts measured by hundreds or thousands of kilometres per second does not appear to be justified. All the evi- dence available, deduced from visual binaries, Alg variables, and spectroscopic binaries, points to fl conclusion that the masses of the stars vary between much narrower limits than their brightness. We have — no clear evidence of any star having a mass so great as forty times that of the sun; moreover, the most massive stars known to us are apparently in a much more diffused state than the sun, so that the ratio of spectral shifts is much less than that of masses. — We cannot use individual stars to test the Einstein effect, for we do not know the radial motion inde- pendently of the spectroscope, as we do in the case of the sun. All that we can do is to take the mean of a large number of spectra and see whether there is a systematic shift towards the red; such a shift does exist, and the ‘difficulty is rather that it is too large than too small to ascribe wholly to the Einstein éffect. Thus Campbell (‘‘ Stellar Motions,”’ p. 199) says: “OF Type II. stars (that is, F5 to M), 371 positive velocities and 352 negative. Of Type I. stare (hata O to F4), 215 have positive velocities and 122 nega- tive.’ Subdividing further, he gives the following mean velocities of recession in km, Bo, 4933 A, 0-18; Az to F8, 060; G to M, ogr. Einstein effect, quantity. circulation in the stars; this, as well as effects, may well have some influence on the mean — results. Taking the stars as a whole, it must be — admitted that their verdict, though by no means con- clusive, is, so far as it goes, in favour of Einstein. ANDREW C. D. CROMMELIN. ‘4 Use of a Prismatic Binocular for Viewing Near Objects. A FEW years ago, with a view to the observation of close objects out of doors, I procured some glass adapter lenses for use on the object ane of the half of a prism_binocular (x12) which I carried about with me. Finding, however, that this method in- volved the use or Ss : argument, he deeming the nin ay ape impracticable— to remove the eyepiece and refit it for use with a long screw thread. The result was most satisfactory ; by f this device I can draw out the eyepiece and adjust it — to the proper distance for any observation down to four feet off. This device is also very useful for indoor work, such as observation on the occupants of an aquarium. i The device may be useful to other observers, who will find that the necessary alteration can be easily made. ; D. Witson Barker. Flimwell. H. TCHER MOoULtTon. yer sr second: B to | de Sitter, taking the average mass and density of 2 — B star as 1o and 1/10 respectively, finds 1-4 for the — about one-third of the observed We do not know the character of the atmospheric a id everal glass adapters, and that — with it I had to know the exact distance of my objective, I prevailed on an optician—after lengthy nt ee JANUARY 22, 1920] NATURE 533 THE NITROGEN PROBLEM. fF; “ee Nitrogen Products Committee was ap- pointed in June, 1916, as a Committee of the Advisory Panel of the Munitions Inventions Department with the following terms of refer- ence :— To consider the relative advantages for this country and for the Empire of the various methods for the fixation of atmospheric nitrogen, from the point of view of both war and peace purposes; to ascertain their relative costs, and to advise on pro- posals relevant thereto. To examine into the supply of the raw materials required and into the utilisation of the by-products obtained. Since some of the processes depend on the provision of supplies of cheap power, to ascer- tain how this can best be obtained. To consider what steps can be taken to con- serve and increase the national resources in nitro- gen-bearing compounds, and to limit their wastage, To carry out the experimental work necessary to arrive at definite conclusions as to the prac- ticability and efficiency of such processes as may appear to the Committee to be of value, and to advise as to starting operations on an industrial scale. It will be seen that the terms of reference are pretty wide, and the Committee, as is stated, have, moreover, interpreted them “in a liberal manner.” The inquiry accordingly has resulted practically into a detailed examination of the nitrogen problem in its relation to the military, agricultural, and industrial requirements of the United Kingdom and other parts of the British Empire. The Committee submitted an interim report in February, 1917. As the conclusions and- recommendations of that report are closely con- nected with the final conclusions and recommenda- tions of the Committee, they are incorporated in the present report. The final report, with its appendices, charts, and diagrams, is a somewhat formidable document of upwards of 350 pages, the report itself occupying no fewer than 137 pages. It has been somewhat loosely constructed, and there is a certain amount of recapitulation, which was, perhaps, inevitable when regard is had to the many points of view the subject presents. But of its great value there can be no doubt. Consider- ing the difficulty and complexity of the inquiry, it cannot be said to have been unduly protracted, and, as the result of the 106 sittings of the Com- mittee and its Sub-Committees, we have now pre- sented to us the most complete and compre- hensive statement of the problem, as it affects this country, which has yet appeared. The report will doubtless receive the most seri- ous study, for it deals with matters of the gravest importance—the world’s production of food, our industrial supremacy, and our national security. oh, Waris 33, of gr Coen pe of War, ‘trogen Products Committee. _ Final Report.” Pp. vi , H.. Stationery Office, 1919). Cmd. 482.1 Price hi. nee Pa NO. 2621, VOL. 104] Munitions Inventions i mC London: | Indeed, its appeal is so wide, and the whole ques. tion affects so many interests, that there is a fear’ that no immediate action will come of it, on th® principle that what is everybody’s business is 1i6- body’s business. It is pre-eminently a national question, and demands the consideration of states-' men. But in the present condition of the political: and industrial atmosphere we cannot hope that it’ will receive this. The State will wait upon private’ enterprise, and private enterprise will wait upoff the State, each trusting, like Mr. Micawber, that | “something may turn up” to avert the main con- clusions to which the report inevitably points: But in view of the menace which will come from a resuscitated Germany, it would be nothing less than criminal folly to neglect the warning which the evidence now summarised conveys. Our chemical manufacturers and our producers of fer- tilisers must be brought to realise that synthetic nitrogen products have come to say. The days of the Chile nitrate industry are apparently num- bered. If we accept the estimates of the Com- mittee, retort nitric acid cannot, even in_ this country, be produced so cheaply as the synthetic product, and synthetic fertilisers are serious com- petitors with the natural nitrate and by-product sulphate of ammonia. : Eos It would be impossible in the space at disposal to deal in detail with the many points and issues raised by the Committee’s inquiry, and set out at length in the report. We must content ouf- selves, therefore, with a summary statement of the principal conclusions at which it has arrived. i : With respect to the world’s demand and pro- duction of nitrogen compounds before the war, if’ is shown that the world’s consumption in 1913 was. almost double what #t was in 1903. The demand up to this time was practically wholly met by Chile nitrate and by-product ammonia, the nitrogen fixation processes contributing only a small, but still growing, proportion, notwithstand- ing their notable development during the years 1903-13. Up to 1914 the market price of com- bined nitrogen was governed by that of Chile nitrate, and was characterised by a general up= ward tendency, showing that the supply was not in excess of the demand. At the same time, syn- thetic nitrogen products could be placed upon the market at prices which competed favourably with ammonia nitrogen and nitrate nitrogen. | That these fixation industries were in a healthy con- dition was shown by the fact that they had ex-. panded more than 150 per cent. during the period, 1903-13, Or more than double the expansion during the same interval of the Chile nitrate, industry. ; : ts The war has profoundly modified the relative position of the natural and- synthetic nitrogen industries. Before the end of 1914 the productive: capacity of the nitrogen fixation installations repre-, sented ro per cent. of-the world’s supply of com-. bined nitrogen; at the present time it is about: 28 per cent. The post-war production of am-; monium ‘sulphate, both synthetic and by-product, , 534 NATURE ' [JANUARY 22, 1920 is calculated to amount to 39 per cent. of the world’s supplies of combined nitrogen, Chile nitrate accounting for about 41 per cent. War developments are now challenging the supremacy of the Chilean industry. The market price of the synthetic products, and of ammonium sulphate, bids fair to govern that of Chile nitrate instead ‘of following it as hitherto. The Committee esti- mates that the post-war supply of fixed nitrogen potentially available is likely to show an increase of from 30 to 40 per cent. upon the pre-war pro- duction, or to be of the order of a million metric tons per annum. It is, however, of opinion that this amount is not greater than would have been the case under normal conditions, to judge from the pre-war rate of growth in consumption. But it is significant that this increase is almost wholly due to the development of synthetic pro- cesses. There would seem to be no fear that over-production will be a serious factor in the post-war situation. As regards the uses of nitrogen products prior to the war, at least 70 per cent. of the world’s total supplies of nitrate and ammonia nitrogen was utilised in agriculture. Owing to their com- paratively limited employment in this country, and the somewhat conflicting experience of our experi- ment stations, which, as the evidence presented to the Committee shows, have scarcely given sufficient study to the question, there is no abso- lute proof, as yet, that synthetic fertilisers are wholly suited to the particular circumstances of this country. The Committee, however, has no doubt as to their utility, and specifically makes mention of the value of nitrate of lime, as now manufactured, and of calcium cyanamide when free from dicyanodiamide, in which opinion it would seem to be supported by the Board of Agri- culture. Dr. E. J. Russell, of the Rothamsted Experi- mental Station, in a recent paper published in the Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry, states that the results of all published field trials show that the three fertilisers—nitrate of soda, sulphate of ammonia, and cyanamide—when com- pared on the basis of equal nitrogen content have the following values :— Nitric nitrogen oe 100 Ammoniacal nitrogen ... 97 Cyanamide nitrogen go But, he adds, these include cases where the cyanamide nitrogen could have had no proper chance of acting. Cyanamide, he points out, pre- sents the characteristic that it is not at once available for plants, but has to undergo change in the soil whereby ammonia is formed, which afterwards nitrifies. The whole value of the material, therefore, depends on the rate at which the change proceeds. In some soils it goes on rapidly, and here cyanamide is very effective. In others, however, it proceeds more slowly. The production of the ammonia would appear to take place in two stages, the first being purely chemical, and the second bacterial; further, the NO. 2621, VoL. 104] present in sufficient quantity in the soil. Under | better advice, such as is now obtainable, the agent producing the chemical change is not always farmer could be warned beforehand, and the use of cyanamide kept to those numerous cases where it can decompose rapidly and act well. In these — circumstances the value of cyanamide nitrogen — might rise well above 90, and, what is more important, the risk of failure might be consider- ably reduced. Of course, the war made imperative calls upon the nitrogen industries, and these, notwithstand- _ ing their expansion, were quite unable to cope — with the demands for both explosives and fer- tilisers. The needs of agriculture were conse- quently largely set aside, to the great detriment — of the world’s food supply. The effect has been _ the almost universal recognition of the vital im- portance of nitrogenous fertilisers. The difficulties of obtaining them and the consequences which — have followed from the shortage have together furnished an object-lesson which the world will not soon forget. The Committee learns that the visible demand for nitrogenous fertilisers is every- where considerably in excess of the pre-war con- sumption. : : With respect to the relative costs of synthetic and non-synthetic processes, the Committee con- cludes that under favourable conditions in regard to the cost of power and of raw materials, the nitrogen fixation and allied processes, speaking broadly, stand at a very considerable a 3 as compared with non-synthetic methods. It ought — to be stated, however, that all its estimates are based upon pre-war prices and factory costs, and it by no means follows that the price of coal and of water-power will advance pari passu. A water- _ fall does not “down tools” like a miner, nor does _ it attend football matches and go on strike for — any or no cause in particular. But still, fallible as the basis may possibly be under present or prospective conditions, the comparison of Costs is instructive and significant. The average market — price of a metric ton of combined nitrogen in the United Kingdom during 1911-1 5 was, Oe ms in the forms of Chile nitrate and ammonium sulphate respectively. The synthetic processes can _ produce a metric ton of available combined nitro- gen at a cost, at the factory, of from 201. to 301. These processes can produce a metric fon of con- centrated nitric acid (93 to 96 per cent.) at about _ half the cost of retort (Chile nitrate) nitric acid. Nitric acid can be produced by the oxidation pro- cess from by-product ammonia, even at its highiene pre-war price, cheaper than by the old process. a It may, however, be doubted whether any of the synthetic processes, with the possible excep- tion of the arc process in very favourable circum- | stances, can produce a nitrate fertiliser that would compete with Chile nitrate under conditions that a the Chilean industry might be willing to adopt. Whilst improvements in the method of absorbing and recovering the oxides of nitrogen in the arc a process are certain to occur, it must not be for- gotten that the capital expenditure needed in in- January 22, 1920] NATURE ae stalling this process is high, and bears a large proportion to the market value of the annual production. It follows, therefore, from these conclusions that the industrial demand for nitric acid in the future will probably be met by means of synthetic pro- ‘cesses. It is conceivable that the marketing of large quantities of synthetic sulphate of ammonia and cyanamide, made in Germany, will influence the future price of combined nitrogen, and may even control it. The Committee thinks that the producers of combined nitrogen may eventually have to face a competitive price of 7/. or 8l. per metric ton for ammonium sulphate, and. 6l. or 7l. per metric ton for cyanamide. The by-product ammonia industry in this country may thus be seriously menaced. It can scarcely recoup itself by raising the price of the other by-products to any serious extent, and considering the relation of combined nitrogen to the food of the country, public opinion, whilst willing to tolerate, up to a certain extent, the protection of “key ”’ industries, would strongly resent any action which seriously interfered with the productive capacity of the land. (To be continued.) THE MICROSCOPY OF :METALS. A T the very successful symposium on the micro- scope organised by the Faraday Society on January 14 in the rooms of the Royal Society, 12mm. Achromat. Fic. 1.— Magnification 600. Phot .micrographs showing the effect of magnification without resolution C 0°48, Si 0°17, S 0’029, P 0'034, Mn r’oo per cent. about one-half of the papers presented dealt with the microscopical examination of metals, a strik- ing indication of the importance which this branch of microscopy has now acquired. It was therefore appropriate that the president, himself a distin- guished worker in this field, should deal historic- ally with the development of micro-metallography, as well as contributing an original paper to the NO. 2621, VOL. 104] discussion. Sir Robert Hadfield’s introductory address surveyed the history of microscopical in- vention, and was illustrated by portraits of some of the pioneers in the art—Jansen, Lipperhey, Leeuwenhoek, Sorby, and Dallinger. We were reminded of the fact that, so far back as 1665, Robert Hooke described in his ‘“ Micrographia” the appearance of the point of a needle and the edge of a razor, and his faithful drawings of these two objects, revealing most accurately the features which could be observed under a low magnifica- tion, are reproduced in the paper. The next in- stance of the application of the microscope to the examination of metals is that by Réaumur, whose work on steel, published in 1722, contains many drawings of the magnified fractures of iron and steel bars. Such a method, however, gave little information, and did not lead to any further development. In 1808 Widmanstatten studied the structure of meteoric irons by polishing a plane section and heating until the constituents became differentially coloured by oxidation, thus introduc- ing the method now familiar as “heat-tinting.” The structure of these irons is so coarse that mag- nification is unnecessary, but the method gave hints to later workers, of whom Sorby is the chief. The work of Sorby, in view of its great import- ance, was dealt with by the president in a separate note. Henry Clifton Sorby, one of those amateur scientific investigators who have contributed so Fic. 2.—Magnification 600. 2mm. Apochromat. The steel used in this experiment had the following composition : wonderfully to the progress of science in this country, was led to devise the modern method of microscopic petrography by seeing sections of bone, teeth, etc., rendered transparent by affixing one surface to glass and then grinding down to an extreme thinness, as practised by the botanist Williamson. - Sorby treated rocks in the same way, and in 1849 he prepared the first rock slice 536 NATURE [JANUARY 22, 1920 ever made. By 1851 he had become expert in | stones. In 1857 he presented to the Geological the new process, and was able to publish his | Society his famous paper on the fluid inclusions | observations of the microscopic structure of lime- es al Fic. 3.— Magnification 100. Fic. 5.—Magnification s000. 2mm. Apochromat. Structure of fine lamellar and sorbitic pearlite. The steel used in this experiment had the following composition ; C 0°84, Si 0°30, Mn 0°45, Cr 1°12, Nio*r2 per cent. NO, 2621, VOL. 104] in quartz crystals, in which he ventured to draw Fic. 4 Magnification 1500. conclusions as to the conditions under which rocks had been formed in Nature from the ex- amination of the minute quan- tities of liquid enclosed in the microscopic cavities in crys- tals. The paper was received without enthusiasm, and even with ridicule, so absurd did it seem to study geological prob- lems on the minute scale of the microscope. Nevertheless, Sorby’s conclusions came to be accepted by all geologists, and his paper is now accepted as one of the classics of the science. In 1863 he turned his attention to iron and steel, being led to their study by an examination of meteorites. Just as he had fused masses of silicates arti- ficially in an attempt to solve some of the problems con- nected with igneous rocks, so he proposed to use the in- formation to. be derived from artificial masses of iron and steel for the explanation of the characteristics of meteoric irons. He exhibited sections of iron and steel, and photo- graphs taken from them, at Sheffield and also at the Bath meeting of the British Associa- tion in 1864, and even these early photographs, taken, ‘of JANUARY 22, 1920] . NATURE 537 course, at low magnifications, leave little to be desired in regard to sharpness and beauty. A collection of Sorby’s original polished and etched sections of metals is carefully preserved by the University of Sheffield, and was lent on the occa- sion of the symposium. Sorby’s discovery aroused little interest, and when, in 1877, Prof. Martens, of Berlin, soon fol- lowed by Osmond and by Le Chatelier in Paris, began the study of metals with the aid of the microscope, the work of their predecessor had been forgotten. By this time, however, a general interest in the subject had been awakened, and Sorby’s important papers in the Journal of the Iron and Steel Institute in 1886 and 1887 met with a more appreciative audience. By employing higher magnifications, Sorby was able to show that the “pearly constituent” of steel, as he had called one of its principal constituents, owing to the mother-of-pearl lustre often exhibited by it, was in reality an aggregate of parallel plates of a soft and a hard material. This discovery placed the metallography of steel on a firm basis, and pre- pared the way for the complete explanation of its structure when thermal methods were added to those of the microscope. Great as were the services of other investigators, it is to Sorby that we owe, without question, our modern metallo- graphic methods. Sorby laid great stress on the extension of our knowledge by the use of higher magnifying powers, so well illustrated by his: own ‘discovery of the true nature of pearlite. Most metallographic work is done at magnifications not exceeding 500 diameters, but excellent results have been obtained by some workers with magnifications of 1000 and even of 1500 diameters. The minuteness of many metallic structures, especially those of hardened and tempered steels, has made many metallographers wish for a means of applying much higher mag- nifications. Since the discovery of new detail depends, not on the magnifying power, but on the resolving power of the microscope, it is necessary to increase the latter. This may be effected either by increasing the numericaf aperture of the objective, or by shortening the wave-length of the light used for illumination. The numerical aperture can be increased beyond its present maximum only by the use of other materials than glass, a plan which is likely to be adopted at some future time, whilst the use of ultra-violet light, the magnificent results of which in bacteriology were shown at the meet- ing by Mr. J. E. Barnard, has so far given disap- pointing results with metals. A valuable contribution to the study of highly magnified metal sections was made by the third paper under notice, that by Sir Robert Hadfield and Mr. T. G. Elliot. "The numerous and very beautiful plates illustrate both the advantages of high magnifications and the pitfalls which have to be avoided if success is to be obtained. For ex- ample, a field containing ferrite and pearlite is shown in three photographs, all taken at a mag- nification of 600 diameters, but with objectives of different resolving power. With a 12-mm. objec- NO. 2621, VOL. 104] tive, the pearlite is structureless (Fig. 1), and only when a 2-mm. apochromat is used is its minute lamination fully revealed (Fig. 2). Another pearl- ite has its structure revealed at 1500 diam. (Fig. 4), but becomes much clearer at 5000 (Fig. 5), using the same objective. No further advantage is shown at 8000 diam. The effect of narrowing the aperture too much is shown by the apparent broadening of the cementite lamelle in the pearlite, the true breadth being seen’ very clearly when the iris diaphragm is opened suffi- ciently. The photographs, all of which are re- markably good, may be said to be most successful in the case of pearlitic structures. The structure of martensite at 5000 diam. is not so clearly seen as at a much lower magnification, whilst the minutely granular structures of troostite and sorbite evidently call for a higher resolving power rather than for mere enlargement to indicate their true nature. The paper will serve a most useful purpose in directing attention to the nature of the problem, and perhaps attracting skilled optical workers and physicists to its solution. Ci HDs REPORT OF THE .CALCUTTA UNIVERSITY COMMISSION.1 aS first sight a report in five volumes, each of upwards of four hundred pages, on the Calcutta University Commission would appear somewhat portentous; but anyone alive to the importance of university education in India who makes a study of these volumes will be quickly reconciled to their length and number. For it may be fairly claimed that they contain scarcely a sentence which one would desire to see omitted, The whole report of the Commission, including evidence and appendices, comprises no fewer than thirteen volumes, but we are here concerned only with the first five. Vols. i., ii., and iii. contain a very masterly analysis of the present conditions of education obtaining in Bengal, and vols. iv. and v. the actual recommendations of the Commission. Although this report ostensibly deals only with education in Bengal, the greater part of it. natu- rally has bearing on our educational systems throughout India. The whole report is a model of style, and bears testimony to the infinite pains and care taken by its editors. The names of the members of the Commission were a_ sufficient guarantee of its thoroughness and accuracy. The review of the present conditions of education in Bengal constitutes in itself one of the most valu- able documents for the student of British rule in India. Reports, annual and quinquennial, have been issued in quantity from the various secre- tariats in India, but we know of nothing to com- pare for thoroughness and instructiveness with the chapters under review. It is, of course, impossible for us ir this place to do more than refer briefly to one oz two of 1 Reports of the Calcutta University Commission, 1917-19. (Calcutta Superintendent Government Printing. India, 1919.) Prices: Vol.i., Parti. 3s. ; Vol. ii., Part i., 3s. 6d. ; Vol. iii, Part i., 1s. 6¢.; Vol. ive, Part ii., 2s. 6d.; Vol. v., Part ii., 2s. 538 NATURE [JANUARY 22, 1920 the many important topics dealt with, but before discssing any of these we may mention that the key jto the reforms recommended by the Commis- sioners is the establishment of a Board of Secon- dary and Intermediate Education. The object they have in view is to secure the admission of students to the university who are duly prepared for higher studies, and the exclusion of those who are not. Under existing conditions an enormous number of candidates are sent up for the matriculation examination who are totally unfit to enter on university studies. There are, of course, a number of excellent high schools in Bengal, and especially in Cal- cutth, but there are a far greater number of in- ferior schools. Their inferiority is due in a gredt measure to the low standard of the teaching staff. English, for example, is often taught by an Indian on a poor salary, who is not really qualified to teach it. As the time approaches for the matriculation examination, a test examination is held in each school, and on the result of that test}candidates are allowed to go in for the uni- versity examination. A percentage of marks is demanded of students who are allowed to proceed, but the test varies very much from school to school, and owing to the solicitations of parents and: other causes there is a tendency to show great leniency, for so important is the prestige at- abie to higher English education that to have failed in the matriculation is already regarded as an achievement. All Anglo-Indians are familiar with the claims that are supposed to attach to a man who has failed in the B.A., his value in the marriage-market being far greater than that of a man who has not sat for the B.A. at all. The main problems, therefore, which the Com- mission set itself to solve were: (1) how to im- prove the higher classes of the secondary schools, and. (2) how to secure the admission only of qualified students to university courses. Having convinced themselves of the impossibility of exer- cising full control of all the secondary schools in the .province, which would involve an_ extensive inspectorate and interference with many private enterprises, the Commissioners came to the con- clusion that control could be exercised at the stage now represented by the intermediate stage at universities, and they therefore suggest the establishment of intermediate colleges, which should be either attached to selected high schools or organised as distinct institutions. These col- leges should be under the immediate control of the Board of Secondary and Intermediate Educa- tion, the constitution of which is representative of all classes. The intermediate colleges should afford instruction not only for the ordinary degree courses of the university in arts and science, but also for the medical, engineering, and teaching professions, and for careers in agriculture, com- merce, and industry. There should be two secondary-school examinations: the first, approxi- mately corresponding to the present matriculation, to be taken at the end of the high-school stage, at the normal age of sixteen, or, in special cases, NO. 2621, VOL. 104] at the age of fifteen, and to be known as the high-school examination; the second, approxi- mately corresponding to the present intermediate, but much more varied in. its range, to be taken at the end of the intermediate college course, at the normal age of eighteen, and to be known as the intermediate college examination. test of admission to university courses. The constitution of the board is, of course, a very important matter. It is to consist of from fifteen to eighteen members, appoint outside members to sub-committees. The president of the board should be a salaried official appointed by Government, of high status. This board will naturally take a good deal of responsibility out of the hands of the universities, which will, however, be represented on it by seven members, for they will define the curricula, not only of the intermediate colleges, but, as natural: follows, also of the high schools; and they wi further conduct the two secondary-school exam- inations which we have mentioned above. This board will also, of course, relieve the Director of Public Instruction of much detail work, with-_ out, however, reducing in any way the importance of his department. Such is the Commission’s proposal for improv-~ ing the system. The Commissioners have also gone very thoroughly into the all-important ques- tion of improving the teaching staffs, which is chiefly a matter of finance. they have made several important proposals, of which the three following are the most’ im- portant: (1) That facilities should be given for — the interchange of teachers between privately — managed schools and Government schools; (2) that teachers in Government schools and col- leges should be placed upon a professional rather _ than a service basis; (3) that a superannuation _ fund should be instituted to replace the existing — pension system for future recruits to the profes- — sion. This last suggestion, which is based upon the federated superannuation scheme which has been adopted in the home universities, should do much to encourage recruiting for the Bengal educational service. One of the most difficult subjects with which the Commission has had to deal was the question of the medium of instruction to be used in secon- dary schools. Although, as is natural, there is a general desire among Indians that their children — should be educated on a bilingual basis, there is an overwhelming mass of opinion in favour of English as the chief medium from the intermediate stage upwards. The difficulty is to decide at what stage to begin to use English as a medium, and for what subjects. The Commission is of opinion that the vernacular should be used for instruction throughout secondary schools for ali subjects other than English and mathematics. It was con- vinced that the use of English in secondary schools as a medium is excessive. The Commis- sioners are, however, “emphatically of opinion that there is something unsound in a system of Success in this examination should constitute the normal with power to In this connection JANUARY 22, 1920] NATURE 539 education which leaves a young man, at the con-. clusion of his course, unable to speak or write his own mother tongue fluently and correctly.” There is, we are aware, an ever-increasing desire on the part of Indians to see the vernacu- lars encouraged and developed; for a long time _ Englishmen also have aimed at fostering the ' development of vernacular literatures, and_post- graduate research in the vernaculars is already a recognised branch of study. But it is, we feel, important to keep distinct the two objects in view, namely, (1) to provide the best education for schoolboys, and (2) to cultivate the vernacular languages. Space will not permit us to discuss at any length the cognate subject of the teaching of English, but it may fairly be claimed that hitherto university instruction in English has been con- ducted on unpractical lines. Textual analysis of seventeenth-century literature on the part of students who have not mastered the modern idiom tends to unintelligent cram. What is wanted is the more rapid perusal of standard modern works. Nothing can be more pitiable than to see a class of Indian students taking down ver- batim notes (always in English) from a lecturer on such a book as “Samson Agonistes.” This is not the way to learn English for practical pur- poses, which is the main object of all except those who take English as a subject for their degree. It is satisfactory to note that the Sanskrit College and the Madrasahs have received ample treatment by the Commission, and are to be placed on a better footing. We have not space to deal now with the im- portant proposals of the Commission in regard to the organisation of the University of Dacca, the reorganisation of the University of Calcutta, and their many recommendations in regard to exam- inations, women’s education, medical education, agricultural education, engineering and techno- logical education, and Oriental studies. We can only congratulate the Commissioners on the admir- able report they have produced, and express a hope that their main proposal, the Board of Secon- dary and Intermediate Education, may become before long a practical reality. E. Denison Ross. NOTES. OnE of the most useful functions that can be per- formed in these days of minute specialisation of scientific research is the promotion of meetings at which workers in various fields can discuss subjects of common interest. Since Sir Robert Hadfield became president of the Faraday Society in 1914, fifteen such discussions have been held, the last, of which an account is given elsewhere in this issue, being in the meeting-room of the Royal Society on January 14, in association with the Royal Micro- scopical Society, the Optical Society, and the Photo- micrographic Society. Sir Robert Hadfield and the secretary of the Faraday Society, Mr. F. S. Spiers, are to'be heartily congratulated upon the great interest NO, 2621, VOL. 104] taken in this discussion, the subject of which was “The Microscope: Its Design, Construction, and Applications,’’ and the exhibition of instruments con- nected with it. There were meetings in the after- noon and evening, and on both occasions it is scarcely too much to say that as many people were unable to find places in the meeting-room as those who filled it to the doors. With characteristic generosity Sir Robert Hadfield entertained a large company to dinner at the' Ritz Hotel between the two meetings. The whole session was most successful and encouraging to all who are interested in the advance of British optical science, both theoretical and applied. By organising such joint meetings the Faraday Society is indeed promoting the best interests of both science and industry, and doing what might be undertaken even more appropriately by the Royal Society itself. AN interesting pamphlet on the work of Faraday and the Faraday Society was prepared by Sir Robert Hadfield in connection with the joint discussion on the microscope held on Wednesday, January 14. It appears that the Faraday Society was chiefly responsible for the appointment of a special Nitrogen Products Committee by the Munitions Inventions Department, and this Committee was, in turn, instru- mental in establishing a research department, which provided much valuable information for the practical consideration of sources of nitrogen supply when the submarine campaign made the subject a matter of national concern. One of the members of the council of the society, Dr. J. A. Harker, was entrusted with the direction of this work, and the final report of the Nitrogen Products Committee, which has just been .published (Cmd. 482, 4s. net), is a most substantial survey of the position of supplies of nitrogen com- pounds and the practical problems involved in the establishment of processes for nitrogen fixation in this country. Referring in the pamphlet to his own par- ticular lines of work, Sir Robert Hadfield mentions that Faraday, in his experiments on alloys of iron with other elements carried out in 1821 and 1822, was the pioneer of the great technical advances which have been made in alloy steels during the past thirty years. It was” Sir Robert’s own discovery and invention of man- ganese steel in 1882 which led others to explore the rich field first entered by Faraday, and has resulted in the production of chromium steel, silicon steel, nickel steel, tungsten. steel, and many other types. Tue recent death of Dr. John Wilson, lecturer in agriculture and rural economy in the University of St. Andrews, robs the University and science of a keen and brilliant agricultural biologist. Dr. Wilson was one of the few who regarded agriculture as a sister science of biology rather than as a branch of chemistry, and his work on the improvement of farm crops has borne excellent fruit. Whilst demonstrator in zoology he devoted considerable attention to the development of the common mussel, and published an elaborately illustrated memoir on the subject, but his name will be more permanently associated with his successful investigations on the improvement of such plants as the potato, turnip, and oat. He raised an enormous number of new varieties. Amongst those 540 NATURE [January 22, 1920 of the potato were many of exceedingly fine quality and disease-resisting properties, and. they have been taken up by growers all over the country. His most successful varieties in this connection were perhaps Templar, Bishop, and Rector. Dr. Wilson’s experi- mental work on oats was equally successful, and he was hoping shortly to place on record a full account of his investigations. Many other plants at different times claimed his attention with equally interesting results. Handicapped by lack of means and assistance, he never spared himself. His unflagging enthusiasm and remarkable energy deserved better and more liberal support, and had it been forthcoming there is not the slightest doubt that the nation would have greatly benefited by his researches. FatHer JOHANN NeEpoMUK StRassMaigR, S.J., the distinguished Assyriologist, who died on January 11 at the Jesuits’ Church, Mount Street, London, W., was born in Bavaria in 1846. Soon after the beginning of Bismarck’s Kulturkampf against the Catholic Church in Germany, Strassmaier left his native land in 1872 and came to England, where he remained for the rest of his life. From his early youth he had been deeply interested in Oriental studies, and in London his attention was soon directed to the numerous Baby- lonian tablets in the British Museum, which had. not yet been interpreted and translated, and among which were many astronomical texts. Strassmaier was fortunate enough to become associated with Father Epping, S.J., who undertook the necessary calculations and the scientific discussion of the texts interpreted by Strassmaier. The first results of their labours were published in a book, ‘‘Astronomisches aus Babylon ”’ (1889), which was followed by several papers in the Zeitschrift fiir Assyriologie. They showed clearly that the astronomers of Babylon during the two or three centuries before Hipparchus (if not earlier) possessed a considerable amount of accurate knowledge of the motions of the sun, moon, and planets. Epping died about 1895, but some years later his work was taken up by Father Kugler, who published his ‘‘ Babylonische Mondrechnung ”’ in 1900, and began to issue his great work, ‘“‘Sternkunde und Sterndienst in Babel,” in 1907. Kugler repeatedly bore testimony to the great patience and skill of Strassmaier in deciphering many text, which but for him might have remained unread for ever, as they were gradually deteriorating owing to damp and other climatic influences. Tue Lord President of the Council has approved the appointment of Col. Sir Frederic Nathan, K.B.E., late R.A., to be Power Alcohol Investigation Officer under the Fuel Research Board of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research. The appointment of the Power Alcohol Investigation Officer has been made as a result of the consideration given by the Committee of Council for Scientific and Industrial Research to the report of the Interdepartmental Com- mittee on the Production and Utilisation of Alcohol for Power and Traction Purposes, which recommended the establishment of a small permanent organisation under the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research to continue investigations into these problems. The Fuel Research Board proposes to begin NO, 2621, VOL. 104] by bringing the work already being done as regards both the production and the utilisation of alcohol into proper focus. Sir Frederic Nathan, who before the war — was Superintendent of the Royal Gunpowder Factory at — Waltham Abbey, and later works manager of Messrs. ( Nobel’s Explosives Factory, Ardeer, was the officer in control of alcohol under the Ministry of Munitions during the war, and chairman of the Production Section of the — Interdepartmental Committee referred to above. Prof. Pierce Purcell, who was Secretary of the Irish Peat Inquiry Committee, has also been appointed to act as — Peat Investigation Officer under the Fuel Research — Board. The duties of the Peat Investigation Officer im will be to keep the Board informed of all progress in connection with research into the utilisation of peat, — to continue and extend experiments on the mechanical — cutting and winning of peat, and to make arrange- ments for careful tests of the use of peat as a fue under _ boilers. Pror. R. T. Lerper, reader in helminthology in the University of London, has been awarded the Straits Settlement gold medal by the Senate of the University — of Glasgow. The medal was founded some years ago — by Scottish medical practitioners in the Malay States, — and is given periodically to a graduate in medicine of — the Scottish universities for a thesis on a igi of : tropical medicine. . Tue council of the British Medical Acsdciation is. prepared to consider an award of the Middlemore — prize (value sol.) and an illuminated certificate for the best essay on ‘ Perimetry (inclusive of Scotometry) : Its Methods and its Value to the Ophthalmic Sur- geon.’’ The competing essays must reach the Medical Secretary of the Association, 429 Strand, W.C.: 2, on on or before April 30 next. ‘Mr. C. T. Kinazett writes to suggest that ails rising to great altitudes should carry bottles of water — which, by being emptied at such heights, could then : be sealed, and would enable samples of the air there — to be secured for purposes of analysis. The late M. Teisserenc de Bort obtained specimens in this way and had them analysed, but found no difference from — normal air. His specimens were obtained from regis- _ tering balloons beyond the reach of any manned bal- — loon or aeroplane. Glaisher no doubt also obtained air — from the highest points he reached in his ascents about : 1862. Tue death of Mr. Alexander Izat on January 2 is announced in Engineering for January 16. Mr. Izat_ joined the Indian Public Works Department in 1863, and had much to do with the development of the Indian railways. For several years he was on the Legislative Council of the Lieutenant-Governor of the United Provinces; he was made a Companion of the” Indian Empire in 1898, and served for several years as a member of council of the Institution of Civil Engineers. At the time of his death - was in his seventy-sixth year. WE learn with regret that Prof. George Macloskie, professor of biology, Princeton University, U.S.A., died on January 4 in the eighty-fifth year of his age. Prof. Macloskie was born at Castledawson, Ireland, y z ee ee JANUARY 22, 1920] “NATURE 541 _ and educated at Queen’s University, Belfast, from which he received degrees in both law and theology. During his student days he was twice a gold medallist of the college. He was called to Princeton in 1875, during the administration of President McCosh. Since 1907 Prof. Macloskie had been professor emeritus of biology in Princeton University. He is best known for his work on the flora of Patagonia. Tue Times of January 21 contains the following announcement with reference to the Dartmoor hydro- electric supply scheme :—‘tIn deference to the opposi- tion from the Duchy of Cornwall and the Devon County Council, the promoters have decided to drop that part of the Hydro-electric Bill by which they sought to utilise Dartmoor water for generating elec- tricity. They will modify the Bill to restrict: their powers to erecting overhead mains for supplying: to consumers such surplus power beyond the require- ments of their proposed copper-refining industry in mid-Devon, which they produce from lignite beds they intend to develop.”’ SrronG earthquakes continue to be felt in Mexico. At La Fragua, in the State of Puebla, shocks have been almost continuous since the great earthquake of January 3. At Coatzlan, another shock occurred on January 9, by which the destruction of the town was completed. San Joaquin, a village of 3000 inhabitants in the State of Vera Cruz, was destroyed by an earth- quake on the morning of January 12. On January 8 the volcano of San Miguel, 35 miles north-east of Cordoba, broke into eruption; streams of lava flowed down the south-east side of the mountain, de- stroying villages and ranches. AccorpinG to the Bulletin of the Science Division of the Royal Academy of Belgium for March, 19109, at the meeting on March 1 it was decided :—({1) To break off relations and exchange of publications with the scientific societies of Germany, Austria, Hungary, and Turkey. (2) To employ only booksellers to pro- cure such publications as shall be considered strictly necessary, whatever be the additional cost involved. (3) Not to send any publication to the men of science of the above nations. (4) To decline and return to the societies or atithors of the above countries any publications sent to the academy. AN interesting interview with Prof. Einstein ap- peared in the Daily Chronicle of January 15. A German by birth, Prof. Einstein went to Switzerland in his early youth, where he became naturalised. For some years he was professor of physics at the Federal Polytechnikum in Zirich, and for a short time also at the University of Prague. Shortly before the out- break of war: he was ‘‘called”’ to the University of Berlin, where he is still working, being at the same time director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physical Research. Now little more than forty years of age, this eminent man of science conceived the outlines of the theory of relativity at the early age of eighteen, and presented his special theory to the scientific world at the age of twenty-seven. Prof. Einstein regards Prof. Lorentz (Leyden) as his ‘‘co- operator ’’ in the ‘special theory of relativity. He NO, 2621, VOL. 104] points out that, far from vitiating the results of Newton, the theory of relativity rather enhances the greatness of this genius. Though these new ideas will not overthrow the general conceptions of man, kind, they will leave their impress on men’s thinking in the philosophical and allied sciences. For some years there has been a vigorous Phyto- pathological Society in the United States, and recently a Canadian branch of this has been formed, the first annual meeting being held in Ontario. Dr. A. H. R. Buller, formerly of Birmingham University, and now professor of botany in the University of Manitoba, was elected president for 1920. Dr. E. C. Stakman, of Minnesota, was the guest of the society, and gave an account of the very valuable investigations which he and his colleagues have carried out into the races of cereal rust fungi and their bearing on the problems of immunity and susceptibility to disease. Among the attractive list of papers presented to the meeting, those of Mr. J. E. Howitt on ‘ Leaf-roll and Mosaic of Pota- toes’ and of Mr. Paul A. Murphy on ‘‘ Diseases of Potatoes which Cause the Running Out of Seed ’’ may be mentioned. Both are welcome additions to our very meagre knowledge of extremely obscure subjects of primary importance. There is in this country no society devoting itself exclusively to phytopathology, and perhaps this is well, for we possess already more than enough small specialised organisations running a precarious separate existence. The need is not for increase in their number, but for some kind of.amal- gamation or federation of those now existent. The study of diseased crops is merely one branch of applied biology, and this subject is excellently catered for by the Association of Economic Biologists, which performs valuable work in synthesising all the many aspects. of investigation which centre round the economic utilisation of plants. PowELt’s classification and map of the linguistic families of America allotted twenty-two families, or parts of families, to California. This classification has hitherto been generally accepted. But in recent years the study of these dialects has been fully inves- tigated by Messrs. R. B. Dixon and A. L. Kroeber, the results of their work being now published in the University -of California Publications in American Archeology and Ethnology (vol. xviii., No. 3, Sep- tember, 1919). It has now become possible to re- group these dialects into seven main groups. The most important of these are the Penutian in the north-western region and the Uto-Aztekan to the south-west. The remaining language-groups form a sort of fringe round the two greater groups, the most important being the Hokon, and of less extent the Algonkin, Athabaskan, Yokian, and Lutuamian. Full grammatical details on which this new classification is based are given by Messrs. Dixon and Kroeber. Mr. J. W. Gowen has made (Genetics, May, 1919) a biometrical study of the phenomenon of heredity known as crossing-over, basing his conclusions on extensive data derived from the behaviour of the Mendelian factors in the third chromosome of Droso- phila melanogaster. It is shown that double crossing- 542 NATURE [JANUARY 22, 1920 over is an extremely variable phenomenon. The re- duplication hypothesis is regarded as definitely dis- proved, and all detailed interpretations are based upon the structure of the chromosomes.. Crossing-over between two fixed points on a chromosome is found to be highly variable. It is also found that a change in genes between two fixed points in the third chromosome slightly disturbs the ratios of crossing- over between those points. Biometric analysis shows that the results are all in harmony with the hypothesis that the factors are represented by particles arranged along the chromosomes. A cross-over ‘in one region of the chromosome is more likely to be accompanied by a cross-over 25-35 units away than elsewhere. VoL. ix. of the Bulletin Statistique has just been published by the International Council for Fishery Investigations. Particular interest attaches to this report, as it deals with the year 1913, the last of a long series during which there has been a con- tinuous, progressive development of the sea-fishing industry in North European countries, and vol. ix. is likely to remain a standard of comparison of two periods, in the interval between which many conditions will be found greatly to have changed. The council has in preparation a Bulletin describing the effect of the war upon the fisheries, and this, it is hoped, will soon be ready. Several changes have been made in the arrangement of the present volume; the use of two languages has been dropped, and the results are now published only in English. There are many useful diagrams. A feature of ex- ceedingly great interest, the estimation of the capital employed industrially, in factories, curing works, etc., in 1913, as well as in the vessels, might be included in the next volume as a help to the understanding of the great change in economic conditions that is now taking place. Tue Téhoku Imperial University, Sendai, Japan, continues to publish beautifully illustrated memoirs on fossils in the geological series of its Science Reports. In the latest part received (vol. v., No. 1), Mr. I. Hayasaka describes the microscopical structure of three Permian species of the remarkable sponge Amblysiphonella from Japan and China. Prof. H. Yabe also illustrates in three fine plates the micro- scopical structure of a Tertiary foraminiferal. lime- stone from Borneo. ‘e Tue United States Geological sive has published Professional Papers Nos. 112 and 120, dealing respec- tively with Cretaceous plant-remains from Tennessee, Mississippi, Alabama, and Georgia, and Cretaceous fish-scales from various American localities. The plant-remains, described by Dr. E. W. Berry, are chiefly leaves of dicotyledons, and represent a lowland coast flora. The sudden appearance of dicotyledons as the dominant plants in Middle Cretaceous times is still a mystery, and Dr. Berry thinks this modern flora may have originated in the Arctic regions. The description of the fish-scales by Prof. T. D. A. Cockerell is a bold attempt to use fragmentary fossils in stratigraphical geology. NO. 2621, VOL. 104] Part iii. of vol. iv. of the Records of the Geological - Survey of India, which has just reached us, contains a review of the mineral production of India during 1918. Upon the whole the position is satisfactory, most of the important minerals showing an in-— Thus the coal output rose from creased production. 18,212,918 to 20,721,543 tons; it is worth noting that the most substantial increases are shown in the important coalfields of Jharia and Raniganj, which produced respectively 52:85 per cent. and 30°74 per cent. of the total Indian output. The output of iron ore, too, increased, namely, from 413,273 to 492,484 tons, most of which was smelted in the works of the Tata Iron and Steel Co. and the Bengal Iron and Steel Co.; the latter produced also 12,114 tons of — ferro-manganese during © the year under review. There was a large increase in the production of chromite, mainly through the development of some recent discoveries in the State of Mysore. The output — of manganese ore, on the other hand, fell from 591,000 to 518,000 tons, the falling off being probably — caused by the difficulties of procuring the neces- sary shipping facilities. put, namely, 19,074 tons of lead and 1,970,614 oz. of silver, as against 16,962 tons of lead and 1,580,557 0z. of silver. Gold, on the other hand, declined some- what, namely, from 574,293 0z. to 536,118 oz. The falling off under this head has, of course, a far less effect upon the prosperity of India than has the increase noted under such minerals as coal and iron, which contribute essentially to the industrial aba ment of the country. Tue oscillations in the luminosity of inched electric lamps illuminated by alternating currents forms the subject of a short report by Dr. Luigiao Fabaro in the Atti dei Lincei (xxviii. (1), 7, 8). The phenomena had been previously studied by Prof. Corbino, and the present experiments refer mainly to certain recent types of lamp. Diagrams are drawn showing the relation between the fluctuations of intensity and those of the electromotive force, and, at the same time, the difference of phase between the luminosity and the exciting electromotive force. These The Bawdwin mine in the Northern Shan States again shows an increase of out- — are in conformity with the theory that the effect can — be reduced by increasing the mass of the filament. From the Laboratorio di Ottica pratica e Mec- canica di Precisione we have received the first numbers of a new periodical, Rivista d’Ottica e Mec- canica di Precisione. Hitherto Italy has not had a technical periodical on the lines of the German Zeit- schrift fiir Instrumentenkunde, and the new journal is a modest attempt to fill the want. Like other countries, Italy has made great progress in the con- struction of optical and other scientific instruments during the war, and the need for a medium in which matters of interest to practical optical workers can be The November-December discussed is now being felt. number contains articles on Galileo and the pendulum a the application of interference methods over — clock, PS ee A ee Le eee ee ee simple observations with the naked eye, the first instal- — ment of a paper by P. G. Nutting on ‘ Dispersion of the wave-length of the radiation. January 22, 1920] NATURE 343 Formulz for Optical Glass,’’ and a description of the | The author makes a theoretical comparison of the focimeter of the Royal Precision Laboratory, as well | as a selection of abstracts from foreign periodicals. In an article entitled “The AEther versus Rela- tivity’? in the January issue of the Fortnightly Review Sir Oliver Lodge contends that as the current ideas that the ether is an infinitely extended uniform medium as a whole at rest, and that absolute motion | is to be measured with respect to this zther, are simple and straightforward, they should be retained so long as noclear proof that they are false is forthcoming. The new theories express the facts of experience in other terms, but they attribute the property of wave- transmission to geometrical space free from any medium, and are, in consequence, repugnant to those “with a competent faculty for rational philosophis- ing.” Sir Oliver Lodge urges the desirability of com- paring the speeds of light along and against a strong magnetic field as a promising means of determining the density of the ether. Such a result would entirely discredit the theory of relativity as a statement of real . fact. A REPORT on the general theory of blade-screws, forming Report No. 9 of the American National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, has been drawn up by Mr. George de Bothezat, of Dayton, Ohio (Washington : Government Printing Office, 1919). In a problem like the present, in which the conditions are far too complex to admit of an exact hydro- dynamical solution, any theory’ necessarily’ involves assumptions which at best are only approximate. The author applies elemental methods, first, to the slip stream, and, secondly, to the region surrounding a blade element, and, in common with many previous investigations, neglect of the effects of radial motion is one of the assumptions made in a first approxima- tion. previous investigations, especially in the matter of a detailed examination of the elements of fluid, and the author is very careful in stating the assumptions on which the work is based, and the justification for which will necessarily depend on comparison of the results with those of experiment. An appendix deals with the geometry of screw-blade drawing. The method appears to neglect compressibility, and will therefore be applicable to air-screws of which the tip velocity does not come too near the velocity of sound. AN important paper on radio-transmission and recep- tion by Mr. J. H. Dellinger has been published by the Bureau of Standards, Washington. The difficulty experienced by practically every man of science in understanding the ordinary radio theory is in master- ing the proof of the formula which gives the magnetic force at a distance from the sending antenna in terms He objects to accepting it without proof, and he has not time to puzzle out the intricate theory given by Hertz. Mr. Dellinger gives a rough proof of this formula based on well-known laws. This formula being accepted, the rest of radio theory follows very simply. The formula has been tested in practice many. times, and found accurate within a small percentage of error. NO. 2621, VOL. 104] The theory appears to constitute an advance on | relative values of antenne and closed coils for sending ' and receiving purposes, and it is shown how the | limitations of each follow directly from theory. Although the theory is sufficiently accurate to be a great help in the design of radio stations, yet the necessity for further research, both experimental and theoretical, is urgent, and a long list of such researches is suggested. To everyone desiring a knowledge of the practical theory of radio communication this paper can be recommended. Tue lot of the inventor. is always hard unless he is exceptionally placed, and combines commercial with inventive ability. Engineering for January 9 points out two ways in which it is becoming increasingly difficult, Experiment is becoming much more costly, and at the same time the protection afforded by the patent laws becomes less and less. Nevertheless, the essential importance of invention from the national point of view is now recognised, and research laboratories are being set up which are to afford every facility for experiment. The success of this movement depends upon getting the inventors into the laboratories, and upon their doing their best work when they are there. But we find that men entering these laboratories are being required to sign away all rights of every kind to any invention they may make. They are to rely solely upon a reward at the discretion of the firm. Our contemporary suggests that a research laboratory should be an independent organisation, financed by the parent firm, but receiving royalties on a liberal scale to be divided among its members by agreement among themselves, and also hints that it may be useless to put forward such a scheme. Apart from the fact that the British business man feels that he is less and less ‘‘master in his own house,’’ there is the other point which appeals to research workers, viz. victimisa- tion; he may find himself no longer required in the laboratory, and, after his discharge, may look in vain for his share of the royalties. Engineering for January 9 contains an article, on works management by Mr. F. C. Van Dyke, which will be found to give a very clear discussion of the principles involved. There is a growing tendency to demand that the works manager should be a college- trained engineer, but it is essential that he should have the same practical and varied engineering experience as is required from the self-made man; whatever may have been his initial training, however, mere oppor- tunity without fitness will not produce the successful works manager. The requirements as regards his principles and education may be summarised as con- sisting essentially of organisation, foresight, co-ordina- tion, supervision or control, and diplomacy. A works manager should recognise that, notwithstanding scientific effort and research, the efficiency given by plant and machines is regulated by human effort, wasteful by instinct, and that to obtain the reduction of such waste it will be necessary to save lost efforts, so that the recovery of waste may add new resources to the community. He must also understand that science in industry will generally bé resented by the 544 NATURE [JANUARY 22, 1920 average worker. Owing to the workers’ insufficient knowledge of the economics ruling industry, he be- lieves that the extra profit thereby derived passes to the employer without relative advantage to the worker, and that the efficiency of employees penalises others by unemployment; hence scientific improvements must be introduced with foresight and tact. Amonea forthcoming books we notice the following : ‘Wireless Telegraphy, with Special Reference to the Quenched-spark System,’’ B. Leggett; ‘‘ Aeronautical Engineers,’’ Major A. Graham Clark; ‘‘Theory and Practice of Aeroplane Design,’ S. T. G. Andrews and S.-F. Benson; ‘‘ Physical Chemistry of the Metals,” R. Schenk, translated by R. S. Dean; ‘ Manufacture and Uses of Alloy Steels,” H. D. Hibbard; and ‘“Mathematics for Engineers,’ W. N. Rose, vol. ii. (Chapman and Hall, Ltd.}; ‘‘The Principles of Anatomy as Seen in the Hand,’”’ Prof. F. Wood-Jones, illustrated; ‘‘A Text-book of Organic Chemistry,” E. de Barry Barnett, illustrated; and ‘‘ Laboratory Manual of Elementary Colloid Chemistry,” E. Hatschek, illustrated (J. and A. Churchill); Economy: For Steam Users, Engineers, Enginemen, Boiler Firemen, etc.,”” W. H. Casmey, and ‘The Mineralogy of the Rarer Metals,’’ Cahen and Wootton, second edition (C. Griffin and Co., Ltd.). THE new list of announcements of Mr. John Murray contains many books of scientific interest, e.g. ‘‘Science and Life: Aberdeen Addresses,” Prof. F. Soddy; “Springtime, and. Other Essays,” Sir Francis Darwin, illustrated (this week); ‘*Splendours of the Sky,’’ Isabel M. Lewis, illustrated; ‘‘Conifers and their Characteristics,”’ C.- Coltman-Rogers, illustrated; ‘Life of Sir William White, K.C.B., F.R.S.,” F. Manning, illustrated; ‘‘New Light on Ser Marco Polo,’’ Prof. H. Cordier (a supplement to Sir Henry Yule’s ‘‘ The Book of Ser Marco Polo”); ‘‘The Shibboleths of Tuberculosis,’?> Dr. M. Paterson; ‘‘ Wild Life in Canada,’’ Capt. A. Buchanan, illustrated; ‘The Heron of Castle Creek, and Other Sketches of Bird Life,’”? A. W. Rees, with a memoir of the author by J. K. Hudson, illustrated; volumes dealing respec- tively with Hides and Skins, Rice, and Oil Seed (in the Imperial Institute Reports on Indian Raw Materials), and ‘‘ Tungsten Ores,’’ R. H. Rastall and W. H. Wilcockson (in the Imperial Institute Mono- graphs on Mineral Resources); also new editions of “The Interpretation of Radium and the Structure of the Atom,” Prof. F. Soddy, illustrated; ‘‘ Micro- scopy: The Construction, Theory, and Use of the Microscope,” E. J. Spitta, illustrated; ‘‘ Hydro- graphical Surveying,” the late Rear-Admiral Sir W. J. L. Wharton, revised, etc., by Admiral Sir Mostyn Field; ‘‘The Soil, Sir A. D. Hall; and “The Small Farm and its Management,” J. Long. OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN. LaRGE FIREBALL ON JANUARY 16.—In the evening twilight of January 16, at 4h. 50m., a fireball was observed from London and other places in the Eastern Counties. It gave a brilliant flash and left a luminous trail which assumed curious forms during fully 5% minutes. The observations already received of this NO. 2621, VOL. 104] **Coal, object are not sufficiently exact or numerous to allow the real path to be trustworthily determined, but the meteor probably had a radiant in Cygnus at about 290°+53°, and was situated over Lincolnshire. We hope to give more details next week. 77 laa n recent years January has proved itself a month > in which fireballs are notably abundant. In 1895, on January 16, three large fireballs were observed, anc the period from January 12 to 17 seems to have been unusually productive of these brilliant objects. > — Pror. W. H. Pickerinc’s Lunar Stupies.—Prof. W. H. Pickering has for many years made careful — studies of various regions of the moon during the whole period oftheir illumination by the sun. — traced several cases of notable changes of rela illumination of adjacent regions, some } brighter, others darkening, as the sun rises Popular Astronomy for November contains a number of drawings and photographs of the crater Eratos- thenes. e author suggests that the white regi Sea are snow, and the dark regions some low form of vegetation. He imagines that a limited amount of water may remain in certain regions, being held in the soil by capillary attraction. It seems, however, — that the phenomena might be otherwise exp! . neighbouring regions being formed of different : of rock, or even by their being of different degrees of smoothness. Observations of occultations made on the dark limb show with certainty that no refraction occurs exceeding 1”; those made on the bright limb are less precise, but even there the greatest ac oes refraction is some 4”. Comparing this with the 68” of a tangential ray in our atmosphere, we see how exceedingly rare any lunar atmosphere must be. The — suggestion of vegetation is perhaps not absolutely im- possible, but presents grave difficulties, — mei le the suggestion made in a With regard to 1 publication of the Smithsonian Institution, Washing- ton, D.C., of a rocket to reach the moon, — irresistibly recalling the well-known romance of Jules Verne, it seems clear that the propulsive effect of the escaping gases must be trifling beyond the atmo- — sphere. A velocity of seven miles per second would therefore be required at the limits of the a sphere, and considerably more evidence is needed before this can be admitted as attainable. romtee 4 bo Tue Sotar Ecupsr oF May 29, 1919.—The January number of Conquest contains an article by Mr. C. R. Davidson, one of the observers of the rae | S Sobral, Brazil. It is illustrated by many views of the locality, eclipse mgd and instruments, and gives a clear statement of the ever, a good record of the corona was obtained, Tee oa shape is a blend between maximum and minimum — types; it would conform more closely to the latter, save for a large streamer at the South Pole. Mr., Davidson and Mr. Woodman directed attention, at — the meeting of the R.A.S. on January 9, to the advisability of repeating the observations, with still greater refinement, at the eclipse of September, 1922. They exhibited a model of a simple form of equatorial — mounting, suitable for low latitudes, which would ~ obviate the necessity for employing ccelostats. These are admirably adapted for physical researches, but have some defects in a case where extreme precision — of position is required. : , it i ‘ oH . a JANUARY 22, 1920] Pa SYMPOSIUM ON THE MICROSCOPE. 7? symposium and general discussion on the microscope, held on January 14 by the Faraday Society, the Royal Microscopical Society, the Optical Society, and the Photomicrographic Society, in con- junction with the Optical Committee of the British Science Guild, attracted a very large audience, which the meeting-room of the Royal Society proved quite inadequate to accommodate. The objects of the sym- posium, as stated by Sir Robert Hadfield in his intro- ductory address, were :— (a) Improvement in the technique of the microscope itself, including its manufacture. (b) Improvement in lenses, including eyepieces and objectives of high power. (c) Improved application of. the microscope for re- search in ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy. With such extensive ground to be covered it is not surprising that the programme of papers presented was much longer than could possibly be read during the meeting. Many of these were of great interest, and, as the majority were in type before the meeting, the aims of the symposium might perhaps have been more fully achieved had these been taken as read and the time thus saved utilised for discussion. It will only be possible in the space available for this article to record a few of the more salient points brought for- ward at the meeting. ; Sir Robert Hadfield, who was in the chair, opened the afternoon session by giving a brief history of the microscope and its applications in metallurgy down to the present day. In addition, he contributed papers on the Faraday Society and on the work of Sorby, a bibliography of the chief literature relating to the microscope, and a series of photomicrographs of steel and iron sections at magnifications ranging from 9 up to 8000 diameters. He was followed by the presidents of the various participating societies, by microscope manufacturers, and by other prominent workers, who each dealt with some special aspect of microscopy. Prof. Cheshire indicated the importance of microscope production as a measure of the standing of the optical industry of any country. Other speakers touched on ground which was to a considerable extent traversed by many other contributors. On one subject, at any rate, all the speakers were agreed—the necessity for proper training in the use of the microscope, whether for visual or photographic use. This will be clearly realised by those who note how frequently those with extensive experience in microscopical research refer to the importance of securing proper conditions of illumination. The absence of proper courses in this subject was compared by Sir Herbert Jackson with the very thorough courses now available in spectroscopy. That instruction is needed in our universities in the: use of the microscope and in the interpretation of the effect seen—nay, more, in the proper appreciation of optical theory itselfi—was proved beyond any doubt to the meeting. Compared with the unanimity on the need for education, there were very marked divergences in the views expressed by nearly all the speakers on detailed matters. Consider, for instance, the desirability of obtaining increased magnification with greater resolv- ing power. Many of the most experienced metal- lurgists who expressed their views anticipated that any considerable increase in resolving power would be likely to afford clues to some of those problems which to-day are most baffling in the production of metals with specific properties. It is suggested, for instance, that with improvements in the resolving power the mysterious alterations in the mechanical properties of metals brought about by cold working would be ex- plained. The papers abound with examples of the NO, 2621, VOL. 104] ‘made to the printed papers. NATURE 545 valuable information that has been derived from past increases of aperture; nevertheless, some workers are satisfied that further advantage in this direction is not to be expected, and it is even suggested that the N.A. of objectives has already been increased too greatly. The same extent of disagreement was shown in discussing the relative merits of British and German stands and lenses. For some purposes, at any rate, very experienced workers give decided preference to the English stand, though this is said to be less con- venient for metallurgical work. No stand now made, it was said, is sufficiently rigid to enable the micro- scope to be changed from the vertical to the horizontal position without disturbing the relative adjustment of the specimen and the optical system. Modern de- | signers were recommended to study Powell’s model of 1841 as an admirable example of what is required. One important criticism was to the effect that the materials employed by the British makers were too soft, particularly for such working parts as the racks and pinions, with the result that after a few years all the movements were too loose. In this respect German instruments had been found more satisfactory by some workers, though this was not the experience of all. As regards objectives, it was not denied that the best home-made products were fully as good as those made abroad, but it was contended that this standard of excellence was reached in. a smaller: proportion of the objectives produced than in the foreign lenses. The importance of a highly trained test-room staff was emphasised in this connection. It may be noted as a point of interest, mentioned by Mr. F. Twyman, that good objectives have been found to show differences of phase in the emergent wave-front of about one wave- length. During the meeting it was announced that one or two makers would shortly place upon the market new designs of objectives made from English glasses. It is satisfactory to learn that the different varieties of glass required for these objectives have been produced in this country. To determine how these glasses com- pare with the German lenses of Zeiss, a committee of expért microscopists was appointed to investigate and issue a report. In view of what was said regarding the general standard reached, it would be as well. if this proposal were carried a step further, and it became customary for manufacturers to issue with their objectives a certificate issued, say, National Physical Laboratory. If the required standard for a certificate were maintained at a reasonable level, with due regard to periodical im- provements, such a system should go far to remove the impression that it is necessary to go to Germany for a thoroughly good objective. There are many other points to which attention might be directed, but for these reference must be The apparent lack of enterprise on the part of the manufacturer since the war has, however, been fully explained. He has been busy for the first time in making arrangements for the mass production of microscopes by modern machine methods. This is. of the first importance, for in the past few years nearly all the microscopes required for biological work—and this covers possibly as much as 90 per cent. of all microscopes made— have been imported. The hand-made English instru- ment could not possibly compete either in price or in qualitv with the machine-made article. Should it be possible to regain a large share of this trade while retaining the best features of the more expensive and elaborate models, the future position of the industry in this country will be assured. It is to be hoped that this development will not,be hindered, as was suggested, by lack of capital. aS ae by the’ 546 NATURE i [January 22, 1920 Perhaps the most significant and satisfactory feature of the symposium is that it should have been possible to attract for a meeting which extended from 2.30 to 10.15 so large an audience for the discussion of the microscope and its applications to industry. It is more than doubtful if such interest could have been aroused ‘before the war. The optical industry of the country, it is clear, will not fail to establish itself on a secure footing for want of a market. If the home products reach the necessary standard of perfection and keep abreast of the advances which scientific achievement in whatever field renders possible, the reward is certain. This, we are convinced, needs much more systematic investigation in advance of immediate requirements than has been undertaken in the past, greater readiness to be guided by scientific principles rather than by tradition, and not least the design of instruments with special reference to the accuracy obtainable in the various manufacturing opera- tions by the best machine tools. It isa hopeless enterprise with one scientific adviser to attempt to compete with another firm of similar size which employs twenty such advisers. At present such assistance is difficult to obtain. It devolves upon our universities, no less than upon our manufacturers, to consider where they stand, and to do their part towards the country’s well- being by making optics a living subject rather than resting satisfied with the knowledge of a hundred years ago. Research on their part and on that of other institutions is necessary; the field is wide. We look to them for that interest which we have every right to expect. The afternoon session was preceded by an exhibition of microscopes and auxiliary apparatus. The historical collection of microscopes from the South Kensington Museum was of special interest. New models of microscopes attracted much attention. Messrs, Beck and Swift exhibited models fitted with the changing device they have adopted, and some exhibits by Messrs. W. Watson and Sons were greatly admired. Many other exhibits of much interest were shown, but for particulars of these reference must be made to the catalogue specially nrepared for the occasion. The publication of the proceedings of the symposium will be awaited with interest. We trust that all the papers will be collected into a single volume, and be available as a separate publication for all who have special interests in microscopy. ' CONSTRUCTION AND USE OF MICROSCOPES.1 A itself of necessity into two parts, the mechanical and the optical. From the mechanical point of view there are two designs in general use, those referred to as the Continental and the English forni of micro- scope. In the Continental type it has usually been customary to have what is known as the horseshoe foot, mainly, I imagine, because of its ease of con- struction by mechanical engineering methods ; whereas the English design of microscope, which has hitherto been mainly made by hand, is of a more steady type, and the points of support are so distributed as to give more stability to the instrument in any position. The essential parts of the instrument are a coarse adjustment, to give the body tube a quick motion in the direction of the optic axis, and a fine adjustment, which gives it a much slower motion in the same direction. The tube is adjustable in length, to enable 1 Opening paper of a discussion on ‘‘The Microscope: Its Design, Construction, and Applications,” organised*by the Faraday Society and held at the Royal Society on January 14. By J. E. Barnard, president of the Royal Microscopical Society. ”. NO, 2621, VOL. 104] -a vertical position, CONSIDERATION of the microscope resolves — correction to be made for it he thicknesses of cover- glass, although a large number of workers appear to regard it as a ready method of obtaining greater or less) magnification, with disastrous effects on the resulting image. ; There is only one fixed part of a microscope for = purposes, and that is the stage. But metallographers require that the stage shall also be adjustable in the direction of the optic axis. The body tube itself should be made so-that it can be closed to a length of 140 mm., including any objective- changing device that may be on the nose-piece; and it should be possible to lengthen it to at least 200 mm. or 250 mm. if long-tube objectives are used. All these adjustments are in the direction of the optic axis of the instrument. Two others are usually provided which are at right angles to this direction— that is, a mechanical stage for actuating the object, and in certain of the best-class instruments an ar- rangement for centring the sub-stage condenser to the . axis of the objective. : While there are many points which might be raised on the mechanical side, there are only one or two that I have time to mention. The main point about most microscopes appears to be that they are unstable. [I have a considerable number in my own ion, but I do not think I have oné even now which, if I centre an object on the stage with the instrument in still maintains its centration accurately if the instrument is put into the horizontal. The probability is, therefore, that there are few micro- scopes made at the present time that exactly fulfil the conditions necessary for high-class photomicrographic work or for observational microscopic work of an exacting order. I trust, however, that an instrument exhibited at this symposium will embody the neces- sary improvements to rectify this matter. shoe Some misapprehension appears to me also to exist as to the relative purpose of the coarse and the fine adjustments. The coarse adjustment appears to me to be one which should be sufficiently well made, and with which the user is sufficiently expert, to enable him to bring into view any object, whether it is being observed with a low- or a high-power objective. The fine adjustment is then used for accurate focussing anid for getting a conception of the object in depth. In biological work, at any rate, this is very rarely the state of affairs as carried out. In using an oil- immersion objective, for instance, a common method is to immerse the objective, and then to lower it so that. it all but touches the top surface of the cover-glass. The objective is then raised by means of the fine ad- justment until the object comes into view. While this may act fairly well with very thin cover-glasses, it is a haphazard method when cover-glasses of varying thicknesses are used. It should be realised that when microscope-users. are sufficiently educated they will be able to tell how far they are from the actual image by the appearance of the light in the field of view—that is, if the object is illuminated with reasonable — accuracy. : Mechanical stages also appear to need some con- — sideration. The stages which will on actuation cause no shift of the object other than in the direction intended, or any ‘alteration of focus, are rare. Further, those in which the screws project for a considerable distance, with the result that any slight jar or knock causes them to be displaced, and, it may — be, actually bent, are objectionable when used under laboratory conditions. There is, I think, much to be said for the type of stage which has either co-axial milled heads on a vertical axis, or, if inconvenient to make, milled heads which are on separate axes. This method of con- POS Co I a, oe eT ee es PE ee ee YS pee ea ; a JaNuaRY 22, 1920] NATURE 547 struction of necessity results in a much stiffer and more stable stage. There is, in fact, a general lack of stability going through nearly all parts of a micro- scope. But it is significant that, even so long ago as the beginning of last century, the instrument as then designed had much greater attention paid to this point. The microscope an illustration of which I show on the screen is, to my mind, an embodiment of a principle that should receive attention. So soon as English makers are in a position to consider the production of an instrument of a special type, it is my intention to have one made. In this the general principle is that all the optical parts are carried on a bar which is, in effect, an optical bench, and that this is strutted in such a way as to give stiffness to the instrument as a whole. The only effort that I am aware of that has been made in this direction is in the microscope designed by Dr. Rosenhain, par- ticularly for metallography, but which is adaptable for ordinary work. This instrument, to my mind, is such an improvement on any other type of stand that I am at a loss to understand why metallographers have not more generally taken it up. It might appear that I am exaggerating the importance of stability in the stand, but it should be realised that any lack of centration in the optical parts, or of alignment in the optic axes of these parts, results in more serious deterioration of the resulting microscopic image than any other single factor. The optical parts of a micro- scope are the objective, for obtaining the primary magnified image of the object; the ocular, for further enlarging that image and transmitting it to the eye; and the sub-stage condenser, for illuminating the object with a larger or smaller cone of light. The limitations of time will prevent me from doing more than refer very briefly to some properties of the optical parts. It is generally assumed that magnification is the primary function of an objective, but in point of fact the main point is not magnification, but resolution. By resolution is meant the power the objective has of separating and forming correct images of fine detail. The theory known as the Abbe diffraction theory is the one on which modern optical calcula- tions are based; and it is safe to say that it was never more fully accepted than at the present time, and never rested on a surer basis. There has been much discussion in this country of that theory, and probably a good deal of misconception has arisen from its inapt designation, for the term ‘“‘diffragtion theory’ is perhaps somewhat unfortunate. I cannot do better than quote the late Lord Rayleigh in refer- ence to this matter. He said: ‘The special theory initiated by Prof. Abbe is usually called the diffraction theory, a nomenclature against which it is necessary to protest. Whatever may be the view taken, any theory of resolving power of optical instruments must be a diffraction theory in a certain sense, so that the name is not distinctive. Diffraction is more naturally regarded as the obstacle to fine definition, and not, as with some exponents of Prof. Abbe’s theory, the machinery by which good definition is brought about.” This very clearly and accurately sums up the position. The Abbe theory tells us that there are two main. factors determining resolution; that is, the numerical aperture of the objective used and the wave-length of the light. Numerical aperture is determined for us by the optician, and it is well known that, with an oil- immersion objective, a numerical aperture of 1-4 is at the present time the practical limit. Metallo- graphers are in a somewhat stronger position, as a monobromide of naphthalene immersion objective was, and presumably still is, made by Zeiss which had a numerical aperture of 1:6. This represents the abso- lute limit at the present time, and there is no indica- ! NO. 2621, VOL. 104] tion that numerical aperture will be increased in this sense by, present methods, The other. factor governing resolution is the wave- length of light, and in; this connection it must be borne in mind that to resolve a regularly marked structure the distance between the markings must be more than half a wave-length. Under ordinary condi- tions of illumination we cannot go very far in the direction of: increased resolution unless we resort to an illuminant such as a mercury: vapour lamp which is rich in blue and violet radiations. There is much room for investigation in this direction, as the ideal illuminant for microscopic work has yet to be found. But I do not know of any one that approaches so nearly to it as the one I have mentioned, the mercury vapour lamp. It suffers only from one disadvantage that I can see, and that is that the differentiation due to staining is not so clearly brought out as when ordinary light is used. But as staining is itself an artificial process, and is simply done to differentiate structures, it only means a certain amount of educa- tion to enable us to appreciate the differences even under the light from this lamp. The only stains which it does not show quite well, or rather in which the colour-tint is altered, are those in which red pre- dominates. Any other colour is shown perfectly and in proper gradation. The advantages of this illu- minant are that it is even and uniform. It has a fairly large area, and can be used, therefore, for any class of work. Its intensity can be varied within con- siderable limits by having a resistance in series, so that the current density is altered to suit the par- ticular work under observation. . Further, it is possible, by interposing neutral screens, to vary the light inten- sity if the electrical method is inconvenient. Owing to its possessing practically no red radiations its mean wave-length is shorter, and by using suitable screens light which is truly monochromatic, yellow, green, blue, or violet, can be obtained at will. These. lamps are made both in glass and: quartz, but the quartz ones are preferable, because they admit of the use. of heavier currents with greater luminosity; and, further, they have a much longer life. I have exhibited two of these lamps, because I regard them as far in advance of any other form of light available to the microscopist at the present ‘time, whether he is a biologist or a metallographer. : The whole subject of illumination needs investiga- tion also, because there is, I think, little doubt that a modification in the intensity of the illumination of any particular object enables us to use a larger light- cone than we could do in ordinary circumstances —that is, variation of the intensity is an alternative to the use of the iris diaphragm in the sub-stage of the microscope. But it is in the direction of using in- visible radiations in the ultra-violet, or, it may be, radiations which are still shorter than the ultra-violet, that developments in microscopic work are, in my opinion, likely to occur. There are two other points worth mention, which I trust may be dealt with more fully in succeeding papers. One is that, while the resolution limits are so inflexible, that does not by any means apply to mere visibility. By illuminating small particles by means of an annular cone of rays—that is, what is ordinarily known as dark-ground illumination—or by illuminating them at right angles to the optic axis of the microscope—what is known as the ultra-micro- scopic method—particles of a very much smaller order of size can be made visible. But we cannot tell any- thing about their form, nor can we accurately tell their size. We are only conscious of their mere existence. Another point to remember is that magnification is. definitely limited to something like 750 diameters 548 NATURE [JANUARY 22, 1920 with microscopes under ordinary conditions if we want to get the best optical effect. We may, as a matter of convenience, have still higher magnifica- tions, because it is not given to everybody to appreciate fine detail unless an image is somewhat enlarged. But it must be appreciated that any increase beyond 750 or 800 diameters does not result in our seeing anything more. It simply allows us to see the object on a somewhat larger scale. We may, therefore, sum- marise as follows: An object which is much smaller in size than the resolution limit can be rendered visible provided the light with which it is illuminated is of sufficient intensity and sufficiently different in refractive index from the medium in which it lies. To resolve a series of equidistant points or lines in an object, their distance apart must exceed half a wave-length of light in the medium in which the object is immersed. Johnstone Stoney has shown that a pair of lines or objects can be separated when, their distance apart is rather smaller than the resolution limit required for a number of points or lines in a row. But it should be borne in mind even here that the resolution limits apply if a clear standard of definition is required. An isolated object or pair of objects are not so well defined if they exceed the resolution limits as laid down for recurring structures. It cannot be too’ fully appreciated that illumination is the keynote of all sound microscopic work, and this applies whether the illumination is by means of visible radiation under ordinary conditions of work, or whether it is in experimental work in which the use of invisible radiations are concerned. There is much room for research in this direction, and it is to be hoped that this is one of the points which will be seriously taken up. Apart from any question of research, ‘the education of the user is perhaps of vital importance. It is of little use for opticians to make great efforts to turn out a satis- factory instrument if the user is incapable of taking advantage of the quality of the optical or other parts. I trust, therefore, that this symposium will give an impetus in this direction, and that it will help microscope-users to realise how much remains to be done. MICROSCOPICAL OPTICS.! oy the opening paragraphs attention is directed to the methods of treating the aberrations on the principle of equal optical paths (A. E. C., Monthly Notices of R.A.S., January and March, 1904, and April, 1905) and to the author’s recent determination of the actual light distribution at and near the focus in the presence of aberration (Monthly Notices, June, 1919). The sine-condition is also discussed. The origin and effects of the secondary spectrum are then dealt with, and the paper proceeds: The attempts to produce varieties of glass free from this secondary spectrum have been unsuccessful so far as the microscope is concerned, for the existing crowns and flints with proportional dispersion have so little difference in dispersive power that an impracticable number of lenses would have to be used to secure the desired effect. We therefore still depend on the material the value of which for this purpose was discovered by Abbe, the natural mineral fluorite, used instead of crown glass in combination with heavy crown glasses or very light flint glasses in place of ordinary dense flint glass. It was by the use of fluorite that Abbe produced the apochromatic objec- tives, and fluorite of good optical quality must be used to this day to secure the result. Apart from the 1 From a paper by Prof. A. E. Conrady pr d at a discussion on “The Microscope : Its Design, Construction, and Applications,” organised by the Faraday Society at the Royal Society on January 14. NO, 2621, VOL. 104] ‘mental to the other. Fortunately, the extended theory — difficulty of finding this material, there is no obstacle to the designing by exact calculation of apochromatic — objectives. : pays 1 now come to a defect of nearly all microscope — objectives, and especially of highly” corrected ones, — which is well known to all practical mier ists, namely, the pronounced curvature of the field, in- — variably in the sense of requiring a shortening of je distance from object to lens in order to obtain a focus in the outer parts of the field of view. The — general theory of the primary aberrations of oblique — pencils shows that any lens system when freed from astigmatism will have the curvature of field defined by the Petzval theorem, and that in the presence of astigmatism the two focal lines which then mts the strongest concentration of the light’ always lie — both on the same side of the Petzval curve and at distances from it which are in the approximate ratio of three to one. When the astigmatism is under- corrected the natural curvature of the field defined by the Petzval equation becomes aggravated, whilst over-_ corrected astigmatism tends to flatten the field, and is deliberately introduced for this purpose in ordinai photographic objectives. The presence of consider: amounts of astigmatism, of course, renders really sharp marginal images impossible in either case, so that its absence, or, better still, a modest amount of over- corrected astigmatism, must be regarded as the ideal in microscope objectives. Unfortunately, this desir- able state cannot be reached in the existing types of objectives. The binary low-power objectives up to the _ ordinary 1 in. and 2 in. come nearest to it, and are, — therefore, justly liked by microscopists for all work for which they are sufficiently. powerful. In the ordinary ternary objectives of the j-in. type, with ap- proximately plano-convex components, the curvature — of the field is also of reasonably moderate amount. — But it is a general experience that highly corrected objectives are very much worse as regards curvature of field. In the light of my most recent work on the general theory of lenses (Monthly Notices, November, 1919), this curious and objectionable peculiarity is — easily explained, and becomes revealed as a necessary — consequence of high spherical and chromatic correc- tion if the usual number of components is adhered to. In the Lister and Amici types of ordinary sk Pata : which are fairly satisfactory as regards curvature of the field, the front lens is of such a form as to produce strong outward coma, and there is in the back lenssor lenses a corresponding amount of inward coma. ~ The simple extensions of Seidel’s theory, given in the paper last referred to, show that this is the state of affairs which tends to diminish. undercorrected astigmatism, or even to reverse it into the more desir- _ able overcorrected form. High correction of the zonal — spherical aberration, and to a still greater extent corm- — plete removal of the spherical variation of chromatic — correction, necessitate a more or less complete reversal — of the coma effects in front and back components. In — other words, with the usual types of objectives reduc- — tions of curvature and apochromatic or semi-apo- — chromatic correction are completely antagonistic and — incompatible; what benefits one correction is detri- — also indicates a way out of this dilemma. It appears — fairly certain that by building the objective. itself on the lines required by the apochromatic condition, bu leaving it spherically undercorrected, perhaps chromatically overcorrected to a moderate extent, an with a considerable amount of outward coma (this the most important), and by correcting these residu in a widely separated additional back lens, it will | possible to combine moderate curvature of field witl apochromatic perfection, and thus to remove: the wor! outstanding defect of the best objectives. : JANUARY 22, 1920] NATURE 549 Condensers for the proper well-regulated illumination of microscopic objects are identical in optical design with objectives, the only difference being that the light passes through in the reverse direction, and that a lower degree of correction is sufficient not only on theoretical, but also on practical grounds, for nearly always condensers are used in conjunction with the “plane” mirror, which invariably is very far from optical perfection, and so introduces irregular aberra- tions of unknown magnitude and kind, and, moreover, the light from the condenser has to pass through the slide on which the object is placed. ‘This slide is prac- tically little better than window-glass so far as optical uality and perfection of surfaces are concerned, and the great variation in thickness is another source of | imperfection, especially with dry condensers of high N.A.. Moderate amounts of residual aberrations in con- densers can always be effectively neutralised by using a sufficiently large source of light of uniform bright- ness or by magnifying the source by a sufficiently well- corrected ‘‘bull’s-eye,” if the source of light is naturally small. A great and very serious defect in the construction of nearly all condensers of the present day, with the exception of the modest Abbe condenser of two simple uncorrected lenses, is that the iris and the ring for | dark-ground stops are placed too far from the back lens instead of being close to the anterior focal plane of the condenser. It is easily shown that such a remote iris-opening or dark-ground stop produces decidedly oblique illumination of the extra-axial points of the object. With direct light this leads to an un- desirable variation in the type of image and in resolv- ing power in different parts of the field. With dark- - ground illumination the result is even more serious, for it is then necessary to use a far larger central stop to secure a dark background over the whole field than would suffice if the stop were placed close to the anterior focal plane of the condenser; such an un- necessarily large stop is highly objectionable, because it reduces the visibility of the coarser structures in the object. The increasingly bad position of the iris in the con- densers of higher power and shorter focal length sup- plies practically the whole explanation of the universal experience that high-power condensers will not work satisfactorilv with low-power objectives, especially for dark-ground illumination. : ; The great thickness of the mechanical stage in ‘English stands of the highest qualitv is the chief reason why the iris and ‘turn-out ring’’ of high-power condensers have to be mounted so far below the back lens, and a profound modification of the design of the stage withrthe view of making the part projecting over the condenser as thin as possible therefore appears to be the most desirable improvement of microscope stands from the optical designer’s point of view. As regards the actual making of microscope objec- - tives, it must be borne in mind that the excellence of a computed lens svstem may be completely swamped - by comparatively slight imperfections of workmanship. and that high accuracy in this respect is therefore of - the utmost importance. In lenses of high N.A. com- putation shows that a departure from the prescribed radii and thicknesses by a fraction of a thousandth of an inch mav lead to a notable loss of perfection, and the polished surfaces must also be truly spherical _ within less than half a wave-length of light. These limits can be easily observed if modern methods of sauging and measuring are adopted, and if all sur- faces are polished to accurately made and: con- scientiously used test-plates. The tools and methods employed in -really manufacturing lenses on_ this system were shown by Messrs. W. Watson and Sons, NO, 2621, VOL. 104] Ltd., at the exhibition at King’s College in January, 1917, and will be found described and illustrated in the record of that exhibition. t In old English practice the component lenses of microscope objectives and condensers used to. be fixed in their cells by cement of the sealing-wax type. Many old lenses which are still found in perfect ad» justment fifty or more years after being mounted demonstrate that the cement may hold the lenses in correct position almost indefinitely; but other experi- ences, especially with lenses used in tropical countries, suggest that shifting may occur, and it is therefore strongly to be urged that all microscope lenses should be held between metallic shoulders at both ends by being bevelled into their cells, care being naturally required to avoid pressure and distortion through too tight a fit. A point on which users of objectives err to their own detriment is an excess of faith in numerical aper- ture. I have heard microscopists boast of possessing. an objective, say, of 1-43 N.A., whereas somebody else had one of barely 1-40; and a careful test would show that whilst the 1-43 was an indifferent lens, the 1-40 was excellent. The fancied advantage of 2 per cent., then, is really a disadvantage of perhaps 25 per cent. or more. One of the few disservices which Abbe did to micro- scopy was the pushing of the N.A. of dry lenses to 0-95, and to a less extent the increase of that of oil lenses to 1-40. The extreme marginal zone of the apochromatic dry objectives of 0-95 NA is particularly badly corrected, so much so that the lenses will only bear a solid illuminating cone of about 0-65 N.A. even on the Abbe test-plate, and that with annular light bringing only the marginal zone into action correction- collar and tube-length combined do not allow of reaching a point of good spherical correction. There is no doubt that Abbe’s own earlier dictum still holds, to the effect that beyond about 0-85 N.A. the higher aberrations become unmanageable unless the free working distance is reduced to a very few thousandths of an inch. A carefully computed objective of o-85 N.A. will bear a full illuminating cone on suit- able objects, and can thus realise its fullest resolving power. An objective of 0-95 with a condenser of 0-65 has the resolving power of the mean, or of o-80 N.A., and is thus actually inferior, except for freak resolu- tions, with extremely oblique light. Oil objectives of more than 1-30, or at most 1-35, N.A. are also of very doubtful added value. In closing this section I will once more quote with- out comment an anecdote of Fraunhofer, who received a complaint that a telescope supplied by him, although giving magnificent images, displayed certain fine » scratches when examined with a magnifying-glass! The reply sent by Fraunhofer is reported to have been: ‘‘We have constructed the telescope to be looked through, not to be looked at.”’ A few sentences may perhaps be added as. to the prospects for further improvements of microscopic per- formances. I have stated earlier in this paper that there is a bright ray of hope with regard to diminishing the curvature of field without loss of definition. Advances in numerical aperture offer very little attraction. Abbe, in my opinion, carried the N.A. too far rather than not far enough, and I am not aware that any notable discovery has been achieved with the few monobromide immersion objectives. of N.A. 1-60 which he designed. The use of a shorter wave-length, i.e. ultra-violet light, is a little more promising. There would be none but technical difficulties to the construction of lenses suitable for this work. But as only very few~ 55° NATURE [JANuaRY 22, 1920. microscopists would be likely to go to the trouble of working in invisible light and of passing through a long apprenticeship in mastering the difficulties, ap- paratus of this description would necessarily be ex- tremely costly, as the whole expense of designing and of constructing special tools would fall on a small number of outfits, or possibly on only a single one. And there would still be the grave drawback that the vast majority of objects would be opaque to extreme ultra-violet rays, and yield only black-and-white outline pictures. The so-called ultra-microscope does not represent any advance in resolving power at all, but most decidedly the reverse. It is highly valuable for the detection of very minute particles and of their move- ments, which it achieves simply by intense dark- ground illumination, but the structure of the particles remains unrevealed, and only that would amount to an advance in resolving power. The seeing of these minute particles is, in fact, of precisely the same kind as the seeing of stars subtending less than o-oor second of arc at night with the naked eye, the resolving power of which is of the order of 60 seconds. PARIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. BONAPARTE AND LOUTREUIL FOUNDATIONS. ey the 72,500 francs placed at the disposal of the Academy by Prince Bonaparte, it is proposed to allocate 30,000 francs as follows :— 5000 francs to Charles Alluaud, travelling naturalist to the National Natural History Museum, for a geo- logical and botanical expedition in the Moroccan Grand Atlas Chain. 2000 francs to A. Boutaric, for the construction of an apparatus for recording nocturnal radiation. 1ooo francs to Emile Brumpt, for continuing his work on parasitic haemoglobinuria or piroplasmos of cattle. 3000 francs to E. Fauré-Fremiet, for undertaking a series of studies on histogenesis and certain surgical applications. 3000 francs to A. Guilliermond, for pursuing his researches on lower organisms and on mitochondria. 3000 francs to Joseph Martinet, for continuing his researches on the isatins capable of serving as raw material for the synthesis of indigo colouring matters. 3000 francs to A. Vayssiéres, for the continuation of his researches of the marine molluscs, family Cypreidez. : 10,000 francs to the Fédération francaise des Sociétés de Sciences naturelles, for the publication of a fauna of France. The committee appointed to allocate the Loutreuil foundations recommend the following grants :— (1) To establishments named by the founder : 10,000 francs to the National Museum of Natural History, for the reorganisation of its librarv. 7500 francs to the Paris Observatory, at the request of the Central Council of the Observatories, for pur- chasing an instrument. (2) Grants applied for direct: 6000 franes to the Société Géologique du. Nord, to enable it to take up work interrupted by the war. 10,000 francs to l’Ecole des hautes études indus- trielles et commerciales de Lille, for restoring the material of its chemical laboratory. ‘20,000 frances to the Observatory of Ksara (near Beyrout). This laboratory was practically destroyed by the Turks and Germans. The grant is towards its restoration. 8000 francs to Henri Deslandres, for the study. of the radial movements of the solar vapours and the thickness of the gaseous atmosphere of the sun. NO, 2621, VOL. 104] 7500 francs to Maurice Hamy, to carry out certain improvements in astronomical apparatus of pr 3500 francs to Félix Boquet, Kepler tables. recision. — or the publication of tooo francs to G. Raymond, for the continuation of his actinometric experiments. 10,000 francs to Charles Marie, for exceptional expenses connected with the publication of “Tables annuelles de constants et données numériques de chimie, de physique et de technologie.” Sate 10,000 francs to the Fédération francaise des Sociétés de Sciences naturelles, for the publication of a French fauna. : ee 2000 francs to P. Lesne, for his researches on the q insects of peat-bogs. 2000 francs to A. Paillot, for his researches on the microbial diseases of insects. ‘ a 2000 francs to Just Aumiot,.for the methodical study of the varieties of potato. : : a 5000 francs to Albert Peyron and Gabriel Petit, for — the experimental mammals. study of cancer in the larger 3000 francs to Th. Nogier, for completing the instal-_ lation of the radio-physiological laboratory of the Bacteriological Institute of Lyons. THE MATHEMATICAL ASSOCIATION. ‘J HE annual meeting of the Mathematical Associa-— tion was held in the London Day Training Col-— lege, Southampton Row, on January 7 and 8, under the presidency of Prof. E. T. Whittaker. At the - advanced: section on the evening of January 7 the president gave a lecture on “A Survey of the Numerical Methods of Solving Equations.” He described in some detail ‘‘iterative processes’? for approximating to the roots and graphical methods of circumscribing the regions on the Argand plane, in which the various roots lay. The Lobachefsky-Graeffe method of approximating to the roots of equations and — power series was described in considerable detail. In the animated discussion to which this lecture gave rise it was clearly seen that a wider knowledge of pee : computative processes is a desideratum in all branches of mathematical work, which has been practicall neglected hitherto in the schools and universities. It was also felt that such practical numerical work was the best possible introduction to the formal study of function theory, many of the ideas underlying are usually presented in an entirely abstract way whereas they present themselves naturally and of necessity in less general forms in the science of com- putation. : : Next day, at the general section, Mr. C. Godfrey, of the Royal Naval College, Osborne, surveyed the whole question of the modern teaching of geometry in schools. He strongly favoured a .pre- liminary course of practical instrumental work, to be followed by a more formal course in which “logic is not too prominent. He advocated the entire post- ponement of a really rigorous course of abstract geo- metry until the post-school stage. Prof. T. P. Nunn strongly supported the general tenor of Mr. Godfrey views, and urged the earlier teaching of “ratio an proportion’? as a practical instrument for solv many problems, such as map-drawing, villa constru tion, etc. che Prof. E. H. Neville, of University College, Readi next read a paper on ‘‘Convention and Duplexity Elementary Mathematics,’? in which he proteste against the usual ‘positive-sign’’ convention wit regard to vectors. Miss H. M. Cook dealt with “Th Place of Common Logarithms in . Mathematical Training,” and Prof. W. P. Milne strongly urged a 4 3 ; i a ai aa a January 22, 1920] NATURE 551 the necessity of making both logarithms-and numerical trigonometry compulsory for the university matricula- tion, because the -work of the intermediate classes in the universities was being seriously hampered by the lack of such knowledge on the part of a large number of the students. Prof. Whittaker gave a most in- teresting paper on “‘Some Mathematical Problems awaiting Solution,’? which suggested themselves chiefly in computative work, such as the question of the ‘convergence of certain approximative processes in the case of a large number of sin.ultaneous equations. Mr. R. C. Fawdry opened a discussion on the teach- ing of mechanics to beginners, and said that, after many years’ experience, he still could not decide whether to teach statics or dynamics first. A vigorous a was entered by Dr. S. Brodétsky, Prof. W. P. ilne, and Mr. A. W. Siddons against the practice | that had just arisen of teaching “‘ pure mathematics ”’ in the new advanced courses in secondary schools, thereby promoting undue specialisation at a young age and losing entirely the outlook which a combined course of pure and applied mathematics can supply. The meetings were extremely well attended and very enthusiastic. Witiiam P. MILNE. INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH ASSOCIATIONS. + Gas Department of Scientific and Industrial Research has just issued the following list of research associations which have been approved by the Department as complying with the conditions laid down in the Government scheme for the encourage- _ ment of industrial research, and have received licences from the Board of Trade under section 20 of the - Companies (Consolidation) Act of 1908 :— British Boot, Shoe, and Allied Trades Research Association, Technical School, Abington Square, Northampton. Secretary: Mr. John Blakeman. British Cotton Industry Research Association, 108 Deansgate, Manchester. Secretary: Miss B. Thomas. British Empire Sugar Research Association, Evelyn House, 62 Oxford Street, London, W.1. Secretary: Mr. W. H. Giffard. British Iron Manufacturers Research Association, Atlantic Chambers, Brazennose Street, Manchester. Secretary: Mr. H. S. Knowles. British Motor and Allied Manufacturers Research Association, 39 St. James’s Street, London, S.W.1. Secretary: Mr. Horace Wyatt. British Photographic Research Association, Sicilian House, Southampton Row, London, W.C.1. Secre- tary: Mr. Arthur C. Brookes. British Portland Cement Research Association, 6 Lloyd’s Avenue, London, E.C.3. Secretary: Mr. S. G. S. Panisset. British Research Association for the Woollen and Worsted Industries, Bond Place Chambers, Leeds. Secretary: Mr. Arnold Frobisher. British Scientific Instrument Research Association, 26 Russell. Square, W.C.1. Secretary: Mr. J. W. Williamson. British Rubber and Tvre Manufacturers Research Association, c/o Messrs. W. B. Peat and Co., 11 Iron- monger Lane, E.C.2. : : The Linen Industry Research Association, x Bed- ford Street, Belfast. Secretary: Miss M. K. E. Allen. Glass Research Association, 7 Seamore Place, W.1. - Secretary: Mr. E. Quine. British Cocoa, Chocolate, Sugar Confectionery, and Jam Trades Research Association, 9 Queen Street Place, E.C.4. Secretary: Mr. R. M. Leonard. NO. 2621, VOL. 104] Schemes for the establishment of research associa- tions in the following industries have reached an advanced state of development :— : Research Associations Approved by the Department but not yet Licensed by the Board of Trade.—British Music Industries Research Association, British Refrac- tory Materials Research Association, British Non- Ferrous Metals Research Association, and Scottish Shale Oil Research Association. Proposed Research Associations the Memorandum and Articles of Association of which are under Con- sideration.—British Launderers Research Association, British Electrical and Allied Industries Research Association, and British Aircraft Research Association. Industrial Organisations Engaged in Preparing Memorandum and Articles of Association.—Sillc Manufacturers, Leather Trades, and Master Bakers: and Confectioners. In addition to the industries included above, certain others are engaged in the preliminary consideration of schemes for forming research associations. THE ORGANISATION OF IMPERIAL STATISTICS.} PORTING out that it was almost emphasising the obvious to say that any great nation should be thoroughly informed as to its numerical, its social, and its economic drift, the author directed attention to the fact that this had been recently recognised in a petition to his Majesty’s Government so late as. November 1 last. It was also emphasised by the calling together of a Conference of the Statisticians of the Empire, under the egis of the British Govern- ment. In view of the position of the British Empire in world affairs, it was but little short of amazing that an Imperial Bureau of Census and Statistics was not long ago established. A bureau, to be really Imperial,. must recognise the community of interest of all parts of the Empire. It was not something to be created mainly for the purposes of the United Kingdom, but something which would meet equally well the pur-. poses of each part of the Empire. For this reason the needs of the autonomous Dominions must be quite: as carefully considered as those of the United King~ dom itself, and it was implied in the paper that any part of the Empire which could not at present meet the common requirements of the whole must be pre- ared to do so. The interest would be general only in so far as it was Imperial. In order to overcome departmental frictions and to- secure the sympathy and co-operation of all public departments, it was suggested that. a Central Statis- tical Commission should be created, the president of which would, of course, be the Director of the Bureau of Statistics. Such a Commission would be a body of expert advisers, and could make its departments helpful. The scope of an Imperial Statistical Bureau, both as to administrative procedure and as to subject- matter to be dealt with, was outlined, as was also the question of compilation and publication. To attempt to organise an Imperial Bureau of Statistics with a small and humbly qualified staff would foredoom it to failure, said the author. In its higher professional section it must necessarily have experts in statistical theory, in the technique of the collection and compilation of statistical data, in pure and applied mathematics, in the languages which are important in the statistical field, in statistical editor- 1 Abstract of a Paper presented to the Royal Statistical Society on Tuesday, January 20, by G. H. Knibbs, Statistician of the Common~ wealth of Australia. 552 NATURE [January 22, 1920 a ship, in draughtsmanship and graphical representa- tion, and in the interpretation and explanation of statistical results. In this last field the Director him- self would, of course, be the expert par excellence, and not a mere administrator. It was also pointed out that to put the whole of the work in the hands of a mere administrator would lead to failure. The staff would, of course, include persons who specially studied demography, trade, production, finance, labour and industrial affairs, shipping, railways, tramways, and transport and communication. In concluding, the author said that if the United Kingdom, by appropriate effort, were to supplement the efforts of some of the autonomous Dominions, it would be possible to build up a statistical edifice for the whole British Empire which, in meeting the needs of a great people—with its reactions upon the human race—would constitute the bureau a sort of temple expiatoire for our remissness in the past. The key- note of the whole paper was that an important duty has been left unfulfilled, and that we must not go on neglecting it, for such a work is needed by publicists and statesmen, and for the general purposes of intel- ligent criticism and intelligent government. ITALIAN PAPERS ON RELATIVITY. R. ATTILIO PALATINI, of the University of Padova, Italy, dedicates a special paper (Ac. d. Lincei, April, 1919), entitled ‘‘ Traiettorie dinamiche dei sistemi olonomi con tre gradidi liberta,” to the investigation of what may shortly be called irreversible systems, i.e. systems the Lagrangian func- tion of which contains the velocity (apart from its square) also linearly. The paper is but a generalisation of Birckhoff’s investigation on ‘* Dynamical Systems with Two Degrees of Freedom” (Trans. Amer, Math. Soc., vol. xviii., No. 2, 1917) to three degrees of freedom. The result arrived at is that the trajectories of such a system coincide with those of an ordinary system of three particles with appropriate constraints moving in a conservative field of force which spins uniformly about an axis. The analogy with such systems’ leads Dr. Palatini to take up in a second note, en- titled ‘*Moti Einsteiniani stazionari’” (Ist. Veneto, May 11, 1919), the relativistic problem of what the author proposes to call stationary motions, #.e. such for which the four-dimensional line-element — ds? contains non-vanishing, though constant, coefficients Las Zo Baa (coefficients of the mixed, space-time terms, as dxdt, etc.). The chief result is again the equivalence to a three particles system in a uniformly revolving conservative system. It strikes one that this result could be read off the ds* almost directly. The result concerning the “anisotropic and irreversible” behaviour of energy is again obvious and, physically, of comparatively small interest. The paper is inspired by Prof. Levi-Civita’s recent investigations on static Einsteinian motions (Ac. d. Lincei, 1917, et seq.), for which g,,, etc., are per- manently zero—elegant, investigations, no doubt, but of purely formal interest. Dr. Palatini’s third recent. article, ‘‘La Teoria di .Relativita nel suo sviluppo storico”’’. (Scientia, September—October, 1919), which, though not without many. happy ideas as to the popular presentation of the “old ’’ (1905) and the new or generalised rela- tivity and gravitation theory, lacks that plasticity and freshness which would, be imparted to it by a more intimate contact with existing physical ideas. This absence of. contact. goes in the present case (conclud- ing section of part i., dedicated to the older theory NO, 2621, VOL. 104] -As if that poor thing had a choice in its one-dimen-_ of Einstein) even so far as to ignore the numerous © and famous experimental proofs of the variability of ~ variability of 8-particles an almost tangible fact. the 3 second part of the article, devoted to general rela- tivity, has the indisputable positive feature of very enthusiastic, and gives, no doubt, some gen Oi idea of Einstein’s newest doctrine. Yet even here — one cannot help being surprised at one or two mis- conceptions, marring the introductory section on the — concept of space-curvature, defects the more inex- plicable as they emanate from a pure mathematician. Thus on pp. 16-17 we are invited to imagine some practically one-dimensional beings or animalcules living in three kinds of capillary tubes, a straight, circular, and a hyperbolic one (devices not unfamiliar to any reader of the great Clifford). Having endowed — these unfortunate beings with a_ sufficient yi s of intelligence, Dr. Palatini (speaking of the first of — them) proceeds to say: ‘‘In order to arrive from one ~ to another point of its space, the being would state (constatare) that it had to follow the straight road.” — a on 22% (Rs sional abode! Equally misleading is not only the — remainder of the history of these fictitious three beings, — but also the presentation (p. 18) of our own concepts - of the ‘“‘spazio ambiente’? in which we live. Carlotta Longo gives, in her doctorate dissertation of — 1918 (Padova), published in Nuovo Cimento (vol. xv., — 1918, pp. 191-211), a very attractive and geometrically — elegant’ investigation on the elementary electrostatic — law according to Einstein’s ernoraleed relativity and — 5 —F gravitation theory. She confines herself to the special — but most important case of a radially symmetric electrostatic distribution, and, integrating the field- — equations in Prof. Levi-Civita’s form adapted to the — present case, finds for the electrostatic force a law which differs from Coulomb’s inverse square law only — in so far as the distance r from the centre of the field is replaced by the curvature radius of the geodetic — sphere passing through the point in question. A _ further result of the investigation is that, in a radially symmetric field at least, there can be electric charge only where ‘there is also matter,”’ unless — it be a point-charge at the centre (r=o) itself. This — striking result would deserve a’ more definite and — critical enunciation. We are not told what kind of © “matter”? is meant, while, on the other hand, the energy of an electrostatic field is, for Einstein, also a kind of “matter.” Yet another very interesting — result is reached at the end of the paper. It relates pat the “mechanical”? force exerted by an electron, if its usual ‘electromagnetic mass’? is assumed to be not only an inert, but also a gravitating (heavy) mass The result is that, in addition to the quasi-New' i attraction, there is a repulsion, which, ‘however, is comparatively small. Thus, for example, at a molecular. distance from the centre the repulsion would be only one-hundred-thousandth of the gravitational attraction. ihe aye The paper is clearly written, and, being very suggestive, will certainly .attract the attention of — Einstein’s followers. Nevertheless, one cannot help mentioning here that an excellent paper on this — subject (which pushes the analytical, if not the geo- metrical, solution much farther) was published in 1916 — bv H. Reissner (Annalen d. Physik, vol. 1., pp. 106-20). — This paper, however, seems to have entirely escaped the notice of the author, whom nobody will fail to” congratulate upon her elegant results. é L, SILBERSTFIN. pee ee ay ee January 22, 1920] NATURE “AGRICULTURE AT. THE BRITISH. ASSOCIATION. A S might have been expected, the papers read before the Agricultural Section at the Bournemouth * meeting had special reference to the abnormal condi- tions brought about by the war. Most of the members had been engaged either directly or indirectly in food production work,.and. there was a very marked reduc- tion, as compared with normal years, in the amount of research work reported to the meeting. [The presidential address appeared in Nature of December 25, 1919, and need not, therefore, be further considered now.] Two important papers dealing with the work of “Food Production’”’ were read by Sir Thomas Middleton, formerly of the Food Production Depart- ment of the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries, and by Mr. J. M. Caie, an Assistant Secretary of the Board of Agriculture for Scotland, dealing with the methods and results of the food production schemes in England and Scotland respectively. * Sir Thomas Middleton revised the estimates, which he had brought forward at the Manchester meeting, of the number of persons who could be supported on the meat produced on roo acres of average land under various conditions. As compared with twelve to fourteen persons who could be supported on the meat produced on 100 acres of average grass land he estimated that :— Persons for a year 100 acres average wheat, milled as it was before the war, would support «+ 200 too acres milled (80 per cent.) would sup- port wa ¥e ae ves ove 20 100 acres average barley (60 per cent.) t would support ast ys ae 1B0 Ioo acres average oats (54 per cent.) would support... as ea +» 160 Ioo acres average potatoes would support 400 Ioo acres average mangolds would sup- port tee oa as es Party ts: 100 acres average meadow hay would support eae es nae “4 14 Before the war the ploughed land in the United Kingdom was feeding about 84 persons per 100 acres, _ while the grass land was feeding about 20. Altogether we grew food for about 17,500,000: out of 46,000,000 people, or, in other words, we supplied the week-end requirements of the entire population throughout the year. The Food Production Department was set up in December, 1916, and by April, 1917, plans had been developed for bringing’ 2,700,000 acres of extra arable land into cultivation in 1918 over the 1916 area; and the agricultural returns for 1918 showed that, as com- pared with 1916, 1,842,000 additional acres in England and Wales were growing other crops than grass— roughly, two-thirds of the total additional area aimed at. Sir Thomas Middleton paid a high tribute to the assistance given by the scientific staffs of the agricul- tural departments of the universities and research stations. As regards Scotland, Mr. J. M. Caie referred to the essential differences in the agricultural conditions of the two countries as exemplified. by the following figures relating to 1917 :— : Percentage of total cultivated area under Country Permanent Rotation grass grass Per cent. Per cent. Scotland ie Lise 30 31 England fae Ge 9 NO. 2621, VOL. 104] 353 The increased cropping was. therefore to be secured | much less by ploughing up old grass land and more by a shortening of the rotations on arable farms than was the case in England. : The increased ‘area aimed at in 1918 was 350,000 acres, and of this 241,000 acres were obtained, or approximately 75 per cent. of the extension aimed at. It is-a notable fact that the increased cropping was obtained without any appreciable reduction in the number of horses, cattle, and sheep. : It is believed that a noteworthy feature of ‘the schemes for increased food production for Scotland will be their relatively low cost to the State. No special | Food Production Department of the Board was set. up; the number of officials attached to the Com- mittees was kept down to a minimum, usually one, or at most two, to each Committee, many of them being officers of the agricultural colleges. Dr. E. J. Russell read a paper of much interest on ‘‘War-time and Post-war Problems of Food Pro- duction,” in which the author referred to the necessity for devoting renewed attention to drainage and liming in particular, and for providing an adequate amount of organic matter in the soil. He referred to the enormous waste in the preservation of farmyard manure, and to the difficulties of conserving the manure from dairies. The ploughing in of green crops was advocated and an increase in the clover crop, as a means not only of providing more keep, but also of increasing the amount of organic matter in the soil. With reference to manures, Dr. Russell stated that the production of ammonium sulphate had risen to 269,000 tons in 1919. Similarly, the production of superphosphate had risen from 560,000 tons in 1916 to 750,000 tons in 1919, and the amount of basic slag from 321,000 tons in 1916 to 540,000 tons in 1919. The British farmers are probably now using more artificial fertilisers than any other farmers in the world. The change in the composition of basic slag due to the alteration in the methods of manufacture was’ also dealt with, and the necessity for a complete revision of experimental field work with basic slag was insisted upon. _ The possibility of the increased recoverv of nitrogen from sewage by means of the ‘‘ activated ’’ process was also considered. Amongst the other papers communicated were :—‘ The Value of Lupins in the Cultivation of Light Land,” A. W. Oldershaw; ‘“‘The Past Neglect and Future Improvement of Livestock in British Husbandry,”’ K. J. J. Mackenzie; ‘‘The Electrical Treatment of Seeds,” Dr. A. E. Blackburn; ‘‘The Composition of Linseed Recovered from Flax Crops,” T. W. Fagan; and ‘The Classification of Cattle Foods,’’ J. Alan Murray. In the last-named paper Mr. Murray pointed out that the object of the classification should be to bring to- gether in natural groups those foods that are of similar character and quality, irrespective of the concentration and the nutrients in them, and he suggested that the amount of available energy per pound of dry matter should be made the basis of classification. If ‘the foods were arranged in this order the distinction between fresh and dry foods would vanish. No sharp line of demarcation. between coarse and fine could be drawn, but the foods could be arranged in groups according to quality, and then might be sub- divided according to the amount of digestible’ protein.” The more important foods in the main natural groups are as follows :— (1) Cereal and pulse straws. (2) Inferior hays. ' (3) Grasses and clovers in flower,. good hays, un- decorticated cotton-cake. 554 : NATURE [January 22, 1920 (4) Mangels, pasture grass, wheat-bran, brewers’ grains. (5) Swedes, molasses, cabbages, oats, pollards, rape- cake. ape (6) Potatoes, barley, sharps, peas, beans, decorticated cotton-cake. (7) Locust beans, rye, wheat, middlings, cotton- seed, maize-germ cake, palm-nut cake, linseed cake. (8) Maize, maize meal, gluten meal, gluten feed. Mr. J. Mackintosh dealt with the outlook in dairy- ing, especially with regard to the return obtained (a) on the sale of milk, (b) on cheese-making. The effect of the control of prices was discussed, and the possible effect of the high prices now allowed for fresh milk on the use of condensed and dried milk imported from other countries where mill is more cheaply produced. Simi- larly, in connection with the control of cheese, it was pointed out that if the British cheese-maker cannot produce at a much lower price when control is removed, he will have to meet very severe competition, and the outlook cannot be regarded as satisfactory. A joint meeting was held with Section K (Botany) to discuss forestry problems. Prof. A. Henry, in a paper on ‘‘The Afforestation of Water-catchment Areas,’? advocated the afforestation of all gathering grounds, not only as a hygienic measure, but also as a means of increasing the timber reserves of the mation. The, enormous extent of these gathering grounds, more than 928,o00 acres in extent, has not hitherto been recognised. Of this area 183,416 acres are owned by local authorities, but only in a few cases, e.g. Leeds, Liverpool, Manchester, and Birmingham, has the work of afforesting these gathering grounds been taken up seriously. Prof. Henry urged that all catch- ment areas still privately owned should be compul- sorily acquired either by the corporation or by the State, and that all ground suitable for planting should be utilised. Mr. R: L. Robertson, of the Forestry Commission, gave an interesting account of the work of his Depart- ment. but had ‘little to sav as to its future policy—a question on which the audience would have been glad of some information. Other speakers included Sir Daniel Morris. Prof. Somerville, and Mr. Duchesne. Mr. W. E. Hiley read a paper on ‘‘ Sources of Infec- tion of ‘Forest Trees by Fungi.’’ The work of the Section concluded with an excur- sion to Iwerne Minster, by kind invitation of Mr. Ismay, where the home farm and stock were inspected. ALEX. LAUDER. UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL INTELLIGENCE. Tue annual oration in connection with the Medical Society of London will be delivered on Monday, May 10, at 9 o’clock, by Sir D’Arcy Power, who will speak on ‘‘The Rev. John Ward and Medicine.”’ Tue Irish Geographical Association, which now enters upon its second year in close connection with the Geographical Association in Great Britain, has elected Prof. Grenville A. J. Cole as president for 1920, and Miss F. M. Berry, 15 Lower Leeson Street, Dublin, as hon. secretary. Tue following are among the forthcoming free courses of public lectures at Gresham College :— Physic, by Sir R. Armstrong-Jones (January 20 to 23); Geometry, by W. H. Wagstaff (February 3 to 6); and Astronomy, by A. R. Hinks (February 17 to 20). The lecture-hour will be 6 o’clock. A MEETING of zoologists was held in the rooms of the Linnean Society on Friday, January 9, to consider, among other matters, the teaching of zoology in NO, 2621, VOL. 104] schools and the salaries and remuneration of zoolog in general. Prof. S. J. Hickson presided, and a discussion the following resolutions were pas unanimously :—(1) That this meeting of B zoologists considers that paragraph 10 of the Report of the Investigators of the Secondary School Examina- tions Council, appointed to inquire into the metho and standards of award in the seven approved Fir Examinations held in July, 1918, referring to the jects of natural history and zoology, is likely to « courage the teaching of zoology in secondary schools, and requests the Zoology Organisation Committee to take such steps as may seem desirable to submit to the Board of Education the views of zoologists on the subject. (2) That this meeting deplores the present difficulty in filling vacancies in the scientific staff of the Natural History Museum, and regards it as mainly due to the poor pay and prospects of the members of the staff. It is of the opinion that this, if not remedied, will react adversely not only on the work — of the museum, but also on the advance of zoology — in this country. It therefore requests the Zoology Organisation Committee to make such representatifns — in the matter as may seem desirable. eT ae at fe Unper the title Discovery, Mr. John Murray } just published the first number of a monthly periodical intended to promote intelligent interest in all branciies~ of intellectual activity and practical achievement. The journal had its origin in a conference held a short time ago at which representatives of many literary, educational, and scientific associations were present. — It has the blessing of these associations, and sup- — port in the form of suggestions. for contributors and — subjects of articles. It is to be maintained under a deed of trust, and the trustees, whose names appear | on the cover of the magazine, include the presidents of the Royal Society and the British Academy. There is also a committee of management, which will © apparently advise the editor, Dr. A. S. Russell, as — to the suitability or otherwise of articles submitted or — solicited. With such distinguished patronage and — competent opinion, Discovery should be able to pro- vide interesting fare month by month for the delecta- — tion and profit of many thoughtful minds. Prof. R. S. Conway, who has been largely ay sie apie for | the inception of the journal, opens the first number — with an instructive article on ‘‘The Secret of Phila,” — particularly with regard to Gallus the prefect and his — relations with the poet Virgil. The other articles are — on smoke-screens at sea, Dr. T. Slater Price; the modern -studv. of dreams, Prof. T. H. Pear; dis- covery and education, the Master of Balliol; the Con- : ference at Paris, J. W. Headlam-Morley; sound- ranging in war-time, Dr. A. S. Russell; and Spits- bergen, Dr. Rudmose Brown. Stes ae SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES, — MANCHESTER. atk Literary and Philosophical Society (Chemical Section), December 18, 1919.—Mr. H. N. Morris in the chair— — H. Moore: Future supplies of motor fuel. The papal dealt with the possibility of meeting the future d by an increased production of petroleum spirit; benzol as a motor fuel; alcohol as a motor fuel; and the advantages of mixed motor fuels, with particular reference to the compression pressures of engines and to the vapour tension of mixed fuels. , 4 Literary and Philosophical Society, January 6.—Prof. F. E. Weiss, deputy chairman. in the chair.—R. W, James: The Antarctic: Shackleton’s Expedition of 1914-17. A description of the life and scientific worl of the expedition and of the explorations round the: — ‘Georgia. Jayuary 22, 1920] NATURE 555 Weddell Sea, Ross Sea, Elephant Island, and South . The scientific results especially described included the mapping of two hundred miles of new coast-line, soundings in the Weddell Sea, and the study of the natural history of pack-ice. - Dustin. Royal Dublin Society, December 16, 1919.—Prof. H. J. Seymour in the chair.—Prof. H. H. Dixon and T. G. Mason: A cryoscopic method for the estimation of sucrose. The depression of freezing point of a solution of sucrosé is approximately doubled by inver- sion. It is evident then that the sucrose content may be estimated by determining the freezing point of a solution before and after inversion. This may be conveniently done by the thermo-electric method of cryoscopy. It is convenient to add the invertase to the fluid to be examined in the cold. Without allowing the temperature to rise above 0°, the freez- ing point is determined. The mixture is then in- cubated for forty-eight hours at 30°, and the freezing point again observed. The difference between the two observations is a measure of the amount of sucrose originally present. The method has the advantages that only’ small quantities of the ‘fluid are required (2-5 c.c.), and treatment to remove pro- teins and other colloids is unnecessary. Using thermo- couples of easily attained sensibility, amounts of about 1 mgr. of sucrose may be detected.—Prof. S. Young: Brown’s formula for distillation. Evidence, based on the theoretical work of Rosanoff, Bacon, and Schulze, is brought forward in support of: the conclusion. that Brown’s formula is applicable to mixtures of chemically closely related liquids, and that the constant in the formula is equal to the ratio of the vapour pressures of the two pure substances at the boiling point of the mixture.—Miss Anne L. Massy: The Holothurioidea of the coasts of Ireland. Twenty-five species are enumerated,~ belonging’ to thirteen genera. ‘No new species are described, but the following are added to the British-and-Irish area :-— Stichopus regalis, Cuvier, Mesothuria Verrilli, Théel, and Benthogone rosea, Koehler, and the belief is expressed that the previous records of _ Bathyplotes natans, Sars, and Holothuria aspera, Bell, are refer- able to. Bathyplotes Tizardi, Théel, and Mesothuria lactea, Théel. Ten of. the species dealt with are restricted in the area to the Irish Atlantic slope. MELBOURNE. Royal Society of Victoria, November 6, 1919.—Mr. J. A. Kershaw, president, in the chair.—F. Taylor: Australian phlebotomic~ Diptera, new Culicidae and Tabanidz, and synonymy. Descriptions are given of a new mosquito, Uranotaenia albofasciata, and two new species of Tabanide, Sylvius - distinctus and Tabanus Geraldi; whilst a new genus, Phibalomyia, is suggested for Elaphromyia, previously occupied.— A. J. Ewart: The synthesis of sugar from formaldehyde and its polymers, its quantitative relations, and its. exothermic character. The author’s experiments, conducted over a long period, point to the con- clusion that sugar in plants is formed directly, and not bv the ‘intervention of formaldehyde——H. B. Williamson; A revision of the genus Pultenza. The members of this genus present some difficulties as to specific limitations, and the work, of which this is a first instalment, dealing with about thirty species, has been undertaken to place it on a more practical basis. It is expected that few species will be erected, and that there may be a reduction of one or two that have been ‘recently described. The conclusions have been based on an exhaustive examination of.|: specimens from all the Australian States. NO, 2621, VOL. 104] SYDNEY. Linnean Society of New South Wales, October 29, 1919.—Mr. J. J. Fletcher, president, in the chair.— Prof. C. Chilton: A new. Isopodan genus (fam. Oniscidee) from Lake Corangamite, Victoria. Halonis- cus Searli, n.g. et sp., described from a number of specimens obtained from the waters of Lake Coranga- mite, is assigned to the family Oniscide, one of the most strictly terrestrial families of Isopoda. The author, suggests that Haloniscus is the descendant of a form that was terrestrial in habits, and that, owing to special circumstances arising from its habitat, it has become re-adapted to aquatic life.—J. H. Maiden : Notes on the coloration of the young foliage of Eucalyptus. A series of observations is recorded of the colour of the young foliage in a number of species of Eucalyptus growing wild or cultivated in the Sydney district. The interesting suggestion is put forward that the observations justify the belief that a number of species and some groups can _ be diagnosed by this means.—E. F. Hallmann: New genera of Monaxonid sponges related to the genus Clathria. Ten genera are proposed as new.—A. M, Lea: Description of new species of Australian Coleoptera. Part xv. Thirty-one species, belonging to fourteen genera in the groups Scarabeide, Melan- dryide, and Cerambycidz, are described as new. Royal Society of New South Wales, November 5, 1919.—Dr. R. Greig-Smith, vice-president, in the chair.—R. H. Cambage: Acacia seedlings. Part v. The author describes ten species of Acacia seedlings. He records various species having flowered in 5-in. and 6-in. pots. One seedling of A. montana, three years old and 4 ft. high, bore about 3000 flowers. A seedling of A. diffusa and another of A. cardiophylla had. flowered when only ‘seventeen and nineteen months old respectively. Seeds of A. melanoxylon and A. penninervis had readily germinated after having been immersed in sea-water for 889 days.—Prof. C. E. Fawsitt and C. H. Fischer: The miscibility of liquids. The authors have examined a considerable number of liquids in regard to their mutual solubility or misci- bility. . The mutual solubility of two liquids depends greatly on the molecular volume of these liquids, and the molecular volume again depends on the chemical composition. The knowledge of the chemical com- position of a liquid. gives some indication of its behaviour in regard to solubility in other liquids.— J. G. Stephens: A new method of measuring mole- cular weights. The author employs the fact that isotonic solutions have equal vapour pressures as a means of determining molecular weights. Two tubes each containing a solution of different substances in the same solvent are placed in communication. Dis- tillation occurs from one tube to the other until the solutions become isotonic, when the molecular weight of one of the substances may be calculated in terms of that of the other. BOOKS RECEIVED. ‘The Romantic Roussillon: In the French Pyrenees. By I. Savory. © Pp. xii+214+plates. (London: T. Fisher Unwin, Ltd.) 25s. net. The Foundations of Music. By Dr. H. J. Watt. Pp. xvi+239. (London: At the Cambridge University Press.) 18s. net. The Adventive Flora of Tweedside. By I. M. Havward and Dr. G. C. Druce., Pp. xxxiit+296. (Arbroath : T. Buncle and. Co.) 2 The New Hazell Annual and Almanack for the Year 1920. Pp. liv+o41. (London: H. Frowde and Hodder and Stoughton.) 6s. net. 556 NATURE [JANUARY 22, 1920 DIARY OF SOCIETIES. - THURSDAY, Janvary 22. Roya. InstiTuTION oF GREAT BRITAIN, at 3.—Dr. R. R. Terry: Renaissance Music in Italy and England. : Rovat Scctery, at 3.30 (Special General Meeting). At 4.30.—Prof. E. G, Coker and K. C. Chakko : The Stress-strain Properties of Nitro-cellulose andthe Law of its Opti¢al Behaviour.—S. Marsh: Alternating-Current Electrolysis. —W. H. Eccles and J, H. Vincent : The Variations of Wave- length of the Oscillations Generated by the Three-Electrode ‘I hermionic ‘lube due to Changes in Filament Current, Plate Voltage, Grid Voltage, or Coupling.—S. -D. Carothers : Plane Strain. The Direct Determination of Stress.—F. Horton and Ann C. Davies: An Investigation of the Effects of Electron Collisions with Platinum and with Hydrogen, to ascertain whether the Production of Ionisation from Platinum is due to Occluded Hydrogen.—L. Bairstow, R. H. Fowler, and D. R. Hartree: The Pressure Distribution on the Head of a Shell moving at High Velocities, UnsTITUTION OF MininG AND METALLURGY (at the Geological Society), at 5.30.—W. Broadbridge: Froth Flotation : Its Commercial Application and its Influence on Modern Concentration and Smelting Practice. x ANSTITUTION OF ELEcTRICAL ENGINEERS (at the ‘Institution of Civil Engineers), at 6.—J. L. Thompson: Transformers for Electric Furnaces. ‘Concrete INsTiItUTE (296 Vauxhall Bridge Road), at 7.30.—Dr. J. 3. Owens: The. Attrition, of Concrete Surfaces exposed to Sea Action. Harvetan Socigty (at the Medical Society of London), at 8.15.—Annual General Meeting. FRIDAY, Janvary 23. Royat Socirery or Mepicine (Study of Disease in Children Section), at 4.30. ' Puysicat Society or Lonpon (at the City and Guilds Technical College, . Leonard Street), at 5.—Dr. J. H. Vincent: Maintained Oscillations in Triode Valve Circuits.—Dr. W. Eccles: Measurements of the Chief Parameters of Triode Valves.—F. W. Jordan: Measurement of Ampli- fication of a Radio-frequency Amplifier.—F. E. Smith: The Measure- ment of Amplification given by Triode Amplifiers at Audible and at Radio Frequencies.—Hon. C. W. Stopford and C. R. Darling: Exhibi- tion of a Method of Determining the Hardening ‘Temperature of Steel.— C. R. Darling : Exhibition ofa Thermal Cell of Constant Voltage. RoyaL COLLEGE or SuRGEONS, at 5.—Prof.. A. Keith: John Hunter's Observations and Discoveries in Anatomy and Surgery; His Contribu- tions to our Knowledge of the Alimentary System (Hunterian Lecture). . ‘INSTITUTION OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS, at 6.—E. M. Bergstrom: Recent Advances in Utilisation of Water Power. : Junior InstirutTion oF EnGinrers (at 39 Victoria Street), at -7 30.— J. A. Reavell: Evaporation in the’‘Chemical Industry. : : ovat Socrery or Mepicine (Epidemiology and State Medicine Section), at 8.30.—Dr. F._G.. Crookshank: Principles ' of Epidemiology.—Dr. Cleland and Dr. Campbell : Epidemiology of Acute Encephalomyelitis. RovAt Institution or GREAT BRITAIN, at 9.—Hon. Sir Charles Parsons : Researches at High Pressures and Temperatures. SATURDAY, January 24. Rovat Instirution or Great BRITAIN, at 3.—A. Noyes: Aspects of Modern Poetry. j d PuysioLocicat Society (at King’s College), at 4. k ‘ MONDAY, January 26, F Roya CoiveGe or Surckons, at 5.—Prof. A. Keith: John Hunter's * Observations and Discoveries in Anatomy-and Surgery ; His Contribu- - tions to our Knowledge of the Kidneys, Bladder, and Urethra, and Diseases connected with these Structures (Hunterian Lecture). Rovar Society or Arts; at 8.—Capt. H. Hamshaw Thomas: Aircraft Photography in War and Peace (Cantor Lecture). Roya Society or Mepicine (Odontology Section), at 8.—S. F. St. J Steadman : Dental Sepsis in Children : Its Consequences and Treatment. Mepica Society or Lonvon, at 8.30.—Pathological Evening. TUESDAY, JANUARY 27. Roya Horticuttura Sociery (at Vincent Square, S.W. 1), at 3. Roya Institution or Great BriTAtn, at 3.—Prof. G. Elliot Smith: — Evolution of Man and the Karly History of Civilisation: I.. Man's igin. ¥ . , {nsriTuTION oF Civit. ENGINEERS, at 5-30.—J. Mitchell : Whitby Harbour Improvement.— R, F, Hindmarsh: The Design of Harbours and Break- waters with a View to the Reduction of Wave-action Within Them,— J. W. Sandeman : Wave-action in Harbour Areas ; with Special Reference to Works for Reducing it at Blyth and Whitby Harbours.—W. Simpson : The Improvement of the Entrance to Sunderland Harbour, with Reference to the Reduction of Wave-action. Rovat Puorocrarnic Society or Great Brivrarn (Lantern Meeting). at 7.— Major W. Bladon: Life on the Gold Coast. RoyaL ANTHROPOLOGICAL INSTITUTES, at 8.15.—Annual General Meeting WEDNESDAY, January 28. Rovat Society or Arrs, at 4.30.—Sir Cecil Hertslet: The Ruin and Restoration of Belgium. Rovat CoLiecr or SurGEons, at 5.—Prof. A. Keith: John Hunter’s Observations and Discoveries in Anatomy and Surgery : His Contribu- tions to our Knowledge of the Genital and Reprodnctive Systems = (Hunterian Lecture). RITISH ACADEMY (at the Royal Society), at 5.—Dr. C. Singer: i Medicine in Early England. ve beastie THURSDAY, January 29. Rovat Insrirution or Great Britain, at 3.—Dr. R. R. : Renaissance Music in Italy and England. i ee Rovat Socigty, at 4.30.—Prodable Papers: Prof. W. Bateson: The Genetics of ‘‘ Rogues” among Culinary Peas (Pisum sativum).— L. T. Hoghen: Studies on Synapsis. I. Oogenesis in the Hymenoptera.— H. Onslow: A Periodic Structure in many Insect Scales and the Cause of their Iridescent Colours. , peers Tao aang OF PHYSICIANS, at 5. KOVAL Society or MepicineE (Balneology and Climatology Secti 5.30.—Dr. N. Wood and Others : Discussion on the Merits ind’ Detoces of the British Health Resorts. NO, 2621, VOL. 104] WireEvess Society oF Lonpon (at Institution of Civil i at 6,—— R.C. Clinker ; A Portable Valve Set and some properties of C.W, Circuits. — FRIDAY, JANUARY 30. ’ Rovat C LLPGE oF SuRGEONS, at 5.—Prof. A. Keith: John Hunter's Observations and Discoveries in Anatomy and Surgery ; His Contributions to our Knowlege of the Eye, Ear, ‘ose fe aoe InstiTuTION or E_ecrricat EnGingers (Students’ Meeting) (at the , and Guilds Technical — Coll ard Street), at 7,—Major K. — Edgcumbe and Others : Discussion on Quantity Production as a a Rovat Institution oF GREAT BRITAIN, at 9.—S. G. Brown: ‘ Gyrostatic Compass. t rent SATURDAY, January 31. Rovat Institution oF Great. Brivain, at. 3.—Sir F. W. The Astronomical Evidence bearing on Einstein’s Theory I. Movement of the Perihelion of Mercury. WBE Fee, Bs PuysioLocicat Socizty (at King’s College), at 4. Votives she CONTENTS.” 92 *aae8 Wind and Barometric Gradient. By W. H. Dines, , x Oe BRE oie “ieutdie Researches on Fluorescence. ByR........ ey F 2 530 Scientific Study ofthe Sugar Group . Nutrition and Longevity ..........-+4 Cheese- and Butter-making -......... Our! Bookshelf)... te at eae Letters to the Editor :— : iP ey a Gravitation and Light.— Sir Joseph Larmor, M.P., F.R.S. ; The Outlook of British’ Technical Optics —Prof, F, ~ Cheshire .. . 1308, vere gate Sa Power from the Sun.—A. A, Campbell Swinton, F.R.S + 532 Be ieee ae ae SG 9 ee Sedimentation of Blood Corpuscles.—Prof. A. E, Boycott, FOR Be as oe eee eee ee The Einstein Theory and Spectral Displacement.— ~ H, Fletcher Moulton and Dr. A WOrDa ? .Crommelin ()2).5.5 00 5) 1s Ra eee gee Use of a Prismatic Binocular for Viewing Near ~ Objects. —Capt..D, Wilson Barker... ... 532 The Nitrogen Problem. I... 2. 1 2 4 2 5). 533 The Microscopy of Metals. (Illustrated.) By C.H. D. 535 Report of the Calcutta University Commission, By SirE., Denison Ross ....... a: ate Notes: cu ce csrace Gat eters Our Astronomical Column :— Large Fireball on January 16. . . 2. . Prof. W. H. Pickering’s Lunar Studies . The Solar Eclipse of May 29, 1919 . . . Symposium on the Microscope... . Construction and Use of Microscopes. J. E. Barnard: 0). so.° 3) ale Ags ie ee Microscopical Optics. By Prof. A. E. Conrady. . Paris Academy of Sciences: Bonaparte and — Loutreuil Foundations ............. 550 The Mathematical Association. By Prof. William PB: Misine se os oe ee ey + 4 wees 550 Industrial Research Associations. ........ The Organisation of Imperial Statistics, By G. H. — Knibbe.. 3: 9) oC ee Italian Papers on Relativity. By Dr. L. Silberstein 552 Agriculture at the British Association. By Prof. Alex. Taaidet fo) ith Fae ae : University and Educational Intelligence... . . Societies and Academies. *...0. 23.43 2s Sues on ie (a Se Si ee Vote 553 554 Books Received Be : 556 Diary of: Societiag 0.0! suis as se Editorial and Publishing Offices: MACMILLAN AND CO., Lotp., ST. MARTIN’S STREET, LONDON, W.C.2. Advertisements and business letters to be addressed to the Publishers. “7s a Editorial Communications to the Editor. Telegraphic Address: Puusis,. LONDON. ; a Telephone Number: GERRARD 8830. cn e § NATURE 557 THURSDAY, JANUARY 29, 1920. _ THE WORKS OF TORRICELLI. Opere di Evangelista Torricelli. Edite da Gino Loria.¢ Giuseppe Vassura. Vol. i. Parte 1. Pp. xxxviii+4o7. Vol. i. Parte.2. Pp. 482. Vol. ii. Pp. 320. Vol. iii. Pp. 521. (Faenza: G. Montanari, 1919.) Price 60 franchi the 3 vols. : HIS work consists nominally of three volumes, of which the first contains mathematical papers, the second papers on mechanics, and the third the correspondence of Torricelli. In reality there are four volumes. It is to be hoped that this inconvenient. way of describing the volumes of a work will soon go out-of fashion. This is the first complete edition of the collected writings of Evangelista Torricelli; it is published under the auspices of the municipality of his native town, Faenza, who have in this way raised a lasting memorial to their celebrated townsman. Torricelli was born in 1608, and died in 1647. In the introduction to vol. i., Signor Loria has given the few particulars about his life which it has been possible to gather. In 1627 Torri- celli went to Rome to study under Benedetto Castelli, a disciple of Galileo, who in the previous year had been appointed professor of mathematics there. He seems to have remained at Rome until October, 1641, when Galileo, who had heard from Castelli of the valuable work in dynamics done by his pupil, invited him to Arcetri. Torricelli gladly accepted the invitation, but was only for a few months able to benefit by the instruction thus offered, as Galileo died on January 6, 1642. Soon after, Torricelli was appointed to the post of mathematician to the Grand Duke of Tuscany held by Galileo, and spent the few remaining years of his life at Florence until his death on October 25, 1647. The subsequent fate of his unpublished papers and letters is told in the introduction; they had a narrow escape from total destruction in 1733, when they were sold as waste paper to a pork butcher. Fortunately, the first customer to whom one of the papers was handed, wrapped round a sausage, was Nelli, the biographer of Galileo, who to his horror recognised the hand- writing of the great man; and at once secured the whole pile of papers. - It was the study of Galileo’s ‘“‘ Discorsi e dimon- strazioni matematiche intorno a due nuove Scienze ” which led Torricelli to make further in- vestigations in dynamics and hydrodynamics. His principal results appeared in two books, “De motu gravium naturaliter descendentium” and “De NO. 2622, VOL, 104] motu projectorum,” which appeared in a volume of tracts, “Opera geometrica,” published in 1644. It is the second of these which contains his experi- ments on the flow of fluids from vessels through a small orifice. These experiments had been com- menced by Castelli, whose erroneous result, that the velocity of outflow was proportional to the depth from the surface, was corrected by Torri- celli. He showed that the quantity of water flow- ing from a hole in the horizontal bottom of a vessel in equal times was proportional to the series of odd numbers, if the quantity flowing out in the last unit of time was put equal to one. A particle from the surface flows out with a velocity equal to that which it would have acquired by falling from its original height over the opening. There- fore the outflowing velocity is proportional to the square root of the height. From this it followed that the figure of a jet issuing from a small hole in the side of a vessel is a parabola. Among Torri- celli’s discoveries is also the mechanical principle that if two or more bodies are so connected that their motion will neither make their centre of gravity rise nor fall: they are in equilibrium. The fame of Torricelli rests, however, mainly on his discovery of air-pressure. He knew from Galileo that water would not rise in a tube closed at the top more than 33 ft., which was supposed to indicate that Nature’s dislike to empty space (horror vacui) had a limit. Torricelli thought that this was nonsense and that it would be interesting to experiment with a heavier fluid. He anticipated that mercury would rise only to one-thirteenth of the height to which water.would rise. At his in- stigation Viviani made the experiment in 1643, and found that the column of mercury. in a tube closed at one end and inverted in ‘a vessel containing mercury sank to about 30 in. and remained there. Torricelli found, however, by repeated. measures that the height of the column of mercury was always changing, and he rightly interpreted this as indicating changes in the pressure exercised by the air on the open surface of the mercury. In a letter to his friend Ricci of June 11, 1644 (vol. iii., p. 186), he says that he has made these experiments, not to produce a vacuum, but chiefly to make an instrument for measuring changes in the density of the air. He explains that we live at the bottom of an ocean of air, the weight of which at the surface of the earth is about equal to one-four-hundredth of the weight of an equal volume of water. During the remaining three - years of his life Torricelli does not seem to have pursued these researches further, and the new doctrine was not universally accepted’ until Pascal in 1648 had proved the connection of barometric height with the height of the observer above the AA ea 558 : NATURE surface of the earth, and Guericke soon after had proved by experiments the enormous power of the pressure of the air. Not a few of the mathematical papers published in the first (double) volume have never been printed before. They deal with conic sections, spirals (Torricelli discovered the logarithmic spiral), maxima and minima, etc. They make us feel that if a longer span of life had been granted him he would have taken his place among those mathe- maticians who paved the way for the advent of the differential calculus. The quadrature of the cycloid was one of the subjects treated in the “Opera geometrica.” It is well known that Roberval charged Torricelli with having stolen his results on this subject, as well as Fermat’s method of maxima and minima, and that Pascal was weak enough to publish this accusation in 1658, adding the assertion that Torricelli had confessed the robbery. This outrageous charge was soon after proved by Carlo Dati and Wallis to be utterly groundless, and it only showed that Roberval was not very particular as to the truth of any state- ment he made. There is no reason whatever to doubt that Torricelli found his results indepen- dently. This new edition is in every way satisfactory, but we could have wished that the pages of the originals had been given in the margin. This is too often neglected by editors of a man’s collected works, and the omission makes it very difficult to look up quotations from the original editions. JE EeD: PROBLEMS OF THE FRUIT-GROWER. Science and Fruit-Growing: Being an Account of the Results obtained at the Woburn Experi- mental Fruit Farm since its Foundation in 1894. By the Duke of Bedford and Spencer Pickering. Pp. xxii+351. (London: Mac- millan and Co., Ltd., 1919.) .Price 12s. 6d. net. HE appearance of this volume will be wel- comed by all interested in scientific pomo- logy, and the practical fruit-grower should find it indispensable as a work of reference dealing with many of the problems with which in some form or other he is constantly faced. In neither case ‘will the contents be unfamiliar, since the investigations at Woburn have been closely fol- lowed throughout their course, and the results have been published at intervals in a series of reports. Some of the latter, however, have been long out of print, and for this and other obvious reasons the publication of a connected and com- prehensive «account of the many-sided work con- NO. 2622, VOL, 104] ducted at Woburn since its foundation = be appreciated. The preface quotes at length an article which — appeared in Nature of September 19, 1895, deal-— ing with the genesis of the station, which was — due entirely to the public-spirited enterprise of — the Duke of Bedford, who furnished the neces- sary financial aid, and of Mr. Spencer Pickering, who has now for a quarter of a century. devoted himself to the elucidation of some of the problems of the fruit-grower, and has laboured single-handed _ and under the additional handicap, in recent years, of ill-health. [JANUARY 29, 1920 | es 1 Under these conditions the — volume of achievement has been remarkable; and — although the authors recognise the limitation of aim necessitated by force of circumstances and plead for leniency of criticism, they may be assured that, notwithstanding the controversial character of much of their work and the storms: of adverse opinion aroused from time to time, the world of horticulture recognises the great debt which it owes to them both for the value of their researches and for the stimulus given to scientific investigation in horticulture in this country. It is impossible within the limits of a short review to include adequate notice of all the sub- jects of horticultural importance considered in this volume. Their range is extremely wide, successive chapters dealing with investigations on soil pre- paration for planting, methods of planting, pruning, manures, spring frost damage and its prevention, the fruiting of trees in successive seasons, the flowering of apple trees, insecticides and fungicides, insect and fungoid pests, soil sterilisation, the effect of grass on trees, the toxic action of one crop on another, the behaviour of _ plants in masses, and flocculation in soils. however, opportunity for individual treatment has already been provided on the occasions of the appearance of the separate reports previously re- ferred to, attention here may be confined to a few of the more general issues. Except in the direction of chemistry, the goal aimed at was the investigation of those cultural problems in which much work could be done with- out the assistance of specialists in the respective branches of science concerned, since the station was not equipped for a more varied programme. The field of work which it was possible to cover within those limits was, however, remarkably wide, as the list of subjects just enumerated indi- cates. How far towards the solution of such cul- tural problems progress can be made under these conditions depends obviously on the nature of the individual problem; but, without in any way detracting from the value of the Woburn work, its. main result has been to emphasise the need for Since, — JANUARY 29, 1920] NATURE e fer oN the co-operation of the plant physiologist, the soil chemist and physicist, the entomologist, and the mycologist. with the expert’ pomologist in in- vestigations of this character. The ideal fruit experiment station, as. the authors recognise in their preface, must be equipped to meet that need. The difficulties experienced in the measurement of results of experiments on fruit culture have been adequately recognised. The Woburn methods of. measurement. appear, .on the whole, satisfactory, although in certain cases to average the combined results of varieties of dissimilar character tends to obscure their significance. Ex- perience at Woburn has apparently but rarely demonstrated that selection of results by the in- vestigator is necessary, but in this respect the authors have perhaps been particularly fortunate in escaping anomalous behaviour on the part of individual trees caused by pest damage, local soil variations, or other accidental circumstances. It is interesting to note that their conclusions as to the minimum number of trees or plants which each plot under treatment should contain accord closely with those based on recent work in the United States. The extent to which the results,in the experi- ments with fruit trees may have been affected by root-stock variations cannot be estimated, since the nature of the root-stock and the precautions taken to ensure uniformity are not generally speci- fically stated. Recent investigations.at East Mall- ing and Long Ashton have demonstrated such wide variations in the characters of both Paradise and free stocks in the case of the apple, for example, that it is clear that uniformity of root- stock must be secured if the results are to be beyond criticism. The investigations on insecticides and fungicides are of particular interest to plant pathologists, since, even if few or none of Pickering’s formule for individual spray fluids establish themselves in general use, much light has been thrown upon the chemical side of the subject, especially in the . case of Bordeaux and Burgundy mixtures. The view adopted as to the method of fungicidal action of the copper compounds concerned in the latter spray fluids has been the subject. of considerable controversy, and there are, probably, too many weak points in the evidence adduced and in the line of argument taken in the discussion to permit of its general acceptance, In.a. work of this description, . covering so wide a range of subjects, it is not surprising to find a few mis-statements,. such, for example, as that the scale insect, ‘Aspidiotus ostreaeformis, occurs NO. 2622, VOL, 104] only under glass in this country. in naphthalene-paraffin-soft soap insecticides of the paranaph type separates out on dilution does not hold in cases where the naphthalene is first dissolved in the paraffin.. They are, however, but minor defects in a work distinguished for interest and originality, and sure to serve as a fruitful source of inspiration in many directions. METAPHYSICAL RESEARCH, Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society. New series. Vol, xix. Containing the papers read before the Society during the fortieth session, 1918-19. Pp. iii+311. (London: Williams and Norgate, 1919.) Price 20s. net. Problems of Science and Philosophy. Aristotelian Society. Supplementary Volume 11. The Papers read at the Joint. Session of the ‘Aris- totelian Society, the British Psychological Society, and the Mind Association, held at Bed- ford College, London, July 11-14, 1919. ~ Pp. iii+220. (London: Williams and Norgate, 1919.) Price 12s. 6d, net. HE old idea of metaphysics, that it marks a stage of human intellectual activity when, dissatisfied with a primitive anthropomorphic pro- jection of images which peopled the unseen world with gods and developed a_ theology, man formed for himself abstract entities and quiddities and put these in the place of his gods— a stage of intellectual activity from which we have now passed to the clear, sane world of posi- tive science—has long passed away. The well- worn joke of the metaphysician looking for a black hat in a dark room no longer raises. a_ smile. Metaphysical research is coming into ever closer relations with scientific problems. It is now seen to penetrate deeply into every problem of physics and biology, as well as of psychology. The annual volume of the “Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society” and the supplementary volume entitled “Problems of Science and Philosophy” clearly indicate this new orientation. The supplementary volume is of special interest from the point of view of science. The Aristotelian Society has organised for some years past an extra session, in which representative leaders in the sciences are invited to join professed _philo- sophers in discussing the fundamental problems of science. The session was held this summer at Bedford College, London, and attracted very wide interest. This volume contains the published papers which were issued for the discussions.. They reach a high standard, and are likely to ras ’ Again, ' the assertion that the greater part of the naphthalene 560 NATURE [JANUARY 29, 1920 influence the direction of scientific speculation for some time to come. In the first paper Mr. Bertrand Russell has given a very lucid example of what he has de- scribed as scientific method in philosophy. He submits “pure experience’ to exhaustive scien- tific analysis. The outcome, if we follow and accept the writer’s argument, is surprising, and probably to -most people disconcerting. Like Hume, he fails to discover anything in experience corresponding to the subject, or anything like an act of perceiving which might constitute a subject,. and he concludes, therefore, that the subject of experience is a logical construction. The next article is of. more distinctively scientific interest. It is a symposium on-the subject of “Time, Space, and Material.” It is discussed from several points of view, scientific and philosophical, by Prof. Whitehead, Sir Oliver Lodge, Prof. J. W. Nicholson, Dr. Henry Head, Mrs. Adrian Stephen, and Prof. Wildon Carr. The keynote is Prof. Whitehead’s criticism of the concept of “all Nature at an instant” and his insistence that the ultimate datum of science is an event. The continuity which science must hypostatise is not an ether of space, but an ether of events. There are two other symposia of present interest, one on the problem of individuality with particular reference to the concept of the relation of the individual to God, the other on the epistemological problem: “Is there ‘knowledge by acquaint- anes?” The annual volume contains ten papers read during the past session of varied, but without exception of high, interest. The presidential ad- dress by Dr. G. E. Moore on “Some Judgments of Perception” is an admirable piece of close reasoning in analysis of a simple judgment, such as “That is an inkstand.” Methodological prob- lems of various kinds are discussed in papers by Prof. Laird, Mr. C. D. Broad, Mr. A. E. Heath, and. Prof. J. B. Baillie. Prof. Wildon Carr ex- pounds and defends the concept of “windowless ” monads. Mrs. Duddington, in a paper on “Our Knowledge of Other Minds,” develops an interest- ing theory of the immediacy and directness of this knowledge. Principal Jevons writes an apprecia- tion of Tagore. Mr. A. F. Shand has an original study of deep psychological interest on ‘“ Emotion and Value.” The last paper in the volume is by the Dean of St. Paul’s on “Platonism and Im- mortality.” It is a philosophical treatment of the most profound problem in social and political ethics, one which, moreover, is of great scien- tific interest—is there any. reason to believe in. human progress? The Dean holds’ that there is not. NO. 2622, VOL. 104] /MEDICAL AND SOCIAL WAR-WORK tralia in IN EGYPT. F (1) The Australian Army Medical Corps in Egypt- An Illustrated and Detailed Account of the Early Organisation and Work of the Australian Medical Units in Egypt in 1914-1915. By Lt.-Col. J. W. Barrett and Lt. P. E. Deane. Pp. xiv+259. (London: H. K. Lewis and Co., Ltd., 1918.) Price 12s. 6d. net. (2) The War Work of the Y.M.C.A. in Egypt. By Sir J. W. Barrett. Pp. xx+212. (London: H. K. Lewis and Co., Ltd., 1919.) Price ros. 6d. net. : (1) HE first book gives a detailed account of the early organisation and work of the | Australian Army Medical Corps in Egypt. Prior to the outbreak of war the Corps was of meagre dimensions, in spite of the fact that compulsory medical training had come into operation in Aus- IQII. Australian Government decided to raise and equip a division, 18,000 strong, the medical establish- ment of which consisted of regimental medical officers and three field ambulances. Later, further divisions were raised and sent to the front. It soon became clear that “lines of communication medical units” were required, and the first’ hos- pital units with a 520-bed hospital arrived in- Egypt in January, 1915, and were housed at the Heliopolis Palace Hotel. This afterwards ex- panded into hospital and convalescent accommoda- tion consisting of 10,600 beds, and in the three days: April 30-May 2, 1915, no fewer than 1352 cases were admitted from Gallipoli, and were success- fully dealt with—a sufficient tribute to the com- pleteness of the organisation. A general review’ is given of the sickness and mortality among the Australians, and of the steps taken to prevent epidemics. A chapter is devoted to venereal diseases—described as being the greatest problem of camp life in Egypt—in which much sound advice is given for dealing with these scourges. A further chapter deals with the work of the Red Cross in Egypt, and in another suggestions are made with the view of increasing the efficiency of the Australian Army Medical Service. Sir James Barrett and Lt. Deane have compiled a very read- able and useful narrative, and the volume is illu trated with many plates. (2) This volume deals not with the general work of the Young Men’s Christian Association, but with the special war work so successfully undertaken by it in Egypt and Palestine. A brief account is first given of the foundation and’ general policy of the association and of its pre- war work in Egypt. Two months after war broke When war was declared, the: ee eee ee ee ee ee ee a eT — January 29, 1920] NATURE 561 out 20,000; Territorials reached Egypt, and the Y.M.C.A. at once began its work among them. At Heliopolis 5000 troops encamped in the desert, with nothing to do after the day’s routine ended, and within four days a marquee had been obtained, and writing accommodation, followed by a circulating library and canteen, provided. In addition, postal facilities were arranged for three weeks until the Government post-office was established, and some 1500-2000 letters were dealt with daily. From. 1915 onwards soldiers’ clubs were established in all the principal military centres of the Near East. Sir James Barrett bears eloquent testimony to the invaluable work of the Y.M.C.A. Ina concluding sentence he says: “The strength, in my judgment, of this organisation lies in the fact that its members possess an ideal which finds expression in services to their fellows of the most practical character. Whether we shall all agree with their ideals in the abstract or not is outside the ques- tion, for all can join in admiring and respecting their single-minded efforts to better humanity.” Gen. Allenby, who contributes a preface, writes in a similar strain: ‘‘ No one has more reason than I to be grateful to the Y.M.C.A. for its work in connection with the army. Throughout the cam- paign its workers have followed closely the fighting line, and their labours have done much to keep up the moral, mental, and physical effici- ency of my_ troops. Christianity, self-regardless devotion to work, a spirit of daring enterprise, and sound business guidance have built up an organisation which has earned the gratitude of the Empire.” SCIENTIFIC BIOGRAPHY. (1) Herschel. By the Rev. Hector Macpherson. (Pioneers of Progress: Men of Science. Edited by Dr. S. Chapman.) Pp. 78, (London: S.P.C.K.; New York: The Macmillan Co., 1919.) Price 2s, net. (2) Lectures on Ten British Physicists of the Nine- - teenth Century. By Alexander Macfarlane. (Mathematical Monographs: No. 20.) Pp. 144. (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc. ; Lon- don: Chapman and Hall, Ltd., 1919.) Price 7s. 6d. net, (3) Joseph Dalton Hooker. By Prof. F. O. Bower. , (Pioneers of Progress: Men of Science. Edited by Dr. S. Chapman.) Pp. 62. (London: S.P.C.K.; New York: The Macmillan Co., 1919.) Price 2s, net. E most directions we have had to abandon our aspirations and sanguine prophecies of a reconstruction which should lead to a better world NO. 2622, VOL, 104] Broad-minded- and almost justify the horrors of war. But in one: direction hope remains; there has certainly been ai growth in the popular appreciation of science. However, like most good things, it has its dan- gers; it was the applications of science, rather than science itself, which stimulated popular interest during the war.. We are not yet sure that the better judgment of value is based on a better understanding; and, if it is not, if science is to be appreciated merely because it is useful in the arts of war and peace, we shall soon be wish- ing fervently that interest may once more be replaced by apathy. The danger is partly our own fault. We com- plain that the populace have neglected science ; but science has also neglected the populace; we have not offered the laity of our best. . ‘‘ Popular science ’’ has too often consisted of superficial lec- tures with showy experiments or trashy sentimen- talism about the romance of radium and the starry heavens, We ought not to be surprised if those to whom science is presented in so unscientific a guise are indifferent to its value and ignorant of its meaning. In order to make the laity understand rightly, we must start from a common ground. And there is a common ground: the proper study of man- kind is man. Great men of science are often great men as well; by utilising the universal interest in great personalities, we may lead the way to a true comprehension of their work. Science, it is true, has a strong impersonal element; but it has also.a strong personal element; it is on the latter that we must found a comprehension of the former. It is significant that an abstruse scientific problem has been noticed recently in the daily Press under such headlines as ‘‘ Newton v. Einstein.’? The personal element of the matter was the first to appeal to the popular imagination. For these reasons the volumes before us would have been welcome, even if they had represented an attempt rather than an achievement. It would not have been surprising if first attempts at popu- lar scientific biographies had been partial failures; but here they are not. We have left little space to speak in detail of Mr. Macpherson’s and Mr. Macfarlane’s books, because all that there is to be said of them can be adequately conveyed in a single sentence. They are as good as they can be, and a great deal better than we should have imagined possible. Mr. Macpherson’s task was perhaps as easy as that of a scientific biographer can be, for Sir William Herschel’s work is easy to understand and the facts of his life might have been taken from a romantic novel; but everything looks easy when done by a master of the craft. Mr. Macfarlane’s book is even more remarkable; 562 NATURE [JANUARY 29, 1920 he gives about fourteen pages (it was originally an hour’s lecture) to each of his subjects, and in that short compass manages to ‘bring before his audi- ence the picture of a complete personality, clearly distinguished from all the rest, and an adequate idea of the nature of his scientific work. There are a few minor inaccuracies, but our only quarrel is with the title, for of the ten (Maxwell, Tait, ‘Rankine, Kelvin, Stokes, Airy, Adams, Whewell, Babbage, John Herschel) not all can strictly be said to be physicists. However, this is the fault of the editors, not of the author, for the book is post- humous; and we would not willingly part with any of the ten; Babbage, the least physical, is perhaps the most interesting. We are glad that neither of the authors is ashamed to tell again the old Stories; the younger generation must learn them somewhere, and they could not be better told. But did Freddy Tait really drive that golf ball? Concerning Prof. Bower’s ‘‘ Hooker,’’ little also need be said. It is scholarly, as we should expect from its author, but, alas! it is not interesting. Prof. Bower has not, we think, managed to con- vey to his readers why either Hooker or his work was great. But some failures in an enterprise of this kind there must be; let us be thankful for the successes. Everyone ought to read Mr. Macpher- son’s and Mr. Macfarlane’s books, and make all his acquaintances do the same. NRG. OUR BOOKSHELF. The Aviation Pocket-book for 1919-20. A Com- pendium of Modern Practice and a Collection of Useful Notes, Formulae, Rules, Tables, and Data Relating to Aeronautics. By R. Borlase Matthews. Seventh edition, revised and en- larged. Pp. xxiv+536. (London: Crosby Lockwood and Son, n.d.) Price 12s. 6d. net. THE impression received from a perusal of this book is that the author’s chief aim in life is the classification of data, and that the value of the data is of secondary importance. The elaborate arrangements which make the pocket-book suit- able for cutting up to fit a number of standard loose-leaf' books or card index cabinets are valu- able in proportion to the value of the information contained on its leaves. Since many of the tables are inaccurate, it would appear that the author holds a different view. The resistance of the wings of an aeroplane is stated to have an average value equal to 15 per cent, of the total for the aeroplane, whereas it is probably never less than 50 per cent., and certainly greater than 60 per cent. in the case of modern aeroplanes at economical. flying speeds. In the case of engines, the variation of power with height is represented in a table which is seriously wrong when the height exceeds 10,000 ft. Even the tabu- lated characteristics of a standard atmosphere do not agree with those used in British aeronautics. NO. 2622, VOL. 104] The weight per horse-power of engines’ to be used’ in preliminary design is given too high; the maxi- mum of 200 h.p. there quoted is insufficient to cover the needs of aviation in. 1920, One also wonders why some twenty. pages are devoted to tables and formule referring to flat plates, whilst four suffice for what the author describes as ‘“‘modern wings.” These instances of defective data suggest that the author would have been better employed in correcting his data than in developing a classification system. It is for- tunate that much of the data is taken solidly from the publications of such bodies as. the British Engineering Standards Committee and the Royal Aeronautical Society, and it is asa very full index to these works that the pocket-book i to find a justification for its existence. A Manual of the Electro-Chemical Treatment * Seeds. By Dr. Charles Mercier. Pp. viii+ 134. (Londor: University of London Press, Ltd. “y -1919.) Price 3s. 6d. net. ees) Tuts book is essentially a personal statement,’ and the reviewer is under the serious’ disad- vantage that the distinguished author died soon after writing it, and can no longer make. the rejoinder that a suitable critique would inevitably call forth. It deals entirely with a proprietary process for the treatment of seeds before sowing. The process consists in placing the seeds in a 24-5 per cent. solution of sodium or calcium chloride through which an electric current is pass- ing, then taking them out and drying them. Five gallons of solution are needed per bushel of seed, and 8 watts of electricity per gallon, The drying is carried out by means of a blast of air heated to 100° F. The seed must then be sown as early as pessible, as the effect lasts only a month, Extraordinary increases: in crop are claitied, and some astonishing photographs are reproduced in the book. Very few actual figures of crop weights, however, are available, and the author did not deal adequately with the awkward fact that the method had not been a success at the experimental stations where treated seed supplied by the proprietors had been tested. No useful purpose would, however, be served by referring further to such points as these, for Dr. Mercier cannot reply. The New Hazell asihaedl and Almanack, By Di. T. A. Ingram. Pp. 873. (London: Henry Frowde, Hodder ‘and Stoughton, 1920.) Price 6s. net. On’ p. 206 of this useful annual we find a list of the Nobel prizemen for physics, chemistry, medi- cine, literature, and peace from 1901 onwards, together with a note on the Nobel foundation. This is an example of the kind of information which we expect to find in “‘ Hazell,’’ but not in other general annuals; and we are rarely disap- pointed. The sections on scientific and educational subjects are full of facts concisely presented, and the whole volume‘rightly erg at a aged upon wey reference bookshelf. ‘ ~ JANUARY: 29, 1920] NATURE 563 ‘LETTERS TO THE EDITOR. [The Editor does not hold himself responsible for _ opinions expressed by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manuscripts intended for this or any other part of Nature. No notice is taken of anonymous communications.] The Deflection of Light during a Solar Eclipse. Ir may be worth while to give my endeavour to obtain a rough value for the refraction effect of the atmosphere during a total eclipse of the sun. The simplest case possible is when the sun is in the zenith. I will assume that the air density of the normal atmosphere has been removed, and that there is left the atmosphere which produces the abnormal effects in question. This is not necessary, but it makes the calculation somewhat simpler. _If O be the place on the earth’s surface of maximum air density, the density p, of the residual atmosphere there will be one-seventieth of the density of the normal atmosphere if we assume that it corresponds to a fall of 4° C. in the atmosphere when in equilibrium. Take Ox: in the direction opposite to that of the motion of the shadow, and Oy the vertical passing through the centre of the moon’s disc. This assumes that the density is greatest at the centre of the shadow, which is almost certainly incorrect. I will take the density at any point of the residual atmosphere in the plane cf | xy to be given by P=po(i—Kxe-™, where f, although it varies with temperature, is assumed to be constant and equal to 1-3x10-°, dis- tances being measured in centimetres. If we assume that the density of the atmosphere becomes normal at 150 miles distance from O,.« will be 4:17 x 10-°. With these values of the two constants, the above formula expresses that the horizontal density gradient is uniform and independent of height, and that the atmosphere has its normal density at a distance of 150 miles. None of these statements is correct. The shadow-cone in the earth’s atmosphere acts like a down- draught chimney or a kind of thermal air-compression pump, increasing the density in the central region of the shadow and diminishing it in surrounding regions. - Thus « may have a very much greater value than that given above, and, indeed, the factor 1—xx may be quite incorrect in form. However, taking this formula for the density, the index of refraction of the residual atmosphere at any point is H=1+(py—1)(1—ere-™, where o= 1000004. The path of any ray in the plane of xy might be got by solving the usual differential equation for this case, but I have not succeeded in getting a solution. However, the amount of the deviation can be obtained without knowing the actual path. If @ be the angle which the tangent to a curve of equal refractive index makes with the axis of x, we have Pan ye Ou _ =k ae Ox! Oy B—Kx) It can easily be shown that the radius of curvature of the lines of equal density or refractive index in the neighbourhood of the axis of y is much greater than the radius of the earth. assumed the earth’s surface to be plane, we can assume these lines to be straight in the portion of the atmosphere concerned. On the axis of y, tan ¢=0-032, and for an observer at O the refraction of the light coming from a star near the edge of the NO. 2622, VOL. 104] Thus, as we have sun’s disc will be the same as if he were looking through an atmosphere stratified in parallel planes, making an angle @ with the horizon. A ray coming from such a star will make an angle of ¢—15/ with the normal to these planes, and the refraction will be (40-1) tan (g— 15’) =0:000004 X 0:0277 =1108 x I0-”” or 0-023". If the ray come from a star the angular distance of which from the sun’s centre is 45’, the result is 00082", which is a little more than one-third of 0-023”. But if, as I believe, x has been greatly under- estimated, the possible values of these refractions are much greater. If the observer be not at the origin, but at a dis- tance along the positive direction of the x-axis, the refraction of the light from stars on the other side of the sun’s disc will not be away from ‘the sun’s centre, but towards it, and vice-versa, if he be on the other side of the origin. But no difficulty of this kind occurs for refraction in planes perpendicular to Ox if the position of the observer be on the x-axis. Perhaps it is worth mentioning that, from the’ only account of the observations I have seen, it appears that, with the exception of one star, all the changes in right ascension were of the same sign, whereas the changes in declination were all in the right direction. I ought to mention in reference to Sir Arthur Schuster’s letter (NaTuRE, January 8, p. 468) that I never thought of a ray that, in its passage through the earth’s atmosphere, lay partly inside and partly outside the umbra. And I thank him for correcting the slip that I made in. the angular radius of the sun’s disc. In these days of relativity, an error of fifteen minutes either of arc or of time is, perhaps, excusable. ALEXR. ANDERSON. University College, Galway, January 14. ** The White Water.’’ It is possible that some readers of NATURE can en- lighten me on the cause and nature of what the Arabs call ‘‘ The White Water.’? This phenomenon was wit- nessed by me on two occasions at the entrance to the Persian Gulf in the vicinity of the Quoin. On both occasions the time was about 8 p.m. There was no moon on the first occasion, but a moon on the second. I first observed what appeared to be a line of breakers ahead of the ship; this was not possible be- cause we were in deep water and the position of the ship was known. As we approached, it seemed that these supposed breakers were a succession of phos- phorescent waves of a period of about sixty to the minute. The waves extended, so far as could be seen, for about two miles, In addition to. these waves there were also phos- phorescent Catherine-wheels, both right- and _left- handed, also phosphorescent light apparently coming to the surface and radiating out in all directions. The phenomena lasted for about half an hour, gradu- ally fading away, apparently sinking. There were strong atmospheric disturbances at the time. Both nights were clear and the sea was calm. I could obtain no local information. I may add, in con- clusion, that I was not the only person who witnessed this display. A. R, Patmer. Portsmouth, January 13. I Hope that Capt. Palmer’s letter will induce officers iof the Indian Marine to investigate any cases of “White Water’? that come under. their notice. I am 564 NATURE [JANUARY 29, 1920 sure that the director and staff of the Indian Museum at Calcutta, where the collections of the 1.M.S. investi- gator are deposited, will give them every assistance, and examine any specimens they may obtain. We want to know what are the organisms concerned in the production of the phosphorescence, and the physi- cal conditions of the water in which they were living. The organisms can be strained out of the water by a silken or muslin net—or the hose turned to run through a piece of either cloth—and preserved in spirit or formic aldehyde (1 part in 3o of sea-water). They should be accompanied by exact information as to position, state of weather and moon, and temperature of the water; a sample of the actual water in a green beer-bottle would also be useful. Phosphorescence so diffused as to make the sea appear absolutely white is, in my experience, rare. In- deed, I have seen ‘‘White Water ”’ only on two occa- sions; the first halfway between Ceylon and Minikoi, on a dirty night towards the end of May, 1899 (heavy weather from south-west, maximum effect about 9.30 p.m., dark again by 11 p.m.); the second seen from Minikoi, about five weeks later, at the commence- ment of the Great Monsoon (south-west), time g-to p.m. A bottled sample of the water of the first showed only the same organisms as normally produce “‘sparks,’’ but a tow-net sample of the second was so rich in the eggs, etc., of the organisms, which inhabit the slopes of Minikoi, and in breeding worms that normally bore into its corals, that I regarded it as perhaps a seasonal breeding. phenomenon. Waves of fire produced by myriads of sparks from minute water-fleas (especially Ostracods) and Protozoa are common in such tropical seas, but they merely mark the wind waves, and are not the same as the waves described by Capt. Palmer, which I think must be due to an optical effect. Globe or lantern- like effects produced by umbrella or barrel-shaped jelly-fish I associate with calm weather. They are most noticeable in the early part of the night, and do not usually last for more than an hour or two, As patches up to a few hundred yards across occur, and as the jelly-fish are sometimes so abundant that they can be collected in a bucket thrown overboard, the sea might be described as ‘‘White Water,’’ but I am sure that this is not what the fishermen of the Indian Ocean know by that name. Fish passing through water highly charged with phosphorescent organisms frequently execute Catherine-wheels, etc., but fish themselves are often phosphorescent from bacteria living upon their skin. J. STANLEY GARDINER. Zoological Laboratory, The Museums, Cambridge. Proposals for a Plumage Bill. Pror. DuERDEN’s letter in Nature of January 15 might by its phrasing lead to the supposition that a few persons only are agitating for a novel Bill to prohibit the importation of plumage. The trade has been keenly opposed by all naturalists, not only in Great Britain, but also in the United States, Canada, Australia, and nearly every country in Europe for many years. The arguments now used were all urged by the trade when the Government Bill of 1914 passed its second reading in the House of Commons. We are told that the introduction of another Bill will be “‘ viewed with alarm in South Africa,” although the ostrich-feather trade is a British Colonial industry carried on under totally different conditions from those of the trade in wild birds’ (or ‘fancy’’) plumage. In December, 1913, the hon. secretary of the Ostrich Farmers’ Association of South Africa, representing 1700 farmers, wrote to the Royal Society for NO. 2622, VOL. 104] the Protection of Birds as follows :;—* My asso-— . ciation has from time to time taken the — of its members on the subject-matter of the B about to be introduced by Mr. Hobhouse, and they have expressed their entire sympathy with, and approval of, the Bill: . . . The attitude taken up by the feather dealers in London is inexplicable to my association, and you have my assurance that have not the least support from a_ single farmer in South Africa.”’ sisae With regard to the ‘serious slump” said to have resulted from the Anti-Plumage Bill of 1914, it may readily be supposed that all such luxuries as feathers would suffer a slump during the war; but, as a matter of fact, one of the chief London brokers reported in 1915 that, “‘in spite of many difficulties, a large quan- tity of goods has been dealt with,” and that there had been ‘‘a sudden improved demand from America.” This demand followed the passing of the tariff clause prohibiting the importation into the United States of all ‘“‘fancy’’ feathers. > ar Prof. Duerden himself reasons that decrease in “fancy ’’ feathers would improve trade in ostrich feathers when he argues that the esthetic tastes we have inherited from our barbarian ancestors demand that we should decorate ourselves with feathers of some sort. q : The argument that we must encourage a French industry is also well-worn. It is true that the traders in Paris cried out in 1914 that the Hobhouse Bill was % designed to protect the ostrich feather industry of the Cape at the expense of Parisian feather-dressers; but the Société d’Acclimatation de France replied: “The interests of workpeople will not be affected. ... It is only a very small batch of speculators that can have to suffer. They are-very rich.” ras Prof. Duerden has ‘“‘grave doubts’? whether the “ruthless destruction of birds’’ for trade can best be prevented by discouraging or prohibiting that trade. It is open to him to suggest a better way. The pro- position that birds-of-paradise, lyre-birds, egrets, herons, trogons, orioles, terns, kingfishers, and all the rest of the feather-traders’ victims, from albatross: to humming-bird, might be ‘farmed’ after the manner of the flightless ostrich, and rlucked or killed for the market ‘‘in conformity with the highest humane demands,” may be of interest to avicul- turists; it has no practical bearing on the question of to-day. What science and humanity alike demand is. immediate action to save the birds of the world from the ruthless and stupendous slaughter on which the. trade now lives. L. GARDINER, treet Secretary, Royal Society for the Protection of Birds. : 23 Queen Anne’s Gate, S.W.1, January 20. THE suggestion made by Prof. Duerden (Nature, January 15) for special si of birds as an alterna- tive to a imports of their plumage is un- acceptable to us for several reasons, but of these I need now only mention one, since this one appears to us conclusive. We hold that it would be impossible for the Customs to differentiate between the feathers of those birds which had been ‘farmed?’ and of those which had fallen victims to the ruthless plume-hunter. Prof. Duerden is, pera unaware that a scheme similar to that which he adumbrates was advanced in 1914 by the Committee for the Economic Preservation of Birds, and was considered by the Government of ‘the day to be unworkable. The idea of our desired Bill being dangerous to the ostrich-farming industry has surprised us, previous Plumage Bills having been warmly supported by the January 29, 1920] NATURE 567 direction. | Whitman’s most cogent evidence is derived from a knowledge of the juvenal plumage in many wild species, and naturalists can scarcely fail to agree with his interpretation on this point, for he shows that many species which have more or less completely lost their chequers or bars in the adult plumage pass through a stage in which these markings appear. (2) This brings out another aspect of Whit- man’s work—his strong support of the recapitula- tion theory. In his own words, “all development . . . is essentially a repeating or recapitulating process. This is the central fact of heredity and the doctrine of descent.” Elsewhere he refers to heredity as “nature’s silent rehearsal of past history.” In this connection he pointed out that the formula, “ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny,” places the emphasis in the wrong place, since phylogeny can be nothing more than the lineal sequences of ontogeny regarded from the historical point of view, while recapitulation is simply repro- ductive repetition. The orthogenetic process is considered to be the primary and fundamental one, which bridges the incipient stages of characters until natural selection can get a foothold, and may even. sweep onwards and _ completely The Fic. 3.—Wing of Columba aevas, related to C, livia. tw bars are inc.mplete. erase a pattern which selection would have retained. That something other than selection is at work on these patterns is indicated also in such species as the European stock-dove, Columba (Fig. 3). In this species the reduction of the bars has proceeded farther than in the rock pigeon, but the spots composing some of the partial bars are completely concealed by overlying feathers. The same process is studied in great detail in the crested pigeons of Australia, the phylogeny being interpreted as’ “always advancing in one predetermined direction, like a tidal flow guided along a prepared channel, and flowing to varying distances, according to the initial momentum.”’ (3) Perfect continuity in development and varia- tion is another feature which Whitman is at great pains to demonstrate. By plucking feathers at intervals from the juvenal plumage, he showed that underlying the apparent discontinuity in pattern between one moult and the next there was complete continuity of the underlying physiological processes. The exact nature of this physiological developmental continuity is a nice problem on which we have very little light at the present time. But the author carries his conception of continuity much farther. In his many crossing NO. 2622, VoL. 104] aenas * experiments he found usually a blending result, with a fluid condition and no halting places from character to character. Granting that this may be generally true of species crosses in pigeons, yet the author himself describes cases of sex- linked inheritance and other phenomena which indicate some fixed boundary line between certain characters. We therefore feel that a universal philosophy of continuity is misleading because untrue. The enormous Mendelian literature is not - based entirely upon superficial or hasty observa- tion, although such cases no doubt occur. The author would have been on safer ground had he recognised, with Galton, that both continuity and discontinuity exist in Nature, and both are equally worthy of an explanation. We may perhaps look forward to a harmonisation of these two opposing principles on the basis of cell structure. (4) Several aberrant birds arising in these ex- periments are described as “mutations.” For example, a Zenaida (Fig. 4, a) produced a mutant in which the juvenal plumage (Fig. 4, b) was more primitive than in the type, but the adult plumage (4) (a) Fic. 4.—(a) Zenaida vinac o-rufa, normal juvenal plumage. The eee apical edge of the feathers is a primitive character in birds. (6) Mutant, juvenal plumage, showing a mesial extension of the light apical edge This condition is a specific character in C. guinea. was normal. This condition was transmitted through five generations in a generic cross. It recalls a type of yellow seedling occurring in maize which, if carefully nurtured, finally grows up into a green plant. Similarly, a Japanese turtle-dove (Fig. 5) produced three partial albinos in her old age. In this case there was also inbreeding. The orthogenetic interpreta- tion assumes that the colour pattern is being pro- gressively reduced, and that albinism is the final condition to which the whole group of pigeons is tending. This being the case, we may expect the reduction series to be hastened in a weakened germ, so that a long step in this direction might be anticipated. Here it would seem possible to find a basis for adjusting the conception of muta- tion With that of orthogenesis, even in pigeons. (5) The conception of germinal weakness or strength is one on which Whitman lays great | stress, and it is supported by much experimental evidence. Differences in “strength” or develop- 568 NATURE [JANUARY 29, 1920 mental power are shown not only in hybrids, but also in pure species. By removing their eggs when laid, the birds can be overworked in reproductive activity, with a corresponding decrease in energy of the offspring. The .result is more females and a shorter term of life. Even in normal reproduc- tion there is found to be a gradual diminution in developmental power of the germs throughout the season. ; This idea of relative and varying germinal weak- ness and strength runs through all the work, and will be found difficult to controvert. It is prob- ably but the beginning of a theory of evolution founded primarily, not on morphological, but on energy conceptions. (6) Another important relationship which was studied in great detail is that between fertility and sex. The problems involved are too many-sided to discuss here. It was found, for example, that while in crosses between closely related species the sexes appear in equal numbers, in_ inter- = Fic, 5.—The Japanese orientalis, Turtur Believed to represent the primitive colour’ pattern in pigeons, from which the chequers of (. divia were developed by the disappearance of pigment along shait of feather. turtle-dove, family crosses only or chiefly males are produced. In wide crosses the development may only begin, or it may stop at any stage between hatching and maturity, resulting in short-lived birds. All these and many other results are interpreted in terms of developmental energy, the difference between the sexes. being regarded as essentially a difference in metabolic level. This view is in accord with the classical theory of sex of Geddes and ,Thom- son. Some means must be found of harmonising it with the chromosome theory. (7) The study of voice, instincts, and behaviour in pigeons has added much to the value of the whole work. Whitman’s intimate knowledge of pigeons from this side frequently furnishes cor- roborative evidence of relationships. It also made possible his singular success in crogsing many species which had never been crossed before. The differences in the instincts of the reproductive oycle are often surprisingly marked and definite in: different species. In a discussion: of instinct in NO. 2622, VOL, 104] relation to intelligence, the author’s view is that as instincts become more complex and _ plastic the possibility of choice finally enters, so that without any added brain structure the organism is encouraged or constrained by circumstances to learn to use its privilege of choice. eile These notable volumes, two of which are sumptuously illustrated with coloured plates by Japanese artists, will doubtless arouse much dis- cussion. It is to be regretted that an index has not been added, to make their contents more readily available. Re Rota THE NITROGEN PROBLEM.1 Ly; ay ORE the war the United Kingdom produced and exported large quantities of ammonia nitrogen, upwards of 70 per cent. of the home production being, in fact, exported. Indeed, the British export trade in ammonium sulphate was larger than that of any other country. On the other hand, she was entirely dependent upon the Chile product for her nitric nitrogen. Agriculture accounted for the major portion of the home con- sumption of fixed nitrogen, but this only repre- sented 235 per cent. of the total home production and importation. Indeed, in proportion to the total area under cultivation, the United Kingdom uses less artificial nitrogenous fertilisers than any other progressive agricultural country. we The war has had a serious effect upon the home industry. Whereas the estimated output of by- product ammonia in America and of by-product and synthetic ammonia in Germany in 1917 was more than double what it was in 1913, with us it declined in 1914 and 1915, slightly recovered in 1916, and in 1917 showed only an increase of 6 per cent. over the amount in 1913. Our export — trade in ammonium sulphate practically ceased in 1917. Countries which formerly imported our sulphate of ammonia are now making their own by-product ammonia. This result is due to the action of the Government in controlling the export and price. As is well known, there has been a remarkable development in agriculture in this country during the last four years, and the home demand for nitrogenous fertilisers has been in excess of the supply. There can be no doubt that both the industrial and the agricultural demand for nitrogen products will continue to increase. The Committee estimates that on the assumption that the present scale of food production is at least main- tained, the demand in the near future will prob- ably represent a quadrupling of the average pre- war requirements. Our export trade in ammonia fertilisers will have in future to reckon to a still’ greater extent with synthetic products. It can only successfully compete by this country itself. manufacturing such products. No doubt economies and improvements in existing by-pro- duct processes are conceivable and possible, but 1 “ Ministry of Munitions of War. Munitions Inventions Department.” _ Nitrogen Products Committee. Final Report.” Pp. vi+3s7. (London: H.M. Stationery Office, 1919.) Cmd. 482. Price 4s. net. Continued from P. 535 Perk _ January 29, 1920] NATURE 569 it is unlikely that low-temperature carbonisation will have any considerable influence on the main result, and attempts to utilise peat and sewage afford no certain promise of success. Although our existing processes have admittedly shown themselves to be a national asset of the greatest value in times of war, they need to be supple- mented, in a time of national emergency, by methods which will render this country indepen- dent of external supplies of nitrates. The cost of power is, of course, a vital factor in connection with the establishment of any syn- thetic process of nitrogen fixation; and to this question the Committee necessarily devoted great attention and with special regard to the conditions of the United Kingdom. It has considered such water-power schemes as appeared practicable, and the cost of obtaining electrical energy from coal. The comparison is complicated by the many com- plex factors involved, and especially by the uncer- tainty concerning the future cost of coal and labour. At the same time, it offers an estimate of the cost of-a particular water-power scheme which it has investigated, but of which it gives no details, and it is of opinion that for a power of more than 28,o00 continuous kilo- watts the running cost, under post-war conditions, would be 3'93/. per full kilowatt-year, inclusive of capital charges. The only possible chance of obtaining electrical energy from coal at a cost which would compare with this would be by direct firing at a power station operating on a very large scale. This with coal at 1os. per ton and .an annual load factor of 97°5 per cent. works out at about 4'5l. per kilowatt-year of 8540 hours. After careful consideration of the main features of the various nitrogen fixation processes and of the ammonia oxidation process, in the light of British conditions and requirements, the Com- mittee concludes that (a) the arc process, in spite of certain disadvantages, viz, its large power re- quirements, its low electro-chemical efficiency, and the costly character of its chemical plant, would compete with the retort process of obtaining nitric acid so long as the cost of electtical energy was below gl. per kilowatt-year. (b) The calcium cyanamide process affords a cheaper marketable form of combined nitrogen, so long as electrical energy is below 5l. per kilowatt-year, than any other established fixation process, and gives a solid nitrogenous fertiliser as a primary product. The manufacture may be combined with that of calcium carbide and crude cyanides, and, as the raw materials are cheap and abundant in this country, there is good ground for assuming that it would be successful with us, in spite-of the rela- tively high ‘cost of electrical energy.. The Com- mittee is of opinion that a steam-power station of 30,000-kw. maximum load is the minimum size that would be justifiable under British conditions. (c) The Haber process, with pure hydrogen at 2s. 6d. per 1000 cu. ft., is capable of producing ammonia at a cost, below that of any ammonia process as. yet established. The Commitee, ‘of course, had no opportunity of inquiring into the NO. 2622, VOL. 104] Claude process, the details of which have only recently become known. Both these processes are the most promising of all the synthetic methods of making ammonia and ammonium sulphate. It is too soon to express any definite opinion as to their relative merits as commercial processes, but it is certain that both of them have a great future. The ammonia -oxidation process for making nitric acid, although probably not in its final form, can even now furnish concentrated acid at a lower cost than the retort process from Chile nitrate, and ammonia oxidation converters are well adapted for use in the chamber process of making oil of vitriol. It is not unlikely that such con- verters will soon supersede the wasteful system of nitre-pots. It should be stated, however, that the last word | has not been said in favour of existing by-product processes. It is pointed out that improvements in the metallurgical coke industry, such as the more rapid replacement of beehive ovens by re- covery ovens, and: improvements in the existing practice in gasworks, both large and_ small, would do much to augment the yield and recovery of by-product ammonia, and the Committee was unanimously of opinion that energetic measures should be taken to ensure that industries making such a large annual demand upon our coal re- serves should be made to utilise them to the maximum advantage, and it indicates in outline what these measures should be. The waste that has hitherto taken place in the potentiality of coal, as regards both its energy and its products, is a national scandal that ought no longer to be tolerated. Its continuance would be the strongest argument that the advocates of nationalisation could adduce. Considerations of space prevent any attempt to deal with many other points which have en- gaged the attention of the Committee, and are set out in detail in its voluminous report, such as the question of the nitrogen problem as it affects other parts of the Empire. The Dominions beyond the seas are rich in latent resources in coal and other raw materials, and some of them possess exceptional water-power facilities, acces- sible to the seaboard and capable of easy develop- ment. Nor have we been able to devote much space to the question as it affects national defence. It must be evident, however, from past experi- ence that, notwithstanding our maritime supremacy, the military situation has been, as the Committee states, fundamentally changed. We must no longer be dependent upon Chile nitrate for the manufacture of explosives. We agree with the Committee: that a wise policy in regard to defence can well go hand in hand with a sound economic policy. The Committee recommends that :— 1. The calcium cyanamide process should be established in Great Britain without delay, either by private enterprise (supported, if necessary, by the Government) or as a public work, and that the scale of manufacture should be: sufficient ‘to produce 60,000 tons of cyanamide per annum, 57° NATURE [JANUARY 29, 1920 equivalent to about one-eighth of the present home production of ammonium sulphate, the necessary water-power being ‘obtained in Scotland, or from a large steam-power station. 2. That the synthetic ammonia (Haber) process should be established forthwith on a commercial unit scale and extended as rapidly as possible, as a post-war measure up to a minimum manufactur- ing scale of 10,000 tons of ammonia (equivalent to 40,000 tons of ammonium sulphate) per annum; and it suggests that the factory at Billingham- on-Tees, which the Government, in 1918, decided to erect, mainly for the manufacture of ammonium nitrate, might be utilised for the purpose. 3. That an ammonia oxidation plant should be established in conjunction with the synthetic ammonia factory on a scale sufficient to produce "30,000 tons of 95 per. cent. nitric acid, or its equivalent in nitrates, and that the plant should be designed to utilise either synthetic or by- product ammonia. 4.. That steps should be taken with the view of conserving and increasing the output of combined nitrogen from existing by-product ammonia indus- tries, of securing the better utilisation of the national resources in coal, and of reducing the con- sumption of raw coal as fuel. (The various steps which it is suggested should be taken to secure these ends are set forth.) 5. The Committee further recommends that certain nitrogen fixation processes—e.g. the Hausser process, certain cyanide processes, and sulphate recovery processes—should be systematic- ally: investigated on a small works scale. It understands that the question of low-temperature carbonisation of coal is being investigated by the Fuel Research Board. It suggests that the researches on the nitrogen problem initiated during the war should be continued under the auspices of the Government for the general benefit of the country; and that the results of the researches carried on up to the present should be edited, and published at the earliest possible moment, subject to such reservations as may be considered necessary by the Government, members of the Research Staff of the Munitions Inventions Department being allowed to communicate to scientific societies the details of their work, subject to such reservations as may be considered necessary by the Government. The Committee -concludes its report with a recommendation that a co-ordinated policy should be framed by an Imperial authority for safeguard- ing the future nitrogen requirements of the Empire. It points out that, so far as the United Kingdom is concerned, nitrogen fixation and allied industries will constitute a new “key” in- dustry. The Committee is of opinion that the initiation and development of the industry will require the active support of the Government. It is not to be anticipated, in the present state of the political position, and in view of the large | arrears in its programme of reconstruction with which the Government is faced, that any imme- diate consideration will be given by it to the NO. 2622, VOL. 104] Soda-Fabrik at Oppau, near Ludwigshafen. Committee’s recommendations, or that any prac- tical steps will be taken to give effect to them beyond attempting to dispose of the Billingham- on-Tees property, and possibly permitting the Research Section of the Munitions Inventions Department to continue its investigations. We understand that negotiations on behalf of an important group of firms are in progress for the purchase of the Billingham works. But whether the Haber process or the American modification of it will be carried on there remains to be seen. Within the last few days it has been announced that an influential financial syndicate is about to establish a factory in the neighbourhood of Mary- port, West Cumberland, to work the’ Georges , Claude process, which is already in operation at Montereau, near Fontainebleau, by which it is claimed that the production of ammonia is in- creased fourfold as compared with the Haber process, as worked by the Badische Anilin & The first unit of the synthetic plant will be of sufficient size to produce the equivalent of> 50,000 tons of sulphate of ammonia per annum. If this consum- mation is reached it will go far to solve the problem which the Nitrogen Products Committee has been considering with such thoroughness and care during the last three or four years. i EXPLORATION IN TIBET AND NEIGHBOURING REGIONS.} Weseee LENOX CONYNGHAM has done right good service to the science of geography by compiling in one comprehensive volume the com- plete story of the early exploration of the great: Tibetan uplands before that land of mystery anc romance became attractive to European graphers, who evolved the map of Tibet as we: : Tt woulc now know it on a more scientific basis. indeed have been useful if the brief preface to the volume had included a somewhat more de- tailed explanation of the means and the methods employed by these early native surveyors in those amazing journeys which gave us the first (and sometimes the last) outlines of Tibetan geo- graphy, and laid the foundations for subsequent: map superstructure. The narratives of the in- dividual explorers are given in chronological order, commencing with the journey of Pandit Nain Singh, in 1865, from Nepal to Lhasa, and ter- minating with that of Atma Ram, who accom- panied our first adventurer, Capt. (now Sir Hamilton) Bower, when he traversed Tibet from Kashmir to China in 1891-2, following a route which was not very far removed from that of Nain Singh in earlier days. Then for the first time were the eyes, not only of geographers, but also of archeologists, opened to the immense wealth of scientific and historical knowledge which was to be gathered in that remote part of Asia. 1 “Records of the Survev of India.”’ Vol. viii. (in two parts). _ Part hi ‘&xploration in Tibet and Neighbouring Regions, 1865-79." Pp. xi+213+ charts.. Part ii, ‘‘1879-92." Pp. xi+ers5-atx+-charts. (Dehra Dun: | Office of the Trigonometrical Survey, rots.) Price 4 rupees or ss, 4d. eich part. eo JANUARY 29, 1920] NATURE 571 For some twelve years the native explorers of the Indian Survey had the field to themselves, and it may safely be said that no Asiatic geographers of the past, not even the Arab adventurers of the Middle Ages, or the Chinese pilgrims of yet earlier times in search of such evidences of their Buddhist faith as were to be found on the fron- tiers and plains of India, ever established such a remarkable record of geographical accomplish- ment as did these Lamas and Pandits of Indian Survey history in so short a time. Their success was due primarily to the fact that they were well selected for the special line of explora- tion which they were expected to follow. Then they were thoroughly well trained in the first ‘elements. of geographical reconnaissance by Indian Survey officers. As a rule their methods were simple, for they included no more than the first. principles of traversing on bearings taken by the prismatic compass, distances being measured by pacing, and occasional most valuable checks being derived from latitude observations with the-sextant. This involved the use of small instruments which were concealed either in their clothes or in false bottoms to their boxes. A rosary was the con- venient means of checking their paces. Con- sidering that many thousands of miles were covered in this way, and that the final re- duction of their voluminous records (concealed usually in the lining of their coats) was most satisfactory, no higher and better evidence of the patience and determination of such men as Nain Singh, Kishen Singh (the A—K of the Survey records), or of Ugyen Gyatso could be desired. They were frequently engaged for years on the same quest; they were occasionally caught and enslaved, but almost always managed to save their instruments and their records; and their journeyings carried them across the great plateau to Mongolia and China, and into regions where hitherto no European has followed them. With the influx of European explorers, started by the remarkable discoveries of Bower, the later stories of Tibetan exploration became public pro- perty, but it should be noted that many of the most successful of these later white adventurers have employed native explorers to do the spade work of their geographical mapping, and that with the close of the period indicated in this useful volume (which has conveniently brought together information hitherto scattered and rather difficult to retrieve) the work of the native geographer has by no means come to an end. Another and an even greater volume might follow which should show how much our well-known Tibetan travellers owe to the inde- fatigable perseverance and the remarkable skill as topographers of their native assistants. Col. Lenox Conyngham’s compilation merely brings together the narratives of the earliest native adventurers, and no book of travel that ever was written contains such a wealth of thrill- ing personal incident as underlies the simple (and sometimes prosaic) account of these humble Indian workmen. ‘tae Els NO. 2622, VoL. 104] NOTES. A SPECIAL meeting of the Royal Society was held on Thursday, January 22, when the Prince of Wales was admitted a fellow, following election by ballot, which took place on May 22, 1919. This election was in pursuance of a. clause in the society’s statutes which permits any one of his Majesty’s subjects who is a Prince of the Blood Royal to be proposed at one of the ordinary meetings by any fellow, provided such proposal shall have been made at a preceding meet- ing. Under this provision King George V. was elected in 1893 when Duke of York. His Royal Highness was received in the society’s vestibule by Sir- Joseph Thomson and the officers and vice-presidents, whence, preceded by the mace-bearer, a procession was formed through the ranks of the fellows to the meeting-room. The Prince occupied a seat on the front bench among the fellows. The senior secretary having announced the attendance, his Royal Highness advanced to the president’s table and subscribed his name in the charter book, thereupon taking a seat on the left of the president. An attractive discourse was then given by Prof. W. H. Bragg on methods of detecting sub- marines by sound. Upon its conclusion the Prince thanked the society for his admission, and assured the fellows of his interest in the advancement of scientific research. DisTURBANCES of wireless messages are commonly known to all operators, and are usually regarded as atmospheric effects. Mr. Marconi, however, in a statement published in the Daily Mail of January 27, describes interruptions which occur simultaneously in London and New York, and’in which certain long and short signals are repeated more frequently than others, as, for example, the three dots signifying the letter S in the Morse code. In the absence of a physical explanation of these regular and simultaneous. interruptions, it is perhaps human, and certainly sensational, to suggest that the signals represent attempts of intelligent beings on another planet, or the moon, to communicate with the earth. The Daily Mail, therefore, refers to “‘recent investigations by Prof. Lowell with his giant telescope’? of Martian canals (Prof. Loweil died in 1916), and to Prof. W. H. Pickering, who ‘‘has caused extraordinary interest in the United States by recently announcing that he sees signs of life on the moon,’’ though these views have been before the astronomical world for many years, and the phenomena observed admit of other inter- pretations. The interruptions described by Mr. Mar- coni are no more wonderful than the magnetic dis- turbances long registered in magnetic observatories. Such disturbances of the photographic records are often very definite in character, and oceur at about the same hour on successive days, while they are also found to occur simultaneously at stations so far apart as Christchurch (N.Z.) and Kew. The magnetic and wireless effects are closely related, but whether they originate in the sun or arise from a common cause operating throughout the solar system has yet to be determined. That they are signals from other worlds is attractive to the imagination, but the hypothesis is more of popular than of scientific interest. 572 NATURE [JANUARY 29, 1920 It is with deep regret that we record the death of Dr. C. R. C. Lyster on January 26 at the age of sixty years. Dr. Lyster held the position of head of the X-ray and electro-therapeutic departments at the Middlesex Hospital during the last seventeen years. Even in quite the early years of radiology Dr. Lyster made extensive use of X-rays in the treatment of disease, especially cancer. It was at this period, when the harmful nature of repeated fractional doses was not known, that he himself sustained damage which afterwards developed into the disease he sought to alleviatein others. Dr. Lyster fully realised the additional risks he ran by continuing his work, but nothing could deter him from pursuing it, and his work of later years should be viewed in the light of a sacrifice on his part to the cause of advance in medi- cine. Dr. Lyster was president of the electro- therapeutic section of the Royal Society of Medicine for the year 1918-19, and served on its council and on that of the Réntgen Society for a number of years. His publications were few, and provide no adequate guide to the value of his services to medicine, especially to medical radiology. The recent institution of a diploma in radiology and electrology by Cam- brige University was largely due to the efforts which Dr. Lystér made in the first instance. Throughout the whole of his work he combined in a rare degree a breadth of outlook and an unselfishness of purpose which ensured a respect for his views and counsel. Of his personal charm and character a wide circle will preserve a permanent memory. Tue Rev. Edmund Warre, D.D., who died at Eton on January 22, the anniversary of the death of Queen Victoria, was a notable and commanding figure in the Victorian age. During his headmastership of Eton, which lasted from 1884 until 1905, many new build- ings, including three science laboratories, were added, and science teaching, more particularly with a view to military requirements, was extended and developed. Dr. Warre was in the habit of saying that, like the horse-leech, Madam Science had many daughters, all crying ‘‘Give, give’’; but he was a generous and wide-minded man, whose own scientific tastes lay in the direction of botanical work. His ruling passion, however, was for the river, and he used frequently to lament that, because his mathematical training had been reglected, he was unable to work out satisfactorily the ideal lines of a racing-boat. Dr. Warre had been for some years. an invalid, and he retired from the Provostship of Eton in 1918. No man can have had a wider circle of friends, and he will be remembered with affection and esteem by many men of science. Tue award of the Straits Settlement gold medal, feunded by Scottish graduates in the Malay States, to Dr. R. T. Leiper was announced in our last issue. The medal is given for the best thesis for M.D. on a subject of tropical: medicine offered during the last five years, and‘is awarded by the Senate of the University of Glasgow. Dr. Leiper’s thesis, for which he gained a Bellahouston gold medal in: 1917, comprised an ac- count.of the brilliant work which he did on Bilharzia disease in.. Egypt . (1915-16), whither he. was. sent by NO. 2622, VOL, 104] the Government as consultant parasitologist and Lt.- Col., R.A.M.C., to investigate the disease and to advise as to preventive measures in connection with the troops. It will be recalled that by his researches Dr. Leiper established the existence of two species of para- sites in human bilharziosis, traced their life-history — outside the human body in molluscs, and demonstrated — the modes of infection, besides elucidating numerous — other points. The award of this medal by Dr. Leiper’s university is a fitting recognition of an epoch-marking — advance in parasitology. ; : BritisH botanists have an opportunity of showing — practical sympathy with the eminent French bryologist, — M. Jules Cardot, who has suffered severely from the — effects of the war. Driven from his home at Charleville — by the German advance in 1914, M. Cardot had to — abandon all his possessions. He has now returned to — find that the greater part of his property has been — destroyed or rémoved, including his books and MS. | notes and a large portion of his collections. For- tunately, his mounted herbarium of mosses, containing between 30,000 and 40,000 specimens, representing more than 10,000 species, is practically intact. ‘The herbarium is a valuable one, containing the types of a large number of new species described in M. Cardot’s numerous monographs of various families and works on the geographical distribution of mosses. It is M. Cardot’s wish that his herbarium should find a home in the Paris Natural History Museum, but with his present restricted means he is unable to make a gift- of it to the nation, and the museum has not sufficient funds at its command for the purchase. A suggestion has been made by bryological friends, simultaneously in the United States and this country, that if the museum authorities will find half the amount required the remaining half might be raised in Great Britain and in America. The authorities in Paris have gratefully expressed their willingness to agree to such a scheme, and the price of 10,000 francs has been mentioned. The proposal to raise one- fourth of that amount in this country would at the present rate of exchange entail-a sum of between 6ol. and 7ol. The well-known British bryologist, Mr. H. N. Dixon, is acting as treasurer of the fund, and © his address is 17 St. Matthew’s Parade, Northampton. Dr. Epwin DELLER, secretary of the Brown Animal Sanatory Institution, University of London, has been appointed assistant. secretary to the Royal Society. Wirn the approval of the Lords Commissioners of the Treasury, Major H. E. Wimperis, R.A.F., has been transferred from the Office of the Crown Agents for the Colonies to the Air Ministry, to take up the position of Head of the Air Navigation Research Section. Sie, r We are informed that the council of the Glass Research Association has appointed Mr.-R. L. Frink, Lancaster, Ohio, U.S.A., director of research. The secretary of the association says:—‘*Mr. Frink has a lifelong experience of the American glass trade and glass research, is well known to the foremost English glass manufacturers, and his appointment is welcomed by: the British glass industry.” ~- . : wa ray JANUARY 29, 1920| NATURE 573 Tue death is announced, in his seventy-second year, of Mr. R. L. Garner, the American author who pub- lished a book on ‘‘The Speech of Monkeys’ in 1892, and afterwards visited the Gaboon, the country of the gorilla, where he stated he lived for some months in a steel cage to study the language of the great apes. On his return to London, early jn 1894, Mr. Garner delivered a lecture on his experiences, which attracted a large audience, but clearly showed that science had nothing to expect from his enterprise. WE regret to record the death on January 24 of Mr. R. F. Wallace, who retired from the Meteoro- logical Office at the close of last year. Mr. Wallace was in his sixty-eighth year, and should have’ retired some two years ago, but remained in the service during the closing period of the war. He entered the Meteorological Office in "1883, and first served in the marine division. About twenty years ago he took general charge of the meteorological instruments. INFLUENZA seems to threaten to be prevalent in this country before long, judging by the outbreaks in America and elsewhere. Since the commencement of Octobér influenza has been present to a limited extent in the British Isles. The deaths in the ninety: ' six great towns of England and Wales have risen from 14 and 20 in the two closing weeks of Septem- ber last to 70 or 80 deaths per week at frequent intervals during the autumn and winter. In London the deaths rose to 22 in the weeks ending November. 15 and 22, but they have not touched 20-in any week since, according to the returns of the Registrar-General to January 17. The highest death-rate is between twenty and sixty-five years of age, the deaths for those ages in the last thirteen weeks being 59 per cent. of the total number. In the current number of the Annales de la Société Royale Zoologique et Malacologique de Belgique appear the names of ten honorary members who have recently been elected to that society. Among the names are those of Prof. L. Cuenot, Faculté des Sciences, Nancy; Prof. M. Caullery, the Sorbonne, Paris; Dr. A. E, Shipley, Christ’s College, Cam- bridge; Senator B. Grassi, Italy; Prof. E. G. Conklin, Princeton University; and Prof. Th. H. Morgan, Columbia University. THE annual meetings of the Institution of Naval Architects will be held on Wednesday, March 24, and the two following days, in the hall of the Royal Society of Arts, John Street, Adelphi, W.C.2. The Right Hon. the Earl of Durham, president, will occupy the chair. A gold medal will be awarded by the council to any person not being a member ‘or associate member of council who shall at the forth- coming meetings read a paper which, in the judgment of the council, is deemed to be of exceptional merit. Owine to the prevalence of - diseases in prepared timber, and in view of the impending increase in the use of timber—much, possibly, of immature growth—— in building construction, the Science Standing. Com- mittee of the Royal Institute of British Architects, under the chairmanship of Mr. Alan E. Munby, has NO. 2622, VoL. 104] had the question of such defects under review, and Dr. C. J. Gahan, of the Natural History Museum, has been asked; and has consented, to associate himself in an advisory capacity with this inquiry. The committee will welcome any information which seems likely to further such investigations. | Correspondence should be addressed to the Secretary, Royal Institute of British Architects, 9 Conduit Street, W. I, and marked “Science Committee.”’ Tue following awards have been made by the coun- cil of the Institution of Mining and Metallurgy :— (1) Gold medal of the institution (premier award, and the highest distinction within the power of the insti- tution to.confer) to Mr. H. Livingstone Sulman, in recognition of his contributions to metallurgical science, with special reference to his work in the develop- ment of flotation and its application to the recovery of minerals. (2) ‘‘ The Consolidated Gold Fields of South Africa, Ltd.’’ gold medal to Mr. William Henry Good- child, for his papers on ‘‘ The Economic Geology. of the Insizwa Range ’® and ‘“‘ The Genesis of Igneous Ore Deposits.’’ (3) ‘‘The Consolidated Gold Fields of South Africa, Ltd.”? premium of forty guineas to Dr. Edward Thomas Mellor, for his paper on ‘‘ The Con, glomerates of the Witwatersrand.” Ar the annual general meeting of the Royal Meteorological Society, held. on January 21, the following officers and council were elected :—President : R. H. Hooker. Vice-Presidents: J. .Baxendell, F. Druce, Sir Napier Shaw, and F. J. W. Whipple. W. Treasurer: W. V. Graham. ‘Secretaries: W. Bryant and J. S. Dines. _ Foreign Secretary: R. G. K. Lempfert. « Council: C. E. P. ‘Brooks, Dr. J. Brownlee, Capt. C. J. P. Cave, J.’ E. Clark, R. Corless, Capt. G. M. B. Dobson, J.. Fairgrieve, Lieut. H. D. Grant, H. Mellish, Dr. J. E. Petavel, M..de Carle Sowerby Salter, and G. I. Taylor. The Symons gold medal awarded to Prof. H. H. Hilde. } brandsson, of the University, Upsala, was presented on his behalf to the Swedish Minister. Mr. Ixpat Att Suan gives in Folk-lore for December last (vol. xxx., No. 4) a comprehensive account of the folk-life of Afghanistan, a subject about which little information has hitherto been available. He traces the life of an Afghan from the. cradle: to the grave, his accouht of the marriage and death ceremonies being particularly interesting. On the whole, though Mr. Shah is perhaps influenced by his natural pre- possessions, he gives a pleasing impression of. the family life of the people, and the general result is that, as Afghanistan borders on both Persia and India, the domestic rites of the Afghans have been influenced both by Persians and by the Hindu or Mussulman culture of the Punjab. , In Sudan Notes and Records (vol. ii., No. 3; July, 1919)’ Dr. C..Crossland treats the question ‘‘Com. fort. and Health in ‘the Tropics.”’- ‘ Remove. the mosquitoes ~and the fevers they: carry, and most | tropical countries can be made fairly healthy.’?. He gives good advice on clothing. ‘Air which is: already. moist:.can have little drying or consequent cooling effect unless it is in fairly rapid motion. -Consequently LTR ROT. SOT 574 NATURE [JANUARY 29, 1920 4 what is known as ventilation in Europe is of little use in the tropics, and houses designed in Europe are never, so far as I have seen, sufficiently airy for the Red Sea coast.’’ Hence he lays down, with the help of diagrams, what is his idea of a suitable house. The author does not appear to have any experience of India, where the subject has been carefully inves- tigated. But the paper will be useful to all who intend to reside in the tropics. Mr. H. Botton, Director of the Bristol Museum and Art Gallery, in his report for the year 1918-19, points out that the museum suffered from the necessity of exercising a strict economy in order that the changed conditions of the cost of labour, supplies, and museum material may be met as well as possible by the un- altered pre-war income—conditions affecting institu- tions of this kind throughout the country. But the educational. work has been carried on with success, no fewer than 60,000 visits having been made by wounded soldiers during the war period. The im- portant collection of guild banners has been increased by some welcome gifts; Mrs. C. Ryland presented a valuable series of pictures, and Mr. H. Mardon a large collection of European engravings and his extra- illustrated copy of Nichol and Taylor’s ‘‘ History of Bristol,’? extended to fourteen volumes and contain- ing almost every known illustration and map of im- portance relating to Bristol. Sir C, Hercures Reap describes in the January issue of Man an ancient Chinese bronze from the collection of Mt. H. Oppenheim. It represents a monstrous mammalian quadruped, winged, with a long neck and a feline head, which seems to be struggling with a snake-like form. Figures of a similar kind are said to have been used as a refrigera- tor for food, or as a brazier for heating water or wine. Sir C. H. Read remarks that ‘the practical identity of the Tartar figures and the surrounding animals would further suggest that if one be of the Han dynasty type, the other is also. In any case, the suggestion helps my theory as to the affinities of the Oppenheim bronze, viz. that in some respects it has: clear connection with the later Bronze age in the Far East. The architectural treatment of the base is quite un-Chinese, and at the present moment I can think of nothing nearer than Gandhara with which to compare it. Ten years ago such a sugges- tion would have been thought fantastic, but Sir Aurel Stein’s discoveries have reduced it to a common- place.”’ Dr. J. W. H. Harrison, continuing his experiments with the Geometrid subfamily Bistonina, finds peculiar sex-relationships particularly in inter-generic hybrids of these Lepidoptera (Journal of Genetics, vol. ix., No. 1). Occasional inter-sexes, inter- mediate between males and females, were produced, and in several crosses only males appeared, although all the fertilised ova developed. In such cases the male parent in the cross is found to be “phylogenetically older’’ than the female. Thus Nyssia zonaria X Lycia hirtaria yielded males only. A NO. 2622, VOL. 104] further complication is found in the fact that hirta has fourteen (haploid) chromosomes, while zonaria has fifty-six. An explanation of the results i attempted in terms of intensity of sex-factors. “Notes on the Survey of India Maps and the Modern Development of Indian Cartography,” by Lt.-Col. W. M. Coldstream, ‘R.E., is the title of a volume re- cently published by the Survey of India. The aut traces the history of map production in India and the development of colour printing. The size of sheets, use of symbols, selection of colours, and lettering and other problems in cartography are discussed at length, and ees volume is illustrated by forty coloured plates showi specimens of all the most important maps published | by the Survey of India, as well as illustrations of several old maps. The collection of these plates ae . makes the volume of great interest. q Minirary operations in the Libyan desert in ene: 4 gave Dr. J. Ball opportunities of taking the latitude and longitude of several places of which the position — had not been accurately determined. These are pub- — lished by the Egyptian Survey (Survey Department Paper No. 34). The positions determined extend from — the Nile west to the Siwa oasis and Jarabub, and south to the oases of Kharga and Dakhla. The position of — Bir Terfawi, which had hitherto only been guessed at was determined by Lieut. Moore, who places the well — nearer to Wadi Halfa than had been Maier on a posed. : Tue question of Suess’s “sal” and “sima? magmas is dealt with by Dr. Holtedahl in relation to continental margins in a paper on the causes of large earth-movements, which appears in Naturen, 191g, D. 266. Mr. F. L. Hess proposes (Amer. jou ‘Sci. y ios xlviii., p. 377, November, 1919) a new and useful geo- logical term, “‘tactite,”” for the body of rock altered by contact with an igneous mass. The abbreviation rendered possible in descriptions of contact-phenomena — by the adoption of so simple a word is at once obvious — and welcome to geologists. Memorr 111 of the Geological Survey of Comins on ‘The Silurian Geology and Faunas of Ontario. Peninsula,’’ is of special interest, since it includes the well-known Niagara group and its development in the Niagara district. Few new species of fossils ate described, but the fauna is admirably illustrated by photographs, and two coloured maps are added in fa pocket at the end. a ; * Att known occurrences of platinum in Canada are described and usefully set down upon a general map by Mr. J. J. O’Neill in Part G of the Summary Report of the Geological Survey of Canada for 1918 (issued in 1919). The conclusion is that ‘Canada cer- tainly has possibilities of becoming one of the worlt's largest producers of metals of the platinum group.’ It appears that at present a very large quantity of platinum, here estimated at 50,000 oz. annually, is lost by the absence of proper methods of recovery in placer working. January 29, 1920| NATURE 575 M. Emme Betor (Revue Scientifique, 1919, p. 686) begins in the happiest manner a discourse on vuleanicity in general and» on an artificial vol- canic field of his own manufacture. by reminding his audience of the. ‘‘big Bertha’ that assailed their lecture-hall in the Sorbonne. While the usual height attained by the vigorous projection of volcanic material is 8 km. to 10 km., the dust from Krakatoa rose to 27 km. The experimental volcanoes of the ‘‘ Bertha” type threw projectiles to a height of 30 km. into a layer where atmospheric pressure is reduced to about 1 mm. of mercury, and the hori- zontal range thus rendered possible was as much as 120 km. Though the conception was that of a Jules Verne, we must remember that its brilliant realisation was due to the scientific thoroughness of the Germans. M. Belot goes on to show that the lunar crater-rings can be accounted for by normal volcanic projection dans le vide, and he then describes and illustrates a model volcano that derives its water from the per- colation of an artificial sea. Ar the end of the article upon the Physical and Optical Societies’ Exhibition, in the issue of NaTturE for January 15, reference was made to the compara- tive absence of simple forms of apparatus for teach- ing purposes. The Zenith Manufacturing Co. showed a representative series of its regulating resistances and controllers of very simple form, and the manager of the electrical department writes to say that a special aim is made at instructional needs. We are aware that the company devotes much attention to the details of rheostats for electrical testing, but this affects very slightly the point of the paragraph in question, namely, the desirability of making all apparatus for use in schools and colleges so simple that the principle can be readily understood. AN important paper by Otto Hahn and Lise Meitner on ‘‘ The Genesis of Actinium *’ appeared in the Decem- ber 1 issue of the Physikalische Zeitschrift. In 1908 Boltwood examined a number of uranium minerals, and found that the ratio of their actinium and uranium contents was constant—a result which indi- cated a genetic connection between actinium and uranium. From these results Rutherford calculated that 8 per cent, of uranium disintegrates along the actinium series. In 1917 Fussler found a value some- what less than 8 per cent., though only three values were obtained, and these vary as much as 60 per cent. St. Meyer and Hess re-examined the question in 1919, and found a constant relation Ac: U for a set of uranium minerals from various parts of the globe. Hahn and Meitner separate the eka-tantalum [called prot-actinium (Pa) in Germany] from Joachims- thal pitchblende, and compare the total a-ray ionisa- tion from this product with that due to the uranium in the pitchblende. Three methods of separating the eka- tantalum were used, both solutions and residues being examined. The authors find that only 3 per cent. of uranium disintegrates along the actinium: series, and the probable error in their results is to per cent. This result is in accord with the work of Antonoff and of Hahn and Meitner on UY, which appears to be the NO. 2622, VOL. 104] mother of eka-tantalum. These workers found that the branch ratio of UY to uranium was about 2 per cent. Hahn and Meitner discuss the available evi- dence, and conclude that the actinium series originates from UII according to the scheme UII—+ U Y—> Eka-Ta—>Ac, a B a which agrees with that suggested by Soddy in the Trans. Chem. Soc. (vol. cxv., p. 1, 1919). The atomic weight of actinium would thus appear to be 226. From the annual report of the Government Chemist for the year 1918-19 (Cmd. 419) it appears that the total number of samples analysed at the Government Laboratory was 289,180. This represents an increase of more than 20,coo compared with the previous year. Owing to the cessation of hostilities and the sub- sequent demobilisation of a part of the combatant forces, about 16,000 fewer samples were analysed at the central laboratory; but, on the other hand, the partial revival of trade led to a considerable increase in the number of samples of wine examined, and many more samples also were analysed for the Food Controller and the Air Board. Among other items of interest in the report, two unusual instances of. the contamination of foods with metallic poisons may be noted. In one case chocolate sweetmeats were found to contain mercury; this was traced to the metal trays used in the processes of manufacture. In the second instance pastry made from self-raising flour contained antimony, due’ to the use of tartar emetic as a substitute for cream of tartar instead of the acid phosphate of lime intended to be used as a “tartar substitute. ’’ : Hors&-cHEstNuts have in recent years been utilised for the production of acetone and normal butyl alcohol by a special process of fermentation. The distillate yields a “mixed oil,’? of which about one-third con- sists of acetone and the remainder is the butyl alcohol. In the Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry for December 31 Mr. A. Gill gives an account of some experiments carried out at H.M. Factory, King’s Lynn, in studying certain aspects of the fermentation. Outstanding features of the operations were (1) froth- ing and (2) slowness; these were attributed to the presence of zesculin or zsculic acid—a bitter, saponin-like substance which, besides producing froth, is apparently inimical to’ the development of the special micro- organisms employed. The esculin can be extracted by treatment of the nuts with water or alcohol. The mature nuts contain about 12-5 to 14-5 per cent. of husk, and immature specimens may have nearly double this proportion. It has been stated that, for successful fermentation, the husk must be completely removed ; this was not found to be necessary, though it is an advantage to remove as much as possible, since an excessive quantity retards the fermentation. About 19 per cent. of “mixed oil’? was yielded by the nuts. Lioyp’s shipbuilding returns for the quarter ended December 31 last—commented upon by Engineering for January 16—indicate that Great Britain has now regained her foremost position in the world of ship- ee 5/9 NATURE [JANUARY 29,. shares building, having 757 vessels under construction, with an aggregate gross tonnage of 2,994,249. This figure is 27,734 tons in excess of the tonnage now in hand in the United States. In all other countries of the world, including the United States and the British Dominions, but excluding Germany (for which country the figures are not yet available), there are 1381 vessels, making 4,867,114 tons in all; so that British tonnage building now amounts to more than 38 per cent. of the world’s total. Our shipbuilding industry is thus in a highly satisfactory condition. More than one- third of the total British tonnage now under con- struction is building in Clyde shipyards. AN interesting paper on radio direction and position finding was read by Capt. H. J. Round to the Institu- tion of Electrical Engineers on January 14. Capt. Round gave a history of the development of the radio goniometer for war purposes which took place im- mediately war broke out. The record of difficulties that were overcome is instructive. It was soon found out that the German Navy directed its Zeppelin fleets by direction-finding from land. stations. On several occasions, however, when there were nine or ten Zeppelins in a raid all doing their utmost to communicate with their base stations for bearings the German. messages got into a hopeless tangle. Our Naval Intelligence operators believed that one special German operator was so skilful that whenever he took contro] everything proceeded smoothly. | The Germans had two radio phare stations which enabled their Fleet and submarines to determine their posi- tions in the North Sea without the necessity of trans- mitting signals. In each station there was a rotating frame continually sending messages and giving a special zero signal once every revolution. Any opera- tor noting the time-interval between the zero’ signal and the instant at which the received signal was a minimum. could tell at once the angular ‘position of the ship with respect to the station. Doing this for both stations, the position of the ship was deter- mined. During night-time many anomalous results were obtained when direction-finding, the reasons for which have not yet been satisfactorily explained. Messrs. A. and C. Black, Ltd., announce “ Insect Life,’’? by C. A. Ealand, illustrated, and a new edition of ‘Studies in Fossil Botany,’’ by Dr. D. H. Scott, part i., Pteridophyta, illustrated. Messrs. Crosby Lockwood and Son promise ‘‘ Oils, Fats, and Waxes: Their Manufacture, Refining, and Analysis, including the Manufacture of Candles, Margarine, and Butter,” by Dr. G. Martin; ‘‘ Applied Chemistry for Technical Students,’’ by Dr. C. K. Tinkler and H. Masters; and *“‘The Principles of Air Navigation,” by J. E. Dumbleton. The S.P.C.K. is bringing out an edition of Clerks Maxwell’s ‘‘ Matter and Motion,” revised and brought up to date by Sir Joseph Larmor; also the following new books: ‘‘ Archimedes,’’ by Sir Thomas L. Heath (in the Pioneers of Progress: Men of Science Series); ‘The Nature-Study of Plants in Theory and Practice for the Hobby-Botanist,’’ by T. A. Dymes; and “The Book of the Sea-shore,’’ by W. P. Pycraft (the first of a new series entitled The Nature Lovers’ Library). ’ ‘NO. 2622, VOL. 104] the. | i, OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN. Bie New Comer 1920a.—A comet of the 10th magnitude has been discovered by Sefior Comas Sola at Barce- lona. It was photographed by Mr. Wilson at Carleton College Observatory, Northfield, Minnesota, U.S.A., on January. 20d. 15h. 5h ‘8m, G. M.T. R.A. 7h. 57M. 40-58., N. decl. 21° 4o’ 54", referred to the equinox of 1 No information is to hand about its motion. comet’s appearance is almost stellar. ; SpEcTRUM OF Comet BrorseNn-MetcaLr.—Pubs. Astr- Soc. Pac. for Decembér contains an account ae Ee Slipher of the spectrum of this comet par ie Flagstaff on October 17. It resembles that o b 1914 (Zlatinsky) fairly closely: The third and fourtt: carbon bands and the first, second, and third | bands are shown, also six unidentified lines between 4016 and 4074. There is also a faint continuous — spectrum. ia Tue FIREBALL OF JANUARY 16.—A few ohio observations of this brilliant object have come to — hand, and they prove it to have been of a very rai tional character. At Diss, in Norfolk, the ‘streak it left remained visible for fifteen minutes. The height of the meteor was from about 52 ta 25 miles, and its velocity 15 miles per second. Its” at first lay above Saffron Walden, whence it trav ae to above Watford, and then disappeared. Its he, * point appears to have been. in. the northern region 0} ee. Cancer, which was not far above the. north-east _ horizon at the time of the meteor’s. apparition. This particular part of the sky seems to be ‘the focus: of emanation of many fine meteors in January, but | they do not appear to favour any particular date, Thus on January 1; 1913, January 21, 1898, - January 29, 1905, bright meteors were traced to the same point, and it has also been conspicuously phn in the months of November and March. . cist a tig Oren STELLAR CLusteRs.—Dr. Harlow has extended his studies of the globular clusters to in- clude the more widely extended clusters chiefly found — in the Galaxy (Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., Washington August, 1919). He determines the distances . of these objects by methods similar to those employed for the _ globular ones; the distances range from 60 parsecs for. the Pleiades to 16,000 parsecs for one cluster and? 14,000 parsecs for four ‘others (1 parsec=33 light. — years). The average of the seventy clusters di is 6000 parsecs. Their centroid is distant some 3000 parsecs from the sun towards galactic longitude ; ae Since these clusters would seem to be embedded in the galactic star-clouds, these results would indicate a ae greater distance for the latter than that which L uritil lately thought probable. IER Dr. Shapley is inclined to abandon his earlier de that the globular clusters cannot exist in the galactic plane, and break up as soon as they enter it. He — realises the cogency of the evidence that there is mu absorbing matter in this plane, which conceals objects — lying beyond it. He still thinks that the open close q are the remnants of former globular ones, but does not postulate such a sudden transformation from one type — to the other as he did at first. sc The Astronomer Roval and Mr. Melotte ig hich details about one of these veiled’ regions, iS lies in the constellation Taurus (Monthly Notese R.A.S.,, November, 1919). Since the paucity of sta in the region is the same for all magnitudes, it is concluded that the obscuring cloud is comparatively — near us. This diminishes the difficulty of the great — | mass that would be required if the cloud were more ‘ remote. ” JANUARY 29, 1920] NATURE 577 "PARIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. Prizes PROPOSED FOR 1921. Mathematics.—The Francceur prize (1000 francs), to the author of discoveries or works useful to the pro- gress of pure or applied mathematics. Mechanics.—The Montyon prize (7oo francs), for the invention or improvement of instruments useful to the progress of the mechanical arts; the Poncelet prize (2000 francs), to the author (of any nationality) of the work most useful to the progress of applied mathe- matics; the Boileau prize (1300 francs), for new re- searches concerning the motion of fluids (if theoretical, experimental confirmation is required); the Henri de Parville prize (1500 francs), for original work in mechanics; the Pierson-Perrin prize (5000 francs), for a discovery in mechanics. Astronomy.—The Lalande prize (540 francs), for the most interesting observation or memoir most useful to the progress of astronomy; the Benjamin Valz prize (460 francs), to works conforming to the same conditions as the Lalande prize; the Pierre Guzman prize (100,000 francs), for the discovery of a means of communicating with a _ celestial body (excluding Mars); the G. de Pontécoulant prize (700. francs), for encouraging research in celestial mechanics. Geography.—The Gay prize (1500 francs), for a memoir on the most recent improvements introduced into geodesy; the Tchihatchef foundation, for the assistance of explorers in the less known parts of Asia. Navigation.—The prize of 6000 francs, for progress of any nature tending to increase the efficiency of the French naval forces; the Plumey prize (4000 francs), for improvement in steam-engines or any other in- vention contributing to the progress of steam naviga- tion. Physics.—The Gaston Planté prize (3000 francs), for the author of a discovery, invention, or work im- portant in the domain of electricity; the Hébert prize (1000 francs), for a treatise or discovery useful for the popularisation or practical use of electricity; the Henri de Parville prize (1500 francs), for original work in physics; the Hughes prize (2500 francs), for an original discovery in physical science, especially elec- tricity and magnetism or their applications; the Clément Félix prize (2500 francs), for facilitating the continuation of researches concerning the applications of electricity. Chemistry.—The Montyon prize (Unhealthy Trades) (a prize of 2500 francs and a mention of 1500 francs), for the discovery of a means of rendering some mechanical art less unhealthy; the Jecker prize (10,000 francs), for work in organic chemistry; the Cahours prize (3000 francs), for encouraging young workers already known by their chemical researches; the Berthelot prize (500 francs), for researches in chemical synthesis; the Houzeau prize (7oo francs), for a young deserving chemist. Mineralogy and Geology.—The Cuvier prize (1500 francs), for the most remarkable work in mineralogy and geology; the Delesse prize (1400 francs), for a work on geological or mineralogical science; the Victor Raulin prize (1500 francs), for facilitating the rublication of works relating to geology and palzeonto- logy; the Joseph Labbé prize (1000 francs), for geo- logical work or researches contributing to the develop- ment of the mineral resources of France, its colonies and its protectorates. i Botany.—The Desmaziéres prize (1600 francs), for the best work on Cryptogams published during the preceding year; the Montagne prize (1500. francs), to the author.or authors of important works or dis- NO. 2622, VOL, 104] coveries on cellular plants; the Jean Thore prize (200 francs), for the best memoir on European alge, mosses, lichens, or fungi; the de Coincy: prize (goo francs), for a work on Phanerogams; the Jean de Rufz de Lavison frize (500 francs), for work on plant physiology. : Anatomy and Zoology.—The Da Gama Machado © prize (1200 francs), for the best memoir on the colour of animals; the Savigny prize (1500 francs), for the assistance of young travelling zoologists, not receivin Government assistance, who make a special study o the invertebrates of Egypt and Syria. Medicine and Surgery.—The Montyon prize (three prizes of 2500 francs, three honourable mentions of 1500 franes, and citations), for improvements in medi- cine or surgery; the Barbier prize (2000 francs), for a valuable discovery in surgery, medicine, pharmacy, or in botany in relation to the art of healing; the Bréant prize (100,000 francs), for the discovery of a cure for Asiatic cholera or of a means of eradicating it; the Godard prize (1000 francs), for the best memoir on the anatomy, physiology, and pathology of the | genito-urinary organs; the Mége rrize (10,000 francs), to the author who continues and completes the essay of Dr. Mége on the causes which have retarded or favoured the progress of medicine; the Bellion prize (1400 francs), for discoveries profitable to the health of mankind or for the amelioration of the human species; the Baron Larrey prize (750 francs), to a physician or surgeon (Army or Navy) for the best work dealing with military medicine, surgery, or hygiene; the Argut prize, for a discovery of a means of medically treating a disease hitherto amenable only to surgery. Physiology.—The Montyon prize (750 francs), for work in experimental physiology; the Lallemand prize (1800 francs), for work on the nervous system; the Philipeaux prize (900 francs), for experimental physiology; the Fanny Emden prize (3000 francs), for the best work treating of hypnotism, suggestion, and in general of physiological actions exerted at a distance from the animal organism. Statistics—The Montyon prize (one prize of 1000 francs, two mentions of 500 francs), for statistical researches. History and Philosophy of Sciences.—The Binoux’ prize (2000 francs), for work, on the history and philo- sophy of science. Medals.—The Arago medal, awarded at the discre- tion of the Academy; the Lavoisier medal, for eminent work in chemistry; the Berthelot medal, with each prize in chemistry awarded annually. General Prizes.—The prize founded by the State (3000 francs)—subject proposed for 1921: to establish a methodical classification of the vascular palzozoic plants; the Le Conte prize (one prize of 50,000 francs, encouragements), for notable discoveries in mathe- matics, physics, chemistry, natural history, medical science, Or new practical applications of these sciences; the Jean Reynaud prize (10,000 francs), for original work in science; the Baron de Joest prize (2000 francs), for work in physical science; the Parkin prize (3400 francs), for work on the relations between volcanic action and abnormal atmosfheric disturbances; the Saintoin prize (3000 francs), for contributions to the mathematical sciences; the Henri de Parville prize (1500 francs); the Lonchampt prize (4000 francs), for the best memoir on diseases of man, animals, or plants from the point of view of the introduction of mineral substances in excess as the cause of these diseases; the Henry Wilde prize (one prize of 4000 francs or two of 2000 francs), for discovery or work in astronomy, physics, chemistry, mineralogy, geology, , or experimental mechanics; the Gustave Roux prize 578 NATURE [JANUARY 29, 1920 (1000 francs), for a young French scientific worker; the Thorlet prize (1600 francs). Special. Foundations.—The Lannelongue foundation (2000 francs), to one or two persons in need of assist- ance belonging either themselves or through. their parents to the scientific world; the Laplace prize, to the first pupil leaving the Ecole Polytechnique; the L. E. Rivot prize (2500 francs), between four pupils leaving each year the Ecole Polytechnique, Research Foundations.—The Trémont foundation (1000 francs); the Gegner foundation (4000 francs) ; the Henri Becquerel foundation (3000 francs); the Bonaparte foundation, for assisting researches by workers who have already given proofs of their capacity and lack sufficient resources to under- take ‘or pursue their investigations (minimum. grant, 2000 francs); the Loutreuil foundation (125,000 francs) ; the Charles Bouchard foundation (5000 francs), for the assistance of researches in medicine or physiology, APPLIED PLANT MORPHOLOGY. i Blows importance of a knowledge of the special physiology of a crop plant in attempting to im- prove the. yield or quality of the product needs no demonstration. The case for the study of the mor- phology of the plant is no less clear, and is reinforced by the fact that the two lines of investigation should go hand in hand. There are numerous familiar in- stances where successful cropping. depends upon the correct understanding of morphological principles, and those botanists wise enough to reflect upon the lore of the intelligent practical man are aware that the knowledge possessed by him of the essential morpho- logy of the plants with which he deals is frequently of no mean order. There can be little doubt that fuller investigation of the morphology of economic plants (and especially of those of the tropics) would be profitable from both the scientific and commercial points of view. An example of such work is afforded by the fourth of Dr. C. A. Barber’s memoirs on Indian sugar canes, in which he deals with the tillering or underground branching of the plants (Memoirs of the Department of Agri- culture. in India: ‘‘Studies in Indian Sugar Canes,”’ vol. x., No. 4, June, 1919). Since in the sugar cane (Saccharum) the crop comprises aerial stems derived from the branching of the underground rhizome, the desirability of a full knowledge of the methods of branching and of the factors rere. Hod process is evident. By careful organisation Dr. Barber and his assistants have dissected and examined a large series of canes (both adult plants and seedlings), and the results so far obtained are of considerable interest and promise. The chief classes of canes occurring in India include “thick ’? canes obtained from tropical sugar-growing countries, and Indian cultivated canes, together with wild Saccharums not used for sugar production... The results of the. research show that. branching in the various groups, from the wild Saccharums to the thick tropical canes, is of. the same nature, but of very different degree. Taking a to represent main shoot, and b its. branches,.c branches of b, and. so on, Dr. Barber arrives at a series of formule for the struc- tural composition of the clumps at crop time varying .from a+mb+c.in the thick. canes to a+mb+nce+ nd+me-+f in the wild Saccharums; while the different groups. of Indian canes can be. arranged in a series between these two extremes. The difference in form and size between the branches of different orders in. the same plant have also been carefully. studied. The general tendency is for the later branches to be suc-’ NO. 2622, VOL. 104] cessively thicker, to have longer joints, and to show — e characters of the — greater curvature at the base, branches of different orders are found to be so definite that the harvested canes can be easily separated at the mill and classified into early and late canes. This opens up a new line of work, since it becomes possible to examine these different classes of canes separately at the mill and to ascertain their relative sugar content and milling qualities. A further point of practical in- terest arises in connection with this question. The differences exhibited by canes of varying ages in the same clump are often much more marked in clumps raised from seedlings than in those grown from cut- 4 tings. The question as to whether this variation is handed on when the seedling is propagated vegeta- tively is not yet definitely known, and experiments are being conducted to determine this point, which is of considerable importance in the proper selection of seedlings. ; : The factors influencing the amount of tillering in a plant are, of course, both inherent and external. Dif- ferent species and varieties, as well as seedlings from the same parents, differ widely, but such differences are complicated and often masked by others brought about by variations in environment which in the case of the sugar cane appear to be translatable into terms of amount of food available. Dr. Barber points out that light, spacing in the field, moisture, soil constitu- ents,.and manuring appear to be the chief controlling factors, and of these he regards the light as “‘ probably the most important limiting factor in the production of the greatest number of canes per acre.”” The results obtained in the investigation raise the hope that it may be found possible to develop the work along the lines indicated by Dr. Barber. © ; SOCIETY OF WESTERN THE ROYAL : AUSTRALIA! | ~ . ‘s WESTERN AUSTRALIA has followed the other — Australian States in the development of its senior scientific society into a Royal Society,’ and has issued the first four volumes of the Journal in its new form. Thanks to the enlightened support of the State, which undertakes the printing and pub- lication, the society is able to issue a better journal than would be possible if it were dependent on its still small roll of members. The society has started well owing to the cordial co-operation of the new and democratic local university with the scientific services of the State. The first four presidents have been Profs. Dakin and,Ross, Mr. Gibb Maitland (the Government Geologist), and Mr. Montgomery (the Government Mining Engineer). Fi As the reorganisation of the society marks a new start, the journal appropriately includes some synopses of existing knowledge of Western Australia; thus. Mr. Alexander begins an interesting series of papers’ on the early history of Australian zoology, and he also contributes a list of the Orthoptera; Mr. Hedley has compiled a useful catalogue of Westralian Mol- lusca; and the third volume is mainly occupied by W. V. Fitzgerald’s memoir on the botany of Kim- berley, including the description of two new genera and eighty-eight new species. In the presidential ad- dresses Prof. Dakin deals with vitalism, adopting a non-committal conclusion, but being quite uncon- vinced that there is in life any non-material factor; and Prof. Ross discusses the problems of national scientific organisation and education in the light of 1 Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of Western Australia. Vol. i. Pp. xxx+25r+16 pls. (xg14-15.) Vol. ii. (1915=16.). Vol. iii. tpl. (Perth, W.A., 1916-19.) Price 5s. each. art : Pp. xv-+112+7 pls. Pp. phase Ate pls. .(1916-17-) Vol.iv. Pp. xii+s4+ ; January 29, 1920] NATURE 579. the lessons of the) war and offers some. illuminating personally collected information. aa Mr. Gibb Maitland begins his address with the un- expected claim that geology has nothing to do with war, ignoring the many millions that might have saved had geologists been employed earlier on our side; the Germans, of course, had a large geo- logical staff at the beginning. .Mr, Maitland’s address is devoted to the problems connected with the Nul- lagine formation, and his most generally interesting conclusion is that the scratched stones found in it are not, as has been claimed by some Australian geologists, evidence of an éarly glaciation, but are due to friction during earth-movements. Mr. Mont- gomery’s address is a new statement of his view that the level surface of the plateau of Western Australia is a plain of marine denudation, and that the escarpments, locally known as ‘““break-aways,’’ are sea-cut cliffs. Mr. Montgomery’s arguments are, as usual, interesting, ingenious, and fair. It is im- portant to remember that a geologist who knows the arid regions of Australia so intimately as Mr. Mont- gomery should have arrived at conclusions as to wind-action so different from those adopted in Africa. The view that in recent times nearly all. Western Aus- tralia was covered by- the sea does not explain the restriction of the marine deposits to a relatively narrow band or the change in the topography above their margin. These deposits have a wide extension in the zone seaward of Norseman; the limestones there he accepts as Miocene. The paper by Messrs, Jutson and Simpson in vol. ii. on the geology of Albany gives further evi- dence of these marine deposits, as their ‘‘ Plantagenet beds” are a narrow coastal series ending inland on the slope of the ancient plateau. The marine origin of the ‘‘break-aways”’ is rejected by Messrs. Talbot and Clarke (vol. iii., p. 79) in their valuable contribu- tion to the geology of the little-known country toward the eastern frontier. These authors claim the dis- covery of an upper Cretaceous or early Kainozoic glaciation in the Wilkinson Range (lat, 26° S.) on the basis of a bed with striated boulders, which, as they recognise, must have’ been formed by icebergs in shallow ‘water. The evidence for the age of this boulder bed seems, however, quite inadequate. The chief contribution to anthropology is by Mr. W. D. Campbell on the natives of Sunday Island, who make their boomerangs of tank-iron and obtain their fire- wood from the mainland, although the author describes the wide intervening channel, owing to its fierce currents, as ‘“‘dangerous to small craft.’? The treasurer of the society, Mr. Allum, of the Royal Mint, Perth, discusses the decimalisation of currency in a pape~ which conveys a warning how strongly some authorities feel against it. He quotes the view of the Engineering and Mining’ Journal of New York that the compulsory adoption of the metric system would be a “calamity of the first order.’’ Mr. Allum is less emphatic, but he is opposed to the decimal system, as its San he may not be equalled by its drawbacks, and holds that if it be adopted the sovereign should be the standard of value, and the shilling should be retained and divided mts <— pee A NEW DEVELOPMENT IN AGRI- CULTURAL RESEARCH. ALE interested in agricultural progress will welcome ; as one of the most significant events in the his- tory of’ British agriculture the establishment of. a Ope aabay department ‘by the Olympia Agricultural Co., NO. 2622, VOL, 104] The company, under the chairmanship of Mr. Joseph Watson, is farming on a scale probably un- precedented in this country, having purchased for its operations agricultural estates totalling practically 20,000 acres in the counties of Yorkshire, Northamp- tonshire, Cambridgeshire, Suffolk, Warwickshire, and Wiltshire. The. research department will exercise. advisory functions in connection with the farming. operations of the company, but its primary object is to conduct research in various branches of agricul- tural science and practice for the general welfare of British agriculture, to which end liberal financial pro- vision for its activities has been made, The direction of the department has been assumed by Dr. Charles Crowther, lately professor of agricul- tural chemistry in the University of Leeds and director of the institute for research in animal nutri- tion in that University, who will continue and extend his experimental work in that subject, Plant-breeding research will be a further prominent feature of the department’s activities, under the direc- tion of Capt. Hunter, lately in charge of the plant- breeding work carried out in Ireland under the Department of ny tle ey and Technical Instruction; whilst provision has also been made for research on soil problems and plant nutrition under the direction , of Capt. C, T. Gimingham, late chemist to the agri- cultural research institute of the University of Bristol. The headquarters of the department have been located on the company’s estate of some 2700 acres at Offchurch, near Leamington, where the ancient man- sion of Offchurch Bury is being adapted to provide the necessary laboratories, etc., which are now ap- proaching completion. From this centre experimental work with crops’ and stock on all the company’s estates will be carried out under the general super- vision of Capt. F. H. Billington, late of the staff. of the Irish Department of Agriculture. It is the desire and intention of Mr. Watson and his, co-directors that the department shall be an “agricultural research station” in the fullest sense. of the term, and that the results of its work, in so far as they may be of general interest, shall be made fully available to the general body of British agri-_ culturists. For some time the activities of the department must necessarily be directed to the experimental work essential to the establishment of a sound basis for its advisory work, but this is bound to produce much - information of general interest. The enhanced appreciation of the importance of research to British industries is one of the most significant effects of the war, and it is gratifying to find that British agriculture, despite its traditional — conservatism and suspicion of academic ‘‘theory,’’ is not to lag behind other industries, and a good omen that it should contain in its.ranks men so alive to the value of research as to provide for it within the industry without the stimulus of subvention from the public purse. MATHEMATICAL STATISTICS.1 Past III. and IV. of the twelfth volume of ' “ Biometrika ’? contain papers of interest to all classes of statistician. Those especially attracted by work on the general mathematical theory of proba- bility will welcome the continuation of Prof. Tchou- proff’s paper on’ the “Expectation of the Moments of Frequency Distributions.” It will be agreed that the notation of mathematical expectation offers certain ad- 1 “Biometrika.” A Journal for th+ Statistical Study. of Biological Problems. Vol. xii., Parts jii, and iv. Pp. 185-376+iv-+viii plates. (London ; Cambridge University Press, November, 1919.) ‘Price 20s. r 580 NATURE [JANUARY 29, 1920 vantages over the forms of expression. more commonly adopted in this country, but Prof. Pearson does well to point out that the supposed fundamental. distinction of method claimed by some Continental writers is non- existent. He himself contributes a very interesting paper on a method of generalising Tchebycheff’s first theorem. He finds that the method of approximating to! the limits of a probability is unlikely to be of much practical value in the classes of function of usual occurrence. ‘This result does not, of course, deprive Tchebycheff’s: work of its interest in permitting of the establishment of Bernoulli’s theorem and of Poisson’s generalisation of that theorem by elementary methods. Papers of importance both to the student of theoreti- cal statistics and to the practical computer are those of Miss: Pairman and Prof. Pearson on the correction of the moment coefficients in limited range frequency distributions, of ‘‘Student’’ on deviations from the Poisson limit to the binomial in actual data, and an editorial, entitled ‘‘ Peccavimus,’’ correcting errors in various published: formulz. Those who are engaged in psychological investigation will turn to Dr. G. H. Thomson’s memoir on psycho- physical curves and to the same author’s discussion of hierarchical order among correlation coefficients, a subject to which other recent papers have been devoted. In the miscellanea and in’ a co-operative study of the eggs of the common tern, the biometrician will find much to interest him. It is invidious to cite any one paper as deserving of special praise, but, from the point of view of practical statistics, the discussion of the correction of moment coefficients in the cases to which the classical method of Sheppard does not apply is of chief interest. The volume includes a touching tribute to the memory of Dr. Charles B. Goring, whose untimely death has deprived crimin- ology of one of its most devoted and skilful workers. THE KINEMATOGRAPH IN SCHOOLS. ‘HE use of the kinema for schools, and not merely for school children, has been definitely carried a few stages nearer realisation by two recent developments which were brought to the notice of teachers attending the annual meeting of the Geographical Association. In the first place, a portable instrument at the fairly reasonable price of 601. is now on the market. The case itself is fireproof; the lamp is in one separate fireproof chamber within the case, and the film is con- tained in another, all except the four inches or so actually in the gate; while the instrument is operated by pressing two or three buttons on the outside. The adaptation of the kinema to the class-room in this way has two incidental advantages which are in them- selves very great advances. Owing to the fact that the light required is not nearly so strong as for a hall, (1) the instrument can be run off one of the lighting points in the ordinary lighting circuit, and (2) the reduction in light is accompanied by a reduction in heat, 60 that the film can actually be stopped for some minutes for discussion by the class. Secondly, the provision of the films seems to be in process of being placed on a more satisfactory basis. Films. were used during the war for the instruction, of soldiers, and the kinema takes. its place in the uni- versity, notably in the instruction of medical students. The difficulty in the past has been to know what there was to choose from, and how to choose what. one wanted. It is not easy to choose lantern-slides, and itis less easy still to choose films. It cannot be said. that this. difficulty is: wholly met, but the establishment of the Community Motion Picture Bureau. goes a long way towards meeting it. There is, at any rate, somewhere to go to inquire NO. 2622, VOL. 104] whether. that exists which :6ne desires; and there is a central body which will gradually learn what it is that schools demand, and with the demand will come the supply. The firm receives films and. edi them to make them more or less suitable for schools. One of the sessions of the recent annual meeting of the Geographical Association was taken up by a demonstration by Capt. Hodges of the value of the kinema in the teaching of geography. The films showed varied bps 2 in quality; the most ambitious, — an American film dealing with the life-history of a— volcano, was the least successful for several reasons, the most fundamental of which was that it suffered from the distinctly American failing of being non- regional. Other films, dealing with Egypt and the Nile, lumbering, and coffee culture in Java, could very easily be fitted without any jars into ¢ y courses. This is, perhaps, not all that is desired, but — it shows, at any rate, that the problem is being tackled, and that there is every prospect of a satis- factory solution ere long. IRRIGATION IN EGYPT. E had occasion in Nature of September 18 and October 9 last to allude to the controversy which has arisen out of the proposals put forward by the Egyptian Government, under British advice, for the development of the agricultural districts of Egypt and the Sudan by means of additional irrigation works on a very extensive scale. The controversy culminated in the appointment of a Foreign Office Committee, which sat in London to inquire into the mig. brought by Sir William Willcocks against the Egyptian Public Works Department. ‘he Com- mittee’s findings exonerated the Department, but failed to satisfy Sir William, who forthwith reiterated and amplified his accusations with increased vehem- — ence. Criticism so trenchant and persistent from an~ engineer of undoubted standing and experience could not be ignored, and now it has been decided to submit the whole question to an International Commission consisting of three members—an irrigation engineer, — nominated by the Government of India, as ident: a British physicist, nominated by the University « Cambridge; and an irrigation engineer, nominated hy the Government of the United States. The terms of — reference are :—' To advise the Egyptian Government upon the projects prepared by the Public Works — Department, with a view to the further regulation | of the Nile for the benefit of Egypt and the Sudan, and in particular to examine and report upon the physical. data upon which the projects rest, and to | report upon the propriety of the manner in which, as | the result of these projects, the increased supply of | available water thereby provided will be allocated at | each stage of development between Egypt and- the Sudan, and to advise as to the apportionment of the cost as between Egypt and the Sudan.”’? In a matter so seriously affecting the welfare and developmen two important countries, it is to be hoped that decisions arrived at by the Commission will be s as to command a general consensus of expert appro The Cairo correspondent of the Times states, message published in the issue of January 23. | the Commission is constituted as follows :—Mr. F. St John Gebbie, Chief Engineer, Bombay, who was engaged on the Sukkur barrage scheme—nomin by the Indian Government (chairman); Dr. G. Simpson, meteorologist at Simla—nominated by Cam bridge University; and Mr. H. T. Cory, who direete by the American Government. . the Egvptian Ministry of Education, will be sec of the Commission. | January 29, 1920] NATURE 581 VERTEBRATE REMAINS IN THE ; CAVERNS OF GRIMALDI. PROF. MARCELLIN BOULE has completed his studies of the remains of vertebrate animals found with primitive man in the caverns of Grimaldi, and the final results of his work have just been published as the concluding part (fasc. iv.) of the first volume of the Prince of Monaco’s ‘Les Grottes de Grimaldi (Baoussé-Roussé).”. The new instalment deals with the Carnivora, Insectivora, Cheiroptera, and Rodentia, and various fragments of birds and lower vertebrates, and ends with a valuable general summary. Besides the technical descriptions a the fossils, illustrated by beautiful plates in heliogravure, Prof. Boule con- tinually introduces short discussions of the relation- ships and distribution of the various animals with which he deals, adding several maps and some genealogical diagrams. He has therefore produced a most interesting and readable treatise on the Euro- pean Pleistocene vertebrate fauna, which we com- mend to the notice of both geologists and zoologists. He specially emphasises the importance of the dis- covery that in the low latitude of the south coast of. France there is the same succession of Pleistocene mammalian faunas that has already been observed throughout the rest of Central and Western Europe. dn the bottom layers on the floor of the caverns of Grimaldi there are the animals of the warm Chellean episode (Elephas antiquus, Rhinoceros Mercki, hippo- potamus, etc.); in the next layers is the cold fauna of the Acheulian and Mousterian (glutton, ermine, marmot, reindeer, etc.); in the upper layers are the ordinary mammals of historic times. Among the animals now described Prof. Boule considers he can recognise every gradation between the Pliocene bears and the modern brown bear; he also sees some ap- saa to a Pliocene species in the Pleistocene leopard. e agrees with other observers that the wild cat most nearly approaches that of Africa, now named Felis ocreata. Equally interesting is his account of the fossil lynx, which proves to be exactly intermediate between the northern and the Spanish races of the lynx at the present day. APPARATUS FOR VAPOUR-PRESSURE DETERMINATIONS. eer measurement of the vapour-pressure of solutions for the estimation of molecular weights has never been much used, Raoult’s barometric method being too cumbersome for general use. A simple apparatus for this purpose is, however, described by Mr. Robert. Wright in the Journal of the Chemical Society for October. It consists of a flask (150 c.c.) and test-tube (20 cm.x3 cm.) connected by a delivery tube fused into well-fitting glass. stoppers. This delivery tube is provided with a stopcock just above the flask; it reaches nearly to the bottom of the test- tube, but does not pass through the stopper of the flask. The stopper to the test-tube is provided with an exit tube carrying a stopcock. To carry cut a vapour-pressure determination, a weighed quantity of the solute is placed in the test-tube, flask and tube are half-filled with solvent, and the apparatus connected together and evacuated by means of a filter-pump attached to the exit tube of the test-tube in order to boil all the air out of both solvent and _ solution. Expulsion of the air is facilitated by gently warming the flask. After exhaustion is complete both stop- cocks are closed, and the apparatus left for two or three hours to attain the ordinary temperature. Then the tap above. the flask is gently opened, and the extent to which the column of liquid in the delivery tube is depressed below the level of the solution in NO. 2622, VOL, 104] the test-tube is a measure of the vapour-pressure. The observed depression must be corrected for capil- larity. The test-tube is then removed and weighed in order to ascertain the mass of the solution, and if the latter is concentrated its density must be measured. As a solvent water is unsuitable, alcohol and carbon tetrachloride are satisfactory, but benzene cannot be used. because of the action of its vapour on the tap- lubricant. EXPERIMENTS ON TRAIN RESISTANCE. TS railway engineers Bulletin 110 of the Uni- versity of Illinois is of special interest, because it contains a report of some experiments on train resistance carried out by the experimental station of the University in co-operation with the Illinois Cen- tral Railway. Tests were made to measure the resist- ance of passenger trains in service up to speeds of seventy miles per hour. The main results are em- bodied in a.set of curves. The peculiarity brought out by the experiments is that the resistance is not a function of the speed alone, but a function of the speed and the car-weight. The inference from the experiments is that, other things being equal, the heavier the car the less the resistance. The results are likely to differ from those obtained by experiments on English railways, because the track is different, the standard of maintenance is probably different, and also the construction of the cars. Ex- periments on train resistance on British railways have been made by Sir John Aspinall. In these experi- ments it was found that the train resistance is a func- tion of the speed and the length of the train. Probably if the Illinois experiments could be re-examined in terms of the length of the train, the Aspinall formula might be found to fit the data obtained, because increase in car-weight generally means increase in length of train; one is the function of the other. Our American friends realise the national advan- tage to be gained by co-operation between university and railway. They have an experimental station organised and maintained by a university co-operating with a railway company in an experimental research. Similar relations might be hoped for between uni- versity and railway in this country. There is no doubt that both would gain considerably by mutual co-operation, THE EVOLUTION OF BOTANICAL RESEARCH.1! MEETING of the American Association in St. - Louis is of special interest to botanists. When this city was little more than a frontier town, Dr. George Englemann became one of its citizens. In spite of his duties as a successful physician, he became one of our greatest botanists; in fact, in the days when taxonomy was practically the whole of botany, and our virgin flora was being explored, the great American trio of botanists was Asa Gray (of Cam- bridge, Mass.), John Torrey (of New York), and George Englemann (of St. Louis). Englemann’s distinction was that he published no general botanical works, but selected a series of the most difficult problems in taxonomy, and in a masterly way organised for us many perplexing groups. With these groups his name will always be associated. To a botanist, therefore, St. Louis means the home of George Englemann. There is another association also for the botanist. St. Louis is the home of one of our great botanical 1 Presidential address delivered at the St. jotleeanias of the American Association for the Ad of S , 1919, by Prof. Jobn M. Coulter. 582 NATURE [JANUARY 29, 1920. gardens, identified for those of us who are older with: the name of Henry Shaw; ‘but we are becoming accustomed to its later name, the Missouri Botanical Garden. Its plans and activities represent a fitting continuation of the spirit of Englemann and Shaw: adapted to the progress of botanical science. In consequence of these associations St. Louis may be said to have a botanical atmosphere, of which botanists are very conscious. We have the: feeling, therefore, not of a visit, but of a home-coming. A presidential address delivered to a group com- posed of investigators representing all the sciences, and including also those interested in science, should deal with some interest common to all. In my judg- ment, our common bond is interest in research; in fact, the major purpose of this association is to stimu- late research by the personal contact of investigators. In selecting as my subject, therefore, the evolution of botanical research, I am assuming that the situation developed may apply in a general way to all scientific research. ef My purpose is not to outline the history of botanical research, but rather to direct attention to ‘certain evolutionary tendencies and to project them into the future. We are all familiar with the gradual historical development of: different phases of botany, until botanists became segregated into many distinct groups, the only'common ‘bond being the use of plants for investigation. This segregation was for a time very complete, so that the interests of one group would not have been affected if none of the other groups had éxisted. This monastic phase of botany has subsided somewhat, not for all individuals, but for the subject in general. The different groups are coming into con- tact, and even interlocking, so that the science of botany bids fair to be recognised as an increasing synthesis rather than as an increasing disintegration. In connection with these gradual evolutionary changes, I wish to emphasise three tendencies which seem to me to be significant. As in all evolutionary progress, the tendencies may seem numerous, but the three I have selected seem to me to be especially prophetic of a new era of botanical research, - (1) One of the growing tendencies of botanical re- search is to attack problems that are fundamental in connection with some important practice. The out- standing illustration, of course, is the increasing atten- tion given to ihe problems that underlie agriculture; but there are many other practices also which are em- bedded in botanical investigation. We all realise that this tendency was stimulated by the war; in fact, this has been the experience of all the sciences, more notable, perhaps, in physics and chemistry than in the ‘other sciences, but a very obvious general result. This tendency is so. strong at present that I do not believe it will ever subside, but it should be understood. There is no evidence that it is tending to diminish research, the sole purpose of which is to extend the boundaries of knowledge, which all of us must agree is the great objective of research. It merely means that experience developed in connection with an important practice has suggested fundamental problems the ‘solution of which is just as important in extending the boundaries of knowledge as in illuminating some practice.. In fact, among our most fundamental problems are those that have been sug- gested by experience. The injection of such problems among those not related to general experience is not to the detriment of the latter, but simply extends the range of research. §: © | I have no sympathy with the artificial segregation of science into pure and applied science. All science is one. Pure science’ is often immensely practical, applied science is often very pure science, and between NO. 2622, VOL. 104] | words; around each bit of investigation, with its single d-each bit f ‘the two there is no dividing line. They are like the ‘end-members of a long and intergrading series—very ‘distinct in their isolated and extreme expression, but ‘completely connected. If distinction must be ex- pressed in terms where no sharp distinction exists, it may be expressed by the terms ‘fundamental’? and “superficial.” They. are terms of comparison, and admit of every intergrade. The series may moye in™ either direction, but its end-members must always hold the same relative positions, The first stimulus may be our need, and a superficial science meets it, but in so doing it may put us on the trail that leads — to the fundamental things of science. On the other hand, the fundamentals may be gripped first, and only later find some superficial expression. The series is often attacked first in some intermediate region, and probably most of the research in pure science may be so placed; that is, it is relatively fundamental, but. also relatively superficial The real progress of science is away from the superficial towards the fundamental, and the more fundamental the results, the more extensive may be their superficial expression. — Not only are practical problems not a detriment to- botanical science, they, incidentally, also strengthen its claim on public interest as a science that must. be promoted. As an incidental result, I look with confidence to a future of far greater opportunity for research than has been possible heretofore—research which must be incréasingly fundamental and varied. Even if this were not true, my creed for science is that while its first great mission is to extend the boundaries of knowledge, that man may live in an ever-widening horizon, its second mission is to apply this knowledge to the service of man, that his life may be fuller of opportunity. From the point of view of science, the second may. be regarded as incidental to the first, but it is a very important: incident, and really stimulates research. In ‘short, I regard this so-called practical tendency in research as being entirely in the interest of research in general, in increasing the range of fundamental problems, in con- tributing a powerful stimulus, and‘in securing general recognition of the importance of research. (2) A second tendency, which I regard as more important, is an increasing realisation of the fact that botanical problems are synthetic. Until recently a problem would be attacked from a single point of view, with a single technique, and conclusions reached that seemed as rigid as-laws from which there is no escape. In plant morphology, for example—and I speak from personal experience—we described struc- tures with no’ adequate conception of their functions. Plant physiologists, on the other hand, would describe functions with no adequate knowledge of the struc- tures involved; while ecologists often described responses with. no adequate knowledge of either structure or function, The same condition obtained in the other segregates of botany. We all recall the time when plant pathologists described and named paid no attention to the disease, which, of course, is the physiological condi- ~ In short, not only taxonomists, but ‘all of us, were simply cataloguing facts in a kind — of card-index, unconsciously waiting for their co- | This co-ordination has now begun, and | is one of the strong tendencies which are certain to — continue. ‘The morphologist is beginning to think of — pathogenic organisms an tion of the plant. ordination. the significance of the sfructure-he is describing, and the physiologist to examine the structures involved in. the functions he is considering; while the ecolo- gist -realises now that responses to environment which he has been cataloguing are to be interpreted only in. terms of: structure and function. ‘In other apa Par ‘e ay cated E _ JANUARY 29, 1920] 583 point of view and single method of attack, there is developing a perspective of other points of view and other methods of attack. ‘ This does not mean a multiple attack on each problem by each investigator. We must remain morphologists, physiologists, and ecologists, each roup with its special technique and special kind of fata. But it does mean a better estimation of the results, a watchful interest in the possibilities of other methods of attack, a general toning-down of positive- hess in conclusions. We all realise now that plants are synthetic, and that is quite a notable advance from that distant time when we thought of them only as objects subservient to laws of nomenclature. This increasing synthetic view is resulting in a proper estimate of problems. The data secured by each investigation constitute an invitation to further inves- tigation. We have in mind the whole problem, and not scraps of information. In short, the synthetic view has developed about our problems the atmosphere in which they actually exist. ' (3) A third tendency, which seems to me to be the most significant one, is the growing recognition of the fact that structures are not static—that is, inevit- able to their last detail. As a morphologist I may recall to your memory the old method of recording the facts in reference to the development of such a struc- ture as the embryo of seed-plants. Not only every cell-division in the ontogeny was recorded, but also the planes of every cell-division. The conception at the back of such records was that the programme of onto- geny was fixed to its minutest detail. It is probably true that such a structure is about as uniform in its development as any structure can be, but it has become evident now that many of the details recorded were not significant. Instead of cataloguing them as of equal value, we must learn to distinguish those that are relatively fixed from those that are variables. In the same way, much of the older work in anatomy must be regarded as records of details of which the relative values were unknown. Even the Structures involved in vascular anatomy are not static, but many a phylogenetic connection has been formu- lated on the conception of the absolute rigidity of such structures in their minutest detail. This con- ception has made it possible, of course, to develop as many static opinions as there are variables in structure. Perhaps the greatest mass of details has been accumulated by the cytologists in connection with their examination of the machinery of nuclear division and nuclear fusion. In no other field has the con- ception of the rigidity of the structures involved become more fixed, even to the minutest variation in form and position. Of course, we all realise that any field of investigation must be opened up by record- ing all the facts obtained, but we must realise that this is only. the preliminary stage. The time has come when even the recorded facts of cytology are being estimated on the basis of relative values—that is, the inevitable things are being differentiated from the variables. ; The sate situation is developing in the field of genetics. We all recall the original rigidity of the so-called laws of inheritance. It was natural to begin the cultivation of this field with the conception that the programme of heredity is immutable, and that definite structures are inevitable, no matter what the conditions may be. There was probably more justification for this conception in this field, on the asis of the early investigations, than in any other, but experience has begun to enlarge the perspective wonderfully. The rapidly accumulating facts are becoming so. various that consistent explanations NO. 2622, VOL. 104] NATURE require a high degree of mental agility. More funda- mental, however, is the recognition of the fact that the problem of’heredity involves not only germinal constitution, which gives such rigidity as there is, but also the numerous factors of environment. In other words, such problems have become synthetic in the highest degree, making possible results that are anything but static. In considering these illustrations of the tendency to recognise that facts are not all pigeon-holed and of equal value, it is becoming more and more obvious that. our botanical problems are, in general, the application of physics and chemistry to plants; that laws, when we really discover them, are by definition static, but that their operation results in anything but Static structures. In other words, structure must respond to law, but the particular law that is gripping the situation may be one of many, _ With such evolutionary tendencies in mind, what is the forecast for botanical research? I wish to direct attention to three important features that seem certain to characterise it: (1) It will be necessary for the investigator who wishes to have a share in the progress of the science, rather than merely to continue the card-catalogue assembling of random data, to have a_ broader botanical training than has seemed necessary hereto- fore. Our danger has been that the cultivation of a special technique, which, of course, is necessary, is apt to limit the horizon to the boundary of that technique. In some cases the result to the investigator has been more serious than limiting his horizon; it has led him to discredit other methods of attack as of little importance. In case this attitude is -asso- ciated with the training of students, it is continued and multiplied by pedigree culture. The product of certain laboratories is recognised as of this type, and it is out of line with the evident direction of progress. This demand of the future does not mean that one must specialise less than formerly. It is obvious that, with the increasing intricacy of problems and the inevitable development of technique, we must specialise more than ever. What the new demand means is not to specialise less, but to see to it that every speciality has developed about it a botanical perspec- tive. In other words, instead of an investigator digging himself into a pit, he must do his work on a mountain-top. This secures some understanding and appreciation of other special fields under cultiva- tion, some of which will certainly interlock with his own field. To meet this situation will demand more careful attention to the training of investigators than it has received. Interested, and even submerged, in our own work, as we must be, still we must realise that the would-be investigator must develop his atmo- sphere as well as his technique, or he will remain medieval. To be more concrete, the morphologist in the coming days must appreciate the relation that physio- logy and ecology hold to his own field. This is far from meaning that he must be trained in physiological and ecological investigation, but he must know its possibilities. The same statement applies in turn to the physiologist and ecologist, and so on through the whole list of specialities. This first forecast of the future applies to the necessary training of investigators rather than to investigation itself. (2) A second important feature that is sure to be included in the botanical investigation of the future is co-operation .in research. During the last few years the desirability of co-operation has been some- what stressed, and perhaps the claims for it have been urged somewhat unduly. This was natural when - > ‘ 584 NATURE [JANUARY 29, 1920 we were desiring to secure important practical results as rapidly as possible. It opened up, however, the possibilities of the future. No one questions that individual research, to contrast it with co-operative research, must continue to break the paths of our progress. Men of ideas and of initiative must con- tinue to express themselves in their own way, or the science would come to resemble field cultivation rather than exploration. It is in this way that all our previous progress has been made. The new feature is that individual research will be increasingly supplemented by co-operative research. There are two situations in which co-operative research will play an important rédle. The more important situation is the case of a problem the solution of which obviously requires two or more kinds of special technique. There are many problems, for example, which a morphologist and a physiologist should attack in co-operation, because neither of them alone could solve it. Two de- tached and unrelated papers would not meet the situation. Our literature is burdened with too many such contributions now. The one technique must be a continual check on the other during the progress of the investigation. This is a very simple illustra- tion of what may be called team-work. It is simply a practical application of our increasing realisation of the fact that problems are often synthetic, and therefore involve a synthetic attack. Another simple illustration may be suggested. If taxonomists and geneticists should work now and then in co-operation, the result might be either fewer or more species, but, in any event, they would be better species. The experience of botanists can sug- gest many other useful couplings in the interest of better results. In the old days some of you will recall that we had investigations of soil bacteria unchecked by any work in chemistry, and side by side with this were investigations in soil chemistry unchecked by any work with soil bacteria. erhaps the most conspicuous illustration of dis- cordant conclusions through lack of co-operation, so extreme that it may be called lack of co-ordination, may ‘be found in the fascinating and baffling field of phylogeny. To assemble the whole plant kingdom, or at least a part of it, in evolutionary sequence has been the attempt of a considerable number of botanists, and no one of them as yet has taken into consideration even all the known facts. There is the palzeobotanist who rightly stresses historical suc- cession, with which, of course, any evolutionary sequence must be consistent, but. cannot be sure of his identifications, and still less of the essential structures involved. History is desirable, but some real knowledge of the actors who make history is even more desirable. Then there is the morphologist, who stresses simi- larity of structures, especially reproductive structures, and leaves out of sight not only accompanying struc- tures, but also historical succession. Latest in the field is the anatomist, especially the vascular anatomist, who compares the vascular struc- tures in their minutest detail, and loses sight of other important factors in any evolutionary succession. Apparently no one as yet has taken all the results from all fields of investigation and given us the result of the combination. In other words, in phylogeny we have had single-track minds. This has been necessary for the accumulation of facts, but unfortunate in reaching conclusions. This is but a picture of botanical investigations in general as formerly conducted, and it seems obvious that co-operative research will become increasingly common as co-operation is found to be of advantage. NO. 2622, VOL. 104] The second situation in which co-operative research will play an important réle is less important than the first, but none the less real.. It must be obvious to most of us that our literature is crowded with the records of incompetent investigations. Not all who develop a technique are able to be independent inves- tigators. They belong to the card-catalogue class. They are not even able to select a suitable problem. We are too familiar with the dreary rehearsal of facts that have been told many times, the only new thing, perhaps, being the material used; and even then the _ result might have been foretold. It is unfortunate to waste technique and energy in this way, and the only way to utilise them is through co-operative researc for which there has been a competent initiative, an in the prosecution of which there has been a suitable assignment of parts. In my judgment, this is the only way in which we can conserve the technique we are developing and make it count for something. I grant that the product of such research is much like the product of a factory, but we may need the product. In one way or another co-operative research will supplement individual research. Individuals, as a rule, will be the pioneers; but all cannot be pioneers. After exploration there comes cultivation, and much cultivation will be accomplished by co-operation. (3) The most important feature that will be developed in the botanical investigation of the future is experimental control. Having recognised that structures are not static, that programmes of develop- ment are not fixed, and that responses are innumer- able, we are no longer satisfied with the statement that all sorts of variations in results occur. We must know just what condition produced a given result. This questioning as to causes of variable results first took the form of deduction. We tried to reason the thing out. ’ \ A conspicuous illustration of this situation may be obtained from the history of ecology. .Concerned with the relation of plants to their environment, deduc- tions became almost as numerous as investigators. Even when experimental work was begun, the results were still vague because of environment. Finally, it became evident that all the factors of environment must be subjected to rigid experimental control before definite conclusions could be reached. : ; What is true of ecology is true also of every phase of botanical research. or example, I happened to be concerned with materials that showed an occasional monocotyledonous embryo with two cotyledons, while — most of the embryos were normal. The fact, of — course, was important, for it connected up mono- — cotyledons and dicotyledons in a very suggestive way, — and also opened up the whole question of cotyledony, — Important as the fact was, much more important was the cause of the fact. We could only infer that cer- tain conditions might have resulted in a dicotyle- donous embryo in a monocotyledon; but it was a very unsubstantial inference. That problem will never be solved until we learn to control the conditions an produce dicotyledonous embryos from monocotyle- dons at will, or the reverse. . Comparison and infer- ence must be replaced by experimental control, just as in the history of organic evolution the meth shifted from comparison and inference to experimen! control... It will be a slow evolution, and most our conclusions will continue to be inferences, bi these inferences will eventually be the basis of exper ment. In. fact, most of our conclusions are as. marking time until a new technique enables us move forward. These illustrations from ecology and morphology represent simple situations. as compared with demands of cytology or genétics, but the same | aay gh gpm iets ar January 29, 1920] NATURE 585 for experimental control is a pressing one in those fields. The behaviour of the complex mechanism of the cell is a matter of sight, followed by inference, when we know that invisible: factors enter into the performance. How the cell programme can ever be brought under experimental control remains to be seen, but we must realise that in the meantime we are seeing actors without understanding their action. In fact, we are not sure that we see the actors; the visible things may be simply a result of their action. The important point is to keep in mind the necessary limitations of our knowledge, and not mistake infer- ence for demonstration. ' Even more baffling is the problem of adequate ex- perimental control in genetics. We define genetics as breeding under rigid control, the inference being that by our methods we know just what is happening. The control is rigid enough in mating individuals, but the numerous events between the mating and the appearance of the progeny are as yet beyond the reach of control. We start a machine and leave it to its own guidance. The results of this performance, spoken of as under control, are so various that many kinds of hypothetical factors are introduced as tenta- tive explanations. There is no question that this is the best that can be done at present, but it ought to be realised that as yet no real experimental control of the performance has been devised. The initial control, followed by inferences, has developed a wonderful perspective, but a method of continuous control has yet to come. ‘ Having considered the conspicuous evolutionary tendencies of botanical research and their projection into the future, it remains to consider the possible means of stimulating progress. It will not be accom- plished by increasing publication. It is probably our unanimous judgment that there is too.much publica- tion at the present time. What we need is not an increasing number of papers, but a larger percentage of significant papers. This goes back to the selection of problems, assuming that training is sufficient. A leader is expected to select his own problems, but we are training an increasing army of investigators, and the percentage of leaders is growing noticeably less. There ought to be some method by which botanists shall agree upon the significant problems at any given time in the various fields of activity, so that such advice might be available. It is certainly needed. I realise that our impulse has been to treat a desir- able problem as private property, upon which no tres- passing is allowed. Of course, common courtesy allows an investigator to work without competition, but the desirable problems are still more numerous than the investigators, and we must use all our investigative training and energy in doing the most desirable things. There need be no fear of exhausting problems, for every good problem solved is usually the progenitor of a brood of problems. We shall never multiply investigators as fast as our investigations multiply problems. In the interest of science, there- fore, we should pool our judgment, and indicate to those who need it the hopeful directions of progress. ' Not only is there dissipation of time and energy in the random selection of problems, there is also wastage in investigative ability. Every competent investigator should have the opportunity to investi- gate. The pressure of duties that too often submerge those trained to investigate is a tremendous brake upon our progress. JI am not prepared to suggest a method of meeting this situation, but the scientific fraternity in some way should press the point that one who is able to investigate should have both time and opportunity. A university regulation, with which we are all’ too familiar, which requires approximately NO. 2622, VoL. 104] the same hours of all its staff, whether they are investigators or not, should be regarded as medieval. In conclusion, speaking not merely for botanical research, but for all scientific research, it has now advanced to a stage which promises unusually rapid development. The experience of the recent years has brought science into the foreground as a great national asset. It should be one of. the functions of this association to see to it that full advantage is taken of the opportunity offered by the present evolutionary stage of research and public esteem. We must choose between inertia and some display of aggressive energy: UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL. INTELLIGENCE. Lonpon.—The faculty of medicine has elected Dr. H. L. Eason to be its representative on the Senate in succession to Sir Cooper, Perry, who has resigned on his appointment to the ‘post of Principal Officer of the University; and the faculty of science has elected Prof. L. N. G. Filon to be its representative on the Senate in succession to Prof. G. A. Buck- master, who has resigned on his appointment to the chair of physiology in the University of Bristol, Pror. T. Lovepay, professor of philosophy at Arm- strong College, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, has been ap- pointed’ principal of Southampton University College in succession to Dr. Alex Hill, resigned. Mr. A. V. Hitt, F.R.S., fellow of King’s College, late fellow of ‘Trinity College, and lecturer in physio- logy in the University of Cambridge, has been ap- pointed to the vacant chair of: physiology in the University of Manchester. Girton College, Cambridge, has received a gift of 10,000l., the capital and interest of which are to be applied during the next twenty years for the en- couragement of scientific research by women in mathe- matical, physical, and natural sciences. Lt.-Cot. P.S. Letean, professor of hygiene, Royal Army Medical College, ~will distribute prizes and certificates at the Sir John Cass Technical Institute on Tuesday, February 3, and will give an address on applied science. in gas warfare, On Wednesday, January 21, Mr. E. Wyndham Hulme was presented by the Patent Office Library staff with an illuminated address, bound in morocco, recording their appreciation of his work as librarian during the last twenty years. We understand that Mr, Hulme will continue his editorial supervision of the ‘‘ Subject Index to Periodicals ’? published by the Library Association. Mr. Hulme has been succeeded in his office by Mr. Allan Gomme, son of the late Sir Laurence Gomme, and formerly an assistant examiner in the Patent Office. Tue statement of the Rhodes Scholarships Trust for the year 1919 shows that the number of scholars actually in residence for either the whole or some part of the academic year 1918-19 was eighty-seven, viz. sixty-six Colonials and twenty-one Americans. these, thirty-one came into residence for the first time. There were also in residence nine ex-scholars, of whom five were Colonials and four Americans. In the United States the elections this year have been held under new conditions. In the first place, there has been no qualifying examination. The competition has been open, limited only by the fact that, in any given State, no one institution could be represented in the competition by more than a small number of 586 NATURE [January 29, 1920 candidates, proportioned to the total enrolment of students in the institution. In the second place, selec- tion committees have been composed of old Rhodes scholars, acting under a chairman not himself a Rhodes scholar. It is hoped by degrees to extend this principle elsewhere, to the extent at least of securing representation of Rhodes scholars on all electing com- mittees. In the course of the year 1920, scholars will be elected to represent the years 1920 and 1921, the former coming into residence in January, 1921, the latter in October, 1921. Revised circulars giving information in reference to the award of the scholar- ships in each of the communities to which they are assigned will be issued shortly. Any further informa- tion may be obtained on application to the offices of the Trust, Seymour House, Waterloo Place, London, S.W.1. In the United States application may be made to Prof. Frank Aydelotte, Massachusetts Insti- tute of Technology, Cambridge, Mass. . WE trust that there will be a ready and generous response to the appeal issued by University College, London, with the approval of the Senate of the Uni- versity, for a sum of 100,000l. to extend. and. re-equip the school of engineering, which has played so im- portant a part in engineering education and research. Founded in 1828, this school has ever since enjoyed the inestimable: advantage of the guidance of some of the most eminent scientific engineers of their day, and its influence on practice has been very great. The reconstruction and re-equipment of schools of engineering are inevitable at intervals if they are to exert an effective influence, and there has probably never been so vital a need as now to provide the best scientific education possible for .the young men who, in ‘due course, will have to direct our engineering commerce and compete for world markets. The appeal has met with an excellent initial response. Lord Cowdray has given 1to0,oool., and promised a further like sum when 70,0001. has been reached. The members of the family of the late Mr. Charles Hawksley have given 30001. towards an exténsion of the hydraulic laboratory which will ‘be associated with his name, while other substantial amounts bring the sums subscribed and promised to about 30,o00l. There is no more vital need at the present time than the highest scientific training for young men who have borne the brunt of war for years, and are now willing to devote further years to preparation for professional careers. It is to be hoped that the remaining 70,0001. will be quickly subscribed in order that the plans now made can be carried out. SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES. Lonpon. Geological Society, January 7.—Mr. G. W. Lamplugh, president, in the chair.—F. J. North: Syringothyris, Winchell, and certain Carboniferous Brachiopoda re- ferred to Spiriferina, D’Orbigny.. This paper is the outcome of a suggestion made in 1913 by Prof. T. F. Sibly, who pointed out the desirability of an attempt to remove the uncertainty which had hitherto existed in the naming of the British species of Syringothyris, and of the Carboniferous Spiriferids possessing a lamellose surface ornament, which it was customary to refer to Spiriferina because there was no other genus for their reception, although it had long been recognised that few, if any, of them really belonged to that genus. After indicating the exact sense -in which certain frequently occurring terms are used, and reviewing the history of previous research, the author discusses the history: in -Avonian times of the genus Syringothyris,. and suggests a. classification, of NO. 2622, VOL. 104] its species. Variations due to time, to environmental _ conditions, and to distribution in space are recognised, and distinctive names are given to the mutations — characteristic of certain horizons.—S. S. Buckman: | Jurassic channel i., Lias. Supplement 1, West — England strata. It is found that the preserved strata — of the Gloucestershire-Worcestershire Lias under con- — sideration happen in the main to be deposits of dates when the living Ammonites were rather small; while there is faunal failure, and presumably stratal failure, of the times when large Ammonites flourished. The converse phenomena are mainly illustrated by North Somerset deposits. The times when large and small Ammonites lived appear to follow one another like waves, illustrated even in a short table of Liassic deposits. ea Aristotelian Society, January 19.—Prof. Wildon Carr, vice-president, in the chair.—Prof. J. A. Smith: The philosophy of Giovanni Gentile. The paper began ~ with a general characterisation of the remarkable re- — birth of idealistic philosophy in southern Italy. That philosophy, as exemplified in the systems of Croce and | Gentile, builds upon the foundation of hi » Which | it conceives of as the content of experience ge ra E | problem now before philosophy is the understanding of history, and, imprimis, of its own history. An ~ endeavour was made to trace the stages in the forma- — tion of Gentile’s thought—its gradual enlargement from a theory of education into a universal meta- physics. This development culminates in the assertion of the identity of mind’s essence with its existence; — it is the process of its own gradual self-creation. The doctrine that mind is atto puro is taken and employed | by Gentile as the guiding principle of a new form of — absolute idealism. As compared with Croce, Gentile insists more upon the unity of mind or spirit, while re- cognising certain absolute forms of it as issuing from — it and constituting its concrete being or - Philo. — sophy is the supreme form of self-consciousness, and so finds in itself the clue to all that mind is or has — created—itself and its world. This principle, once accepted, applies itself and advances by an immanent: dialectic. No reality outside mind and its activity is | needed to account for experience. The paper con- ‘ cluded with an attempt to render the central idea of Gentile’s philosonhy more familiar, and to meet'a few objections to its apprehension and acceptance. — _ . SYDNEY. er tt Royal Society of New South Wales, December 3, IgIg. —Prof. C. E. Fawsitt, president, in the chair.—- Prof. C. E. Fawsitt: Presidential address: uniformities.of Nature. ~The principle of continui was considered in relation to the phenomena of the | natural world, and prominence given to the con-— tributions of Mr. A. J. Balfour to this subject. The ‘eI by the mind that seeks the theory of it. - derstand problem of the creation of the atoms of all, or at rate of some (primary), elements is still -unsol and Clerk Maxwell’s original description of the atoms — as having the nature of “‘ manufactured articles’? may still be applied. The discontinuity between ina matter and living matter remains unbridged, in of the hopes and efforts of many to bridge the exi: gap. The irregularities noticed from time to in the periodic classification of the chemical el have to.a very large extent.disappeared as a result the research of recent years, but the difficulty placing the elements of the rare earth group. factorily remains as a blot on what is otherwise one of ‘the most fascinating regularities ‘known chemists. The president then gave the periodi arrangement in a form he’ considered most sui able at the present time.—J. H. Maiden: Note 4 January 29; -1920] NATURE 587 on Acacias.. No. iv. With. descriptions of new species. The author describes seventeen new species of Acacia or wattle, together with three new varieties. The present are chiefly natives of New South Wales and Queensland, and also of Western Australia; some promise to be of economic importance. This revision of the species will, it is hoped, enable the author later on to offer a modified classification of the whole of the Australian wattles.—C. A. Sussmilch and_ Prof. T. W. Edgeworth David: Sequence and correlation of the Permo-Carboniferous and Carboniferous’ rocks of New South Wales. Part i. The Carboniferous forma- tion of the Hunter. River Valley. The Carboniferous strata of the Hunter River Valley, N.S.W., are divisible into a lower and an upper series, the former deposited under marine, the latter under terrestrial, conditions. The Lower Carboniferous strata consist of marine mudstones, limestones, con- glomerates, and tuffs, and contain an abundant and typical marine fauna; they also contain some fossil plants (drift vegetation), of which the genus Lepido- dendron-is the most characteristic. No angular un- conformity exists between the Lower and Upper Car- boniferous formations, the passage from one to the other being marked by an extraordinary development of conglomerates from 1000 ft. to 2000 ft. thick; above these conglomerates there occurs a very thick series of volcanic rock (lava-flows and tuffs), with which are inter-stratified conglomerates and shales, the latter containing fossil plants (the Rhacoptens flora).— W. A. W. de Beuzeville: Determination of the incre- ment of trees by stem analysis: Eucalyptus viminalis. The calculations show that the tree increases in height rapidly until about thirty vears old, averaging 2-8 ft. per annum. This rate gradually diminishes, dropping to 16 ft. mean annual increase when sixty-six years old.” The diameter increase likewise is greater during youth, but is fairly evenly maintained during the whole period, ranging from 0-37 in. to 0-3 in. per annum. The mean annual volume increment, which was o-1 cub. ft. at ten years, shows a steady improve- ment, reaching 1-13 cub. ft. at sixty-six years of age. Linnean Society of New South Wales, November 26, 1919.—Mr. J. J. Fletcher, president, in the chair.— G. }. Playfair: -Peridinez of New-South Wales. Of a total of sixteen species and twenty-three varieties described or recorded, three species and eighteen varie- ties are described as new. The material dealt with is mainly from the Sydney and Lismore districts, and, in addition, a few examples are from the Brisbane dis- trict—C. T. White: A revised account of the Queens- land Letythidacez. A revision of the material be- longing to the genera Barringtonia and Careya in the Queensland Herbarium. The following species are retained: Barringtonia speciosa, Forst., B. calyptrata, R.Br., -B. longiracemosa, n.sp., B. sp. (possibly longiracemosa), and Careya australis, whilst two species, B. racemosa and B. acutangula, are excluded. —M. Aurousseau: An interesting form of sub-surface drainage. The lines of sub-surface drainage described consist either of series of small holes up to a foot in diameter and 3 ft. in depth, spaced irregularly along definite lines, or partly of series of holes and partly of lengths of trench-like depressions terminating in a tunnel. at either end. The formation of these is be- lieved to. be due, not to any peculiarity of the soil, but to the climate of the region which is characterised by marked seasonal rainfall. The possibility is suggested that this sub-surface drainage may be a factor in the intake of the coastal artesian basin of Western Aus- tralia.—_J, Mitchell:; Some additional Trilobites from ‘N.S.W. Four new species are described, one (Trinu- cleus Clarkei) from rocks of Ordovician age, the other NO. 2622, voL. 104] © > - three (Ceratocephala phalaenocephala, Odontopleura Hartleti, and Cyphaspis Filmeri) from Upper Silurian rocks.—Dr. R. J. Tillyard : Mesozoic insects of Queens- land. No. 7. Hemiptera homoptera, with a note on the. phylogeny of the order. Twenty-three specimens of homopterous tegmina from the Upper Trias of Ipswich are dealt with in this.paper; one of these, Mesojassus ipsviciensis, Till., had been previously described.’ The results show that the Ipswich fauna contains as its dominant element the Upper Permian family Scytinopteridee, of which seven species,‘ placed in six new genera, are described.—E. W. Ferguson and Marguerite Henry: Tabanide from Camden Haven District, N.S.W. With descriptions of new -species. The ‘species described were col- lected during the course of investigations as to the means of transmission of Onchocerca Gibsoni- in cattle, special attention being paid to the Tabanide as possible vectors of the larve. Of the forty-one species described or recorded, ten are proposed as new. The seasonal distribution of the species is indicated by a table. BOOKS RECEIVED. By Profs. V. B. Lewes and Service Chemistry. Fifth. edition. Pp. xvit+576+ J. S. S. Brame. vii plates. (London: E. Arnold.) 21s. net. . The Times Survey Atlas of the World. Part i. (London: Office of the Times.) 2s. 6d. net. The Century of Hope. By F. S. Marvin. Second edition. Pp. viit358. (Oxford: At the Clarendon Press.) 6s. net. Chemistry in Everyday -Life: Opportunities in Chemistry. By E. Hendrick. Pp. xii+102. (London: University of London Press, Ltd.) 3s. 6d. net. The Theory of the Imaginary in Geometry, Together with the Trigonometry of the Imaginary. By Prof. J. L. S. Hatton. Pp. vii+216. (Cambridge: At the University Press.) 18s. net. The Mason-Wasps. By J. H. Fabre. Translated by A. T. de Mattos. Pp. vit+318. (London: Hodder and Stoughton.) 7s. 6d. net. The Dyeing Industry: Being a third edition of “Dyeing in Germany and America.” By S. H. Higgins. Pp. viii+189. (London: Longmans and Co.) 8s. 6d. net. An Algebra for Engineering Students. By G. S. Eastwood and J. R. Fielden. (With Answers.) Pp. viit+199+xv. (London: E. Arnold.) 7s. 6d. net. Memories of the Months. By Sir Herbert Maxwell. Sixth series. Pp. xi+314. (London: E. Arnold.) 7s. 6d. net. . Etudes de Photochimie. By Dr. V. Henri. Pp. vii+218. (Paris: Gauthier-Villars et Cie.) Acids, Alkalis, and Salts. By G. H. J. Adlam. Pp. ix+112. (London: Sir Isaac Pitman and Sons, Ltd.) . 2s. 6d. net. The Ancient Entrenchments and Camps. of Gloucestershire. By E. J. Burrow. Pp. 176. (Cheltenham and London: E. J. Burrow and Co., Ltd.) 21s. net. Food Poisoning and Food Infections. By Dr. W. G. Savage. Pp. ix+247.. (Cambridge: At the University Press.) 15s. net. The Design and Stability of Stream-line Kite Bal- loons, with Useful Tables, Aeronautical and Mechani- cal Formule. By Capt. P. H. Sumner. Pp. viiit+ 146. (London: Crosby Lockwood and Son.) tos. 6d. net. The Elements of Descriptive Astronomv. By E. O. Tancock. Second edition. Pp. 158. (Oxford: At the Clarendon Press.) 3s. net. 588 NATURE [JaNvaRY 29, 1920 - Problémes Economiques ‘d’Aprés-Guerre. Launay. Pp. 319. (Paris: A. Colin.) 3.50 francs. The Manufacture of Intermediate. Products for Dyes. By Dr. J. C. Cain. Second edition. Pp. xit+ 273. (London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd.) ros. net. Diesel Engine Design. By H. F. P. Purday. Pp. xvi+301. (London: Constable and Co., Ltd.) 21s. The Use of Colloids in Health and Disease. By A. B. Searle. Pp. vii+120. (London: Constable and Co., Ltd.) 8s. net. DIARY OF SOCIETIES. THURSDAY, JANUARY 29. RoyaL insprro sient or Great Britain, at 3.—Dr. R, R. Terry: Renaissance Music in ex and England. Roya Society, at 4.30.—Prof. W. Bateson: The Genetics of ‘* Rogues” among Culinary Peas (Pisum sativum).—L. T. Hogben: Studies on Synapsis. I. Oogenesis in the Hymenoptera.—H. Onslow: A Periodic Structure in many Insect Scales, and the Cause of their Iridescent Colours. Royat COLLEGE OF PHYSICIANS, at 5. Rovat InstrruTE OF Pustic HEALTH, at 5.—Dr. O.May : Tuberculosis in relation to Life Assurance. Roya Society oF MEpicINE (Balneology and Climatology Section), at | 5.30.—Dr. N. Wood and Others: Discussion on the Merits and Defects — of the British Health Resorts. Wiretrss Society or Lonpon (at Institution of Civil Engineers), at 6.— R.C. Clinker : A Portable Valve Set and some properties of C.W. Circuits. Society oF ANTIQUARIBS, at 8.30. FRIDAY, JANUARY 30. Roya COLLEGE OF SuRGEONS, at 5.—Prof. A. Keith: John Hunter's Observations and Discoveries in Anatomy and Surgery ; His Contributions to our Knowlege of the Eye, Ear, and Nose (Hunterian Lecture). InsTITUTION oF CiviIL ENGINEERS (Students’ Meeting), at 6.—R. B. Dunwoody : The Economic Requirements for Inland Navigation Trans- port in the British Isles (Vernon-Harcourt Lecture), InsTITUTION OF ELecrrRIcAL ENGINEERS (Students’ Meeting) (at the City and Guilds Technical College, Leonard Street), at 7.—Major K. Edgcumbe and Others : Discussion on Quantity Production asa Panacea. ToC InsTITUTION OF ENGINEERS, at 7.30.—G.. E. Lygo: The Manufacture of Hydrogen Gas by the Silicol Process for Airships and Commercial Purposes. Rovat InstTiruTION OF GREAT BRITAIN, The Gyrostatic Compass. SATURDAY, January 31. Rovat Institution oF GREAT Britain, at 3.—Sir F. W. Dyson: The Astronomical Evidence bearing on Einstein’s Sheces of Gravitation : I. Movement of the Perihelion of Mercury. Puysio.ocicat Society (at King’s College), at 4. MONDAY, Fepruary 2. ‘Vicrorra Institute (in Committee Room B, Central Hall, Westminster), at 4.30.——Sir Andrew Wingate: India, Royat COLLEGE oF SURGEONS, at 5. INSTITUTE OF ACTUARIES, at 5.—A. Henry: a Further Suggestions on the Subject of Approximate Valuations.—H. L. Trachtenberg: A New Method of Valuing Policies in Groups. ARISTOTELIAN Soctety (at 74 Grosvenor Street), at 8.—Mrs. N. A. Duddington and Others: Discussion on Lossky's Intuitive Basis of Knowledge. Roya Society or Arts, at 8.—Capt. H. Hamshaw Thomas: Aircraft Photography in War and Peace (Cantor Lecture). Soctety or CHEMICAL InNpuSTRy (at' the Chemical Society), at 8.— H. M. Wells and J. E. Southcombe » The Theory and Practice of Lubrication : The Germ Process. Roya INSTITUTE OF BRITISH. ARCHITECTS, at 8.30.~J. W. Simpson: » Presidential Address to Students. RoyaL Grocrapuica Sociery (at the Central Hall, Westminister), at 8.30.—Major-Gen. Sir Frederick Sykes : Air Routes of the Empire. Mepicar Society or Lonpon, at 9.—Dr. H. R. Spencer : Tumours com- plicating Pregnancy, Labour, "and the Puerperium (Lettsomian Lecture). TUESDAY, Frsruary 3. Rovat Institution oF GREAT Briratn, at 3.—Prof. G. Elliot Smith: The Evolution of Man and the Early History of Civilisation. II. Ele- phants and Ethnologists. Royat Society or Arts (Colonial Section), at 4.30.—Sir Francis Watts: ie Departments of Agriculture, with special reference to the West ndies. Rovat Puorocrapnic Society or Great Brirain (Technical Meeting), at 7.—L. A. Jones: A Non-intermittent Sensitometer. R6ntGEN Society (at the Medical Society of London), at 8.15. WEDNESDAY, Frsrvuary Roya Society or Arrs,.at 4.30.—A. E. Hayes: and International Trade. Royat CoLLece oF SuRGEONS, at 5. GEOLOGICAL SociETY OF Lonpon, at *5.30. mae lat . Sections through the Andes of Peru and Boli Mollendo to the Inambari River. Roya. combate Society (at the Royal Society of Arts), at 8.— Squadron-Leader J. E. M. Pritchard: Rigid Airships and their Develop- ment, InsTITUTION OF AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERS (at the Institution of Mechan- a Engineers), at 8.—A. ‘P.. Young and H. Warren: The Progress of gnition. ‘Society or Pustic.ANALYsTs AND OTHER ANALYTICAL CHEMISTS (at the Chemical Society), at 8. (Annual General Meeting), Dr. S. Rideal: Presidential Address.—F. S. Sinnatt and L. Slater: An Investigation into the Composition of the Unsaturated Hydrocarbons present in Coal NO. 2622, VoL. 104] at 9.—S. G. Brown: The English Language A. Douglas >) Geological via: II. From the Port of By L. de. . ‘RovaL COLLEGE OF SURGEONS, at 5: OTe, pre Gas.—H. Trickett: The! Estimation of the Available Oxygen ii Perborate and in Perborate Soap Powders. . THURSDAY, Fesruary ne Royvat Institution of GREAT BRITAIN, at 3-—Prof. ALE. Conrady : Recent Progress in Applied Optics. .' Royat Scctety, at 4.30.—J. H. Jeans and Others: ‘Discussion on Theory of Relativity. | Linnean Society, at 5.—Dr. R. Ruggles Gates: ‘The Existence of Two Fundamentally Different Types of Characters in Oma et CHEMICAL Society, at 8. - , a hai) ib FRIDAY, FEBRUARY 6. : ea Concrete Institute (at Denison iy diab 296 Vauxhall bridge Road), at 6.—H. J, G. Bamber: ‘The Practical Testing of Cement, INSTITUTION OF ELECTRICAL’ ENGINEERS Le ptpe Meetii (at the City, and Guilds (Engineering) College), at 7.—F. R. Housden : and Cranes. Roya Sociery. or Mepicine (Anesthetics Section), at £.30—Dr. F. rd Rood : Discussion on 'Anzsthesia in Throat and Nose Rovat Instirurion oF GREAT BRITAIN, at 9-—Prof. me ‘Walter Raleigh: Landor and the Classic Manner. +. SATURDAY, Fesruary 7. Royat Insrirution of Great Britain, at 3.—Sir Fe ny, ‘ams The Astronomical Evidence some, Ss Einstein's Theory of Gravitation. II. Displacement of Solar Spectral Lines. CONTENTS. 5S. ThegWorks of Torricelli, ByJ.L.E.D. .... Problems of the Fruit-grower. ....:.... Metaphysical Research. . . Dry were Medical and Social War-work in Egypt. puerrarieg Scientific Biography. eit RG tae Our Bookshelf .. . ‘ <2 gedaan Letters to the Editor:— : The Deflection of Light during a Solar Bele — Prof. Alexr. Anderson . . ‘The White Water.”—Capt. A. R. ‘Palmer; ; Prof. J. Stanley Gardiner, F.R.S.. . Proposals for a Plumage Bill. =u “Gardiner Willoughby Dewar . The Separation of Isotopes. _pr. Alexander Fleck - 565 A Helium Series in the Extreme Ultra-Violet.— _ Prof. Theodore Lyman .......... 565 Mirage Effects. Biases Botley » PLS eae British Irono-res.—D, A. E. Evans ; Prof, ‘Henry ie Louis .. + peek Displacement of " Spectral Lines. — Robert owe Lawson . ? 565 Orthogenetic Evolution in Pigeons. itasiratea,) a By Rite as PaO ye ce re The Nitrogen Problem, iL Exploration in Tibet and Neighbouring Regions * By 0) Has a ee enone SE Notes, 005.48 «isis 0° F et ee : Our Astronomical Column :— New Comet 1920a .. Percent Spectrum of Comet Brorsen- Metcaif . + eeaS The Fireball of January 16. . . 2. e+ « Open Stellar Clusters. “8 Paris Academy of Sciences: Prizes Pridadnd for > 1gar. ee Applied Piant ‘Morphology Sey ; The Royal Society of Western Australia. ‘By . W. G. Pi A ‘New Development in Agricultural Research. at te Mathematical Statistics . . rarer ari oe The Kinematograph in Schools. :. ,.. «seme Irrigation in Egypt... ee Vertebrate Remains in the Caverns of Grimaldi : Apparatus for Vapour-pressure Deters oe Experiments on Train Resistance. . . The Evolution of Botanical Research. “By Prof. John M. Coulter . . ° University and Educational Intelligence . a’ So gam Societies and Academies... ... 2... 22 +) Books Received 25 Sci ai aos ate ees oe ee Diary. of Societies. 1694s @ wilad s ps eee Editorial and Publishing Offices: MACMILLAN AND’ CO.;. Ltop.,. ST. MARTIN’S STREET, LONDON, W.C.2 20) Advertisements and business letters to be addressed to Publishers. Editorial ‘Communications to the Editor. Telegraphic Address: Puusis, Lonpon, Telephone Number: GrErrarp 8830. NATURE 589 - THURSDAY, FEBRUARY 5, 1920. THE NEED FOR AIRCRAFT RESEARCH. NDER the stimulus of war the development of aircraft was marvellously rapid, so much so that it not infrequently happened that by the time a squadron of aeroplanes of new and improved design was ready to take the air it was regarded ‘as little else than an obsolete type by its own designers. But with a rate of wastage so high as war conditions made inevitable, one had to get accustomed to such an advance every six months as only the new mental attitude to mechanical developments that the war forced upon us could grasp without surprise. All this is now past. The factories are largely turned to fresh uses, and their skilful staffs scattered to new fields of labour. Even the scientific force of the Govern- ment has for the most part returned to the Uni- versities from which it came—notably Cambridge and Oxford. What is now to happen? Before this question ean be answered it must be premised that con- sequent on the purpose of all this tremendous effort—the defeat of the enemy—having been finally achieved, the diversion of the means to other purposes is no more to be wondered at than regretted; furthermore, we may hope that the need for the re-creation of any such force is remote enough to enable us “to sleep o’ nights.” The validity of this hope must, however, depend on _ the sway of politics, and on the political methods followed by the Great Powers—whether a chau- vinistic policy be adopted or earnestly avoided. The enemy to-day is the geographical _posi- tion with which this country is endowed: as un- favourable for air developments as it is favourable for maritime power. England is not on any air route to anywhere, and its climate deserves, from the air navigator’s point of view, all that has been said against it. The sheer march of natural events will not make us an air Power as it has made us a naval Power. Any such result will need to be the consequence of intensely directed effort. But if such an effort can be presumed, then great conse- quences will ensue, for an air force which can be _ taught to encounter British climatic conditions and rise superior to them—with the implied possession of the best scientific means of assistance on the _ ground and in the aircraft—will have been trained in as hard a school as any in the world, and there- fore be ready to gain an ascendancy in the easier conditions to be found almost everywhere else. NO. 2623, VOL. 104] Apc eee ttl ae ie Vt Ne A wr ES i CE REE I er RR RE II * oe wees The experience of the last five years has shown that we have exactly the right kind of personnel for air endurance and skill; the work is tempera- mentally suited to the British type of youth. The aircraft themselves are the best to be found any- where, and although this does not imply finality it is probable that future important developments will lie in some change of principle, whether thermodynamic (by modification of cycle or change of fuel) or aerodynamic, rather than in greatly im- proved efficiency in detail. We may, in fact, have to repeat in another fashion our war experience and once more face fundamental problems; we shall not be pressed for time, which will be a great gain, but we shall need all the assistance which can be got from minds trained in the fundamentals of science and as ready as heretofore to face en- tirely novel conditions. The Universities, at which many of such minds are now again engaged, must help. This, however, is not the most pressing problem; the urgent need is for the provision of means with the utmost rapidity to enable flying in this country, whatever its climate, to be as regular and safe for the traveller as it will surely become in the very near future in other countries. — When the weather is reasonable it is the custom to select that altitude of flight which enables best advantage to be taken of a favourable wind, and perhaps, when flying over Central Africa, that height which adds a pleasant temperature. Under normal winter conditions in this country quite other considerations apply. If the conditions are such as to create, or even to suggest the creation of, local fogs, pilots will choose their altitude from quite another motive; their aim will be to select that altitude which keeps them always within sight of the ground, so that if a fog, or heavy mist, is encountered at ground level, a landing can at once be made. Very often the fog or cloud is not of great thickness, and it would be easy to climb right through it and so to fly in sunshine under a blue sky. By astronomical means the position of the craft could be checked from time to time, and there need be no fear of being blown out to sea when prepared only for a limited number of hours’ flight. What makes such flying impossible is not the uncertainty of position, but the doubt whether, when the pilot wishes to land, he will find the lower cloud- or fog-level actually resting on the ground. It is unpleasant enough to walk even a hundred steps along an empty road with one’s eyes shut—how much less attractive when one’s speed is 100 miles an hour and the feeling of having one’s feet on the ground is absent! Unless BB 59° NATURE [FEBRUARY 5, 1920 this difficulty can be removed, the kind of flying which the future demands and other countries can give can never be learnt or practised in this country. The first need is for some means of flying steadily through thick cloud, either for the purpose of climbing above it, or to approach through it nearer to the destined aerodrome. This problem has lately been solved by the invention of a “turn indicator” which enables the pilot, whether he can see the ground or not, to know when the machine is being flown straight, and it has the valuable effect of allowing the readings of the compass. to be relied on; so the gain is double. But in addition to this it is necessary to provide close co-operation with the ground whenever it is wholly or partially fog-enshrouded. The pilot must be told whether his intended aerodrome is fog-free, and, if not, what other aerodromes near his route are sufficiently clear of fog to be safe havens; this will presumably be by means of some increased efficiency in the wireless tele- phone. Next to this in importance is some means of indicating or conveying to the pilot his height above the ground that happens to be immediately below his machine. These and other such aids are the kind of requirements needed to make all- the-year-round flying possible in this country. It is only a part of the wide field for research, but it is of vital consequence, and it certainly needs (as it is, of course, receiving) Government sup- port, since the immediate financial reward of success must be slight. Moreover, the work is one of public utility, and should be so treated. Force is lent to what is here urged by the con- sideration that the air fleet to be maintained by the Government in the near future is so small that it is only by calling in the aid of private craft that the possible needs of an emergency can be met. For this economical procedure to prove a success it is necessary that civil air- craft should exist in sufficient numbers. To facili- tate this calls for the encouragement of all who have ability to assist in making flying safe, in making it popular, in making it efficient. PHYSIOLOGY OF MUSCULAR EXERCISE. The Physiology of Muscular Exercise. By Prof. F. A. Bainbridge. (Monographs on Physiology.) Pp. ix+215. (London: Longmans, Green, and Co., 1919.) Price 1os, 6d. net. i may reasonably be doubted whether any two physiologists would deal with the subject of muscular exercise along similar lines, nor is it desirable that this should be so, the subject being NO. 2623, VOL. 104] so complex and presenting so many different points of view. A comparison of the present volume with the writings of thirty years ago on the same subject is an instructive demonstration of the fact that physiology, as regards certain of its branches at least, has in the course of a generation reached a stage at which experimental results begin to show an integrative connection with problems of a broad and complex nature. _ It is with the wonderful co-ordination of func- tions which is displayed in muscular exercise that the book chiefly deals. The energy usage of the body in exercise may be from eight to twelve times that during rest, and of this about one- third may, in the most favourable circum- stances, appear as work; this energy is ultimately. supplied by oxidation, chiefly of carbohydrates, and the central point of the problems of the physio- logy of muscular exercise is that the muscles sud- denly demand from the blood a supply of oxygen which is from ten to twelve times what they receive when at rest. “If the body is to worl efficiently and to develop its physical powers to their full extent, it is absolutely essential that the movements of the muscles on the one hand, and the activities of the circulatory and respiratory systems on the other hand, should be co-ordinated and integrated into a harmonious whole’ fo. (pp- 3-4). The complex co-ordination of circulation ahd respiration is to a great extent effected by the | central nervous system, though the heart and blood-vessels are to some extent autonomous. Chaps. ii. to vii. deal with an analysis of the changes by which the blood and the organs of — circulation and respiration are adapted to their — several needs. The heart is itself a muscular machine working with a gross efficiency of — 20-30 per cent., and the adaptation of this organ is very fully discussed. This is important, since, — in ordinary circumstances, it is the workin power of the heart which is the limiting factor to — the amount of exertion which is possible in any - individual ; though training may improve the heart, “no man can be an athlete who does not possess — a powerful (i.e. a muscular) heart.” At high alti- tudes, on the other hand, the limiting factor seems _ to be the rate at which oxygen can diffuse through the pulmonary epithelium into the blood. a In the eighth chapter the manner of the exact balancing of the various partially autonomous systems by means of the central nervous system is discussed, and it is shown that, as in so many other instances in the body, the promptness in response to altered conditions is owing to the con- trol of the central nervous system, while - the coarser adjustment is effected by the influence of FEBRUARY 5, 1920] NATURE 591. various chemical or mechanical factors. The importance of the presidence of the nervous system is well seen in the reduced efficiency of the body during fatigue, and in the enhanced efficiency in circumstances where interest or emotion is aroused; in chap. xi. there is included a brief discussion of the subject of industrial fatigue, on which so much useful work has been done during and since the war, and one of the conclusions, that “the establishment of a uniform length of working day for all classes of manual workers would lead in many cases to inefficiency ” (p. 183), is worthy of careful note. The subject of training is discussed in chap. ix., and in chap. xii. it is shown that the differences between the circulation in the trained and un- trained man can be extended to explain the con- dition of effort syndrome, or soldier’s heart, in which the heart becomes inadequate to its work abnormally soon, owing to an impaired state of its nutrition. . Considered as a whole, the work is extremely good; it is well written, the viewpoint is broad, and the management of the arguments clear and convincing ; indeed, a possible fault is that the in- expert reader may be misled as regards the com- plexity of the problems dealt with in such a clear and simple manner, or fail to appreciate what a vast deal of work lies behind some of the seem- ingly plain and obvious conclusions. Should this prove to be the case, it is but an indication of the excellent way in which the author has treated his subject. The references are to modern work chiefly, and in every respect the book is thoroughly up-to-date. Prof. Bainbridge is to be congratu- lated most heartily on having added to these valu- able monographs such a cleverly written exposi- tion of a difficult subject. THEORIES OF SOUND PERCEPTION. Some Questions of Phonetic Theory. Chap. v. The Perception of Sound. By Wilfrid Perrett. Pp. 39. (Cambridge: W. Heffer and Sons, Ltd., 1919.) Price 2s. net. HIS work may be regarded as a continuation of the interminable discussion regarding the functions of the cochlea, or more particularly the part of the internal ear concerned in hearing. Theories of sound perception may be divided into two classes: first, those which assume that some- how analysis takes place in the cochlea; and secondly, those that relegate the analysis to the brain. The first theory also assumes that the principle of sympathetic resonance is the founda- tion of the method by which the organ of Corti in the cochlea works, while the second theory, as NO. 2623, VOL. 104] it involves ganglion-cells and part of the brain, has no experimental basis on which to rest, and leaves the function practically insoluble. The resonance theory owes its clear inception to Thomas Young and its development to Helm- holtz. While it explains many experimental facts, and has been supported by many physicists and physiologists, it has now and again been assailed by critics who have advanced some form of the second theory, and founded their objection to the older theory mainly on facts which appar- ently cannot be accounted for by the Young- Helmholtz theory. Mr. Perrett supports the second theory, and denies the existence of any _ resonating mechanism in the cochlea. In a short notice it is impossible to meet all his points, but it seems he does not meet the difficulties of the case. No explanation is offered of the extremely complicated organ of Corti, unless it serves some such purpose as is implied in the older theory; there are obvi- ous difficulties relating to the fibres of the cochlear nerve; and the explanation is hopeless when we reach the ganglionic mechanism of the brain. On the other hand, the resonance theory, on the whole, meets the facts, and, if not free from objections, as Helmholtz and his supporters admit, it serves the purpose of a good theory by stimulating research, while it satisfies the mind. The same may be said of the retina and the action of light, and, indeed, of all the end-organs of special sense. Mr. Perrett, while he has evi- dently studied the subject, historically and other- wise, seems unduly biased against a fair present- ment of the older theory, and we recommend caution and a wider view. J. G. M. KASHMIR AND INDIAN SILKS. The Silk Industry and Trade: A Study in the Eco- nomic Organisation of the Export Trade of Kashmir and Indian Silks, with Special Refer- ence to their Utilisation in the British and French Markets. By Ratan C. Rawlley. Pp. xvi+172. (London: P. S. King and Son, Ltd., 1919.) Price 10s. 6d. net. HIS volume forms a natural complement to the official report on Indian silk by Prof. Max- well Lefroy and Mr. E. C. Ansorge recently pub- lished by the Government of India. In the official report the Indian silk trade is dealt with primarily from the Indian trade point of view; in the volume now under notice Indian silk is considered in its relation to the markets of Great Britain and France. As is well known, raw silk from India at the present day does not occupy a high place in the estimation of manufacturers, and it was with the object of ascertaining the 592 NATURE | FerRUARY 5, 1920 exact requirements of the British and French markets that the present investigation was under- taken by Mr. Rawlley with the financial assistance of the Carnegie Research Trust and the India Office. In his inquiry the author visited nearly all the principal silk centres in this country and in France, and the chief value of the investigation lies in the fact that it has secured expression of authoritative views of the leading members of the trade. The wide ground covered by the inquiry can be only briefly summarised here. It will be sufficient to say that we have now a consensus of expert opinion that with adequate improvement in quality and reeling (embracing evenness in size, cleanliness, and uniformity of strength), together with improved trade organisation (mainly with a view to regular supplies), there is an assured market in this country, and in France, for Indian raw silks. The comparative success of the im- proved Kashmir silk, especially in the French market, is already a demonstration of this fact. As regards waste silk, and also wild Eri silk, the position is the same; given better quality, greater cleanliness, and improved trade organisation, there will be no difficulty in finding a European market for these products. The author’s inquiry has performed a double function, inasmuch as it indicates the possibilities of a neglected source of supplies to the consumer of raw silk and an unde- veloped outlet for the producer. A GREAT INDUSTRIALIST. His Life and Achieve- Pp. xi+ 304. Price 15s. net. George Westinghouse: ments. By Francis E. Leupp. (London: John Murray, 1919.) HE author, in his preface, regrets the lack of all those written records on which bio- graphers usually rely for providing interesting per- sonal reminiscences. Despite this, however, he has succeeded in compiling an_ interesting, straightforward narrative which will be inspiring to youth for the example it sets forth of success achieved by indomitable courage and persistent effort, and of fame won on sheer merit, without aid from influence or wealth. Older readers will find the book of interest in so far as it provides an easily assimilated history of many of the important industrial developments of the past generation. On the other hand, they are likely to be disappointed by the feeling that the part accorded by the author to George West- inghouse in bringing about these developments falls short by no small distance of the part he actually played. Mr. Leupp frankly admits that he confines him- self to a portrayal of the human side of his subject. He dwells particularly on a certain bigness which NO. 2623, VOL. 104] | he finds characteristic of George Westinghouse, who was large-minded and large-hearted, and had the grand style as an inventor, worker, optimist, and industrialist. ‘‘ Nothing was ever big enough Splendid as was the human side, and- worthy as it is of this record, we share with the author the hope that one day some well-known ” for him. technologist will compile the record of the great been more successful if he could have spared and His ready grasp of the in’ investigating machinery mechanical models. railroad work, and ultimately to his development of the air brake, with which his name will always be associated; his investigations into natural gas and its industrial application; his fair appreciation of the inventions of others and readiness to put electric current; his care for the welfare of his workpeople; his buoyancy, carrying him over financial crises of a most disturbing character; the esteem of his workpeople that held them to \ _of unusual industrial capacity, personality, and courage. A price will find it worthy of perusal. FARMING IN THE NEW ERA. and Castell Wrey. Pp. xiii+82. John Murray, 1919.) Price 2s. 6d. net. (2) The Farmer and the New Day. By K. L. Butterfield. Pp. xi+311. (New York: The Macmillan Co.; London: Macmillan Co., Ltd., 1919.) Price 8s. 6d. net. (3) The Sugar-beet in America, By Prof. T. S. Harris. (Rural Science Series.) Pp. xviii+ Co. ; 1919.) Price 2.25 dollars. (4) Strawberry-growing. By = Prof. - "S22 1917.) Price 1.75 dollars. about the new era into which we are entering, and agriculturists are wondering what will become of their subject, and incidentally of inventions and achievements of the man. ie It is notable that Westinghouse did not excel at school and college, and that during his brief college career he admitted that he might have his time for study that he spent more pleasurably in’ making opportunity that led to his early connection with them into commercial use ; his fight for alternating him through precarious times—these tell the man The book does not possess any marked literary value, but all who are not debarred by its high — (1) A Large State Farm: A Business and Educa- : tional Undertaking. By Lt.-Col. A. G. Weigall (London: and 342 + xxxii. plates. (New York: The Macmillan — London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd., } Fletcher. (Rural Science Series.) Pp. xxiit 325+xxiv plates. (New York: The Macmillan — Co.; London: Macmillan aad Co., Ltd., 4 OA GREAT deal is being spoken and written a at ne on 5 n= in FEBRUARY 5, 1920] NATURE 593 themselves. The problem is not peculiar to any one country: it is world-wide. The British problem was discussed some time ago by Sir A. D. Hall in his book, “ Agriculture after the War,” and not long since by an anony- mous writer in a recent number of the Edinburgh Review. One aspect of it is discussed by Lt.-Col. Weigall and Mr. Castell Wrey in the first volume on the list. These authors set out the advantages of the large 10,0o00-acre farm as a business proposition. The farm of 3000 acres, hitherto considered large, they regard as simply inconvenient; it is too small to be a really big farm, but too large to be a satisfactory small one. They suggest that the State should run one large farm as a demonstration and educa- tional institute, and they consider that others would soon follow, with the result that the method would take its proper place in British agriculture. Many of the difficulties of farming disappear when the scale is made sufficiently large, and the authors make out a good case for the 10,000-acre farm. We doubt, however, whether they will induce any Government Depart- ment to embark in the business, Government trading being somewhat under a cloud for the moment; but a company might feel disposed to take the matter up. (2) The American problem is discussed in the second of the volumes before us by Dr. Butter- field, the well-known president of the Massa- chusetts Agricultural College, who sets out his views with characteristic frankness, saying exactly what he thinks with the engaging candour that has made him so potent a factor in American agri- cultural life. One great difficulty Dr. Butterfield finds is that farmers are not, and rarely have been, prominent in the councils of the nation; conse- quently others have had to devise policies for them. The farmers of ancient Rome and the yeomen of medieval England were in a stronger position, and in Germany, Denmark, and Ireland farmers are a power in the land; in the main, however, they have had but little influence. Some serious consequences follow. The great majority of American farmers are said to receive insufficient return for their labours, the average labour in- come being only 4oo dollars per annum. The middleman, on the other hand, obtains too many of the consumers’ dollars; the system of dis- tribution is in general against the farmer’s interests. Still worse, there is no agricultural policy. Dr. Butterfield writes sternly about this deficiency in the United States, and notes with surprise the same lack of policy in this country and in the Labour Party’s memorandum on recon- struction, of which otherwise he approves. He NO. 2623, VOL. 104] insists on the need for a strong agriculture, which, however, can eventuate only if the farmer conforms to the spirit of the new age. This calls for a better chance for the ordinary man, the intelligent planning of human progress, a reconciliation between organised effectiveness in human life that also leaves individuals and classes truly free, and an insistence on service to fellow men as the great motive in life. We need not follow Dr. Butterfield in the elaboration of his thesis; he discusses the various agencies in American country life in their relationship to these four aspects: of the new age. The position is similar to that dealt with by Sir Horace Plunkett in Ireland, whose famous slogan, “Better farming, better business, better living,” has made a vivid appeal in the States also. More fortunate than Sir Horace, however, Dr. Butter- field has no religious problem, and is able to discuss the Churches as candidly as he does the schools. The author makes certain criticisms of the rural education system of the United States— the most remarkable scheme of educational activi- ties on behalf of the farmer to be found in the world. Englishmen visiting the States have mar- velled at its completeness; Dr. Butterfield’s criti- cisms, after all, show that it is human; while sound in essentials, it is apt to go wrong in details. (3) The two other books on the list furnish good examples of the educational work done by the agricultural experts of the States. Prof. Harris, the director of the Utah Experimental Station, describes the growth of sugar-beet in the States, and brings together a good deal of material pre- viously scattered through many books, journals, and bulletins. The industry has developed there in a remarkable manner. In the ’sixties the pro- duction of beet-sugar was less than 300 tons per annum; now it is 800,000 tons. This astonishing development has not been at the expense of cane- sugar, for during the same period raw cane-sugar has risen from 200,000 tons per annum to 24 million tons. The story of the beet-sugar industry in Europe is well known, and is one of the most interesting cases on record of a fostered key industry growing and flourishing. The history of the crop in America is not so well known, and the author devotes an interesting section to it, also reproducing photographs of some of the early pioneers. The first factory, established in Massa- chusetts in 1838, failed after two years. The second was established in Utah in 1842, and had the advan- tage of a considerable natural protection, imported — sugar having to be hauled all the way from the Missouri River, and, therefore, costing no less than 40 cents to 1 dollar a pound in Salt Lake 594 NATURE [Fesruary 5, 1920 But the promoters could not crystallise the sugar; they could only make syrup, and before long they gave up the business. The in- dustry was not definitely established until 1890; development was fostered by means of tariffs, and was very rapid during the war. In the early days of the nineteenth century the percentage of sugar in the root was about 5; now it is about 16-18 per cent. It differs in the different varie- ties, and is affected by the soil and weather con- ditions. Sufficient irrigation in dry seasons in- creases the amount of sugar. The great difficulty in dealing with the crop is the amount of labour involved in lifting. This is now obviated to a considerable extent by the use of suitable implements, two types of which are described. The crop is liable to attacks by insect pests and fungi; no’ fewer than 150 species of insects feed on the beet, of which about forty are of economic importance; the number of fungus pests is small at present, but it is increasing. (4) The last book on the list, on strawberry- growing, is by Prof.-Fletcher, of the Pennsylvania State College. The author opens with the state- ment, which will be new to many people, that “the strawberry is distinctly North American. City. Most. modern varieties sprang from species only found in the Americas. Progress in the domestica- tion of the fruit was coincident with the intro- duction into Europe of American types.” In 1910 the acreage under strawberries in the United States and Canada was 150,000 acres, said to be more than the combined acreage of all other countries. Bearing in mind the results of fertiliser experi- ments at the Woburn fruit farm, the English reader turns with interest to discover what results have been obtained in America. Curiously few fertiliser experiments with strawberries seem to have been made. At the Missouri Station phosphates were beneficial, but nitrogenous and potassic manures were harmful. At the Tennessee Experimental Station no fertilisers proved effec- tive. At Cornell phosphates and potassic ferti- lisers were beneficial, while nitrogenous manures were harmful. But the experiments lasted only a year or two, and hence the results do not yield as much information as they might as to the needs of the plant. In nature the strawberry flourishes on an acid soil, and in cultivation lime is not found necessary. As usual in the Rural Science Series, the author brings into the book information on all aspects of the crop, dealing with such diverse subjects as the shape of boxes for packing, the raising of new NO. 2623, VOL. 104] The ‘tence refers to the origin of seaweeds from varieties, insect and fungus pests, etc. It is obvi- ous that no one man can be competent to deal adequately with all branches of the subject, but the general treatment is good and gives the prac- tical man all the help he needs; there are also, references to experimental station bulletins, where further information by experts on particular sub- jects can be obtained, ; Some years ago productivity figures were worked out for the farm workers of the different countries of the civilised world. America easily headed the list, which was as follows :— ; America 292 Great Britain 126 Germany vg sis 119 France rye ee ve GO Haly< Soa i Ee Pence? | Looking through this Rural Science Series, edited by Dr. L. H. Bailey, and seeing. how earnestly the authors strive to deal with the con- ditions actually obtaining in the States, we find at least a partial explanation of the striking superiority of the American worker. Such books could scarcely be written in this country as. yet, but there are hopeful signs for the future. A body of young men and young women is gather- ing at the agricultural experimental stations and colleges of this country capable of doing good work that will bear comparison with anything — done elsewhere, and there are increasing signs that their work is favourably and respectfully — received by the agricultural community, EJs RUSSELL. OUR BOOKSHELF. | Building of an. Autotrophic Plageliala. | Botanical Memoirs. No. 1. By A. H. Church, Pp. 27. (London, etc. - Hoek Milford and — Oxford University Press, 1919.) Price 2s. # “THE story of the evolution of the plant regarded _ as expressed in simplest terms as an autotrophic — flagellate of the plankton-phase from nothing at~ all but ionized sea-water” is the subject of Mr. 4 Church’s extremely condensed and _ technical — paper. In reality it is rather the requirements of — the problem than its solution which Mr. Church — indicates, and, whilst he realises the magnificence — of the factors with which he has to deal (the sea, — for example, is ““a medium complex beyond the possibilities of human computation ”), he presents — the results of much learning in huge unbroken and almost unintelligible paragraphs. Who, for example, would imagine that the following sen-— free-floating alge? “In the case of initial benthic organism, the first inception of such a continuous deposit [he is talking of cell-walls] pre-_ pares the way for the general formula adopted — in describing the events in the life of an algal — : FEBRUARY 5, 1920] q 4 { 7 t ; 1 : NATURE 595 zooid. : In such wise the autotrophic zooid of highly differentiated anisokont habit may be visualised as passing on to the initiation of the series of the great marine group of the Phzo- phycee.” Strange that an old Oxford teacher should have employed for his exposition a medium ‘complex beyond the possibilities of human computation.” Yet if the reader can summon up courage to face the repellent language of this tract he will find suggestions of extraordinary interest. The superiority of the botanist over the zoologist is emphasised; even ‘‘a tree is in many respects | LETTERS TO THE EDITOR. (The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manuscripts intended for this or any other part of Nature. No notice is taken of anonymous communications.] The Nature of the Katmai Volcanic Gases and Encrustations. Tue fumarole activity following and continuing after the great Katmai eruption of June, 1912, has provided south-western Alaska with the first among the natural wonders of the world. The volcanic gases - Photo) (J. W. Shipley. Photo) (J. W. Shipley. Fic. 1.—Fractured sections of the Great Mud Flow. Note the conglomerate nature of the fragments and the irregular cleavage planes. Sometimes, however, the cleavage is quite regular, as shown in Fig. 2. more entitled to respectful admiration than a man,” unless, we presume, he be a botanist. Human Personality and its Survival of Bodily Death. By Frederic W. H. Myers. Edited and abridged by S. B. and L. H. M. Pp. xiii+ 307. (London: Longmans, Green, and Co., 1919.) Price 6s. 6d. net. THE original two-volume work, published in 1903, is abridged by condensing the text and omitting the greater part of the appendices. The illustra- tive cases which are published form part of the text, and are nearly always quoted in full. NO. 2623, VOL. 104] force their way to the surface over an area of more than fifty square miles. This area is covered with volcanic ash and pumice, largely distributed by an enormous flow of mud following the explosion of the Novarupta volcano, but preceding the outburst of Katmai ten miles to the eastward. The relatively coarse ash and pumice from Novarupta were not ejected to any considerable distance, but, falling locally, quickly melted the snow on the mountains, and, with the rainfall accompanying the eruption, slid down into the adjacent valleys, forming a viscous mass which poured down the Bering Sea slope of the peninsular axis for a distance of more than fifteen miles, As the mud drained away, unlike the more fluid water, 596 NATURE | FEBRUARY 5, 1920 it. left a very large residue adhering to the valley floor. Subjected to heat from below, the mud dried, caked, Photo) “ (J. W. Shipley. FG. 2,—Cross-section of horizontal tunnel about fifteen feet below the surface of the mud-flow. Note the cleavage planes of the mud above the vent. One hundred feet from this is another horizontal tunnel seventy-five feet below the surface, and large enough to drive a team and wagon through. These have most probably been formed by the solvent action of superheated steam and hydrofluoric acid. and was eventually baked. The my lot to examine these gases and the encrustations deposited around the fumaroles. The gases contain some of the strongest dis- integrating agents known. Hydrofluoric acid and hydrochloric acid, together with superheated steam, proved to be the most common constituents of the outpouring gases, frequently issuing at a temperature above 400° C. Many fumaroles were so impregnated . with these acids that it was impossible to breathe the vapours. The surface of the mud-flow surrounding some of the more acid vents was covered with ferrous chloride and impregnated with free hydrochloric acid. | The presence of hydrofluoric acid in the emanations was accompanied by a deposit of amorphous silica around the vents, almost completely closing the orifices and forcing the gases to issue through cracks in the hot, baked silica. These deposits, sometimes 98 per cent. of pure silica and altogether anhydrous, formed dykes several feet high around the hotter vents. This association of hydrofluoric acid and silica is not accidental. Hydrofluoric acid decomposes silicates, setting free the silicon as gaseous silicon tetrafluoride, and this in turn is decomposed in the presence of water, forming SiO, and free acid. The majority of the samples of encrustants brought back gave a quali- tative test for fluorine, while quantitative results ran as high as 7 per cent. Realgar and orpiment were found in conjunction with deposits of sulphur. Hzematite in *the form of “Venetian red’’ and small crystals of pyrites em- bedded in a matrix largely silica were common secondary reaction products of the -voleanie gases. Hydrogen sulphide was almost ubiquitous. Hygroscopic iron and aluminium salts formed in the throats of vents protected from the weather and at a temperature above 100° C. Unfortunately, these were highly deliquescent, and lost their crystalline form on exposure to the air. The throats of several vents near Novarupta were lined with quantities of ammonium chloride crystals, almost 99 per cent. pure. One of the most interesting deposits was a tarry substance found in the proximity of the ammonium chloride fumaroles, which proved on analysis to contain hydrocarbons of an asphaltic character. Many of the fumaroles contained ammonium com- contracting, hardening mass split and cracked according to the strains and stresses set up by the irregulari- ties of the valley floor beneath. The Katmai volcanic ash lies conform- ably on top of this mud-flow. Ap- parently the order of the sixty-hour eruption of June, 1912, was:- (1) Novarupta explosion, followed by the great flow of mud; (2) Kat- mai eruption; and (3) the up- thrusting of the lava plug of Novarupta. No ash covers this plug. It was the last major event to happen. The mud-flow occupies the floor of the Valley of Ten Thousand ‘Smokes described in this journal by Dr. Griggs (‘The Eruption of Katmai,”” Nature, August 22, 1918, vol. ci., p. 497). The volcanic gases force their way upward through this superincumbent detrital material, using the existing cracks and fissures, and dissolving out new channels where openings were not already available. As chemist of the 1917 Katmai Expedition, it fell to NO, 2623, VOL. 104] Photo) Trident Volcano. Fic. 3.—The surface of the mud is very deeply eroded by watercourses, and these aref requently hard to distinguish from the fissures. These gullies are in a very active area on the northern slope of J. W. Shipley, | pounds in the Leet ases, strikingly indicated by | the growth of alge. erever blue-green algae were : 1 4 ; FEBRUARY 5, 1920] NATURE 597 observed growing, there the issuing gases or en- crustants contained ammonia; while, conversely, an active area not supporting alge proved to have no trace of ammonia in its emanations or encrustants. In connection with the presence of hydrofluoric acid, the deposits of sulphates, such as alum, are very significant. Potassium alum, appearing as lichen-like growths after every rainfall, covered the surface of the ash over many of the areas of activity. Sulphuric acid is a strong disintegrating agent, and its presence in the emanations = a key to the Yormation of hydrofluoric and hydrochloric acids, for sulphuric acid acting on fluorides and chlorides sets free the more volatile halogen acids. The volcanic ash and pumice which constitute the mud-flow have been highly altered by the passage of the volcanic gases. Analysis shows that in the vicinity of the vents the ash has lost a portion of its silica content, while the iron, calcium, and magnesium have been relatively concentrated. Sometimes the ash and pumice are completely disintegrated. Superheated steam containing halogen acids is a disintegrating agent that even rhyolite cannot withstand. The Photo\ Fic. 4.—A typical volcanic vent. along the horizontal tunnel. d of silica, sulphur, fluorides, and compounds of iron. presence of so many large vents, tunnels, and channels in the mud-flow may well be attributed to the action of the volcanic gases. The nature of the emanations, and the continuous evolution of heat and gases for seven years, with little indication of any diminution in volume, indicate direct magmatic origin for the phenomena of this valley. The extrusion of semi-fluid lava from Nova- rupta and in the bottom of the Katmai crater may signify a similar approach of the magma to the sur- face in the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes. , J. W. SuHIPtey. Chemical Department, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg. The Control of Scientific and Industrial Research. ANNOUNCEMENT is made in. Nature of January 209 of the appointment of Mr. R. L. Frink to be director of research of the Glass Research Association, which has recently been formed as one of the Industrial Research Associations of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research. The appointment raises a question which has intimate relations with scientific NO. 2623, VOL. 104] Note the thickness of the encrustants covering the tunnel. interests and progress, and it should not be permitted to pass without protest. It has always been urged in the columns of NaTURE, and accepted as a cardinal principle by men of science generally, that scientific research can only be rightly understood and sympathetically promoted by a director who has himself taken part in it. The essential qualification, therefore, of a director of re- search of each of the industrial research associations should be proved capacity for research; for without such aptitude the work undertaken is bound to be narrow, and the scientific aspects upon which progress ultimately depends to be neglected. This point of view, however, seems to have received secondary considera- tion only in the recent appointment; for what the secretary of the Glass Research Association says as to the qualifications of the director of research is: ‘Mr. Frink has a-lifelong experience of the American glass trade and glass research, is well known to the foremost English glass manufacturers, and his ap- pointment is welcomed by the British glass industry.’ It is scarcely too much to say that this appoint- | ment has been received with intense astonishment by ’ all scientific men connected with the glass industry, and by many glass manufacturers as well. In the glass industry, more, perhaps, than in any other, it was naturally expected that a director. of research would be a man of distinguished eminence whose work was of proved scientific value; yet practically no such evi- dence is forthcoming in the case of Mr. Frink. A scientific friend in America, who is recognised as one of the first authorities upon scientific matters connected with glass, tells me that Mr. Frink is not known as a re- search man or in research circles, but that he is highly spoken of by practical glass-makers ‘“‘as a man of long experience in the window- glass trade who is accustomed to be called in as ‘first aid’ for furnace troubles, colour troubles, and like technical difficulties. This trade he has pursued for some years with success, and his reputation in this domain is among the best. He main- tains a so-called laboratory and has a number of technical assistants, and, I fancy, has gathered together a considerable amount of rough-and-ready wisdom which has found extensive application in an industry where research laboratories have hardly been thought of until recently.’ It seems quite possible that the Glass Research Association has secured the services of a very able, practical man, but in making the appointment the council of the association has negatived the policy elaborated with such care in the article published in Nature of November 13 last: ‘‘The ideal director for. this association is not an individual research worker whose glorv is to work in splendid isolation, but is he who will bring expert knowledge of the methods of scientific research to bear upon these complex problems, who possesses such personality as to attract promising young research workers to his side . . . and to co-ordinate the efforts being made through the various laboratories, institutions, and works to which specific research and experimental work will be allotted.” (Italics are mine.) If the writer of that article, the temporary secre- (J. W. Shipley. The gases were escaping from another hole some distance away They tary of the association, had been a scientific man, he 598 NATURE . [FEBRUARY 5, 1920 ya: would have realised that our greatest investigators rarely ‘‘work in splendid isolation,”’ but that only a man who has proved his capacity as an investigator can lead and co-ordinate research. It is certain that British scientific men will not submit to control and direction from the practical man; thus a_ definite breach is opened between science and an important branch of industry. It has not been sufficiently clearly realised that scientific and industrial research is passing out of the control of the recognised scientific and technical socie- _ ties and institutions and of the universities into the hands of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, and, in accordance with Government policy, the secretary of this Department is an administrator without practical knowledge of science, industry, or research. The associations which are formed under the zgis of the Department are governed by councils upon which organised science is unrepresented, but to which the Department may nominate scientific men. To the council of the Glass Research Associa- tion the Department has nominated two scientific representatives, one of whom is in India. On the executive committee science is not represented; and when this appointment was discussed between that body and the secretary of the Department, fhe scientific aspects of the case can have received no consideration. As the Department controls funds for research which are vastly greater than those at the disposal of the Royal Society and all the other societies and universities put together, the outlook for science is a poor one unless scientific men are prepared to take united action with the view of securing a proper share in the control of research. Morris W. TRaveERs. The Predicted Shift of the Fraunhofer Lines. May I submit the following two propositions for the consideration of relativists? (1) An occurrence takes place at a point S. Light- signals are dispatched from S at the beginning of the occurrence to two observers A and A’, and signals are again dispatched at the conclusion of the occurrence. By means of these A and A’ measure the time of the occurrence to be dt and dt’ respectively. Then V 81.-dt=¥ g',.dt, where g,, and g’,, are the values of Einstein’s 44 potential at A and A’. (2) An occurrence takes place at S, and is measured by an observer there to take the time dt. Another occurrence takes place at S’, and is measured by an observer there to take time dt’. By means of light- signals dispatched from S and S' at the beginning and conclusion of each occurrence, an observer A measures the times of each occurrence to be equal. Then V Zu.dt=¥v g',,.dt’, where g,, and £4, are the values of Einstein’s 44 potential at S and S’. Prop. (1) seems to be a correct inference from Einstein’s theory, and prop. (2) is deduced by applying (1) to the occurrence at S as measured by S and A, and then to the occurrence at S’ as measured by S’ and A. If these propositions are sound, how does the Einstein theory predict the displacement of the solar lines? For it seems to me that the criterion for “similarity”? of two radiating mechanisms in different parts of a gravitational field is that the invariant space-time elements corresponding to. one oscillation of each should be equal. For two NO. 2623, VOL. 104] See mechanisms at rest in the field this condition reduces to V g4.dt=V gd. James Rice. University of Liverpool. si - E1NstEIN’s prediction of a shift of the Fraunhofer lines to the red can be analysed into two assertions:— (1) That the period of vibration of an atom at rest — on the sun differs from that of a similar terrestrial atom; and (2) that this difference is preserved un- changed by the light-waves travelling from the solar atom to the earth, so that it is revealed by a com- | parison made in a terrestrial laboratory. It is the second assertion that is challenged by Mr. Rice; and, so far as I] can make out, the same objection was at the root of the criticisms formerly made by Sir Joseph _ Larmor. Since criticism centres entirely roune the ; second assertion, I will deal with it solely. I may state, however, that although I regard the first asser-_ tion as highly probable, I do not regard it as proved with complete rigour; and had the criticism been directed against this, I should have been much less’ willing to take sides in the controversy. The interval ds between two events is a quantity having an absolute significance independent of co- ordinate systems; and when the two events take place at the same place, ds=¥7 g,,.dt. Mr. Rice’s first pro- position states that if we have two light-pulses travel- ling from the sun to the earth, the interval ds between their passages through any point is the same all the way along the track. The statement has a certain ap- pearance of plausibility, but I cannot see definite argument in favour of it. Space-time round the sun is non-Euclidean; the geodesics have, accordingly, defined but rather complicated tracks, and there need be no constancy of interval between points on 2 bouring geodesics. The rule deduced from Einstein’s theory for comparing the passage of two light-pulses at the points A and A’ respectively is not ds=ds’, but dt=dt', provided the co-ordinates used are such that the velocity of light does not change with t. 3) If we found that the velocity of light changed secularly, we should at once condemn our time- reckoning as non-uniform; accordingly, the proviso is satisfied in practice. With the co-ordinates most com- monly adopted the velocity of light is 1-2m/r, which depends on the position 7, but not on the time ft. if t, and t, are the times of the two pulses at 7, t’,, t’, the times at r’, since the mean velocity of the first pulse (t’,—t,)/(r'—r) has to be the same as the mean — velocity (t’,—t.)/(r’—r) of the second pulse, over the — same course but at a later time, it follows at once — that t’,—t’, is equal to t,—t,, which proves the state- ment made. The time between the two light : is preserved unchanged on the journey from the sun — to the earth. ss : In his letter (NaTuRE, January 22, p. 530) Sir Joseph Larmor describes this condition, that the velocity of light (or the formula for ds) shall not contain the - time explicitly, as ‘‘a reasonable assumption.” I cannot see that any assumption is involved; nor can I agree that it is of ‘‘an absolute type.”? The well- — known expression be] ds*= —(1—2m/r)-*dr*—17d0?— 1’ sin? 6dg?+ (1-am/[n)dh os is, in the first place, simply a particular integral of — Einstein’s differential law of gravitation. It can be shown that it is an appropriate solution for the case of © an isolated particle. But there is a fourfold infinity of other solutions applicable to the same case; so there can be nothing absolute about this solution, L about the co-ordinates r, 6, ¢, t which it defines. It — is, in fact, often more convenient to write r=r’+m, — a FEBRUARY 5, 1920] ‘NATURE 599 and use r instead of r as our radial co-ordinate. Whether we use (A) or any other expression, we have to find out from the expression itself the meaning of the co-ordinates introduced. In the limiting case m=o0, the above expression agrees with the formula for polar co-ordinates and time in a Euclidean world; hence it is usual to call r the distance from the sun and ¢ the time. But there can be no exact identification of variables in a non-Euclidean world with quantities the definition of which presupposes a Euclidean world; and the only exact definition of ry and ¢ is that they are mathematical intermediary quantities which satisfy equation (A). The variable t is in no sense an absolute time; it is specifically associated with the sun, which in equation (A) is regarded as thé only mass in the universe worth considering. Without troubling about the approximate iden- tification of ¢ with our common notion of time, our results may be stated in the following form :—At a point in the laboratory (r=const.), dt, for a light vibration from a solar atom differs from dt, for a terrestrial atom. It follows from the formula (A) that ds, and ds, will differ in the same ratio, since Wwe are now concerned only with the relation of dt and ds on the earth. The intermediary quantity t is thus eliminated; and the difference in the light received from solar and terrestrial sources is an abso- lute one, which it is hoped the spectroscope will detect. A. S. Eppincton, The Straight Path. In my book, *A Theory of Time and Space,” I directed attention to the fact that in the simple four- dimensional time-space theory there are three types of plane in addition to three types of line. On p. 360 I stated the following results : “If A, B, C be the corners of a general triangle all whose sides are segments of one kind, then: ‘*(1) If the triangle lies in a separation plane, the sum of the lengths of any two sides is greater than that of the third side. ‘“(2) If the triangle lies in an optical plane, the sum of the lengths of a certain two sides is equal to that of the third side. (3) If the triangle lies in an acceleration plane, the sum of the lengths of a certain two sides is less than that of the third side.’ These results were published in 1914, and, in spite of the fact that they were printed in italics, so that he who runs might read (that is to say, provided anyone should run on the occasion of reading my book): yet I still find writers continually making statements to the effect that the straight line in this geometry is the shortest distance between its extremities. As a matter of fact, what I call a “ separation line”? lies in all three types of plane, and is, con- sequently, neither a minimum nor a maximum, while an “inertia line’? can only lie in acceleration planes, and can easily be seen to be a maximum in the mathe- matical sense. Further, a triangle cannot have all its sides formed of segments of ‘optical lines.’? I have long contended that the usual method of approach to what is generally called the ‘theory of relativity ’’ is quite inadequate, and this is a further illustration of my contention. Not only are our ordinary ideas as to space and time disturbed, but also our ideas of simultaneous- ness and our notions of “straight lines’? in the resulting four-dimensional geometry. From the midst of this wreckage a logical theory has to be constructed, and the difficulty is to find any firm basis at all. In the course of my own work T succeeded in finding NO. 2623, VOL. 104] what appears to be such a basis in the relations of before and after. On this basis I found it possible to construct a theory of time and space (apart from gravitation) which led to the same equations as those of Einstein, but of such a nature as to be independent of the particular observer, and therefore truly physical and devoid of the subjectivity which seems to cling to Einstein’s theory. These relations are, in fact, what might be described as physical invariants, and, with the help of certain postulates concerning them, they serve as a basis for a system of geometry. If this investigation had been published in the German language it would doubtless have attracted more attention on the part of British physicists, who might then have added the ideas of before and after to their store of fundamental physical concepts. Instead of this, however, I have seen no mention of them at all in recent discussions on the so-called rela- tivitv theory. It is true, of course, that no analysis of Einstein’s recent work has as yet been made in terms of the relations of before and after, but seeing that these have proved a sufficient basis for the simple theory corresponding to Euclidean space, and that such relations do actually hold in our experience, it does not seem unreasonable to suppose that with modified postulates they might serve as a basis for the more. general theory. With regard, however, to my statement that the straight line in the simple theory is not the shortest distance between its extremities, I can imagine some people casting doubts upon my veracity. For the benefit of those who do not believe me, I venture to give some simple arithmetical examples. Taking v as unity, the length s of the segment of a separation line between elements the co-ordinates cf which are (x,, Vo, 2, t,) and (x,, ¥,, 2,, t,) is given by the equation : $= (x, —%)? +174.) + (2, -2.)' 8, —t)*- Let A, B, C,, C,, C, be elements the co-ordinates of which are as follows: SO PS Bo S A 0000 Bote @230 26 Binge SEN se Scars Rak ee ee C, 5 0°04 On substituting these values we get: AB=10 AC, = €,B=13 AC,= cae C.B= 5 AC, = 3 Cc, = 3 Thus we have: ‘ AC, +C,B>AB AC,+C,B=AB AC, +C,BDr. baxel Anxiety States. FRIDAY, Fesrvary 13. ef Rovyat ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY, a! x cee Paysicat Society, at 5.—Prof. C. H. Lees: Presidential Addre Arthur Schuster : Atmospheric Refraction during Total Solar i To be followed by the Annual General Meeting. -, Pz. Rovat CoLtrGe or SurGEons, at 5.—W. G. Spencer: The Historical Baseee. between Experiments on Animals and the Development af urgery. 5 MALACoLoGIcAL Society oF Lonpon (at the Linnean Wa ate: Royat_InstirdTion of GREAT BRITAIN, at 9.—Prof. W. The Volume of the Blood and its Significance. SATURDAY, FEBRUARY 14. - Rovat Institution oF Great Britain, at 3.—Sir Fr, > . The Astronomical Evidence bearing on Einstein’s Theory of III. Deflection of Light in the Sun's Gravitational Field. CONTENTS. The Need for Aircraft Research. ........ Physiology of Muscular Exercise .. . pee iy: Theories of Sound Perception. Prd: G. M. Spud Kashmir and Indian Silks ... eee | A Great Industrialist . Farming in the New Era. By I Dr. E. Ss Russel, F.R.S. bite it Our Bookshelf . Pretest se Letters to the Editor:— The Nature of the Katmai Yolen Gua Encrustations. (JIlustrated.) —J. W. u The Control of Scientific and Indastrial Remo Dr. Morris W. Travers, F.R.S.. . The Predicted Shift of the Fraunhofer ‘Lines.- James Rice; Prof, A. S. Eddington, F.R.S. The Straight Path.—Dr, A. A. Robb... ee i Entente Scientific Literature in Central Europe during: the War.—Prof. Bohuslav Brauner . . Percussion Figures in Isotropic Solids. —W. ie , Lewis Abbott... ies i Change of Colour in Plumage of Captive «Sune birds” or ‘* Honey-suckers.”— Harol, Mathematics in the United States. By G. B -M. ; Shackleton’s Last Antarctic Expedition ‘(Ullas- trated.) By W.S.B. . : Telephoning by Light. (Illustrated.) By Prof. A. @,, Rankine fe Australian Rainfall and Wheat Yield. by W. ‘Ww. Bl a Notes .. oa Our Astronomical Column :— } : Comets . . a (sms The Motion of the ‘Moon . ORT Stars of High Velocity . . ; : The St. Louis Meeting of the American 5 Ageia + 2 tion . Pioneers in the Science of the Weather. By Sir Napier Shaw, F.R.S. . . The Reduction of Wave Action in Harbours. Dr. Brysson Cunningham . St. Andrews Institute for Clinical Research. By Prof, P. T. Herring . Peet etr se!) 2 is Fishery Investigations in South Africa . . ag University and Educational perpen cte: aoa Societies and Academies .... Books Received ,. ....-. hy le Diary.of Societies; <6 0065) AN a eee os ae RS Editorial and Publishing Offices: MACMILLAN AND CO., L1tp., es ST. MARTIN’S STREET, LONDON, Weta if Advertisements and business letters to be addressed to the Publishers. Editorial] Communications to the Editor. Telegraphic Address: Puusis, LONDON, Telephone Number: GERRARD 8835.’ NATURE 621 “THURSDAY, FEBRUARY ‘12, 1920. ASSET AND OBLIGATION. E referred in our issue of January 29 to an appeal made by University College, London, for r1o0,oool. for the extension of its engineering school. The work done there since its foundation in 1828 has been of such outstand- ing value that it should stimulate a ready response in the form of generous subscriptions to the “amount required for the desired extension. The need is now very urgent, as the college, like others, has been compelled to refuse a large numtber of applications for admission by well- qualified candidates owing to lack of accommoda- tion in the lecture rooms, drawing offices, and laboratories. University College was the first in London to establish a school of engineering, soon after its ' foundation in 1826, and it has maintained its courses of study in this branch of applied science ever since as a potent and living force. It has always had the advantage of the guidance of distinguished engineers for its teaching, ' and they have greatly assisted the advance- thent of engineering by their inventions and con- tributions to applied science, as well as by their distinction in practical engineering affairs. Among these in its early days were three Fellows of the ' Royal Society—Eaton Hodgkinson, a_ great - authority-on the strength and testing of materials, _ notably in connection with columns, and C. B. _Vignoles, also widely known on questions relating - to railways, while William Pole exercised a great influence on contemporary engineering as secre- tary of the Institution of Civil Engineers. Other distinguished men of a somewhat later period are George Fuller, the inventor of a well-known form of slide-rule, and the eminent electrician, Fleem- ing-Jenkin, who for a short period was professor of civil engineering. The advent of Prof. A. B. W. Kennedy (now emeritus professor) in 1874 marked a new epoch in its influence on contemporary thought in engineering science, since it was mainly due to his efforts that engineering laboratory training on a practical scale was initiated, and this has now become universal. Besides this notable achieve- ment, Prof. Kennedy’s activities during his fourteen years as professor there were remarkable for their extent and variety; he was famed alike for his work as an original investigator in such }/ matters as riveted joints, marine engines, boilers, NO. 2624, VOL. 104] and kinematical science, and as an authority on a wide range of civil engineering practice, and still later as one of the foremost electrical engineers of his time. The keynote to his success as a teacher was mainly derived from his clear exposition of principles and their application in well-devised ex- periments in the laboratory. The effect of his teaching may be traced in the successful careers of his many students, of whom perhaps the best known are Sir Ernest Moir, Bart., a leading authority on harbours and tunnels, and Sir Alex- ander Gibb, whose firm is responsible for the construction of H.M. -Dockyard at Rosyth. Municipal engineering, under the fostering care of the late Prof. Osbert Chadwick, has now become an important department. In the field of electrical - science Dr. J. A. Fleming, the present professor of electrical engineering, has, for more than thirty years, had a far-reaching influence, not only by his great gifts as a teacher, but also as an investigator of rare capacity, particularly on alter- nating currents and on wireless telegraphy and telephony. Especially important are the services which Dr. Fleming has rendered to telephony by the invention of the thermionic valve, but these are too well known to need recapitulation to scientific readers. The engineering school at University College is an element, and an important one, in the Uni- versity of London, the largest university of the Empire, in the richest city, and probably the least well off when its size is taken into consideration. In University College alone there are more than 2200 students, without taking into account the medical students in University College Hospital. There will be many more if its buildings can be enlarged, as they must be if the University is to do its proper work. During the war the staff and buildings of the collere, like those of similar institutions, were utilised to their fullest extent in scientific work of the highest importance to the effective prosecution of the conflict, and now that it has come to a suc- cessful conclusion the men who guide public opinion are unanimous in declaring that one of the most important duties is to provide our universities with adequate means for the scientific training of our most precious asset, “brains,” for the future guiding and directing of one of our greatest indus-. tries. Civic pride in the University will, we hope and believe, be sufficient to ensure that the engin- eering students of University College do not lack the modest range of buildings and equipment required to give them their chance in_ life, C¢ 622 NATURE [FEBRUARY I2, 1920 and for which its engineering committee now con- fidently appeals to the citizens of London to provide. A very good start has been made by a contribu- tion of 10,0001. from Lord Cowdray, with a promise of another 10,0001, when 70,000l. has been reached. The members of the family of the late Mr. Charles Hawksley have contributed 3000l. towards the extension of the hydraulic laboratory. Other gifts bring the total up to about 30,000l., apart from Lord Cowdray’s contingent promise. London is now offered an excellent opportunity of showing its appreciation of the asset it possesses in the engineering department of the college, and of discharging its obligations to an essential factor of modern progress. We look to men of means in the City and county of London to respond readily and generously to the appeal. Donations should be sent to H.R.H. Prince Arthur of Con- naught, who is president of the Equipment and Endowment Fund, at his residence, 42 Upper Grosvenor Street, W.1. INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY. (1) Industrial Gases. By Dr. Harold Cecil Green- wood. (Industrial Chemistry.) Pp. xvii+ 371. (London: Bailliére, Tindall, and Cox, 1920.) Price 12s. 6d. net. (2) Lhe Condensed Chemical Dictionary: A Refer- ence Volume for all requiring Quick Access to a Large Amount of Essential Data regarding Chemicals and other Substances used in Manufac- turing and Laboratory Work. Compiled and edited by the editorial staff of the Chemical En- gineering Catalog. Pp. 525. (New York: The Chemical Catalog Co., Inc., 1919.) Price 5 dollars. : (1) MELANCHOLY interest attaches to this book, which of itself would disarm any adverse criticism, even if such were called for. Its author, a comparatively young man, died on the eve of its publication. After a brilliant career at the University of Manchester, of which he was a Beyer Fellow, and where he graduated as a Doctor of Science, Dr. Greenwood worked as an 1851 Exhibition scholar for some years under Prof. Haber at Karlsruhe on the synthetic production of ammonia. During the war he became connected with the research laboratory of the Ministry of Munitions, and was engaged in the inquiry initiated by the Munitions Inventions Department on the industrial manufacture of synthetic nitrogen pro- ducts. His services were recognised by the O.B.E. awarded to him in 1919. In a foreword to the book, Dr. J. A. Harker, under whom the author served, pays a graceful tribute to his memory. NO. 2624, VOL. 104] Dr. Greenwood’s published work and experience — rendered him exceptionally well qualified to under- take the preparation of the book under review. — We can unreservedly commend it. It is a well- written, scholarly production, judiciously put — together with a conscientious determination to — make it an accurate presentation of contemporary — knowledge. As the author points out in his pre-— face, its title implies a more comprehensive treatise than it actually is; many industrial — gases, such as chlorine, hydrochloric acid, am- — monia, acetylene, etc., find no place in it, as these — are treated in other books in the same series. confines himself to the gases of the atmosphere, — hydrogen, the oxides of carbon, sulphur dioxide, 4 nitrous oxide, and certain substances which have been used in gas-warfare, and he devotes a special section to fuel gases, on account, as he states, — of the intimate connection of their methods of — production with the general question of industrial gases. shies Fal The main subject of the book is introduced in a et chapter on the more important fundamental physi- — cal and physico-chemical principles forming the — basis of technical gas reactions, although no — attempt is made to give a detailed theoretical treat- _ ment of the various generalisations to which refer- _ j . x ence is necessarily made. In this chapter the gases — in general are treated comprehensively, and the — numerical values of their various constants are — grouped together in a series of tables. This method, no doubt, has certain advantages, as — it enables rapid comparison to be made_between individual gases, but when we come to their detailed study it involves a good deal of turning — backwards and forwards. It would have added little to the size of the book, and would certainly have increased the convenience of handling it, if the - - various constants and factors had been repeated — in the special accounts of the several gases. The © author would seem to have been primarily concerned with the general principles of gas technology and their elucidation rather than with the minute treat- As might be expected — from his experience, which had been latterly almost — ment of individual gases. I P wholly directed to problems arising out of the war, 2 such questions as the manufacture of hydrogen for 3 aeronautical purposes and for the synthetic pro-— duction of ammonia naturally receive special 4 attention. without doubt among the most important matters in modern chemical technology. The entire chap- — ter is worthy of the serious study of all engaged © in the technical production of gases and in the — Naturally also, he devotes much con- sideration to the question of gaseous equilibria and — to that of heterogeneous catalytic gas reactions, FEBRUARY 12, 1920] NATURE > 623 working of processes depending upon their reac- tions. The superintendence of such processes is frequently left wholly to the engineer, who is often imperfectly acquainted with the physico-chemical principles on which they are based. Modern methods involving thermodynamical and thermo- chemical principles are becoming of so complex a character that their satisfactory working can be assured only when they are under the joint control and co-operation of both chemists and engineers. A chemist, like the present writer, whose memory goes back some fifty years, will read this book with a special interest, and, if his scientific imagination is not dulled with age, he will experience a grate- ful sense of satisfaction that he has lived to see the extraordinary development it records. The whole story, indeed, reads like a romance; even Jules Verne in his wildest flights never imagined anything so astonishing as is revealed in this sober, matter-of-fact account which Dr. Greenwood has put together. Compare, for instance, the non- metallic section of an early or even of a late edition of Miller’s ‘Inorganic Chemistry ’’—an excellent book in its day—with the present volume. One thus acquires an impression almost startling in its intensity of the changes which the last half-century has witnessed, even in matters of which the scien- tific history seems completed. The liquefaction of the so-called permanent gases; the industrial appli- cation of the Joule-Thomson effect; the manufac- | ture of liquid air, its commercial application, and the fractional separation of its constituents; the discovery of argon and its allies—no longer the “tramps ” of the chemical elements “‘ who never did an honest day’s work in their lives,” but now | turned to useful account—the isolation of terres- trial helium, its manufacture, and its use in aero- nautics; the direct transformation of the “inert” nitrogen into products which serve to increase the food of man, and thus stave off the catastrophe which the late Sir William Crookes foreshadowed ; the application of hydrogen in the production of fats: all this and more is set forth with the preci- sion, impartiality, and unimpassioned detail of the man of science—“the matter of fact being barely stated without any prefaces, apologies, or rhetorical flourishes,’’ to quote the words of the old statute of the Royal Society, One closes this book with profound regret that its author’s untimely death should have ended a career so full of promise. (2) “The Condensed Chemical Dictionary,’’ published by the Chemical Catalog Co., of New York, is a characteristic American produc- tion. To parody Thackeray’s well-known phrase, it is written—or, rather, compiled—by hustlers for NO. 2624, VOL. 104} hustlers. It is one of those books which “ Elia ” would have stigmatised as ‘‘no book.” It has no valid claim to be regarded as a contribution to chemical technology. It is apparently intended for the office-desk of the wholesale distributor or for- warding agent of chemical products who may wish to know something—but not too much—of. the nature of the substances with which he deals; how they are made; what are their “grades ’’ and uses; how they should be packed; what is their “fire hazard’’; and what regulations the shipping and railroad companies impose on their transit. It makes ample allowance for the ignorance of clients, and does everything possible to facilitate business. Should further information be needed it is suggested that reference should be made to other works of a similar character published by the “Catalog Company.”’ The plan of the Dictionary may best be illus- trated by an example :— “ ACETAMIDE * (acetic acid amine), CHz,CON Hg. Color and properties : Colorless crystals ; mousy odor. Constants: Specific gravity, 1'139; melting- point, 82° C.; boiling-point, 223° C. Soluble in water and alcohol. Derivation: By the interaction of ethyl acetate and ammonium hydroxide. Method of purification: Crystallisation. Grades: Technical. Containers : Wooden barrels. Uses: Organic synthesis. Fire hazard: None. Railroad shipping regulations: None.’’ The asterisk signifies that the substance is made in America. All the entries, together occupying more than 500 pages of a large octavo volume, are arranged in this manner. The cast-iron uniformity of the plan imposed upon the compilers occasionally gets them into trouble. Thus in the case of fluorine, which the Dictionary informs us is manufactured in the States for organic synthesis, no practical. container has been devised, as all ordinary sub- stances are attacked by it. Nevertheless, a green label is directed to be attached to the vessel which holds it should it be sent by rail. Standard works have been consulted in the com- pilation, and care appears to have been used in the selection of recent and accurate numerical data. A number of useful tables are given in an appendix, together with a list of definitions of physical and other units in common use, and the whole concludes with a statement of the regula- tions governing the transportation of dangerous articles, other than explosives, by freight and express. 624 NATURE [Fepruary 12, 1920 THE ORIGIN OF PLANT LIFE ON LAND. Thalassiophyta and the Subaerial Transmigration, By A. H. Church. (Botanical Memoirs, No. 3.) Pp. 95. (London: Oxford University Press, 1919.) Price 3s. 6d. net. R. CHURCH has produced a very serious contribution to the discussion of the sources of plant life on land. No one interested in this question can neglect his work. The statement is attributed to Weismann that the birthplace all animal and plant life lies in the sea. Mr. Church circumscribes that thesis in his opening words, ‘‘The beginnings of botany are in the sea’’; and his essay has as its object to demonstrate that the land flora originated, as of the primal land-surfaces rose gradually above the- ocean, from a marine flora already fixed upon its shores. He designates as ‘‘ Thalassiophyta’’ the whole of the salt-water vegetation, and as ‘‘ Xero- phyta ’’ the whole of the land flora. The former ¢ divides again into Plankton and Benthos, point- ing out that Plankton responds to the single factor of water, Benthos to the two factors of water and substratum, while Xerophyton responds to the three factors of water, substratum, and air. His main thesis is that the last was derived from the higher types of Benthos. ‘‘ Processes of conduc- tion and absorption involving roots and tracheides are initiated, and such departures superimposed on a seaweed soma.’’ “The tetraspores of the sea become ‘homosporous,’ air-dried, and wind- borne ”’ (p. 44). Thus the evolution of a land flora was a phase of transition in situ rather than involving a preli- minary landward migration, via fresh water. The successful transmigrant alge of the first land migration combined the best and highest factors of marine equipment, as illustrated in many sur- viving groups. At the outset Mr. Church sepa- rates the problem of this migration from the origin of a cytological cycle, maintaining that the latter was already established before the migration took place. For these conclusions argument is pro- duced rather than fact; indeed, there appears to be no new body of fact in the whole memoir. The author remarks incidentally that homoplasy and convergence have been much neglected. We agree; but may not they explain much of what he interprets as evidence of a direct migration? Two serious omissions appear in the memoir. There is no reference to the important discoveries of Lower Devonian fossils in the Rhynie Chert, though the description of Rhynia was published early in 1917. Kidston and Lang give positive fact as to the structure of one of the earliest known land-plants; and secure fact is worth a_ vast NO. 2624, VoL. 104] amount of surmise and-argument. Nor does Mr. Church refer to the question of transference of the - tetrad-division in the course of descent to a fresh position in the life- cycle, though Svedelius had raised that question in 1916, and adduced facts very pertinent to it. Such facts, and the argu- 7 ments that may be based upon them, might, if _ they had been taken into account, have nate affected Mr. Church’s statements. Notwithstanding such omissions, the memoir is a real contribution to morphological thought. may be that Mr. Church has over-accentuated the directness of the origin of land-plants from marine forms. But he has carefully protected himself by saying that ‘‘no Pheophycean or Floridean passed on to higher autotrophic land-flora ” (p. 42). The cautious philosopher, while sympathising with Mr. Church’s general thesis, would probably prefer to give greater elasticity to it, seeing in the modern marine flora suggestions upon which to base hypotheses ments of conclusion which find their place in Mr. Church’s pages. However that may be, the effect of ‘ Thalassiophyta ”’ which was already swinging that way, more defi- nitely towards marine rather than to fresh-water alge, as a probable source of land vegetation. Though some of Mr. Church’s conclusions may not find wide acceptance, the memoir is the most rather than those blunt state-— will be to direct attention, ; Pee” thoughtful contribution to the question in recent years, and it is full of originality and of interest- : ing though bluff criticisms. ‘FO OLB: NORMAL AND MORBID PSYCHOLOGY. Mind and its Disorders: A Text-book for Students and Practitioners of Medicine, By Dr. W. H. B. Stoddart. Third edition. (Lewis’s Practical ’ Series.) Pp. xx+580. (London: H. K. Lewis and Co., Ltd., 1919.) Price 18s, net. n REVIEW of the ne® edition of this well- known text-book is justified by extensive modifications corresponding to the author’s con: The volume — contains in 572 pages an account of normal and — morbid psychology—including the tracing of all mental processes in psychological terms to their original elements and their correlation with their — version to the doctrines of Freud, neural equivalents—of the clinical forms of all the neuroses and psychoses and their investigation — and treatment, of the diseases to which the insane _ are specially liable, and of the legal diese of insanity. Most modern problems in all these subjects are _ touched upon, and the book provides the sort of — knowledge required by the student and general — practitioner and a starting point from which the ST TREAT Tt eae AeA A a a poe ie FEBRUARY 12, 1920] NATURE 625 serious study of one of these branches might be begun. : Necessarily the accounts given are summary, -and perhaps dogmatism is also necessary, but some of the matter included might give way to at least a brief statement of the other side of the case. The enunciation of the James-Lange theory of emotion at the present day without reference to any opposition except a footnote controverting deductions from Sherrington’s dog is somewhat misleading. A similar lack of proportion in what is intended to be a text-book is noticeable throughout. Undue ptominence is given to observations and theories in which the author is specially interested, but which are by no means universally accepted. Asa single example, three pages are devoted to the enumeration of many specific tendencies and ac- tions as separate instincts, some of which it would be very difficult to bring within any modern defini- tion of instinct known to the present writer, On the other hand, there is no reference to McDou- gall’s grouping of such actions under a limited number of heads as instincts with associated emo- tions. The usefulness of the latter concept is sufficiently widely recognised to deserve mention. Dr. Stoddart, in his adherence to the doctrine of Freud, shows all ‘the devoutness of the convert. He accepts the literal truth of the whole gospel, including such generalisations as that dreams are invariably distorted wish fulfilments, and that neuroses and psychoses are without exception the results of repression of sexual impulses. Surely the battle dreams of the war neuroses have rendered the former statement untenable except by the exercise of the most perverse in- genuity. As to the second, the employment of the usual evasion that Freud and his followers use the term ‘“‘sexual’’ in a much wider sense than is usual renders discussion meaningless. The sexual instinct is not a phenomenal reality, but a concept ; the extent to which it is useful to group observed phenomena of conduct under the term is a question, not of fact, but of opinion. However, in practice Dr. Stoddart, like other extreme exponents, refers all abnormalities of thought and conduct to the crudest anomalies of this instinct in its narrowest sense. The reviewer accepts most of Freud’s descrip- tion of the manner in which thinking is distorted by ‘‘ complexes ’’ in the normal and the neuropath, in dreams and similar states. But he failed to repress a smile on comparing two statements’ in this book, first, that in psycho-analysis suggestion is most scrupulously avoided, and secondly, that with sufferers from anxiety neurosis, terrified by an air raid, the most superficial analysis—presumably NO. 2624, VOL. 104] to elicit the meaning of the terror—revealed the phallic significance in their minds of Zeppelins, aeroplanes, and bombs! It is the ill-concealed satisfaction of the psycho-analyst with this type of association that evokes them. The description of the clinical forms of the neuroses and psychoses is exceilent apart from a few examples of the disproportion and excessive dogmatism referred to. But with the author’s change of views it requires more careful revision to render it consistent. ASPECTS OF MODERN SCIENCE. The Realities of Modern Science: An Introduction for the General Reader. By John Mills. Pp. xi+ 327. (New York: The Macmillan Co.; London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd., 1919.) Price Tos. 6d. net. Modern and Elliot. Pp. vii+2rz. Green, and Co., 1919.) Science Materialism. By Hugh (London: Longmans, Price 7s. 6d. net. (1) HE first of these works is evidently that of an enthusiastic scientific student, rather than teacher, who has found the systems of school and college instruction in physical science prevailing in America unsatisfactory. He desires, commendably enough, to see them replaced by courses based fundamentally upon the modern conceptions which have been arrived at only within the last two or three generations, not only for the few specialist, but also for general, students. This praiseworthy motive is, however, not likely to be much furthered by the book under notice. The author would have done better to write a book for science teachers and to assume throughout a knowledge equal to that obtainable from the despised college courses. As it is, it is difficult to understand for whom exactly the book is in- tended. In the first half the reader: is assumed to be the veriest tyro in science, and there is much gilding of the philosophic pill. The beginnings of knowledge, of machinery, and of experimentation, weights and measures, the molecular theory, the “realities of science,’’ electrons, the nucleus and energy are discussed rather desultorily. Then follow three chapters on the most obvious and ele- mentary algebra, to which the non-mathematical reader is advised to give only cursory and mech- anical reading in order to reach the second part of the book. Then the author lets himself go. The reader is absolutely forgotten, or at least he must have had, in an interim, the advantage of several years of serious study of science sufficient to enable him to understand, if not to profit by, the particular parts of the last half-century’s advances in physics, 626 NATURE [ FEBRUARY 12, 1920 physical chemistry, and chemistry which the author reconstructs in terms of the present day. The kinetic theory of gases, the conduction of elec- tricity through gases, liquids, and solids, the pheno- mena of electromagnetism, the van der Waals equation, solutions, electrolytic dissociation, chemi- cal equilibria and their displacement, le Chatelier’s theorem, Brownian movement, electronic and molecular magnitudes, with something about X-rays and radio-active substances, are the subjects which the tyro, who may not be able to compre- hend an algebraic relation, is asked to assimilate in the remaining 150 pages. The aid of the merely verbal acquaintance he has made with the few ulti- mate conceptions of physics is not likely to fit him for the task. For these conceptions—matter, energy, radiation, the electron, the nucleus, the quantum, and so on—are the end-products of scien- tific philosophy, not the starting points, and cannot replace, at all events yet, the body of experimental and actual scientific knowledge out of which they have grown. It is true that they may be the “ reali- ties of modern science,’’ but a universe recon- structed out of them ab initio without other guide would bear as little resemblance to reality as that created by the end-products of mythological and religious philosophy. (2) This work is of a totally different character, and though it represents the same desire to syn- thesise and bring within the comprehension of the individual a vast range—in fact, in this case, the whole—of knowledge by means of a few general- ised conceptions, it is written and intended ‘for the serious student and mature thinker. The author upholds the extremest doctrines of materialistic philosophy. To him there is no real distinction between an engine and an engine-driver. In such philosophical discussions it is well to remember the mathematical adage that what is got out in the proof is no more and no less than what was put in at the enunciation. The first two chapters, on the (inanimate) universe and on matter and energy, give an excellent account of scientific materialism, as now universally accepted for the inanimate world. The rest of the book, on life and conscious- ness, on the fallacy of vitalism, and on materialism and idealism, seeks to extend this doctrine of the inanimate universe to the animate, with results as outrageous to common sense surely as any philo- sophical system ever devised. The main, if not the only, issue of scientific in- terest, the difference between a complex organic compound and a living organism, or, for that matter, between the same organism alive and dead, is ignored. Living protoplasm is just a complex organic compound, so very complex that it nourishes itself by internal secretion, reproduces NO. 2624, VOL. 104] itself, and, gradually, throughout geological time modifies itself in constitution, so that, originally an ameceba, it finishes as a man. To the chemist, who may be supposed to know something at least about chemical compounds, if not to the bio- logist, the view that living protoplasm is no more than a very complex compound is fantastic. : Laplace’s doctrine of rigid determinism, applied to this monism of the animate and inanimate, leads the author to deduce that what he is now writing and the sentiments his words will convey to his readers could have been known and predicted a myriad years ago by a being of infinite knowledge and mathematical power from a study of the dis- . tribution of matter and energy in the original nebula. Events of great consequence to the future are frequently decided by men on the spin of a coin. Leave out the inanimate world and whether from his nebula the omniscient being could predict the fall of the coin, though the modern mathe- matical physicist would probably give reasons for an answer to this question totally different from Laplace’s view. Leave out the question of moral judgments, and how they originate, alto- gether. future—but with the decision still untaken—with a certain distribution of energy and matter in his brain. We are asked to believe that this matter and energy will be differently distributed in a manner obvious to an omniscient being—that one distribution will make him call “Tails” and another “Heads.” A scientific materialism that calmly accepts positive answers to such unsolved problems as these concerning free-will and the nature of life is scientific surely only in name. F. Soppy. OUR BOOKSHELF. pate Mathematical Papers for Admission into the Royal Military Academy and the Royal Mili- tary College and Papers in Elementary Engin- eering for Naval Cadetships for the Years 1909-18. Edited by R. M. Milne. (London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd., 1919.) Price 7s. _ A RECENT issue of this collection of examina- tion papers has been reviewed in Nature. It remains only to say that the papers added in the new issue maintain the standard of excellence already noticed. The questions are remarkably suitable for the discovery of what the candidates know. : Mesures Pratiques en Radioactivité. By Dr. W. Makower and Dr. H. Geiger. Traduit de l’Anglais by E. Philippi. Pp. vii+ 181. (Paris: Gauthier-Villars et Cie, 1919.) Price 8 francs. A coop French translation of this well-known and admirable work. ‘ Here is a man on the: point of calling ‘Heads or Tails?” to decide the course of the © eee een TI RO one oO Pe ee, ‘ FEBRUARY 12, 1920] NATURE 627 LETTERS TO THE EDITOR. [The Editor does not hold himself responsible iB opinions expressed by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake to return, or to correspond wilh the writers of, rejected manuscripts intended for this or any other part of Nature. No notice is taken of anonymous communications.] Euclid, Newton, and Einstein. Since the results of the Eclipse Expedition of May last have been made public a very great deal of general interest has been displayed in a theory which, until a few weeks ago, was known only to mathematicians and physicists. Even among these, not many could offer any adequate explanation of the new view of space and time and their mutual relations, while some regarded the whole question as a mathematical joke which led to interesting results of no practical value; and probably not a few thought that a non- Euclidean system of geometry was inadmissible in any physical theory of the universe. On the other hand, there are some who have gone so far as to advocate that non-Euclidean geometry should be taught to boys and girls in secondary schools. The published books on this subject do not come into touch with any ordinary experience, and the whole subject, consequently, has been regarded as a mathematical fiction. So far from this being so, most people have actually seen the ordinary operations of life proceeding in non-Euclidean space, though they have not realised the meaning of all they have seen. In the space behind a plane mirror objects are reversed right and left (perverted), though in all other respects they correspond precisely to the real objects in front of the mirror of which they are the images, but in the space behind a convex mirror this is not the case. The geometry of this space and the be- haviour of moving bodies therein, as viewed by the external observer and as studied by an _ intelligent being within the image space, say, the image of the external observer, who applies to the images and their movements the same standards of measurement as the external observer applies to the real objects in his own space, introduce us to a non-Euclidean space which is the subject of common observation, and pre- pare the mind for the reception of many of the con- clusions of the now famous theory of relativity. In the discussion of that theory two observers are sup- posed to be moving relatively to one another, each with his own set of measuring instruments and each living in his own world or system, and the differences between the phenomena which occur in each system as measured by the dweller in that system and by thé external observer form the basis of the theory. Cor- responding to these two observers we propose to con- sider the actual observer outside the convex mirror and his supposed intelligent image behind the mirror, and to consider how the images behind the mirror, treated as real objects, appear to behave to both observers. ‘ In the first place, it is necessary to consider the size and shape of the objects, or, in other words, the geometry of the space. To save repetition it will be convenient to call the external observer A and his intelligent image B. The line joining the middle point of the mirror with the centre of the sphere of which the surface of the mirror is a part is the axis of the mirror, and may be supposed to be extended in- definitely outside the mirror. The image of an infinitely distant star on the axis of the mirror will be formed at a point half-way between the surface of the mirror and the centre of the sphere. This point is called the principal focus, and its distance from the mirror is the focal length, which is half the radius. NO. 2624, VOL. 104] It will be convenient to call this point F. A series of lines drawn from the circumference of the mirror outwards and all parallel to the axis encloses a cylin- drical space to which the external objects considered are to be confined. All these lines produced indefinitely will at length meet the star on the axis of the mirror. Their images will, therefore, all converge to the principal focus F, and the whole of the infinite cylinder in the external world will correspond to a cone behind the mirror having F for its vertex and the mirror for its curved base. If an object outside moves away to infinity its image will never get beyond F, and the images of straight lines meeting the mirror and ex~ tending parallel to the axis as far as the distant star will al meet at F. We shall suppose the radius of curvature of the mirror to be very large as compared with the dimensions of the mirror itself or of the observer. There is a very simple geometrical law connecting the distance of an object from the mirror and the distance of its image from F. This law need not con- cern us except to point out that as the object recedes from the mirror its image approaches F, and, as seen by the external observer, the dimensions of the image in all directions at right angles to the axis are pro- portional to its distance from F, but the dimensions parallel to the axis are proportional to the square of the distance from F of the image. This is the peculiar property of convex mirror space. If a cricket- ball is placed in front of the mirror at a distance equal to the focal length, its image will be half-way between the mirror and F, but the image will not be spherical. In all directions at right angles to the axis the dimensions will be reduced to one-half, but along the axis they will be reduced to one-quarter, so that the sphere will be represented by an oblate spheroid (an orange) with a polar axis one-half of the equa- torial diameter. If the ball moves farther from the mirror the oblateness of the spheroid will be increased, and when the image is three-quarters of the way between the mirror and F the polar axis will be only one-quarter of the equatorial diameter of the spheroid, which will itself be only one-quarter of the diameter of the cricket-ball. If a circular hoop is placed with its plane at right angles to the axis its image will be circular, but if it is turned round so that its plane is parallel to the axis the image will be an ellipse, which will become more and more eccentric as the hoop recedes from the mirror and the image diminishes _ on approaching F. A top set spinning with its axis perpendicular to the axis of the mirror will appear in its image to the external observer to be elliptic, with its axes fixed in space, so that as any line of particles in the top approach parallelism to the axis of the mirror they will be squeezed together and expand again as they recede from parallelism. Midway between the mirror and F the density of the top will appear to A to be twice as great in the direction of the axis as in any direction at right angles to the axis, for the same number of particles will be squeezed into half the length. All this has been written from the point of view of A, the external observer. But how will all these things appear to B, who is living and moving in the mirror space? Like A, the observer B may use a foot-rule for measuring length, breadth, and thickness, and a protractor for measuring angles. As A proceeds to measure the real object, B proceeds to measure the image, but as he approaches the focus his foot-rule, like himself and the image he is going to measure, gets smaller and in precisely the same proportion, so that if the image measured 6 in. in height when close to the mirror, it would always appear to measure 6 in. in height, for, as seen by A, the foot-rule would contract just as the image con- 628 NATURE ’ [FEBRUARY 12, 1920 . tracted, though B would be unconscious of the con- traction. Moreover, half-way between the mirror and the focus B’s foot-rule will appear to A to be only 6 in. long when held perpendicular to the axis, but when turned parallel to the axis it will appear to A to be only 3 in. long, and if it is turned round it will contract in exactly the same way as the image which it is used to measure. B, therefore, will be quife un- able by means of his foot-rule to ascertain that the cricket-ball is no longer spherical, or the top or hoop no longer circular. ,The judgment of A and that of B will therefore be entirely discordant. If a circle divided by radii, say 5° apart, into equal angles is held with its plane perpendicular to the axis, the image will appear to both A and B to be circular and the angles equal, but if it is turned with its plane parallel to the axis the image to A will appear an ellipse and the angles in each quadrant unequal, but B will have no means of detecting these inequalities, and he will place implicit faith in the accuracy of his protractor. The question will naturally be asked: Cannot B see that his circle has become an ellipse? When the plane of the circle is at right angles to the axis and B looks straight at it, the image on B’s retina, as it appears to A as well as to B,is circular, but when the circle is turned round and B turns round to look at it, B’s retina undergoes precisely the same changes as the circle itself, and still the image occupies the same portion of B’s retina as before, and therefore produces the same mental impression of a circle on B, though A recognises the ellipticity of B’s retinal image (which A is supposed to see in the mirror). If A walks straight away from the mirror to an indefinite distance, B will walk towards the focus, but as A can never reach the star, so B, walking, as he thinks, uniformly, can never reach F. In fact, his speed of walking as seen by A appears to diminish in proportion to the square of his distance from F, as all small distances measured along the axis diminish in this ratio, but B can never discover this, for he always appears to walk the same number of feet in a minute, as measured by his own diminishing foot- rule. It is true that when B’s height and the length of his legs appear to A to be reduced to one-half, the length of his step appears to be reduced to one-quarter, and the angle between his legs as he walks to be reduced correspondingly ; but if B tries to measure this angle, his protractor suffers the same distortion, as recognised by A, and B thinks he is walking always in precisely the same way. It appears, then, that to B the principal focus F is infinity. He can never reach it, however long or however quickly he walks; and there is nothing in his world beyond it. All straight lines drawn from F to the mirror appear to B to be parallel, for they meet only at infinity, and he can never reach their point of meeting. They correspond to parallel lines in the Euclidean space outside the mirror. The image of a square held with its plane perpendicular to the axis will appear to both A and B to be square, but, held with two of its sides parallel to the axis, the angles of the square will appear to A to be unequal, for the two sides parallel to the axis will converge to F, and the dimensions of the square along the axis will be less than its dimensions at right angles, but neither the foot-rule nor the protractor in the hands of B will detect these irregularities. Jn convex mirror space straight lines which meet at F are parallel. If two of the straight lines which appear to B to be parallel are cut by a third line, and the figure is examined by A, the two interior angles on the same side of the cutting line do not appear to be equal to two right angles. and the exterior angle does not appear to be equal to the interior and opposite angle. NO. 2624, VoL. 104] This is the essential feature of convex looking-glass space, but B will not agree with A on either question. 44 To B, Euclid’s propositions respecting parallel straight ‘ lines will appear to hold. He will think that he is living in Euclidean space, though A knows better, or thinks he knows. eles 1 To the external observer, then, convex looking-glass 4 space has different properties as the focus is ap- bs proached, or, in technical phrase, it is not homoloidal, and it has different properties in different directions, like a uniaxial crystal—that is, it is not isotropic, but differs from the crystal since its lack of iso- tropism increases as the focus is approached. The image of a metre rod nine-tenths of the distance — from the mirror to the focus will appear to the ex- ternal observer to measure a decimetre when at ts, angles to the axis, but only a centimetre when par. to the axis. : : 5 This ‘distortion ”’ of space is precisely what happens: g according to the theory of relativity in the neighbour- . hood of a gravitating body, though the distortion is — very small even at the surface of the sun. In the direction of the gravitation pull space is contracted, : and a foot-rule is actually Heda than when it lies Ae at right angles to the force to the extent of about 43 parts in 10,000,coo at the sun’s surface. The effect is greater the greater the intensity of gravitation, and, 4 consequently, it increasés on approaching a gravitating body. ete, If space is supposed to be occupied by paints, and — the length of a line to be measured by the number of points in it, then in space free from gravitation the points are equally distributed in all directions, but when gravity acts the points are closer together in the direction of gravity than in other directions, as soldiers in column are closer together from right to left than from front to rear, or as the images of evenly dis- tributed points in space are more closely packed along the axis of a convex mirror than in other directions. — This representation of the effect of gravity is due to Prof. Eddington. Light always goes from one point to another in the shortest possible time. This principle ieads to the ordinary laws of reflee tion and refraction. In passing through space in the presence of gravitation it will take the path which necessitates passing through the smallest number of spatial points, and this means re- fraction similar to that produced when it passes into a denser medium in which its velocity is reduced. The — effect on light in passing’ near to the sun will be the same as if the sun were surrounded by an atmosphere — extending to a distance of many millions of miles, and diminishing in density as the distance from the sun is increased. ‘This will act like a convex lens refract- ing the light, which will travel more slowly as it approaches the sun. A comet approaching the sun with the velocity of light would, according to the laws’ of Newton, travel more quickly as it approached, but its orbit would be bent towards the sun as the light is bent, but only to one-half the extent. If light from a star were passing the sun close to its limb, and behaved like a comet under the sun’s attraction, it would be deflected about seven-eighths of a second of arc. On the theory of relativity it would be deflected through 1% seconds. It was this deflection which the — Eclipse Expedition set out to measure. The behaviour — of comets shows that there is no solar atmosphere to account for the refraction at distances from the sun at which the refraction was observed. 50m In all that has been said respecting the space behind a convex mirror the size of the mirror is supposed to be very small as compared with its radius of curvature, and the obiects and images much smaller still. If a complete spherical mirror is suspended in free space the geometrical images of the stars will be distributed AL ei | ia aL ts OS FEBRUARY 12, 1920] NATURE 629 over a sphere of half the radius of the mirror, and this spherical surface is infinity to all the dwellers in the mirror space. The image of an object which subtends a large angle at the centre of the mirror will be bent. In Fig. 1, ab, cd, and ef are the images of straight ae ans R | ef as Fic. 1. Q lines all passing through the same point distant half the radius from the face of the mirror. These lines are all curved and concave to the centre of the mirror, but they are straight lines in convex mirror space, and pass through the smallest number of spatial points of any line joining the extreme points. They are the paths which would be taken by rays of light in space in which the spatial points were packed as in convex mirror space. In every case the light is refracted towards the portion of space in which the point density is greatest. In the figure PQ represents the mirror, RS the focal sphere of half the radius, while the images correspond to straight lines cutting FA pro- duced in the same point at 90°, 45°, and 223° respec- tively. It will be seen that the curvature of ab enables it to pass through a region in which the points are less closely packed than along the line joining a and |, which appears to the external observer to be straight. On the Einstein theory, light passing a ‘gravitating body like the sun is refracted in the same way. In convex mirror space strings stretched between the points a and b, c and d, and e and f would take the forms shown. A person in a hurry and endeavouring to pass through a crowd will make a detour to avoid the more densely packed portions of the crowd. According to the theory of relativity, motion and force, involving time, change the properties of space. In convex looking-glass space position and direction only are involved, so that the problem is much simpler, while many of the results are very similar. If the two great mechanical principles of the con- servation of momentum and the conservation of energy are applied to the movement of bodies in B’s space a consistent system of dynamics can be con- structed, and B with his measuring instruments will be quite unable to detect any divergence from Newton’s laws of motion. To A, however, the laws will appear very different. For example, a body under the action of no external force moving along the axis of the mirror will move with a velocity varying as the square of its distance from F. This means that the apparent mass will vary inversely as the square of the distance of the body from F, and as the body approaches F the mass appears to increase indefinitely. This corre- sponds to the increase of mass according to the theory of relativity when the velocity of a body increases, becoming infinite as the velocity of light is approached. According to the theory of relativity, the mass of a body is greater in the direction of its motion than in directions at right angles to its direction of motion. In convex looking-glass space the mass is greater, when direction of the axis than in directions at right angles to the axis, and greater the nearer the focus. The reason why B cannot detect any of these changes is that all his standard units change in the same way; and, as all physical measurements ultimately reduce themselves to a comparison with standard units, if the units change a corresponding change. in the quantity measured cannot be detected. We cannot, for instance, detect the variation in the weight of a body between the equator and the poles by means of standard weights and a pair of scales, though we may detect it by a spring-balance or.a pendulum. It is always the looker-on, A, who.sees most of the game. Some thirty or more years ago a little jeu d’esprit was written by Dr. Edwin Abbott entitled ‘‘ Flatland.” © At the time of its publication it did not attract as much attention as it deserved. Dr. Abbott pictures intelligent beings whose whole experience is confined to a plane, or other space of two dimensions, who have no faculties by which they can become conscious of anything outside that space and no means of moving off the surface on which they live. He then asks the reader, who has consciousness of the third dimension, to imagine a sphere descending upon the plane of Flatland and passing through it. How will the in- habitants regard this phenomenon? They will not see, the approaching sphere and will have no conception of its solidity. They will only be conscious of the circle in which it cuts their plane. ‘This circle, at first a point, will gradually increase in diameter, driving the inhabitants of Flatland outwards from its circumference, and this will go on until half the sphere has passed through the plane, when the circle will gradually contract to a point and then vanish, leaving the Flatlanders in undisturbed possession of their country (supposing the wound in the plane to have healed). Their experience will be that of a circular obstacle gradually expanding or growing, and then contracting, and they will attribute to growth in time what the external observer in three dimensions assigns to motion in the third dimension. Transfer this analogy to a movement of the fourth dimension through three-dimensional space. Assume the past and future of the universe to be all depicted in four-dimensional space and visible to any being who has consciousness of the fourth dimension. If there is motion of our three-dimensional space relative to the fourth dimension, all the changes we experience and assign to the flow of time will be due simply to this movement, the whole of the future as well as the past always existing in the fourth dimension. The theory of relativity requires a fourth dimen- sional term to be introduced into its dynamical equa- tions. This term involves time and the velocity of light. Generally, the easiest method of expressing algebraically position and motion in three-dimensional space is by reference to three directions mutually at right angles, like the edges of a cube which meet at one corner. These lines may, for example, be drdwn through the observer north and south and east and west, like the reference lines on. a map, while the third line is up and down. The observer’s point of reference is where these three lines meet. In four- dimensional geometry there is a fourth direction at right angles to each of the three. Most of us are un- able to form any clear picture of such a direction as a purely geometrical conception. To us the only figure which is at right angles to every straight line drawn. through a point O is a sphere, or any number of spheres, having O as centre. As stated above, the fourth co-ordinate involves time and the velocity of light together. Imagine these spheres to be always moving inwards towards O with the velocity of light, and then to expand again from O with the same measured by the accelerative effect of a force, in the | velocity, and this to take place quite uniformly, how- NO.. 2624, VOL. 104] 630 NATURE [FEBRUARY 12, 1920 ever O may move in relation to other points of observation, so that the centre of the system of con- tracting and expanding spheres travels with the ob- server, and each observer has his own system of spheres. The approaching and contracting spheres contain within them the whole future; the receding and expanding spheres contain the past. The present is the passage of a sphere through O, the observer, when that sphere is concen- trated on a point. This conception of a fourth dimen- sion is thus not that of a simple spatial dimension like the other three, but, as required in the theory of relativity, it is intimately associated with time and motion, and the observer’s experience of it is simply the happening of events with the flux of time. It is very like the Flatlander’s conception of the third dimension derived from the invading sphere. It will be noticed that to different observers the impres- sions of the present are not quite the same. We observe an event in a star. It is present to us. To an observer in the star it happened years ago. _ The theory of relativity involves a change in the unit of time, according to the motion of the observer relative to the object observed. This complication did not enter into the consideration of the space behind the convex mirror, so that the dynamical problems in that space were relatively simple. According to the theory of relativity, if the observer is moving with the velocity of light, time remains unchanged. This must have been the case with the Mad Hatter. With him it was always six o’clock, and always tea-time, Ws Thermionic Valves on Aircraft. In a paper just published in the Proceedings of the Royal Society (A, vol. xcvi.) Drs. W. H. Eccles and J. H. Vincent give an account of some experiments on the small variations of wave-length intro- duced when changes are made either in filament temperature or plate voltage of a thermionic valve supplying oscillating energy to a wireless circuit. It may be of interest to readers of NaTuRE to know how this effect influenced the design of wireless aircraft generators used in the war. : In 1916, when experimenting with continuous-wave telegraphy and telephony from aircraft, I noticed a small outstanding variation of wave-length radiated from an aeroplane, which variation seemed to depend mainly on the speed of flight, and therefore, possibly, on the voltages supplied by the windmill-driven generator. Following up this clue, I found in the Air Force Laboratory that the changes of wave-length introduced by variations of filament temperature and plate voltage were more considerable than I had thought, especially - on short wave-lengths. It was the knowledge of this fact which led to the inclusion of special regulating devices in the aircraft dynamo circuits, so that the wave-length variation, at the best of times noticeable owing to aerial sway, banking, etc., should be reduced, at any rate, to a minimum. R. WHIDDINGTON. The University, Leeds, February 5. Popular Science. I sHOULD like to be allowed to underline a few remarks that occur in a review entitled ‘Scientific Biography” in Nature for January 29. The writer urges that science has neglected. the populace and offered its wares for popular edification in a highly’ unedifying way. I believe this is very true. I am old enough to remember different times, and can recall with truth and gratitude the feeling of en- No. 2624, VoL. 104] thusiasm, and even of exaltation, which I had in early days on hear or rene, popular science lectures. I think of Huxley, Tyndall, Clifford, W. B. Carpenter, Lockyer, Roscoe, and some others. Science lectures then were aimed at showing how _ science did its .work, and they brought into view something of the personality of the real scientific worker. -— Remembering how much I had gained, I en- deavoured in my turn to carry on the good work within the much-restricted range of my own powers, but in the same spirit. In time I realised two things: one, the debilitating tendency of publicity and easily won applause; the other, the invasion of the science platform by the mere entertainer and his entrepreneur. The work became suspect to all self- respecting people. The degenerated Press has com- pleted the havoc. Is it not possible to improve matters? I believe it is. No doubt some knowledge of science is more prevalent than it was, but there is yet ample room for the simple, popular lecture of the genuine kind by men who are the real workers. It is a serious tax, but I am inclined to think a justifiable one, on the time of these men to give, say once a year in some large city, a really popular account of their latest discoveries and have it printed to sell at a popular price. That, and a vocal public opinion in the world of science against comic, pyrotechnic, mystic, or other profane tickling of the groundlings, might do much in a good cause. VICTORIAN. Mirage Effects. ; TueE mirage effect noticed by Mr. Quilter and Miss Botley is very common on Woolacombe Sands, especially on hot, sunny days when the observer is looking south. The apparently wet patch keeps at a half to three-quarters of a mile’s distance from the eye, but does not persist up to the southern limit of the bay, which is bounded by high ground. I cannot remember whether it is visible when the observer is facing north. SPENCER PICKERING. Mrracz effects similar to those referred to in NATURE of January 29 (p. 565) have been noticed by me several times in Birmingham on tarred macadam or wood- block roads. The effect on a hot, sunny day is of a layer of water from 2 in. to 4 in. deep on the sur- face of the roadway, immersed in which are the feet of pedestrians and the wheels of vehicles about a hundred yards from the observer. The effect is best seen when the line of sight nearly coincides with the surface of the roadway, as, for instance, just before one breasts the summit of a slight rise, when the eye is practically level with the ground beyond the top of the rise. Stooping would produce a similar effect. L. N. Norris-RoGERs. I FIRST saw a mirage on a road in Colombo, and wondered how I was going to cross the apparent sheet of water in front of me. Since then I have seen it repeatedly in England, and instinctively look. for it when the conditions are right. For the best effects these conditions are three: (a) Tarred roads (the reason is obvious); (b) bright sun; and (c) a slight gradient rising from the observer. In very hot weather (c) may not be so necessary. At other times the mirage appears where the gradient reaches towards the level of the eyes. It is very clear, and reflections are as sharp as in water, especially of objects crossing near the further edge. _ Harry Hitman. 117 Colmore Row, Birmingham, FEBRUARY 12, 1920] © NATURE 631 THE THEORY OF RELATIVITY. ft Bas meeting of the Royal Society on Feb- ruary 5 was devoted to a discussion on the theory of relativity. It was opened by Mr. J. H. Jeans, who said it was a better analogy to liken the new principle, not to a key of the universe, but to a ward in its lock, which gave direction to the efforts made to open it, admitting some and excluding others. In this respect it resembled the doctrine of the conservation of energy and the second law of thermodynamics. Where any of these gave a positive result it was because a process of exhaustion showed that anything else would be impossible. : The foundation of the theory may be considered to have been laid by Einstein’s hypothesis, put forward in 1905, that light from any source appears to any observer to travel with the same velocity C; this hypothesis was founded on the Michelson-Morley experiment, and has since been confirmed by that of Majorana; it also explains a number of physical phenomena. It can best be visualised by the idea that to each observer the wave-surface is spherical in the four-dimension continuum. Then x*?+ y?+2?+ (iCt)? (radius for the first observer) transforms into an identical ex- pression with accented letters (radius for the second observer) by a rigid-body rotation. Such a rotation would resolve pure time into partly time, partly space, and vice versa. The following is an example of this: Suppose that a man lives seventy-five years, and dies 1000 miles from his birthplace; then to an observer on a_ rapidly receding star he might appear to have lived seventy-six years and travelled billions of miles. (In reply to Prof. Newall, who imagined paper screens to be erected at a distance of 100 light- seconds from the origin, from which a flash of light is emitted, and from which one of the observers moves while the other remains, Mr. Jeans admitted that the former would not see the reflections simultaneously, the reason being that the screens would not lie on a four-dimensional sphere to him.) This conception was preferable to that of the Lorentz contraction, which pre- sented grave difficulties in the case of a rotating wheel, the axis of which is at rest in the zther; the rim would undergo contraction, while the spokes would remain unaltered. Mr. Jeans used the following analogy to explain the nature of Einstein’s latest theory. Imagine a race of men who had spent all their lives in caves. They would be in ignorance of the earth’s rotation, and would consider gravity as a force constant in direction ; however, two experiments might reveal the fact of rotation to them. If they set a ball swinging in an ellipse, by a long string, the apse of the ellipse would move; moreover, delicate measures would show that the course of rays of light was not quite straight relatively to their rotating framework. This is closely analogous to the observed progression of Mercury’s perihelion and to the deflection of light-rays by the sun; in each case “we have tacitly assumed fixed axes NO. 2624, VOL. 104] where nothing is fixed: we have formed wrong ideas of the nature of gravitation, and our defini- tion of a straight line is interwoven with the ideas of an untrue system of geometry.” The reason why the new law of gravitation can- not be put in simple form is that there is no force of gravitation; the laws of motion can be put in the simple form 8f¢s=o. There are, however, two ways of defining ds. Einstein defines it as a line-element in a distorted space-time continuum. This necessarily involves the spectral shift to the red, and an objective curvature of space. It may also be simply defined as a conventional alge- braical symbol given by Einstein’s equation, but without assuming his physical interpretation; in this manner it is possible to deduce the two astro- nomical effects already verified, while leaving the shift of spectral lines undetermined. Decisive evidence for or against the spectral shift would be a guide as to the adoption of one or other definition of ds. Prof. Eddington compared Euclidean space to a picture in a framework of rectangular co- ordinates, and Einstein’s space to a map with curved lines of latitude and longitude. Just as the map could not accurately represent the earth’s surface, unless it was made on a curved surface, so Euclidean space could not contain an accurate representation of the space-time continuum. We could look on Einstein’s law of gravitation as giving instructions for the joining together of successive elements of space. The law must in- clude all the laws of mechanics, including the conservation of energy and momentum. Space and time could be explored in two ways —either by using clocks and measuring scales, or by observing moving particles and light-waves. The second method was both more elementary and more sensitive. An example of it was the search for the spectral shift. The reason for the shift might be briefly given thus. The time of vibration of a particle involves the factor gee, é vie 1-24) which clearly increases as r dimin- ishes, so that the vibration is slower on the sun than on the earth. Sir F. W. Dyson spoke on the motion of the perihelion of Mercury; the observed centennial motion exceeds that calculated on the Newtonian law by 43”, which is much the largest unexplained quantity in planetary theory. Various attempts have been made to explain it. An excess of 4! of the sun’s equatorial radius over the polar would suffice; this amount is considered to be in excess of what observation will admit; the latter suggests a slight excess of the polar radius; moreover, such an equatorial excess would produce a shift of the orbit-plane of Mercury too great to be ad- mitted. An unknown planet is excluded, since it could not fail to have been seen or photo- graphed at some of the total eclipses when such a body has been specially looked for. A ring of small planets would have to be in the plane of Mercury’s orbit, or it would produce an effect on 632 NATURE [FEBRUARY 12, 1920 its node and inclination. ‘This puts the zodiacal light out of court, even if its mass were suffi- cient, which seems unlikely. Prof. Asaph Hall suggested that the law of attraction should be modified, the index of r being taken, not as —2, but as —2(1+d), where d is a small fraction, chosen empirically so as to fit the case of Mercury. This is the law adopted in Newcomb’s tables, and therefore in the Nautical Almanac. It would give a centennial shift of the moon’s perigee of 135”. (The discussion of Dr. E. W. Brown seems to establish that there is no such excess of motion in the perigee, which discredits the Hall hypo- thesis.) Einstein’s theory perfectly explained the excess of motion of Mercury’s perihelion, without intro- ducing any arbitrary constant, or having any other perceptible effect on the planetary or lunar motions. By the method of exhaustion it seemed to hold the field. There remained a small excess of motion in the case of the node of Venus, but it was only 24 times the probable error, and sO was not unreasonable. - Prof. A. Fowler spoke on the attempts that had been made to detect the shift towards the red in the sun’s spectral lines, and on the difficulties in the way, which arose from the effect of vary- ing pressure, the rotation of the sun, and pos- sible convection currents in its atmosphere. A series of cyanogen lines was selected for the test, as they were not subject to shift through pressure ; care was necessary to choose isolated lines, as adjacent lines might influence the measures. The sun’s rotation could be eliminated by observing opposite points of the limb. The results of the measures of Evershed, St. John, Schwarzschild, and recent Bonn observers were shown on the screen. The mean of all gave a shift towards the red of o'003 A. at the sun’s centre and of o'oo4 A, at the limb, Einstein’s predicted value being o'008 A. Prof. Fowler inclined to the view that the observed shift was due not to the Einstein effect, but to cooler descending convection cur- rents at the sun’s centre, and to the “limb effect ” at the limb. Mr. E. Cunningham gave the following example to show that the spectral shift need not necessarily occur on the equivalence hypothesis : Imagine two atoms each emitting light-vibrations in a non- gravitational field, the periods of vibration being the same. Referring them to a set of accelerating axes, we simulate a gravitational field. The syn- chronism between the two sets of waves is not destroyed; and on the equivalence hypothesis the relation of physical sequences in the simulated field is the same as in the real field. There is the qualification that the atoms must be free to fall—t.e. not constrained by neighbouring atoms; Mr. Cunningham doubted whether this was the case on the sun’s surface. He went on to say that relativity did not necessarily imply the abandon- ment of the ether; a unique ether could be con- structed on a mechanical basis;-if it transmitted light, it must also transmit stress and energy. NO. 2624, VoL. 104] / Prof. A. F. Lindemann spoke of the observed even those in the Orion nebula, which presumably effect, and might be the Einstein one. fill all space, he preferred to say that to an observer on the sphere it would appear to do side it. 4 predictions might be satisfied without introducing time as the fourth dimension. The method left it uncertain whether the spectral shift would take place or not. Should the latter be finally provec! not to exist, we might fall back on this method, which agreed with the facts at present observed. THE FLIGHT FROM CAIRO TO CAPE. (1) AvIATION AND EXPLORATION. flight from London to Cape Town via Cairo, Khartum, the Upper Nile, the interior of East Africa, Northern and Southern Rhodesia, and the: Transvaal will certainly, if successful, greatly through the air from one distant part of the world to another. , rk The bearing of the whole question—air travel Society. rapid transport. ship will for a long time to come be far more of goods or of many passengers. Sea trav aeroplanes should have no rival, especially when meteorology is better understood, and when the great air routes of the world are duly provided with aerodromes at convenient distances. i It may seem to be stating too obvious a fact average recession of 4 km./sec. in the B-stars; were at rest relatively to it, showed this differ- ential shift; he concluded that it was not a Doppler He noted wi ; as a difficulty in the quantum theory of light that to an observer at rest the mass of a quantum would be infinite; moreover, he considered that since the mass of an electron changed with its speed, its period of vibration should also change. — Speaking of Prof. Eddington’s statement that a— sphere of water of radius 500 million km. would so, since all rays from it would be bent back to it by its attraction; but he thought there was — nothing to prevent other space from existing out- — Prof. A. N. Whitehead showed a mathematical method by which Einstein’s first two astronomical A. C. D, CROMMELIN. — THE — pede eee Ly) Tey es S Baye enterprise of the Times in organising a advance the theory and practice of travelling — versus railway, ocean steamer, or road-motor — transit—was well put a few days ago by Capt. Frederick Shelford in his address to the African There is no real cause for rivalry or — hostile competition between all four forms of _ Air travel by aeroplane or air- dangerous to life than road or rail transit, and a_ little more dangerous than sea voyages; but it — will be very much quicker than all other methods. It will be impossibly expensive for the transport — boat is the cheapest mode of conveyance; ia a ways, on the whole, and especially in wild, little- developed countries, are as cheaply made as motor roads, and are much less expensive to maintain. — For mails and for passengers in a great hurry, — 4 FEBRUARY 12, 1920] NATURE 633 when I point out that the chief difficulty in the way to complete success on the part of aviation is the coming down safely from the air to the solid earth. No air pilot can view without grave apprehension a forced descent on an uneven or merely a slightly irregular surface. The pas- sengers might not be more than shaken or bruised, but the delicate machine might be so injured as to be unable to resume its flight. But for this trouble about descent and ascent, the exploration of the world’s land surface would now be pro- ceeding at a tremendous rate. Soon the whole of the continents and islands would be made known in all their details. I have always hoped myself that there may be some wonderful development in mechanics or in physics by which heavier-than-air machines might be enabled (1) to rise direct from the ground into the air vertically ; and (2) to descend vertically and slowly, under control, making use of air- brakes in some way. The latter process may read as an impossibility, but it is not more improbable than many a feat in aviation would have sounded to the scientific theorist twenty years ago. Then, again, I am sure we have neglected another safety apparatus: the devising of cloth- ing that might be so inflated with air that the wearer would float to earth as gently as thistle- down. The original mind of Dr. Chalmers Mitchell may well come back from his great air journey with new conceptions as to the future solution of these and other difficulties in aviation. Few people know as much as he does about bird-structure, and he may, when he is “up against it,” be inspired to apply to the theory and practice of aviation some bright ideas—as yet overlooked—to be derived from the bird’s development of the art of flying, especially the efforts made by heavy birds (cranes, storks, swans, peafowl, bustards, and large vultures) to rise into the air, to maintain themselves resting (floating) in the air, and to descend from a great height to the ground uninjured. As to Dr. Mitchell’s experiences and those of his companions on this actual journey, my impressions are: that by rising to eight or nine thousand feet they will ascend above the dangerous storms or violent winds of Central Africa; that they will nowhere run any serious danger from wild or savage men, except among the Dinkas of the Nile Valley (east of the Bahr-al-Ghazal) ; that they have very little to fear from any wild beast except a chance rhinoceros in East Africa; and that in seeing the desert yield to the Nile marsh-lakes, the marshes give place to mountains—even snow- mountains—and grandiose forest, the forest thin- ning out into parklands, the parklands passing into steppe, the steppe into desert, and the desert into the cornfields, orchards, vineyards, and gardens of South Africa, they will have had an unforgettable lesson in physical geography. I wish them the most complete success and a happy return. HH. H. Jounsron. NO, 2624, VOL. 104] (2) ScientIric ASPECTS OF THE ROUTE. Tue expedition which started from Cairo on February 6 should be memorable as the first use of long-distance aeroplane flight for scientific and geographical research. Thanks to the enter- prise of the Times, a Vickers’ ‘‘ Vimy ” aeroplane is traversing Africa from Egypt to the Cape, with Dr. Chalmers Mitchell as scientific observer and . Capts. Cockerell and Broome as pilots. The ex- pedition will test the value of long aerial journeys for scientific purposes, and as it is under a man of such width of knowledge and scientific imagina- tion as Dr. Chalmers Mitchell, we may be con- fident that the opportunity will be used to the best advantage. The expedition is to travel leisurely, at moderate elevations, and never flying at night, so as to enable Dr. Chalmers Mitchell to obtain a clear survey of the country traversed. The route is from the aerodrome at Heliopolis, near Cairo, up the Nile, past Assuan, to Wadi Halfa, and thence, along the railway line, across the Dongola bend of the Nile, to the river again past Atbara to Khartum; then up the White Nile past Mongalla and Gondokoro and over the Nile rapids to Nimule. Thence the most direct route would be to leave the river and cross the Fatiko country to Lake Kiogo, and there rejoin the Nile, following it to its outflow from the Victoria Nyanza at the Ripon Falls. The expedition will fly over the lake to Kisumu, at the end of the Uganda Railway, skirt the irregular eastern coastlands to Mwanza, on the southern shore of the Victoria Nyanza, and cross ‘‘German” East Africa to Abercorn at the southern end of Tanganyika. Thence the route will be above north-eastern Rhodesia to the mining fields of the African Broken Hill, and along the railway past the Victoria Falls on the Zambezi to Wankie coalfield and Bulawayo; it will continue in sight of the railway another 182 miles southward to Palapye, where it will bend eastward across the northern Transvaal to Pretoria, and by follow- ing the railway past Johannesburg, Bloemfontein, and Beaufort West end its journey, of 5206 miles by the route projected, at Cape Town. This journey must naturally be direct, long dis- tances must be covered daily, and deviations to follow up interesting clues may be inadmissible, for the main object of this flight is to demonstrate the practicability of the aeroplane in the next stage of African research and development. ‘The pros- pects are promising, for a bird’s-eye view from a moderate elevation would reveal much of interest and practical value regarding the geography, geology, and botany of those parts of Africa com- posed of arid plains like the East African Nyika. One difficulty with their investigation is that, owing to the covering of scrub, travellers by foot or on horseback may march for days and see nothing beyond a few hundred yards beside the route, while any useful plane table survey is im- possible. A view from above would, however, show all the essential features; the valuable areas are on the volcanic rocks or on limestones, both 634 NATURE [FEBRUARY 12, 1920 of which produce good soils and often maintain permanent wells, whereas the metamorphic rocks, which form the foundation of the country, yield a barren sandy soil and may have no permanent water. The contrasts between the types of country on these three kinds of rock are so striking that an aeroplane observer would soon learn to distin- guish them and thus discover potential oases on lava or limestone in the wastes of sandy scrub. In such countries travel to a physiographer is often as exasperating as the sudden interruptions of view along a railway by lines of obstructive trees, cuttings, and tunnels, which led Ruskin to renounce railway travel,.on the ground that he would as soon thus hasten a journey across inter- esting country as an epicure would compress his meal into a single pill. Moreover, the traverse of these arid plains in the dry season is hazardous, as a caravan strong enough for necessary trans- port and defence is liable to disaster by failure to find water; whereas an accompanying aeroplane scout would at once discover any remaining water- holes, which might be concealed from a caravan passing a short distance from them. Aeroplane guidance might thus enable an expedition to cross an area which otherwise it would be foolhardy to enter, The motor-car is no doubt of great service on: these plains in dry weather, but its use is attended with the serious danger that a sudden fall of rain may convert the country into a sea of mud, in which the motor is immovable. A premature rain- storm before the normal rainy season may leave a party dependent on motor transport as com- pletely isolated in the desert as a shipwrecked party on an oceanic island. African geography. is in a stage when bird’s-eye views may be very instructive. For example, south-west of Lake Stefanie different explorers have reported lines of hills and scarps the inter- pretation of which is at present uncertain; but to an aeroplane observer surveying the country, espe- cially when helped by the long shadows of early morning or late afternoon, these lines would appear in such diagrammatic outline as to give him an insight into their relations, which would cost a traveller on foot an arduous season’s cam- paign. Similarly, there is much différence of opinion as to the connection between Lake Nyasa and the southern end of the Rift Valley in central “German” East Africa near Kilimatinde; the Ruaha Valley overlaps with a relief: line to the north-west of it, but no connection between them has been recognised. An aeroplane survey of this region under suitable illumination’ would demonstrate the structural relations between the chief features in the relief of the area with a speed, an ease, and an economy which no other method could approach. Again, in the area which the Times expedition will skirt in going from Tangan- yika to the mines at Broken Hill, the structural geography is complex, including valleys and scarps of different dates and plateaux of sandstone of various undetermined ages. The traverse of this NO. 2624, VoL. 104] district is arduous, and comprehensive views across it are difficult to obtain. But a survey or looking down on it, especially if able to hover over it at leisure and see it from different angles and under various conditions of illumination, would probably contribute greatly to the solution of its leading tectonic problems. be Dr. Chalmers Mitchell’s traverse, being an experimental journey, will probably be unable to’ make many deviations for scientific study, but it is following a route of exceptional interest, and we may expect light from him on some East African physiographic problems, such as the con- troversy as to whether the Lower Nile Valley is a down-folded basin or a down-faulted trough, or as to the relations of the young valley which the Nile is excavating north of Khartum to the older river which drained that area. His survey of the northern face of the plateau north of Uganda, seen from a distance which will blot out the minor irregularities, may throw light on its origin; and’ during his flight from Nimule to the Victoria Nyanza he may discover some line of depression continuing the tectonic subsidence north-east of the Albert Nyanza towards Lake Rudolf. In addi- tion to work of this character, enabling Africa to be studied like a great relief model, the value of the aeroplane in scientific work will probably be mainly as a means of rapid transport to centres | for study or help in emergencies. The cost of aeroplane transport may seem large : when compared with railway rates of a penny per ton-mile ; but it is insignificant in comparison with that of a caravan across a foodless territory, when each porter can carry so little in addition to his food that the cost of the carriage of goods from Mombasa to Uganda was reckoned at 300l. a ton. The aeroplane will doubtless enable the arid areas in East Africa to be investigated at a much cheaper rate than any other available method. | In the political administration of Africa, Dr. Chalmers Mitchell’s mission may lead to ultimate economy in many districts. Thus, in northern British East Africa, garrisons are so isolated, and so liable to sudden calls to control the nomads or to resist Abyssinian raids, that they must be main- tained at costly strength; but a periodic aeroplane. inspection of the desert lands on the borders of British East Africa would reveal the whereabouts: of the tribes and discover whether there were any concentrations of men and camels which threat- ened mischief; and thus it would add greatly to the efficiency of the frontier guard. From its bearing on African administration, on. an accelerated postal service, on quicker and. cheaper transport of officials and investigators, as_ well as for its direct observations, the journey of Dr. Chalmers Mitchell and his companions may . mark the beginning of a new epoch in African travel. J. W. Grecory. ; 3 ’ : (3) Crvm Aviation, Tue lecture by Major-Gen. Sir F. H. Sykes on “Imperial Air Routes,’? which was delivered before the Royal Geographical Society on February 2,_ will be eagerly read by all interested in the future of FEBRUARY 12, 1920] NATURE 635 civil aviation. Sir F. H. Sykes spoke upon the great advantages to be gained by the establishment of a complete system of aerial routes linking up the wide- spread portions of the Empire, with Egypt as the “Clapham Junction’? of the India, Australia, and Cape routes. The last route was discussed at some length, and an account given of the work which has been done in establishing a chain of aerodromes from Cairo to Cape Town. The great usefulness of the aeroplane as a means of reaching outlying places near the route which have at present no rapid means of conveyance was commented upon. The main outline of the lecture is summed up as follows :— “It is not enough to believe—as I firmly do—that aerial transport being right is bound eventually to succeed. The seasoned tree can stand alone; the shooting sapling must be stayed. Some of the requirements of aviation on an Imperial basis are :— “(1) The maintenance of a highly efficient fighting force. ‘““(2) The expansion of commercial aviation to pro- mote British trade and to supplement the fighting force when necessary by a reserve of personnel and material, knowledge and experience. “*(3) The co-ordination and co-operation of aerial communication throughout the Empire, and its rela- tions to other countries. “*(4) The organisation of routes, aerodromes, ground communication, and meteorological services on an Imperial basis. ““(c) The energetic promotion of research and the encouragement of design. “*(6) Money to assist the institution of experimental mail services. ‘““(7) The encouragement of land survey, forest patrol, and other work in which aircraft can be utilised. “This year will, I hope, go down to history as marking the birth of a sound, virile, and truly Imperial air policy.’ As a practical commentary on the lecture comes the projected Times flight by a Vickers’ ‘“‘ Vimy” aero- plane from Cairo to the Cape, referred to last week, over the route described by Sir F. H. Sykes. The machine left Cairo at 9.45 a.m. on February 6, and reached Khartum on February 8, leaving there on February 10. Should the flight along the African continent prove a success, the feat will be the third great triumph for this type of aeroplane, the present machine being practically identical with those which accomplished the Atlantic and Australian flights. The crew consists of two pilots, one mechanic, and a rigger, while the well- known zoologist, Dr. P. Chalmers Mitchell, is pas- senger and. scientific observer. The object of the flight is primarily to determine the possibilities of the new route, but it is also to be regarded as the first attempt at exploration from the air, as much of the country to be crossed is at present unsurveyed. The result of this experiment will be awaited with interest. If success is achieved, a new proof of the commercial possibilities of the aeroplane will have been estab- lished—a_ proof that should convince the most sceptical. THE DEVELOPMENT OF SPITSBERGEN.! ti view of the increased public interest in Spits- bergen on account of the revival of mining activity and the recent political settlement, Dr. R. N. Rudmose Brown’s new book upon the 1 “Spitsbergen: An Account of Exploration, Hunting, the Minera Riches and Future Potentialities of an Arctic Archipelago.” By Dr. R. N. Rudmose Brown. Pp. 319. (London: Seeley, Service, Be Co., Ltd., 1920.) Price 25s. net. No. 2624, VOL. 104] \ country is particularly opportune. It is further welcome because it provides the only modern work in English dealing with Spitsbergen in its general aspects; for Sir Martin Conway’s “No Man’s Land” is an historical volume, narrating the dis- covery and the early history of whaling and hunt- ing in the archipelago and the adjacent seas. The only other recent general works are those of Holmsen in the Norwegian, and of Cholnoky, curiously enough, in the Magyar language. . Whatever its mining possibilities are (and scep- ticism has recently arisen), the situation of Spits- bergen as the most easily accessible polar land, along with its wonderful climate, will inevitably lead: to its becoming a favourite European play- ground. In summer, Spitsbergen has a climate, especially in its central and western regions, which is a good deal more tolerable than the average British spring; and, apart from the drawback of polar darkness, its winter climate is said to com- pare quite well with that of Canada. It has glori- ous mountain, fiord, and glacier scenery, and the study of its spectacular physical features and natural history will afford exhaustless attractions for scientific travellers. Dr. Rudmose Brown’s book first deals pleas- antly with the discovery, physical features, climate, and natural history of the Spitsbergen Archi- pelago, the geology, however, being deferred to the chapter describing its mineral wealth. The succeeding chapters trace the history, exploration, and economic development of the country. Spits- bergen history may be divided naturally in order of time into the whaling, hunting, exploratory, and economic periods. The whaling industry has been extinct for a century or more. Hunting and trapping have recently revived, after a period of exhaustion, in response to the high prices now obtainable for furs. Dr. Brown records and de- plores the unfair and ultimately disastrous poison- ing methods practised by some Norwegian hunte®s. The Norwegian Government, it is hoped, may now be able to deal adequately with this and other crying abuses. The mining development of Spitsbergen dates. from 1904, although coal and other minerals had been found much earlier. The only large-scale mining has been in the excellent Tertiary coal of Advent Bay, which was opened up by an American company, but is now carried on by Norwegians. In 1912 40,000 tons were raised, but in 1919 it is believed that this total will have been more than doubled. While British companies claim areas more than three times as large as those of all other nationalities combined, the war unfortunately stopped their development schemes, and it was only in 1918 and 1919 that they w#* able to resume their activities and send up prospecting expeditions. Besides coal, iron ore of good quality is said to occur; gypsum is certainly present in enormous amount; and traces of copper, gold, molybdenum, lead, and asbestos have been found. Oil and oil- shales are possibilities. Nevertheless, Norwegian geologists, who for the last ten years have carried , 636 NATURE [FEBRUARY 12, 1920 on extensive prospecting work, especially in the | excellent and doubtless contribute to its high western mountain ranges, are very sceptical as to | price, but the two maps are comparatively poor. a Fic. 1.—Temple Mountain from Bjona Haven. The Prince of Monaco’s yacht, the Princess Alice, at anchor. One of the most important British estates in Spitsbergen is situated here. From “‘ Spitsbergen.” workable mineral resources, except coal, as may | Mistakes and misprints are commendably very be gathered from a perusal of recent correspond- | few. “Ordovician” is misspelt on p. 216, and ence in the Mining Magazine. A fierce but feeble answer to these letters by a representative of a British company interested in Spitsbergen fails to meet the facts brought forward by the Nor- wegian geologists, especially in regard to metalliferous ores. The reviewer believes that mining development in Spitsbergen will rest largely upon coal, with per- haps oil and oil-shale, obtained from the flat-lying rocks of the central tracts. The later chapters of the book discuss certain German schemes for the exploitation of Spits- bergen, now happily brought to naught, its modern history, and its political status. Spitsbergen is no longer a No Man’s Land, and the last chapter of Dr. Brown’s book is therefore already outdated by the decision of the Supreme Allied Council to assign : d “ ? the sovereignty of Spitsbergen to Norway. there is a discrepancy in the story of Klaus Thue’s The twenty-two plates illustrating the book are | wintering on p. 106. A bibliography of the more NO. 2624, VOL. 104] Ga " 7 5 fil! Iz mm Bcc Ea q Fic. 2.—Longyear Mine, Advent Bay. Wire ropeway from the mine, coal dump, and ietty with a vessel loading alongside. From “‘ Spitsbergen.” FEBRUARY 12, 1920] NATURE Pay: © important works on Spitsbergen would have en- hanced the value of the book to interested readers, who will nevertheless find it the best available compendium of Spitsbergen information: GW... T. THE LEAGUE OF UNIVERSITIES. A REPRESENTATIVE body of British uni- versity men and women spent the autumn of 1918 in America as the guests of the United States. By invitation of the Government of the French Republic a similar delegation visited the universities of France last May. From the Belgian Government an invitation was received and ac- cepted in November. The reports of these three university missions may be obtained from the Universities Bureau, 50 Russell Square, W.C.1. In each of the countries visited the representatives of the United Kingdom were received with profuse hospitality and treated with the utmost considera- tion by the Head of the State and his Ministers, as well as by the heads of the universities and their professors. In innumerable speeches the general cbjects of. this university “entente” received eloquent and enthusiastic expression, stress being laid upon the necessity, in the interests of the world’s peace, of bringing the intellectual leaders of the allied and associated countries into closer and permanent touch. There may be _ rivalry amongst the universities of the civilised world, but there can be no competition, in the sense in which commercial enterprises compete, with the risk of producing discord. All are engaged upon a com- mon task, the making of knowledge, and the train- ing of men and women for professions and occupa- tions in which learning is the only trustworthy equipment. During the last three or four years the universi- ties of the United Kingdom have discovered that their power and influence may be greatly strength- ened by taking counsel together, without any sacri- fice of independence. There is the same need for conference and co-operation amongst the universi-™ ties of the world. Amongst definite problems dis- cussed was the interchange of teachers and students—the migration of those who dispense and of those who seek knowledge, adjusted to modern conditions. The reports of all three missions are in approximately similar terms. It is recognised that professors who are heads of departments have many administrative duties in addition to their duties as teachers. Their uni- versities cannot spare them for any considerable time, nor can their duties be taken over by strangers. Heads of departments might with great advantage give short courses of lectures in foreign countries, provided the language difficulty can be overcome. | Professors of highly specialised or recondite subjects, for which the demand is limited or occasional, might well distribute their services amongst several universities, spending an occasional year abroad. With regard to migration of students, it is clearly desirable that students of languages should NO. 2624, VOL. 104] spend a part of their undergraduate career in foreign countries; but with this exception it is almost universally agreed that only in rare in- stances would it be to the advantage of a student to leave the university in which he is matriculated until after graduation. The first year ’s work at any one university is not easily articulated to the second year’s work at any other. Nor would any university be content to part with its third-year students. For a graduate, every possible facility for migration should be afforded. Even though his new university be not so well equipped for work in the subject to which he is devoted, it is to his advantage that his experience should be enlarged. So far as British universities are con- cerned, post-graduate study will be encouraged by the new Ph.D. degree which all have now estab- lished. The same degree is obtainable in the U.S.A., and its equivalent, the doctorat de l'Université, in France and Belgium. NOTES. THE new session of, Parliament was opened in state on Tuesday by the King, who was accompanied by the Queen and the Prince of Wales. Among the matters referred to in the King’s Speech were a Bill to make further provision for education in Ireland, measures to stimulate and develop the production of essential foodstuffs within the United Kingdom, and to encourage and develop the fishing industry, and Bills providing against the injury to national industries from dumping and for the creation of an adequate supply of cheap electric and water power. As successor to the late Mr. Henry Watts in the editorship of the Journal of the Chemical Society, and as the first secretary and registrar of the Institute of Chemistry, Mr. Charles Edward Groves, F.R.S., was for many years a very prominent figure in the chemical world. His scientific education was re- ceived under Hofmann at the Royal College of Chemistry, where he was contemporary with a group of young men of whom many became distinguished men of science. In October, 1862, Mr. Groves became senior assistant to Dr. John Stenhouse, F.R.S., who had established a private laboratory for research in Rodney Street, Pentonville, and there he remained as factotum until Dr: Stenhouse’s death in 1880. He then be- came lecturer in chemistry at Guy’s Hospital. The greater part of Mr. Groves’s scientific work was done in the Pentonville laboratory, and was published under the joint names of Stenhouse and Groves, though, in consequence of Dr. Stenhouse’s infirmity, the work was mostly done by his assistant. Mr. Groves was a good manipulator and a skilful analyst, and not only assisted in the research laboratory, but for five years also took part in the work of external assayer to the Royal Mint—an office held by Dr. Stenhouse until 1870, when it was abolished. Mr. Groves in his early days was a very active walker and climber in the Alps. For many years he spent his summer holi- days in Switzerland, and will be remembered by many of the senior members of the Alpine Club. His death on February 1, at an age approaching eighty years, leaves * 638 NATURE [FEBRUARY 12, 1920 but few survivors of the original group of students of the Royal College of Chemistry. Tue Carnegie Corporation of New York has an- nounced its intention to give five million dollars for the use of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences and the National Research Council. It is understood that a portion of the money will be used to erect in Washington a home of suitable architectural dignity for the two beneficiary organisations. The remainder will be placed in the hands of the academy, which enjoys a Federal charter, to be used as a permanent endowment for the National Research Council. This impressive gift is a fitting supplement to Mr. Car- negie’s great contributions to science and industry. The Council is a democratic organisation based upon some forty of the great scientific and engineering societies of the country, which elect delegates to its constituent divisions. It is not supported or con- trolled by the Government, differing in this respect from other similar organisations established since the beginning of the war in England, Italy, Japan, Canada, and Australia. The Council was organised in 1916 as a measure of national preparedness, and its efforts during the war were mo&tly confined to assist- ing the Government in the solution of pressing war- time problems involving scientific investigation. Re- organised since the war on a peace-time footing, it is now attempting to stimulate and promote scientific research in agriculture, medicine, and industry, and in every field of pure science. Sir Henry Fow er has been elected president of the Institution of Automobile Engineers for the ses- sion 1920-21, and Dr. Blackwood Murray, Lt.-Col. D. J. Smith, and Mr. Geo. Watson vice-presidents. Tue National Sea Fisheries Protection Association has decided to form an organisation, to be known as the British Fisheries Guild, with the following objects :—(1) To gather and diffuse information upon all matters relating to fish and fisheries, and to col- lect and circulate statistics relative thereto; (2) to unite, encourage, and maintain all interests relating to fish and fisheries, and to affiliate local or other organisations with similar objects; and (3) to deal with all questions relative’ to fish and fisheries, whether scientific or economic in character. At the meeting of the Royal Anthropological Insti- tute to be held on February 17 Mr. J. Reid Moir will exhibit and describe certain flint implements and flakes found in the Boulder Clay in pits north of Ipswich and at Claydon. Prof. J. E. Marr is of the opinion that this deposit represents part of the large sheet of Boulder Clay of the Ipswich sheet. Mr. Moir’s examination of the form and technique of these implements has led him to the conclusion that they may with probability be referred to the Mousterian phase of culture. Mr. F. H. Carr has just been elected to a seat on the board of directors of the British Drug Houses, Ltd. After holding for several years the Salters’. research fellowship, first at the Pharma- ceutical Society’s research laboratory and afterwards at the Imperial Institute, where he specialised on the NO. 2624, VOL. 104] active principles of drugs and became a_ leading authority on alkaloids, Mr. Carr was appointed chief of Messrs. Burroughs Wellcome and Co.’s Chemical Department. In 1914 he was appointed a director resigned at the end of the war. the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research to co-ordinate and develop researches into wireless telegraphy and telephony at present being undertaken by Government Departments. The members of the Board are:—Admiral of the Fleet Sir Henry B. Jackson, G.C.B., F.R.S., chairman; Comdr. J. S. Sal- mond, R.N., Lt.-Col. A. G. T. Cusins, C.M.G., Wing- Comdr. A. D. Warrington Morris, C.M.G., Mr. E. H. Shaughnessy, and Prof. J. E. Petavel, F.R.S.—repre- senting the Admiralty, War Office, Air Ministry, Post Office, and Department of Scientific and Industrial Research respectively—and Sir Ernest Rutherford, ERS. ELEANOR ANNE ORMEROD, the distinguished sedident of economic entomology, lived at Torrington House, St. Albans, from 1887 until her death in 1901, and it was during her residence there that she achieved the final success of her great project to convince the general agricultural public that an accurate knowledge of the life-history of injurious insects was worth for preventive and curative measures. “To com- memorate her residence in the county, the Hertford- shire Natural History Society has lately) put up a tablet at the gate of Torrington House on Holywell Hill, which will help to keep alive the memory of Miss Ormerod’s splendid record of unselfish work. INFLUENZA is still far from assuming anything Registrar-General’s return for the week ended January 24 showed a slight increase. In London the deaths were 24, which is rather more than in any week since the commencement of last autumn, but the deaths in the week ended January 31 are nine fewer [than in the preceding week. The deaths for the ninety-six great towns of England and Wales, includ- ing London, in the week ended January 24 were 85, also the highest in any week since last autumn, but the following week shows a decrease of 19. Both December and January were remarkably mild, which, guided by the weather associated with previous epidemics, is scarcely in favour of lessening general health over Englandband Wales seems highly satisfactory, January was very mild over the British Isles with the normal. The weekly weather reports issued by the Meteorological Office show that the mean tem- Isles as a whole, 4° above the normal, and in the third week the excess was 2:3°, whilst for the closing week the excess for the whole kingdom was 1-6°, a deficiency: of temperature occurring in Ireland. In each week the rainfall was in excess of the normal of Boots Pure Drug Co., from which posites he o A Rapio Research Board has been established by having, because it provided the only sure foundation approaching an alarming epidemic, although the an outbreak. So far as can be judged at present, the — the exception of the first week, when the mean for — the United Kingdom generally was nearly 2° F. below _ perature for the second week was, taking the British eer & vat a a ek ial FEBRUARY 12, 1920] NATURE 639 over England. The Greenwich records show that the mean temperature was continuously above the average after the first week. The mean for the month was 42:1°, which is 3-6° above the normal for the last thirty-five years; the mean maximum was 4-9° in excess, and the mean minimum 2-1° in excess. There were fourteen days with the thermometer at 50° or above, and on four days the temperature was 55° or above. So far as London is concerned, January was warmer in 1916, when at Greenwich the mean tem- perature for the month was 3° warmer than January this year; the January mean for 1916 was 45-3°, whilst for 1917 it was 35-3°. In Canada January was abnormally cold, the contrast with the British Isles resembling greatly the winter of 1898-99. For the nine weeks of winter from November 30 to the end of January there was an excess of temperature, and also of rainfall, over the British Isles. The controlling factor was the frequent passage of disturbances from the Atlantic, the centres of which, for the most part, travelled in proximity to Scotland. THE twelfth annual report of the National Museum of Wales for 1918-19 is a record of steady progress. Considerable advance has been made in the formation of the Welsh portrait and topographical collections, which will in the near future be extensively used for educational purposes and for circulation. The most important accession to the zoological department was the collection of British Lepidoptera and birds’ eggs presented by Mr. A. F. Griffith, of Brighton. Speci- mens, models, and drawings are being collected with the view of forming a Welsh Naval and Military His- torical Record, including aviation, which will not be confined to recent years, but will embrace naval and military incidents connected with Wales or in which Welshmen have taken a conspicuous part. The im- portance of the museum for education in Wales is shown by the use of the collections for special studies in different branches of natural science, and by visits |, paid by parties of mining students to Cardiff for the purpose. The museum officials do good service in answering inquiries on scientific questions and by identifying specimens submitted for examination. Tue Syndics of the Cambridge University Press have issued a new Catalogue, to which is prefixed an interesting note on the progress of printing in Cam- bridge. The first printer, John Siberch, settled there in 1521, and eight books have been found bearing his imprint. The modern history of the Press may be said to have begun in 1698, when, thanks to the labours of Richard Bentley, a great revival of typo- graphy took place. Additions were made to the buildings, new presses set up, beautiful types imported from Holland, and a body of Curatores Preeli Typographici, of whom the Press Syndics of the present day are the successors, was appointed. One of the most famous English printers, John Baskerville, entered into an agreement with the Uni- versity in 1761. Early in the nineteenth century stereo- type plates, the invention of the third Earl Stanhope, were successfully used. In 1824 part of the surplus of the fund for erecting a statue of William Pitt was NO. 2624, VOL. 104] devoted to the new Press buildings; J. W. Parker (1836-54) was the first to introduce steam-power; and since then under the control of the Clay family—John | Clay, the late printer, died in 1916—and of the present printer, Mr. J. B. Peace, the work of the Press has rapidly extended its operations, the result of which is fully illustrated in the new Book Catalogue. In the “ Historical Collections of the Essex Insti- tute’ (vol. lvi., part i., January, 1920) Mr. F. B. C. Bradlee gives an interesting account of the maritime history of Newburyport, Massachusetts. Many famous vessels sailed from this old Essex County city, among the best known of which was the Dreadnought, built in 1853, and afterwards celebrated for making the shortest passage across the Atlantic ever accom- plished by a sailing vessel—nine days and seventeen hours from Sandy Hook to Queenstown. She was named by sailors the ‘‘ Wild Boat of the Atlantic,’”’ and was a semi-clipper, possessing the merit of being able to bear driving as long as her sails and spars would stand. Mr. Bradlee, in opposition to what he calls “a small coterie in New York,”’ claims to have proved the correctness of the records of this famous voyage of the Dreadnought in 1859, and gives a full account of later ships sailing from Newburyport. In the issue of the Annals of the Natal Museum for May, 1919 (vol. iv., part 1), a valuable paper is contributed by Mr. Claude Fuller entitled ‘‘The Wing Venation and Respiratory System of Certain South African Termites,” illustrated by eight folding plates. The author’s observations on the development of the wing-veins have been directed towards an investiga- tion of the conclusions of Comstock and Needham. One of the main points wherein he differs from the American authors is in the origin of the wing trachee. It is remarked that the trachee of the wing-sac develop from two or three buds, arising from the spiracular trunk tracheze of the meso- and meta- thorax, and not upon the dorsal and ventral longi- tudinal trunks, as enunciated in the general scheme of Comstock and Needham. In a recent book by Comstock, ‘‘The Wings of Insects” (1918), which apparently was issued while Mr. Fuller’s paper was in the press, an article is contributed by Chapman on the basal connections of the wing trachez, and it appears that these recent observations are moré in accord with those of Mr. Fuller than the earlier American work. It is evident, however, that the origin of the wing trachez in termites is less primi- tive than in some other insects. The remainder of the paper deals with the spiracles and the tracheal system as a whole, together with a study of the vena- tion in the completed wings of various species and of the wide range of variation exhibited therein. Ir is well known that when America was dis- covered maize was widely cultivated by the aborigines, but the wild source of the plant has remained obscure. Various views concerning its origin have been enter- tained, one being the theory of Mr. Collins, based on breeding experiments and morphological com- parisons, that maize arose as a hybrid between the Mexican teosinte (Euchlzna) and some unknown grass belonging to the Andropogonez. Mr. Y. Kuwada in 640 NATURE [FEBRUARY 12, 1920 an interesting paper (Journ. Coll. Sci. Imp, Univ. Tokyo, vol. xxxix., art. 10) has studied the chromo- somes of maize and its relatives, and brings cyto- logical evidence in support of Mr. Collins’s hypo- thesis. Maize, as well as Euchlaena and Andropogon, is found to have ten pairs of chromosomes, but those of Euchlzna are longer than those of Andropogon, while in maize they are found to be of different lengths, a pair frequently being composed of a longer and a shorter chromosome. From this it is concluded that maize is hybrid in origin, the two types of chromosomes being traceable as in certain experi- mentally produced animal hybrids. Some races and individuals of sugar-maize are found to have eleven or twelve pairs of chromosomes, which is attributed to cross-segmentation of one or two pairs. It would appear that in the origin of the many known varieties of maize, a considerable number of which were grown by the natives in different parts of the American continent, hybridisation and mutation may have gone hand in hand. THE United States Department of Agriculture is publishing a folio atlas of American agriculture. Part ix., section i., deals with rural population, and contains thirty black-and-white maps and diagrams based on the census returns of 1910. Among the most interesting maps are two showing respectively the increase and decrease in rural population between 1900 and 1910. Increase was mainly in the Pennsylvania mining district, in the cotton belt, in the newly developing agricultural regions of the west, and around cities. Decrease was most marked in the maize and winter wheat region. It is explained by the con- solidation of many small farms into a few large ones in order to secure the full benefit of the use of machinery and large-scale production. The decrease in population in these districts is mainly a measure of their produc- tiveness. Of much interest, too, are the maps showing the distribution of native white, foreign, and negro stocks. For this purpose all people are classed as foreign who either were born abroad or one or both of whose parents were born abroad. A series of maps shows the distribution of foreign population by countries of origin. In both urban and rural popula- tions the Germans are the principal nationality of foreign stock, and the Irish the second. Except in the case of Norwegians, Danes, and Swedes, the foreign element is more noticeable in the urban than in the rural population. A map illustrating the percentage of the rural population unable to speak English shows a high proportion in the west and north, particularly in Wyoming, North Dakota, and Minneapolis, where the Russian and Scandinavian elements are marked, and in Pennsylvania, with its comparatively recent influx of Slavs, Hungarians, Germans, and Italians. A GooD geographic account of the Mackenzie River basin has been drawn up by Messrs. C. Camsell and Wyatt Malcolm for the Geological Survey of Canada (Memoir 108, 1919). It has an eminently practical bearing, and should guide those seeking new agricul- tural lands or new fields for industry in the North- West. NO. 2624, VoL. 104] M. L. pe Launay furnishes an important review of — the mineral resources of Alsace-Lorraine in the Revue — It-isin-:: Scientifique (November 15, 1919, p. 673). teresting to note that this article arose from a lecture given in the recovered town of Metz, which lies at the south end of the great field of oolitic iron-ore. — Sketch-maps are given of this field and of the potassium and petroleum areas in the Rhine-vale. Tue importance of alge in the formation of lime- _ stone is further emphasised by the publication of Mr. W. H. Twenhofel’s paper on “ Pre-Cambrian and Carboniferous Algal Deposits’? (Amer. Journ. Sci., vol. xlviii., p. 339, November, 1919). In the massive cases here described it is held that the calcium car- bonate does not enter into the tissues of the plant, but is deposited, as in so many recent travertines, by the lessening, through the activity of organisms, of — the capacity of the water to retain the salt in solu-— The deposits are thus of the nature of laminated tion. encrustations. Tue Monthly Bulletin’ of the Hawaian Volcano Observatory, which is always noteworthy for its unique illustrations, gives (in vol. vii., No. 8, August, 1919) a fine picture of a lava-rush in a cave, photo- graphed in June, 1919. The work of observation has been rendered far more interesting for readers of — Nature since the publication of the views of the great topographic model, 1919, vol. ciii., p. 456). Kilauea in Bulletin No. 7, 1919, showing a “sure prisingly high” amount of water. Ee THE appearance of a memoir of 300 pages on “The Geology of the Country around Lichfield’’ (Mem. Geol. Survey, England and Wales, 1919, price 9s.) makes us once more wish that some relic of the Colby- Portlock plan, hazarded in Ireland in 1840, had been allowed to remain in our Geological Survey organisa- tions. The scheme of the Irish Ordnance Survey was undoubtedly too ambitious for the limitations of public © finance, and we now possess adequate unofficial descriptions, from the Victorian county histories down to the compact and clever Cambridge geographies, of — the greater part of England. The Lichfield country is fully treated in this memoir from a geological point of view, in continuation of the important modern descriptions of the details of our British coalfields; — but we should hail some expansion of Mr. G. Barrow’s twelve lines on the ‘distribution of the population.”” — controlled by — Triassic strata, that is so well seen from the tower . of Tamworth, is bounded on the east and west by — The broad agricultural landscape, busy coalfields. The Roman highway leading to the west undulates upwards to the bleak moor of Can- nock, a ‘‘chase’’ long after the days when a king’s — daughter held Tamworth Hill against the Danes. — English history is epitomised in the buildings on this hill, now so well preserved as the municipal museum ; and the changes in the density of population, — from the making of the Watling Street down to the — development of the coal-mines, are largely concerned with geology, and deserve a hela to themselves. ‘ in which the situation of the — scientific station is clearly shown (Nature of August 7, Mr. E. S. Shepherd gives a number of analyses of the gases collected from Ae ee ee Ie Ne OT eee ee Se Ore ye 1 FEBRUARY 12, 1920} NATURE 641 ‘Boru botanists and geologists will welcome the ‘second part of the memoir on the remarkable petrified plants from the silicified peat-bed in the Old Red Sandstone of Rhynie, Aberdeenshire, by Dr. R. Kid- ston and Prof. W. H. Lang, just published in the Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh (vol. lii., No. 24, with 1o plates). The genus Rhynia and a new allied genus Hornea are described in detail and referred to a new family, Rhyniacez, of the class Psilophytales. These, and the other vascular Cryptogams ‘preserved with them, are the most ancient plants of which the internal structure and external appearance are adequately known. Rhynia and Hornea have neither leaves nor roots, each consisting merely of an underground rhizome, with long, uni- cellular rhizoids, and a round aerial stem, dicho- tomously branched, with sporangia at the ends. They are the simplest known undoubted Pteridophyta, and fundamentally more primitive, not only than all exist- ing land-plants, but also than most of the plants of the Upper Devonian and Carboniferous floras. Their geological age is not later than that of the Middle Old Red Sandstone of Scotland, and an apparently related genus, Sporogonites, occurs in the Lower Devonian of Norway. Several interesting comparisons are made with existing Cryptogams, but the authors wisely defer general conclusions until they have studied more of the associated plants. Tue Report of the Department of Mines of the State of Mysore for the year 1917-18 gives a detailed account of the results of the year’s mining operations. Naturally, gold-mining in the .Kolar goldfield still forms the preponderating part of the industry; it is Satisfactory to find that, in spite of the shortage of skilled labour and the difficulty of obtaining supplies owing to war conditions, there was but little falling-off in the output, the production, amounting to 536,558:72 oz. of fine gold, being only 17,680-71 oz. below that of the previous year. -The number of acci- dents shows an appreciable diminution, and it is interesting to note that the dangerous effects of the rock-bursts, to which this field is liable, have been somewhat prevented by the new methods of supporting the hanging wall by means of packs of waste rock. Of the other minerals produced manganese-ore is the most important; the output of this was 31,331 tons as against 20,674 tons in the previous year. Chrome- ore, magnesite, and asbestos are also produced in small quantities, whilst workings for mica, antimony-ore, corundum, galena, and kaolin are proceeding on what can, for the present, be described as a purely experi- mental scale. Amoncst the reports on the mineral resources of the United States recently issued by the Geological Survey of that country one of the most interesting deals with the cement production in 1917. It is there pointed out that the United States produced 93,000,000 barrels i in that year, as against a production in Europe of 72,000,000 barrels. An interesting account is also given of the development of concrete shipbuilding. pioneer concrete ship was a small boat built in rance in 1849, followed in 1887 bya small vessel built NO. 2624, VOL. 104] in Holland. In America the first serious attempt was commenced about 1912, when a number of concrete barges were constructed, until in 1918 the Faith, a sea-going vessel of 5000 tons, was launched at San Francisco. It is stated that the percentage of dead- weight to full-load displacement for vessels of 3500- tons dead-weight capacity works out at 52 for con- crete, 53 for wood, and 68-6 for steel, so that the capacity of the concrete ship is considerably less than that of the steel ship, although this drawback is to some extent offset by the lower first cost of the con- crete ship. Much attention is being paid to this problem in the United States, the design of the steel reinforcement and the production of cement of low specific gravity being in particular closely studied. The report, though brief, contains much information of value to those interested in this modern applica- tion of reinforced concrete. Tue annual volume of the Journal of the Scottish Meteorological Society recently published contains papers of considerable interest which should be read by meteorologists on both sides of the Tweed. In the first article Lt.-Col. Gold discusses the relation of meteorology to aviation, and directs attention to the new calls which flying has made on the meteorologist. Thus, for example, visibility and cloud-height, to which little attention was directed in the daily weather service a few years ago, are now of great importance, and provision must be made for such observations in any modern system of reporting to a central office. In another paper Dr. E. M. Wedder- burn, who did much to advance the usefulness of meteorology to gunners during the war, states the nature of some of the problems met with in this branch of the subject and of the solutions adopted. In the old days gunners were content to use surface meteorological conditions only in working out. their corrections. The introduction of the ‘ballistic wind” and “ballistic temperature,’? which take account of the changes of the meteorological elements at all heights traversed by the shell, marks a great step forward. A note by Capt. C. K. M. Douglas shows what valuable information concerning the formation of haloes and similar manifestations may be obtained by flying among the clouds which give rise to the phenomena; while an article by Capt. T. B. Franklin on meteorology and agriculture will appeal to a different class of reader. Tue February issue of Conquest, the new popular science monthly, gives, amongst other articles of in- terest, a résumé of the first two of Prof. W. H. Bragg’s Royal Institution lectures to children on sound and an article by Dr. Rosenhain on glass. In the latter, which is well illustrated, it is pointed out how serious the consequences of our former neglect of the scientific side of glass-making might have been if we had not set about repairing this fault in the early years of the war. The author describes some of the difficulties which have to be overcome before glass suitable for scientific instruments can be produced. Impurities from the melting-pots and enclosed air-bubbles account chiefly for the large percentage of rejected glass, which may reach 80 per cent. Before the war glass 642 NATURE [FEBRUARY 12, 1920 _ for chemical laboratory use was entirely imported. Our own glass manufacturers have risen to the occa- sion, and-it is to be desired that they should in the future be able to retain a position in the industry. It has been known for many years that by treating a photographic plate with a weak solution of a soluble iodide development may be accelerated. In the January issue of the Journal of the Royal Photo- graphic Society S. E. Sheppard and G. Meyer (of the Eastman Kodak Co.) describe some results of their investigations of this action. It seems that the iodide has little or no effect on the action of developers that produce a visible result very soon after their applica- tion, but that developers like glycin and hydroquinone, which are slow to produce a visible effect, are much accelerated by it in the early stages of development. With hydroquinone the whole course of development is changed. Ferrous oxalate is not affected by it. The authors suggest that the process of development takes place by the formation of a complex of silver haloid and developer (which then breaks up into metallic silver and oxidation products of the developer), and that the small proportion of silver iodide pro- duced facilitates the formation of this complex. It is well established that silver iodide has a far stronger mordanting action on dyes than silver bromide. Un- fortunately for the practical application of the process, the iodide treatment seems always to produce fog. Tue _Journal of the British Science Guild for January contains an appeal to members to co-operate more fully in the work of the journal, which is extending its scope. A feature of interest in the present issue of the journal is the series of short editorial notes on topical events, forming a useful supplement to the more detailed accounts of reports, etc., following. A short account is given of the last British Scientific Products Exhibition, and Sir Richard Gregory’s address on ‘‘ Science in Industry,” delivered before the Circle of Scientific, Technical, and. Trade Journalists at its meeting on the opening day of the exhibition, is reproduced. The report of the Microscope Committee, originally published in the Journal in 1916, is now presented in its revised form. The newly formed Parliamentary Committee, in con- junction with the Agricultural Committee, was instru- mental in presenting a memorandum on the Forestry Act, stress being laid on the inclusion, amongst the seven suggested Commissioners, of at least one member having adequate technical and _ scientific knowledge of the subject. In view of the con- templated legislative measures in regard to deep-sea fisheries, the need for a comprehensive scientific survey of the industry, in order that knowledge may precede legislation, is again. pointed out. THE President of the Board of Education, we note in the Journal of the British Science Guild for January, |. does not see his way to adopt at once the suggestion of the guild for a consultative committee to advise the Board on matters affecting the relationship of universities and higher technical education to industry, but offers hope that the request may be complied with later. The suggestion conveyed to the Foreign Office NO. 2624, VOL. 104| | ’ Embassies and Legations was met by the counter- * should meet with generous response. that scientific attachés should be added to B: proposal that technical associations should make their own arrangements to obtain information on foreig developments. The Department of Overseas Trade a has issued a circular requesting early intimation of visits to foreign countries by representatives of ritish firms, in order that consular officers and other abroad may be notified. In view of the extensive a valuable work recorded, the appeal being made by the guild for new members and additional funds The address ¢ of the guild is now 6 John Street, Adelphi, W. ca Tur Cammellaird-Fullagar marine oil-engine, "aad structed by Messrs. Cammell Laird and Co., of Birkenhead, forms the subject of an illustrated article’ in Engineering for January 30. This engine is of | the two-cycle type, with two opposed pistons” working in the same cylinder, which is open at both ends, and_ the cycle takes place between the pistons. There are two vertical cylinders in each unit, arranged side by side, and two cranks at 180°. The top piston in each cylinder is connected by inclined rods to the bottom piston of the other cylinder. There are great adyan- tages in this arrangement, among which may be ‘men- tioned the saving in space, which is reduced - greatly, as compared with an ordinary marine four-cycle engine. The opposed piston type has been tried for steam, gas, and petrol engines, and has so far been found wanting. For oil-engines it has several attrac- tive features. There is no cylinder head, and the liner is a single tube free to expand at both ends. Scavenging is simple and effective, since the sweeping- out air enters at the end opposite to that through which the exhaust leaves, and no valves are requit to control the scavenging. The piston speed can, in between the approaching pistons, and ‘thus reducing the most important heat losses during this stroke of the cycle. The turning moment is ape an confined to the moving parts of the engine. — test-bed results for the engine under notice are good and the performances under seagoing conditions wa be watched with the greatest interest. ; Tue latest catalogue (No. 185) of Messrs. we ‘Hef and Sons, Ltd., Cambridge, contains the titles’ nearly two thousand works, ranging over the subjects of agriculture and husbandry, anthropology nd ethnology, botany, chemistry, geology, mineralogy # a paleontology, biology, physiology, anatomy and med cine, mathematics and physics, astronomy, and gineering. Some of the volumes were formerly property of Sir William Crookes and Sir Frank € In addition to the books referred to, there are disposal a number of portraits of scientific men. — OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN. LARGE FIREBALL ON FesRuARY 4.—In the evening at 6h, 14m. a splendid meteor was seen various parts of the country. Among the obse were several persons who have gained experience recording meteors, so that the real path derived fro’ FEBRUARY 12, 1920] NATURE 643 their data may be regarded as fairly accurate. The fireball was seen at a low altitude in the southern or ‘south-eastern sky, and it moved very slowly in a very- long horizontal flight, distributing sparks as it ‘sailed along, and finally breaking up into fragments. - The radiant was at 145°+8°, and the height of _ the object from 55 to 44 miles, length of luminous q § | course 275 miles, and velocity 18 miles per second. The recent fireball was a brilliantly conspicuous object, though the full moon had just risen, and many people mistook it at first for a rocket-like fireworl: on account of its vividness, slow motion, and final burst into spark fragments. ReLaTivE Masses or Binary Stars.—Any increase in our knowledge of the masses of the stars is of great value from a physical roint of view, since it throws light on the correlation of mass with spectral type. Mr. G. van Biesbroeck, in Popular Astronomy for January, states that photographs of binary stars are now being taken with the Yerkes refractor to determine the motion of each star of the pair, as referred to the background of faint stars, and so obtain the relative masses. Photographs of Castor were taken in the years 1916 to 1919, and give the annual motion of the bright component in R.A. —o-0167s., and for the faint component —o-o118s. Assuming Boss’s value for the motion of the centre of gravity, viz. —0-0135s., it results that the faint star is 1-9 times as massive as the bright one. The weakest point is the assumption of the motion of the centre of gravity. Boss assumed equal masses; but since a value identical with his was published in Monthly Notices R.A.S. for 1907 on the assumption that the faint star is six times as massive as the bright one, it eg seem that the value —o-0135s. is close to the truth. The systems of Procyon and ¢Cancri are also being investigated. It is hoped in the former case to fill up the gap in the orbit in the region where the faint star is too near to the primary to observe. LONG-PERIOD VARIABLES.—Several years ago the Rev. T. E. R. Phillips proposed a division of these variables into Groups I. and II., which differ in the relation to each other of the first and second har- monics, when the magnitude variation is developed in a Fourier’s series. Prof. Turner and Miss Blagg con- tributed a paper to the Monthly Notices R.A.S. for November on the star-W Cygni, analysis of the light- curve of which esctes that this star is in the act of passing from Group II. to Group I. A further paper by Prof. Turner was read at the January meeting of the Royal Astronomical Society, in which he examined the observations of several stars of Group II., for which Prof. Chandler gave a secular change of period. The analysis indicates in every case a diminution of period, but seems to show that this takes place by. sudden jumps, not by a steady, con- tinuous process, such as Chandler’s formula implies. It is suggested that the period decreases to a minimum value, after which the star passes into Group I., and its period then increases again. It was formerly the idea that these red variables’ were near the end of their career as suns, but from a study of their proper motions, which seem to be very small, it is inferred that they are giants, near the com- mencement of their career. From the case of our sun, Which is an incipient dwarf star, with a sun-spot variation period much longer than that of any known variable, we may conjecture that after passing into Group I. the period continually lengthens, while the amplitude diminishes and becomes practically in- appreciable, except in the case of the sun, the surface of which can be studied in detail. NO. 2624, VOL. 104] AUSTRALIAN SIGNPOSTS. N the Records of the South Australian Museum for August, 1919, Mr. E. R. Waite completes a description of the Toas or direction signs of the Aus- tralian aborigines which was partly translated and arranged from the manuscript of the late Rev. J. G. Reuther, of the Lutheran Mission, by the late Sir Edward Stirling. The description is prefaced by a summary account of the religious beliefs of the Diari and associated tribes in the district east of Lake Eyre, in South Australia. According to Mr. Reuther, these believed in a single Supreme Being called Mura, who was great, powerful, beautiful, omnipresent, righteous, and omniscient. Mura created a number of demi- gods—Muramura—some perfect and others imperfect, with their wives or subjects—Mili. The Muramura were the ancestors of mankind. They wandered about the country, and the legends of the natives are the records of their journeys and adventures. Native songs and invocations were addressed to them. The Muramura named all things, and many of the natural features of the country are ascribed to them. They named each of their camps from something noticed there, and these are the native place-names of the district. On the death of a Muramura his body usually changed to a_ stone, which was venerated by his descendants. Sun, moon, and the constellations were also regarded as abodes of departed Muramura. The Toas are thus described. They consist mostly of a piece of flattened wood (usually from 6 in. to 18 in. in length), ‘‘pointed at one end, and either coloured or plastered over with white clay, which itself may be coloured uniformly or marked with simple designs. At the upper end the clay is frequently moulded into a spherical or oval knob, and this also may be plain or variously coloured or have inserted some object typical of the locality or symbolical of a Muramura’s adventure, such as a tuft of grass, twigs, feathers, hair, etc., pieces of bone, charcoal, or a model of some weapon or utensil. In a considerable number of Toas the upper end is modelled into a representation of some part of the human body, such as the hand, head, or foot, or into that of the whole or some part of a bird, fish, or other animal.’’ More than three hundred coloured illustrations of Toas contained in the museum collection are given. They show a surprising variety of form and orna- mentation. Each Toa has a name which is a native place-name with the suffix -ni or -ri, meaning ‘“ direc- tion towards.’’ Four of the figures, with their ex- planations, are here given as examples. They are Nos. 1, 14, 66, and 187. ‘1, Dakarawitjarini (Diari Tribe).—The word means a hard flat or plain, where Emus run to and fro, and it originates from the legend of the Muramura, Ngura- karlina, who, coming to the place, saw many of these birds running about. “The longitudinal, vertical, and partly sinuous black stripe on the Toa represents a salt creek, the oval patch being a deep waterhole, and the lateral branches tributary creeks. Surrounding these is the plain where the Emus used to run, the white spots indicating bushes and scrub. This is the largest Toa in the collection, being over five feet in length.’’ “14, Mararuni (Wonkanguru Tribe).—To the hand 1 “Description of Toas, or Australian Aborig’nal Direction Signs,” Being an Abstract from the J. G. Reuther Manuscript by the late Sir Edward Stirling, F.R.S., Hon. Curator in Ethnology, and Edgat R. Waite, Director, South Australian Museum. Pp. 105-55+plates xi-xx Public Library, Musenm, and Art Gallery of South Australia. Records of the South Australian Museum. Edited bv the Museum Director, Vol. ‘2 No. 2, (Adelaide: Published by the Board of Governors, August 30, 1910. 644 NATURE [FEBRUARY 12, 1920 with four fingers, the Toa representing a four-fingered hand.’ The Muramura, Wutjukana, had a Servant whose index and middle fingers had partly grown together, as indicated by the Toa. The Toa also has a geographical significance, for when Wutjukana came to a gorge which divided into four branches, one being deeper than the others, he said to himself, ‘This place looks like the hand of the servant,’ and so he gave it this name.”’ “66. Witjikurawinpani (Tirari Tribe).—To the tracks of the whirlwind in the sand. When the Mura- mura, Patjalina, once came, hunting, to this place, he noticed that a whirlwind had passed over it, which had effaced the tracks of animals and had swept together a litter of leaves and grass; hence he named Fic. 2. Fig. 3 fe tay oe Fic. 1. 1G. 4; it thus. The white knob répresents a sandhill over- grown with bushes (red dots) which adjoins Cooper’s Creek. The crescent-shaped, black figure below indi- cates the creek itself, and the black vertical band a deep waterhole at the foot of the hill, which has been washed out by a flood. The surrounding borders of white and yellow signify soil of these colours, and the white spots trees.’ “187. Muramurawintini (Tirari Tribe).—To the Muramura’s hair. So named because on this plain the Muramura, Patjalina, tore out his hair and threw it away. The white colour represents the plain, with NO. 2624, VOL. 104] watercourses (red and yellow stripes), and, in accord— ance with the name, the Toa bears a tuft of hair.” — When a native is about to remove to another camp he makes a Toa representing the locality to which he — is removing and sticks its pointed end into the earth — of the camp which he is leaving. Signs are made on — the ground directing attention to its presence. His friends who arrive later recognise the significance of © the Toa, and are thus made aware of the place to which he has gone. i ‘ es ey The whole collection and its elucidation form a most interesting contribution to the study of Aus-— tralian symbolism. Sipney H. Ray. ee HUMAN METABOLISM2 HE first of the monographs before us deals with — the prediction of basal metabolism from a know- | ledge of individual physical and biological constants The usual process has been to multiply the subject’s — surface area, as deduced from the height and weight by du Bois’s method, by the average Calorie output — per square metre determined from a ‘standard’ series, it being assumed that the metabolism per unit area in adults is approximately constant. The order be assumed to be normal (actually, using a coarse unit of grouping, we find that the authors’ series for women is in good agreement with a normal dis-— tribution; the series for men is somewhat less regular, © but not a very improbable sample from a norraal population), the assignment of 925-5 Calories per square metre as the basal metabolism of an unknown — individual is subject to a standard error of +8 per cent. But if a prediction is based upon a multiple regression equation of the first degree, the other variables used being height, weight, and age, the standard error of the prediction falls from 204-7 Calories to 1or-7 Calories, or the average percentage is 6-2. ee These remarks assume that the correlation is normal correlation. As this may not be the case, and as a complete study of the form of the regression cannot profitably be made without a larger collection of data, the authors have empirically tested the accuracies of the several methods, comparing the predictions based on their equations for samples not utilised in the calculation of the constants with those afforded by the surface rule. In nearly every case the regres— sion equations give results closer to the truth than does the surface rule. pce et rage We may illustrate with a couple of examples talcen at random from the data. A man aged twenty-nine, weighing 66 kg. and 177 cm. tall, had a basal meta- bolism of 1695 Calories. The surface rule would assign 1675 Calories, with a standard error of 135; the multiple regression formula gives 1664 Calories, with a standard error of 102. Here both results are good. In another case a man aged forty-three, weighing 58-5 kg. and 181 cm. tall, had a basal meta— 1 (1) ‘A Biometric Study of Basal Metabolism in Man.” By J. Arthur Harris and Francis G. Benedict. Publication No. 279. Pp. vit 266. (Washington: The Carnegie !nstitution of Wachington, tor.) Ae (2) ‘Human Vitality and Efficiency under Prolonged Restricted Diet. By Francis G, Benedict, Walter R, Miles, Paul Roth, and H. Monmo Smith. Publication No. 280. Pp. xi+7or. (Wash nz The C Institution of Washington, 1919.) FEBRUARY 12, 1920] NATURE 645 bolism of 1331 Calories. The regression formula gives ' 1486 Calories + 102 ; the surface rule 1620 Calories + 130. Neither prediction is close to the truth, but that of the regression equation is decidedly superior. On the whole, there is no doubt that the regression method is preferable, and that the tables provided by the authors are of value. In general, however, the difference is not such as to give rise to any apprehen- sions that the use heretofore made of the surface rule has led to practical inconvenience. Prof. Lusk recently wrote :—‘‘ For the study of metabolism processes it is certainly most fortunate that the unit of surface area eliminates the same amount of heat in the normal adult within 10 per cent. of a determined average. The reason is not clear.” This remark is not invalidated by Drs. Benedict and Harris’s results, although they have provided a some- what superior criterion. It is proper to notice this point, as our authors are a little too prone to lecture their physiological colleagues upon the real meaning of scientific ‘‘laws,’’ and, as we think, exaggerate the importance which the surface “‘law’’ assumes in the minds of those who have employed it as a convenient working rule. © Space would have been saved and the statistical results and methods might have been brought to a sharper focus had a number of sententious generalities been omitted. An instance occurs on p. 148. The authors properly remark that surface must be less variable than mass (when Meeh’s formula is used), and imply that it is a direct arithmetical consequence that heat per surface unit is less variable than heat per mass unit. This really needed further investiga- tion. The coefficient of variation of an index is a function not only of the coefficients of variation of its constituents, but also of their correlation; the sub- stitution for one constituent of another less variable constituent might not reduce the variability of the index were the correlation also greatly reduced. In the present case the two correlations are nearly equal, and the authors could have actually made their point . more securely had they explained the theory of the matter more fully. Were physiologists really so ill-acquainted with statistical methods as the authors hint, the remarks on p. 16 with respect to the ‘*‘ probable error” of the mean of a sample of four might be dangerous. But we think that British physiologists are quite alive to the importance of biometric methods, sufficiently so to congratulate Drs. Benedict and Harris upon the con- clusion of a laborious task which has yielded results of appreciable value to other students of metabolism. The second volume describes two series of experi- ments upon squads of college students, originally twelve in each squad. In squad A, diet providing approximately 2500 Calories and 13 grams of nitrogen was maintained for four months; in sauad B, a still lower diet, yielding about 9 grams of nitrogen and 1500 Calories, was used for three weeks. The former squad lost on the average 12 per cent. of the initial body-weight, and the basal metabolism per square metre per twenty-four hours fell from 940 to 817 Calories. Squad B lost 6-5 per cent, of the average body-weight, and the basal metabolism also declined considerably. The urinary excretion of nitrogen in both series was not so variable as might have been expected, and did not decline, pari passu, with the diminished intake. By the end of the experiment on squad A, an average loss of 175 grams of nitrogen (based on nine men continuously observed) was in- ferred. ; In the course of the experiments intervals of un- | controlled feeding occurred, viz. during the Thanks- giving celebrations, November 29 to December 2, 1917, NO. 2624, VOL. 104] and during the Christmas holidays, December 20, 1917, to January 6, 1918. On alternate Sundays the diet was usually uncontrolled. A very large number of anthro- pometric, physiological, and psychological measure- ments were made upon these men. In addition to the decline of basal metabolism above noted, both pulse-rate and blood-pressure diminished. Little ob- jective evidence of a decrease of physical efficiency was obtained. The majority of the psychological tests pointed to a diminution of efficiency, or at least to a lack of improvement with practice. The students’ college work, on the other hand, did not appear to suffer. The value of this research, which verifies upon a relatively large scale the practicability of diminishing both the rate of metabolism and the quota of body nitrogen by a simple reduction of intake, should be appreciated by scientific clinicians, while many issues of physiological interest are raised and lines of advance suggested to the pure physiologist, especially in connection with the study of levels of nitrogenous metabolism. As a contribution to the science and art of national dietetics, this elaborate—one might almost say over- elaborate—study is not of so much importance. It is shown that a great reduction, both of available energy and protein, may be borne for some months by healthy adults without either immediate breakdown or sign of enduring deterioration; these are facts which in- voluntary experiment on a vast scale had already demonstrated... The correlation between variations of nutrition and of» resistance to infection, which ‘““common sense’’ has postulated and which the vital statistics of Europe seem to substantiate, must engage the attention of future investigators; at present an adequate experimental technique is lacking. We do not think that Dr. Benedict and his associates have obtained any results either invalidating the general conclusions expressed by the Food (War) Committee of the Roval Society or filling up lacunz in our know- ledge of the general subject shown by that committee to exist. The experimental and statistical study of national dietetics is still in its infancy, M. G. ISOSTATIC COMPENSATION EARTH’S CRUST. Bes articles on isostasy by the late Prof. Joseph Barrell, which appeared in the American Journal of Science for October, 1919, contain what may be regarded as his mature views on the subject. The first, entitled “‘The Nature and Bearings of Isostasy,”’ was a summary of six lectures delivered by Prof. Barrell at Columbia University in 1916; it gives a general account of the theory of isostatic compensa- tion, and of the methods of investigation which have led to the recognition of the phenomenon. The second article, ‘‘The Status of the Theory of Isostasy,"’ was written just before the author’s death; it vindicates the theory as to attacks which have been made on it by MacMillan and others, and describes the various views which are held as to the degree of perfection of isostatic balance existing in Nature. Hayford’s general conclusion is maintained: that surface in- equalities of contour and mass are accompanied by inverse inequalities of density beneath the surface, so that at a depth of about 120 km. equal areas have equal masses superposed; but a view different from Hayford’s is taken as to the exactness of this com- pensation. Hayford estimated the greatest departure from com- pensation as being 25¢ ft. above or below the level for perfect balance over an area of one square degree on IN THE 646 NATURE te [FEBRUARY 12, 1920 ‘ the earth. Other geodesists consider that the devia- tion is much less than this, even when the areal extent is smaller; Sir S. G. Burrard, for instance, at the recent discussion on isostasy before the Royal Astro- nomical Society (Observatory, December, 1919), sug- gested that so small a body as the Great Pyramid might be compensated. Prof. Barrell, on the other hand, while admitting that the larger relief of the earth is compensated for with considerable exactness, contends that over limited areas there are large deviations—amounting to 1000 ft. over an area 200 miles in diameter (about 3°), or even more. He regards the upper part of the earth’s crust as suffi- ciently strong to sustain uncompensated loads of this amount, the vertical magnitude of the departure being, of course, inversely proportional to its areal extent; it can thus support individual mountains or limited ranges, as well as erosion features of considerable magnitude, such as the Nile and Niger deltas. Under greater and more widely extended loads, however, the crust is supposed to bend in gentle curves involving but little crustal stress; this bending is accompanied by yielding in a lower, weaker layer, which brings about isostatic compensation. The question at issue is largely one of fact, which can be settled by observation; e.g. if pendulum ob- servations show that the Nile deposits are com- pensated in the crust, the result will confirm the views of the extreme isostasists, that continuous adjustment goes on when the surface load changes over a com- paratively small area. The manner of this adjustment, however, has not yet been made clear, and Prof. Barrell’s picture of the process is more easy to con- ceive. On the other hand, Sir S. G. Burrard has shown recently that the alluvium in the Gangetic trough at the foot of the Himalayas is compensated for. It is much to be regretted that Prof. Barrell’s death deprives us of his interpretation of this result. DEFENSIVE SCIENCE IN GAS WARFARE. 2 ean prizes and certificates gained by students at- the Sir John Cass Technical Institute, Aldgate, were distributed by Lt.-Col. P. S. Lelean, professor of hygiene, Royal Army Medical College, on the evening of Tuesday, February 3, when the chair was taken by the Rev. J. F. Marr, who has succeeded Sir Thomas Elliott, K.C.B., as chairman of the governing body. Following the distribution, Col. Lelean gave an address on ‘‘ Defensive Science in Gas Warfare,’ in which he described the preventive measures that had been adopted to meet its onset and evolution. After referring to the initial attack on April 23, 1915, when the civilised world was aroused to just anger by the news that the Germans had broken their pledged word in respect to the use of poisons as a means of injuring the enemy, Col. Lelean dealt with the means of protection first adopted in the form of pads soaked in sodium thiosulphate, of which no fewer than 98,000 were distributed to the Front within sixty hours of the attack, 300,000 within a week, and 2,000,000 within a month—a truly notable achieve- ment, which was rendered possible only by the com- bined efforts of men of science, manufacturers, and voluntary helpers. With the recognition of gas attacks as an estab- lished adjunct of modern warfare, this temporary device was succeeded by the more efficient protective appliances which were called for by the advent of toxic, paralysing, and lachrymatory gases such as carbonyl chloride, hydrocyanic acid, and chloropicrin, which culminated first in the adoption of the “P” helmet, of which nearly 27,000,000. were issued NO. 2624, VOL. 104] my 1915, and ,the final withdrawal in ; in favour of the now well-known between July, February, 1918, ‘*box-respirator.”’ “ A full description was given of the great difficulties © that were met with stage by stage during the develor ment of these protective appliances, especiall respect to the need for the complete absorption of the small percentages of the poison gases concerned, together with the fundamental requirements of parative ease of breathing and exhalation. 2 Col. Lelean paid a special tribute to the outsta1 services of Sir William Horrocks and to the late Cx E. F. Harrison in this connection; also to the man scientific helpers with whom they were associate and particularly to the gallantry and devotion to duty of the small band of scientific workers who had serve: under him and upon whom had devolved the practica testing of the efficiency of the many devices which were experimented with in a ‘lethal chamber ’’ before their issue to the fighting forces could be justifie In speaking of the helpful war-work contributed — by the staff of the Sir John Cass Technical Institute, Col. Lelean expressed the view that it was to such institutes that the nation looked in its hour of scientific — need, and had not looked in vain; and that it is to such institutes also that, with an ever-increasing appeal, we shall have to look for victory in the futur strife of industrial competition, which can be won only by superior technical skill. ee VISUAL TESTS FOR MOTOR-DRIVER SP HE Council of British Ophthalmologists, realisin : the importance of submitting chauffeurs — other drivers of motor vehicles to some visual : appointed a committee to consider the question. Its — report is divided into five parts:—(1) The existi conditions under which licences are at present granted. 2) the number of accidents occasioned annually i ondon by mechanically propelled vehicles; (3) the various kinds of visual defects in motor-drivers from which accidents may arise; (4) proposed scheme — visual testing for licences; and Gs ) summary © recommendations. The subject is complicated by the following facts. There are two licensing authoriti the county or borough councils and the police authori- ties. The requirements vary according to the type o vehicle, e.g. private cars, commercial cars, omni- buses, taxi-cabs, and tramcars. The total number o applicants for licences makes. it impracticable ¢t submit every one to a satisfactory sight test. council’s chief recommendations are:— - “That special sight-test certificates for dri = motor vehicles be instituted, and granted to appli whose sight has been tested by ophthalmic sur; appointed for the purpose, these certificatés to b three grades: Grade A, certifying the holder’s vi capacity to drive any kind of motor vehicle; Grac certifying the holder’s visual capacity to drive any |} of motor vehicle other than a motor-omnibus tramcar; and Grade C, certifying the holder’s capacity to drive a motor-tramcar. eens ‘For Grade A Certificate——(1) Every applicant, addition to manifesting his ability to steer a motor- satisfactorily in daylight, should be required, trial trip at night, to show himself capable of d: in dim light and under varying degrees of illumin: tion. (2) In an examination by an ophthalmic surg he should show: (a) Visual acuity of 6/9 in one and 6/24 in the other eye without the aid of glas (b) a full field of vision in each eye; (c) no mani squint; and (d) no double vision. 1 ‘For Grade B- Certificate-—(1) Every applicant, ir addition to manifesting his ability to steer a motor-car rs 0 ant FEBRUARY 12, 1920} NATURE 647 satisfactorily in daylight, should be required, in a trial trip at night, to show himself capable of driving in dim light and under varying degrees of illumination. (2) In an examination by an ophthalmic surgeon he should show: (a) Visual acuity of 6/9 in one eye and 6/24 in the other eye, with glasses if necessary ; (b) a full field of vision in each eye; and (c) no double vision. ‘For Grade C_ Certificate-—(1) Every applicant should be required in a trial trip to show himself capable of driving a motor-tramcar by day and by night under varying degrees of illumination. (2) In an examination by an ophthalmic surgeon he should reach the same visual standards as for a Grade A certificate.’’ The council has clearly taken great pains to con- sider the subject in all its manifold bearings. The recommendations appear to be adequate and reason- able, and there is evidence that the authorities are favourably disposed to them. INERTNESS OF INDUSTRIAL EXPLOSIVES. ROM Western Australia we have received an interesting report on investigations into the development of inertness in industrial explosives of the nitro-compound class by Mr. E. A. Mann, Chief Inspector of Explosives, and his colleague, Mr. T. N. Kirton (Perth, W.A.: Government Printers). These investigations were started in 1912 in consequence of repeated complaints from the mines that the explo- sives supplied failed to do the work expected of them. That these complaints were not without foundation was soon ascertained by obtaining samples of the explosive under suspicion and testing their velocities of detonation. The method employed was the well- known D’Autriche system, by which the velocity is calculated in relation to the meeting point of detonations of ‘“‘cordeau détonant’? or T.N.T. fuse initiated at either end by detonators em- bedded at a fixed distance from one another in the sample under test. The results were startling, and in some instances almost incredible had they not been confirmed by excellent photographs. One of the most striking cases is perhaps that of a gelignite cart- ridge both ends of which were shattered by the detona- tors attached to the T.N.T. fuse, while the main body of the cartridge remained intact. This is, of course, an extreme case, but in several instances the velocity of detonation was found to be as low as a few hundred m.p.s. as compared with about 2300 m.p.s. on arrival in the country. Another significant feature is that these inert samples have invariably increased in density from about 1-60 on arrival to about 1-69. : Although a certain degree of after-gelatinisation, with consequent reduction of sensitiveness to detona- tion, is a recognised phenomenon even in this country, it has not been sufficient to have any practical effect in our temperate climate; but as a result of this report it cannot be denied that, so far as our Oversea Possessions are concerned, the matter is of consider- able importance, ‘and deserves the consideration which we understand our leading manufacturers are giving to it. From concurrent observations which the writers of the report have made in regard to the alteration in the viscosity of the nitro-cotton when extracted with amyl acetate, they are disposed to attribute the phenomenon to a change in the molecular structure of this ingredient, and the further investiga- tions they promise will be interesting. NO. 2624, VOL. 104] FLOW OF WATER THROUGH A PIPE. PAPER entitled ‘‘The Orifice as a Means of Measuring the Flow of Water through a Pipe”’ describes experiments made by Messrs. Davis and Jordan, of the Engineering Experiment Station of the University of Illinois (Bulletin 109), to determine the practicability of measuring the flow of water in a pipe line by means of the pressure drop across a circular orifice in a thin plate diaphragm inserted at a pipe joint. The experiments, which covered a range of pipe diameters ranging from 4 in. to 12 in., show that as a temporary measuring device, or where the loss of head produced by the diaphragm is not serious, the method is capable of useful application. Measuring the upstream head at a point o-8 of the pipe diameter from the diaphragm, and the downstream head at a point o-4 pipe.diameter from the diaphragm, the dis- charge is proportional to the square root of the differ- ence of these heads. For a given pipe, the discharge coefficient varies slightly with the diameter of the orifice and with the velocity of flow. So long as the ratio of the diameters is between 2 and 8, the variation is, however, small. For measurements in which an error of 2 per cent. is not serious, the discharge may be taken as given by :— Q=AKYvVh cub. ft. per sec. where A is the area of the pipe in sq. ft. », his the difference of head on the two sides of the orifice. Tables showing the accurate values of K for different diameters of pipe and of orifice are given in the original paper. The device would appear to be of value for field service, as being capable of easy and inexpensive application, since in a flanged pipe system the diaphragm may be inserted at a joint with little or no disturbance of the existing piping. APPLICATIONS OF AMPLIFYING ELECTRIC VALVES. M L. BLOCH communicates an interesting paper * on the industrial applications of the amplifying valves used in radio communication to the Revue Scien- tifique of January to. When the vacuum is almost perfect these valves can be used to increase the ampli- tudes of high-frequency oscillations at least a thousand- fold. Their great advantage is that they act as if devoid of inertia, and so completely solve the problem of a telephonic relay. They are already in use in long- distance telephony.. For alternating currents of low frequency the vacuum in the valves does not need to be nearly so high. If argon is used a vacuum of 3 cm. suffices, and currents as large as five amperes can pass through the valve. The valves can be use- fully employed for charging accumulators from alternating-current circuits. Another important ap- plication is for measuring very small currents and pressures. The currents are magnified a thousand times, and then they actuate direct-reading instru- ments. By their use the messages sent from the powerful American radio stations at Annapolis. and New Brunswick can be recorded on a Morse ribbon in Paris. They were much used in ‘ earth-telegraphy " during the war. Two conductors were fixed in the ground about 50 metres apart, and a source of high- frequency current and a microphone were connected between the conductors. The receiving circuit was 648 NATURE ik ime ae - [FEBRUARY 12, 192 similar, but contained an amplifying valve and a telephone. Messages could easily be sent in this way. This method proved of great value when the ordinary lines were cut by the enemy. The valves also made ‘‘direction finding’? and communication between aeroplanes easy. When used as generators they give currents the frequencies of which can be varied from a tenth to millions per second. They are of great value, therefore, for calibrating wave- meters. It is also possible by their use to maintain the oscillations of mechanical vibrators by suitable arrangements. They introduce the equivalent of negative friction or negative damping into the circuits. THE FUTURE OF TROPICAL AUSTRALIA: ae possibilities of settlement in tropical Australia are discussed in great detail by Mr. Griffith Taylor in the Geographical Review for August (vol. viii., No. 2). Taking tropical Australia to be bounded by the southern tropic, Mr. Taylor gives it an area equal to barely 40 per cent. of the total area of Australia and about one-thirtieth of the total population. Analysing carefully the climatic and vegetational factors, he con- cludes that it is mainly a pastoral land except in eastern Queensland, where tropical crops and wheat do well. The coastal lands of the Gulf of Carpentaria are also fit for agriculture. Mr. Taylor sees little hope of tropical Australia becoming a prosperous and pro- ductive land if the White Australia policy is main- tained. Chinese are chiefly restricted to tropical lands with an abundant rainfall. The hot, dry climate of the greater part of tropical Australia is best suited to the natives of India. Even if white settlement proved to be possible by a slow process of acclimatisation, it would only be at the cost of many lives, and at hest would take a very long time. But, assuming that political difficulties will eventually be overcome, Mr. Taylor tries to estimate the future population that tropical Australia could support provided transport facilities are introduced. One district in the interior of Western Australia and the Northern Territory, with an area of about 150,000 square miles, is suited for any population. The remainder of the area under consideration, according to his estimate, could sup- port a total population of about 1,400,000, with a density varying from 8 per square mile in the east of Queensland to 1 per square mile or less in the more arid parts of Western Australia and the inland regions of the Northern Territory. Mr. Taylor’s paper is a valuable contribution to the study of Australian problems. PLANT-LICE IN THE TROPICS. A RECENT publication of the Scientific Institute of Buitenzorg contains a well-worked-out monograph by P. Van der Goot of the aphides of Java. The author attributes the comparative scarcity of plant-lice in the tropics, as compared with temperate regions, to the attacks of insect enemies such as Syrphide, Coccinel- lide, and mining wasps, and also to the occurrence of violent rainstorms, drought, and other unfavourable climatic conditions. The tobacco plant and sugar-cane are the only cultivated plants seriously injured by aphides in Java. In Europe there is always a longer or shorter period of lowered temperature during which the functions of plants are more or less in abeyance. This unfavourable period is generally passed through by aphides in the form of eggs laid in autumn by sexually developed females. If, however, the tempera- ture is artificially kept up, the sexually developed females persist, together with the eggs, and propaga- tion takes place in the regular manner, i.e. by means NO. 2624, VoL. 104] of parthenogenetic, viviparous females. In the tropics there is no considerable lowering of temperature; there is, however, generally a rainy and a dry season. In the latter, though there is often a failure of nutri- ment, there is never found a rest-form in the condi- tion of sexually produced eggs. Even in mountain regions, where in the dry season the temperature 1 ; fall to freezing point, the author has never f 5 sexually developed aphides. iSaap arse of these insects in the tropics, says Van der Goot, takes place invariably by means of parthenogenesis. He has never observed in Java a regular migration of h whether such a phenomenon ever occurs he is unable to conjecture. The production of winged forms does — not always depend on the drying-up of plant-food, for some species acquire wings in the middle, and others at the end, of the dry season. oe fase ’ UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL INTELLIGENCE. sia BirmincuamM.—The board of management of the Brewing School has given the sum of 20,0001. for the endowment of a chair of brewing, to be known as _ the Adrian Brown chair, in memory of the late Prof. Adrian Brown, F.R.S., the first professor of bre ear in the University. a jie ea A sum of more than 2000l. has been subscribed the endowment of a lectureship in social philos as a permanent memorial in honour of Prof. J. H. Muirhead. neta LivErRPooL.—The council of the University ha: appointed Mr. G. E. Scholes to the recently estab- lished chair of engineering-thermodynamics of hea engines. Mr. Scholes studied in the engineering department of Owens College, Manchester, and has held important teaching posts in engineering subjects at Manchester and Liverpool Universities and in the Army engineering schools. During his career in the Army, which he joined in 1915, Mr. Scholes did valu- able work as a captain-instructor in petrol and oth engines at one of the R.E. schools. Also as expe mental officer he successfully devised important tech- nical improvements relating to aircraft defence. The chief of these was a device in connection with sound-— locators, which Mr. Scholes designed and constructed. — This invention was adopted and standardised, the Et ie na z inventor being awarded a grant from the Inventions Award Committee. Mancuester.—Mr. Frank Watts, who has been appointed assistant to the director of the Department of Industrial Administration at the College of Tech- nology, will devote especial attention to a study o vocational selection and training, and assist in working out a set of tests of industrial fatigue. Tue Regional Association, the president of which is Prof. Patrick Geddes, will hold a conference on regional survey during the Easter vacation (April 6-13) at the Outlook Tower, Edinbursh. Residence is being arranged in University Hall, so that the poles of communal life may be enjoyed during week. yas Tue Seale-Hayne Agricultural College at New! Abbot, in Devon, commenced last month its first series of regular courses in agriculture with a very satisfac- tory complement of students. The courses given com. prise a three-year divloma in agriculture, a two-vear certificate in agriculture and: horticulture, and short courses upon various subjects of agricultural import- ance, such as poultry-keening, dairying, etc. Tue election to the Sorby research fellowship of the Royal Society and the University of Sheffield will and Efficiency.”’ rogues FEBRUARY 12, 1920] NATURE 649 take place after Easter. The appointment will be for five years, and the value of the fellowship is approximately 50ol, per annum. ‘The person elected will be expected to pursue his investigations at the University of Sheffield, if possible. A, copy of the regulations governing the fellowship is obtainable from the Royal Society, the secretaries of which will receive applications for the fellowship itself up to April 20. A course of five public lectures is to be given at = o'clock on successive Wednesdays, beginning on February 25, at the Imperial College of Science and Technology, South Kensington, by Sir Richard Glaze- brook, the University of London Zaharoff professor of aviation. The subjects will be :—‘‘ Aeronautical Research,” ‘‘ Stability and its Investigation,”’ ‘‘ Instru- ments and Methods of Full Scale Research,” ‘‘ Strength of Construction.’”’ and ‘‘The Airscrew: Its Design Application for tickets of admis- sion should be made to the Registrar of the college. SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES. o Lonpon. — Royal Society, January 29.—Sir Thomson, president, in the chair.—Prof. W. Bateson and Caroline Pellew: The genetics of ‘rogues’? among culinary eas (Pisum sativum). In a previous communication Proc. R.S., Ixxxix., 1915) the authors showed that certain intermediates between types and rogues in peas had a peculiar genetic behaviour. amilies raised by self-fertilisation from them consist of a small minority of type-like plants and a majority of rogues. Preliminary experiment showed that the type-like plants come from seeds contained in the lower pods. Investigations of the past four years, consisting chiefly of reciprocal crosses made from suc- cessive flowers, have confirmed this conclusion, and proved further that the ratio of type-like to rogue- like gametes is different on the female and male sides. On the female side the ratio is about equal for the first ten flowers, after which the proportion of increases. On the male side, taking the type-like gametes as unity, the proportion of rogue- like for the first six flowers in succession is as follows :—4-6, 4-9, 7, 10, 12-3, and 295. From self- fertilisations the proportion found for the first six flowers is 15, 11, 13, 1&, 54, and more than roo. There is thus a gradational change in successive flowers. This gradual elision of the type-characters must be brought about by a process similar to that which operates more rapidly in the case of F, plants bred between type and rogue. These, though con- taining the tvpe, breed rogues only, the type being excluded in the base of the plant.—L. T. Hogben: Studies of synapsis. I.: Oogenesis in the Hymeno- ptera. The more salient conclusions arrived at are as follows :—(1) Sex determination in 2 agamicallv produced: In Cynins and Rhodites (agamic forms) there is reduction of the chromosomes in the voung oocyte. The somatic number of chromosomes in Rhodites is 18, as believed by Henking. The chromo- somes of the young oocyte counted by Schlein are double (bivalent). Henking’s belief in the doubling of chromosomes in segmentation is confirmed. Both polar bodies are probably formed as the result of homotypic division. (2) The maturation prophases : A diploteric and pachvteric: stage with the bicinloid number of filaments follows synapsis in all cases in the young oocvte. At this stage nurse-cells are dif- ferentiated. In Cynips, Rhodites, and Orthovelma the diploid number reappears after a “diffuse” stage. These univalents pair end to end,°as described bv Heynes in Covidcsoma. NO. 2624, VOL. 104] There are thus two chromo- ! some conjugations in the parasitic Hymenoptera, as described in Lepidosiren by Agar, but not hitherto confirmed in other animals by other work. An abor- tive spindle followed by an atypical formation of polar bodies appears to be general in the Hymenoptera. (3) Secondary nuclei and the oosoma: Secondary nuclei were observed in the oogenesis of Synergus, Formica, and Lasius. They appear to arise from chromidia ejected from the germinal vesicle at the time when the latter undergoes diminished staining capacity. The ‘‘oosoma’’ arises in Synergus as a cloud of cytoplasmic granules. It is not nuclear in origin.—H. Onslow: A periodic structure in many insect scales, and the cause of their iridescent colours. The cause of iridescence in insects, etc., still remains unexplained. The minute structure of many iridescent bodies was investigated, because the most eminent physical authorities differed fundamentally as to the cause of their colour. The great variety of structures described and illustrated shows that each object must be iudged on its own merits, because no general theory will explain all cases. The principal tvpoe of colour- producing structure found in butterflies has not hitherto been described. It consists of transparent plates of chitin senarated bv films of air. These plates are at right ansles to the scale-surface, and only a few half-wave-lengths in thickness. Their heisht. shape, and colour together control the colour-tone and saturation. Some butterflies have nlates of chitin ap- parently parallel to the vlane of the wing; others, again, show structures the colour of which cannot be explained. Reasons are given showing that the mono- chromatic transmission and reflection colours in beetles’ scales are probably not entirely due to ‘ sratings,’’ as was proposed by Michelson. The chief objections to metallic reflection in the case of scales are not met with in the wings of scaleless beetles. Here the colour-producing layer is so near the surface that it would be difficult for any other adequate struc- ture to exist. In certain beetles the colour is pro- duced by a thick layer of doubly refractive rods, such that sections tangential to the surface still retain their colour. The wing chitin of golden ‘tortoise beetles ’” appears metallic at all depths when moistened, but loses colour when dry. In other insects and some ticks the colour returns on wetting, apparently because there is a thin film, which by adsorbing water becomes transparent, and can cause interference. Iridescence in dragon-flies, ‘the eves of flies. plants, and certain hairs, such as the golden mole, is also discussed. Mineralogical Society, January 20.—Dr. A. E. H. Tutton, past president, in the chair—Dr. E. S. Simpson: Gearksutite at Gingin, Western Australia. This mineral, which occurs in Cretaceous greensand, is considered to have a composition corresponding to the formula CaF,.AIF(OH),.H,O, and to have originated from the interaction in situ of fluoraratite, gibbsite, and carbonated water.—C. E. Barrs: Fibro- ferrite from Cyprus. Analysis of material from Skouriotissa, Cyprus, gave the following result. Fe,O,, 31-36; SO;, 30:95; H,O (by difference), 37-01; insoluble, o68.—Dr. G. T. Prior: The classification of meteorites. For purposes of the classification of meteorites, the significance is pointed out of the chemical composition of the nickel-iron and _ the magnesium silicates. In the case of meteoric irons, the structural features, as revealed by etching, are shown to be closely related to the content of nickel. In meteoric stones the proportion of magnesia to ferrous oxide in the magnesium silicates varies directly with the proportion of iron to nickel in the nickel-iron. On these principles the four classes of meteorites, viz. irons, stony-irons, chondrites, and achondrites, can be divided into interrelated groups. 650 NATURE [FEBRUARY 12, 1920 The three groups of chondrites are distinguished as enstatite-chondrites, bronzite-chondrites, and hypers- thene-chondrites, according to the chemical composi- tion of the pyroxene. The achondrites are‘ divided into corresponding groups of enstatite-achondrites, bronzite (-augite)-achondrites, and hypersthene-achondrites, while a fourth group is added richer in lime (and mostly also in alumina) than the chondrites. To avoid confusion owing to Brezina’s misuse of the term chladnite, the enstatite-achondrites, comprising Aubres, Bustee, and Bishopville, are called aubrites; while for the hypersthene-achondrites (Shalka, etc.) a rever- sion is made to Tschermak’s original name of dio- genite.—A. F, Hallimond: Torbernite. In continua- tion of -he author’s previous work, a series of weigh- ings ‘vas made on Gunnislake material held over vario..s concentrations of sulphuric acid. Dehvydra- tion did not occur at the pressure required, and only took place slowly over strong acid in a period of many months. It is clear that this mineral cannot be iden- tical with ordinary torbernite. The refractive index agrees with that found for an abnormal torbernite by N. L. Bowen. Normal torbernite has the density 3:22 and mean index 1-585, while for artificial meta- torbernite and for the Gunnislake mineral the density is 3-68 and the index 1-624. An approximate reading yielded for Gunnislake crystals c:a=2-28:1. The basal planes of the two forms are of the same dimen- sion, and the volume-change due to the addition of 4H.O is borne by an increase in the vertical axis. The density of the water of crystallisation is 1-2, a value common in hydrated salts, while the refractive power is equal to that for liquid water. CAMBRIDGE. Philosophical Society, January 26.—Sir Joseph Larmor ; Gravitation and light.—E,* Landau: Note on Mr. Hardy’s extension of a theorem of Mr. Polya.—L. aps Rogers: A Gaussian series of six elements. MANCHESTER, Literary and Philosophical Society, January 20.—Sir Henry A. Miers, president, in the chair.—Prof. W. M. Calder: Geography and history in the Mediterranean. The author described the relation of the Mediterranean to the series of great plains lying to its north and south, and to the mountain systems known as “the roof of the world.’’ The influence” of the sea and land routes on the trade and growth of neighbouring countries was discussed. The great importance of Aleppo as the railway junction of the future for London, Berlin, Calcutta, Cairo, and Cape Town was pointed out. ‘Rail power ’’ may one day restore the Levant to its ancient position as the centre of com. munications of the Old World. Literary and Philosophical Society (Chemical Section), January 30.—Mr. R. H.: Clayton in the chair.—Dr. R. S. Willows: Recent work on colloids. A definite amount of energy is associated with definite colloidal areas. Adsorption was defined and sols described. Surface tension and some technical applications were discussed by the author. : : Paris. Academy of Sciences, January <.—M. Henri Deslandres in the chair.—A. Lacroix: The systematic classification of grained rocks containing plagioclase and felspars.—C. Moureu, C. Dufraisse, P. Robin, and J. Pougnet: The stabilisation of acrolein. Preserva- tive action of phenolic bodies. Phenols all possess the property of stabilising pure acrolein, and certain poly- phenols (pyrocatechol, hydroquinone, and pyrogallol) are especially active.—A. de Gramont : The direct arc- NO. 2624, VOL. 104] spectra of metals of low melting point. The metals examined were lead, zinc, cadmium, tin, antimony, bismuth, aluminium, and magnesium. In some cases spectrographs were obtained showing three spectra of the same metal (spark, direct arc, and carbon — arc) on the same plate, and reproductions of these for lead and tin are given.—P, Humbert: The cal- culations of G. H. Darwin on the stability of the — pyriform figure. G. H. Darwin and Liapounov came to opposite conclusions on the stability of the ee form figure of equilibrium of a fluid in rotation. : method used by Darwin, due to Poincaré, is exact, but the development of the series was not carried to a sufficient number of terms, and the results are inexact, or at least doubtful—A. Véronnet: The formation of an isolated star in an indefinite homo- geneous nebula.—J. Andrade: The experimental con- trol of doubly damped pendular vibrations.—G. A. Hemsalech: The emission of positive luminous par- ticles by the alkali metals at high temperatures.— A. de Gramont: Observation on the preceding com- munication.—J. B. Senderens: The catalytic hydro- genation of. lactose. A repetition of the experiments of Ipatiew on the reduction of lactose in water-alcohol — solution by hydrogen at high pressures (74 atmo- spheres) at 130° C. in presence of nickel and nickel oxide. The maim product of the reaction is dulcite, but there is a secondary reaction depending on the: activity of the nickel catalyst. A new sugar, lactosite, CysH0,,+ H,O, is formed, and corresponds to the — melibiotite obtained as a syrup by Scheibler and Mittelmeier. On inversion, lactosite gives sorbite and galactose.—E, de Loisy: A commercial method for the synthetic production of alcohol or ether, starting with coal-gas. The velocity of absorption of ethylene from coal-gas by sulphuric acid is increased by the addition of a catalyst, and the same acid can be used _ in succession for the removal of ethylene, other un- saturated hydrocarbons, moisture, and, rage for the preparation of ammonium sulphate.—N. J. Lebedeff: The Carboniferous in the Caucasus chain. —Ch. Picquenard: The fossil flora of the coal basins of Quimper and Kergogne.—Ch. Gorceix: Some con- siderations on the surfaces of to density at the interior of the earth.—E, Licent: The ascophore form of Clasterosporium fungorum.—G. Mangenot: The evolution of the chondriome and plasts in the — Fucacee.—P. Nogués: Hovering flight produced by a horizontal wind of invariable direction and velo- — city.—MM. Constantin and Soula: A new method of graphical recording in physiology, using a microphone and electromagnetic style. A directly recording sphygmograph.—Mlle. M. Gauthier: The ‘* trypano- some’? of the trout. The first trypanosome was dis- — covered by Valentin in 1841 in the blood of a trout, but no further work on this particular parasite appears to have been done since that date. Additional ob- servations on this organism show that it should not — be included in the genus Trypanosoma properly so- called, but in the genus Trypdnoplasma, created by — Laveran and Mesnil in 1901.—T. Kabéshima: Experi- mental therapy: on germ-carriers.—F. d’Herelle i The process of defence against the intestinal bacilli and the ztiology of diseases of intestinal origin.—P. — Courmont and A. Rochaix: The bacterial flora of sewage effluents purified by the method known as — boues activées. The reduction in bacteria by this — process is considerable, and the species remaining in — the effluent are all aerobic, and include no known ~ pathogenic form.—F, Bordas: The preparation and conservation of vaccinal pulp. Reply to some criticisms by P. Achalme and Mme. Phisalix. | a) ‘January 12.—M. Henri Deslandres in the chair.— G. Bigourdan: The observatories of Lalande at the an Se OECD FEBRUARY 12, 1920] NATURE Palais-Royal and at the Collége de France.—L. Maquenne and’ E. Demoussy: The distribution and migration of copper in the tissues of green plants. Twenty-seven species of plants: were. examined, and copper was found in all parts of the plants, this metal tending to accumulate at points where’ the percentage of water is at a maximum. ‘The increase of copper is not the consequence of a physico-chemical pheno-' menon, as is the case with silica and calcium car- bonate, but follows a. process analogous with that governing the nutrition of the plant.—A. Blondel: A method for the measurement of atmospheric trans- parency.—L. Pomey: Fermat’s numbers.—M. Pau- thenier:; The absolute retardations in Kerr’s pheno- menon.—P, Braesco: The expansion of copper- antimony alloys. There is a sharp maximum in the increase of length for the alloy containing 38-6 per cent. of antimony, a composition corresponding with the compound Cu,Sb; no indication-of the existence | of any other definite compound is given by the expan- sion curves.—N. H. Dhar and G. Urbain: The polarisation e.m.f. and .the. constitution of complex cobaltic compounds.—E, Wourtzel: The existence of nitrous anhydride in the gaseous state. The con- traction produced on mixing known quantities of NO and O, was measured, keeping the NO in excess. Two experiments gave a contraction corresponding with the presence of about 2-5 per.cent. of N,O, in the gas mixture. This is. sufficient to explain the known production of nitrite when the gas is absorbed by alkaline solutions.—A. Kling, D. Florentin, and E. Jacob: The preparation of chlorinated methyl car- bonates.—F. Canac: Determination of the orientation of the rows and reticular planes of a crystal.—P. de Souza: The Lower and Middle Carboniferous in Portugal.—J. Savornin: The geology of Djurdjura and Biban (Algeria)—P. Russo: The phosphatic Eocene and Turritelles layers of Tadla (Western Morocco).—L. Besson: Diminution of the trans- parency of the air at Paris. Systematic observations from the summit of the Tour Saint-Jacques in the centre of the city, initiated in 1895 by J. Joubert and carried on continuously under identical conditions for twenty-five years, lead to the conclusion that for the first twenty years the clearness of the atmosphere was slowing decreasing; during the period of the war this diminution became much more marked.—G.. André ; The inversion of cane-sugar during the preservation of oranges.—E, Saillard: The nitrogen balance in sugar manufacture. Precipitation of the albuminoid materials of the beetroot by sulphurous acid, bisul- phites, and hydrosulphites. Sulphurous acid and its compounds precipitate the same polarising materials as basic lead acetate, working with normal beets; they also precipitate the same albuminoid materials from the beet-juice as copper hydrate-—M. Lemoigne ; A specific reaction of 2: 3-butyleneglycol and of acetyl- methylcarbinol, products of the butyleneglycollic fer- mentation. As the production of acetylmethylcarbinol serves to differentiate certain closely related groups of micro-organisms, a delicate and specific test is desir- able. The culture is oxidised with a little ferric chloride and distilled; diacetyl passes into the dis- tillate. This is treated with ammonia, hydroxylamine chloride, and a nickel salt, when the scarlet nickel dimethylglyoxim is produced. Acetylmethylcarbinol at a dijution of 1 in 1,000,000 can be readily recognised by this test.—W. Kopaczewski and Mme. Z. Gruzewska : Seric toxicity and the physical properties of colloidal gels. A relation has been established between the toxic power of gels and the sign of their electric charge. _ Gels with a_ positive electrical charge (alumina, barium carbonate, ferric arsenate, calcium phosphate, ferric oxide) have no toxic power, but an electro-negative silica gel is toxic.—A. Krempf: The NO. 2624. VOL. 104] 651 development and relations of the orthosept and sterigmatosept in the Anthozoa.—E. Grynfeltt and L. Carrére: The muscles of the iris of the crocodile.— L. Chopard ; Observations on the praying mantis and its parasites.—M. Lagrange: The compressive and decompressive operation of the eyeball.—M. Fouassier : The decomposition of hydrogen peroxide by micro- organisms extracted from pasteurised milk. BOOKS RECEIVED. Practical Science for Girls: As Applied to Domestic Subjects. By E. E. Jardine. Pp. xiii+112. (London: Methuen and Co., Ltd.) 3s. A Class-Book of Organic Chemistry. By Prof. J. B. Cohen. Vol. ii. Pp. viit+156. (London: Mac- millan and Co., Ltd.) 4s. 6d. 5 A Manual of Practical Anatomy. By Prof. T. Walmsley. In 3 parts. Part i.: The Upper and Lower Limbs. Pp. viii+176. (London: Longmans and Co.) gs. net. : Employment Psychology. By Dr. H. C. Link. Pp. xiit+440. (New York: The Macmillan Co.; London :.Macmillan and Co., Ltd.) 10s. 6d. net. The Birds of the British Isles and their Eggs. By T. A. Coward. First series. re vii+376+.159 plates. (London : F. Warne and Co., td.) 12s. 6d. net. Mathematics for Engineers. By W. N. Rose. Part ii. Pp. xiv+419. (London: Chapman and Hall, Ltd.) 13s. 6d. net. Physiology and National Needs. W. D. Halliburton. Pp. vii+162. stable and Co., Ltd.) 8s. 6d. net. Scientific Method: Its Philosophy and its Practice. By F. W. Westaway. New edition. Pp. xxi+426. (London: Blackie and Son, Ltd.) tos. 6d. net. Physiology of Farm Animals. By T. B. Wood and Dr. F. H. A. Marshall. Part i.: General. By Dr. F. H. A. Marshall. Pp. xii+204. (Cambridge: At the University Press.) 16s. net. The Universities and the Training of Teachers. By F. J. R. Hendy. Pp. 28. (Oxford: At the Clarendon Press.) 1s. 6d, net. Food Supplies in Peace and War. By Sir R. H. Rew. Pp. vii+183. (London: Longmans and Co.) 6s. 6d. net. Telephonic. Transmission: Theoretical and Applied. By J. -G. Hill. Pp. xvi+398. (London: Longmans and Co.) 21s. net. Edited by Prof. (London: Con- DIARY OF SOCIETIES. THURSDAY, FEwrvary 12. Rovac InstituTION OF Great Britain, at 3.—Prof. A. E. Conrady Recent Progress in Applied Optics. k Rovat Sociery, at 4.30.—J. W. McBain and C, S. Salmon: Colloidal Electrolytes. Soap Solutions and their Constitution.—C. ©. Farr and TD. B. Macleod : ‘I he Viscosity of Sulphur.—C. V. Raman and B. Banerji : Kaufmann’s Theorv of the Impact of the Pianoforte Hammer.— Commander T. Y. Baker, R.N., and Prof. L. N. G. Filon: A Theory of the Second Order Longitudinal Spherical Aberration for a Sym- metrical Optical System.—Prof J. W. Nicholson: The Lateral Vibrations of Sharply Pointed Bars.—R. E. Slade: A New Method of Spectro- hotometry in the Visible and Ultra-violet and the Absorption of Light v Silver Bromide.—Dr. S. Chapman: A Note on Dr. Chree’s Discussion of Two Magnetic Storms (Title only).—Dr. C. Chree: An Explana- tion of the Criticisms on Dr. Chapman’s Recent Paper: ‘‘ An Outline of a Theory of Magnetic Storms" (Title only). ‘ Lonnon MartuHemaricat Society (at Burlington House), at 5.— G. S. Le Beau: A Property of Polynomials whose Roots are Real. —The late E. K. Wakeford : Canonical Forms.—E. Landau andA. Ostrowski: A Problem of Diophantine Analys's.—G. H. Hardy and J. E. Littlewood The Zeros of Riemann’s Zeta-function. Rovar Institute oF Puntic HEALTH, at 5.—Dr. D. P. Sutherland: The Work of a Tuberculosis [‘epartment. Roya Society or Mepicine (Balneology and Climatology Section), at 5.30.—Dr. F, G. Thomson, Dr. J. C. McClure, and W. P. Kennedy : a Discussion on The Merits and Defects of the British Health esorts. Britisu Psycuorocicar Society (Education Section) (at London Day Training College), at 6.—Dr. C. W. Kimmins : The Dreams of Children in Blind, Deaf, and Industrial Schools. 652 NATURE [FEBRUARY 12, 1920 INSTITUTION OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERS (at Institution of Civil Engineers), at 6.—Major K. Edgcumbe; The Protection of Alternating-current Distribution Systems without the Use of Special Conductors. Ow anp CoLour CHemists’ ASSOCIATION (at 2 Furnival Street), at 7.— Dr. R. S. Morrell: Colloid Chemistry of Paints and Varnishes. OpticaL Society, at 7.30.—J. W. French: The Surface Layer of an Optical Polishing Tool.—Mrs. C. H. Griffiths: Aberration Effects in Star Images.—R. W. Cheshire and W. Shackleton : The Testing of Heliograph Mirrors. InstiruTION oF AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERS (Graduate Section) (at 28 Victoria treet), at 8.—F. R. Cowell: Steering Gears. Rovat Socirry or Mepicine (Neurology Section), at 8.30.—Dr. Rows: Anxiety States. Society OF ANTIQUARIES, at 8.30. FRIDAY, Fepsrvary 13. RoyAL ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY, at 5. PuysicaL Society, at 5.—Prof. C. H. Lees: Presidential Address.—Sir Arthur Shuster: Atmospheric Refraction during Total Solar Eclipses. — To be followed by the Annual General any | Roya. CoLi* GE oF SURGEONS, at 5 —Prof. W Spencer : The Historical Relationship between Experiments on Animals and the Development of Surgery (Hunterian Lecture). MALAcoLocicaL Society or Lonpon (at the Linnean Society), at 6. Junior InstituTION OF ENGINEERS (at 39 Victoria Street), at 7.30.— F. E. Henman: Gas Manufacture. Rovat Institution oF GREAT BRITAIN, at 9.—Prof. W. M. Bayliss: The Volume of the Blood and its Significance. SATURDAY, FEBRUARY 14. RovaL InstituTION oF GREAT Britain, at 3.—Sir F. W. Dyson: The Astronomical Evidence bearing on Einstein's Theory of Gravitation. III. Deflection of Light in the Sun's Gravitational Field. MONDAY, Frpruvary 16. Rovat CoLiLeGE oF SuRGEONS, at 5.—Prof.W. G. Spencer : The Historical Relationship between Experiments on Animals and the Development of Surgery (Hunterian Lecture). INSTITUTION OF: ELECTRICAL eager pe oy oko Meeting) (at Chartered Institute of Patent Agents), at 7.—A. B. Eason: Automatic Telephony for Private Branch Exchanges. ARISTOTELIAN Soctety (at 74 Grosvenor Street, W. 1), at 8.—A. F. Shand: Impulse, Emotion, and Instinct. Roya. InstTituTE' OF BriTISH ARCHITECTS, at 8.—P. Waterhouse: Education of the Architect. Royat Society or Arts, at 8.—C. F. Cross: Cellulose Industry (Cantor Lecture). Surveyors’ Instirution, at 8.—Capt. W. H. Tapp: Survey on the Western Front. Royat GEOGRAPHICAL Society (at £olian Hall), at 8.30—H.E. the Spanish Ambassador: The Spanish Zones in Morocco. Mepicat Society or Lonpon, at 9.—Dr. R. Spencer: Tumours complicating Pregnancy, Labour, and the Puerperium (Lettsomian Lecture). Recent Research in the TUESDAY, FEBrvary 17. Rovat InstiTuTION OF GREAT BRITAIN, at 3.—Prof. E. Wilson: Magnetic Susceptibility Royat Sratisticat Society, at 5.15.—Prof. E. H. Starling: Food Con- ditions in Germany during the War. InsriruT:on oF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGISTS (at Roval Society of Arts), at 5.30-—Dr. W. R Ormandy: Recent Patents on Mixed Fuels. Roya. PuHorocrapnuic Society of Great Britain (Technical Meeting, at 7.—N. E. I.uboshez: Fancy Lighting in Portraiture. RovaL ANTHROPOLOGICAL INsTITUTR, at 8.15.—J. Reid Moir: The Occurrence of Flint Implements of Man in the Glacial Chalky Boulder Clay of Suffolk. WEDNESDAY, Fesavuary 18. Rovat UniTEp Service INSTITUTION, at 3.—Lt.-Col. A. H. W. Haywood : The Campnign in the Cameroons. Rovat Society of Arts, at 4.30.—S. Preston: Inland Waterways. Rova Co_ieck or SuRGEONS, at 5.— Prof. W. G. Spencer: The Historical English Canals and Relationship between Experiments on Animals and the Development of* Surgery (Hunterian Lecture). Royat MErgEorOLoGICAL Soctety, at 5.—Capt. C. J. P. Cave: The Status of a Meteorological Office and its Relation to the State and to the Public.—W, H. Dines: Atmospheric and Terrestrial Radiation.— D.Brunt: Internal Friction in the Atmosphere. Rovat Socirery or Mepicine (History of Medicine Section), at 5.— Dr... C. Buist: The Salernitan Verses and their Engli-h Versions. InstiTuTION oF ELecrricaL EnGtneers (Wireless Section) (at Institution of Civil Engineers), at 6.—Major C. E. Prince: Wireless Telephony on Aeroplanes. Rovyat AERONAUTICAL Society (at Royal Society of Arts), at 8.—Major P Bishop: Aircraft Design in relation to Standardisation. Roya Microscoricat Soci-ty, at 8.—Mrs. Agnes Arber: Studies on the Rinucleate Phase in the Plant-cell —R. Beer and Mrs, Agnes Arber: Multinucleate Cells: An Historical Study (1879-1919).—C. Akehurst : Exhiovition of Prof. Silverman’s Illuminator for Opaque Objects. THURSDAY, FEsRvARY 19. Roya Insrirution of GrEaT Briain, at 3A. H. Smith: Illustra- tions of Ancient Greek and Roman Life in the British Museum. Rovat Sociery, at 4.30.—Probasle Papers: Prof. B. Moore and T, A. Webster: Studies of Photo-synthesis in Fresh-water Alga.—Prof. W. M. Bayliss: The Properties of Colloidal Systems, 1V. Reversible Gelation in Living Protoplasm.—Rev. F. J. Wyeth : The Development of the Audito-y Apparatus in Sphenodon punctatus. LiIn\EAN SOCIETY, at 5. INSTITUTION OF MINING AND METALLURGY (at Géolosinal Society), at 5.30.—T B. Stevens and C. E. Blackett : The Use of Haloid Cyanides for the Purpose of Gold Extraction. NO. 2624, VOL. 104] Cuemicat Society, at 8.—S. B. Schryver and C. C, Wood: A New Method for the Estimation of Methyl Alcohol.—C. S. Gibson and W. J. Pope : 88-’Dichlorethy] oh ge . K, Slater and H, Ste: hen: Some Derivatives of Fisetol.—M. Barker: Calorific Value and Constitution. » Part I.—J. B. Firth : Surface Tension of Alcohol-Water Mixtures. — FRIDAY, FEsruARY 20. Geo.ocicaL Society or Lonpon, at aS Seg ope RoyaL COLLEGE oF SURGEONS, at Say got we” SPretcrs: 2 The Evolution of the Cerebellum (Arris and Gale Lecture), Z InsTITUTION OF MecHANICAL ENGINEERS (Annual General Meeting), — ee at 6.—E. M. Bergstrom: Recent Advances in the Utilisation of Water Power (Resumed Discussion). Concrete Instivute (at_ 296 Vauxhall Bridge Road), at at 6.—H. “ K. : ees Dyson : Some Points in Reinforced Concrete D: esign. InstiruTion or Evecrricat. EnGingers (Students’ Meeting) (at Faraday House), at 7.—A. Serner and Others: Discussion on State Owne Private Knterprise. Rovat InsviruTion oF GrReaT BRriTAIn, at 9.—Dr. E. J. Russell: a British Crop Production. SATURDA y, Pinsusee 2%. Roya _InstiruTIon oF GREAT BRITAIN, at 3.—Sir J. J. maubee Positive Rays. o PuystoLocica Society (at Lister Institute), at 4. CONTENTS. Asset and Obligation: 6.2/6: So.ce se eee ee Industrial Chemistry . . ¥ The Origin of Plant-life on Land. ” By ee ieee Normal and Morbid Psychology . ‘ Aspects of Modern Science. By. Prof. F. + Beddes Raat. Serer 31s Ser eh eee Our Bookshelf . eri bee eBay TES 25 te ee Letters to the Editor :— : Euclid, Newton, and Einstein. (With Diagram. LES Qe Thermionic Valves on " Aircraft. Prof. R. Whid_ dington .. FRY wie sltta eae Popular Science. «Victorian eed hg en ee Mirage Effects. Spencer Pickering, PES; L. N. Norris-Rogers; Harry Hillman . Theory of Relativity. By Dr. A. CL. Crommelin The Flight from Cairo to the ‘Cape. By Sir H. ‘< Johnston, G.C.M.G., K.C.B., and Prof, J. W. Gregory, F.R.S. eS The The Development of Spitsbergen. " (Mustrated.) i By G. W. T. ‘ oy re The League of Universities... +... 637 Notes De ae Oe enna Our Astronomical Column :— Large Fireball on February 4. . 2). «+> 4 = = Relative Masses of Binary Stars. . . . . + +. 2. Long-period Variables. . ‘ recs. 2 Australian Signposts. (iitustrated.) ‘By Sidney Ho Ray . 4) s eee £22 ‘ Human Metabolism. By M. «ono O44 Isostatic Compensation in the iene Crust Kiorg ta Defensive Science in Gas Warfare ........ Visual Tests for Motor-drivers .......... 646 Inertness of Industrial Explosives ....... . 647 Flow of Waterthrougha Pipe . . ea Applications of Ampliflying Electric ‘Valves Bigs The Future of Tropical Australia ........ Plant-lice in the Tropics J 2 ey University and Educational Intelligence none Societies and..Academies .... 0.050 6.606, 6) Wey Books ‘Received v5.6 SeGis Giese See Diary of Societies . . EVR PORTE geeeee: . o. Editorial and Publishing Offices: MACMILLAN AND CO., Ltp., of ST. MARTIN’S STREET, LONDON, W.C.2. Advertisements and business letters to be addressed to the Publishers. Editorial Communications to the Editor. Telegraphic Address: Puusts, LONDON. Telephone Number; Grrrarp 8830. ———n er : Cmd. NATURE 653 THURSDAY, FEBRUARY 19, 1920. THE ORGANISATION OF SCIENTIFIC ; WORK IN INDIA. IIE reorganisation and development of scien- rE tific work in India are now under considera- tion, and important and far-reaching decisions on these questions will shortly be made by the Secre- tary of State. It has already been decided, both by the Government of India and by the Secretary of State, that large sums of money must be found at the earliest possible moment for the purpose of fosterine the development of the Indian Empire by means of scientific research. The prin- ciple of State aid on a generous scale has been accepted, but the important question of the best method of utilising this form of assistance in the future development of India remains to be settled. These matters were referred to by the Viceroy on January 30 last in his speech opening the present session of the Imperial Legislative Council at Delhi. It is evident from the report of Lord Chelmsford’s remarks which appeared in the Times of February 6 that the Government of India is now considering large schemes of expansion in regard to the scientific activities of the State. Two policies at present hold the field: (a) Centralisation under a proposed Imperial De- partment of Industries of the Government of India in which chemists, botanists, zoologists, and so on will be formed into distinct, water-tight, graded services, each under the control of a departmental head; and (b) decentralisation under which the scientific workers at the various uni- versities and research institutes will be given as free a hand as possible. The policy of centralisation and the creation of graded scientific services have been strongly advo- cated by the Indian Industrial Commission, which was presided over by Sir Thomas Holland, for- merly Director of the Geological Survey of India. It is favoured by a number of administrators in India who consider that some measure of official control is necessary for all scientific investigators, and it has also received the support of several of the scientific witnesses examined by the Com- mission. The arguments advanced by Sir Thomas _ Holland and his supporters in favour of centralised scientific services are set out in detail in chap. ix. of the Report of the Indian Industrial Commis- sion, published last year (H.M. Stationery Office ; 51). The nature of these arguments NO. 2625, VOL, 104] will be evident from a study of the prin- ciples and the rules which they. suggest should be adopted for the formation and control of the new Chemical Service. It is proposed to proceed with the creation of this service as soon as the committee now dealing with this matter in India has submitted its report. The Industrial Commission considers that. for administrative purposes the chemists now em- ployed by the State in India, and at present dis- tributed among the cadres of various services, should be brought together into one service to be called the Indian Chemical Service, and should be under the control, so far as their scientific work is concerned, of a senior officer styled Chief Chemist to the Government of India. The remain- ing members of the service would be divided into three groups—agricultural, mineral, and organic chemists—each group being under the supervision of a Deputy Chief Chemist located at a suitable centre. The junior members of the groups would be lent to Local Governments and to various Government Departments for periods normally limited to five years; they would carry out the routine duties required, in some cases including teaching, and undertake certain forms of research with the approval of the head of the service. All the members of the Chemical Service would carry on their duties on the following lines: (i) When- ever it is possible to lay down for any officer a programme of research work, such programme would not be sanctioned without the consent of the head of the service; (ii) the ‘ead of the Chemical Service would have power to inspect the scientific work of any of his transferred officers and to report thereon to the local authority; (iii) the results of scientific investigations would be reviewed by the head of the service, and would not be published without his consent. Ordinarily, such results would be given their first formal publication in the official journal of the service. These details will enable men of science in Great Britain to understand how it is proposed that most of the future scientific work in India should be conducted. As soon as the organisa- tion of chemists is completed, the Industrial Com- mission suggests that the botanists, zoologists, and .entomologists working in .India should. be formed into similar centralised services. The »present system under which research is conducted in India’ may be described shortly as one of decentralisation, the work being. carried out at the various university colleges and at a number of independent research institutes under DD 654 NATURE [FEBRUARY 19, 1920 the control of the Government of India, the Local Governments, the Indian States, and trusts, of which latter the Indian Institute of Science at Bangalore is the chief example. A large number of the most successful investigators working in the universities and at the various research in- stitutes do not favour centralisation in separate scientific services, but consider that the present system should be developed and extended, and that in applied science the bond of union of the workers engaged should be the general subject investigated, such as agriculture or forestry, rather than the particular science involved. At present the investigators dealing with a many- sided subject like agriculture are collected at agri- cultural research institutes, and now belong to the agricultural department. A similar method of organisation obtains in forestry and at the centres of medical research like Calcutta and Bombay. The present system has proved successful in practice, and the value of the work done in India in pure science, in tropical diseases, in agriculture, and in forestry has been widely recognised. Decentralisation, therefore, has been justified by success, and a very strong case will have to be made out before the workers at the existing in- stitutes are re-grouped in centralised services ‘under the control, as regards their scientific work, ‘of the proposed Department of Industries of the Government of India. Increased financial assistance on the part of the State would enable the present universities and research institutes to be developed and more workers secured. With such facilities, there should be the greatest possible freedom for the investigators carrying on original work. The general conditions under which the researches are conducted should be made as attractive as pos- _ sible, and the policy to be adopted should be one which would secure the very best men available, and the provision of adequate means: for their work. For original scientific investigators little or no official control is needed, and they should not be constantly called upon to furnish interim reports and programmes of work to an official chief, or to obtain his formal sanction before undertaking an investigation or publishing the results of their work. Such formalities waste valuable time, lead to constant friction, and are altogether foreign to the spirit which should reign in all centres of creative scientific research. Briefly stated, the case to be decided is one between the advocates of a system of rigid cen- tralisation and those who consider that in research NO.'2625, VOL, 104] work the man is everything, and that there can be no progress without freedom. Obviously, the conflict of opinion is a fundamental one, and much will depend on the wisdom and sympathies of the Secretary of State, with whom the final word lies, in deciding which policy is to prevail. MODERN PHYSIOLOGY. fom An Introduction to General Physiology: With By Prof. W. M. Bayliss. Practical Exercises. As xv + 238. (London: Longmans, Sees and — -» 1919.) Price 7s. 6d. net. we task of physiologists is to refer, eS as they can, all phenomena of life to the laws of physics and chemistry.” tion Prof. Bayliss presents the student with those With this defini-- fundamental principles of these sciences which — are of primary importance in the study of physio-— logy. It is quite remarkable how the author can , compress these principles into a small compass, — and at the same time give such a clear picture, — not only of these parts of physics and eae but also of their applications in physiology. | is essentially an introduction to the pe ae and reference — ot Bes “Principles of General Physiology,” is constantly made to this larger book. student would often welcome, at these places, a— rather longer description, for he will probably not — possess the larger book at this period of his science course. The book .is so full of interest that if it were a_ little longer the beginner. would not be. over- whelmed, but would gather all the more fruit. The first chapter, entitled “Life and Energy,” contains. those parts of physics concerned in vital pheno-- mena, written in illustration of certain phenomena sasily observed with an ameeba. Brownian move- ment is the visualisation of the moving molecules: Protoplasm is a liquid containing — in a liquid. matter both in solution and in suspension, and is surrounded by a cell membrane. perties are those mainly concerned, but no grasp of their complexity is possible without a know- A considerable The change of energy at the surface of the cell is the cause of The entry into ledge of energy and its laws. section is- devoted to this subject. extrusion of the pseudopodium. and exit of matter from the cell is connected with osmosis and the permeability of membranes. Thi is most lucidly explained. Electrolytic dissocia- tion and the colloidal state are included in th chapter. 2 ch Food—Digestion and Respiration” are de with in the second chapter. A short cut is made through organic chemistry so as to give a con- Surface pro-_ FEBRUARY 19, 1920] NATURE 655 ception of sugar and amino-acids; it suffices at this stage if the student can differentiate the two classes of compounds, for the subject-matter is rather the origin and metabolism of carbon and nitrogen in Nature, and the supply of energy in the form of food. Food undergoes changes in the body as the result of enzyme action; the section on the nature of enzyme action is scarcely long enough, and reference must here be made to the “Principles.” Respiration and oxidation are, in contrast, fully discussed. These two chapters are the chief ones in the book, “Work—The Muscles and Stimulation—The Senses”’ are the subject-matter of chaps. iii. and iv. In the latter chapter there is a diagram- matic representation of the mechanism of the organ of Corti. Prof. Bayliss lays special stress upon a student getting a clear idea, even if it be erroneous, for it can be easily changed later, and it is far better than conflicting views which leave no impression. Chap. v. is a_ difficult one on “Adjustment—The Nervous System,” and requires close attention to the text. Chap. vi. is on “The Transport of Materials— The Vascular System.” Here, again, we get an illuminating and fascinating description, while chap. vii., on “Growth and Reproduction,” shows how the author himself has thought out his subject for explanation to the student. Each chapter has a corresponding section on laboratory work, in which there is frequently some further explanation. The practical exercises illustrate the text, and are of varying difficulty. Many have been specially devised, while others are adaptations of existing experiments in physical chemistry or physiology. The value of experi- ments is very great, for science becomes a reality only in these circumstances. The average student may not appreciate the book, as it is not an “examination” manual. The time must soon come when the present system of practical exam- inations will be abandoned. Teachers should certify that their students have done a_ well- arranged course, and can do the experiments if given the proper opportunities.- Students of chemistry and physics will also find the book helpful in their work; many obscure points in their abstract information will be made clear by the descriptions here given. We agree with Prof. Bayliss that all beginners should have a course of general physiology, and we would fain see a return to the old system in which every science student worked through a course in physics, chemistry, and biology. The modern student has too restricted an outlook on one side or the other. NO. 2625, VOL, 104] MENDELISM. Mendelism. By Reginald Crundall Fifth edition. Pp. xv+219+vii plates. don: Macmillan and Co., Ltd., 1919.) 7s. 6d. net. N reviewing a new edition of a book so well known as Prof. Punnett’s ‘“‘ Mendelism,’’ it is unnecessary to notice more than the changes that have been made as compared with previous editions. The third edition (1911) was, in fact, a new book, and the fourth (1912) was substan- tially similar, with a certain amount of revision. Seven years have now passed, and although the war seriously interfered with genetic research in Europe, great progress in certain directions has been made in America, and it is to incorporate this new work that the chief changes in the present edition have been made. The first eight chapters are substantially unchanged, and comparatively little alteration has been made in the chapters on the economic aspect of genetics, on variation and evolution, and on man. To the chapter on inter- mediates there has been added an account of Nilsson-Ehle’s theory of multiple factors as illus- trated by his work on colour factors in wheat, by Davenport’s work on mulattoes, and by Prof. Punnett’s own .work on the size-inheritance of fowls. Some special cases, such as that of doubleness in stocks, that were mentioned under various headings in previous editions are col- lected together into a special chapter on “Certain Complications.” We note with regret that the hypothesis of ‘“‘multiple allelomorphs,” as _illus- trated by Nabours’ experiments on grasshoppers and by certain characters in Drosophila—a hypo- thesis regarded by many as a preferable alterna- tive to the presence-and-absence theory—is no- where fully discussed. The remaining changes and additions are almost entirely concerned directly or indirectly with the work of Prof. T. H. Morgan and his school on Drosophila—with .the relations, that is to say, between Mendelian characters and sex, and with the theory that both Mendelian characters and sex are transmitted by chromosomes. Of the two chapters on sex, the first has been rearranged with some additions, but the revision has resulted (p. 92) in a reference to Abraxas as a case already described, while in fact it is not mentioned until p- 96. Incidentally, in this connection, it is an error to say that var. lacticolor has been recorded only in the south of Great Britain; the stock from which all or nearly all those now existing were derived came from Lancashire. We regret, also, that in this chapter the author has retained Punnett. (Lon- Price 656 NATURE [FEBRUARY 19, 1920 the notation Ff for female and ff for male, in birds and moths, when the symbols Mm for female and MM for male are so much simpler of applica- tion. The second of the two chapters on sex, and that on the chromosome theory of heredity, are almost entirely new, and give a compact and useful sum- mary of the outstanding facts derived from Droso- phila and the hypotheses founded upon them. Since nearly all this work has been done in America, where students of genetics use the word “Sex-limited”’ in a sense quite different from that in which it is employed in England, a few words on the use of the words ‘“‘sex-limited”’ and “sex- linked” on the two sides of the Atlantic might have been a help to readers unfamiliar with the subject. Although we have noted a few points in which we think the book might have been improved, we do so only because any blemishes, however small, are regrettable in a book of such general excellence. We still regard it, as we did in its earlier editions, as one of the best introductory treatises on the modern study of genetics. L. DOonNcASTER. AERONAUTICS IN ITALY. By Prof. Giuseppe (Milano: Ulrico (1) Meteorologia Aeronautica. Crestani. Pp. xv+315. Hoepli, 1919.) Price 8.50 lire, (2) Dizionario Internazionale di Aeronavigazione e Costruzioni Aeronautiche. Italiano, Francese, Inglese, Tedesco. By Mario Mele Dander. Pp. vii+227. (Milano: Ulrico Hoepli, 1919.) Price 6.50 lire. (3) L’Aviazione. Aeroplani, Idrovolanti, Eliche. By E. Garuffa. Seconda edizione. Pp. xxiii+955. (Milano: Ulrico Hoepli, 1919.) Price 20 lire. : i) Pe introduction and development of aerial navigation have brought into existence new applications of nearly every branch of experi- mental study, but perhaps none have been brought into greater prominence than meteorology. The safety and success of the pilot involve the most careful study and observation of every element, since barometric pressure, temperature, wind velo- city, and cloud formation all affect the navigation of the machine. Hence Prof. Crestani’s book will meet a real demand on thé part of those who are training as pilots. There is, however, no essen- tial difference between aeronautical and ordinary meteorology, except that more is required of the former. The first part deals with instruments and methods of observation. It describes the princ’pal apparatus used in an observatory, and is in no way limited to the special equipments re- NO. 2625, VOL, 104] quired for aircraft. sphere, while part iv. is concerned with weather prediction. As an meteorology treated popularly, the book serves its purpose quite well. Still, as we have said above, something more is required by the pilot. prediction dependent on change of position and altitude during a flight, measurements and studies of solar radiation considered with reference to air- ships, and so forth. There is certainly room for additional treatment in regard to meteorological — observations which are peculiar to aeronautical work. Meanwhile, the pilot must gain this know- ledge by Sepaceace: and his one duty is to near observe and interpret phenomena instinctively. (2) Lieut. Dander’s pocket book provides tor pilots and aeronautical engineers a dictionary similar in scope and plan to that supplied for gun- — nery by the ‘‘ Trilingual Artillery Dictionary ”’ re- viewed in Nature of November 27 last. It pos- sesses, however, not contained in the subject of the previous review. Thus German is included, as well as English, French, and Italian, and, what is also’ extremely useful, anyone who is in doubt as to where to find a particular word will see at the end an index in which words in all four languages mixed are arranged in a single, strictly alphabetical sequence. This index is in rather small print, but as it is scarcely likely to be required up in the air this does not much matter. It renders the dictionary equally useful for persons of any of the nationalities which it — covers, but English readers would prefer that the genders should have been indicated in Italian and French as well as in German. Airships as well as ‘planes are considered, and materials of construc- tion, including the names of timber trees, are fully. dealt with, though the mathematical as distinct from the’ technical side is practically unrepre- sented. There are a few examples of weird English in the work, such as “ three-plane,” “‘heli-- 4 (for costume), a 9 66 9 66 coptery, cok pit, hese stare ss not to omit the American “airplane.” On pp. 48-49 the author evidently overlooks the possi- bility of wanting to paint anything red or black or in - other even brown, dictionaries. but these colours are (3) If Dr. Garuffa’s book is to be regarded as "a representative of the present state of development of aeronautical engineering in Italy, English Part ii. treats of the principaf aerial phenomena, including atmospheric electricity. ” In part iii. the author deals with weather charts, — pressure areas, and the circulation of the atmo- — introduction to ordinary — We should like to see more about the means of making observations with the limited equipment that can be carried on aircraft, the modifications in weather — several features which were en Ret ANE a ae FEBruary 19, 1920] NATURE 057 readers have little to gain in the matter of sub- stantial knowledge from their Italian competitors. The standard of the book is very much on a level with the swarm of weekly illustrated popular journals which may be seen in the waiting-room of an English aircraft factory or on the table of the library at Central House or of the Royal Aero- nautical Society. As an introduction to practical aeronautics, the book will provide the Italian student with an insight into the mass of detailed in- formation which is required by aircraft mechanics and pilots. The best portion is undoubtedly the de- scriptive account of the different types of aero- plane and their component parts, and as the machines selected for illustration are mainly of Continental make, the book may be of use to Eng- lish readers for purposes of comparison. As regards the theoretical side, the treatment is very elementary, and imperfect formule and calcula- tions are indeed abundant, but most of these are not much more than replicas of what one can find in our elementary school text-books on geometry and mechanics. The misfortune of this practice is that things look like new principles which are as old as the hills. But we in England cannot say much when one of our own weekly journals has devoted a glowing paragraph to the announce- ment that an American professor has discovered that two similarly electrified bodies can overcome gravity and repel each other. In the sections dealing with pressures on com- ponent parts of aeroplanes, considerable promin- ence is given to Eiffel’s diagrams of experimental results. The main difficulty in practice is that the pressures on the various elements of an aeroplane are not mutually independent, and for this reason we should have preferred a section dealing with the wind channel and its use, since this has become an indispensable adjunct to our aircraft factories. The so-called ‘‘ stability ’’ which figures in a few sections does not in any way represent stability proper as studied in this country and tested experi- mentally at Teddington and Farnborough. The sections dealing with navigation describe the usual instruments found on aeroplanes, and methods which do the ordinary, easy things, such as determining the position and velocity of an aeroplane when seen from the ground, which is very different from enabling a pilot to find his way in a fog or on a dark night. A lot of algebra is ex- pended (p. 876) over a method of finding wind velocity by making an aeroplane fly in a quadri- lateral path when ruler and compass would do the whole thing at once. The section on the seaplane contains the usual theory of the metacentre; the further developments required to take account of the effects of air resistance are briefly epitomised. NO. 2625. VOL. 104] On the whole, the book fairly well meets the requirements of the average pilot, mechanic, or draughtsman who is in a position to leave more theoretical considerations in the hands of scientific experts (if he can find them). In the Atti dei Lincei, xxviii., (1), 7, 8, Dr. Oreste Mattirolo considers the use of wood in the longitudinal bars of an aeroplane, with special reference to the effects of growth on the strength of the timber. During the war the timber used in the construction of aeroplanes was tested and examined by the author, and the existing methods were found to be inadequate. Dr. Mattirolo directs especial attention to the effect of climatic and seasonal conditions on the growth of the rings, and to the difficulty of locating weaknesses in the structure, and he cites two cases of accidents in which the wood was sent for his inspection and the defects were discovered too late. He recommends that now the demand for aeroplanes has lessened the longitudinal beams of the wings should no longer be made of wood. It is interesting to note that similar investigations in this country have been carried out in greater detail at Farn- borough and elsewhere, though a number of problems still await solution in this as in other aeronautical investigations. In another issue of the Atti dei Lincei (xxviii., 2), Dr. Mario Tenani refers to the influence of the density of the air on the efficiency of aero- planes, and quotes the ordinary laws of variation of density with pressure, temperature, and altitude in support of his plea regarding the importance of a subject which has received much attention in our country both in connection with airships and in,ex- periments with variable propellers at Farnborough. Meteorological difficulties should not be so seri- ous in sunny Italy as in our land of fogs, though the Italian mountains may be set against the brighter climate. At the Pisa meeting of the Italian equivalent of our British Association, a paper on weather prediction was read by Prof. Filippo Eredia, at the end of which a resolution was passed advocating the joint action of. the Ministries of Agriculture, Industry, and Commerce in co-ordination with the Air Department to pro- mote researches in weather prediction with the view of furthering the development of commercial aviation. Papers dealing with aeronautical subjects have, however, been conspicuous by their absence from the proceedings of learned societies in this and other countries, and the Atti dei Lincei has been no exception to the rule. If this is a result of the war we may welcome the three papers as an augury for a better state of affairs in the future, G. H. Bryan. 658 NATURE [ FEBRUARY 19, 1920 THE RE-MAPPING OF THE WORLD. The “Times” Survey Atlas of the World. Pre- pared under the direction of Dr. J. G. Bartholo- mew. Part i. (London: Office of the Times, n.d.) Price 2s. 6d. net. HE first part of this atlas contains four maps numbered respectively 21, 60, 79, and 95, The parts of the world represented are the southern section of Scotland, Farther India, Lower Egypt (from a little above Luxor), and Mexico and Central America (from Costa Rica inclusive). Three of the maps are, and, no doubt, the majority of those in the atlas will be, drawn on the layering principle, which has the advantages of conducing to clearness and indicating the broad distribution of high grounds and low grounds at a glance. This has been done with a skill worthy of the reputation which the map-making firm responsible for it has long held for work of this class. The layering adopted is not on a_ uniform scale. In the same map successive contours repre- sent different intervals of altitude. That, however, we have even in our own Ordnance Survey maps. But there are different scales of altitude on dif- ferent maps otherwise somewhat similar. On the map of the southern section of Scotland the steps in altitude are by 250 ft. up to 1000 ft., then by 500 ft. to 2000 ft., and after that by 1000 ft. The only isobath is that of 10 fathoms. On two of the other maps the only isobath is that for roo fathoms, but whereas in Mexico the isohypses represent 100, 500, 1000, 2000, 3000, 4000, 5000, and 6000 ft., and then 8000 and 10,000 ft., in that of Farther India they are at intervals of 500 ft. up to 2000 ft., and then mark altitudes of 3000 and 6000 ft. respectively. In the map of Egypt there ‘are no isobaths (in the main map) or isohypses. Hachures are used to indicate the margins of the plateaux on the inset map showing the environs of Cairo on the scale of 1: 150,000. One noteworthy feature of the maps is that they are so mounted as to be suitable for loose-leaf binding, which will have the important advantages of allowing the replacement of a map without re- placing the atlas and of enabling one to detach a single map at will for close examination and frequent reference. This feature might perhaps be utilised to remedy one of the defects of the maps, the smallness of the lettering where the names are too crowded. New maps might be drawn for those who would prefer them with fewer names in a larger letter, the missing names bein entered in the index with their compass bear- ing and distance from places that are named on the’ map, say from railway stations, which are very easy to find. NO. 2625, VOL. 104] ‘We are promised an index of more than 200,000 names, but are not told how the index is to be prepared. Presumably latitude and longitude are to be given, as there is no provision on the border for reference by letter and number to the degree rectangles. be the means- of reference, or, indeed, in any case, we hope that the maps still to be issued will have the divisions of degrees marked on the border. That is not done in the four maps of the But if latitude and longitude are to first part, with the result that in Scotland, for Ss example, we have an interval for latitude of one degree measuring 63 in. without any subdivision showing minutes. On each map also the pro- jection used should be named. & PHYSICS FOR MEDICAL STUDENTS. (1) 4 Manual of Physics. By Dr. J. A. Crowther. Pp. xx+537- (London: Henry Frowde and . Hodder and Stoughton, 1919.) Price 16s. net. (2) Elements of Physics. By Dr. R. A. Hous- toun. Pp. vili+221. (London: Longmans, Green, and Co., 1919.) Price 6s. net. ps pec of medicine are apt to regard physics as a subject outside the range of their medical studies, a subject imposed upon them by certain grandmotherly examining authori- _ ties, to be forgotten as soon as the examination is over. not only with this attitude of mind, but also with the fact that writers of physical text-books for the most part show but little evidence of sym- pathy with the medical applications of their — subject. The ideal text-book for medical students would be written by a trained physicist who has specialised in medical work and is imbued with the spirit of research in physics as applied to medicine. Instead of studying the common steel- yard, the medical student might then find the principle of the lever illustrated in the human frame, and instead of having to wade a chapter on terrestrial magnetism, he might be given further information on the subject of meteorological physics and the conditions deter- mining climate. He might even learn something as to electric oscillations applied in high-frequency treatment, or as to the use of a saccharimeter. Both the volumes under review claim to meet the needs of first-year medical students; but the ideal book on physics for such students has yet to be a written. (1) Dr. Crowther has given us an excellent : manual of physics suitable for beginners’ who have no special profession in view. voted considerable space to the subject of Teachers of physics have to contend — He has de- ee ee ene ome aS OP ee = FrBruARY 19, 1920| NATURE 659 mechanics, and experienced teachers will agree that “a thorough grounding in this most funda- “mental of all the sciences is the beginning of all wisdom in physical knowledge.”” The treatment of the various subjects follows conventional lines, a short chapter on the discharge of electricity through gases being the only one which deals _ specifically with the results of modern research, The style is lucid and interesting, and the explanation of physical principles exceptionally clear. It is to be regretted that the price of 16s, net should be so high as to make it impossible for many students to purchase the volume. (2) A smaller treatise on the elements of physics has been written by Dr. Houstoun, who has attempted to cover the same ground in less than half the number of pages. The matter is con- sequently somewhat compressed and the style curt. The author has been successful in includ- ing a section on simple harmonic motion, which is so important in the study of vibrations; and another on the characteristic features of wave motion, in which the difference between a stationary and a progressive wave is well brought out. The work should be useful as giving a com- pact systematic treatment of the whole subject. Both books are furnished with useful collections of questions and problems, and answers are pro- vided for the numerical examples. H. S. Aen. OUR BOOKSHELF. Harmsworth’s Universal Encyclopedia. Edited by J. A. Hammerton. No. 1. Pp. xix+128. (London: The Amalgamated Press, Ltd., 1920.) Price 1s. 3d. Tus is, of course, a work of reference for the general reader, not the expert. The editor claims that it possesses the three necessary qualities, comprehensiveness, conciseness, and accuracy. All three are relative terms, and there is no absolute test by which his claim can be judged. But, since Mr. Hammerton is the acknow- ledged authority on What the Public Wants, the first claim may be conceded without further question. On the second the bare statement that A—Afranius occupies 128 closely printed but well- illustrated pages will enable the reader to judge for himself. On the third it is sufficient for Nature to record that the scientific articles appear all to be as completely accurate as the space allotted to them will permit, and that one of the introductory articles, by Lord Moulton on “ Science and the Future,” is a model expression of the obvious; originality or profundity could not be expected. : We think the production is one of which the Amalgamated Press may well be proud. NO. 2625, VOL. 104] LETTERS TO THE EDITOR. [The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed by his correspondents, Neither can he undertake to return, or to correspond with the wrilers of, rejecled manuscripts intended for this or any other part of Nature. No notice is taken of anonymous communications.] Relativity and the Displacement of Fraunhofer Lines. In view of the uncertainty in the interpretation. of Einstein’s equations in the matter of the displacement of solar spectrum lines, and of the hope which has been expressed that experimental spectroscopic evi- dence may be forthcoming which will settle the point at issue, it may be of interest to give a brief account of the present state of the problem from the experi- mental point of view. There are really three ques- tions to which answers are required:—(1) Is there any means whereby the displacements of solar lines relative to those of terrestrial origin may be dis- entangled from such disturbing causes as pressure, varying arc conditions, density gradients, etc.? (2) If so, what do the outstanding displacements amount to? (3) To what extent are they due to gravitation and line-of-sight motion respectively ? Upon (1) it is to be remarked that, since both gravitation and motion displacements -vary directly with the wave-length, they are indistinguishable spectroscopically; moreover, the possibility of separa- ting their sum from those due to other causes, which in general displace spectrum lines (I have enumerated some ten possible causes in a recent communication to the Royal Astronomical Society), depends upon the reputed invariability of the wave-lengths of the cyanogen bands in different parts of the arc, under pressure, under varying current densities, etc. _ Prac- tically all other lines are affected by one or more of these influences, and must be ruled out of account. Further laboratory experiments are necessary before the cyanogen bands can be regarded as_ suitable criteria, particularly in view of a recent statement from the Bonn Laboratory that they are unsym- metrical. which for well-founded reasons brings them seriously under suspicion for astrophysical purposes. Even if we assume for the present that the cyanogen bands are satisfactory standards, (2) nresents a further difficulty in that the Mount Wilson observers find. dis- placements varving from o to about one-third of that predicted by Einstein; whereas Evershed and three Continental observers find a displacement of about one-half the required amount. It is possible that the discrepancy is due to the observations being made on different dates, since at Kodaikanal, on different occa- sions, measures made at the pole of the sun varied from one-half to the full predicted displacement. Simultaneous solar observations at Kodaikanal and Mount Wilson are, unfortunately, impossible, and it is a pity that the Australian Solar Observatory is not yet in existence to link up the two. If Mr. Evershed and others prove correct,. the problem still remains to interpret the half-displace- ment observed; obviously, this can be done only /f by some independent evidence the motions of the vapours are known upon that portion of the solar surface towards which the spectroscope is directed. This involves a deeper knowledge of the currents in the solar atmosphere than we at present possess. There has been a disposition to regard displacements at the volar limb as free from motion effects, but it is inevitable that there will be surface currents, and these need not be of excessive violence in order to give displacements of the order of magnitude of those observed. The problem, if we accept Mr. Evershed’s NATURE [ FEBRUARY 19, 1920 data, resolves itself into choosing between (a) the absence of the Einstein effect, but the existence of currents of absorbing solar vapours moving away from the observer on the earth, and (b) the existence of the Einstein effect, together with solar currents of about the same magnitude as before, but in the oppo- site direction. The question thus involves an exten- sive knowledge of solar meteorology. There is, I fear, no immediate ‘prospect of a rigorous solution of the problem of the displacement of the Fraunhofer lines with our present incomplete knowledge of the conditions necessary for the production of the cyanogen-band spectrum and with our present limited information regarding the circulation in the sun’s atmosphere. W. G. DurFieLp. University College, Reading, February 8. ; Statistics of Valour and Service. In the Weekly Edition of the Times for Novem- ber 28, 1919, the following statistics relating to decorations awarded for services in the field are detailed :— V.C. -. 2D.S.0; M.C. D.C.M. M M. Decoration 576 8,862 36,707 24,391 114,517 ist Darcy 2 695 2,932 468 5,719 2nd bar ... — 70 167 9 180 grd bar... — 6 4 oo 1 An analysis of these figures, with a consideration of the results arising from such an examination, may be | not without interest. The figures may be reclassified as follows :— Number of Individuals who have Won Decoration V.c. DS.O. M.C. DCM. MM. With o bar 574 8,167 33,775 23,923 108,798 Nidpiiee G8: genes et 24) Gag 2s9O8) 41: 4kO 5,539 yy 2 bars... — 64 163 9 179 ¥5 9 DAR 6 4 — I In making this reclassification I have assumed that all the decorations were won subsequent to July, 1914. There may be exceptions—as, for instance, in the case of Capt. Leahy, V.C.—but as the number of such cases must be small, their influence may be neglected. In analysing these statistics I shall employ a type of method which I have applied with considerable success to medical problems, chiefly of an epidemio- logical nature (Science Progress, 1914; Proc. Lond. Math, Soc., 1914; and various papers in the Indian Journal of Medical Research). The argument as applied to the present case is as follows: Let us assume the presence at the Front of a community of individuals, initially undecorated, who were capable of earning the decoration in question provided that opportunity offered and recognition came. Let v, be the number of individuals who at any moment were in the grade x—that is to say, who had received the decoration with x—1 bars. Let o,f(t)dt be the prob- ability that an individual in grade x may during the time dt pass from the grade x to the grade x+1. For such a passage to occur, both opportunity must offer and recognition must come. The function ¢, allows for variations in the probability of further attainment being dependent on the degree of anterior attainment. The function f(t) is unknown; it describes the ebb and flow of the conflict. - Variations: in the number of individuals in the grade x are composed of influxes and effluxes. The degree of the former depends upon the number of individuals who have alreadv attained to the grade x—1, and the degree of the latter upon ag number of those who. are in the grade x itself. us Wx = (rr, —P2tx) f (tat. Let us assume as an approximation that ¢,=b+cx. | NO. 2625, VOL. 104] Let », denote the mean grade, and p, and p, the second and third moments about the mean respec- tively. By differentiating these values according to the time, and by making use of the above differential equation, we find m= Se at); y= Leet 1), ps Zee 1) (2e¢—1), where @ is written for /f(i)dt; whence c/b=(n.—p,)*4,", Hy (Hot oy) =2MQ”. d Solving the differential equation for successive values of x, and eliminating the unknown function 0, we have, if we remember that the participating population N was initially undecorated, _ Cy ble ve=N(2+1) . = ((+2-1) tae (fa). Cure c : Fe ne [area Tr In the present instance, as in very many epidemio- logical problems, we are ignorant of the value of N, i.e. of the number of individuals in the participating population. On the assumption that our hypotheses are applicable, we can, however, calculate its value by making use of the above eliminant between the moments which results from our hypotheses, and by taking advantage of the fact that, in calculating the values of moments about any selected grade, informa- tion regarding the number of individuals in that grade is unnecessary, as in each case this number is multi- plied by zero. In the present instance, as we are ignorant of the number of individuals in the zero grade (i.e. of the number of the undecorated), we employ moments about the origin. Let us denote the second and third of these by p’, and yn’, respectively, then by introducing the values n,=Ny,, n,=Ny’,, n,=Nu',, into the eliminant we find N= 70" (222 — 14) + {270% — (to + 11)}. The results of these calculations are indicated in the following table :— Number of Individuals having the Decoration and V.c. DS.O. M.C... DCM. MM. Withobar ... 574 8,158 33,769 23,925 108,789 ee) 6421 gare bya oe 2,784 460 6,555 3s. 2 bats eS 58 152 te Pree 31) Jeera en 6 6 — 3 The correspondence between calculated and actual values is good, as was in some measure to be ex- pected, since the number of grades in the statistics in no case exceeds four, whilst the number of con- stants at our disposal is three. We may, however, conclude that, for particular values of these constants, our assumptions are sufficient to account for the facts, and proceed to examine the significance which attaches to these values in the light of our assump- tions. The final test of the adequacy of the assump- tions must clearly depend upon the reasonableness of — such inferences as may obtrude themselves. ‘ These values are as follows :— N clb front N.C: 41,763 —0'5 0-014 D.S.O 215,498 +2:-96 0:042. M.C. 240,477 — 0-005 0-166 D.C.M 1,103,730 +0°735 0-023 M.M. 1,077,444 —0:096 O13 In the values of N we have the values of the par- ticipating populations. To, recapitulate: They denote the numbers of persons at the Front who were capable of earning the decoration in question if opportunity offered and recognition came. The standard of the Te Re OT ea & FEBRUARY 19, 1920| NATURE 661 V.C. stands pre-eminent. Amongst the other four we find that the populations calculated for decorations awarded to non-commissioned ranks are to those cal- culated for decorations awarded to officers as approxi- mately 5 to 1. In the values of c/b we have a measure of the amount of increase in the probability of attainment as the individual passes from grade to grade. Thus if the likelihood of winning the decoration be unity, the likelihood of obtaining a first bar is 1+c/b, and of obtaining a second 1+2c/b. . Herdman. Pp. 84. (Liverpool : C. Tingling and Co., 1919.) No. 2625, VOL, 104] In, | cannot (in general) be found without first finding the corresponding spectrum fringes, the second chapter is devoted to spectrum fringes. The work described in the third chapter was undertaken at the request of Prof. W. G. Cady, in the endeavour to obtain the elastic constants of small bodies. The application of the displacement method proved astonishingly easy in a case where a degree of rough handling is inevit- able, but it was found that there lurked in the elastic ‘apparatus some discrepancies, both of viscosity and hysteresis, the nature of which escaped detection after many attempts to locate its origin. The fourth chapter contains applications of the rectangular interferometer using achromatic fringes to the study of gravitation. A method for the determination of the Newtonian con- stant is worked out. Again, the same interferometer is associated with the horizontal pendulum for the detection of small changes in the inclination of the earth’s surface. Series of observations extending between January and August are recorded. In the fifth and last chapter the author deals with the application of interferometers to the study of vibrating systems. To test the method, an examination is made of the vibration of telephonic apparatus. Interference- vibration curves have been obtained for two identical telephonic systems joined directly in series, while these forms subsided completely when the telephones were joined differentially. RESEARCHES AT HIGH TEMPERATURES AND PRESSURES. By tHe Hon. Str Cuartes A. Parsons, K.C.B., PRS,’ I. UST ten years ago in this room Sir Richard Threlfall discussed the effects of temperature and pressure on various substances, and commenced by referring to a suggestion I made in 1904 to sink a bore-hole twelve miles deep in the earth with the object of exploring the region beneath us, about which so little is known. Last summer at Bournemouth I ventured again to direct attention to the desirability of such an exploration in the interests of science generally, and to the possibility that it might ulti- mately lead to some developments of practical import- ance and utility. Ten years ago no experiments had been made on the behaviour of rocks under the conditions existing at great depths below the surface of the ground; but, prompted by my suggestion in 1904, and after some subsequent correspondence in regard to the possibility of the rock crushing in and closing the shaft, Prof. Frank D. Adams, of McGill University, Montreal, commenced experiments on the strength of rocks to resist the closing up of cavities under the conditions prevailing at great depths below the surface. He published the account of these experiments in the Journal of Geology for February, 1912. Adams’s method was to place a block of granite or limestone in a tightly fitting cylinder of nickel-steel, which was shrunk lightly around the block to ensure perfect fitting and support; hard steel rams actuated by a hydraulic press were arranged to exert a known pressure against the ends of the block. Two small holes were previously drilled in the specimen, one axial in the centre and one transverse, the diameter of the holes being o-05 in., or one-tenth the diameter of the specimen. The temperature of the container and specimen was maintained at any desired point up to the softening point of steel. In some experiments no heat was applied, while in others the temperature 1 Discourse delivered at the P oyal Institution on Friday, January 23. 678 NATURE [FEBRUARY 19, 1920 was raised to that estimated to exist at the depth below the surface of the earth corresponding to this pressure. When no heat was applied the holes in the granite showed no alteration under a pressure equivalent to thirty miles deep, and in the case of limestone the specimen supported one-half of this pressure without alteration. Adams then raised the temperature of the container and specimen. When granite was heated to 550° C., a temperature corresponding to eleven miles below the surface, it stood a pressure equivalent to fifteen miles, and might have stood more but that the container became weakened by the heat. Lime- stone begins to decompose at'a temperature of 450° C., but even at this temperature it withstood a pressure corresponding to ten miles, Adams concludes that small cavities in granite will not close in under the conditions of pressure and temperature at eleven miles below the surface, how- ever long a time is allowed to lapse, and that the cavities may persist to much greater depths, but the softening of the steel of the container precluded the carrying of his experiments to still higher tempera- tures and pressures. So far as they go, these experiments are reassuring as to the permanence and safety of a pit shaft twelve miles deep sunk through granite, but it would be more satisfactory to experiment on a larger specimen than one only } in. in diameter as used by Adams, and to heat the specimen electrically when submerged in graphite while keeping the container cold, the temperature being indicated by a thermo-couple in the specimen. This could be carried out in a nickel- steel container like that shown in Fig. 2. In this connection P. W. Bridgeman in 1911 sub- merged a sealed glass tube containing a cavity under an external hydrostatic pressure of 24,000 atmospheres {corresponding to a depth in the earth of fifty-six miles) for three hours, and the cavity showed no change in size or form. It, however, appears that temperature will probably place a limit to the depth that could be reached before the closing in of the shaft commences to occur, for Judd, Milne, and Mallet agree in the view that the deepest origin of earth- quakes is between thirty and fifty miles. This would seem to indicate that at greater depths than thirty miles the temperature and pressure are such that changes of form take place by plastic deformation, and not by sudden slips or the formation of faults, which are the chief cause of earthquakes. Again, Oldham states that beyond twenty miles deep seismic waves which are transmitted by compression and dis- tortional vibrations change in character in this respect : that though the compressional. waves are only slightly affected in velocity, on the other hand the distortional waves are reduced to one-half their velocity. This would seem to imply that the modulus of elasticity in shear has, at twenty miles depth, owing to the tise of temperature, fallen to one-half, and it seems probable that the rock also is weakening in its resist- ance to shear; in fact, that the rock is becoming more plastic, and that cavities would probably close up at twenty miles below the surface. The greatest depth to which a yet been sunk is only about 1% miles. single-stage shaft on the Rand is Hercules East Rand Proprietary Mine. It is 4soo ft. vertically, and rectangular in section. The deepest shaft in the world is that at Morro Velho, Brazil. The bottom is 6400 ft. vertically below the surface, and it has been sunk, and is worked, in stages, two of which are about 1200 ft. vertical. The deepest shaft designed on the Rand is by the City Deep Co. It is 7ooo ft. vertically, is circular of 20 ft. NO. 2625, VOL, 104] shaft has as The deepest that of the diameter, and is to be worked in two sta iat 3 3500 ft. each. The most rapid sinking oo bo made at the Crown Mines No. 15 Shaft, where 310 ft. were sunk in a month; the shaft is circular, and of 20 ft. in diameter. oe There are several interesting departures from — ordinary mining practice necessary. The haulage — is arranged in stages of about half a mile, prin- — cipally in order to economise the weight of r : and also the power for winding. In countries — where the atmosphere is dry the sides of the shaft are cooled by sprinkling water upon them, which by — evaporation cools the rock. It is, however, possible — to augment this effect by artificially drying and — cooling the air before passing it down the mine. When still greater depths of shaft are in contem- plation further methods of cooling in. addition to these would probably be found necessary; for instance, the — carrying of the heat upwards by means of brine cir- — culated in a closed ring formed of steel pipes with a — rising and descending column. Though the columns might be carried the whole depth of twelve miles, the — hydraulic pressure’ at the bottom would be about 12 tons per square inch, and entail very — 4 pipes of great strength to resist the pressure. ‘ cheaper plan would be to work in stages, each ring covering a stage of from two to three miles.of the shaft, the heat being transferred from the top of one brine ring to the bottom of the ring above by surface- _ heat exchangers and refrigerating ma fy toss neutralise the heat drop on transfer. These may be called heat pumps, and would be driven. seat. g As the depth of the shaft increases, the pressure of — the air upon the miners will be about doubled for — every three miles, but what is more serious is the increase in temperature of the air itself caused by the adiabatic compression due to gravity, by which it will be raised about 100° F. For these reasons it — will be necessary to place airtight partitions across — the shaft at every mile or two, and to carry on the ventilation through these by means of a pump to deliver the foul air upwards and an expander to allow — the fresh air to descend. These two machines would be linked together, and the difference in their power supplied by an electric motor. (This method has been se used with water, and is equally applicable to — air. At each partition heat exchangers and refrigerating — machinery similar to those used for the brine would be placed. Another and preferable plan would be to— place numerous heat exchangers between the ascend- ing columns of air to transfer heat from one to the other. The air would, in this case, not itself act as a_ conveyor of heat to the surface, for which the brine columns would be depended upon, but it would enable ~ airlocks every three miles to suffice. A further alterna-— tive and very simple method would be to convey liquid air from the surface, and allow it to escape at the It would ensur part of the shaft requiring cooling. good ventilation. : a) When sinking the deeper portions of the shaft, shields would probably be necessary to protect the miners from the splintering of the rock which caused by the intense compressive stress, which sp off scales from the surface, sometimes with consid able violence. ii In 1904 the estimate of the time required to sink twelve miles was eightv years, and was based on th records of that time. With improved machinerv and methods the records have been so much lowered that an estimate of thirty years seems now to be reasonabl Threlfall traced the gradual evolution of the theory of the effects of temperature and pressure on the allo- tropic forms of various substances. He described his’ FEBRUARY 19, 1920] NATURE 679 apparatus and experiments designed to melt graphite under high pressure, his inference then being that under pressures up to 1oo tons per square inch carbon ‘does not follow the same law as many other sub- stances, and does not crystallise as diamond on cooling. : An interesting discovery was made by Bridgeman in 1911 when studying the compressibility of mer- cury. He found that it had a remarkable power of penetrating steel containers, a power not possessed by oil or water, which caused them to hurst at much lower pressures than when they were charged with oil or water. The phenomenon he attributed to the fact that mercury has the power of dissolving small percentages of iron, and will amalgamate with it when the surfaces are absolutely free from oxide. In 1912 Bridgeman published his remarkable re- searches on water under pressures up to 20,000 atmo- spheres. He found that there are four allotropic forms of ice besides ordinary ice, which are found under various conditions of pressure and temperature with determinate regions of stability. except ordinary ice are more dense than water; one is remarkable as existing from a temperature of —18° C. under a pressure of 4500 atmospheres up to a temperature of 67° C. under a pressure of 20,000 atmospheres, Recently a pressure of from 200 to 1000 atmo- spheres at a temperature between 500° and 700° C. has been applied to compel hydrogen to combine with nitrogen to form ammonia on a great commercial scale, a catalyst being necessary to promote the com- bination and to establish the equilibrium between the gases and their product. This action is reversible as regards temperature and pressure. On the other hand, iron just molten is an energetic catalyst in the transformation of diamond into graphite, but, con- trary to expectations, as we shall see, no amount of pressure that has yet been applied appears to have caused a reversal of this action. More than thirty years ago, having suitable apparatus at hand, I made a few experiments to try the effect of high pressures and temperatures on carbon, compounds of carbon, and some other sub- stances. The apparatus consisted of an 80-ton press, under which suitable containers were placed, and a turbo- generator of 24 kilowatts output at 80 volts provided the current. It had been discovered by Cheesborough that the carbon filaments for incandescent lamps became very hard and resilient when heated in a hydrocarbon atmosphere of about 4 mm. absolute pres- sure, and I was anxious to try what would be the result if a rod of carbon were electrically heated when submerged in a liquid hydrocarbon under high pres- sure. Benzine, paraffin, treacle, chloride, and bisul- phide of carbon were tested under a pressure of 2200 atmospheres, or about 15 tons per square inch. The results were not successful in producing a hard coating to the rod or in increasing materially its density and hardness except in the case of tetra- chloride of carbon, which slightly consolidated and hardened it; on the contrary, the carbon deposited from the liquids always appeared as soft amorphous carbon like soot. These experiments were extended by substituting, instead of the liquids mentioned, silica, alumina, and other substances and increasing the pressure to 30 tons per square inch. When the current density was sufficiently increased the rod was converted to soft graphite. Moissan in 1003 expressed the view that iron in a pasty condition was the matrix of the diamond, and that great pressure was the determining factor, which compelled a minute fraction of the carbon present to appear as diamond; NO. 2625, VOL, 104] All these forms’ he further refemred to the probability of carbon being liquefied when under a pressure sufficient to prevent its volatilisation, and that from the liquid state it may pass into the crystalline form on cooling. Crookes, in his lecture delivered before the British Association at Kimberley in 1905, emphasised the same view as to the probability of the crystallisation of carbon directly from the molten state on cooling. Though my original experiments in 1888 were not favourable to these views, it nevertheless seemed desirable to carry the investigations up to the greatest possible pressures attainable. Experiments ‘were, consequently, resumed in 1907 with a new equipment, which consisted of a 2000-ton hydraulic press and a storage battery of 360 kilowatts output. The battery can be coupled for 2, 4, 8, 16, or 48 volts as required, and the mains and the main switch can carry currents up to 80,000 amperes to the hydraulic press, which is placed by itself in a small, strong house partly below ground, with walls of 2 ft. thick- ness reinforced with steel bars; the door is of steel 3 in. thick, and the roof is of light galvanised iron. The container under the press is further enclosed by 2 in. thick telescoping steel rings, raised into position by steel ropes and counter-weights. These pre- cautions, as experience showed, were necessary, as several violent explosions occurred which cracked the steel rings and blew off the roof. A charge of iron and carbon, when confined and raised to a high tem- perature, may be very violent if suddenly released by the melting of the pole-pieces; also some endothermic compounds have been formed which swelled the con- tainer and allowed the contents to escape. My experiments confirmed the conclusion at which Threlfall had independently arrived: that under pres- sures up to too tons per square inch and very intense heating by electrical current, graphite’is not materially changed. But modifications in the experiments were made and other methods adopted, as will be explained, which in some respects carried the investigation. to still higher pressures and temperatures; these, how- ever, lead to the same conclusion. I propose this evening, to deal chiefly with the practical or engineering side of the subject, and to review the limits of pressure and temperature which are artificially attainable, and to make some com- parison between them and the pressures and tem- peratures occurring in \Nature. ; When the blade of a knife is pressed strongly against another blade so as.to make a dent in each, the pressure.on the boundary surface of the metal at the notch will have averaged from 300 to 350 tons per square inch, according to the hardness of temper of the steel. The pressures.on. the knife-edges of, a weighing machine when fully loaded are also of the ‘same order. When.a needle is broken or a piece of piano-wire is strained to the point of breaking, the maximum tension on the metal will be at the rate'of 150 tons per square inch. ‘On the other hand, the’ pressures that occur in the chambers of large guns do not usually exceed 20 tons per square inch, and the tensile stress on the plates of a ship in heavy weather should not exceed 8 tons per square inch. -From these simple instances some idea is gathered of the limitations imposed by materials and dimensions upon apparatus for experimenting at high pressures because of the practical difficulty of hardening and tempering steel in large masses. When dealing with small amounts of material in ‘each experiment the dimensions allow of the container and the ram being made of tungsten steel, which can be hardened and tempered throughout, and not onlv superficially, as in the case of ordinary carbon steel. 680 NATURE [FEBRUARY 19, 1920 The material is hard and strong, but hot brittle, and it retains thése qualities up to moderate temperatures, such as 600° C., to a much greater extent than any other steel. In one form of container or die the bore is 14 in. in diameter, and it may be used for a limited number of times for a pressure of 200 tons per square inch. It will, however, eventually crack if this pressure is many times repeated, the cracks usually beginning near the bottom of the die. For still higher pressures it is better to use a double re-entrant container with two rams 3 in. in diameter. Both the container and the rams are made of hardened and tempered tungsten steel, and are rendered fluid and gastight by mild steel cups on the ends of the rams. If the charge occupies only a short length of the bore, as shown, the barrel of the container where the charge lies is supported by the shear strength of the metal above and below the zone of pressure in addi- tion to its own strength as a tube. Under these conditions it is as strong as or stronger than the crush- ing strength of the rams, and pressures of 300 tons per square inch may be repeated several times without cracking. In a container of this form seven grains of ful- minate of mercury have been placed, embedded in graphite, and the pressure increased very gradually until it reached 230 tons per square inch (under this treatment fulminate does not usually detonate). The die was then heated by gas to more than 180° C., the temperature of detonation. After two failures of the experiment, owing to the leakage of the steel cups, the third was successful, and no gas escaped and the container was uninjured. The graphite was some- what caked, but otherwise unaltered. Graphite mixed with sodium nitrate and fulminate was also exploded under the same conditions. Graphite with 15 per cent. of potassium chlorate detonated when 200 tons per square inch had been reached. Many other reactions were tested in a_ similar manner in larger dies under pressures of from 40 to 200 tons. The action of concentrated sulphuric acid on sugar was accelerated by a pressure of 50 tons, but, on the whole, these experiments in dies failed to produce any interesting results. Unfortunately, the heating of the die with its charge cannot be carried much above 500° C. without serious weakening of the steel and com- pelling -a reduction of pressure. The electrical heating of the charge in such small dies, while keeping the die cool, presents great difficulties in electrical insulation on so small a scale to withstand intense pressure, but J think that it might he accomplished in certain instances. It has been suggested, with the object of reaching higher pressures, that a small die might be bodilv immersed in a large container. Doubtless it could be ‘arranged, but it would be very cumbersome to work with, and would only add about 100 tons per square inch to the maximum pressure. A better plan would be to follow the principle of the usual capped armour-piercing projectile, and to reinforce the rams and. ends of the container by tightly fitting copper or bronze rings around the necks of the rams, keeping the parallel part of the noses as short as possible. When in operation the copper rings will be flattened and squeezed against the necks and shoulders of the rams, and also against the ends of the container, and by this means the parts that ordinarily would have to bear. the maximum stress will have part of this stress transferred to other parts not so_ heavily stressed, and, consequently, the maximum pressure in NO. 2625, VOL. 104] the container can by this means be raised consider- ably, perhaps to 450 tons per square inch. ven In carrying out experiments on larger samples of material and in applying electrical ting to the charge, the container becomes too large to pe t of its being made of hardened steel; therefore, nickel- Y THIN PRESSPAHN bysrayviding. INSUIATION PACKING Fic. 1.—Chiefly for liquids. steel is used, as for the barrels of guns. It is heat- treated by quenching in oil from a high temperature after rough machining. Containers (Figs. 1 and 2) with the thickness of wall equal to the diar of the bore will stand an internal pressure of 40 tons per square inch repeated almost indefinitely without serious enlargement of the bore, but 100 tons neces- ASBESTOS & MICA LINER INSULATION Hk . NW Rueser Cur VELEN ZZ Sy, VULCANIZED f FIBRE RING a 4 (2772 backed by a cup of brass; the leather first takes the pressure, and the lip of the brass cup is thereby FEBRUARY 19, 1920] NATURE 681 expanded tightly against the bore of the container, and remains fluid-tight even though the leather should be carbonised by the heat. The bottom pole is elec- trically insulated from the container by vulcanised fibre washers and a rubber cup-ring, which is pro- tected from the heat by magnesite stemming. The current is conveyed from the container to the top pole-piece of the conductor by pads of copper gauze, which can slide easily against the bore of the container and allow for the expansion of the con- ductor. Experiments on liquids with this container under 4400 atmospheres gave the same results as my former experiments under 2200 atmospheres. Fig. 2 shows the container arranged to melt graphite under pressure by resistance heating. Here the charge is graphite, and is divided by the bridge or ring made of pressed calcined magnesia or of titanium oxide. The bore of the container is electrically insulated from the graphite by layers of asbestos, millboard, and mica. ; ; (To be continued.) UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL INTELLIGENCE, | CamBribGe.—Notice has been given that there will be an examination for the recently instituted diploma in psychological medicine: Part i. next October, part ii. next December. Oxrorp.—On Tuesday, February 17, the preamble of a statute providing that women may be matriculated and admitted to degrees in the University passed Congregation without a division. The report recently issued of the Committee for Rural Economy shows a large increase in the number of students. The Michaelmas term began with 200 students, of whom 123 were working at agri- culture and 77 at forestry. Lectures have ae given on various subjects connected with agriculture, in- cluding courses on forest and agricultural botany, live- stock, principles of cultivation, soils and manures, together with the history of agriculture and agricul- tural economics. Practical laboratory work has been shag and classes have been held at the University arm. A vote will be taken in Convocation on the question of Greek in Responsions on Tuesday, March 2. No further amendment being now possible, the statute will have to be passed or rejected as it now stands. Many will regret that the chance of an agreed statute was lost by the opposition of those who objected to the retention of the Greek language as a preliminary requirement even for the final literary and classical examinations. The. defenders of Greek were willing to grant exemption to all students of natural ‘science or mathematics, as well as to all passmen, but this concession failed to satisfy their opponents. A course of three free public lectures on Fermat’s last theorem will be given by Mr. L. J. Mordell at the Birkbeck College on March 10, 17, and 24 at 5 o’clock. Tickets of admission are obtainable from the secre- tary of the college. Tue annual meeting of the Association of Technical Institutions will be held on Friday and Saturday, February 27 and 28, at the Cordwainers’ Hall, London, E.C. The proceedings will commence at 10.30 on the Friday morning, when the president- elect, the Marquess of Crewe, will deliver his _presi- dential address. Resolutions will be submitted dealing with pensions and salaries for teachers in technical institutions, and papers will be read by Mr. A. Mans- No. 2625, VOL. 104] | litic core of the western Cordillera. | that their formation preceded the uplift of the folded | bridge on Technical Schools and their Part in relation to Adult Education, Dr. R. S. Clay on Scholarships, and Mr. H. J. Taylor on Day Continuation Schools. Tue following scholarships will be offered for competition by the Institution of Naval Archi- tects this year:—Naval Architecture: Vickers (150l. per annum), Hawthorn Leslie (1501. per annum), John Samuel White (1001. per annum), and Denny ee per annum). Marine Engineering: R. L. Scott 150l. per annum) and Denny (75/. per annum). These scholarships are open to British apprentices or students, and are tenable (subject to the regulations governing each scholarship) for three years at one or all of the following educational establishments :— Glasgow University, Durham University (Armstrong College), Liverpool University, Royal Naval College (Greenwich), and City and Guilds (Engineering) Col- lege (London). Full particulars may be obtained from the Secretary, Institution of Naval Architects, 5 Adelphi Terrace, London, W.C.2. An inaugural lecture on ‘‘The Universities and the Training of Teachers,’? delivered at Oxford last October by Mr. F, J. R. Hendy, the Director of Training in the University, has been published by the Clarendon Press in pamphlet form. Mr. Hendy deals briefly with the conditions of the new Education Act and the qualities which will be required for those who are to carry out its provisions for senior elemen- tary, secondary, and continuation schools. In par- ticular, he dwells on the necessity for teachers of a wider and less specialised knowledge, men and womerr who can take all but the highest work in two, cr even three, kindred subjects. The valuable influence of the form-master is something which has tended to disappear from secondary education in recent years, and it should be one of the duties of the training col- leges to restore it, at the same time avoiding the danger of superficiality by dividing the subjects of study vertically rather than horizontally, so that, instead of going half-way in two or three honours subjects, a student should go the whole way in a section of each. Some suggestive remarks are made on the subjects of method and psychology, words frequently used, but often misused; also on the im- mense growth of the administrative side of educa- tional. work and the comparatively small expansion of the professional or teaching side. The University Press has done a good service in putting this lecture within the reach of all concerned with the supply of men and women for the teaching profession. SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES. LONDON. Geological Society, February 4.—Mr. G. W. Lamplugh, president, in the chair—J. A. Douglas: Geological sections through the Andes of Peru and Bolivia: ii., from the Port of Mollendo to the Inam- bari River. The paper gives a description of a_geo- logical section across the Andes of southern Peru, from the port of Mollendo to the Inambari River, a tributary of the Madre de Dios. The deflection of the Pacific coast-line of South America north of Arica towards the north-west brings to light a zone of ancient granite and gneiss comparable with the rocks of the coastal Cordillera of Chile. These rocks are shown to be.of ‘alkaline’? type, and are contrasted with the “calcic” granodiorites forming the batho- Tt is suggested chains. The Jurassic zone of northern Chile has been almost entirely stripped from the underlying plutonic core, but its continuation has been proved at. more 682 NATURE [FEBRUARY 19, 1920 than one. locality, and in the inter-Andean region strongly folded fossiliferous beds of Bajocian age are found beneath an unconformable Cretaceous series. The batholitic core is shown to comprise at least three distinct phases of plutonic intrusion, represented by granodiorites, diorites, and adamellites. The volcanic cones of the western Cordillera have given rise to an extensive series of lavas and tuffs comparable with the Mauri River series of Bolivia. Cretaceous lime- stones here take the place of the red gypsiferous sand- stones farther south, and are transgressive on to Devonian rocks. The latter contain abundant fossils of Lower Hamilton age. The post-Cretaceous line of dioritic intrusion, formerly described as running through Coro Coro and Comanche, once more appears on the line of section. The Permo-Carboniferous fauna of Bolivia has not been discovered in the dis- trict here described. Optical Society, February 12.—F. G. Smith: A ray plotter. Describes a novel instrument for the tracing of a ray through. a refracting surface.—J. W. French ; The surface layer of an optical polishing tool. Sug- gests a glass layer on the polishing tool as an effective cause of polishing.—Mrs. C. H. Griffiths: Diffraction patterns in the presence of spherical aberrations. Photographs in the various planes of the diffraction pattern for an artificial star were taken and measured, with spherical aberration of varying amounts present. These photographs were examined afterwards with the view of determining the relative intensities of light in the different zones of the ring interference and diffraction patterns both at the focus and otherwise. OvBLIN. Royal Irish Academy, January 12.—The Most Rev. and Right Hon. J. H. Bernard, president, in the chair.—J. A. McClelland and A. Gilmour: Further observations of the electric charge oni rain. Different sections of the paper deal with the charge on non- thunderstorm rain, thunderstorm rain, snow, and hail. There is also a section dealing with the size of rain- drops. The results agree with earlier observations as regards the great excess of positive charge on non- thunderstorm rain. In the case of thunderstorm rain, while the charge per cubic centimetre is greater, the excess of positive over negative is not marked. Rain- drops are seldom greater in volume than 5 xX10-°* c.c.; they are usually less than 1X10~-* c.c. Raindrops less than a certain size (0:08X10~° c.c.) are, as previously found, always negatively charged. As a rule, drops of this size give little rainfall, but on a few occasions precipitation of this type was quite considerable.— W. B. Wright: Minor periodicity in glacial retreat. The terminal moraines of the Killarney and Kenmare district show a marked periodicity in their arrange- ment, occurring at fairly, regular intervals of half a mile to a mile from one another. These moraines are themselves composite, and break up locally into smaller moraines. The smaller moraines are pre- sumed to mark annual retreat stages, as in the neigh- bourhood of Stockholm—a presumption which gains support from the occurrence of an esker with seasonal mounds between two of the major stages at Kenmare. On this basis the major stages mark a 20- to 40-year periodicity, which is comparable with the climatic periodicity established by Briickner. A much longer neriodicitv of 500 or 600 vears, in which an epoch of linear terminal moraine formation alternates with an epoch characterised by the absence of such moraine formation, is vaguely indicated by the evidence, but not proved. f January 26.—The Most Rev. and Right. Hon. T. H. Bernard, president, in the chair.—Prof. A. Henry NO. 2625, VOL, 104] and Miss M. G, Flood: The Douglas firs: a botanical and sylvicultural description of the various species of © Pseudotsuga. Six species and one variety were investigated. The microscopical structure of the leaves was found to be distinct and constant in each species, being correlated with the special climate in which the tree lives. The Colorado and the x Douglas firs exemplify this well, the leaf-anatomy of the former showing xerophytic features, which are adaptations to the dry continental climate of the Rocky Mountains. ese two distinct species (P. glauca and P. Douglasii), usually regarded as of only varietal rank, are treated very fully. The remarkable difference in the odour exhaled by these two trees led to a chemical examination of the oils distilled from their foliage by. Mr. C. T. Bennett. The delicious fragrance of the Oregon species was found to be due to the presence in the leaf-oil of geraniol, pinene being absert. The strong turpentine odour of the Colorado species is associated with the presence in its leaf-oil of large percentages of pinene and bornyl acetate. ed Royal Dublin Society, January 27.—Dr. F. Hackett. in the chair.—Prof. J. Wilson: The application of the food-unit method to the fattening of cattle. Thirty years ago N. J: Fjord commenced by experiments to determine what quantities of several other feeding. stuffs were equivalent to 1 lb. of barley, and his suc cessors in Denmark and Sweden have so developed his method that there is now scarcely a feeding-stuff the feeding value of which they cannot express in terms of barley, which they have retained as the unit. Many fattening experiments have been carried out in Britain during the last eighty or ninety years, but, eng Sons very general purpose, they have led to no very ni result. By applying Fjord’s method to these experi- ments, however, the relative efficiencies of the various rations can be approximately determined and sugges- tions made for improvement in the use of Testi ee stuffs for stock of all kinds.—Prof. H. H. Dixon and ‘H. H. Poole: Phato-synthesis and the electronic \theory. The modern view of the part played by sensi- ‘tisers of the photographic film suggests the i ere that green-leaf pigment, which acts as a sensitiser the wave-lengths it absorbs, loses electrons under the action of the absorbed light. This would suggest a photo-electric theory for photo-synthesis. Accordingly, the photo-electric properties of leaf pigment were tested qualitatively at first by several . These giving no indication of photo-electric activity under the action of light active in photo-synthesis, a more refined quantitative method was employed. This showed that the number of electrons ejected, even under intense illumination, from a film of leaf ’ ment or from-a layer of leaf-powder is negligible — the photo-synthetic process. The result supports the view that the displacement of electrons, which we should expect to be the first step in photo-synthesis, must be entirely confined within the pigment-complex of the leaf, or even within the molecules of one of the pigments, and lends no support to the hypothesis that the pigment, by emitting electrons under the action of light, is able to build up carbohydtates external to itself. , . Paris. Academy of Sciences, January 19—M. Henri Deslandres in the chair.—M. Hadamard: The elemen- tarv solution of linear hyperbolic non-analytic partial differential equations.—H. Douvillé; The limit be- tween the Cretaceous and the Eocene in Aquitaine, India, and the Sudan.—C. Deperet: An attempt at a general chronological co-ordination of Quaternary time.—P. Boutroux: A family of multiform functions FEBRUARY 19, 1920] NATURE 683 associated with a differential equation of the first | of nitric oxide. The oxidation of nitric oxide by order.—G. Valiron: The theorem of M. Picard and the generalisations of M. Borel.—M. d’Ocagne: The distribution of curvatures round a point on a surface. —J. Villey : Explosion motors for rarefied atmospheres. Five methods are classified by means of which a normal motor may be made more effective at high altitudes..-G. Claude: The advantages of the syn- thesis of ammonia at very high pressures. At tooo atmospheres the number of passages of the gaseous mixture over the catalyst necessary for com- plete combination can be reduced to three, and, as a consequence, the volume of the part of the apparatus containing the catalyst can be reduced to at least one- tenth of that currently in use in German practice. At this pressure the ammonia formed can be liquefied out by simply cooling with water.—W. A. Noyes, jun. : Polarisation in iron solutions. The Nernst formula does not apply to the polarisation of iron solutions, but indicates values proportional to the experimental values.—C. Matignon and E. Monnet: The reversible oxidation of sodium nitrite. Sodium nitrite heated to about 500° C. with oxygen under pressure (175 atmo- spheres) is almost completely oxidised to the nitrate. The reaction is slow, but possibly a suitable catalyst may make the reaction of practical interest in the svnthetic nitrate and nitrite industry.—G. Chaudron ; The reversible reaction between steam and molyb- denum.—F. Kerforne: Some observations on_ the Redonian sea of Brittany.—J. Couégnas: Contribu- tion- to the study of the Argentat fault between Eymou- ‘tiers and Treignac.—H. Coupin: The causes of the elongation of the stem of etiolated plants. Plants grown in’the dark-in water containing the juice ex- tracted from green plants do not have elongated stems, but resemble seedlings grown in the light.—E. Gain and A. Gain: The thermal differences of opposite sides of a lacustral’ valley.—A. Guilliermond: The evolution of the chondriome in the plant-cell—R. Mirande: Alum carmine and its use, combined with iodine green in plant histology. Alum carmine should be considered as a stain for pectic materials, and not for cellulose, as usually believed.—G. Mangenot: The evolution of the chondriome and plasts in Fucus.— G. Arnaud: The family of the Parodiellinaceze.—A. Marie and L. MacAuliffe: The anthropometric studv of 136 natives of Tunis.—J. Pellegrin: The sub-fossil fish strata of the Tchad low country and their significa- tion.—J. Legendre: The food of the Madagascan perch. : January 26.—M. Henri Deslandres in the chair.— Y. Delage: An integrating Pitot tube for measuring the average velocity of variable currents. The instru- ment, a diagram of which is given, is based on the measurement of the water flowing from the upper end of the Pitot tube at the sea-level.—F. Widal and P. Vallery-Radot : Anaphylaxy due to antipyrin after a long phase of sensibilisation. ‘The case described had taken antipyrin monthly for nine years before any trouble arose, then each’ dose of antipyrin produced definite effects, localised in the lips. After seven years without this drug, antipyrin immediately reproduced the same symptoms. The treatment by which this anaphylactic state was cured, following the method of Pagniez, is described.—J. Andrade: The photo- graphic measurement of rolling resistance.—L. and E, Bloch: A spectroscopic arrangement for the study of the extreme ultra-violet. The prism and lenses are made of fluorspar, and air absorption is prevented by maintaining the whole apparatus in a high vacuum (0-001 mm.) by means of a Gaede pump. Spark spectra of several metals have been photographed with apparatus down to a wave-length of 1550 Ang- strém units.—E. Wourtzel: The velocity of oxidation NO. 2625, VOL, 104] “Pp. xxiv+292. oxygen is a reaction of the third order, and the course of the reaction undergoes no sudden modification when half the nitric oxide is oxidised. The velocity of the reaction diminishes as the temperature rises.—C. Matignon and Mile. G. Marchal: Some properties of sodium nitrite. Determinations of the melting point (276:9° C.), heat of solution, heat of neutralisation, heat of formation, and action on colouring matters. An aqueous solution of sodium nitrite at 100° C. in oxygen at 50 to 55 atmospheres remained unoxidised during five or six hours. Platinum black is without action as a catalyst.—A. Kling, D. Florentin, and E. Jacob: The properties of the chlorinated methyl car- bonates. All nine possible chlorine substitution pro- ducts of methyl carbonate have been prepared, and their physical properties are given in a table.—G. du Bellay and M. Houdard: The chemical properties of humus and their utilisation for the protection of com- batants against asphyxiating gases. Filtration of air through about 60 cm. of earth containing humus can protect against chlorine and phosgene for several hours.—P. da Souza: Contribution to the lithological study of the interior of Angola.—F. La Porte: The beaches of GAvyre and Penthiévre (Morbihan).—E. Mesnard: Lunations and rainy periods.—Ch. Dufonr : Values of the magnetic elements at the Val-Joveux Observatory on. January 1, 1920.—E. Surgis: Con- tribution to the study of the Frankeniacee.—A. Vandel: The development of the copulating apparatus in the Planaria is under the control of the genital glands.—L. Léger: Young fresh-water stages and biology of the marine lamprey. é BOOKS RECEIVED. Peat Industry Reference Book. By F. T. Gissing. (London: C. Griffin and Co., Ltd.) msi OG, : f Airman’s International Dictionary, including the most Important Technical Terms of Aircraft Con- struction. English, French, Italian, German. _ By M. M. Dander. Pp. vii+227. (London: C. Griffin and Co., Ltd.) 6s. : Contributions to the Genetics of Drosophila melano- gaster. By T. H. Morgan and others. Pp. v+388+ 12 plates. (Washington: Carnegie Institution of Washington.) : A New Type of Hereditary Brachyphalangy in Man. By O. L. Mohr and C. Wriedt. Pp. 64+ 7 plates. (Washington: Carnegie Institution of Washington.) : : Displacement Interferometry by the Aid of the Achromatic Fringes. By Prof. C. Barus. Part iv. Pp. 122. (Washington: Carnegie Institution of Washington.) i ; Papers from the Department of Marine Biology of the Carnegie Institution ot Washington. Pp. iv+ 128+4 plates. (Washington: ‘Carnegie Institution of Washington.) Contributions to the Geology and Paleontology of the West Indies. Pp. 184+plates. (Washington: Carnegie Institution of Washington.) Climatic Cycles and Tree-Growth. By A. E. Douglass. Pp. 127+12 plates. (Washington: Car- nesie Institution of Washington.) The Environment of Vertebrate Life in the Late Paleozoic in North America. By Prof. E. C. Case. Pp. vi+273. (Washington: Carnegie Institution of Washington.) A Biochemic Basis for the Study of Problems of Taxonomy, Heredity. Evolution, etc. By Prof. E. T. Reichert. Part i. Pp. xi+376+34 plates. Part ii. Pp. viit+377-834. (Washington: Carnegie Institu- tion of Washington.) 684 NATURE _ [FEBRUARY 19, 1920 DIARY OF SOCIETIES. THURSDAY, Fesrvary 19. Roya Institution oF GreaT Britain, at 3.—A. H. Smith: Illustra- tions of Ancient Greek and Roman Life in the British Museum. : Royav Society, at 4.30.—Prof, B. Moore and T. A. Webster: Studies of Photo-synthesis_in Fresh-water Algz.—Prof. W. M. Bayliss: The Properties of Colloidal Systems. IV. Reversible Gelation in Living Protoplasm.—Rev. J. Wyeth: The Develop of the Auditory Apparatus in Sphenodon punctatus. Rovav Institure or Pustic HEALTH, at 5.—Dr. S. R. Gloyne: The Problem of Immunity in Tuberculosis. 5 Linnean Society, at 5.—J.S. Huxley and D. F. Leney: Specimens of Sexually Mature Axolotls Metamorphosed into the Amblystoma Form by Feeding with Thyroid Gland, and of Urodele Larvae Precociously Meta- morpliosed by Treatment with Iodine Solution.—Major H.C. Gunton: Entomologico-Meteorological Records of Ecological Facts in Life of British Lepidoptera. INSTITUTION OF MiNnING AND METALLURGY (at Geological Society), at . 5.30.—T. B. Stevens and C, E. Blackett : The Use of Haloid Cyanides for the Purpose of Gold Extraction. CuiLp-Stupy Society (at Royal Sanitary Institute), at 6.—Commr. B. T. Coote: Physical Education and its relation to National Ideals. Cuemicat Society, at 8.—S. B. Schryver and C, C. Wood: A New Method for the Estimation of Methyl Alcohol.—C. S. Gibson and Sir William J. Pope : g8’-Dichloroethy!] Sulphide.—B. Flurscheim: The Relation between the Dissociation Constants of Acids and Bases and the Quanttiative Distribution of Affinity in the Molecule.—S. Dhar: Direct Replaceiuent of Negative Groups by Halogen in the Achromatic Series. _. Part I. Replacement of Nitro-group by Bromine. Society oF ANTIQUARIES, at 8.30. FRIDAY, FEBRUARY 20. Gro.Locicat Sociery or Lonpon, at 3.—(Anniversary Meeting.) RoyaL COLLEGE oF SuRGEONS, at 5.—Prof. G. Elliot Smith: The Evolution of the Cerebellum (Arris and Gale Lecture). InstiruTion oF MecHANIcAL ENGINEERS (Annual General Meeting), at 6.—E. M. Bergstrom: Recent Advances in the Utilisation of Water Power (Resumed Discussion). Concrete Institute (at 296 Vauxhall Bridge Road), at 6.—H. K. Dyson : Some Points in Reinforced Concrete Design. InstiTUTION or ELecrrica!. ENGINEERS (Students’ Meeting) (at Faraday House), at 7.—A. Serner and Others: Discussion on State Ownership v. Private Enterprise. Junior Instrrution or Enctneers (at Royal Society of Arts), at 7-30.— Prof. F. W. Burstall: Obscure Points in the Theory of the Internal- combustion Engine. Society or Tropica, Mepicine Ann Hycienx (at 11 Chandos Street, W.), at 8.30.—Col. W. G. King and Others: Discussion on Small-Pox,— Lt.-Col. N. H, Fairley and Capt H. R. Dew: Causes of Death from Malaria in Palestine : A Study in Cellular Pathology. Rovat InstiruTIoN oF GRreaT BRITAIN, at 9.—Dr. E. J. Russell: British Crop Production. ° 3 SATURDAY, Fesruary 2t. Rovat Institution oF Great Britain, at 3.—Sir J. J. Thomson: Positive Rays. PuystoLocicar Socrery (at Lister Institute), at 4. MONDAY, Fesruary 23. Rovat CoLiece or SurGEons, at 5.—Prof..G. Elliot Smith: The Evolu- tion of the Cerebellum (Arris and Gale Lecture). Roya Society or Arts, at 8.—C. F. Cross: Recent Researches in the Cellulose Industry (Cantor Lecture). Mrovicat Society or Lonpon, at 8.30.—Sir Charters Symonds: The Surgical Treatment of the Later Stages of Gunshot Injuries of the Chest and of Empyema.—Dr. P. M. Smith: The After-results of Certain Surgical Operations. Royar InsriruTr or British ARCHITECTS, at 8.30.—Jay Hambidge: Greek Design. TUESDAY, Frsruary 24. Rovat Horticutturat Society, at 3.—J. Hudson: The Cultivation of Fruits under Glass with a Minimum of Fire Heat. Roya Institution oF Great BRITAIN, at 3.—Prof. E, Wilson: Magnetic Susceptibility. InstiTuTION oF Civi. ENGINEERS, at 5.30 —Sir F, J. E. Spring : Restora- tion of a Cyclone-Damaged Breakwater End in Madras Harbour, and Coastal Sand Travel near Madras Harbour. Zoo.ocicat Society or Lonpon, at 5.30.—The Secretary: Report on the Additions to the Society’s Menagerie during the month of January, 1920.—E. G. Boulenger: On some Lizards of the Genus Chalcides,.— N.S. Lucas: Report on the Deaths in the Gardens in 1919: with Notes on Rickets and Avian Enveritis.—S. Hirst: Revision of the English Species o° Red Spider (Genera Tetranychus and Oligonychus). Royat Puorocrapuic Society or Great Bkirain (Lantern Meeting), at 7.—Dr. C. A. Swan: Wanderings in Italy. ILLUMINATING ENGINEERING Socik ry (at Royal Society of Arts), at 8 — Dr. T. L. Liewellyn and Others: Discussion on Lighting Conditions in - Mines, with special reference to the Eyesight of Miners. WEDNESDAY, Freseavuary 25. Royat Society or Arts, at 4.30.—J. Currie; Industrial Training. Gro.ocicaL Society or LoNpon, at 5.30 —H..C. Sargent: The Lower Carboniferous Chert Formations of Derbyshire. Brivisu. Psycuotocicar. Society (Industrial Section) (at Examination Rooms of the Royal College of Physicians, 8-1¢ Queen’s Square, W.C.), at 6.—Dr. H. M. Vernon : The Effect of Change in Hours of Work on Output. THURSDAY, Fesruary 26. Roya Instrrution or Great Britain, at 3.—A. H. Smith: Illus- trations of Ancient Greek and Roman Life in the British Museum. Rovat Scciery, at 4.30. {nstiTuTION or E-ectricat Encineers, RONTGEN Soctety, and RoyaL Society or Mepicine -(Electro-Therapeutics Section) (at Royal Society of Medicine). at 5 and 8.15 (loint Discussion on Electrical Apparatus in relation to X-rays).—Dr. R. Morton: The Efficiency of High-Tension NO. 2625, VOL. 104] The ‘*Times” African Flight. Transformers as used for X-rav Purpose:.—Major C. E. S. Phillips: The Problems of Interrupted and Fluctuating Currents. -R. S Wright: High- Tension ‘Transformers. c 5 Ww Royar CoL_ece or Puysicians, at 5.—Dr. A. Castellani: The Higher Fungi in relation to Human Pathology (Milroy Lecture). ; ; Concrete Institute (at Vauxhall Bridge Road), at 7.30.—E. F. W. — Grimshaw: Reinforced Concrete Fences and Posts. ; ; é FRIDAY, Frsrvuary 27. : : Royat Society or Mepicine (Study of Disease in Children Section), — at 4.30.—Dr. Mellanby and Others: Discussion on The Influence of Accessory Food Factors in Infant Feeding. t Puysicat Society, at 5.—T. Smith: The Balancing of Errors. —Dr. N. W. McLachlan: The Testing of Bars of Magnet Steel.—G. D. West: The Forces Acting on Heated Metal Foil Surfaces in Rarefied Gases.— Miss N. Hosali: Exhibit of Crystal Models. : war Wirevess Society or Lonpon (at Royal Society of Arts), at 8.— — A. A. Campbell Swinton : Some Wirele~s Wonders (Presidential Address). Roya InstiruTion oF GREAT BRITAIN, at 9.—W. B. Hard: ly: Problems — of Lubrication. x SATURDAY, Fesruary 28. Rovat_ Institution oF GREAT. Briratn, at 3.—Sir J. J. Thomson: Positive Rays. : a CONTENTS. The Organisation of Scientific. Work in India . . . 653 Modern: Physiology... 0 ew sist eae ee ae Mendelism. By Prof. L. Doncaster, F.R.S..... 655 Aeronautics in Italy. By Prof. G. H. Bryan, F.R.S. 65) The Re-mapping ofthe World ......:.... Physics for Medical Students, By Dr. H. S. Allen 658 Our. Bookshelf. 0: on A. isi, » eee ee Letters to the Editor:— Z ; Relativity and the Displacement of Fraunhofer Lines. —Prof,.W. G. Duffield: “oo v7 ives een Statistics of Valour and Service.—Major A. G. McKendrick . . heya Sugar-beet Seed.—Prof. T. D. A. Cockerell . . . An Electronic Theory of Isomerism.—W. E. Garner The Sociological Society.—Mrs, T. J. C, Fraser Davies) cise they whee; Ge Mirage Effects. Robert Ross; Albert Tarn. . . Unexplored Papua. (Illustrated.) By Sidney H. 2S BAR aaa eeNT eT ae steps ee Paces iforns Plants for Rock-gardens, (Illustrated.) . - A New Copper-refining Industry in Great Britain, By Prof. H. C. H. Carpenter, F.R.S. . 22 By Prof. J. W.- ($8 88 88 BSF Gregory, F-R3S)0 oi a ee ee The National Research Council of the United State ee aa tes : The Secondary School Curriculum ........ Notesiseicy its See: Our Astronomical Column :— Mercury as an Evening Star .. 1... . 5 *o Centenary of the Royal Astronomical Society. . . . Js Venus Cloud-covered ? .... ....- 4+ %; a. + sae Professional Meteorology. . 0a ge beg Sen Steam Boilers and Economisers ....... . The Belgian Royal Observatory. By Dr. A.C. D. Crommelit s.r a The Liverpool Marine Biology Committee. By Foe Bonin of Interferometry . 9 5.5 \fevae Researches at High Temperatures and Pressures. (Illustrated.) I. By The Hon. Sir Charles A. Parsons, KC. 8: FaR.S.:. 55 Aes el oy University and Educational Intelligence . . . 681 Pee es Ta oe oe @ Rea 2 S83LF IR ee ey 6 6 rar Ae, ee $$ Societies and Academies. ...... .... + 681 Books Received . .... Pree | Diary of Societies . . eco y ce ate Editorial and Publishing Offices: MACMILLAN AND CO., L1tp., ST. MARTIN’S STREET, LONDON, W.C.2. + Advertisements and business letters to be addressed to the Publishers. Editorial Communications to the Editor. Telegraphic Address: Puusis, LONDON. Telephone Number: GERRARD 8830. NATURE 685 THURSDAY, FEBRUARY 26, 1920. METEOROLOGY AND THE STATE. 4 URING the war, meteorology, like many other : branches of science, was utilised to an - unexpected extent, and its importance has thereby _ gained recognition in far wider circles than might otherwise have been the case. The rapid develop- ment of aviation has contributed to this, for accurate forecasts and a knowledge of the con- ditions prevailing in the upper air are of the greatest importance to the airman, and the subject now forms a part of his course of instruction. With the cessation of hostilities, the Meteor- ological Office has had to consider the reconstruc- tion which would be necessary in its organisation to meet the larger demands made upon it, and to maintain the expansion and development of the scientific side of the subject which such increased activity demanded. In other countries the meteor- ological service has always been part of one of the Departments of State, but in this country its status has varied from time to time. The Meteor- ological Office began in 1854 as a Department of the Board of Trade for the purpose of collecting information about the meteorology of the sea, to which was added later the study of forecasting. Later, it was placed under a committee appointed by the Royal Society, which administered the funds furnished by an annual grant-in-aid. Since 1905 the Office has been under the management of a Committee appointed by the Treasury, and con- sisting of representatives of the Admiralty, Board of Trade, Board of Agriculture and Fisheries, and the Royal Society. Thus the Meteorological Office has for many years been a service mainly sup- ported by State funds, but not attached to any Department, its policy being determined by the Committee responsible for its administration. Under these conditions much valuable scientific work has been done, and, whatever the advan- tages of such an independent position may have been, the greatly increased utilisation of meteor- ological information by various Departments of State has recently brought the status of the Meteorological Office under consideration. In the report of the Meteorological Committee for the year ending March 31, 1919, a proposal of the Air Ministry made in the spring of 1918 to take over the Office, on account of the importance of meteorology to aviation and of the use of avia- tion to meteorology, is presented; but no. definite action was taken at the time. Later in the year a Committee of the Cabinet was in favour of transfer- NO. 2626, VOL. 104] ring the meteorological service to the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, with a view to the co-ordination of the various meteorological services then existing. Such a scheme appeared to afford a satisfactory means of meeting the requirements of the Departments, and also of maintaining the scientific research essential to advance in meteorology. Since then it has been announced by the Under- Secretary of State for Air that the Cabinet has decided that the Meteorological Office should be attached to the Air Ministry, and the amalgama- tion of the staff of the Meteorological Office with that of the Meteorological Service of the Air Ministry is understood to be in course of execu- tion. We may therefore conclude that the importance of the State Meteorological Service to the modern needs of the fighting Services, as well as to the other Departments of State, is such as to render its closer connection with them desirable, and apparently the special needs of the Air Ministry and its exceptional facilities for obtaining information from the upper regions of the atmosphere have led to its selection as: the Ministry to which the Meteorological Office shoutd be attached. Such recognition of the importance of meteor- ological science, and the co-ordination of different services dealing with the subject, are to be wel- comed, but men of science will wish to see the freedom for investigation and research which has been a special feature of the Office under its former committees of management fully maintained under the new conditions arising from its re- incorporation in a State Department. Some mis- givings on this. point seem to exist, for the council of the Royal Meteorological Society, in a resolution published elsewhere in this issue, while recognising the advantages which the Meteor- ological Office may gain from a closer association with the Air Ministry, suggests that there may be a tendency for certain branches of meteorology to be relegated to a subordinate position of import- ance if the management of the Service rests with a single Department having special interests of its own. Here we meet the difficulty of reconciling the advantages gained from the support and resources of an influential Ministry with such restrictions as are inseparable from the administration of a large Service. The special interests and requirements of a controlling Department will naturally appeal more strongly to its administrators, and proposals for expenditure on schemes will gain more sym- pathy and support than others with which they EE 686 NATURE [FEBRUARY 26, 1920 — are less familiar. Such considerations probably influenced the Meteorological Committee in con- curring in the proposal for transference to the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research. But, since the incorporation of the Meteor- ological Office in a State Department is necessary, as seems to be generally agreed, the important matter is how advance in all branches of the subject may be assured. Besides forecasts of the weather and information concerning conditions in the upper air which especially affect the Air Ministry, there are the needs of the Navy, the mercantile marine, and the shipping community in general; the interests of farmers, foresters, and fruit-growers ; the requirements of water engineers, river conservancies, and many other branches of the community. The War Office has spécial demands of its own in connection with gunnery, sound-ranging, etc., and there are many questions coming within the scope of the Ministry of Health and other Government Departments which utilise meteorological information. For all these lines of work, scientific investigation must be carried on continuously in order to obtain fuller know- ledge of the atmospheric processes which can be utilised to the advantage of the various interests which have been mentioned. To this end observa- tories are maintained for investigation apart from their utility as reporting stations, and it is of the utmost importance that such scientific research should be continued and afforded full freedom ot action. With its transfer to the Air Ministry, the Meteorological Office has gained a large addition to its staff, and with its extended network of reporting stations its budgetary provision in the coming financial year will doubtless be greatly increased. The State Service is still almost the only one offering a career to a man who is attracted to the subject of meteorology, and if those of the best ability are to be obtained, it is essential that scientific research in it should be encouraged in which their powers may be utilised. No announcement has so far been made of the constitution of the Committee which con- tinues the work of the Meteorological Committee, or of its powers and responsibilities, but it is to be hoped that science will be strongly represented on such a Committee which can advise the Air Ministry on the best policy to be pursued for the advancement of meteorological science, and will be empowered to direct the execution of such policy. By this means the Ministry will be assured that research will be carried on most efficiently and to the advantage of all branches of the subject. NO. 2626, VOL. 104] THE BIRTH OF OCEANOGRAPHY. Accounts Rendered of Work Done and Things Seen. By J. Y. Buchanan. Pp. lvii+435+3 plates. (Cambridge: At the University Pre 1919.) Price 21s. net. R. J. Y¥. BUCHANAN has passed the allotted span of years, but we who are no longer young cannot call him old. Yet he w hard at work in a generation which has all but passed away, and his recollection reaches ba to things which are but a tradition to the mos of us. He is the last of that happy band who set sail from Portsmouth in the Challenger unde Wyville Thomson just seven-and-forty years ago; he was born in another world than ours, when ( he tells us) the only railways on the Continent ran, as kings’ playthings, from Paris to Ver- sailles, from Berlin to Potsdam, from Hanover to Herrenshausen. Now in this volume, as in one before, he has “rendered his accounts ” (but only partially) of the abundant work he has aone and the countless things he has seen. The book contains essays both great and small, from letters to Nature to addresses delivered to universities and learned societies, and the things of which these papers treat are both big and little, for Mr. Buchanan has kept a sharp look-out, conning everything—from the rats in a Bordighera garden (which left the oranges alone, ate the rind of lemons and left the fruit, ate the fruit of man- darins and left the rind) to the great panoramas. of earth and sea which for so many years have passed before him. Most of the papers deal (as we should expect) with matters oceanographical, such as the tem- perature of the sea, its colour, its saltness, or the manganese and other nodules lying in its bed. The treatment is in great measure new, or was so when the papers were written; but the themes are old—and are made all the more attrac- tive thereby. One is reminded of Robert Boyle’s ‘“‘Observationes de salsedine maris,” or, again, of the “Histoire Physique de la Mer ”-— based upon so little, because it was alle there was—of that exquisite writer and gallant soldier of fortune, Louis Ferdinand, Comte de Marsilli. Even one or two names like these (and : we do not forget Captain Maury, another great captain and soldier of fortune) make us hesitate a little to accept Mr. Buchanan’s account of “The — Birthday of Oceanography.” And yet perhaps he is not very far wrong to persuade us that that — science was born, a little to the westward of — } Teneriffe, on February 15, 1873. For this was the day when the Challenger made her first — oceanic sounding; and, immediately after, the dredge came up full of new and strange things,, : 7 FEBRUARY 26, 1920] ° NATURE 687 ‘great corals, huge siliceous sponges, and what not more—first-fruits of the noble harvest to be gathered from the “Depths of the Sea.” In some things, and again it is no wonder, Mr. Buchanan prefers the old times to the new. He tells us of the cool comfort of an old wooden ship, its perfect fitness for the work of exploration, and how we have no ships nowadays like the Chal- lenger. We are half-tempted to agree with him. He commends, even with enthusiasm, the old- fashioned hempen dredge-rope and sounding-line, and assures us that “wire is the very emblem of treachery.” In later years, when wire had come into use, he says: “I never attached a thermo- meter to the wire without feeling that I was guilty of a form of cruelty—cruelty to instru- ments.” This is a much harder saying—to those of us who have used nothing else; let us hope that it is the wire which has altered, and not the men. It need scarcely be said that this book is well worth reading. It has many pages to interest even the man in the street, and has both an historical interest and something more besides for the present-day student of oceanography. In these seven-and-forty years methods haye been refined, new theories and concepts formed; but we do not forget that birthday party on board the Challenger, nor Mr. J. Y. Buchanan, who is the last of the godfathers. ; D’Arcy W. THompson. INDUSTRIAL PSYCHOLOGY. Lectures on Industrial Psychology. By Bernard Muscio. Second edition, revised. (Efficiency Books.) Pp. iv+300.. (London: George Rout- ledge and Sons, Ltd.; New York: E. P. Dutton and Co., 1920.) Price 6s. 6d. net. HIS book is founded on a course of five lec- tures which were delivered before a general audience at Sydney University, but they must have been considerably expanded when put into book form. The author does not lay claim to have made any first-hand investigations on the problems with which he deals, but the book is very far. from being a mere compilation. It shows throughout a deep insight into the principles of industrial psychology, and is especially lucid on the much-debated question of scientific manage- ment. Mr. Muscio takes in turn the various objections to this system raised by the workers themselves, and with great ingenuity tracks down the true inwardness of these objections, and discusses the manner in which they may be overcome. He main- tains that the main fact to be insisted on is that NO. 2626, VoL. 104] the new methods prevent waste of human energy, and render it possible to obtain a given output from a much smaller expenditure of human energy than that hitherto found necessary. Labour’s objection that the general introduction of scientific management would cause widespread unemploy- ment applies equally to every improvement intro- ° duced into industry in the past. The difficulty can be largely overcome by installing the improve- ments gradually and absorbing the surplus workers by the simultaneous introduction of other forms of labour. Again, Labour maintains that scientific manage- ment leads to undue speeding up. There is much truth in this assertion, but the difficulty can be Overcome by the introduction of longer intervals of rest and by shortening the working day. Other objections to the system could be avoided by arranging for an adequate system of industrial education. The employer and employee must co- operate in the introduction of a scheme whereby no time study of an operation shall be made, and no bonus system adopted, without the consent of the worker. A very interesting and important field of indus- trial psychology centres around vocational selec- tion. This subject is discussed at length by the author, and concrete instances of the methods as applied to the selection of telephone girls and electric-street-car drivers are described in detail. Industrial fatigue is treated rather briefly, and is the least satisfactory part of the book, as the information adduced is largely out of date. That concerning industrial accidents is fragmentary and misleading, and no reference is made to the “safety first ’’ campaign, and to the effects of sug- gestion on the avoidance of accidents. The lec- tures were apparently written in 1916, and the author has endeavoured to bring them up to date in this revised edition by the somewhat irritating and unsatisfactory method ° of appending foot- notes. H. M. V. CRIMINOLOGY AND NERVOUSNESS. (1) Criminology. By Dr. Maurice Parmelee. Pp. xiiit+522. (New York: The Macmillan Co. ; London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd., 1918.) Price 1os. 6d. net. (2) The Mastery of Nervousness based upon Self- Re-education. By Dr. Robert S. Carroll. Third revised edition. Pp, 348. (New York: The Macmillan Co.; London: Macmillan and Coz; Ltd., 1918.) Price ros. 6d. net. (1) D* PARMELEE has written a very read- able book on the various aspects of crime and criminals. He has disclosed nothing that is 688 NATURE .[ FEBRUARY 26, 1920 altogether new, but he has brought together and discussed the varied factors of a large subject in a lucid and interesting way. He begins with a consideration of the evolution of crime, and then discusses in some detail the part played by en- vironment. In part iii. the subject of the organic and the mental basis of criminality is taken up, together with the classification of criminals and the problems of juvenile and female criminality. Part iv. deals with criminal jurisprudence, and part v. with a discussion of penology. The final section comprises a study of the problems of poli- tical crime and the crimes arising from opposition to the fixity of social custom, with a chapter on prevention. Two appendices are added, one dealing with the relation between the price of cereals and crimes against property, and the other—of revived in- terest at the present time—a criticism of the late Dr. Charles Goring’s book, “The English Criminal,” which appeared in 1913. Dr. Goring is taken very pointedly to task for misrepresenting Lombroso “grossly and inexcus- ably,” for his “gross misrepresentation ” of the author of ‘Criminology,’ and for his ignorance of psychology—although we must confess we think several of Dr. Parmelee’s beliefs, such as the physiological theory of instinct, the James-Lange theory of emotion, and his belief in the efficacy of ideomotor action, are not the most fruitful that could be applied to the elucidation of his subject. Finally, he condemns Dr. Goring’s researches as carrying the statistical method too far, and con- cludes that, in spite of his initial disagreement with Lombroso, Dr. Goring has proved himself “ more Lombrosian than Lombroso himself.” The author’s aim, as he states, has been to make a more or less comprehensive survey of criminology, and that he has succeeded admirably no one who reads his book will doubt; (2) “The Mastery of Nervousness ” is a zealous book, a volume not only of medical, but also of ethical, instruction, a guide, philosopher, and friend to the nervous, but chiefly the last. The aim has not been the exposition of any narrow or restricted doctrine; there are, consequently, a free- dom of style and treatment and a command of metaphorical expression which are certainly stimu- lating and doubtless of benefit to many. The author points out the growing prevalence of nervousness—that is, overactive or misdirected nervous activity—and describes the influence of various factors—heredity, diet, inactivity, work, play, and others. On “Mastery through Work ” he writes: “It is a profound misfortune for any young person to enter the serious years of life without having been earnestly impressed with the No. 2626, vor. 104] dignity of work, or taught to feel that ever within. reach are divinely appointed duties.” Dr. Carroll lays emphasis on the importance of the early years of life. ‘‘ Loss,” he writes in the chapter on “Surrender,” “begins in childhood. | The babe is king of us all. The grim visage of the warrior softens in the presence of its cooing innocence; nobility stops and turns, and does’ homage; rich and poor, high and low, young and — old, kneel at the cradle to welcome the bright new, young: soul.” In the same chapter is a picturesque example a of sublimation or “ side-tracking,”’ which describes _ how a patient worked her “jim-jams” off in the — garded by “vicious jabs into the soil with hoe and spade ”—a species of horticultural profanity that brought back memories of France and the impres- sive language of the trenches, which, we know, performed an equally estimable function, ; The theme of treatment is efficiency through harmony. mastery we must lay hold on a force higher than reason alone, for force of mind not governed by force of spirit does not make man good.” The great necessity, the author says, is for ‘ultimate control of the moral idea, as the only force resolving the — . ba . . . dissonance of jangling nerves into harmony.” PRACTICAL CHEMISTRY. | (1) Elementary Practical Chemistry. Part i. General Chemistry. By Prof. Frank Clowes. and J. Bernard Coleman. Seventh edition. Pp. xvi+241. (London: J. and A. Churchill, 1920.) Price 6s. (2) A Treatise on Qualitative Analysis: Adapted for Use in the Laboratories of Colleges and Technical Institutes. By Prof. Frank Clowes and J. Bernard Coleman. Ninth edition. Pp. xvi+4oo0. (London: J. and A. Churchill, 1920.) Price 12s. 6d. HERE are two distinct aims that may actuate the writer of a text-book on practical chemistry, whether analytical or otherwise, namely, (1) the setting forth of principles, and (2) the enumeration of facts. To a certain extent they are inseparable, for principles without facts are useless, and facts without principles are not ordered knowledge. But it is impossible to make the best of both at the same time. If the prin- ciples are burdened with too great a multiplicity of facts, they are fairly certain to be smothered by them, and facts cannot be set forth in the clearest possible way if the method of arranging them is to serve some other end as well. (x) “Elementary Practical Chemistry ” is now, for “Tf we are to win the battle of personal — FEBRUARY 26, 1920] NATURE 689 the convenience of students, divided into two volumes, of which the “General Chemistry ” is the first, leaving “Analytical Chemistry ” to the second. The volume before us deals with the principles of chemistry, and gives a series of more than 300 experiments in illustration of them. The text is sufficient to show the bearing of the experiments, in addition to the instructions for the performance of them, but it is presumed that a course of lectures dealing more fully with the subject will be given concurrently with the practical work. (2) The “ Treatise on Qualitative Analysis ” has, in the present edition, been “rewritten, recast, and enlarged in order to adapt it to modern methods of teaching.” It is essentially a book of facts, for it treats of the detection of the rarer as well as the more common metals and acids, a con- siderable number of organic acids both aliphatic and aromatic, a few hydrocarbons, halogen, nitro- and other derivatives, alcohols, ethers, aldehydes, ketones, carbohydrates, glucosides, organic bases, eighteen alkaloids, and finally nineteen different gases. In addition to all this there are instruc- tions for making stirring rods, boring corks, etc., for performing various operations, such as pre- cipitation, filtration, washing, and drying, and as to the use of the spectroscope, a description of laboratory fittings, recovery of residues, lists of re- agents, and various tables. There is also a small section which gives lists of simple salts, mixtures, and minerals suitable for practice, though these do not include organic substances, the rarer elements, or gases. Thus teachers, as well as students in all stages of their work, will find assistance in this volume. It is curious how long a time it takes for some facts of first importance to work their way into text-books that are written for students. It has been known for more than fifty years that man- ganous chloride, when introduced into a flame in the ordinary manner, colours it brightly green, but scarcely any text-books note the fact. We have known students to be led astray by this omission. The authors here state definitely that the com- pounds of the metals Zn, Mn, Ni, and Co show no characteristic flame colorations, and in the tables a green flame is followed by the inference —Ba, Cu, B,Os, exactly as in almost every text- book on the subject. There is a tendency to be more ‘theoretical ”” than practical in the statement that ammonium carbonate and nitrate are decom- posed by heat into gases, and “they are therefore volatilised without producing white fumes or a sublimate.” : The full instructions in the tables, and the very large number of notes appended to them, are NO. 2626, VOL. 104] evidence of the care taken by the authors, and the many editions that have been issued show that this care is appreciated, and it is deservedly so, by those for whose use the book is intended. C.. 'f. A MATHEMATICIAN’S MISCELLANY. Pensées sur la Science, la Guerre et sur des Sujets tres Variés. By Dr. Maurice Lecat. Pp. vii+ 478. (Bruxelles: Maurice Lamertin, 1919.) LECAT is a great reader with catholic - tastes. For twenty years he has been in the habit of copying out all the passages that have struck him in the reading which occupies his leisure. He has now, at the instance of a friend, collected and arranged them in a volume of 480 pages of double columns. There are about 11,000 extracts from ‘some 1500 authors grouped under subject headings. The first 1200 refer to various branches of science and its most distin- guished exponents. The remainder, dealing with every possible subject, grave and gay, of topical or perennial interest, come under titles arranged alphabetically; we proceed in due order from Abstraction, Abus, . . . Allemagne (the longest section), to Voltaire, Voyage, Yeux, Zola. The quotations, whatever the language of their origin, are usually, but not always, translated into French, The whole is furnished with two elaborate indexes and the dignity of an appendix. The industry that has produced the book is amazing—so amazing that it is surprising that obvious slips should have been allowed to pass in the information concerning authors. A reviewer who should take the opportunity it affords for ridicule would lack even that small portion of humanity usually allotted to his kind. But we fear that M. Lecat is too optimistic in his hope that his: collection will serve as an instrument of intel- lectual research by providing a compendium of the best thought of mankind. In both selection and arrangement such a work inevitably bears the impress of the editor. No one man, even with the voracity of M. Lecat, can consume all literature; the portion that he can digest is in- finitesimal. Though writers of at least eight languages are included, ranging from David (the son of Jesse) to Max Harden, and from Homer to the Morning Post, it is only natural that those who have used the French language should have the preponderance. Nor do our author’s wide interests and his passionate plea for impartiality enable him to conceal from his readers that he is a Belgian, a good son of the Church, and a mathematician. Even if he had been able to avoid the exclamatory “sic!”, his best efforts 690 NATURE [FEBRUARY 26, 1920 would still have left those whom he addresses with the impression that they are studying, not the sifted wisdom of the ages, but the opinions of M. Maurice Lecat. However, the subsidiary claim that he makes may be heartily supported. It is a most entertain- ing volume to dip into for a few moments to pass the time. If it were only rather handier, and the type a little larger, it would be ideal for the bed- side. As it is, perhaps the dentist’s waiting-room provides for it the proper sphere of usefulness. N.- RoC. OUR BOOKSHELF. Penrose’s Annual. © Vol. xxii. of “The Process Year Book.” Edited by William Gamble. Pp. x+112+plates. (London: Percy Lund, Humphries, and Co., Ltd., 1920.) Price tos. 6d, net. Our special congratulations are due to the editor and publishers of this ever-welcome annual that, after an interval of three years, they have been able to resume its issue. The editor, as usual, in his “ Foreword ” reviews the recent advances and the present condition of the reproductive graphic arts. In the circumstances one could scarcely expect anything strikingly new, but we are told that one bright and hopeful feature of the present is that work is now being adequately paid for, and that as a consequence employers are able to give satisfying wages as well as to improve their plants. Photo-lithography is coming more and more into use. Collotype is ‘“‘coming into its own again, thanks to the absence of German competition.” The collotype work now being done in this country is of excellent quality, and probably greater in quantity than ever before. Half-tone and three- colour work stand pretty much where they were before’'the war, while rotary photogravure is coming increasingly to the front for newspaper and periodical work. It is now quite practicable to print both text and illustrations together by this last process, and there are signs that before very long type-setting may be rendered unnecessary. Two American journals have already been pro- duced without the aid of the compositor. The volume contains articles from the pens of many contributors, and is very rich in illustrations of all kinds. Cra. The Occlusion of Gases by Metals: A General Discussion held by the Faraday Society, November, 1918. (Reprinted from the Trans- actions of the Faraday Society, vol. xiv., parts 2 and 3, 1919.) Pp. 93. (London: The Fara day Society, n.d.) Price 8s. 6d, Tuis volume contains a record of another of the valuable symposia held by the Faraday Society. The subject of the gases retained by solid metals bears on a number of technical processes, so that the papers contributed cover a wide range. Sir Robert Hadfield’s introduction gives a useful sum- mary of the knowledge of the gases in iron and NO. 2626, VoL. 104] steel, with a bibliography. The theoretical aspects are dealt with by Profs. Porter and McBain, the well-known case of the absorption of hydrogen by palladium receiving attention, whilst Dr. McCance’s paper on balanced reactions in steel manufacture discusses the question of the equi- libria in the steel furnace which determine the proportions of the various gases which will be in contact with the metal at the time of tapping. The view that the amorphous phasé in solid metals is responsible for much of the dissolved gas is maintained by several of the contributors, but no evidence is adduced to prove that gases are insoluble in crystals of pure metals. The fact that the solubility of gases in molten metals increases with the temperature has often seemed remarkable, but Prof. Wilsmore points out that this is probably the normal behaviour, water being exceptional in its diminished solvent power for gases with increasing temperature. The discus- sion contains much that is of interest both to metallurgists and to physical chemists. C. A.D. Examples in Heat and Heat Engines. By T. Peel. Pp. iii+104. (Cambridge: At the Uni- versity Press, 1919.) Price 5s. net. Tue working of exercises forms a very important part of the course work of an engineering student. Many of the exercises required for the purpose of elucidating the subject of heat and heat engines can easily be made up; on the other hand, there ‘are. many important facts which can be illus- trated only by exercises containing as data observa- tions made during experiments. Teachers and students will welcome the book before us, because, among numerous other exercises, there is a large number giving experimental data on steam, gas, and oil engines, steam boilers and turbines, re- frigerators, and calorimetric work. It is true that the best data for exercise working are those obtained by the student in experiments carried out by himself. Since most heat and heat-engine tests take a rather long time to carry out, the amount of information thus accumulated in the case of any one student can have only a limited scope, and the excellent exercises contained in the book will make a very useful supplement. The Hill of Vision: A Forecast of the Great War and of Social Revolution with the Coming of the New Race. Gathered from Automatic Writings obtained between 1909 and 1912, and also, in 1918, through the Hand of John Alleyne under the Supervision of the Author. By Frederick Bligh Bond. Pp. xxv+134. don: Constable and Co., 1919.) net. Tus book is a sequel to “The Gate of Remem- brance,” which contained an account of the auto- matic script giving instructions for excavations in Glastonbury. The further script now published deals with the war and after, but it cannot be said that the correspondences and _ verifications of predictions pointed out are particularly striking or convincing. to A ee (Lon- Price 7s. 6d. ry “sy : ' ‘ Pe a 555 ea FEBRUARY 26, 1920] NATURE 691 LETTERS TO THE EDITOR. [The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manuscripts intended for this or any other part of NATURE. No notice is taken of anonymous communications.] Organisation of Scientific Work. I trust the rank and file of. scientific investigators throughout the Empire will wake up to the urgent need of combined energetic action. The proposals to centralise under the control of a few official depart- mental heads the body of actual scientific investigators in India, thus creating a few highly paid administra- tive posts for senior men and effectually killing all initiative, enthusiasm, and liberty of action on’ the part of those actually carrying on the investigations, is perfectly in accord with what has happened in this country since, in an evil day, the Government assumed the control of scientific and industrial re- search. It is a proposal that appeals, naturally, to the official without knowledge of the way in which scientific discoveries originate, and anxious to secure a body of cheap and docile labour, even though it be mediocre in calibre, and to those few who hope to secure for themselves these senior lucrative administra-_ tive posts. To genuine investigators such posts, how- ever highly paid, would be unattractive, and under such a system there seems every inducement for men of originality and scientific ability to give the service a wide berth. Whereas the crying need in India, as everywhere, is for men of high calibre and honest, independent mental outlook, anxious only to secure favourable conditions under which they may be left free to pursue their creative work, and, this being secured, careless of wealth, rank, and power save as the necessary antecedents to the essential condition. Two assertions, which can be made without the slightest fear of contradiction, may be put into juxta- position in order to contrast the remedy proposed with the state of things it is desired to cure. First, that of all great nations the British Empire has most signally failed in its application of scientific know- ledge and methods to_ its national problems; and, secondly, that in the British Empire there exists a body of skilled and hard-working scientific investigators second to none, and, even under the most disheartening conditions, actually enlarging the boundaries of natural knowledge in no mean degree. As the great schemes for rectifying matters crystallise into action, with the formation of a Department of Scientific and Industrial Research at home and concrete proposals for action, as in the Indian reorganisation suggested, more and more they seem to amount to this: The men who do the work, and against whom no fault is alleged, are to be deprived even of what little satisfaction and independence genuine scientific work for its own sake affords, and are to be put under the men against whose incompetence and lack of knowledge the whole uproar originally arose. In research, where, as the leading article in Nature of February .19 so truly says, the man is everything, that man is to be put under men who brought an Empire, as rich in scientific talent and genius as any, perilously low. The remedy, surely, is to put the incompetent machine under the charge of competent men, not vice versa. Our soi-disant scientific representatives seem still in the stage once lived through in our ancient uni- versities, where it was at one time deemed politic that any scientific demand, if it were to pass, should be put up and seconded by well-known opponents of science, thus, on the chance of securing a temporary advance, permanently sacrificing the whole future. That we did not in 1914-19 repeat the medical horrors of the No. 2626, VoL. 104] Boer War, when more died of pestilence than at the hands of the foe, is surely due to the emancipation in the interval of the Army medical services from non- qualified misdirection. That our food control during war-time was successful, even by comparison with that of more favourably situated belligerents, was because scientific men were from the first in charge of its scientific aspects—a rare condition, due probably to so many of them belonging to the profession that exacts due and proper respect for its members. Can one imagine young medical graduates, after a pro- longed and serious university training, being sent up, as our scientific graduates were sent, hauling about gas cylinders with the rank of corporal? Can one imagine a director of a medical research associa- tion a foreign business man or manufacturer unknown to the research world? Can one imagine a proposal for State aid for medical research being dismissed by an ren BPO person so ignorant of the’ history of scientific discovery as to deem it sufficient to dub the proposal as a ‘floating research” in order in his own eyes to condemn it? Neither can I imagine such ‘happening in the scientific world if its leaders were equally alive. Ordinary people, benevolent to science and un- familiar with affairs, often wonder why scientific men are so powerless and peculiarly unable to protect themselves and to advance their subjects to a position commensurate with their national importance. The answer is to be found, I think, in the obsolete character of their so-called representative societies- Year after year in the chief of these the councils nominate and elect themselves without any reference to their members except for formal ratification. Through sheer lack of backbone and being out of contact with the body of their members, time and again they sacrifice interests vital to the continued existence of genuine scientific research. I do not wish to advocate for scientific investigators a close corporation keeping lvnx-eyed vigil over their pro- fessional interests and seeking every opportunity to enlarge and consolidate them, identical with other learned professions; for the paramount interest of a scientific investigator should be his work, and his privileges, emoluments, and status are to be regarded merely as means necessary to secure opportunity and power to do it. That should be the test of these schemes, and not the further subordination of the men who do the work to the organisation attempting to get the work done. But: unless they band together and take action, the rank and file of re- search workers throughout the Empire will not even be able to retain the miserable position they occupied before the war in the national life, and their interests will continue to be sacrificed to the ambitions and love of power of the few. FREDERICK SODDY. Tur ‘Notes’? columns of Nature for February 19 contained a reference to a suggested conference between British botanists at home and overseas at which matters of common interest would be discussed. From some preliminary correspondence which had taken place in order to ascertain the feeling of our colleagues overseas as to the prospects of success of such a conference some interesting communications were received, especially from India, which bear on the subject of the organisation of scientific work. It was urged that this should form a subject for discussion in the event of a conference taking place, and it was evident that the writers were strongly opposed to a policy of centralisation. On the con- trary, they were seeking greater freedom in their scientific work, and their communications hinted at irritating restrictions and disastrous results due to official interference—effects which would be much 692 ‘NATURE [FEBRUARY 26, 1920 enhanced by such a scheme of centralisation as was indicated in the leading article in the same issue of Nature. There may have been some waste of effort in the past, both at home and overseas, owing to in- sufficient co-operation between men of science work- ing independently, but this is a matter for workers to set right among themselves, and will not be mended by an organisation conceived on the lines of a German military system. Further, it is unlikely that the best men will be attracted to work under such deadening conditions. Care must be taken that public money is not wasted in scientific development, but the kind of official control suggested by a scheme of centralisation does not commend itself as an efficient waste-preventer. Grants of money to scientific societies or institutions might be administered by carefully selected boards of trustees, the scientific work being left to the un- hampered ‘initiative of the scientific staff under a -head specially suited to the character of the work. The management of our Natural History Museum, a Government institution, is invested in trustees, who leave to the scientific staff the carrying out of the scientific work as effectively as funds and opportunity allow. Research work of the highest value to agri- culture is being’ carried out at the Rothamsted Ex- perimental Station, the original endowment of which has been generously supplemented by private muni- ficence and by Government grants. Here also the management is vested in a small committee the members of which represent the various scientific sides of the work carried on. A. B. RENDLE. British Museum (Natural History). Gravitational Deflection of High-speed Particles. Tue investigation of the consequences of Einstein’s law as regards the motion of a material particle moving through a gravitational field with a velocity comparable to that of light brings out some interest- ing and rather surprising ‘effects. As Einstein’s law is entirely kinematical, involving accelerations instead of forces, no account need be taken of variation of mass with velocity other than that contained in the law itself. Let m denote the mass of the attracting body (i.e. the sun) in astronomical units divided by the square of the velocity of light. Then the motion of a particle in the field produced by this body is determined by af J 12) (aera -(1 =2%5 Paleo, the r@ plane being that of the orbit. From the Lagrangian equations corresponding to this Hamil- tonian statement of the law, the energy relation Id, 4 me *) a) ees 2 ly?) = —- 1-45 r= 3507 2d ) em 4, 3A is obtained. If the velocity of the moving particle is comparable to the velocity ¢ of light, the second term in the parenthesis on the right-hand side may be omitted as negligible compared to the last term. The resulting approximate equation is easily integrated, leading to the expression aaa{ a(t -6%) 4+ amt, r r where a is the ratio of the velocity of the particle at infinity to that of light. Consider a particle the velocity of which at infinity is negligibly small compared to that of light. Then parenthesis which it multiplies may be omitted. This gives the energy equation of the Newtonian theory. If, however, the particle has a high velocity, the omitted term becomes of importance. In fact, when the velocity is 1/*/3c, this term has the same value as the third term, but the opposite sign. Therefore, these two terms annul each other, and the veloci of the moving particle is unaffected in magnitude by the gravitational field. In other words, the tangential acceleration of the particle is zero throughout the course of its motion through the field. headed directly for the attracting centre, it would move along in a straight line with constant speed just as if no field were present. = Next, consider a particle having a velocity at infinity greater than 1/¥3c. The velocity If it were aimed straight at the attracting mass, it would be slowed down just as if it were repelled with a force varying inversely with the square of the dis- tance. If the velocity of the particle at infinity is equal to that of light, its velocity decreases as it approaches the centre of attraction in the same amount as that of a light-wave, for Einstein’s theory makes no distinction between material particles and electro- magnetic disturbances. ellis Consider a particle moving along the X axis with a high velocity v. Let the attracting mass m be on the Y axis, a distance R below the origin. Then the components of the particle’s acceleration are If the particle’s velocity is greater than 1]/3c, the tangential component f, is positive, and the particle is slowed down as it approaches the centre of the ~ field. The normal component f,, however, causes the particle to be deflected towards the gravitating mass for all velocities less than c. This deflecting accelera- tion becomes less, however, as the velocity increases, and a particle moving with the velocity of light would travel through a gravitational field in a straight line. Its velocity, however, decreases as it approaches the gravitating centre, and then increases as it recedes from this point. For velocities close to that of light the deflection is given by co eee R\ } The deflection suffered by a light-wave is of a natur quite different from that experienced by a materie particle. A ray of light is not bent towards the sun by the latter’s gravitational attraction, but the velo- city of that portion of the wave-front closest to the sun is decreased more than that of the more remote portion. Therefore, the wave-front is swung round in exactly the same way as when light passes obliquel from a rarer to a denser refracting medium. In conclusion, it may be noted that the two con- sequences of Einstein’s law which are of great enough magnitude to be tested experimentally have been most conspicuously verified. The predicted shift of the Fraunhofer lines towards the red does not seem to be a necessary consequence either of Einstein’s law or of the part of the theory on which this law is based, but rests on the very doubtful assumption that the svstem of a freely moving atom near the sun’s surface is identical with that of a freely moving atom 93,000,000 the factor a is small, and the second term in the ; miles away. If space-time had the same properties in NO. 2626, VOL. 104] If it were lity of this particle is actually decreased by the gravitational field. © me al ac al el i FesBruary 26, 1920| NATURE 693 the two regions this identity would be required by symmetry, but as the warping of space-time is quite different near the sun from what it is at the distance of the earth, does it follow that these two systems are necessarily equivalent? It does not seem to the writer that the failure to find this shift invalidates the part of Einstein’s theory from which his law of gravitation is deduced, and it certainly does not con- tradict this law itself. é LeicH Pace. Sloane Laboratory, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, January 22. Biological Science in Secondary Schools. I sHouLp like to direct attention to a very important paragraph in the Report of the Investigators of the Secondary School Examinations Council which is not referred to in the article which appeared in NaTuRE of February 19 (p. 669). It is the paragraph which deals with natural history and zoology. It is quite clear from this paragraph that the Investigators wish to discourage the teaching of the animal side of biology in secondary schools—a very serious matter in itself. But when the Investigators proceed to state that ‘the principles of biological science can be [better] illustrated by means _ of botany,’’ they are expounding a doctrine as to the teaching of a science which is bound to have most serious and harmful -results, The principles of biological science can be taught or illustrated only by persons with a competent knowledge of both botany and zoology, and a sug- gestion such as this, issued as the considered judg- ment of a body of educationists, that a knowledge of botany alone is sufficient for this purpose, will only exaggerate the present-day incompetence of the teaching of biology in many of our secondary schools, in which the teachers have had no training in zoology. This matter has already been considered by a _repre- sentative meeting of zoologists in London, and steps are being taken to represent the views of zoologists to the President of the Board of Education at an early date. Sypney J. Hickson. The Victoria University of Manchester, February 23. ‘ Change of Colour in Gantive Birds. Mr. Harorp MILLAR invites notes on this subject (Nature, February 5, p. 600). The case of the cross- bill (Loxia curvirostra, Linn.) seems in point. My attention was directed to it some years ago, when I saw a number of crossbills—six or eight, if I remember aright—confined in a large cage or small aviary at Glenferness, Nairnshire. The brilliant scarlet plumage which distinguishes the adult male in a state of freedom had changed on these captives to yellowish-olive, and I was informed that this was the invariable effect of captivity. The late Lord Lilford kept a number of crossbills in his famous aviary, and has the following note in his coloured “Figures of Birds of the British Isles’? :— “On the vexed question of the plumage of the crossbill, I can only. say that every red bird that I ever possessed lost that brilliant colour at the first moult, and never regained it’’ (vol. iv., p. 76). In all the stuffed specimens that I remember to have seen the scarlet hue had faded to the same dingy olive. Hersert MAxweE Lt. Monreith. NO, 2626, VOL. 104] Volcanic Rocks in Northern Kordofan, Sudan. In view of the discovery of the Bayuda volcanic field observed by Dr. Chalmers Mitchell during the Times African flight, and referred to by Prof. J. W. Gregory in Nature of February 19, some interest attaches to a specimen of a volcanic rock sent to the Mineral Department of the British Museum for identification in July, 1912, by Dr. C. G. Seligmann. The specimen was collected by Dr. Seligmann at the base of Jebel Katul, Northern Kordofan, where he found many stone implements made of the same rock. Jebel Katul is 350 miles south-west of the volcanic field seen by Dr. Chalmers Mitchell, and is on the trend of the north-east to south-west depression: in- dicated by Prof. Gregory as running from the coast of the Red Sea south of Adal Qaaa, and following the course of the Nile from Abu Hamed to Korti. The rock is very fine-grained and slate-blue in colour, weathering to pale green. Examination shows it to be a riebeckite-rhyolite showing “flow structure,” but too fine in grain to enable the nature of the felspar or the relative amount of quartz present to be determined. The rock is nearly allied to the riebeckite-rhyolites of Gilgil, north of Lake Naivasha, and to the riebeckite-bearing trachytes of Senafé and Fakoda, North Abyssinia, described by Dr. G. T. Prior in 1903, both of which occurrences are on the line of the Great Rift Valley. W. Camppe_t SMITH. Mineral Department, British Museuni (Natural History), Cromwell Road, S.W., February 23. Scientific Workers and a National Federation. CONSIDERABLE misapprehension seems to have arisen with regard to the action taken by the National Union of Sciéntific Workers in connection with the inaugural Conference of Professional Associations on February 7, convened for the purpose of forming a_ National Federation of Professional, Technical, Administrative, and Supervisory Workers. I shall be glad if you will give publicity to the following statement of fact : This union was invited to send delegates to the inaugural conference and accepted the invitation, as there were many other technical and scientific asso- ciations invited with which it was felt this union had almost identical interests. As the result of the preliminary discussion, it was found that such bodies as this would be out-voted and out-influenced in any such federation by unions with which it has little in common. With the help of other associations ‘we moved an. amendment in an attempt to prevent the new federation from taking a definite bias at. its inception. This amendment was lost, whereupon we abstained from taking further part in the pro- ceedings, " The report as it appeared in the Press stated that the resolution to form a’ federation was carried unanimously, the inference being that this union, which was represented at the meeting, had decided to join the federation, and many of our members, seeing this misleading statement, have assumed that this is the case. I trust that this disclaimer will reassure them and other such pérsons who are interested ‘in the union. 4 A. G. CHurcH, ’ ) Secretary. National Union of Scientific Workers, 10 =6©Tothill | Street, | Westminster, S.W.1, February 19. 694 NATURE [FEBRUARY 26, 1920 EMPIRE. pe report ta the Board of Trade of the Empire Cotton Growing Committee has just been issued (Cmd, 523, price 1s. 6d. net). Briefly, the story there told. may be ‘summed up as follows : The British cotton mills have been directly adapted to utilise the American long-staple cottons, and they produce, in consequence, the high-class goods for which they are famed. The mills may, in fact, be described as unable to use up the abundant, though much shorter, staples of India and certain other countries of the British Empire. For some years past the mills of the States have begun to work up more and still more of their home supply (of superior cottons), so that the position has thus come about that Britain must be prepared, in the near future, to dispense with a large amount of the American raw cottons hitherto regarded as essential. In what way and how soon can this feat be accomplished? Delay may mean famine to. the immense community (something like 5,000,000 people) more or less dependent on the cotton mills of Lancashire. The answer is. presumed to have been given by the report before us. But the perusal of the volume leaves a somewhat confused impression, in which we seem to have been studying some- thing closely resembling the meanderings of a great river which flows through the tropical and sub-tropical regions of the world. It engulfs many great tributaries, and is finally discharged into the ocean of British cotton manufacturing interests by six mouths or sub-committees. All this may be fine, and certainly is ingeniously elaborated, but when we read that it is intended to flow on for ever, we begin to wonder if a com- plex organisation of impersonal and mutable com- mittees is likely to prove the most satisfactory course for obtaining the very-much-to-be-desired results. The raising of funds (Imperial and Colonial, etc.); the organisation of existing resources; the institution of greater. specialisation in the working up of available supplies; the establishment of im- provements in handling, transporting, and market- ing the raw staple; the prevention of the practices of adulteration and damping ; and many other such subjects, are all dealt with in the report, but they do not.seem to resolve themselves into the pro- mulgation of a concrete scheme of increased and improved production! Nevertheless, we — are assured that the British Empire can be made self- supporting in this matter, though we are not told where or how this is to be accomplished. It must be confessed that the whole history of. cotton improvement is most disheartening, . We read, for. example, of a great. scheme having been floated, some seventy years ago, to raise in Man- chester a sum of 20,000,000l. to be expended in India, during five years, in measures calculated to. forward India as a cotton-producing country. Nothing came of that great conception, though spasmodically, after intervals of neglect (due to NO. 2626. VOL: 104] increased American supply), Associations, Com- mittees, and Commissions were formed, and each in its day aroused considerable interest, but all proved more or less futile. Meanwhile, two great new manufacturing centres gradually progressed into importance—namely, the United States of America and India—and now these have to be reckoned with in the future. , : There are, however, in the present report two important schemes—the training of men, and the establishment of research. In both we think the contemplated methods of accomplishment are _ likely to prove unsatisfactory. But let the Central Research Institution, pro- posed in the Committee’s’ report, become a per- manent department of expert officials (not a com- mittee of voluntary workers), and have handed over to it a desired programme of work, then we think a definite step would be taken in the right direction. The members of that institute could be held responsible and judged -by results. Their programme should be : Research, Education, and Cotton Production. House them, therefore, in a building large enough to have fully equipped laboratories for research, give them as complete a library as possible, and build them a museum and herbarium. But let’ there be no hair-splitting separations into research as distinct from informa- tion—no divided responsibilities. Who can be better qualified to make public the results or materials obtained than the experts concerned? Information cannot, and should not, be separated from research in the way proposed by the report. One-half at least of all the subjects of research that have to be investigated can be undertaken better in Manchester than in Egypt—the report suggests Egypt. Establish in Manchester a College of Cotton—a Central Research Institution, — as it has been called—where both experts and planters can: be trained, in close and personal rela- tionship with the great manufacturing interests. One such centre is quite sufficient, and far better than the proposed lectureships and readerships in half-a-dozen colleges or universities, where plant physiology, plant genetics, mycology, entomo- logy, and the like might be taught. In the one, expert and practical men would be directly and immediately trained for cotton planting; in the other, general instructions would be given that might never mature into cotton planting at all. No risks of this kind should be run; general prin- ciples of education must never be allowed to take the place of specific training and definite results. The Indian Committee insist on the need for more detailed botanical ‘investigation of the existing Ixinds of cotton in most of the cotton-growing tracts... . They consider: selection as the first step in evolving better types, to be followed by plant-breeding, which, however, should: be entrusted to: selected officers who can devote. personal. attention and considerable :time to it. 5 Wy rs a Sear These passages ;we single out of the report because they denote acceptance of a most import- ant issue. It has far too long been the habit of cotton experts,,to hald systematic studies up) to ae | es rae a s FEBRUARY 26, 1920] NATURE 695 ridicule. They have imagined that they were operating on certain species, or they have coined quasi-scientific names for equally illusory forms known to themselves but to no one else. There can be no manner of doubt that not only critical,_ but also even hypercritical, studies of all the species of Gossypium are imperatively necessary. The work accomplished in one country must be capable of immediate adoption in all others. This involves acceptance of definite specific standards throughout the Empire. No plot of land should, therefore, be cultivated with cotton, in the research experimental farms, without carefully prepared botanical samples being kept of the plant, of its seeds, and of its lint. These should be registered and preserved in both the herbarium and the museum, and, when found necessary, duplicates sent to all research stations, as also to the Central Research Institu- tion. All further experiments could then contrast result after result, until definite progress had been established or the plant rejected as worthless. We require the history of each species worked out in the herbarium, and its habitat thereby fully established, before it can ‘be accepted as a unit for investigation. Then, in collaboration with a fully equipped home institution, there should be opened out branch institutions in each of the more important centres of cotton cultivation within the British Empire. Results worked out in Egypt might be quite unsuited to India, to Africa, or to the West Indies. Each important centre must discover and establish its own stocks, After the students had passed through the home college, they would be sent out to the branch college of the locality for which they were being trained, and made to study there practical cotton planting, as well as learn the local aspects of the industry. They might with advantage be also sent, for a few months, to an American college. So much for Research and Instruction; but it is next to useless to talk of “investigation” and “education ” if no rational scheme can be sub- mitted, side by side, of immediate and direct application. In India, for example, cotton is grown exclusively by natives, each of whom owns but a very few acres. It is believed that the Government is averse to granting land (at present cultivated by the people) to be handed over to Europeans. Tea planting became a European industry because it was organised in uncultivated waste lands. It might, therefore, be recommended to the Government of India to make every effort to organise cotton plantations on such conditions as were found possible. The planter, for example. might be guaranteed against loss while given all profits, but subject after, say, twenty or. thirty years to being bought out. If some such. scheme could be carried through, it is highly likely that in a very few years cotton planting would be estab- lished on a sound commercial basis, and then for a certainty be greedily taken over by the people themselves. Moreover, were it made known ‘in India that a large cotton-growing scheme had been organised by the Government, landed proprietors to be’ might be expected to send their sons to England to be trained for running home-farms, Since India is the largest cotton-growing country within the Empire, success there would give the most imme- diate results; but what may be said of India is doubtless more or less true of most other cotton- growing centres. It has, however, to be demonstrated that high- class cultivation will pay in order to overcome the peasant cultivation of to-day, with its impecuni- osity that precludes advancement. The planters would all be trained pupils of the college, and given the advantages arranged for on condition of carrying out the principles enjoined on them and also of using the stock supplied from the local research station; but their plantations should on no account become experimental farms. The planters should, so far as possible, be free agents. The local research stations would no doubt require experimental farms on which to raise and develop seed, and these should be provided, but every effort should at the same time be put forth to organise a European cotton-planting industry, or at all events an industry on European lines. Indian experience (see the report of the Indian Cotton Committee !) would seem to estab- lish at least one great practical conclusion— namely, that there are certain very restricted areas within which the so-called long staples of India can be produced immediately. Assuming that to be correct, cotton planting on a large scale should be’ at once organised within these tracts as the initial step. In America success may be described as having been due to three main causes: (a) There were no vested interests of native cultivators to contend against; (b) the cultivation was undertaken by Europeans who were mostly intelligent farmers; and (c) the planters finally rejected the imported stocks, brought from India and the Levant, and evolved purely American stocks. It was these American stocks that gave the world most of the prized fine long staples. The lesson to be learnt is that the three directions indicated should be kept clearly in mind through all future endeavours. We may not be able at once to disregard local vested interests, but we can take the most promising course of ultimately overcoming them—for many years to come, planting must be on European lines if success is to be attained; and finally we must evolve in each centre itsyown stocks from purely indigenous, or at least long-acclimatised, plants. Disregard of the vested interests of the people is more dangerous than ignorance of the re- quirements of the plant. As the Indian Committee says (and very properly), the cul- tivator’s interests are paramount. It is on that account sailing very much too near the wind to speak, as in'the report, of “control of seed” and “compulsory measures against cotton pests.” No one, of course, could doubt the value of the argu- ments set forth in these paragraphs, but in certain countries they are highly impracticable. They 1 Report of the Indian Cotton Committee, (Published by Superintendent of Government of India Printing, 1919.) Price 2s. 696 could be applied in all Government farms and plantations, but what of the many millions of acres outside? No doubt it would be the most obvious solution of many pests to have a season, like the frost of winter in the United States and in the northern tracts of India, that would kill the cotton plant and the pests as well, so that next year’s sowings would stand a chance of being clean. But in many parts of the cotton area of India two cotton crops are taken off the fields every year— the uppam and nadam of Madras, for example. Cotton may, in fact, be seen growing throughout the year in almost any province of India, one crop coming immediately after the other. The soil is often such that a good staple may be raised on one plot of land, and an inferior on another closely adjacent, and the seasons of their production often overlap. Obviously, while there could not be any compulsory orders that NATURE [| FEBRUARY 26, 1920 wings into branches of activity far removed from medical endeavour, and the widening of its physical scope cannot fail to react beneficially on the older branch of the subject. - Simultaneously comes the awakening of the medical faculty generally to the importance and promise of physical methods and physical agencies as a means of progress in medical research. There is little doubt that within a short time every large and progressive hospital will have a physicist of standing on its staff; and in this connection we would congratulate the Middlesex Hospital on the good fortune which enables it to establish what we believe is the first medical chair of physics in this country. In particular, as regards radiology, the physicist will find work to hand in nearly every branch with which he comes in contact. Again, nearly all the would deprive the individual of his rights, the persuasion of per- sonal advantage, once established by thé success of neighbouring large plantations, would in a few years secure all that could be desired. The salvation of the position is thus the establishment of inde- pendent large cotton plantations, but the most serious difficulty is the discovery of the alternative crop or crops most convenient ‘and profitable. It is not cotton grow- ing only (like tea planting) that has to be faced, but systematic tropical agriculture with a_ full rotation of crops. This aspect of the problem the report has, of course, not dealt with, and has only general principles to offer. The extension into new areas —more especially lands with rich soils that need only en- hanced schemes of water supply to bring them into bearing—is most fascinating, but, as the Indian Committee points out, better results may be looked for from an increase in the average annual yield than from new areas. That view is certainly correct, and should be faced by some practical scheme, and not by a panorama of committees. ” GEORGE WATT. INDUSTRIAL AND MEDICAL RADIOLOGY. basse extent to which radiology has widened its scope during recent years was strikingly brought out by the exhibition of radiographs held very opportunely by the Réntgen Society at the Royal Photographic Society’s galleries during January and February. Radiology has usually been regarded as a special province of the physician and surgeon, which pro- vides them with a routine means of quick and exact diagnosis. But radiology is spreading its Fic. 1.—(a) Radiograph of hand; exposure 20 mins ; January, 1866. (Campbell Swinton.) (6) Radiograph of hand ; exposure 1/100 sec. ; December, 1919. (Knox.) | ; problems of equipment and design are physical in character, and need physicists to tackle them, as America has already discovered to her profit. If the physicist can further obtain the co-operation of the electrical engineer, all-round improvements should speedily follow. What of progress to date? The exhibition re- ferred to here, although confined to radiographic prints, could very fairly be regarded as representa- tive of present-day radiography, and as such it received generous approval from both the public and the Press. Some 200 prints were hung repre- senting work by about thirty of the leading workers. As a radiographer rarely takes his work beyond the negative stage, for the good reason that a print shows him no more, but usually rather less, than the negative, it was gratifying to find so high a pitch of photographic technique in the majority of the exhibits. On the other hand, few exhibitors had devoted much care or thought to the mounting ee RS a ON ene ee FEBRUARY 26, 1920| NATURE 697 of their work, a feature which a photographer would never be guilty of neglecting. About half the exhibition was devoted to medical radiography, and the extraordinary progress that has been made since the discovery of the X-rays twenty-five years ago was strikingly brought out by the juxtaposition of two prints of the human hand (Fig. 1), one taken in January, 1896, by Campbell Swinton, with an exposure of twenty minutes, and the other in December, 1919, by Knox, with a single-impulse flash occupying about 1/100 sec. In the former the bones can be seen, though only blurred; in the latter (with 1/120,000 of the ex- posure) every detail is brilliantly portrayed. Knox further showed a fine series of flash radiographs of the chest (Fig. 2). Detection of stones in the kidney Fic. 2.—Flash radiograph of chest. (Knox.) and bladder is now relatively straightforward work, as the constituent oxalates and phosphates are dense enough to cast good shadows. Until recently gall- -stones (consisting chiefly of chole- sterin) were deemed impossible of detection, but the radiographer acquires astounding skill in the interpretation of faint shadows, and both Thurstan Holland and Knox showed fine examples — of success in diagnosing this troublesome complaint. Fig. 3 is an example of Thurstan Holland’s work in barium-meal radiography. A number of war radiographs were shown; one calling for comment was by Finzi of a bullet in the heart of a man who, it may be added, is still alive. Of interest also was the radiograph of the hand of an Egyptian mummy—a princess of the Second Dynasty (1500 B.c. )—with a scarab ring on the third finger. (E vidently an X-ray equipment will have to be added to the Egyptologist’s outfit !) NO. 2626, VOL. 104} Some of the most attractive prints were those of shells and rare fossils taken by Rodman; the results reminded one irresistibly of the designs which the harmonograph traces out. Henri Beclere showed a new application of the rays in the radio- graphing of finger-prints. The skin is first rubbed over with red lead, and the radiograph shows the surface markings and openings of the cutaneous glands in so vivid a fashion as to suggest that the method would have advantages over that normally employed by the Criminal “Investigation Depart- ment. Several examples of negative prints on radio- bromide paper were exhibited, the most remark- able being that of the skeleton of a man. This radiograph, which was contained cn a single sheet, Fic. 3.- ascending colon (with “filling defect’ due to’ malignant growth), an Right iliac fossa after a barium meal, showing appendix, ceéum transverse colon. (Thurstan Holland.) 8 ft. by 4 ft., was taken by Forder with a Coolidge bulb working 8 ft. away. The use of the X-rays for revealing the intérior of plant life is comparatively recent. Considerable differences exist in the mineral content and density, and hence in the transparency, of the different parts of a plant—root, stem, leaf, flower, fruit, seed, etc. It thus happens that. even the most delicate structures of plants can be laid bare without tearing the plant to pieces in order to study it. Microscopic detail is, of course, not re- vealed, Long-waved X-rays are required for such work, of which Knox showed some good flower illustrations. In the case of timber the ‘different varieties absorb X-rays to different degrees. Peculiarities in the structure and course of the fibres (such as 698 NATURE _ [FEBRUARY 26, 1920 ————— the contortions which produce ‘“‘figure”’) are easily discerned. The denser heart wood is differentiated from the sap wood, the summer and spring growths of the annual rings are readily identified, and defects such as knots or grub-holes show up with astonishing clearness. Kaye and Knox showed some radiographs of aircraft timber and timber-structures taken during the war on behalf Fic. 4.—Radiograph of aeroplane hollow ‘‘box ” strut, showing badly fitting internal end-block split by screws. (Kaye and Knox.) of the Aeronautical Inspection Department (Fig. 4). The method is particularly useful in the case of hollow or laminated components, which cannot otherwise be thoroughly inspected except by destructive tests. Bad gluing, shoddy workman- ship, and a variety of timber blemishes are detect- able with ease, even on the fluorescent screen. Fic. 5.—Golf balls, showing absence of core in ‘‘ floaters” and irregular core in others. (Sunic Research Laboratories.) There appears to be considerable scope for this branch of radiography. The radiographing of minerals is an easy means of detecting the presence of very dense elements such as uranium or tungsten. Pilon showed a good example of the method. The structure of golf balls is a somewhat unexpected subject (Batten). The ‘“non-floaters” are wound on a NO, 2626, VOL. 104] core of heavier rubber; some. of the cores were spherical, but others were not—to the probable detriment of accuracy in long putting or driving. Undoubtedly the standardised championship balls of the future will have to satisfy an X-ray test ! A'neat method of testing the electrically heated clothing of aeroplane pilots was shown by the Sunic Research Laboratories. is sewn within the lining of the leather garment, and any break or kink in the element can easily be ‘‘spotted ” on the fluorescent screen. The same laboratories showed radiographs of outer covers of motor and aeroplane tyres, and a variety of welds in metal tubes and plates, one of these of a steel plate 4 in. thick being of ‘particular excellence (Fig. 6). The Cox-Cavendish Co. showed a some- what similar collection, and Chambers and Rankine displayed examples of their curious “diffraction ’’ and multiple image X-ray photography. Among the most novel exhibits were those by Heilbron illustrating the X-ray examination of old _ paintings with the object of detecting alterations or additions made since the original work. Success. in discovering any such falsifications -would be Fic. 6.—Bad weld in steel plates } in. thick. possible only if the paint used in the original work — were denser than that used in the additions. Some of the ancient pigments used by the masters are — obscure in composition, but the blacks, for ex- ample, of a more modern day are largely carbon, and very transparent. Two examples of the . method were shown, both by Dutch masters of the early sixteenth century. In one, a panel of the Madonna by St. Jans, the X-rays showed that the arms (which appear in a stiff and unnatural atti- tude) formerly held the Child, and in the other, the “Crucifixion” by Engelbrechtsz (Fig. 7), the radiograph revealed a number of “restorations,” including the painting of the portrait of a former ‘“donatrice.” over the picture of a monk. As the Times remarked in a recent leader, this method of detecting the presence of later additions imposed on the work of the original artists suggests a great field for the re-investigation of palimpsests and ancient manuscripts hitherto regarded as carrying: only their face value. Under the trivial inscrip- tions of medieval monks there may be revealed older matter of priceless worth. We commend the notion to the directors of the various art galleries and museums. Space considerations have compelled a some- The heating strip (Sunic Research Laborator’es.) ee eS a ae ee dial a ei a FEBRUARY 26, 1920] NATURE 699 what invidious selection of exhibits for comment, and we have had to leave much interesting and clever work unnoticed. But, granting the scope and versatility of the attack, we venture to predict that the exhibition will be as nothing to a similar one held, say, in five or ten years’ time. Great improvements are imperative, and will doubtless be forthcoming, in the means of registering X-rays. Photographic plates and _ fluorescent screens need to be improved out of recognition. A good explorer for use in radio-metallography could doubtless be evolved by means of the therm- ionic valve, as in wireless telegraphy. With improved equipment radiology will acquire powers which will give it acknowledged status among the sciences, and medical radiology will find an unquestioned place in every medical curri- culum. The diploma of medical radiology estab- lished last term by the University of Cambridge lative effort to succeed. The really remarkable thing about Peary is that the method by which he achieved success was practically independent of modern developments in the art of travel. Before very long the North Pole will be accessible by aircraft; it is possible that it might have been attainable years ago by a steamer in an exception- ally open season, but Peary reached the Pole with- out mechanical help, by the exercise of the powers of human mind and body alone; and had he been a contemporary of Hudson or of Davis. there seems to be no reason why his genius could not have won success in the sixteenth or seventeenth century as well as in the twentieth. Peary’s professional training was that of a land- surveyor and civil engineer, and from early youth he was accustomed to find his way through un- mapped solitudes and to survey routes hitherto untrodden. He was engaged, amongst other (a) Fic. 7.—Thé ‘Crucifixion by Cornelis. Engelbrechtsz (c. 1500). (a) Natural photograph. (2) (e) (4) Radiograph showing monk in surplice and stol¢ underlying portrait of ‘ do.atrice” on right (Heilbron). (c) Natural photograph taken during process of restoration, revealing monk, is a first step. An even bigger one would be the setting up of an X-ray institute in London, which, properly staffed and equipped, would lead to incal- culable progress. We understand that such an institute forms part of a forthcoming memorial scheme to the late Sir James Mackenzie Davidson, which we trust will command generous support. G. W. C, Kaye. REAR-ADMIRAL R. 'E. PEARY, U.S.N. HE death of Rear-Admiral Peary at Washing- ton on February 19, at the age of sixty-four, removes one of the most remarkable of modern explorers. It is not so much to the crowning achievement of his life in reaching the North Pole that Peary’s claim to the respect of the geo- graphical world is due as to the manner in which he persevered, in the face of almost overpowering difficulties, with very slender resources in a cumu- NO. 2626, VOL. 104] things, on the survey of the abortive Nicaragua Canal after he had joined the civil engineering branch of the United States Navy, and his nayal rank must not be taken to imply that he was in any sense a sailor. His official work lay in the construction of harbours and dockyards, and the | world owes a debt to the enlightened chiefs of | the United States Navy, who recognised that they were making a wise use of their powers in grant- ing this born explorer unlimited leave for Arctic work, Peary was led to visit Greenland for the first time in 1886 on account of his interest in Baron Nordenskiéld’s journey on the inland ice, and he returned from the trip determined to continue the exploration of the ice-cap in its least-known parts. In 1891-92 he spent thirteen months in northern Greenland, establishing himself amongst the Etah Eskimo on Whale Sound, and making a 1200- mile journey with dog-sledges to the north-eastern 700 NATURE [FEBRUARY 26, 1920 extremity of Greenland. In 1893-95 he spent twenty-five months in travelling from the same headquarters and proved the insularity of Green-~ land. The result of his three years’ life with the Eskimo was not only to make a thorough anthropological study of the tribe, but also to secure the personal friendship of every member of it, and to become intimately acquainted with the character of every individual, so that, in selecting travelling companions from amongst them, he knew in advance what their powers were and how far they could ‘be trusted. He found that it was possible to live with the Eskimo as one of themselves, and so to make himself independent of the luxuries, and even of many of the supposed necessities, of civilised life without diminishing his power of travelling or of scientific study. In 1896 and 1897 Peary made summer trips to the north-west coast of Greenland, and brought back from Cape York the famous mass of meteoric iron weighing go tons the existence of which had been reported by Sir John Ross nearly a century earlier. The description of the shipping of this mass of metal on a small vessel with no appli- ances save those which could be improvised on the spot showed how Peary, in becoming an ex- plorer, had not ceased to be a very able civil engineer. By this time Peary’s plan for reaching the North Pole had been fully matured. He resolved ‘to transport a picked contingent of the best of the young men of the Eskimo tribe he knew so well to the farthest north point accessible by sea, and to leave them there with their wives, families, and full equipment in an absolutely normal settlement where they would be happy and contented. From this base he was to travel north as far as the land extended by easy stages, and make a_ second settlement of the best natives at that point. Thence he proposed to make a continuous march over the sea ice to the Pole and back, waiting for a favour- able opportunity, and spending the waiting time, whether it should be weeks or years, in studying the effects of wind and tides on the ice-move- ments. Lord Northcliffe presented to him the ' steamer Windward, which had done good service in the Jackson-Harmsworth expedition to Franz Josef Land, and, under the auspices of the Peary Arctic Club of Philadelphia, Peary set out on his great task in 1898. It was 1902 before he re- turned, having reached only 84° 17’, but, in spite of the severest hardships, he was more convinced than ever of the soundness of his method of ex- ploration. In 1904, while recovering from his privations, Peary presided over the Eighth Inter- national Geographical Congress in Washington and New York, impressing all who attended ‘that brilliant meeting with the confident, yet modest, assurance of his ultimate success by the methods he had worked out. : In 1905 Peary started in the new exploring ship Roosevelt, but had to return in 1906 with no greater success than the attainment of latitude 87° 6!, the farthest north that had been reached NO. 2626, VOL. 104] so far. Finally, in 1908, he went north for the seventh time, again in the Roosevelt, and at last,” by the perfected working of his original plan, he hit the fortunate trend of ice and weather and reached the North Pole on April 6, 1909. It will be remembered how the pleasure of this triumph was marred by the pretension of Dr. F. A. Cook to have attained the Pole a year | earlier; but the unfortunate controversy held at least this crumb of comfort, that Cook’s claim, unfounded as it was, was to have attained success by Peary’s method of travelling with trusted Eskimo. Peary had a fine presence and a forceful diction in speech and writing, his books are amongst the most stimulating for the reading of young ex- — plorers, and his careful inductions and thoroughly reasoned plans are a model to all who have to do with the promotion of exploration. He was sup- ported in all his efforts by his wife, who accom- panied him on two of his expeditions. H. RM. ROBERT ETHERIDGE, R. ROBERT ETHERIDGE, director of 4 Australian Museum, Sydney, died — January 4 last at the age of seventy-three years. He was active almost until the end, still « with research, and his decease is a serious | SS to Australasian science. The only son of the late Mr. Robert Etheridge, palzontologist to the Geo- logical Survey of Great Britain, and afterwards assistant-keeper of the geological department of the British Museum, Etheridge adopted the pri fession of his father, and made many in i contributions to our knowledge of the fossils” of both Australasia and Britain. Beginning‘ his career on the first geological survey of Victoria, Aus- tralia, he returned in the early ‘seventies to become paleontologist to the Geological Survey of Scotland, where he not only did important official work, but also co-operated with the late Prof. H. A. Nicholson in describing the Silurian fossils of Girvan, Ayrshire. From 1878 until 1887 he was assistant in the geological department of the British Museum, where he joined the late P. Herbert Carpenter in the authorship of the “Catalogue of the Blastoidea,” which still remains the standard work on these fossils. Colonial life, however, for Etheridge, and in 1887 he returned finally to Australia as paleontologist to the Geological — Survey of New South Wales and to the Australian Museum. He _ started two new serials, the Records of the Geological Survey and_ the Records of the Australian Museum, and pub-— lished many memoirs and papers on Australian fossils. He also joined R. Logan Jack ‘in pre- paring two handsome volumes on “The Geology and Paleontology of Queensland and New . In 1895 he succeeded E. P. Ramsay as director of the Australian Museum, but his new administrative ! duties did not damp his ardour for research, Guinea,”’ which were published in 1892. had special attractions — FEBRUARY 26, 1920] NATURE =Or merely extending its scope. He added a deep interest in the aborigines to his earlier pursuits, and wrote, among other works, valuable memoirs on the dingo and on the sculpturing of sacred trees. Etheridge was always absorbed in his science, and shunned ordinary social life, so that his real good nature could be appreciated only by a very small circle of intimate friends. His scientific worth, however, was widely acknowledged, and he received the Wollaston Fund from the Geo- logical Society of London in 1877, the Clarke medal from the Royal Society of New South Wales in 1895, and the Mueller medal from the Australasian Association in 1911. His name is also associated with the Etheridge goldfield in North Queensland, a high peak on the Kosciusko tableland, and a glacier in Antarctica. . ASS WV. NOTES. THE report of observations of a gigantic dinosaurian reptile in the Congo region of Africa, which was made the subject of sensational articles in December last, proves, as we surmised (Nature, December 18, p. 396), to be without foundation. Mr. Wentworth D. Gray, Acting Representative of the Smithsonian African Ex- pedition in the Katanga, writing from Elisabethville on January 21 to the Times of February 23, says :—‘‘I am. authorised to contradict the statement that the members of the Smithsonian African Expedition who proceeded to this territory came here to hunt the Brontosaurus. There is no foundation for this statement. I may also state that the report of the Brontosaurus arose from a piece of practical joking in the first instance, and, as regards the prospector ‘ Gapelle,’ this gentle- man does not exist except in the imagination of a second practical joker, who ingeniously coined the name from that of Mr. L. Le Page.’’ Tue first meeting since 1914 of the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea will be held in London on March 2. Delegates will be present from Belgium, Denmark, France, Finland, Holland, Norway, and Sweden. Russia and Germany are not represented, and France sends delegates for the first time. The German investigations, it is now known, have been resumed, and the steamer Poseidon has been working at sea since last September. The council, it is expected, will consider arrangements for the resumption of the pre-war investigations, and will devote special attention to tracing the effects of the restrictions on fishing during the war period on the abundance of fish in*the North Sea. Proposals for the closing of certain North Sea areas against steam- trawling are, it is understood, to be considered. Arrangements are being made by the British Fishery Departments for an early beginning of an extended programme of research. The question of the inclusion of Germany has not yet been considered, but it is believed that there is a growing feeling in this country that she should be invited to participate. NO. 2626, VOL, 104] Tue Home Secretary, Mr, Shortt, announced in the House of Commons on February 24 that it is proposed that summer time shall begin on March 28 and end on September 27. WE regret to announce the death, at seventy-five years of age, of Prof. J. Emerson Reynolds, F.R.S., professor of chemistry and chemical philosophy in Dublin University from 1875 to 1903. Mr. J. S. DunkERLEy, of the University of Glasgow, and Mrs. E. W. Sexton, of Plymouth, have been appointed Ray Lankester investigators-at the Marine Biological Laboratory, Plymouth. Tue lecture entitled ‘“‘Some War-time Efforts in Chemical Industry at Gretna,’ arranged to be given by Mr. J. C. Burnham before the fellows of the Chemical Society on March 4, has been unavoidably postponed. The usual ordinary scientific meeting for the reading and discussion of papers will be held on that day. Ar the meeting of the Chemical ‘Society held on Thursday, February 19, it was stated that the fol- lowing changes in officers and council had been pro- posed by the council :—As secretary, Dr. H. R. Le Sueur vice Prof. S. Smiles. J. B. Cohen and Prof. S. Smiles vice Prof. A. Smithells and Prof. S.. Young. As new ordinary members of council, Prof. A. J. Allmand, Dr. E. F. Armstrong, Mr. F. H. Carr, and Dr. J. T. Hewitt. A DEPARTMENTAL Committee has been appointed by Dr. Addison to consider the present state of the law with regard to the pollution of the air by smoke and other noxious vapours, and to advise what steps are desirable and practicable to diminish the evils still arising from such pollution. The members of the Committee are:—Lord Newton (chairman), Capt. Hamilton Benn, Prof. J. B. Cohen, Mr. S. Curphey, Sir John Lithiby, Mr. J. F. MacCabe, Mrs. Gilbert Samuel, Mr. E. D. Simon, Bailie W. B. Smith, and Mr. F. J. Willis. Mr. E. C. H. Salmon, of the Ministry of Health, will be secretary, and any com- munication should be addressed to him at the Ministry, Whitehall, S.W.1. Tue officers and council of the Physical Society elected at the annual meeting on February 13 are as follows :—President: Prof. W. H. Bragg. Vice- Presidents: Dr. H. S. Allen, Prof. W. Eccles, Prof. A. S. Eddington, and Dr. R. S. Willows. Secre- taries: Dr. D. Owen (Birkbeck College, Bream’s Buildings, London, E.C.4) and Mr. F. E. Smith (National Physical Laboratory, Teddington). Foreign: Secretary: Sir Arthur Schuster. Treasurer: Mr. W. R. Coover (82 Victoria Street, $.W.1). Librarian > Dr. A. O. Rankine (Imperial College of Science and Technology). Other Members of Council: Mr. C. R. Darling, Prof. C. L. Fortescue, Dr. E. Griffiths, Dr. E. H. Rayner, Dr. A. Russell, Sir Ernest Ruther- ford, Dr. G. F. C. Searle, Mr. T. Smith, Dr. J.-H- Vincent, and Mr. F. J. W. Whipple. As vice-presidents, Prof. * a Re SS 702 NATURE [FEBRUARY 26, 1920 Tue Morning Post of February 17 contained an article from its correspondent in Paris stating that three days previously he had witnessed five ex- periments at a works in the northern suburbs of the city, each of which involved the production of a ton and a‘half of ‘‘high-class steel.’’ At the present time such steel is made either in crucibles or in an electric or an open-hearth furnace. The novelty of the experiments referred to consists in the fact that the steels are made in some form of ‘converter”’ of the Bessemer type. Usually this process does not give a sufficiently scientific control of the product to enable high-class steels to be made. It appears from the account given that certain ‘‘ secret substances”’ are added which have the effect of controlling the quality of the metal produced, so that it can be used as a basis for the manufacture of high-grade alloy steels. The process is said to have been worked out by four inventors, two of whom are Belgians. The demon- stration was witnessed by about a dozen metallurgical experts, who were engaged in taking samples for tests. If the claims of the inventors are substantiated the process will be’ one of considerable practical im- portance, and further details will be awaited with interest. It is stated that they have decided not to patent their method, but to operate it as a secret ‘process. News has just been received of the death at Cairo of Mr. Henry Gribble Turner at the age of seventy- seven years. Mr. Turner joined the Madras Civil Service in 1864, and. soon gained a reputation by his successful management of the wild tribes of Vizaga- patam district on the east coat, a region where the practice of human sacrifice in honour of the Earth goddess had recently been discontinuéd. After hold- ing for a time the office of Postmaster-General, he returned to his. old district, Vizagapatam, which he administered with much credit until his retirement in 1889. It was due to Mr. Turner that, in the face of great opposition, the standard-gauge railway link- ing Calcutta with Madras was constructed. He was a skilled mineralogist, and discovered the Vizaga- patam manganese deposits, the trade in which has so rapidly developed that the total export is now 600,000 tons annually, He also started the export of Indian magnesite, which proved most useful during the war. Another of Mr. Turner’s projects was a harbour at Vizagapatam to serve the rich uplands of the interior, a scheme which is now at last to be under- taken. He failed to secure election as Member for South Somerset in 1895, and he thus escaped the fate of more than one distinguished Indian administrator who did not succeed in making his mark in the House of Commons, THE committee of the Sheffield Museums and Mappin Art Gallery has issued a consolidated report for the last five years. Special attention is directed to an exhibition relating to infant welfare which was held im 1916. The exhibits were of a comprehensive character, and a series of descriptions was prepared by Dr. Scurfield, Medical Officer, and Dr. Lucy Naish, «which: is ‘now republished.. The instruc- tions in all questions relating to the care of children are elaborate and arranged with full knowledge and NO. 2626, VOL. 104} much common sense. The authorities of other pro- vincial museums might consider the advisability of reprinting the pamphlet, which is likely to be of mae utility. In the February issue of Man Mr. Av. Breton describes a remarkable picture-map from Mexico in the manuscript department of the British Museum. The museum authorities acquired the map from Mr. H. Stevens, who, in his turn, purchased it from the original finder, Col. Campos. It was found on the site of the ancient Indian city of Metlaltoynca, in a stone chest which appears to have formed the pedestal of an idol. Several remarkable statues have been found on this site, and the building depicted in the centre of the map is somewhat like the existing Castillo, a pyramid on a base with six high steps and a platform, on the summit of which are buildings. The interpretation of the figure-groups in the map is still to some degree uncertain, but its publication will doubtless lead to an elucidation of its meaning. Tue identification of two statues in the Indian Museum, Calcutta, found at Patna about a century ago, has aroused much interest among Indian archeologists. The question of the date of these statues and of the inscriptions engraved upon them is discussed in vol. v., part 4, of the Journal of the Bihar and Orissa Research Society. Dr. Vincent Smith, in one of the last articles that came from his pen, was disposed to believe that they are portraits of two kings who reigned in the fifth century B.c. This conclusion, if it be correct, revolutionises the current view of the development of Indian art, because hitherto it has been supposed that stone sculpture : began in the time of Asoka, who reigned some two centuries later than the assumed date of the Patna statues. Moreover, the execution of these pre-— supposes a long prior development of plastic art. But it must be remembered that the dates of the statues are not yet quite certain, and the question is still under discussion by archeologists. In Sudan Notes and Records (vol. ii., No. 4, October, 1919) Prof. G. A. Reisner announces the discovery for the first time in the Nile Valley of a horse cemetery. The graves were in four rows, and four complete skeletons were discovered, the horses” being of a short, small breed, not unlike the Arab. Each horse was buried with its chariot trappings— — they were not ridden at that period—and placed upright with the head towards the south. The regular spacing of the graves, the division into rows, the chrono- logical order of the rows, and the uniformity of the graves in each row justify the conclusion that these horses were sacrificed at the funerals of the kings in order that the spirits of the horses might accompany the spirits of the kings into the other world. The idea is widespread, but in this special form it was hitherto unknown in Egypt. But excavations recently made at Kerma show that the sacrifice of men and animals at funerals was a well-established ancient Ethiopian custom, In fact, there seems reason to believe that horse-sacrifice was due to King Piankhy, who. was. a great corinoisseur of horses, as is proved from his inscriptions. . Vee em. See Le ee a ee FEBRUARY 26, 1920] NATURE 703 - Pror. C. E. A. Winstow, in an address to the American Association for the Advancement of Science entitled ‘The Untilled Fields of Public Health,” expressed the opinion that the public health -cam- paign of the future would need the collaboration of at least the seven following types of highly qualified experts: the physician, the nurse, the bacteriologist, the epidemiologist, the engineer, the statistician, and the social worker. In addition, there must be inspec- tors to supervise sanitary and housing conditions, and, finally, the administrator who organises and develops the work of all the rest. The latter ought to be medically trained, with subsequent specialisation in public health (Science, January 9, p. 23): ’ Tue February number (vol. i., No. 5) of Medical Science:’ Abstracts’ and Reviews, published for the Medical Research Committee, has reached us, Reviews of current work on medical subjects appear monthly, diseases of the respiratory system and cardio- vascular diseases, among others, being dealt with in this issue. In the article on the former, reference is made to the question of the production of emphysenia of the lungs (a condition of permanent distension with other changes) by the playing of wind-instruments, as is stated in many text-books. Of forty-six professional players examined, in only three was there slight evi- dence of emphysema, so that the commonly accepted view seems to be without foundation. ‘WE have received the quarterly report of the Research Defence Society, dated January, 1920, when the society completed its twelfth year of active work. The society was founded to make known the value and the necessity of experiments on animals, the restric- tions imposed on them in this country under the Act of''1876, the nature and the purposes of the experi- ments which are being made, and the discoveries which have come by the help of the experimental method ; also to ‘bring about a better understanding between the few who make these experiments and the many who profit by them: The campaign has been carried out by the circulation of pamphlets, by articles in the Press, and by public lectures. The president of the society is Lord Lamington, and the hon. secretary Mr. Stephen Paget. ; Major-Gen. Sir W. LetsHMan publishes in the Lancet of February 14 (p. 366) the results of protec- tive inoculation against influenza in the Army at home during 1918-19. The vaccine consisted of a mixture of three micro-organisms, the influenza bacillus, streptococci, and pneumococci. Among the inoculated, numbering 15,624, the incidence per thousand was :— Of attack, 14:1; of pulmonary complications, 1-6; and of deaths, 0-12. Among the uninoculated, numbering 45,520, the figures were 47-3, 15:3, and 2-5 respectively. At least half of the vaccinated received one dose only, and ‘not two doses as recommended, and the vaccine used at first was considerably ‘‘weaker’’ than that used later. Nevertheless, the figures are decidedly favourable to the value of vaccination, particularly as a preventive of mortality from influenza, K Mr. E. E. Lowe, in the Museums Journal (vol. xix., No. 7); utters_a timely word of warning to the curators and governing bodies of local. museums in regard to NO. 2626, VoL, 104] ©) the haste they are displaying to be taken over by the Board of Education, as recommended by the’ Adult Education Committee of the Ministry of Reconstruc- tion. If this fate ever overtakes them they will have ample time for unavailing repentance. Mr. Lowe’s arguments are stated with considerable ability and force, and his views on the functions of museums are eminently sound. The modern museum, he urges, should, among other things, be educational, but he points out that it would constitute a grave error. of judgment, as well as a breach of trust, to hand over museums to the local education authorities. From California Fish and Game (vol. vi., No. 1) we learn that extensive plant is being set up ‘at Tropico, California, for the preparation of agar-agar on a commercial scale. Experiments have been carried out which seem to show that agar-agar of a quality much superior to the imported article can ‘be pro- duced from the seaweeds native to the coast of southern California. If this venture is successful, it will create a new industry for the United States. In the same issue a series of figures illustrating the growth of the young of the black sea-bass or jew-fish (Stereolepis gigas) is given. These furnish a very striking illustration of the “recapitulation ’’ theory, and explain how it is that the fishermen were un- aware of the connection between the gaily coloured fish of a few inches long, with enormous dorsal and ventral fins, and the unicoloured giant in which these fins are relatively extremely small. Tue very handsome volumes issued in 1916-18 by the Maryland Geological Survey have now become available in Europe. They are largely a memorial to ~ the energy of the director, William Bullock Clark, who held office for twenty-five years, dying at too early an age in 1917, and whose obituary, with a portrait, appears in vol. x., which includes his latest educational work, ‘‘The Geography of Maryland.” This is now published as an amplification of the treatise already used in the State schools. Part 2 of this volume deals with water-supply, and the some- what massive style of publication—a heritage from the traditions of the United States Geological Survey— makes one wish that the geographical part could have been issued ‘separately bound. Mr. Clark and his staff also contribute two fully illustrated volumes on “The Upper Cretaceous Deposits of Maryland.” These occur mainly on the left bank of the Chesa- peake Inlet, opposite Baltimore, and are specially noted for their dicotyledonous flora. The Maryland Geological Survey, in continuation of its series of county descriptions, which recall the ambitious scheme of the Ordnance Survey of Ireland in 1837, published in 1917 its memoir on Anne Arundel County; this is written by a number of specialists, so as to present the area south of Baltimore from a geographic point of view. The co-operation of the United States Geological Survey. enables this finely illustrated work to be accompanied by four large folding maps on the scale of 1/62,500 (four times that of the 1/250,000 sheets), showing: the. topography and political divisions, the geology, the soils, and the forestry and commercial areas. : 704 ‘NATURE . [FEBRUARY 26, 1920 Tue scientific portion of the Central Zeitung fiir Optik und Meckanik for January 1 contains the. first of a series of articles by Prof. yon Rohr on the principal points of optical systems and the graphical methods of determining images. The constructions given are those suitable for convex and concave systems of which: the principal planes and foci are given. The industrial portion includes a reproduc- tion of the new regulations under which optical workers of eight years’ standing may attend shortened courses of instruction at the Government optical school at Jena and, after a qualifying examination, obtain the optician’s diploma. A list of the optical and other instruments for which there is at present a demand in foreign countries is given. The wages paid to the various grades of workers in metal in the principal countries of the world form the subject of a further article. A list of the publications of the German Committee on Standards for Industry is pro- vided,. and the importance of the rapid adoption of the new standards throughout the country is em- phasised. Coloured wall-charts have been prepared, so that the information may readily be placed before the eyes of designers, foremen, and workmen. In a paper in the Chemical Age of February 14 Dr. Stephen Miall plots. the atomic weights of the elements against their atomic numbers, and shows that all the elements lie upon a series of parallel lines of three different slopes. The atomic weights may be represented as bx+a, where x is the atomic number, a a small integer ranging from o to 5, and b has the value 2 for the elements from helium to nickel, 2-5 from copper to tungsten, and 3 from osmium to uranium. The first term, which con- tributes to the chemical character, he terms ‘live- weight,’’ and the second term, which is of no influence on the chemical character, ‘‘dead-weight.’”? Similar regularities have been previously pointed out, and, indeed, since the atomic weights for the most part conform to integral values, some such relation as the above is necessarily true. But the diagrams have a value apart from their interpretation. They suggest a novel basis for classification, and arrange the elements on parallel lines for which a and b have the same values. They may be useful to those seeking for regularities in the nuclear structure rather than in the atomic shell. Hitherto chemists have been too exclusively obsessed with the study of chemical character to the neglect of the atomic weight—an independent variable, as the study of radio-active change has made quite clear. The atomic weishts, however, as the author remarks, mean something. They furnish the only present clue to the structure of the nucleus. Tue Carnegie Institution of Washington has issued another section of its monumental ‘Index of Economic Material in Documents of the States of the United States.” The section, prepared by Adelaide R. Hasse, is the first instalment of the index relating to the State of Pennsylvania. Part i. contains the titles of collected documents, mainly printed by authority of the Senate and of the House of Repre- sentatives. Part ii. is a topical analysis arranged NO. 2626, VOL, 104] alphabetically from A to E. Among the longer sec- tions we find Agriculture, Canals, Climate, Coals, Coal-mining, and Education. The period covered is from 1790 to 1904. The new yolume has been pre- ceded by twelve similar quarto volumes, and will be followed by others, each devoted to a single State. The index undertakes to deal only with the printed reports of administrative officers, legislative com- — mittees, and special commissions of the States, andalso with Governors’ messages. References are given by — volume and page to all material of economic import- ance contained in the reports and messages indexed. Under each sub-heading the arrangement is chron i logical. In the alphabetical part the compiler has — = introduced, in addition to subject entries, the names of persons who have exercised an important influence _ on the development of the economic life of the Sta After each name there is reference to work done. The amount of material which had to be examined for the preparation of this volume must have been i very great. A snort but useful list of books on ornithology ue oology (No. 398) has just been circulated by Mr. d Edwards, 83 High Street, Marylebone, W.1. | tains some two hundred and fifty items, incluc several long runs of serials such as the © Transactions and Journals of the Royal Microscopical. Society of London, Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London, etc. The list is sent free on application. OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN. | Hotmes’s Comer.—Dr. Schorr Ret bi that the cometary object 1919f, found on two plates taken ee ah Bergedorf by Dr. Baade on December 10, is de- — finitely not identical with Holmes’s comet, as ‘it failed ; to appear on two plates taken on December 26, on which it would have been registered if it were moving in accord with the ephemeris calculated ion: that comet. — Minor Prianetr GM.—This is the object dajeeed: by Sefior Comas Sola on January 13, and considered for a time to be a comet. As it is the brightest minor _ planet discovered in recent vears, it is of interest to— give the elements which have been deduced at the Berkeley Observatory, California. SB T=1920 March 16°36 G.M.T. ra @ =194° 28 Q=300° 0’; 1920°0 z= 17° 59) g =2'326 ieee é@ =O'1109 = : eae: Period = 4'2315 years Ephemeris for Greenwich Midnight. RA N. Del. © Mag. >= ee Nitta te} FATS February 28 2 25-30 17 33 tits March 7 7 24 54 16 44 Nova 1x Lyra.—Harvard Bulletin No. 705 reports the finding of another nova on the Harvard photo- graphs by Miss Mackie. Position for tg000, R.A. 18h. 49m. 3es., N. decl. 29° 63’. Between Decem- ber 4 and 6 it rose suddenly from mag. 16 or fainter to mag 6-5; on January 6 it had sunk to 8-5. Messrs. Adams and Joy report from Mount Wilson that its spectrum shows the striking nova characteristics. 3 q § ——————s _water-film, FEBRUARY 26, 1920] NATURE 795. ' The same message reports that these observers find remarkable changes in the spectrum of Mira Ceti, the bright helium and hydrogen lines being strengthened and widened towards the red. Tres 1N Piprs.—In 1914 Messrs. A. A. Michelson and H. G. Gale made a preliminary investigation of the tidal changes in water-level in two pipes, each 502 ft. long, placed respectively along a meridian and a parallel, in the grounds of the Yerkes Observatory. They have now made a more refined series of observa- tions (described in the Astrophysical Journal for December). The small changes of water-level are registered by photographing interference fringes pro-. duced by placing a mirror about } mm. below the surface of the water, and passing a beam of light from an electric lamp vertically down through the then reflecting it on emergence into a camera in which a sensitive film is moved by clockwork at the rate of 2 cm./hour. Some of the photographed curves are reproduced, and show a beautiful accord with the theoretical curves, which were carefully calculated by Prof. F. R. Moulton. The transition from spring to neap tides, and even the difference in height of alternate semi-diurnal tides, are obvious at a glance. The result shows that the pipe tides are 0-690 of what they would be on a rigid earth, so that the bodily tides in the earth’s crust are 0-310 of what they would be if the earth were fluid. The earth tides appear to lag behind the impressed forces by 4°. plications that are present in the observation of ocean tides; it also appears to be capable of greater relative precision, in spite of the smallness of the quantities involved. There appears to be a slip in the value of the rotational velocity » (p. 350); it is printed as 2x sidl. day/solar day, but surely it should be 2x solar day/sidl. day, the mean solar day being the unit of time employed. LUMINOSITY IN CENTIPEDES a Chilopoda have been traced back to the Car- boniferous age by the paleontologists, these | centipedes may be presumed to have understood their own interests pretty well in the struggle for exist- ence. Geophilus electricus (Linn.) had already won the attention of Aldrovandi in the sixteenth century, and the specific name adopted,for it by Linnzus was obviously based on its observed luminosity. The notes now under review state that among the centipedes only one great group, the Geophilimorpha, is known to exhibit the phenomenon. With so long a history for the group in the modern period, it seems strange that biologists should still need to ask in regard to some of its species, which are by no means uncommon: Why are they luminous? Even those keen observers, Mr. and Mrs. Brade-Birks, after minute examination, with the aid of friends, and critical comparison of recent authorities, leave the subject inconclusively concluded. Microscopists will read with pleasure details of the contrivances by which they persuaded their many-legged, wriggling subjects, under just the friendliest squeeze, to sit for their portraits. As definite result of their careful study of Geophilus carpophagus, they “conclude that in the excretion which accompanies luminosity there are generally present: (i) the contents of the white glands, for [which they] propose the name of proto- | The expression | “white glands” seems to be used rather vaguely, as luciferin, (ii) mucin, (iii) acid.” 2 Dartford Naturalists’ Field Club Occasional Papers. Notes on Myria- ) hagus, Leach.” By Hilda K. Brade-Birks and the Rev. S. Graham- Birks. NO. 2626, Vor, 104] This method avoids many of the com- | XX. “Luminous Chilopoda, with Special Reference to Geophilus | | applying to certain white, rounded masses on the ventral parts of the specimen, these masses being ‘groups of pyriform, and probably unicellular, glands intimately associated with the production’ of light.’ But it is not made clear whether whiteness is a pro- perty of individual glands or only an effect of their grouping into opaque masses. For an understanding of the debate on the value of lighting up as displayed in this very limited section of the animal world, Dr. Shipley’s brief notice may usefully be quoted. He says :—‘t Some members of the. family Geophilida are phosphorescent, and secrete from certain glands on the ventral surface a luminous slime; since this is produced by both male and female, and neither of them has eyes, the secretion is regarded as a means of frightening or warding off enemies. The male Geophilus spins a web, and drops a spermatophore in the middle of it, and the female comes and fertilises herself” (‘‘ Zoology of the Inverte- brata,’? p. 315). The present collaborators suggest that, without specialised organs of sight, the Geo- philids ‘may be able to appreciate light by a general absorption of its waves through the surface of the body.’”’ Though this inchoate power of vision might be otherwise of service, it could scarcely help in bringing the two sexes together, and the riddle is complicated by the fact that allied species without luminosity seem to arrange their affairs very well in its absence. In general, experience has shown that animals, other than beasts of prey, are not frightened, but attracted, from a dark environment by illumination, so that among the alternative services of protoluciferin suggested by the authors any scaring property may be set aside as very improbable. The systematist is now warned by our authors that Stigmatogaster subterraneus should be attributed to Shaw. So lately as last December, in Nevin Foster’s list of fifty-three Irish Myriapods, they sanctioned the long-standing error of assigning the species to Leach. They acknowledge themselves baffled by the specific name of Geophilus convolvens, on which Fabre founded his researches. This is said to be not a phosphorescent species. Otherwise one might have supposed the name evolved from the strange account which Lucas cites out of the C.R. Acad. médicale des sciences de Metz in 1830. This records the fright- ful tortures in the head of a young Frenchwoman, which after a year were suddenly terminated “par l’expulsion d’un insecte qui, jeté sur le plancher, s’agitoit avec rapidité et se rouloit en spirale.” Tt, however, was determined to be a specimen of Geo- philus carpophagus. Leach. Gistel in 180, writing of the Feuerwurm Geophilus electricus, alludes to the story, but does not, in fact, discredit it by remarking that such a svecies could not penetrate the frontal cavities of a human head unless the owner of the head were asleep. Wea Ro Ss THE POSITION OF THE METEOR- OLOGICAL OFFICE. AT the monthly meeting of the Royal Meteoro- logical Society, held on February 18, Capt. C. J. P. Cave brought forward a paper on “The Status of a Meteorological Office and its Relation to the State and to the Public.” It was pointed out that a Meteorological Office is a practical necessity, and, since to be at all efficient it must be subsidised from public funds, it has to be under some Govern- ment Department. ‘The work of a Meteorological Office is, however, very wide, and concerns, not one, but almost every Government Department; and if it is to be under one without adequate safeguards, there 706 NATURE [FEBRUARY 26, 1920 is a great danger that many important sides of meteorology will be neglected. Safeguards are that the Director of the Meteorological Office should be directly under the Minister of the Department con- cerned, and on no account under other permanent officials, and that the Meteorological Office should have its separate vote and account in the Estimates. Hitherto the expenses. have been controlled by the Meteorological Committee, a body on which several Government Departments as well as the Royal Society are represented; there seems to be no reason why this arrangement should not be continued. The work of the Meteorological Office concerns not only Govern- ment Departments, but also such bodies as county councils, municipal bodies, organisers of engineering undertakings, and the general public; and probably none of these know how great a use may be made of meteorological information. The public is chiefly concerned with forecasts, and probably the mistrust of forecasts which undoubtedly exists in the public mind is due to the delay that occurs before the forecasts are available. Those that appear in the daily papers are based on observations at 6 p.m. of the previous day, but if forecasts based on the 1 a.m. or 7 a.m. observations were sent to every telegraph office in the country and posted up, and could be obtained by telephone subscribers, it would probably prove a great boon, especially to agri- culturists, and do much to dispel the present mistrust of weather forecasts. During the past year the Meteorological Office forecasts have been issued from the Air Ministry, and in the Air Estimate there appears a sum for the Meteorological Office. From this it appears as though the Office is to pass under the Air Ministry. In former times when any change was made in the status of the Office an official inquiry was held, but no such inquiry has apparently taken place as a prelude to the present change, and no public announcement of any kind has been made. There seems no reason for the change. The Meteorological Office had done work on the upper air long before the war, and it was its work which proved that long-distance night flying was a practical possibility. Meteorology must be a national Service, but the policy of handing it over to one Ministry without ‘a separate vote and account would be disastrous, not only to meteorology as a science, but also to the State at large. The following resolution was adopted at the meeting :—‘‘ The Royal Meteorological Society observes that,in the Air Estimates for 1919-20 published last December there appears a sum of 12,0001. as a supple- ment to the grant in aid of the Meteorological Office. It would appear from this that it is intended that the finances of the Meteorological Office shall pass under the control of the Air Ministry. ‘*The Meteorological Office deals with a variety of problems of high scientific and practical importance, some of which have no bearings on the work of the Air Ministry, but are closely connected with the work of other Government Departments. While recognising to the full the great benefits to the meteorology of the upper air likely to accrue from a close associa- tion with the Service to which a knowledge of the upper air is so essential, and which possesses such facilities for its investigation, this society cannot but feel misgiving that there may be a tendency for other branches of meteorology to receive less than their due attention if one Government Department has the sole control of the finances and management. The society, therefore, is of opinion that the Meteorological Com- mittee should continue to have full control of the expenditure. “It has been the practice in the past, before any No. 2626, VoL. 104] ‘ | change was made in the body administering the Meteoro- logical Office, for an inquiry to be held by a Depart- mental Committee. Reports of three such inquiries have been published, the last being that issued in 1904 of a Treasury Committee presided over by Sir Herbert Maxwell, Bart. The Treasury did not adopt the whole of the recommendations of this Committee, but on May 20, 1905, it issued a minute constituti the Meteorological Committee as it has since exist The society is of the opinion that before the future constitution of the Meteorological Committee and the status of the Meteorological Office are finally settled, — it is desirable that an inquiry by a representative committee should be held.’’ PRE-HISTORY OF MAN IN BRITAIN. First IMPLEMENTS FROM THE CHaLKy BOULDER CLAY OF SUFFOLK. R. J. REID MOIR described to the Royal Anthropological Institute on February 17 some interesting flint implements and flakes found in two pits situated to the north of Ipswich, and in a pit at Claydon, to the north-west of that town. In each of these pits Boulder Clay of considerable thickness is exposed, and this deposit, in the opinion of Prof. J. E. Marr, who has visited the sections, is in situ, and represents part of the large sheet of Boulder Clay of the Ipswich district. Mr. Reid Moir found many of the specimens described in situ in the Boulder — Clay, and the others, handed to him by workmen employed in the pits, are of such an order as to make it certain that these implements were also derived from the Boulder Clay. The specimens are in nearly every case made from flakes, and exhibit very little change of surface or signs of abrasion. The two principal types are rdcloirs and pointes; primitive flake-implements and large scrapers are also represented in the series. The technique of these artefacts is in many ways comparable with that of Early Mousterian times, and it is probable that these Boulder Clay specimens are referable to this cultural phase. The implements appear to have been lying | in or upon a land surface before being incorporat with the morainic material in which they are now found. One well-made and deeply ochreous flake found in the Boulder Clay appears to be of Chellean age. It exhibits reflaking along its edges, and this flaking is patinated in’ the peculiar manner of some of the Boulder Clay artefacts. In the- discussion which followed the reading of the paper all the speakers united in dwelling upon the importance of the contribution made by Mr. Reid Moir to the study of the pre-history of man in Britain. Prof. Arthur Keith pointed out that ‘the conclusions which followed from the results of Mr. Reid Moir’s investigations could only be described as revolutionary, and would involve a reconsidera- tion of the evidence relating to the antiquity of Stone-age implements. Mr. Reginald Smith said that the pointe was considered to be the typical im- plement of the Mousterian stage of culture. Archzeo- logists would have to consider the possibility of its occurrence in other periods. The peculiar patination which occurred on certain of the specimens found by Mr. Reid Moir in the Ipswich Boulder Clay occurred at Northfleet, and was usually considered to be typical of the Le Moustier period. Mr. Smith also pointed out that some thirty-five years ago Dr. Skertchley had raised the question of the occurrence of palzolithic implements below the Boulder Clay. Dr. Barnes remarked that a considerable number of flakes must be examined before it can be concluded ; : . FEBRUARY 26, 1920] NATURE 707 with certainty that a particular type of implement was present. Mr. Reid Moir’s collection appeared to him to present all the characteristics which one would expect to find in a group of implements belonging to the Le Moustier culture. Mr. Kennard said that paleontologists were firmly convinced that the Boulder Clay was of late occur- rence. An examination of a continuous series of examples of the fauna exhibited no traces of the variation between warm and cold types, which would have been expected to occur if the theory of alter- nating warm and cold periods were correct. Fauna of the cold period were always last in the series. Mr. H. Bury said that the evidence brought forward by Mr. Reid Moir made it necessary to raise the question whether Chalky Boulder Clay was always, and wherever it occurred, of the same age. The evidence from Hoxne was diametrically opposed to Mr. Reid Moir’s results, and this, together with the doubts which had been expressed as to the character of the evidence obtained from Hoxne, made it desir- able that the borings on that site should be repeated. RECENT ENGLISH MARINE BIOLOGY. RECENT English papers on marine biological research include one by Dr. E. C. Jee on the hydrography of the English Channel during the years 1904-17. This forms part i. of the Fisheries Inves- tigation Series III., the publication of which is now resumed by the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries. Periodicities in the physical properties of the Channel water are discussed, and correlations between these and the pilchard fisheries are apparently established. A most interesting ‘‘Contribution to the Quantitative ‘Study of Plankton’ is published by Dr. E. J. Allen in part i., vol. xii., of the Journal of the Marine Bio- logical Association. ; Plankton investigations, in so far as they have been quantitative, have been a series of approximations to a complete determination of the number of organisms of all kinds contained in a unit volume of sea-water. Hensen’s original method consisted in the use of a net made of fine-meshed silk cloth which was lowered in the sea and hauled to the surface. Experiment and calculation gave a coefficient for each net, from which the area of cross-section of the column of water fil- tered could be approximately determined. It has been found latterly that the greater number of microscopic organisms in the water escaped through the meshes of the cloth, and more refined filtering methods were introduced by Lohmann. Finally, it was thought that by centrifuging small quantities of water a complete enumeration of the organisms present might become possible, and this method did, indeed, largely increase the numbers in- habiting unit volume of sea-water. Why it should not enable the investigator to determine all is not easy to see, but it certainly under-estimates them, as Dr. Allen’s results show. In his experiments small quan- tities of water (10 c.c.) were centrifuged and the con- tained organisms counted. From four such trials a mean of 14-45 per c.c. (or 14,450 organisms per litre) was obtained. The same water sample was then examined by inoculating }4 c.c. in a sterilised sea- water containing the culture solutions used by Allen and Nelson for the study of marine diatoms. The inoculated medium so prepared was then distributed into seventy small flasks, each containing about 20 c.c. of the liquid, and the latter were allowed to stand for several weeks. The colonies (mainly Diatoms and Flagellates) growing in the flasks were then identi- fied and counted, giving an estimated number of at least 464 organisms per c.c. (or 464,000 per litre). NO. 2626, VOL. 104] Even then it is evident that the result is an under- estimate of the actual population of the water sample, for the medium is apparently selective, and organisms that appeared in the centrifuged samples did not grow (and were therefore unrecorded) in the cultures. Bac- teria did grow, but were not identified and_ esti- mated. The result is therefore another, and closer, approximation to a biological value which is of extra- ordinary interest. THE RED COLOURING MATTER OF PLANT GALLS. TDURING recent years our knowledge concerning plant colouring matters has rapidly increased, and quite a large number of pigments have been sub- jected to careful and full investigation. A further interesting contribution to our knowledge in this field of research is contained in a recent paper by Dr. M. Nierenstein, in which he deals with the colouring matter of the ‘“‘red-pea gall’’ (Trans. Chem. Soc., 191g, CXV., pp. 1328-32). The galls that were examined occur on the leaves of various British oak- trees when galled by. Dryophanta divisa, Adler. It has been generally assumed that the red colouring matters of these and similar galls belonged to the anthocyan class, and one of the objects of the in- vestigation was to ascertain whether the anthocyan assumed to be present was related to quercetin. By this means it was hoped to obtain some light upon the relationship between the products present in the normal plant and those pathologically produced as the result of the formation of the galls. The. investigation resulted in the isolation of a red pigment, to which the name ‘‘dryophantin ’’ has been given. Dr. Nierenstein concludes that this colouring matter is not an anthocyan, but a diglucoside of pur- purogallin (the first derivative of purpurogallin to be found in Nature), and that, like gallotannin, it is of pathologic origin. He is of the opinion that the other so-called anthocyans obtained from plant-galls are in all probability not anthocyan colours at all, but related to ‘‘dryophantin.” In view of this he proposes to classify these red pigments under the class-name “ gallorubrones.”’ This paper is of considerable interest, particularly if further investigation confirms the presence of pur- purogallin derivatives as regular constituents of these and other red galls. In respect of the conclusion implied as to the absence of pigments of the anthocyan group, the present paper is not sufficient evidence of such absence, for the process whereby the colouring matter has been isolated is such that there is a very considerable doubt whether many anthocyan pigments would survive the treatment. IONS AND IONISATION. Be Faraday Society, though a small body, is very active. One of the most useful features of its activity is the holding of general discussions on matters of scientific and technical interest, and the publication of these discussions in its Transactions. “The Present Position of the Theory of Ionisation in Solution’? was the subject of a discussion held on January 21, 1919, and the report is now issued in the form of a separate reprint (pp. 178, Faraday Society, to Essex Street, Strand, W.C.2, price 12s. 6d.), thus making it available to a larger public than the members of the society. The discussion was opened by Dr. Senter, who briefly reviewed the position with regard to such out- standing problems as the hydration of ions, the devia- tion of strong electrolytes from the mass-action law, 708 NATURE [FEBRUARY 26, 1920 and the chemical activity of ions and non-ionised molecules respectively. Communications on these and other topics were afterwards read and discussed, amongst the contributors or those taking part in the discussion being Arrhenius (the originator of the theory), Acree, McBain, Bousfield, Sand, Partington, Porter, Newbery, Lindemann, Philip, and J. C. Ghosh. Fundamental differences of opinion with regard to _the main problems discussed were very marked. The evidence for the hydration of ions is by some held as final, by others as having only a limited application, and by yet others as quite inconclusive. Most attention was given to the problem of the abnormality of strong electrolytes. At extreme dilutions these electrolytes are regarded by many as behaving normally, the dissociation constant for uni-univalent electrolytes being about 0-02, but owing to the magnitude of the water-correction, and the difficulty of exactly fixing the molar conductivity for infinite dilution, this result must still be looked upon as uncertain. At ordinary dilutions the law has no application, and the most promising explanation is that elaborated by Dr. J. C. Ghosh, who proceeds on the .assumption that the strong electrolytes are practically completely ionised in all dilute solutions, but that there is an electro- static equilibrium between mobile ions, which con- tribute to the conductivity, etc., and inert ions, which do not. An electrical dilution law is therefore sub- stituted for the chemical mass-action law in the case of strong electrolytes. For weak electrolytes this electrical action would only enter as a negligible dis- turbing factor of the mass-action law. The further development of this idea may be awaited with interest. THE SPECIES CONCEPT AMONG FUNGI. N the Transactions of the British Mycological Society (vol. vi., part ii., September, 1919) Mr. W. B. Brierley protests against the practice of myco- logists in describing as species. the forms which are presented to them in Nature or as pathological growths, especially on cultivated plants. The descrip- tion of new fungal species is based on the assumptions that the distinguishing’ characters are of a morpho- logical nature, and that the essential specific characters are constant and hereditary and may be determined in one Specimen of one generation. But’ the laboratory and field experience of the experimentalist shows that under changes in the environment the whole structure and facies of the organism may be transformed, while under identical conditions there is considerable evidence that the morphological variation of a particular fungus is definite and constant. The so-called species of the mycologist is comparable with the ‘‘ecad”’ of the eco- logist, and is the resultant of the organism and its en- vironment. ‘‘ Ecads’’ indistinguishable from each other may be produced from two distinct organisms: inter- acting with one and the same environment, or with two different environments. Two precisely similar fungi growing on a potato and a decaying tree-stump respec- tively may really be different species, though .the systematic mycologist would consider them identical. The true organism is a physiological equilibration, a metabolic entity, the interaction of which with the environment results in the growth-form or ‘ecad.’’ It follows that the morphological species concept must be given up in favour of the physiological species concept. The only exact method of determining species is by means of quantitative data derived from cultural treatment under standardised physico-chemical conditions, for this method alone reveals the physio- NO. 2626, vor. 104] logical condition of the organism. The author sug- gests that even the apparently stable forms of the higher fungi, Agarics, Polypores, etc., are merely ‘“‘ecads,’’ and that two precisely similar morphological entities of, for instance, Agaricus melleus may con- ceal totally different physiological constitutions which under other conditions of growth would diverge characteristically. Mr. Brierley also attacks another concept of mycology,. namely, the ‘ educability ’ of fungi, or the induction nig cia ez of permanent modifications in their biochemical, morphological, or other perties. This concept is widely held by misroblolosiser but if it implies a possibility of a change in the Ligbeyns constitution of an organism, it follows that with fuller knowledge and improved technique a rapid change of one species into another is possible. The author affirms that the condition of knowledge and the avail- able evidence are not such as to warrant an hypothesis so subversive of the foundations of biclowiiee science. The presumed mutations may be due to the presende of mixed populations in supposed pure cultures, or merely the expression of a developmental stage previously unrecognised; further, no organism in which sexuality exists or is conceivable must be used unless its gametic constitution and genetic behaviour under all the conditions of the experiment are known. THE UPPER LIMIT OF UNPLEASANT — BEATS. sss T is well known that Helmholtz traced all dis- cordant effects of two or more musical notes when sounded together to the presence of beats occurring between the prime tones, between the prime of one and an upper partial of the other, between the upper partials of each, or to beats occurring in some other | way. Further, to produce the unpleasantness in ques- tion the beats must lie between certain limits of frequency, which limits vary with the pitch in use. | In this connection it is of interest to note that Mr. Narendranath Chatterjee, of Chittagong, India, has recently given a formula expressing the upper limiting frequency for beats for which the roughness vanishes. This formula he writes as follows: B=____., ole eee (1) where B is the number of beats per second for which the roughness vanishes, N is the frequency of the lower of the two tones sounded simultaneously, n is the number of the musical scale containing N and beginning with 32 per second as the fundamental of the first scale (the octave of this being the funda- mental of the next scale, and so on), and, finally, i is the interval between N and the fundamental of the scale in which it is contained. Thus N, n, and i are connected by the equation — aa) The results of the law compared well with Mayer’s experimental values, as shown in the following’ table: N=32x 2"? x7. Frequency B of beats when Frequency N roughness vanishes of lower tone As ~ Mayer's values Results of law 64 16 17 128 26 27 256 47 45 512 78 76 1024 135 133 FEBRUARY 26, 1920] NATURE 709 RESEARCHES AT HIGH TEMPERATURES AND PRESSURES. By tHE Hon. Sir Cuaries A. Parsons, K.C.B., : ERS. Tt: ay HE calories evolved in the combination of graphite and oxygen are about 0-5 per cent. less than those evolved in the combination of diamond and oxygen, indicating that graphite at ordinary temperature is, to this extent, a stable state. The bulk-pressure which has operated in some of the experiments would, how- ever, seem to have been amply sufficient to turn the balance in favour of diamond instead of graphite. The uncertainty, on the other hand, as to the com- pressibilities and specific heats of the allotropic forms of carbon under high pressures and at high tempera- turés renders speculation of little value as to what may occur at the melting point of carbon. All we know is that, up to the pressures and temperatures reached in our experiments, no indication of a change from graphite to diamond has been produced. In one experiment very intense heating was applied for five seconds, but sufficient in amount to melt the graphite core six times over, the only result being a slight alteration in the structure of the graphite. The barrier in this experiment was calcined magnesia, and the hole in it was superficially converted to magnesium carbide. It appeared, however, desirable further to investigate the possibility of carbon losing its elec- trical conductivity when approaching its melting point, as alleged by Ludwig and others, and of shunt- ing the current from itself on to the contiguous molten layers of the insulating barrier surrounding it. There had been no indication of such a change having occurred even momentarily; it rather seemed that the graphite core had been partially vaporised and con- densed in the cooler parts of the charge. The experi- ment was repeated with rods of iron and tungsten embedded in the core, so that should the temperature of volatilisation of the metals under a pressure of 15,000 atmospheres exceed that necessary to liquefy carbon under the same pressure, the presence of these metals might produce a different result. No change, however, occurred. Note.—The temperatures at which carbon, iron, and tungsten volatilise under a pressure of 15,000 atmo- spheres are unknown, but they are probably much higher than at atmospheric pressure. his experiment also tested iron as a solvent of carbon and as a catalyst from diamond to graphite under a pressure of 100 tons, and showed that under this pressure that action was not reversed. Fig. 3 shows the container arranged for treating powders by resistance heating with or without the addition of liquids or gases. The electric current is conveyed from the container to the upper end of the conductor by a layer of graphite which rests on the charge under treatment. The bottom end of the conductor rests on or is spigoted into a cast-iron block which rests on the bottom pole; this block is sometimes partially melted, but can be easily renewed. The container is charged by first stemming mag- nesite powder by hand around the bottom pole-piece and block; then the charge is placed on the top and pressed to 5 tons per square inch; the top ram is then removed, a hole drilled through the charge, and the conductor inserted. Liquids, if used, or carbon dioxide snow may then be introduced; lastly, a layer of graphite is placed on the top, and the whole pressed to the desired pressure for the experiment. 1 Discourse delivered at the Royal ‘Institution on Friday, January 23. Continued from Pp. 681. mJ nih NO. 2626, VOL, 104] In one experiment several pounds of carbon dioxide snow were added to the charge, which consisted of magnesia, and was so arranged that evaporation of the heating carbon rod took place in an atmosphere of carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide under a gaseous pressure of 4400 atmospheres, the condensate resulting being soft graphite. Upwards of two hundred chemical reactions arranged’ to deposit carbon were tested under high pressure and central heating. After each experiment samples were taken from various parts of the charge and carefully analysed for diamond, the methods of the analyses generally following those of Moissan and Crookes. On _ the whole, there was no evidence that diamond had been produced by any of the chemical reactions, some of which were endothermic, such as carborundum and sodium carbonate, which produced a grey solid which detonated when struck with a hammer, and nearly caused a serious accident. In one experiment the charge was olivine and water; when molten under to tons per square inch the pressure was suddenly removed, and artificial pumice was formed by the % Yj \ : als Z aN ANATIN + i—_—= CHARGE ASBESTOS & MICA INSULATION PAPER TUBE ———— = MAGNESITE Ruegser Cur PACK ING VULCANIZED FIBRE RING Fic. 3.—For powders with or without liquids and gases. expansion of water-vapour absorbed by the olivine when molten. Having nearly reached the limits of steady pressure obtainable in steel containers under a press, experi- ments with impact pressures produced by steel bullets were tried, which produced much higher instantaneous pressures than are obtainable in any die. A rifle, o-303-in. bore, was arranged for with- standing a charge of cordite go per cent. in excess of the Service charge. The gun (Fig. 4) was fixed with its muzzle 6 in. from a massive block of steel, in which a hole 0-303 in. in diameter had been drilled to a depth somewhat greater than the length of the bullet, and in alignment with the bore of the gun; cylindrical bullets of steel with a copper driving band were chiefly used, shorter than the Service bullet and about one-half the weight. The substance to be compressed was placed either at the bottom of the hole, when a conical-nosed bullet of mild steel was used, or over the mouth of the hole, when a cupped- nosed bullet of tool-steel was employed. About a hundred experiments were made. “710 NATURE [FEBRUARY 26, 1920 The substances tested included graphite, sugar- carbon, bisulphide of carbon, oils, etc., graphite and sodium nitrate, graphite and fulminate of mercury, finely divided iron and fine carborundum, olivine and graphite, etc. After each shot the bullet and sur- rounding steel were drilled out, and the chips and entrained matter analysed. Fig. 5 shows the bullet in the hole after firing. Several experiments were also made with a bridge of ‘arc-light carbon placed over the hole and raised MuzzLe oF +303” RIFLE, Fic. 4. to the limit of incandescence by an electric current, and the shot fired through it into the hole at the moment the carbon commenced to vaporise, as ob- served in a mirror from without. Also, an arc between two carbons was arranged to play just over the hole and the shot fired through it (Fig. 6). The residues were in all cases exceedingly small, and there was no evidence of any incipient transformation of carbon in bulk into diamond that could be detected by analysis. The pressure on impact of a steel bullet fired into " “s—= MUZZLE oF -303 RIFLE BEFORE FIRING . BULLET AFTER FIRING Fic. 5. a hole in a steel block which it fits is limited by the coefficient of compressibility of steel; with a velocity of 5000 foot-seconds it is about 2000 tons per square inch. Measurements made from a section through the block and bullet (Fig. 5) showed that the mean retardation on the frontal face after the impact until it had come to rest was about 600 tons per square inch. Several experiments were made by substituting a tungsten steel block hardened and tempered, and a hole tapering gently from 0-303 in. at the mouth to No. 2626, VOL. 104] 0-125 in. at the bottom. The mild steel bullet was deformed by the tapered hole, which greatly increased the velocity imparted to the nose. Progressively increased charges were used. With the go per cent. excess charge the block always split on the first shot, but this probably occurred after impact, and not until the full instantaneous pressure had been exerted, which was probably about 5000 tons per square inch, or about equal to that at the centre of the earth. It would be interesting to repeat some of these experiments on a larger scale. With a projectile of 6 in. or g in. in diameter and a velocity of 5000 foot- seconds, the instantaneous pressure would be the same, but its duration (which is proportional to the linear dimensions) would be increased from twenty- to thirty-fold. It has been estimated that the rise in temperature due to adiabatic compression of in- candescent carbon when subjected to 2000 tons per Muzzve or 303° | wages ) © a ‘ « Fic. 6. square inch is of the order of about 1000° C., so that actual melting of the carbon would probably have occurred when the shot was fired through the incandescent carbon bridge. Another experiment was arranged which would ensure that carbon should be subjected to an extremely high temperature concurrently with a high pressure ob- tained by the rapid compression of the hottest possible flame, that of acetylene and oxygen, with a slight excess of the former to provide the carbon. e arrangement was as follows (Figs. 7 and 8) :—A very light piston made of tool-steel was carefully fitted to the barrel of a gun of o-9 in. bore; the piston was flat in front, lightened out behind, and fitted with a cupped copper gas-check ring, the cup facing forward; the total travel of the piston was 36 in. To the L ORIGINAL on ula“lhésé Fic. 7. muzzle of the gun was fitted a prolongation of the barrel formed out of a massive steel block, the joint being gastight; the end of the bore in the block was closed by a screwed-in plug made of tempered tool- steel, also with a gastight collar. A small copper pin projected from the centre of the plug to give a record of the limit of travel of the piston. The gun was loaded with”2 drams of black sporting powder, which amount had been calculated from preliminary trials. The barrel in front of the piston was filled with a mixture of acetylene and oxygen. It was esti- mated that this mixture would explode when the piston had travelled about half-way along the bore. When fired, the piston travelled to within 34 in. of the end, as had been estimated, giving a total compression ratio | Te FEBRUARY 26, 1920] NATURE 711 of 288 to 1. As a result, it was found that the sur- fires of the end plug, the fore end of the piston, and the circumference of the bore up to $ in. from the end of the plug had been fused to a depth of about o-o1 in., and were glass-hard; the surface of the copper pin had been vaporised, and the copper sprayed over the face of the end plug and piston. ‘The end plug, which had been hardened and tempered to a straw colour, showed signs of compression, and the bore of the block for % in. from the plug was enlarged by 0-023 in. in diameter, both indicating that a pressure above 100 tons per square inch had been reached. A little brown amorphous carbon was found in the chamber, which was easily destroyed by boiling sul- phuric acid and nitre. There was no diamond residue from this. Considering the light weight of the piston and the very short duration of the exposure to heat, the effects would indicate that a very abnormal tem- perature had been reached, many times greater than exists in the chambers of large guns. A calculation made by Mr. Stanley Cook, based upon the ratio of compression and a final pressure of 15,000 atmo- spheres, indicates that a temperature of between 15,250° and 17,700° C. was reached, the exact temperature depending upon the amount of dissocia- RSS SSS S Yyy SSS tion or combination existing between the elements at the time. Calculation of the Temperature Reached on the Compression of Acetylene and Oxygen Experiment. By Sraniey S. Cook. The temperature reached may be estimated from the final pressure, which the observed deformation of the block and plug indicates to have been in the neigh- bourhood of 100 tons per square inch. But it must be remembered that there is a change of molecular volume as a result of combustion. Thus the mixture, which as C,H, and 5(O) has 34 molecular volumes, would on combustion to 2CO, and H,O have only 3 molecular volumes. ‘The final temperature deduced rom the pressure will therefore depend upon the extent to which chemical combination has taken place. The original mixture being at atmospheric pressure and at a temperature of 290° C. absolute, a pressure of 1oo tons per square inch, after compression to 1/288th of its original volume, would indicate a temperature of 15,250° C. If, however, complete combustion has taken place, this pressure would correspond to a temperature greater in ratio of 3} to 3, viz. to 17,700° C. The actual temperature must therefore have been something between these two values. Let us for a moment consider the pressures and No. 2626, VOL, 104] temperatures possible‘ in Nature (in this I am_in- debted to kind assistance from Prof. Jeans). The pressure at the centre of the earth is between 4000 and 10,000 tons per square inch, according to the varia- tion in density of the concentric layers. Emden has estimated the probable pressure at the centre of the more massive component of the binary star S Hercules to be 360,000,000 tons per square inch. Again, the densities of the brighter components of .certain binary stars are estimated by Opik to be about that of iron, and if we assume that their diameter is the same as that of the sun, that each has an initial velocity in space not greater than 30 miles per second, and that they directly collide, then, owing to their mutual attraction, Jeans cal- culates that their velocity will have increased to 450 miles per second, and that the pressures in the centre as they strike and flatten would be of the order of 1,000,000,000 tons per square inch. He also esti- mates that the heat equivalent of the energy would be sufficient to vaporise the whole mass 100,000 times over. This immense pressure would be maintained for many minutes, perhaps for half an hour. Let us consider what is the greatest pressure that can be produced artificially. If the German gun which bombarded Paris were loaded with a solid steel projectile somewhat shorter and lighter than the one actually used, a muzzle velocity of about 6000’ foot- seconds might be' reached (many years ago Sir Andrew Noble had reached 5000 Aoateeconin and if it was fired into a tapered hole, as I have described, in a large block of steel, this would give the greatest instantaneous pressure that can be produced artificially so far as we at present know, viz. about 7000 tons per square inch: it is only about 1/150,oooth part of that possible by the collision of the largest stars. As to the temperature and conditions of matter under these intense pressures, extrapolation from known data is valueless. We have no knowledge of the coefficients of compressibility of matter under these conditions or of its specific heat. What may be the effect on the atom? And will elements under such conditions be transformed into others of higher atomic weight? Some of us may recall that in 1888 a lecturer, after describing in this room the experiment in which oxygen at atmospheric pressure was passed in close contact with a platinum surface heated by the oxy- hydrogen burner to nearly its melting point, and then immediately cooled by contact in water, said: “In this experiment ozone is formed by the action of a high temperature, owing to the dissociation of the oxygen molecules and their partial recombination into the more complex molecules of ozone. We may conceive it not improbable that some of the elementary bodies. might be formed somewhat like the ozone in the above experiment, but at very high temperatures, by the collocation of certain dissociated constituents and with the simultaneous absorption of heat.’’ It seems indeed probable that the centres of the great stars and stars in collision may be the labora- tories where the elements as they gradually degenerate are being continually regenerated into others of higher intrinsic energy, and where endothermic processes, such as the recombination of lead and helium into radium, may be taking place, absorbing in this process an energy 2,500,000 times that developed by the explosion of an equal weight of T.N.T. The transformation of only a minute fraction of the mass of two colliding stars would therefore be amply sufficient to absorb the whole energy of their collision. Emerson said many vears ago, ‘‘None but the elements can themselves destroy.’’ 712 NATURE [FEBRUARY 26, 1920 UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL INTELLIGENCE, ABERDEEN.—The honorary degree of LL.D. is to be conferred on Sir J. C. Bose, founder of the Bose Research Institute, Calcutta; Prof. W. Bulloch, professor of bacteriology, London Hospital; Prof. J. Wight Duff, Armstrong College, Newcastle-upon- Tyne; Sir Daniel Hall, Permanent Secretary to the Board of Agriculture; Mr. J. H. Jeans, secretary of the Royal Society; and Sir Robert Jones, lecturer on orthopedic surgery, Liverpool University. Capt. James W. Low has been appointed assistant in the natural history department, University College, Dundee (University of St. Andrews). APPLICATIONS are invited for the Radcliffe Crocker travelling scholarship in dermatology at University College Hospital Medical School. The scholarship is of the approximate value of 28o0l., and tenable for one year. Particulars are obtainable from the Dean, University College Hospital Medical School, Gower Street, W.C.1. Tue next election—the seventh—to Beit fellowships for scientific research will take place on or about July 15 next. The latest time for receiving applica- tions is April 19. Forms of application and informa- tion respecting the fellowships are obtainable, by letter, from the Rector, Imperial College of Science and Technology, South Kensington. A MOVEMENT has been started to form a properly constituted Old Students’ Association at King’s Col- lege, London. A committee has drawn up a provi- sional constitution, and a general meeting has been called for March 4, at 6 p.m., at the college, It has been possible to send notices of this meeting only to those old students whose names are on the register, but it is hoped that the meeting will be made widely known, and that as many old students as possible will be present. Tue first meeting of the International Federation of University Women, which will include delegates from the women’s colleges throughout the world, will meet in London in July next. The chairmen of the International Federation are Dean Virginia Gilder- sleeve, of Barnard College, Columbia University, U.S.A., and Prof. Winifred Cullis, of the London (Royal Free Hospital) School of Medicine for Women, University of London. Tue Chadwick Trustees announce three public lectures on ‘‘Military Hygiene in Peace and War,” by Gen. Sir John Goodwin, K.C.B., in the lecture-room, Royal Society of Arts, John Street, Adelphi, W.C.2, on Mondays, March 8, 15, and 22, at 5.15 p.m. ‘The titles of the lectures are :— Army Hygiene prior to the Recent War, Army Hygiene during the Recent War (Application of its Principles to Active Service Conditions), and The Future of Army Hygiene (Its Relation to the Hygiene of the Civil Community). All information about Chadwick public lectures may be obtained from the secretary, Mrs. Aubrey Richardson, at the offices of the Trust, 40 (6th) Queen Anne’s Chambers, West- minster, S.W.1. Tue opening of the British Bureau of the Office National des Universités et Ecoles Frangaises at 50 Russell Square by M. Lucien Poincaré took place on Monday, February 23, in the presence of many dis- tinguished university men of both countries. The bureau is intended to serve as a university liaison office between the two countries, giving advice to British students who may wish to study abroad or French students seeking to pursue their studies in England, and so No. 2626, VOL. 104] ' sive theory of soa bringing British and French universities into closer touch with one another. the bureau open, said the work which would be done in Russell Square would be of the Epi use, par- ticularly to England and France. He hoped the -— would come when all Englishmen would speak Frenc and all Frenchmen would speak English. It was too early, he thought, to say we were internationalists, using the word in its better meaning. We were rather inter-Allies. It was still necessary to struggle for civilisation. He trusted that the Office National would be a powerful factor in uniting England and Frafce in closer bonds and for working for the good of humanity. In the evening, M. Millerand, the Prime Minister of France, in the chair, a dinner given by the Groupe Inter-Universitaire Franco-Britannique was held at the Connaught Rooms in honour of M. Poincaré and to, celebrate the formal opening of the bureau. Many public men were present, and the general trend of the speeches during the evening was to emphasise the possibility of this alliance of the universities helping to cement the already established union between France and England. a, SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES. Lonpon. Royal Society, February 12.—Sir J. J. Thomson, president, in the chair.—J. W. McBain and oreys i Salmon: Colloidal electrolytes. Soap solutions and their constitution. For the first time a comprehen- solutions has been set up. This has led to a definition of colloidal electrolytes, a class the members of which will probably prove more numerous than acids and bases put together. They are salts in which one of the ions has been replaced by an ionic micelle. The ionic micelle in the case of soap exhibits an equivalent conductivity equal to that of potassium ion, and double that of the palmitate ion which it has replaced. Its formula may corre- ‘spond to (P’),.m(H,O), but more probably it is (NaP),(P’), -(H,O)m, Where P’ is the anion of the fatty acid in question. In concentrated solutions soaps exist chiefly in colloidal form, together with sodium or potassium ‘ion, equivalent to the ionic micelle present, whereas in dilute solution both un- dissociated and dissociated soaps are crystalloids of simple molecular weight. In mixtures of soaps the tendency is to form more micelle. Addition of electro- lytes, however, exerts opposing’ influences, dehydrating and driving back dissociation, The conception of the ionic micelle serves to explain the behaviour of solu- tions of dyestuffs, indicators, and proteins. A modi- fication of the dew-point method is described, which has enabled measurements of osmotic activity and “molecular weight” to be carried out, free from the uncertainties of interpretation of the results obtained for colloids by the osmometer method, and super- seding the well-known but erroneous data of Krafft.— Cc. C. Farr and D. B. Macleod: The viscosity of sulphur. The results are discussed of a number of experiments, under a great variety of conditions, on the viscosity of sulphur with temperatures rising and falling between 123° C. and 278° C The method employed was that of rotating cylinders, usually with a bifilar suspension. A unifilar suspension was, however, emploved in the neighbourhood of the point of minimum viscosity. Great care was taken to secure that the sulphur had actually attained the tem- perature indicated by the thermometer used. The effects were observed of prolonged heating, also the effects of the absorption of gases, especially NH, and SO,. The relation of the viscosity to the amount of “insoluble sulphur” present is considered.—C. V. M. Poincaré, in declaring ~ ———- <- £ EE FEBRUARY 26, 1920] NATURE 713 Raman and B. Banerji: Kaufmann’s theory of the impact of the pianoforte hammer.—Comdr. T. Y. Baker and Prof. L. N. G. Filon;: A theory of the second order longitudinal spherical aberration for a symmetrical optical system. The authors obtain a formula for the longitudinal spherical aberration in a symmetrical optical system of the type Ax = (At? + Et*)/(1+ Bt’), where Ax is the longitudinal spherical aberration on the axis, t is the slope to the axis of the emergent ray calculated by Gauss’s method, and A, B, E are polynomials in the magnification of degrees 4, 3, and 6 respectively. It is shown (1) that a formula of this kind is, on the average, superior in numerical accuracy -to the first two terms of the usual series of aberrations of successive order; and (2) that it re- moves a number of difficulties connected with con- vergency which occur in the methods at present in use. In particular, developments in powers of trigono- metrical functions of the true inclination of the emergent ray are shown to be unsatisfactory. Certain invariant relations are obtained, connecting A, B, and E in general, and facilitating their computation. Formule are found enabling the functions A, B, and E to be calculated for a combination of lenses when the corresponding functions for the individual lenses are given, and a method is indicated whereby the con- tribution of each lens to the final image defects can be rapidly traced.—Prof. J. W. Nicholson: The lateral vibrations of sharply pointed bars. The paper is a sequel to one already published, which arose from a suggestion as to the formation of siliceous deposits on sponge-spicules of a certain type. The present paper deals with an exceptional case, for which the necessary analysis presents unusual features. It is that of a double rod each half of which is generated by rotation of the parabola y=Ax* about the axis of x. The influence of sharpness on the frequencies and nodal positions of the notes is traced numerically after the general analysis. It is shown that a limiting frequency and nodal position exist, so that the fre- quency is a lower limit to those, producible under any conditions of support. As the rod becomes sharper all its frequencies tend to this value, while of the nodes one for each freauency tends to a definite position, and all the others to the extreme ends of the rod. The same conclusions apply to a single rod. —R. E. Slade and F. C. Toy: A new method of spectrophotometry in the visible and ultra-violet and the absorption of light by silver bromide. A new method of measuring the absorption of light by a substance has been devised. This method is inde- pendent of the relation between density and exposure of the photographic plate. The following values of the extinction coefficient of silver bromide at various wave-lengths have been determined : d k | nN k 450 pe ee 270 | 400 pe +++) 2000 440 5, We 410 390 ,, Pree var 430 55 ths 600 380 ,, «+. 3800 420 ,, es goo 370 5, ios R100 410 ,, ven) 2380 360 ,, «6700 This extinction coefficient is defined by the formula Ig=Feo™s; where I, and I, are the intensities of the light at points d centimetres apart in the absorbing medium. It is estimated that the average error of any of these values is less than 3 per cent.—Dr. S. Chapman: A note on Dr. Chree’s discussion of two magnetic storms.—Dr. CC, Chree: An explanation of the criticisms on Dr. Chapman’s recent paper, “An Out- line of a Theory of Magnetic Storms.’’ NO. 2626, VoL. 104] Linnean Society, February 5.—Dr. A. Smith Wood- ward, president, in the chair.—Dr. R. Ruggles Gates : The existence of two fundamentally different types of characters in organisms. The experimentalist point of view. regarding evolution, resulting from the work in mutation and Mendelism, is frankly antagonistic to the views of palzeontologists, anatomists, an others who deal with orthogenesis and the inheritance of acquired characters. While these two factors bear entirely different relations to evolutionary changes, both are necessary to account for evolution as it has taken place. The conclusion is reached that higher organisms exhibit two contrasted types of characters, which différ fundamentally (1) in their manner of origin, (2) in their relation to the structure of the organism, (3) in their relation to such phenomena as recapitulation, adaptation, and inheritance, and (4) in their relation to geographic distribution. To the first category belong cell-characters, which arise as muta- tions, are represented in every cell of the individual, and are usually inherited as distinct entities. To the second category belong organismal characters, which arise gradually through impact of the environment or through orthogenetic changes, may modify only localised portions of the life-cycle, and may not be incorporated in the germ-plasm from the first. Zoological Society, February 10.—Prof. E. W. MacBride, vice-president, in the chair.—H. R. Hogg: Some Australian Opiliones. The genera and species described belonged to the sub-orders Palpatores and Laniatores, the Palpatores being represented by the genera Pantopsalis and Macropsalis of the family Phalan- giida, and the Laniatores by genera of Trizenobunide and Triznonychidz. In the case of the Phalangiide the author had been able to establish that long mandibles were a male and short mandibles a female character.—Dr. C. F. Sonntag: Larynx and ceso- phagus of a common macaque, exhibiting several un- usual features.—R. E. Turner and J. Waterston: A revision of the Ichneumonid genera Labium and Peoecilocryptus. Physical Society, February 13.—Prof. C. H. Lees, president,’ in the chair.—Prof. C. H. Lees: Presi- dential address: The temperature of the earth’s interior. In an average cubic centimetre of matter within the earth’s substance the energy generated by radio-active matter is equivalent to the sum of following quantities: (1) Heat utilised in rise of temperature, (2) loss of heat by conduction, etc., (3) change in gravitational energy, and (4) thermal stress. The only factor known with certainty is the loss by conduction, which works out to an average of 10 ergs per annum per c.c. The approximate water equivalent of the material of the earth is 08; therefore a rise of temperature of 1° C. requires 33,000,000 ergs. Hence, if there was nothing to take into account but the conduction loss, the temperature would fall by 1° in 3-3 million years. The discovery of radio-activity, however, showed that near the earth’s surface the average amount of energy radio- actively generated is 1000 ergs per C.Cc. The quantity falls off rapidly as deeper rocks are reached. The present Lord Rayleigh suggests that the average may be about 1o ergs—just sufficient to balance the heat lost from the surface. If we accept this theory, we have to deal with a steady state, in which the tem- perature neither rises nor falls, and the calculation of the temperature. at points inside the mass is simple. The equilibrium theory has been much criticised, however, and it is necessary to consider other alterna- tives. There are two possibilities: Either the tem- perature may be rising, due to the radio-energy ex- ceeding the surface loss, or it may be falling if the balance is the other way. The geological evidence 714 NATURE [FeBruary 26, 1920 renders the first contingency highly improbable. For a rate of change of temperature of 1° per million years the change in thermal energy involved is 33 ergs per annum per c.c., while the change in gravitational energy is 20 ergs per annum per c.c. These quantities can be lumped together and regarded as one by assuming the water equivalent of the earth’s sub- stance to be 1-6 times its actual value. Thus, neg- lecting radio-active effects, the time taken to cool 1° would be 5-4 million years instead of 3-3 million, as calculated without taking gravitational energy into account. From the relative amounts of lead and uranium found in rocks it has been calculated that the time which must have elapsed since the formation of the crust is of the order of 1,000,000,000 years. The temperature of solidification was probably about 1300° C., so we have the data necessary to give the present rate of cooling. From this, for any assump- tion regarding the actual distribution of radio-active material, the temperature at points within the earth can be determined.—Sir Arthur Schuster: The in- fluence of small changes of temperature on atmo. spheric refraction. The paper is an investigation of the possible deviation of the light from a star near the sun due to the temperature changes in the atmo- sphere produced by the passage of the moon’s shadow across the earth during an eclipse. It is shown that while the actual displacements from this cause vary widely for slight differences in the assumed conditions, they are alwavs negligibly small compared with the effects observed at the last solar eclipse. Royal Meteorological Society, February 18.—Mr. R. H. Hooker, president, in the chair.—Capt. C. J. P. Cave: The status of a Meteorological Office and its relation to the State and to the public (see p. 705).—W. H. Dines:+ Atmospheric and terrestrial radiation. The author endeavours to follow, the flow of radiant energy, other than solar, both upward and downward across any horizontal plane in the atmo- sphere. Certain theoretical assumptions are made to render the calculation possible, and it is shown that the curves that represent the net loss or gain of heat from strata at different heights are all more or less of the same character, whatever possible values are ascribed to the emissivity of the various strata. It is found that over Europe the air from the earth’s surface up to about 8 km. is losing heat by radiation, and that from 8 km. to 12 km, it is gaining heat, losing it again at more than 12 km. The validity of the as- sumptions made is then discussed, and it is pointed out that the numerical values agree well with those ob- tained by entirely different means.—D. Brunt: Internal friction in the atmosphere. When a steady state of motion is assumed, any portion of the atmosphere is in equilibrium under the action of three forces: the gradient of pressure, the deflecting force at right angles to its motion, and the frictional force. The first two of these are measurable, and so the third can be evaluated. The paper gives a comparison of the frictional force calculated in this manner, with the values derived from a theoretical discussion of turbulent motion. A new derivation of the solution of the equations of motion is given. Use is made of observations at the top and base of the Eiffel Tower to derive the value of the coefficient of eddy viscosity. An additional note shows that a solution of the equation of motion is possible in cases where the coefficient of eddy conductivity varies with height. CAMBRIDGE. Philosophical Society, February 9.—Mr. C. T. R. Wilson, president, in the chair.—F, W. Aston: The mass spectra of the chemical elements. By means of a special arrangement of electric and magnetic NO. 2626, VOL. 104] fields it is found possible to bring positive rays of definite mass to a focus, independent to some extent of their velocity, so that the dispersion can be made much greater than hitherto without loss of intensity. In this way a mass spectrum is formed on which the values of mass can be compared, in favourable cases, to an accuracy of about one part in a thousand by comparison with known reference lines such as O (16), C (12), etc. In this way atmospheric neon is definitely proved to consist of two isotopes of mass 20 and 22. Argon gives a line exactly at 40, and if it is a mixed element the other constituents must be present in very small proportion. Chlorine gives a group of four lines exactly at 35, 36, 37, and 38, and others from which good evidence can be adduced that this element consists of at least two isotopes, Cl* (35) and CIF (37), (36) and (38) being the two corresponding hydrochloric acids. Mer is also found to be a mixture df isotopes, probably three in number, their masses not yet being accurately determined. Very interesting results are yielded by helium and hydrogen; the former appears to be a ‘“‘pure’’ element of mass 4:00, but hydrogen is very definitely heavier than unity (O=16. H,, H,, and H, all give consistent values in approximate agree- ment with that accepted by chemists: 1-008 for hydrogen. When due allowance has been made for multiple charges, it is found that of more than fifty atomic and molecular masses so far determined, every one, with the exception of the three hydrogen lines, falls on a whole number within the error of experiment.—K. Molin: An examination of Searle’s method for determining the viscosity of very viscous liquids.—H. W. Richmond: Note on the Diophantine equation ?#°+x'+y°+s*=o.—Prof. H, F. Baker: Mathematical notes: (1) The stability of rotating liquid ellipsoids; (2) the general theory of the stability of rotating masses of liquid; (3) the stability of periodic motions in general dynamics; (4) the invariance of the equations of electro- dynamics in the Maxwell and in the Einstein forms; — (5) a propertv of focal conics and of bicircular quartics; (6) the Hart circle of a spherical triangle; (7) a proof of the theorem of a double six of lines by projection from four dimensions; (8) a group of trans- formations of rectangular axes; (9) transformations with an absolute quadric; and (10) the reduction of homography to movement in three dimensions. EDINBURGH. Royal Society of Edinburgh, January 12.—Prof. F. O. Bower, president, in the chair.—Prof. W. Peddie: The atomic space lattice in magnetite. The question of the uniqueness of the determination by the X-ray method was discussed. It appears that the solution is probably not ueigue within the limits of accuracy in observation.—J. Marshall; * An unnoticed point in the theory of Newton’s rings. By consideration of the passage of light-waves through three media the author discussed the considerations under which the centre of the rings was a black spot or a bright spot. These depend upon the relative refractive indices of the three materials. It was shown that the reason why Brewster obtained a bright spot at the centre with an appearance of interference rings was because the refrac- tive indices of his materials were approximately in geometrical progression.—A. T. Doodson, R. M. Carey, and R. Baldwin: Theoretical determination of the longitudinal seiches of Lake Geneva. The essential feature of this paper was the development of a mathe- matical method (due to J. Proudman) of: successive approximations by which the nodes of seiches in irregular-shaped basins can be calculated. The method was applied to the seiches of Lake Geneva with satis- factory results. ; aa FEBRUARY 26, 1920] NATURE 715 February 2.—Sir George A. Berry, vice-president, in the chair.—Dr. C. . Knott and Miss Dallas: Magnetic strains in nickel-steel tubes. The material was the usual commercial nickel-steel with 2-63 per cent. of nickel. The four tubes were cut down from the same bar, being all of equal length and equal width, and the bores were 43, 4, 2, and 1 in. in diameter. The changes in the length of each tube in various fields were measured, as were also the corresponding changes in volume of the bore of the material and in the external form when the bores were plugged so that the tubes were in appearance solid cylinders ; and from these measurements the values of the several linear dilatations in these fields were calculated. The longitudinal dilatation was always positive, attaining a value of from 3-5x10-° to nearly 5x10~-° in field 500. The corresponding radial and tangential dilata- tions were negative, and ranged from —1-3X10~-° to —2-4x10-°. The results indicate that a spherical element becomes ellipsoidal or spheroidal, with the longest axis along the axis of the tube. If the effect is to be explained in terms of the orientation of magnetic molecules, then these molecules tend to set with their longer axes along the lines of magnetisa- tion. In former experiments with iron and steel the longitudinal dilatation changed sign from positive to negative in fields of about 300 to 4oo. In nickel, - again, the longitudinal dilatation was always negative and about eight or ten times larger than in the case of either iron or steel. In nickel-steel the dilatation remained positive up to the highest fields used (about 900), although in three of the tubes it passed its maxi- mum in field 400 or 500. So far as magnetic strains are concerned, the small admixture of nickel does not impart to the allov any nickel characteristic whatever. —Prof. W. Peddie: The adequacy of the Young- Helmholtz theory of colour-vision and colour-blindness. Trichromasy in normal eves is not now theoretical, but a proved fact. Hering’s theory, which is favoured by some investigators, is, as Helmholtz showed, also a trichromatic theory; and while both can account for the observed facts, the Young-Helmholtz theory is the simplest that can be formulated. Lack of recogni- tion of its accuracy has been due to non-recognition of the fact of normal trichromasy; or to the erroneous supposition that it is tied down to any one definite view of the nature of the physical and physiological actions concerned in vision; or to the equally erroneous supposition that it can account for only one particular tvpe of colour-blindness with merely in- dividual variations. It can account for any type that is known, or for any at present unknown which may afterwards be found to exist, provided only that it arises from limitation of the at present known normal conditions.—Prof. W. Peddie: Note on the quaternionic svstem as the algebra of the relations of physics and relativity. The author showed that in all cases in which our observations are upon directed phenomena occurring’ in tridimensional space, but which are actually or merely descriptively to be re- garded as influenced bv the existence of that space in space of a higher order, the appropriate algebra to be used in their investigation is that of quaternions with the addition of the symbol of the space involved. Paris. Academy of Sciences, February 2.—M. Henri Deslandres in the chair.—The president announced the death of Jules Boulvin, correspondant of the Academy.—C. Moureu and G. Mignonac: The de- hydrogenation of the primary and secondary alcohols by catalytic oxidation. A general method of prepara- tion of aldehydes and ketones. Finely divided silver deposited on asbestos was found to be the best No. 2626, VOL, 104] catalyst, and the oxidation is carried out in stages, only about half the amount of air theoretically required for the full reaction being employed in the first stage. The results for nine alcohols are given; the yields are high—6z per cent. for formaldehyde and yo to 95 per cent. for the higher aldehydes.—A. Gautier: The normal arsenic in living tissues and the traces of iodine found in air and waters. Some necessary corrections.—G. A. Boulenger: An extra- ordinary tortoise, Testudo Loveridgii. This tortoise is the first example of a reptile in the adult state without ribs, and is a unique case of normal osteo- lysis. —-M. Chodat was elected a correspondant for the section of botany in succession to M. Flauhault, elected non-resident member, and M. Ch. Nicolle a correspondant in the section of medicine and surgery in succession to the late M. Lépine.—L. de Peslouan ; A congruence between Bernoulli’s numbers.—P. Idrac : Study of hovering flight in Upper Guinea.—M. Romieux ; Alluvial strata of the Lot in the neigh- bourhood of Fumel.—L. Brillouin: The continuous spectrum of X-rays.—F. Canac: The determination of the axes of symmetry of a cubic crystal.—R. Abrard: A Mesoliassic fauna of Sidi Mouley Yakoub (Western Morocco).—F. La Porte: Atmospheric observations at GAvre by means of free rubber balloons, The experimental results can be fairly well repre- sented by Dines’s formula with a modified numerical constant, V= ey where V is the ascensional velocity per minute, F the ascensional force, and P the weight of the envelope in grams.—L. Emberger : The evolution of the chondriome in the vascular Cryptogams.—L. Daniel: Antagonistic reactions and role of the pad in grafted plants.—M. Bezssonoff : Experimental sexuality in’ fungi, situated on the typical structure of the sexual plasma.—F. Gard: Division in Euglena limosa.—G. André: The inver- sion of saccharose in the juice of the orange.—k. Hérouard: Double monsters of the scyphistome.—C. Gessard: Pyocyanoid bacilli. BOOKS RECEIVED. The Topographical Anatomy of the Limbs of the Horse. By Dr. O. C. Bradley. Pp. xit172. (Edin- burgh: W. Green and Son, Ltd.) : Harmsworth’s Universal Encyclopedia. No. i. Pp. xix+128. (London: The Amalgamated Press, Ltd.): ts. 3d. Index of Economic Material in Documents of the States of the United States. Pennsylvania, 1790- 1904. Parti. By A. R. Hasse. Pp. 810. (Washing- ton: Carnegie Institution of Washington.) Index to U.S. Documents relating to Foreign Affairs. 1828-1861. In three parts. Part ii. By A. R. Hasse. Pp. 795-1331. (Washington: Car- nesie Institution of Washington.) British Journal Photographic Almanac and Photo- grapher’s Daily Companion, 1920. Edited by GE: Brown. Pp. 912. (London: H. Greenwood and Co., Ltd.) 1s. 6d. net. A Field and Laboratory Guide in Physical Nature- Study. By Prof. E. R. Downing. Pp. 109. (Chicago : University of Chicago Press; London: Cambridge University Press.) 1 dollar net. Practical Pharmacology: For the Use of Students of Medicine. By Prof, W. E. Dixon. Pp. viii+88. (Cambridge: At the University Press.) 7s. 6d. net. Chemistry for Textile Students. By B. North. Assisted by N. Bland. Pp. viii+379. (Cambridge: At the University Press.) 30s. net. An Introduction to the Study of Cytology. By Prof. L. Doncaster. Pp. xiv+280+xxiv. (Cam- bridge: At the University Press.) 21s. net. 716 NATURE [FeBruary 26, 1920 _ DIARY OF SOCIETIES. THURSDAY, Fepruary 26. as fy Rovat Instirution or Great Briratn, at 3.—A. H. Smith: Illustra- tions of Ancient Greek and Roman Life in the British Museum. Royat Society, at 4.30.—Probable Papers: L. ¥. Richardson: Some Measurements of Atmospheric Turbulence.—W. G. Duffield. T. H. Burnham, and A. A. Davis: The Pressure upon the Poles’ of Metallic Arcs, including Alloys and Composite Arcs.—J. H. Hyde: The Viscosities and Compressibilities of Liquids at High Pressure.— A. Russell : The Capacity Coefficients of Spherical Conductors.— C, Cuthbertson and Maude Cuthbertson : The Refraction and Dispersion of Carbon Dioxide, Carbon Monoxide, and Methane.—A. A. Griffith: ‘lhe Phenomena of Rupture and Flow in Solids. INSTITUTION OF ELe&cTRICAL ENGINEERS, R6ntTGEN Soctety, and Roya Society or Mepicine (Electro-Therapeutics Section) (at Royal Society of Medicine), at 5 and 8.15 (Joint Discussion on Electrical Apparatus in relation to X-rays).—Dr. R. Morton: The Efficiency of High-Tension Transformers as used for X-ray Purposes.— Major C. E. S. Phillips: The Problems of Interrupted and Fluctuating Currents. —R. S. Wright : High- Tension ‘Transformers. Cotp StoraGE anv Ice Association (at Royal Society of Arts), at 5.— H. J. Deane: The Development of the Cold Storage of the Port of London Authority. : Roya CoLirGE or Puysicians, at 5.—Dr. A. Castellani: The Higher Fungi in relation to Human Pathology (Milroy Lecture). 4 Rovar Institue or Pusitic Hearn, at 5.—Dr. W. E. C. Dickson: Some Pathological Aspects of Tuberculosis. ‘ Concrete InstiTuTE (at Vauxhall Bridge Road), at 7.30.—E. F. W. Grimshaw : Reinforced-Concrete Fences and Posts. Society or ANTIQUARIES, at 8.30. FRIDAY, Fesrvuary 27. Roya Sociery or Mepicine (Study of Disease in Children Section), at 4.30.—Dr. Mellanby and Others: Discussion on The Influence of Accessory Food Factors (Vitamine) in Infant Feeding. Puysicat Society, at 5.—T. Smith; The Balancing of Errors.—Dr. N. W. McLachlan: The Testing of Bars’ of Magnet Steel.—G. D.. West: The Forces Acting on Heated Metal Foil Surfaces in Rarefied Gases.— Miss N. Hosali : Exhibit of Models of Crystals. InstiruTION oF ‘MECHANICAL ENGINEERS (Informal Meeting), at 7.— F. W. C. Dean and Others : Discussion on The Education of the I-ngineer. Junior InstTiTuTION OF ENGINEERS, at 7.30.—R. H. Kenyon: Defects found on Inspection of Boilers. Wiretrss Socirty or Lonpon (at Royal Society of Arts), at 8.— A. A. Campbell Swinton ; Some Wireless Wonders (Presidential Address). Roya Society or Mepicing (Epidemiology and State Medicine Section), at 8.30.—Dr. M. Young: An Investigation into the Periodicity of Epi- demics of Whooping Cough from 1870 to 1910 by means of the Periodogram. Royvat InstrruTion OF GREAT Br#TAaIN, at 9.—W. B. Hardy: Problems of Lubrication. SATURDAY, Fesrvuary 28. Rova Institution oF Great Brirain, at 3.—Sir J. J. Thomson: Positive Rays. MONDAY, Marcu tx. InstITUTE oF CHEmistRY OF GkEaT BRITAIN AND IRELAND, at 4.30.— Annual General Meeting. Royat InstituTION OF Great BRITAIN, at 5.—General Meeting. Society or EnGingers (at Geological Society), at 5.30.—R. H. Cunningham : Some Engineering Work done by the 277th Railway Coy. (R.E.) in France and Belgium during the War. InstiruTion or Evecrricat. ENGINEERS (Informal Meeting) (at Chartered Institute of Patent Agents), at 7 —K. E. Dickinson: The Future of Labour in the Engineering Industry. Royar InsriruTr oF British ARCHITECTS, at 8.—H. Austen Hall: The Planning of American Departmental Stores. Royat Society or Arts, at 8.—C. F, Cross: Recent Researches in the Cellulose Industry (Cantor Lecture). Society or CHEemicaLt Inpustry AND Faranay Society (at Chemical Society), at 8.—Dr. T. M. Lowry and F. C. Hemmings: (1) The Caking of Salts and Other Crystalline Substances. (2) The Setting of Dental Cements. Roya. Grocrapnicat Society (at Aolian Hall), at 8.30.—Lt. E, W. P. Chinnery : The Opening of New Territories in Papua. Mepicar Soctety or Lonpon, at 9.—Dr. H. R. Spencer: Tumours complicating Pregnancy, Labour, and the Puerperium (Lettsomian Lecture). TUESDAY, Marcu 2. Roya InstiTuTION or Great Britain, at 3.—Prof, A. Keith : British Ethnology—The Invaders of England. Roya. Unitep Service Institution, at 3.—Anniversary Meeting. Rovat Society or Arts (Colonial Section), at 4.30.—G. F. Scott Elliot : Trade Routes for the Empire in Africa. Rovat Cotiecer or Puysicrans, at 5.—Dr. A. Castellani : The Higher Fungi in relation to Human Pathology (Milroy Lecture). Royat Puorocrapuic Society or GreaT Britain (Lantern Meeting), at 7.—Miss Olive Edis: Women on Active Service during the War in France and Flanders. RénTGEN Society (at Royal Society of Medicine), at 8.—Prof. W. H. Bragg: Analysis by X-rays (Silvanus Thompson Memorial Lecture). WEDNESDAY, Marcu 3 ss Rovav Society or Arts, at 4.30.—W. J. Garnett: Mongolia from the Commercial Point of View. RovaL AFRONAUTICAL Soctety (at Royal Society of Arts), at 8.—Prof. B. Melvill Jones : Flying over Clouds in relation to Commercial Aviation. InsTITUTION OF AUTOMOBILE EncINnEERS (at Institution of Mechanical Engineers), at 8,—P. J. Worsley : Gears and Gear-cutting, Society or Pupiic ANALysts AND OTHER ANALYTICAL CHEMISTS (at Chemical Society), at 8.—C. Ainsworth Mitchell: The Detection of Finger-prints on Documents.—C. J. Ward : Photomicrography with Simple Apparatus.— R. V. Wadsworth : The Solubilities of Theobromine. Entomotocica, Socimry, at 8.—Probable Paper: Arrow : Sexual Dimorphism in Coleoptera (with lantern slides.) 4 NO. 2626, VOL. 104] THURSDAY, Marcu 4. é r Rovat _InstiruTion or Great BRITAIN, at 3.—Lt.-Col. E. Gold: The Upper Air: Q Modern Methods of Investigation, and their Application in the War. * Rovat Socirty, ‘at 4.30. Linnean Society, at 5.—Dr. A. B. Rendle, E. G. Baker, and S. L. Moore: A Contribution to the Flora of New Caledonia, based on the Collections of R. H. Compton in ror4. eR ENS Royar CotiecE or Paysicians, at 5.—Dr. A. Castellani: The Higher Fungi in relation to Human Pathology (Milroy Lecture). *! Cuemicat Society, at 8. FRIDAY, Makcu 5. RoyaL AstronomicaL Society, at 5.—(A Geophysical Discussion.) 5 J. de Graaf Hunter and Others: The th’s Axes and Figure. ; Concrete InstivuTe (at 296 Vauxhall Bridge Road), at 6.—E. S. Andrews : Some Properties of Steel. 7 Ger InstiTUTION OF ELEcrRicAL ENGINEERS (Students’ Meeting) € City and Ys rhe (Engineering) College), at 7.—Roger T. Smith: ential” ress. ; Roya InstiruTion or Great BriTatn, at 9.—Hon. J. W. Fortescue: Military History. SATURDAY, Marcu 6. Rovat_ Institution or GREAT Britain, at 3.—Sir J. J. - Positive Ravs. yay CONTENTS. . ‘ Meteorology and the State The Birth of Oceanography. BS Q mB By Prof. D’Arcy Thompson, C.B., F.R.S. . aceeitcee We Ll eee Industrial Psychology. ByH.M.V....... Criminology and Nervousness fees Practical Chemistry. By C. J. A Mathematician’s Miscellany. Our Bookshelf ..... Letters to the Editor:— Organisation of Scientific Work.—Prof, Frederick Soddy, F.R.S.; Dr. A. B. Rendle, F-R.S. . Gravitational Deflection of High-speed Particles.— Leigh Pagesjn ss ysis vier soe Biological Science in Secondary Schools.—Prof. Sydney J. Hickson, F:R. S20. aa Change of Colour in Captive Birds.\—Right Hon, ' Sir Herbert Maxwell, Bart., F.R.S.. 2... Volcanic Rocks in Northern Kordofan, Sudan.— W.: Campbell Smiths! 207.7. Gar oe eee Scientific Workers and a National Federation.— Major A.G. Church ... Cotton Growing in the British George Watt... Hig SPIE 5 Ing 2, iL ai Industrial and Medical Radiology. (lllustrated.) By Dr.G. W.C. 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