Few, bea ed Beene ie Sir aS ean Mae i Wr dee Hb BRE: Cae is ey ay gale ce : * Ast A yaa * tye * oe * oy Ls J ® ered fj ye a is ts bias S52 eae $9) a4 Air £ 3? Vieamliqraist Oia Ween its Nata ote vA A 4 tf § ¢ jane jays AN § oA UA: rid d df Bank 33 Pak aie aie Ph eee anata fie ae Sh ctea ka 4 re PT a ai ash ae ete aks . 1 7 7 Ad eiatan a) A i! ty frei, ree awete dt te BES ead Vey fem iat 44 4 hk * ee 1 Dice bt eer PY cons a: A ue af 3 rates ribet deat ¥ ts rt ea < A Sake ta Sa her : fy Ash i « z +) Te = ER be ities leas cis o its cite sade hg a HEED ed pear y WES ay ae enyesit rs HOA sta ) set. i ari sat We » =45 a * eRe T * Pell eel byt ih a Sm eae Ney VERA, 4 Rie end ‘i Peres * $e 17 aay ary A ted hee es hd t 47 po my Fie » et reo Sahn” Ik i eecabiie ara hp ae ee . te 3 PA yt Oa ad ae : Mer ts a4 é ~ ee Par - f oe We Al te if t 06 ae ete be A ay Fe a] ‘ gies Mat fy th De mente ea f ‘ ve ee @ ware Pt as sJ iat ate Th re eee i” 1 eth a het » calf HA 4 ane cee iat #43 pt tidrekeny HOES ue Pata ct Ly hie: x = era ene agrees ah — [oeragtg is te Taek Figeabe aaah sy mi RS apy to fal View ety th ’ A itgl ® . . i‘ = ¥ ae es sili s A’ WEEKLY «6 * GS/7 TRATED JOURNAL OF “SCIENCE VOLUME CV MARCH, 1920, to AUGUST, 1920 at To the solid ground Nature trusts the mind which builds for aye.” —\VORDSWORTH Ueda Fondon s “MACM ILLAN AND CO., LimitepD NEW YORK: THE MACMILLAN COMPANY . ‘NAME ), A New Method of Determining the Solar Radiation, 667; Solar Variation and the . J. J.), The Honorary Degree of, Doctor of Law upon, by Cambridge University, 730 :.), nc Aloy, Digestive Hydrolyses by ation of Water, 380 : British and Metric Systems of es, 456; Curious Formation of Ice, Grants from the Dixon Fund of the yndon, 569 H. A. L. Fisher,. The Directorship of lass Research Association, 178. elected an Honorary Fellow of Christ’s rambridge, 440; elected an Honorary Fellow ge, Cambridge, 505 The Einstein Theory, 842 ted a Foreign Associate of. the U.S. of Sciences, 463 kt nd H. G. Becker, The Rate of Solu- Nitrogen and Oxygen by Water 6 Butterflies and Moths in regard boas Alkalis, and Salts, 7 niversity Lecturer in Physiology es, ty, 537 i ology : with special reference to the 482 sae eis ’ Fea Tropical Hardener,’’ 182 by Ear, 295 Pee -), An Undescribed Species of Clytocos- fipulidz, Diptera), 635 ~ .), Space, Time, and Deity: The Gifford sgow, 1916-18, 2 vols., 798 d), Portrait of, bv Sir William Orpen, al Academy, 335; to be Sworn a Member Council, sq0; Presidential Address to the il Association, 661 nal Coinage, 261 , [obituary], 230 | and E. W. Sexton, Mutations in Eye- arus chevreuxi, An Electronic Theory of Isomerism, 71 sed Plate and Plate-and-Frame Types .), Anti-Gas Fans, 453, 612 5 ; of the Body and Respiration, 635; The iratory Endurance, <9 C.), appointed Director of the National Natural History, Buenos Aires, 80; Dis- Ancient Human Remains in Buenos Aires, A pointed University Lecturer in Agriculture in University, 88 ion on Tectonic Features, 836 (Capt. R,), News of the Expedition of, 240, 273, rnier), The Optophone: An Instru- - _ ©.), Influence of Deep Notches cut by. INDEX. INDEX. Anderson (J-), appointed Lecturer in Logic and Meta- physics in the University of Edinburgh, 280 Anderson (J. A.), Spectra of Explosions, 668 Anderson (J. Wemyss), appointed Professor of Engineering Refrigeration in Liverpool University, 376 Andrew (Dr. J. H.), appointed Professor of Metallurgy in the Royal Technical College, Glasgow, 249 Andrewes (Sir Frederick), to Deliver the Harveian Oration, 722 Andrews (E. S.), Elements. of Graphic Dynamics, 65 Angell (Dr. J. R.), elected President of the Carnegie Cor- poration of New York, 527; Relation of Psychology to the National Research Council, 796 Angles (J. W.), Mensuration for Marine and Mechanical Engineers (Second and First Class Board of Trade Examinations), 163 ; Annandale (Dr. N.), and others, Biological Papers from Bengal, 436 i Anthony (H. E.), Mammalian Remains in Jamaica, 757 Appleton (E. V.), appointed an Assistant Demonstrator in Experimental Physics in the University of Cambridge, 5 ‘. Arber (Dr. Agnes), awarded a Keddey Fletcher-Warr Studentship by the University of London, 155; The . Binucleate Phase in the Plant-cell, 90 Ariés (E.), The Equation of State of Ether, 314 Armstrong (E. C. R.), Ancient Gold Articles found in an Irish Bog, 527 ‘ Armstrong (Dr. E. F.), Catalytic Chemical Reactions and the Law of Mass Action, 696; and T. P. Hilditch, A Study of. the Catalytic Action at Solid Surfaces, iii. and iv., 314; v., 631 Armstrong (Prof. H. E.), A Chemical Service for India, 669 Arthur (Sir George), Life of Lord Kitchener, 3 vols., 319 Ascoli (M.), and A. Fagiuoli, Sub-epidermic *Pharmaco- dynamic Experiences, ii., iii., 844 Ashfield (H. W.), Scientific Apparatus and Laboratory Fittings, 357 ‘ Ashworth (Dr. J. R.), A Possible Cause for the Diamagne- tism of Bohr’s Paramagnetic Hydrogen Atom, 516; The Diamagnetism of Hydrogen, 645 Asiatic Petroleum Company, Gift to Birmingham Univer- sity, 154 Aston (Dr. F. W.), elected to a Fellowship in Trinity College, Cambridge, 568; Isotopes and Atomic Weights, 617; The Constitution of the Elements, 8, 547; The Separation of the Element Chlorine into Normal Chlorine and -Meta-Chlorine, and the Positive Electron, 231; and T. Kikuchi, Moving Striations in Neon and Helium, 633 nea at Atack (F. W.), assisted by L. Whinyates, The Chemists Year Book, 1920, 2 vols., 740 Atanasoff (D.), and A. G. Johnson, The Use of Dry Heat for the Disinfection of Cereal Seeds, 310 Athanasiu (J.), The Supposed Dynamogenic Power of Alcohol, 251 : , Atwood (Dr. W. W.), appointed President of Clark Univer- sity and College, 602 ‘ - Audant (M.), The Critical State of Ethyl Ether, 634 > vi Lndex [ : Nature, ‘October 7, 1920 Auger (V.), The Salts of Nitrosophenylhydroxylgmine (Cup- ferron): Uranous Salts, 379 # Ault (Capt. J. P.), Results of the Magnetic Survey of the Atlantic made by the Carnegie, 529; Results of the Magnetic Observations taken by the Carnegie in February and March, 1920, 788 Austen (Major), The House-fly, 787 Austin (Major E. E.), awarded a Mary Kingsley Medal, 7 Avery (Margaret), A Text-book of Hygiene for Training Colleges, 259 Ayrton (Mrs. Hertha), Anti-Gas Fans, 336, 422, 612, 613 B. (A.), A Note on Telephotography, 488 Backhouse (T. W.), [obituary], 3353, Bequests by, 630 sosatir ne P.), Bequest to the U.S. National Museum, Baglion (Sig.), Life and Work of the late Prof. L. Luciani, 844 ee (Dr. A. G.), awarded a Mary Kingsley Medal, Bailey “Prof. | Baa y ih ), reorganising the American Pomologi- cal Society, 623 eoggin py 3 (Mr.), The Solubility of Basic Slag in Citric d Carbonic Acids, 184 Baird. (D. W.), British and Foreigh Scientific Apparatus, 390; History of the Formation of the British Lamp- blown fees Glassware Manufacturers’ Association, Ltd., Bairstow &. Applied Aerodynamics, 95; Knowledge and Power, 135 Baker (C. }, Scientific Apparatus and Laboratory Fittings, 356 Baker (F. C.), Mollusca obtained by the Crocker Land Expedition, 593 Baker (F. W. Watson), British and Foreign Scientific Apparatus, 518 Baker (Prof. H. F.), Construction of the Ninth Intersection of Two Cubic Curves passing through Eight given Coplanar Points, 474 Baker (Julian), re-elected Chairman of the London Section of the Society of Chemical Industry, 526 Baker (Prof. R. P.), Engineering Education : English, selected and edited by, 258 Essays for - Baker (R. T.), The Hardwoods of Australia and their Economics, 802 Baker (Commander T. Y.), A New Method for Approximate ; ao of Definite Integrals between Finite Limits, Baldtt. (F.), The Diurnal Variation of the Atmospheric Potential at the Algiers Observatory, 283 Balfour (Dr. A.), awarded a Mary Kingsley Medal, 697 ~ Balfour (H.), Presidential Address to the Somersetshire Archzological and Natural History Society, 835 Ball (Dr. J.), Astrolabe Diagram, 329; Use of Sumner Lines in Navigation, 806; and H. Knox Shaw, A Handbook of the Prismatic Astrolabe, 329 Ballantyne (Dr. A. J.), appointed Lecturer. in Ophthalmo- logy in Glasgow University, 761 Ballou” (HL. H.), Cotton Pests, 503; and others, The Re- sistance of Plants to Insect Attacks, 503 Balls. (Dr. W. Lawrence), Cotton-growing in the British Empire, 103; Researches on Egyptian Cotton, 664; The Nature, Scope, and Difficulties of Research, 4973 Trichodynamics, a99 Balsillie (D.), The Intrusive Rocks of the Dundee District, 666 Banks (Sir Joseph), The Centenary of, 530 Bannister (C. O.), appointed Professor’ of Metallurgy in Liverpool University, 630 Barber (Dr..C. A.), appointed Lecturer in Tropical Agri- culture in the University of Cambridge, 537 Barcroft (J.), Presidential Address to Section I of the British Association, 828 Barjon (F.), Translated by Dr. J. A, Honeij, Radio- Diagnosis of Pleuro-Pulmonary Affections, 4 Barker (Prof. A. F.), A Summer Tour (1919) through the Textile Districts of Canada and the United States, 789 Barker (E.), appointed Principal of King’s College, London, 630 Barling (Sir Gilbert), The Need for Increasing the Stipends in Birmingham University, 730 Barlot (J.), Determination of Poisonous Amanita by Colour Reactions, 219 Barlow (W.), Models illustrating the Atomic Arraiigeanaae in Potassium Chloride, etc., 570 Barnard (Prof.), Photographs of the Brorsen-Metcalf Comet, 67 Varieties a 467 Barratt (S.), The Origin of the ‘‘ Cyanogen’ Bands, 633 Bartholomew (Dr. G.), [obituary article], 238; Bequest to the University of Edinburghy 537 Bartlett (Capt. F. W.), and Prof. T. W. Johnson, Engi- bara Descriptive Geometry and Drawing. 3 parts, 515 Bartrum (C, O.), A Rainbow Inside Out, 388 Bartsch (P.), Experiments in the Breeding of Cerions, 545 Barus (Prof. C.), An Example of Torsional Viscous Re- _ trogression, 667 ; Displacement Interferometry by the aid of the Achromatic Fringes. Part iv., 563 Bary (P.), The Mae ad of Colloidal Solutions, 5 Bateson (Dr. W.), Prof. L. Doncaster, 461; Genetic Segre- gation, 531; Organisation of Scientific Work, 6 Bather (Dr. F. A.), Museums and the State, 69; Presi- oe Address to Section C of the British Association, buidearal (M.), The Optimum Magnification of a Tele- scope, 443 Bauer (Dr. - A.), Magnetic and Electrical Observations and their Reduction, 20; Results of Geophysical Observations during the Solar Eclipse of May 29, 1919, and their Bearing upon the Einstein Deflection of Light, 842; The Solar ‘Eclipse of May, 1919, 311 Bayliss (Prof. W. M.), British and Foreign Scientific Apparatus, 641; Scientific Apparatus from Abroad, 293; The Circulating Blood in Relation to Wound Shock, 10; The Properties of Colloidal Systems, iv. : Reversible Gelation in Living Protoplasm, 26; The Rockefeller Gift to Medical Science, 501 Beamish (A, J.), elected to the Wrenbury Scholarship in Economics in Cambridge University, 601 Beccari (Dr.,O.), The Palms of the Philippines, 180 Beck (C.) Scientific Apparatus and Laboratory Fittings, 355 Becker (Prof. L.), Capture Orbits, 560; The Daily Tem- perature Curve, 282 ager (De. F. E:), Two Embryos of the Sperm Whale, Bedford (the Duke of), The Cancer Research Fund, 696 Beer (R.), and Dr. Agnes Arber, Multinucleate Cells, go Beeson (C. F. C.), The Toon Shoot and Fruit Borer, 629 » Bell (A. J. M.), [obituary], 721 Bellingham and Stanley, Ltd., Scientific Apparatus and Laboratory Fittings, 357 Belot (E.), L’Origine des Formes de la Terre et des Planétes, 59 a (Dr. W. van), High Rates of Ascent of Pilot Balloons, 485 Benedicks (Prof. C. A. F. ), Recent Progress in Thermo- Electricity, 499 Benedict (F. G.), The Basal gro of Boys from One to Thirteen Years of Age, 667 Bennett (A. G.), The Occurrence of Diatoms on the Skin - of Whales, 633 Bennett (G. T.), The Rotation of a Non-spinning Gyrostat, and its Effect in. the Aeroplane Compass, 378 Benson (O. H.), and G. H. Betts, Agriculture and the Farming Business, 35 Berger (E.), Some Reactions Started by a Primer, 603 Bernewitz (Dr.), The Duplicity of » Geminorum, 340 Berry (A. J.), re-elected to a Fellowship at be: University, 761 Berthoud (Prof, A.), The Structure of Atoms, 306 Bertrand (G.), Action of Chloropicrin upon the Higher Plants, 283 ; Conditions which may Modify the Activity of Chloropicrin towards the Higher Plants, 347; and. M. Brocq-Rousseu, The Destruction of Rats by Chloro- picrin, 27; and Mme. Rosenblatt, Action of Chloro- picrin upon some Bacterial Fermentations, 571; Action of Chloropicrin upon Yeast and Saccharomyces vint, 507; Does Chloropicrin Act upon Soluble Ferments?, 699 a ee lh I el Index ‘Vil {(W. E. H.), appointed Lecturer in Mathematics — University of Leeds, 56; Quintic Transforma- and Singular Invariants, 474 ay The Actingmeters of Arago and Bellani, 283 ie De tn ight Saving and the Length of the 5 The ericilnwral Industries of Cyprus, 757 (Sir William), A Hitherto Unrecognised Periodi- the Weather and the Crops, 370 . Z.), ‘‘La Trepidazione in Dante?” 664 i; Ps Sponges, 441 | ae ie Reatard and Work of the Sainte- tve Observatory, 475 (Sir Henry), appointed Chairman of the oe preperation, 303 ; Importance of the Dye sy “The Iron and Steel Trades inant the ay 663 . J. W.), An (ae Determination of Distribution of the Partial Correlation Coefficient . iples of 30, 187 (Prof. V.), The Meteorology of the Temperate and the General Atmospheric Circulation; 522 and Carter, gy plumbeus, 241 ( ‘* The House of the Morning ” in 80 Presidential Address to Section L of 1) Association, 828 E.), The Action of Hydrazine on the 1: 4 Acyclic 506; The Action of Substituted Hydrazines clic 1: 4-Diketones, 666 Selected Studies in Elementary Physics: A for the Wiréless Student and Amateur, 739 G eo The Relation of the Bacillus influensae ) Tne Control of the poe Sa 629 M sy Gift to the Huddersfield Technical The Stability and Fertility of the Hybrid x G. rivale, 475 _E.), Production of the Band Spectra of Electrons of Low Velocity, 539; Some < Spectra in the Extreme Ultra-violet, 27 . Text-book on Machine Drawing for Elec- Engineers, 260 (Dr. R. H. D.), Our National ceuie A Short Account of the Work of the ,U:S. Forest on the National Forests, 577 _ The Psychology of the Future (‘ $ Avenir des fegeeeayni ”), Translated and Edited with an by W. de Kerlor, 323 Col. c. J. ds Loss of Fragrance of Musk Plants, Ww. A. i The Position of University. Teachers € to the Teachers (Superannuation) Act, 89 ys rof. T. eS), Nee Sees R. Pryor, 333 G.), elected a Foreign Member of the Society, 366; The Changes in Plant Forms : Experimentally, 539 x ieee), Gift to University College, Nottingham, (w. G), School Mechanics, he Sitios agadis etsy Conterenent upon, of an Honorary by Aberdeen University, 154; Experiments on nts in Plants, 305; Life Movements in Plants, Part ‘i, School ADs de Martial of Elementary Zoology. ‘owth of Plants, 615, 648 (Dr. T. O.), Geology of the Mid-Continent Oil- is. Kansas, Oklahoma, and North Texas, 608 (F.), Researches on the Posterior Salivary Gland Cephalopodes (iii.), 251 (J.) and J. Perrier, New Researches Relating "Organisation of Scientific Work, 395 Researches |, Action of Hydrocyanic Acid on Glucose, 539 ; | Kiliani’s The lodoamidines, The Action of Hydrocyanic Acid on Glucose; 9 443; and P, Robin, Peony (Ch.), and L. J. Simon, Action of Water on Di- chloroethyl Sulphide, 283; The Preparation of Methyl Chloride and Bromide starting from Dimethyl Sul- phate, 218 Bourion (F.), A Method of Physico-chemical Analysis of Commercial Chlorobenzenes, 379; Kinetic Study of the Chlorination of Benzene, 506; The Analysis of Commercial Chlorobenzenes by Distillation, 347; The Impurities of the Benzene extracted from Commercial Uhlorobenzenes, 443 Bourquelot (Em.), and M. Bridel, A New Glucoside capable of Hydrolysis by Emulsin, Scabiosine, 187; Detection and Characterisation of Glucose in Plants by a New Biochemical Method, 218; The Biochemical Prepara- tion of Cane-sugar starting with Gentianose, 666; and H. Hérissey, The Presence in the Melilot and Woodruff of Glucosides furnishing Coumarin under the Hydrolys- ing Action of Emulsin, 634 Boutroux (Prof. P.), Les Principes de 1’Analyse Mathé- matique : Exposé Historique et ,Critique. Tome ii., 256 ewer (Prof. F. O.), The Earliest Known Land Flora, 681, 712 Bowie (W.), Report on the Connection of the Arcs of Primary Triangulation along the Ninety-eighth Meri- dian in the United States and in Mexico, and on Triangulation in Southern Texas, 141 Bowlby «(Sir Anthony A.), elected President of the Royal College of Surgeons of England, 622 Boys (Prof. C. V.), A, Noon Reflector, 117 : Braak (Dr. C.), Atmospheric Variations of Short sad Long Duration in the Malay Archipelago and Neigh- bouring Regions, and the Possibility to Forecast Them, 729 Brabrook (Sie Edward), Anthropology and Economics dur- ing the Past Quarter of a Century, 5303 Sir Norman Lockyer, 784 9 - Bradford (S. C.), An Electronic Theory of Isomerism, 171 ; Langmuir’s Theory of Atoms, 41, 725 Bradley (Dr. O. C.), elected President of the Royal (Dick) Veterinary College; Edinburgh, 601 - Bragg (Sir W. H.), elected’ an Honorary Fellow of Trinity College; Cambridge, 88; Increased Interest in Scientific Studies, 281; to receive the Honorary De- gree of D.Sc. from the University of Dublin, 89 Bragg (Prof. W. L.), Crystal Structure, 646 - Braly (Ad.), Method for Collecting and Characterising the Sublimates Produced by Metalloids and Metals Vola- tilised> by. the Blowpipe, 219 Brashear (Dr. J..A.), aN Prey 2973 Brenchley (Dr. W. E.), Sugar Cultivation in indie: ‘naa The Improvement of Grassland, 408 Breuil (l’Abbé), appointed Munro Lecturer for 1920-21 in ' Edinburgh University, 121 | Bridgman (Dr. P.. W.), Effects of Pressure on the Elec- trical Resistance and Thermo-electric Properties of _ Metals, 529 Brierley (Mrs. S.), The Present Attitude of Employees to Industrial’ Psychology, 400 Brierley (W. B.); A Form ‘of Botrytis cinerea with Colour- less Sclerotia, 186; Ellis’s Applied Botany, 164 Briggs (G: E.), elected to the’ Allen Scholarship in Cam- bridge “University, 1543. The Beginning of Photo- synthesis in the Green Leaf, 89 Brindley (H. H.), Further Notes on the Food-plants of the Common. Earwig (Forficula’ auricularia), 378 : Brindley (H. S. B.), [obituary], 208 - British Dyestuffs Corporation, Gift’ to’ Oxford University ‘ towards ‘the Extension ‘of the coreanie Chemical * Laboratory, 313 Britten (J.), Banks as a Botanist, 530 Britton (N. L.);"and C. P. Berkey, The Scientific “Survey of Porto Rico and the Virgin’ Islands, °147 page Ang ), Some Results of a New Journey in Mprocess Broatt (Dr. C, D.), appointed Professor of. Philosophy in Bristol University, 630 ~ viii Index Nature, October 7, 1920 Broden (Dr. A. L,. G.), awarded a Mary Kingsley Medal, 6 Bistetae (Dr. S.), A Graphical Treatment of Differential Equations, 466; Mathematics: Pure and Applied, 65 Brodie (J. A.), elected President of the Institution of Civil Engineers, 304 Broglie (L. de), Calculation of the Limiting Frequencies of K and L Absorption of the Heavy Elements, 218; The Fine Structure of X-ray Spectra, 475 Brook (A.), The Buzzard at Home, 746 Brooks (C. E. P.), Climates of the British Empire Suitable for the Cultivation of Cotton, 338; The Climate and Weather of the Falkland Islands and South Georgia, 275 Brooks (F. S.), The Control of the Apple-tree Borer, 629 Brotherus (Prof. V. F.), elected a Foreign Member of the Linnean Society, 366 _ - Brown (Prof. Adrian), Erection of a Memorial Tablet to, in the Brewing School of Birmingham University, 154 Brown (G. E.), The British Journal Photographic Almanac and Photographer’s Daily Companion, 1920, 66 Brown (O. F.), appointed Technical Officer to the Radio |- Research Board, 463 Brown (S. G.), The Gyrostatic Compass, 44, 77 Brown (Dr. T. Graham), The Function of the Brain, 123 Brown (Prof. W.), The Decay of Magnetism in_ Bar Magnets, 123; and P. O’Callaghan, The Change in the Rigidity of Nickel Wire with Magnetic Fields, 634 Browne (Dr. E. G.), to deliver the FitzPatrick Lectures, 722 Browne (R. Grant), Races of the Chindwin, Upper Burma, 281 Bruce (Major-Gen. Sir David), The, Prevention of Tetanus during the Great War, 785 Brunner, Mond, and Co., Ltd., Purchase of H.M. Nitrate Factory at Billingham-on-Tees, 312; Vote of 100,000l. for Scientific Education and Research, 762 Bryan (Prof. G. H.), awarded the Hopkins Prize of the Cambridge Philosophical Society, 440 Bryant (W. W.), The Cost of Scientific Publications, 327; The Position of the Meteorological Office, 38 Bryce (G.), Structure and Development of the Small Woody ** Burrs ’’ or ‘f Nodules ’’ in Hevea brasiliensis, 20 Bryce (Lord), to receive the Honorary Degree of LL.D. from the University of Dublin, Brylinski (E.), The Transport of Electrical Energy to Great Distances, 347 Buchanan (Capt. A.), Wild Life in Canada, 426 Budge (Sir E. A. Wallis), The ‘‘ Book of the Dead,” 755 Buller (Prof. A. H. R.), Essays on Wheat, 224 Bullock (F.), The Compilation of Bibliographies, 116 Bumstead (Prof. H. A.), elected Chairman of the U.S. National Research Council, 526 Burke (E. T.), The Venereal Problem, 543 Burnet (A.), Conjunction of Mercury with e Geminorum, 37° Burnside (Dr. W.), awarded the Hopkins Prize of the Cambridge Philosophical Society, 440; Cyclical Octo- section, 473 Burrow (E. J.), The Ancient Entrenchments and Camps of . Gloucestershire, 128 Burrows (Principal R. M.), [obituary article], 364 Burstall (Prof. F. W.), elected Dean of the Faculty of Science of Birmingham University, 505 Bury (H.), Mortlakes as a Cause of River-windings, 391 Bury (Prof. J. B.). The Idea of Progress: An Inquiry into its Origin and Growth, 733 Butler (Sir Geoffrey), appointed’ Secretary of the Board of Research Studies in Cambridge University, 345 Butler (S.), Luck, or Cunning, as the Main Means of Organic Modification? An Attempt to Throw Addi- tional Light upon Darwin’s Theory of Natural Selec- tion. Second edition, 773; Unconscious Memory. Third edition, 774 Butterworth (S.). The Maintenance of a Vibrating System by means of a Triode Valve, 842 Cadman (Sir John), Impending Resignation of the Chair of Mining in the University of Birmingham, 4097 W. B. Hardy, and Prof. S. Young appointed Members of the Advisory Council to the Committee of the Privy Ceuncil for Scientific and Industrial Research, 590 Cahen (E.), and W. O. Wootton, The Mineralogy of the Rarer Metals: a Handbook for Prospectors. Second edition, revised by E. Cahen, 259 Caillas (A.), The Search for Invertin in Pure Honey, 218 Cain (Dr. J. C.), The Chemistry and Technology of the Diazo-Compounds. Second edition, 449; The Manu- facture of Intermediate Products for Dyes. Second edition, 260 Cajal (S. R. y), elected a Foreign Associate of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences, 463 Cambage (R. H.), A New Species of Queensland Ironbark, 732 Camichel (C.), The Permanent Régime in Water-chambers, 314 Campbell (A.), The Magnetic Properties of Silicon Iron (Stalloy) in Alternating Magnetic Fields of Low Value, 473 Campbell (D. F.), Recent Developments of the Electric Furnace in Great Britain, 695 Campbell (Prof. D. H.), Derivation of the Flora of Hawaii, 217 Campbell (R. E.), Distribution, ‘Life History, and Measures of Control of Bruchus rufimanus, Boh, 310 Campbell (Prof. W. W.), and J. H. Moore, Researches on Nebulz, 490 Cannon (H. G.), Production and Transmission of an Environmental Effect in Simocephalus vetulus, 538 Cannons (H. G. T.), Bibliography of Industrial Efficiency and Factory Management, 641 © Carmody (Prof. P.), Camphor-growing in the British Empire, 757 Carnot (A.), [obituary], 555 Carnwath (Dr.), Influenza, 151 Carpenter (Dr. G. D. H.), The Bionomics of Glossina pal-- palis on Lake Victoria, 663 Carpenter (Prof. G. H.), elected Secretary of the Royal Irish Academy, 590; Injurious Insects observed in Ireland during the years 1916-18, 634; and F. J. S. Poltard, Presence of Lateral Spiracles in the Larvae of Warble- flies, 835 Carpenter (Prof. H. C. H.), The Future of the Iron and Steel Industry in Lorraine, 588; and Prof. G. C, Cullis, Report on the World’s Production of Silver, 73 Carr (Prof. H. Wildon), Behaviourism, 512 Carruthers (D.), The Heart of a Continent, 330 Case (Prof. E. C.), The Environment of Vertebrate Life in the Late Paleozoic in North America, 223 Casella and Co., Ltd. (C. F.), Catalogue of Meteorological - Instruments, 20 , Cassel (Sir Ernest), Educational Trust Gifts to the Univer- sity of London, 25 i Cattell (Dr. J. McK.), Methods, 795 Cave (Capt. C. J. P.), A Peculiar Halo, 171; Weather Notes of Evelyn, Pepys, and Swift in Relation to British Climate, 393; and J. S. Dines, Soundings with Pilot Balloons in thedsles of Scilly, 663 Cayeux (L.), The Hettangian Iron Minerals of Burgundy, Cellcrier (M.), The Verification of Screw Gauges, 184 Cestro (Prof. G.), Minerals from Monte Somma _ and Vesuvius, 464 Chadwick (J.), elected to the Clerk Maxwell Scholarship in Experimental Physics in Cambridge University, 601 Chalmers (Mrs. A. J.), awarded a Mary Kingsley Medal, 697 Chalmers (Dr. A. J.), [obituary article], 271 Chalmers (Dr. A. K.), appointed Head of the Health De- partment of Glasgow, 19 Chalmers (T. W.), Paper-making and its Machinery: in- cluding Chapters on the Tub-sizing of Paper, the Coat- ing and Finishing of Art Paper, and the Coating of Photographic Paper, 480 Chamberlin (R. V.), Priapulus humanus, 786 Chamberlin (Prof. T. C.), awarded the Hayden Memorial Medal of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Phila- delphia, 390 mt Chapman (D. 'L.), The Separation of the Isot¢pes of Chlorine, 487, 611 a Index ix s Atmosphere, 506; and E. A. Milne, The Com- _Tonisation, and Viscosity of the Atmosphere Heights, 570 : . . de), The Piltdown Remains, <93 i¢ Minute Fissures in Steel Ingots, 27 L. le), elected an Honorary Member of the Academy, 117 .), Reversible Reactions of Water on Tungsten Oxides of Tungsten, 411 ), The Measurement of Hysteresis Values High Magnetising Forces, 838 T.), The Origin of Agriculture, 474 Plans for the Reorganisation and Extension Services in French Indo-China, 4o1 P.), The Elasticity of Torsion of Nickel-Steels igh Proportion of Chromium, 699; The Change of the Elastic Properties of Nickel- arriette), awarded the Stewart Prize of the edical Association, 432 . W. P.), awarded the Cuthbert Peek Grant oval Geographical Society, 112 y entine), The Enduring Power of Hinduism, Dr. J. G. Bartholomew, 238; Cr. J. G. the Layer System of Contour Colour- vations of the Periodic Comet Tempel ) 19200, 794 ; agnetic Storm on March 4 and 5, 56; Values of Magnetic Declination at tish Stations, 632; The Magnetic Storm of 23 and Associated Phenomena, 136 4. G.), Applied Sciepce and Industrial Re- 17; Expenses of Scientific Work, 72, ction of Industrial Research, 40 Elementary Notes on Structural Botany ; Notes on the Reproduction of Angiosperms, eernestens of the Imperial Cancer ‘ion of the Equation of Wave-motion in ii:, 843 H.), Presidential Address to Section F Association, 827 . Distribution of ‘Littoral Echinoderms of the Pa7Q: : itees Hailstorm of July 16, 1918, 281; s, Report on the Phenological Observa- 1 Ritatyele of Cloud Distribution at Aber- the years 1916-18, 148 Plea for an Ampler Provision of Scholar- pment of the Synthetic Dye Industry, 686 . J.), Land Drainage from the Engineering 42 .), appointed Professor of Pathology in versity, 217 Jugald), The Conservation of Fuel, 406 e Prevalence of Occultism, 432 . A.), appointed Principal of Newnham bridge. 537 Beans ic Pi E.), appointed Professor of Chemistry at College, Swansea, 665 W.), Fuel Research, 550 - The Cambrian Horizons of Comley (Shrop- their Brachiopoda, etc., 314 W.), and H: Kahler, A New Spectropyr- er and Solar Measurements made with it, 5 "*)) New Zealand Plants and their Story, edition, 707 . T. D. A.), Eye Colour in Bees, 518 T.), ‘‘ Cresineol,’’ 726 G.), The Attainment of High Levels in the Cohen (Prof. J. B.), A Class-book of Organic Chemistry, Vol. ii., 195 Cohen-Kysper (A.), Entwicklung, 164 Cole (J. H.), Systematic Error in Spirit Levelling, 409 Coles (Principal C.), The Necessity for Close Co-operation . between Technical Colleges and the Universities, 728 Colin (H.), The Diastatic Hydrolysis of Inulin, 380 Collie (Prof. J. N.), Krypton and Xenon, 441 Collinge (Dr. W.°E.), Sea Birds: Their Relation to the Fisheries and Agriculture, 172; The Plumage Bill and Bird Protection, 196 Collingwood (Dr. B. J.), appointed Professor of Physio- logy at St. Mary’s Hospital Medical School, 568 Collins (W. H.), Replacement of Sands and Gravels by . Silica, 242 : Compton (R. H.), The Botany of New Caledonia, 122 Comrie (L. J.), Occultation of a Star by Saturn, 22 Camstock (Prof. G. C.), The Sumner:Line or Line of Position as an Aid to Navigation, 552; Use of Sumner Lines in Navigation, 742 Connaught (Duke of), admitted an Honorary Fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons of England, 556 Connaught (Prince Arthur of) and others, The Scheme for the Extension of the Engineering Laboratories of University College, London, 114 Riicklaufige Differenzierung . und » Conway (Sir Martin), The Formation of the Imperial War Museum, 626 Cook (Dr. M. T.), Applied Economic Botany: Based upon Actual Agricultural and Gardening Projects, 34 Cook (O. F.), Commercial Parasitism in the Cotton In- dustry, 548 Cooke (H. C.), The Gabbros of East Sooke, 464 Coolidge (Dr. W. D.), The Manufacture of the Coolidge Tube, 655 Cope (Miss L.), Calendars of the Indians North of Mexico, 75 ' Corbett (Sir J. S.), History of the Great War, based on Official Documents. By direction of the Historical Section of the Committee of Imperial Defence: Naval ' Operations, Vol. i., 546 Core (A. F.), The Separation of the Isotopes of Chlorine, 582, 677 Corney (B. G.), A Remarkable Stone Bowl in the Museo Arqueolégico, Madrid, 755 ; Cornubert (R.), The Constitution of some Dialkylcyclo- hexanones, 475 Cortie (Rev. A. L.), Report and Notes on the Stonyhurst College Observatory, 624; Stonyhurst Observations in 1919, 789; The Magnetic Storm of March 22-23 and Associated Phenomena, 137 Cottrell (Dr. F. G.), awarded the Willard Gibbs Medal of the Chicago Section of the American Chemical Society, 526; nominated as Director of the U.S. Bureau of Mines, 432 Coupin (H.), Seedlings which turn Green in the Dark, 411 Cournot (J.), The Annealing of Electrolytic Iron, 763 ‘Coursey (P. R.), Telephony without Wires, Coward (T. A.), The Birds of the British Isles and their Eggs, First Series, 132 ; Cowles (R. P.), The Transplanting of Sea-anemones by Hermit Crabs, 668 : Cox (Dr. A. H.), A Report on Magnetic Disturbances in Northamptonshire and Leicestershire and their Rela- tions to the Geological Structure, 175; and A. K. Wells, The Lower Palaeozoic Rocks of the Arthog- Dolgelly District, 123 ; Crabtree (J: H.), Grasses and Rushes and How to Identify Them, 805; Wonders of Insect Life: Details of the Habits and Structure of Insects, 651 : oe Craib (W. G.), appointed Professor of Botany in the Uni- versity of Aberdeen, 120 : em Cranworth (Capt. the Lord), Profit and Sport in British East Africa, being a Second Edition, revised and en- } larged, of ‘‘ A Colony in the Making,’’ 392 Craster (Lt.-Col. J. E. E.), Estimating River Flow from Rainfall Records, 42 : : Creak (Capt. E. W.) [death], 178; [obituary article], 300 Cremer (H. W.), appointed Lecturer in Inorganic Chemistry at King’s College, London, 698 Xi L[ndex Nature, October 7, 1920 Crewe (Marquess of), The Imperial College of Science and Technology, 281; The Working of the Education Act of 1918, 22 Cripps (Miss L. D.), awarded the Dr. Jessie Macgregor Prize of the Royal College of Physicians, Edinburgh, 794 Grinradin (Dr. A. C. D.), Calendar Reform, 105; Deflec- tion of Light during a Solar Eclipse, 8; The Einstein Deflection of Light, 23; Woltjer’s Investigations in the Theory of Hyperion, 675 Crooke (Dr. W.), Nudity in India in Custom and Ritual, 723; to receive the Honorary Degree of D.Litt. from the University of Dublin, 89 Crossley (Dr. A. W.), The Constitution and Methods of . the British Cotton Industry Research Association, 372 Crosthwaite (P. M.), Earthworks and Retaining Walls, 87 aba J. A.), Ions, Electrons, and Ionising Radia- Cullis. (Prof °C. E.), Matrices and Determinoids, Vol. Ig Cumming (Dr. A. C.) and Pr. S. A. Kay, A Text-book of co cow rege Chemical Analysis, Third edition, 33 Cumming (W. M.), appointed Senior Lecturer in Organic Chemistry at the Royal Technical College, Glasgow, 630 Daiad Steamship Co., Ltd., Gift to Liverpool University, 313, 762 Cunningham (Dr. Brysson), Rainfall and ‘Land Drainage, 42 Cunningham (E.), Relativity and Geometry, 350 Cunnington (Mrs. M » A Curious Stone Mould found on the Worms’ Head, Glamorganshire, 497 Curtis (A. H. s ary gene Ores, 193 Curtis (Dr. D.), appointed Director of the Aeghesy A lit 3266; Researches on Nebule, 489 Curtis (Miss K. M.), The Life History and Cytology of Synchytrium endobioticum (Schilb.), Pere., the Cause of Wart Disease in Potato, 346 Cushing (Prof. H.), The Honorary Degree of Doctor of Law conferred upon, by Cambridge. University, 730 Cushman (J. A.), Recent Foraminifera from off New Zealand, 242 Cuthbertson (c and Maude), The Refraction and Disper- sion of * Carbon Dioxide, Carbon Monoxide, and Methane, 58 Cvijic (Prof. J.), awarded the Patron’s Medal of the Royal Geographical Society, 112 Czaplicka (Miss), awarded the Murchison Grant of the Royal Geographical Society, 112 D. (F. V.), The Mole Cricket, 294 D. (J. S.), Sea and Sky at Sunset, 358 Da Fano (C.), Method for the Demonstration mn the Golgi Apparatus in Nervous and other Tissues, 2 Dakin (Prof. W. J.), appointed Derby Professor ff Zoology in the University of Liverpool, 537 Dalby (Prof. W. E.), The Elastic Properties Plastic Extension of Metals, 377 Dale (Prof. J. B.), Some Methods of Approximate Integra- tion and of Computing Areas, 138 Dall (Dr. W. H.), The Mollusca Obtained by the Crocker Land Expedition, 688 Dalton (H.), appointed Reader in Commerce at the ‘London School of Economics and Political Science, «68 Damour (E.), The Application Value ‘(valeur d’usage) of Combustibles, 634 Dangeard (P. A.), Structure of the Metabolism, 251 Daniel (A.), A New Race of Asphodelus Obtained by the Action of a Marine Climate, 506 Darwin (C. G.), Lagrangian Methods for Motion, 379 Darwin (Sir Horace) and W. G. Microtome, 570 Davenport (Dr. C. B.), Influence of the Male on the Pro- duction of Twins, 755 Davidson (the late Sir J. Mackenzie), to, 50 and the Plant Cell and its High-speed Collins, A Universal Proposed Memorial Davies (Rev. A. E.), .Anselm’s Problem of a rat and Existence, 569 Lavies (G, M.), Tin Ores, 1 Davies (J. H.), A Map of i World (on Mercator’s Prot jection), having Special Reference to Forest Regions and the Geographical Distribution of Timber Trees, Timber Maps, Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, 577 Davis (H. V.), ‘‘ Little Book ahoul Snowdon,”’ 787 Davis (Prof. W. M.), The Small Islands of Almost-Atolls, 292 Davison (Dr. C.), Differential Calculus for Colleges and Secondary Schools, 65 Dawson (B. H.), Determination of the Orbit of p Eridani, 8 4 Dawson (Dr. H. M.), appointed Professor of Physical Chemistry in the University of Leeds, 409 Dawson (Sir Philip), Electric Railway Contact Systems, 6 57 Dawson of Penn (Lord), presented with the Medal of Honour of the University of Brussels, 440 Daynes (H. A.), The Process of Diffusion through a Rubber Membrane, 122; The Theory of the Katharometer, 122 De Angelis (M.), Crystalline Forms of Nitrodichloroacet- anilide, 84. Debenham (F.), The Transfer of Marine Deposits from the Sea-floor to the Surface of Glacier Ice, 724 | De Candolle (A. P.), [obituary], 365 Dee (A. A.), appointed an Assistant Lecturer in ‘Physics in Birmingham University, 120 Deeley (R. M.), Anticyclones, 677; The Antarctic Anti- cyclone, 808 [efant (Dr. A.), Tides in Landlocked and Border Seas, Bays, and Channels, 466 De Launay (L.), The Course of the Coal Measures in the Central Massif and at its Edges, 634 ~ Delépine (M.), Ethylene Sulphide, C,H,S, 666; and L. Ville, The Chloride of Bromine: its Combination with Ethylene, 539 etait (Prof, S.), The Problem of Clean and Safe Milk, De ee (Prof. A. T.), The Appointment of, in the Univer- sity of Toronto, 762 Demoussy (Dr. E.), Engrais. Amendements Produits anti- cryptogamiques et Insecticides, 738 Dendy (Prof. A.), The Plumage Bill and Bird Protection, 169 Denigés (G.), Iodic Acid as a Microchemical Reagent Characteristic of Gaseous Ammonia, 763; Iodic Acid as a Microchemical Reagent for Calcium, Strontium, and Barium, 379 Penning (W. F.), Discovery of a Nova in Cygnus, 838; Fireball of February 4, 105; The Great Red Spot on Jupiter, 423; Wasps, 328 Dennis (L. G.), Canadian Water-power Development, 311 Dennis (T.), An Arithmetic for Preparatory Schools, with Answers, Second edition, 67 Desch (Prof. C. H.), Some Properties of 60-40 Brass, 695 Descolas and Prétet, The Macrographic Study of the Pro- pagation of Cooling in the Interior of a Steel Ingot Starting from its Solidification, 411 Detmold (E. J.), Twenty-four Nature Pictures, 352 Devaux (H.) and H. Bouygues, The Usefulness of Sodium Fluoride employed as an Antiseptic for the Preserva- tion of Railway-sleepers, 379 Dewar (Sir James), elected a Corresponding Member of the French Academy of Sciences, 80 Dewey (H.), Arsenic and Antimony Ores, 338; Flat-based Celts from Kent, Hampshire, and Dorset, 153 Dey (M. L.), Fireball of February 4, 105 Dickie (R. S.), Economics of the Petroleum Industry, 269 Dicksee (Prof. L. R.), appointed Professor of Accountancy and. Business at the London School of Economies and Political Science, 568 Dines (J. S.),. Methods of Computation for Pilot-balloon Ascents, 837; The Rate of Ascent of Pilot-balloons, 581 Dines (W. H.), ‘Attainment of High Levels in the Atmo- sphere, 454; The Ether Differential Radiometer, 570; The Sirobching of Rubber in Free Balloons, 613 Dixey (F.), Pleistocene Movements of Elevation. in Sierra ~ Leone, 689 f. R. B.), A New Theory of Polynesian Origins, . W. E.), Practical Pharmacology, 420 ‘James J: » re-elected President of the Chemical Y, 145; and J. J. Fox, The ec pine of Light ements in the State of Vapour, 538 fiss Ethel M.), The Historia of the Genera and Irene, 667 ae elected a Foreign Member of the Linnean (Lieut. C. W.), Submarine Warfare of To- y (Prof. L.), An Intréduetion to the Study of gy, 190; Genetic Studies of Drosophila, 405 ; ofthis [obituary article], 461; Resolution of the verpool University on the Death of, 472 arey, and Baldwin, The Theoretical Determina- the Longitudinal Seiches of Lake Geneva, 275 | M.), Clouds as seen from an Aero- 18; Temperature Variations at 10,000 ft., 614 : », The Annual ae 3 of Trees in Relation to and Solar Activity, 5 T.) and oe D. J Snell Food : » 99 (Prof. E. B, "A Doce and Laboratory Guide in ; M. ), Wire ah "Telezraphy and Telephony : Prin bcc eed Present Practice, and Testing, 483 The Spiral Compensator and New Problems of of Regulation, 443 Notes on Chemical Research : An Account Conditions which apply to Original In- Second edition, 773 _Spermatophores of Octopus americana, its Composi- ay C.), appointed Reader in Physiological t University College, London, 608 —“ Mackinder’s ‘ World Island ’ in ‘ Satellite ’,’? 624 Ww. Ww), fobitwary) 590 alee of a Fossil-bearing Layer in Pos Watten (Nord), 795 Application of a New Method of Physico- “analysis to the Study of Double Salts, 634 W. L. H.), Presentation to, 794 + Pe E.), A Stalked Parapineal Vesicle in the 16; Ostrich Study in South Africa, 106; The Bill = Bird Protection, 263 G.), T. H. Burnham, and A. A. Davis, The upon the Poles of Metallic Arcs, including ‘Composite Arcs, 121 ), The Stereo-isomeric Forms _of Benzoyl- etylene Di-iodide, 475 JiR. EE A New Apparatus for Drawing Conic , 187; A New Method for Approximate Evalua- of Definite Integrals between Finite Limits, 354, : ED: The Natural Wealth of Britain : bp y rr and Foreign Scientific Apparatus, and. its Its Origin appointed a Lecturer in the Department of f the University of Edinburgh, 627 Magnetic Induction in the Soft Iron Compass under the Influence of the Needles, 539 .), Calculation of Vapour Densities, 742 _A.), The Nature and Function of the Anti- Vitamine, 667 ..), The Nature Study of Plants in iipuyts and for the Hobby Botanist, 804 Gift to the University. of Rochester, N.Y., Ww. HH), Wireless Telephony, 519 apt. P. P.), The Application of Duplex Wire- to Aircraft, 154 1 (Principal C. L.), Continuation Schools and telation to Technical Institutes and Colleges, 728 (Prof. A. S.), Gravitational Deflection of High- speed Particles, 37; Presidential Address to Section A of the British Association, 825; and others, Einstein’s Theory of Relativity, 306 Edgcumbe (Major K.), elected Chairman of the Nationat Illumination Committee of Great Britain, 557 Edgell (Miss), Memory and Conation, 603 Edgeworth (Lt.-Col. K. E.), Science and the New Army, 233 ; Sea and nag at Sunset, 358 Edridge-Green (Dr. F. W.), appointed a Special Examiner in Colour Vision and Eyesight by the Board of Trade, 654; The Physiology of Vision, with special reference to Colour Blindness; Card Test for Colour Blindness, 575 Edwards (Prof. C. A.), appointed Professor of Metallurgy at University College, Swansea, 665 Edwards (F. W.), Mosquitoes, 787 Einstein (Prof.), awarded the Barnard Medal of Columbia University, 590 Eisig (Prof. H. a [obituary], 50 Elgie (J. H.), Elgie’s Weather Book: For the General Reader, 739 . Elhuff (L.), General Science: First Course, 352 Elliott (G. F. Scott), The Trade Routes of the Empire in Africa, 274 Ellis (Dr. D.), Iron Bacteria, 323 ; teria, 727 Ellis (G. S. M.), Applied Botany, 164 Ellis (Havelock), The Philosophy of Conflict : Essays in War-time, Second Series, 353 Ellis (T. S.), Mortlakes as a Cause of River-windings, 264 Enriques (Prof.), Experiments in Breeding Blow-flies, 756 Entat (M.), The Destructive Effect of Light on Textiles, Dopes, and Rubberised Fabrics, 758 Escher (Dr. B. G.), Percussion Figures, 171 Evans (Dr. E. A.), appointed Professor of Physics at Uni- versity College, Swansea, 665 Evans (I. H. N.), A Rocle Shelter in the Batu Kurau Parish, Perak, 834 Evans (Dr. J. W.), Knowledge and Power, 165; Scientific Research, 358 Eve (Prof. A. §.), Observation of an Aurora in Montreal on March 5, 337 Everdingen (Prof. E. van), Aerial Navigation and Meteoro- logy, 637, 776; Investigation of the Upper Air, 663 Evermann (Dr.), The Present Position of the Northern Fur Seal, 623 Evershed. (J. ), The Einstein Displacement of Spectral Lines, 244; and Mrs., The Prominence Observations of, 340 Evershed (S.), Permanent Magnets in Theorv and Practice, British Iron Depositing Bac- and other - 435 Ewart (Prof. J..C.), The Nestling Feathers of Birds, 250 Ewing (Sir Alfred), Molecular Energy in Gases, 472 F.R.S., Museums and the State, 136 Fabre (J. H.), Translated by A. T. de Mattos, The Mason Wasps, 291: The Story Book of Birds and Beasts, 651 ; The Story Book of Science, 651 Failes (Rev. W.), orcs 18 Fallaize (E. N.), Dr. R. Munro. 685; Suggestions for the Classification of the Subiect-matter of Anthropology, 626; The Present Condition of the Aborigines of Central Australia, 601 Fallou (J.), The Expansion caused by Joule’s Effect at the Contact of Two Solids, 506 Farabee (W. C.), Form of Puberty Ordeal among the Apalaii Indians, 240; The Central Arawaks, 159 Fargher and Pyman, The Composition of Salvarsan, 185 Farmer (G. W.), A First-year Physics for Junior Technical Schools, 229 Farrer (R.), awarded the Gill Memorial of Geographical Society, 112 Fawcett (W.) and Dr. A. B. Rendle, Flora of: Tamalce, Vol. iv., Dicotyledons: Families Leguminose to Calli- trichacez, 738 Fayet (M.), Tempel’s Comet, 789 Feldman (W. M.), The Principles of Ante-Natal and Post- Natal Child Physiology : Pure and Applied, 638 Fenton (Dr.) and A. J. Berry, Studies on Cellulose Acetate, 378 the Royal xii L[ndex Nature, October 7, 1920 Fernbach (A.) and M. Schoen, New Observations on the Biochemical Production of Pyruvic Acid, 251 Ferraris’ ‘‘ Dioptric Instruments ’’: Being an Elementary Exposition of Gauss’ Theory and its Applications. Translated by Dr. O. Faber from Prof. F. Lippich’s German Translation of Prof. G, Ferraris’ ‘ The Fundamental Properties of Dioptric Instruments,” 542 Ferry (E. S.), O. W. Silvey, G. W. Sherman, jun., and D. C. Duncan, A Handbook of Physics Measurements, 2 vols., 193 ' Fewkes (J. W.), Prehistoric Villages, Castles, and Towers of South-Western Colorado, 367 Fields (Prof. J. C.), Universities, Research, and Brain Waste, 839 Filon (Prof. L. N. G.), Science and the New Army, 133 Findlay (Prof. A.), The Hurter and Driffield Memorial Lecture, 689 Firth (J. B.), Sorption of Iodine by Carbon, 602 Firth (Sir R. H.), Musings of an Idle Man, 100 Fisher (H. A. L.), elected a Fellow of the Royal Society, 556; The Government Offer of a Site for the Univer- sity of London, 404 Fisher (Lord), Memories, 95 Fisher (R. -A.), Kenyon and. Lovitt’s Mathematics for Collegiate Students of Agriculture and General Science, Revised edition, 131 ; Flammarion (C.), Reform of the Calendar, 22, 105 Fleck (Dr. A.) and T. Wallace, Conduction of Electricity through Fused Sodium Hydrate, 602 Fleming (A. P. M.), Engineering Research in the U.S.A., 598; Industrial Research, 771 4 Fleming (Prof. J. A.), The Propagation of Electric Cur- rents in Telephone and Telegraph Conductors, Third edition, 611; The Thermionic Valve in Wireless ‘Tele- graphy and Telephony, 716 Fletcher (J. J.), Presidential Address to the Linnean Society of N.S.W., 724 Fletcher (Sir Walter), The Work of the Medical Research Committee, 400 . Flett (Dr. J. S.), appointed Director of the Geological Survey and Museum, 590 Flint (G. E.), The Whole Truth about Alcohol, 386 Flint (H. T.), appointed Lecturer in Physics at King’s College, London, 698 Florentin (M.), The French Experience of German Gas Warfare, 434 Forbes (Dr. H. O.), The Doctor of Philosophy in England, 234 Forcrand (Prof. R. de), Cours de Chimie 4 l’usage des. Etudiants P.C.N. et S.P.C.N., Dieux. édition, Tome _ i, et Tome ii., 63 Forder (H. G.), Gravitational ‘Particles, 138 Fornander (Judge), Source and Migrations of the Poly- nesian Race, 628 Forrest (H. E.), A Handbook to the Vertebrate Fauna of North Wales, 386 Forsyth (Prof, A. R.), Solutions of the Examples in a Treatise on. Differential Equations, 260; The Central Differential Equation in the Relativity Theory of Gravi- tation, 186 Fotheringham (Dr. J. K.), Tycho Brahe, 672 Fournier d’Albe (Dr. E. E.), The Optophone: An Instru- ment for Reading by Ear, 295; and Prof, A. Barr, The Optophone, 722 Fourniols (M.), ‘Utilisation of .the Rhone, 466 i Fowler (Prof. A.), elected a Corresponding Member of the Paris Academy of Sciences, 52; Sir Norman Lockyer’s Contributions to Astrophysics, 831 T: Fowler (Dr. G. J.), Scientific Work: Its Spirit and Re- ward, 387 ; Fowler (R. H.), The Dynamics of Shell Flight, 459; The Elementary Differential Geometry of Plane Curves, Rar’ E. C. Gallop, C. N. H. Lock, and H. W. Richmond, The Aérodynamics of a Spinning Shell, 377 an Francis (Prof. F.), appointed Pro-Vice-Chancellor of Bristol University, 601 F Francotte (Rev. E.), Meteorological Observations at St. Xavier’s College, Calcutta, Part i., 55 Water-power of the Deflection of High-speed: Franklin (Capt. T, B.), Effect of Weather Changes on Soil Temperatures, 282, 628 Fraser (Dr. A. M.), The Prevention of Venereal Diseases, a Fraser (P.), appointed Deputy Dean of’ the Faculty of Science of Bristol University, 630 j Frazer (Sir James G.), elected a Fellow of the Royal — Society, 556 Frederiksen (J. D.), The Story of Milk, 229 Freeman (W, G.) and others, Cultivation of the Avocaau or Alligator Pear, 408 Fremont (Ch.), The Resistance of Steels to Cutting by ‘ Tools, 187; Work Done in Sawing Metals by Hand, 251 Freundlich (Dr. E.), The Foundations of Einstein’s Theory of Gravitation, Translated by H. L. Brose, 350 Friedel (Prof. G.), Opening Address on the Installation of ' the Chair of Mineralogy at the University of Stras- bourg, 368 ! Fullarton (Dr. J. H.), {obituary], 365 ; : Fuller (Brevet-Col. J. F. C.), Tanks in the Great War, 1914-1918, 702 Fulton (A. R.), Earthworks and Retaining Walls, 88. Gadow (H.), appointed Reader in the Morphology of Verte- brates in Cambridge University, 345 Gallenkamp and Co., Ltd., List of Graduated Instruments for Volumetric Analysis, 306 pest} Gamble (J. S.), Flora of the Presidency of Madras, Part ; iii., 36; Organisation of Scientific Work,6 Gamble (W.), Photography and its Applications; 740 _ Gardiner (Prof. J. Stanley), Museums and the State, 101; Presidential Address to Section D of the British Asso- ciation, 826; to Undertake the Temporary Direction of the Scientific Work of the Fisheries Department of — the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, 52 Garner (W. E.), An Electronic Theory of Isomerism, 171 Garner (W. W.) and H. A. Allard, Light and Plant-growth, 404 Garnett (J. C. M.), A National System of Education, 728 ; Resignation of the Principalship of the Manchester College of Technology, 630 Garrod (Sir Archibald E.), appointed Professor of Medicine in the University of Oxford, 25; Honorary Degree of M.D. from the University of Dublin, 89 Gascard (A.), Ceryl Alcohol and Cerotic Acid from China Wax, 506; The Melissic Alcohol of Brodie, 314 k Gatenby (J. B.), The Modern Technique of Cytology, 463 Gates (Dr. R. R.), The Meiotic Phenomena in the Pollen Mother-cells and Tapetum of Lettuce, 186, 756 Gault (H.) and R. Weick, A Case of Isomerism in the Series of the Aromatic a-Ketonic Acids, 539 Gauthier (D.), The Synthesis of a-Ketonic Tertiary Alcohols, 27 Gautier (Ch.), A Sundial giving Legal Time throughout - the Year, 506 Gayley (J.), [obituary], 239 Geddes (Sir Auckland C.), appointed Ambassador Extra- ordinary and Plenipotentiary in Washington; Resigna- — tion of the Principalship of McGill University, 17 Gee (W. J.), A New Process for Centrifugal Filtration, 696 Geikie-Cobb (Dr. W. F.), Mysticism, True and False, 633 Gentil (L.), The Mode of Formation of Terraces in Chalk Districts, 315 } : George (W. L.), The Birth-rate, 82 Georges (H.), A New Alternating Mercury Arc, 91 Gerhardt (Charles), Proposed Monument to, 436 Giaya (S.), Zinc in the Human Organism, 315 Gibson (C. R.), Chemistry and its Mysteries: The Story of what Things are made of, Told in Simple Language, 99 m ; Gilbreth (F, B. and. Dr. L. M.), Motion Study for the Handicapped, 737 Gill (J. F.), and F. J. Teago,. Examples in Electrical - Engineering, 195 < Gill (T. P.), Impending Resignation from the Secretary- . to receive the | ship of the Department of Agriculture and Technical _ Instruction for Ireland, 376 Index xlil (C. W.), A Skeleton of Dimetrodon from the ian of Texas, 118 (W. H.), appointed Professor of Dental Surgery siverpool University, 630 g (M.), Is there a General Will?, 155 Prof. M.), Chimica delle Sostanze Esplosive, 483 d “ape The Geyser of Martres d’Artiéres (Puy- me), 315 « (Sir Richard), elected First President of the itute of Physics, 304; Lectures on Aeronautics, 214 R. S.), appointed Chief Lecturer in Pharmaceutics the Royal Technical College, Glasgow, 841 t (M.), The Oxidation of Coal, 666 (Prof. R. H.), A Method of Reaching Extreme des, 809 ; H.), Fifty Years of Canadian Progress, 147 |. E.), Aerial Navigation and Meteorology, 775 ; ce and the New Army, 135 (Vice-Admiral Sir George), Progress in Naval veering, 235 (Gen. Sir John), Army Hygiene Prior to the War, 52; Army Hygiene and its ‘Lessons, 532; itary Hygiene, 114 ), The Musical Scale, 666 (A.), The Nesting Habits of the Storm-Petrel, 20 (G. F. C.), appointed Superintendent of the ering Workshops of Cambridge University, (Dr. W. T.), Archzocyathine from the Moraine h irdmore Glacier, 528 j .-General W. C.), [death], 590; [obituary ), The Chemical Composition of the Tubercle .), Development of Thermionic Valves for $s, 559 -), Half-past Twelve : Odd Half-hours, 611 .), Verification of the Thermo-electricity of Dinner-hour Studies dan, 199 -)» The Alligator Pear, 517; The Cluster ), re-appointed University Lecturer in Mathe- Cambridge University, 505 . G.), appointed Goulstonian Lecturer of the Jollege of Physicians of London, 1921, 755 I.), Apparatus for the Estimation of Carbon in the Air of Mines, 624 - Hy Zinc, in Animal Organisms,’ 411 F. T.), Meteorological Conditions of an Ice- B.). awarded a Mary Kingsley Medal, 697 George), Use of Graphs in Society and Statistics, 463 R.), The Collection of Lower Paleozoic Fossils be purchased bv the British Museum, 336 F. N.), The Vulcanicity of the Lake District, r George), Artillery Science, 268 (H. W.), Barytes in the English Triassic Strata from Overlying Jurassic Strata, 837 . J. W.), Meteorological Influences of the Sun i the Atlantic, 715; Museums and the State, 68; e Conservation of our Coal Sunplies, 108; The Irish > 346 ir Richard), Plea for a National Survey of the tions and Requirements of University and Higher cal Education in the Country, 281; Scientific ‘echnical Books, 41 rT. E. G.), appointed a Reader in Commerce at e London School of Economics and Political Science, . C.), The Enzymes of B. coli communis which Concerned in the Decomposition of Glucose and annitol, Part iv., <38 i» ; n (Sir George), elected a Fellow of the Royal Danish siety of Science, 200; The Indo-Aryan Vernaculars, ; The Linguistic Survey of India, 688 \. de), The Spectrographic Detection of Metals, | Griffith (A. A.), The Phenomena of Rupture. and Flow in Solids, 58 Grinnell (J.) and J. Dixon, Life-histories of Ground-squirrels in California, 81 Grist (W. R.), appointed Secretary of the Leeds Univer- sity Appointments Board. 698 Gros (F.), Improvements Relating to the Commercial Pro- duction of Oxides of Nitrogen in Arc Furnaces, 283 Groves (C. E.), Bequests of, 145 Gruzewska (Mme. Z.), Study of Laminarine from Lamin- aria flexicaulis, 187 Gudger (E. W.), The Ovary of Felichthys felis, 279 Guerbet (M.), A Reaction for Benzoic Acid Based on its Diazotisation, 666 Guérin (P.).and A. Goris, A New Plant Containing Cou- marin, Melettis melissophyllum, 411; and Ch. ‘'Lor- mand, The Action of Chlorine and Various Vapours upon Plants, 59 Guérithault (B.), Presence of Copper in Plants, and particu- larly in Food of Vegetable: Origin, 763 Guglielminetti (Dr.), The Physiological Aspect of Flying at High Altitudes, 401 Guiche (A. de Gramont de), Work of the Institute of Optics of France, 466 Guild (J.), The Use of Vacuum Arcs for Interferometry, 842 Guillaume (Dr. Ch. Ed.), Action of Metallurgical Additions on the Anomaly of Expansion of the Nickel Steels, 571; The Anomaly of Elasticity of the Nickel Steels, . 699 ;. The Anomaly of the Nickel Iron Alloys: Its Causes and its Applications, 438; Values of the Expansions of Standard Nickel Steels, 634 Guillaume (J.), Observations of the Sun made at the Lyons Observatory, 218, 251 Guillet (A.), An Auto-ballistic Astronomical Pendulum, 506; and M. Aubert, An Absolute Bispherical Electrometer, Guillet (L.), The Alloys of Copper, Zinc, and Nickel, 91; and M. Gasnier, The Plating with Nickel of Aluminium and its Alloys, 475 Gunton (Major H. C.), Entomological-meteorological Re- cords of Ecological Facts in the Life of British ‘Lepi- doptera, 26 Gurney (J. H.), Ornithological Notes from Norfolk for 1919, 81 Bite Cashes Dixon (Dr. S.), The Transmutation of Bacteria, 131 Guthrie (Lord), fobituary], 302 bray Gutteridge (H. C.), appointed Professor of Commercial and Industrial Law at the London School of Economics and Political Science, 568 ; : Guyon (Prof. J. C. F.), {obituary article], 721 Guyot (J.) and L. J. Simon, Combustion of Methyl Esters with a Mixture of Sulphuric and Chromic Acids, 187 ; Combustion of Mixtures of Sulphuric and Chromic Acids of Organic Bodies Containing Chlorine, 251 University Stipends and Pensions, 582 H. (G. W. O.), ‘ ) in Psychology at Hadfield (J. E.), appointed Lecturer King’s College, London, 698 pore Hadley (L.), The Elements of ¢/ Urse Majoris, 244 Hadwen (Dr. S.), Resignation of the Post of Chief Patholo- gist of the Biological Laboratory, Health of Animals Branch, Canadian Department of Agriculture, and appointed Chief Pathologist in the Reindeer Investiga- tions of the U.S. Biological Survey, 623% Halbert (J. N.), Acarina of the Intertidal Zone, 474 Haldane (Viscount), Prof. Alexander’s Gifford Lectures, 798 Hale (Dr. G. E.), elected an Honorary Member of the Royal Irish Academy, 113; Some Tests of the 100-in. Hooker Telescope. 266 Haleole (S. N.), The Functions of the Kahuna, 628 Hall (A. L.), The Mica Industry in Eastern Transvaal, 787 Hall (Sir Daniel), Development and Use of Allotments, 371; Gardening and Food Production, 371; Social and Hygienic Conditions respecting Gardens and _Allot- ments, 371; The Soil: An Introduction to the Scientific Study of the Growth of Crops. Third edition, 384 Hall (Dr. G. Stanley), Resignation of the Presidency of Clark University, 602 ; Nature, X1V L: nN dex Ualober 7 fas Hall (H. V.), African Art, 180 Helland- Hansen (Dr. B.), and Dr. F, Nansen, Temperature Hall (Maxwell), [obituary], 302 Haller (A.): and R. Cornubert, The Constitution of the Dimethylcyclohexanone obtained by Methylation of the Sodium Derivative of a-Methylcyclohexanone, 250; The Constitution of the Methylethylcyclohexanone prepared by the Ethylation of a-Methylcyclohexanone, 379; and Mme. -Ramart-Lucas, Bromohydrins and Dibromo- derivatives, 762 Halliburton (Prof. W. D.), The Essentials of Chemical Physiology. Tenth edition, 192 Hansen (Lieut. G.), Leading a Supporting Expedition for Amundsen’s Trans-Polar Voyage, 82 Hansen (Dr. H. J.), The Cumacea and Phyllocarida in the Seas round Iceland and South Greenland, 81 Harden (Dr. A.), and Dr. S. S. Zilva, The Antiscorbutic Requirements of the Monkey, 499 Harder (E. C.), Iron Depositing Bacteria and their Geologic Relations, 727 Harding (Dr. V. J.), appointed Professor of Pathological Chemistry in the University of Toronto, 537 Hardy (G. H.), Synonyms, Notes, and Descriptions of Australian Flies in the Family Asilidz, 635 Hardy (Prof. G. H.), S. Ramanujan, 494: The Cost of Scientific Publications, 353 Hardy (Dr. M. E.), The Geography of Plants, 386 Harker (Dr. A.), Petrology for Students: An Introduction to the Study of Rocks under the Microscope. Fifth edition, 99 Harkins (Prof. W. D.), The Separation of the Element Chlorine into Normal Chlorine and Meta-Chlorine, and the Positive Electron, 230 Harper (F.), The Okefinokee Swanp, Georgia, 593 Harrison (J. W. H.), Melanism in British Lepidoptera, 278 Harrison (W. J.), The Theory of Vibrations, 473 Hartog (P. J.), appointed: Vice-Chancellor of the University of Dacca. 569 Hartridge (Dr. H.), Microscopic Illumination, 275 Harvey (A.), Practical Leather Chemistry, 382 | Harvey (Prof. E. N.), Animal Luminescence and Stimula- tion, 843; Chemistry of Light Production in Luminous Organisms, 279 Harvey-Webh (the late Capt. G. D.), Gift by the Relatives : of, to University College, London, 155 Hatfield (Dr. W. H.), and H. M. Duncan, The Mechanical Properties of Turbine Steels, 148 Hatschek (E.), Laboratory Manual of Elementary Colloid Chemistry, 705 Hatton (Prof. J. L. S.), The Theory of the Imaginary in Geometry, together with the Trigonometry of the Imaginary, 736 Haughton (J. L.), Measurement of Electrical Conductivity in Metals and Alloys at High Temperatures, 602 Haughton (S. H.), The Reptilian Fauna of the Karroo System, 837 Haupt (Prof. P.), The Beginning of the Fourth Gospel, 764 Haviland (Miss Maud D.), Preliminary Note on Antennal Variation in an Aphid (Myzus ribis, Linn.), ; Haworth (Dr. H. F.), Measurement of Electrolytic Resist- ances using Alternating Currents, 602 Haworth (Dr. W. N.), appointed Professor of Organic Chemistry at Armstrong College, 537 Hayata (B.), The Flora of the Island of Formosa, 664 Hayward (Dr. F. H.), A First Book of School Celebrations, 707; A Second Book of School Celebrations, 804 Head (Dr. H.), elected an Honorary Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, 88; Sensation and the Cerebral Cortex, 363 Heath (Sir Thomas L.), elected an Honorary Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, 88; Euclid in Greek. Book I. With Introduction and Notes. 288 Hedrick (U. P.), Manual of American Grape-growing, 674 Heenan (H.), poe) RSS Heilbron (Prof. M.), appointed Professor of Organic Chemistry in the University of Liverpool, 537 Heitland (W. E.), Agriculture in Italy in Imperial Times, ea Od, Hele-Shaw (Prof. H. S.), The Title of Emeritus Professor of Engineering Conferred upon, by Liverpool University, 841 Variations in - North Atlantic Ocean and in ihe Atmosphere, Henderson (G. S. ‘s ‘practial Salt-Land Reclamation, 434 Henderson (G. T.), awarded a Frank Smart Prize of the University of Cambridge, 537 Henderson (Dr. J. A. R.), Alchemy and Chemistry among the Chinese, 474 Henri (Dr. V.), Etudes de Photochimie, 640 Henry (Prof. A.), Forests, Woods, and Trees in Relation to Hygiene, 158 Henson (G. W.), and S. H. Fowles, The More Economical Utilisation of the Coke-oven and Blast-furnace Gases for Heating and Power, 695 Herdman (Prof. . A.), Oceanography and the Sea- Fisheries (Presidential Address to the British Associa- tion), 813; The Cost of Scientific Publications, 326 Héricourt (Dr. J.), Translated, and with a Final Chapter, by B. Miall, The Social Diseases : Syphilis, Alcoholism, Sterility, 543 Heritsch (Dr. F.), Discovery of Tabulate Corals in the Supposed Mesozoic Mantle of the Hohe Tauern, 836 Herkless (Ppl. Sir John), [obituary], 495 Herman (C. L.), The Platana of the Cape Peninsula, 700 Heron (F. A.), Gifts to Queen’s University,. Belfast, 248 Heron-Allen (E.), and A. Earland, An Experimental Study of the Foraminiferal Species Verneuilina polystrophia, Reuss, etc., 282 Herrera (A. Ey The Imitation of Cells, Tissues Cell- division, and the Structure of Protoplasm with Calcium Fluosilicate, 635 Hetherington (Prof. H. J. W.), Exeter University College, 280 Hewitt (Dr. C. Gordon), [death], 18; [obituary article], 75 Hewitt (J.), Survey of the Solifuge of South Africa, 275 Hewitt (Dr. J. A.), appointed Lecturer andi Demonstrator in Physiology at King’s College, ‘London, 698 Heycock (C. T.), Presidential Address to Section B of the British Association, 825 Hicks (Prof. G. Dawes), The Ultimate Data of Physics, 446 Hickcod (Prof. S. J.), Science in Medical Education, ¢ 643: elected an Honorary Fellow of Downing College, Cam- bridge, 761 Higham (J.), appointed Lecturer in Physics and Electrical Engineering in Manchester University, Hildt (E.), The Hydrolysis of the Polysaccharides, 603 apne be E.), The Fungal Diseases of the Common Larch, Hite (Adam), Ltd., Catalogue of Wave-length Spectro- . meter, etc., 3 Hill (A. V.), and W. Hartree, The Thermo-elastic Pro- perties of Muscle, 537 Hill (C. A.), Progress in Science and Pharmacy, 659 Hill (J. G.), A ater Transmission, Theoretical and Applied Hillebrand we F.), Analysis of Silicate and Carbonate Rocks, 836 Hillhouse ‘e A.), Degree of D.Sc. Glasgow University, 568 Hilliar (H. W.), The Pressure-wave Thrown Out by Sub- marine a are 313 Hills (Col. E. H.), Science and the New Army, 103° Hilton-Simpson (M. W.), Flint-trimming in Algeria, 81 Hind (Dr. Wheelton), [obituary], 555 Hinks (A. ge The Total Solar Eclipse of September 20, 1922, Hinton ( im’ A. C.), Rats and the Need of 2 8 Measures, 756 Hiorns (A. H.), [obituary], 335 Hirst (H.), Scorpions, Mites, Ticks, Spiders, and -Centi- pedes, 787 : Hitchcock (A. S.), and P. C. Standley, Flora of the District of Columbia and Vicinity, 242 Hobbs (Prof. W. H.), The Mechanics of the Glacial Anti- cyclone, illustrated by Experiment, 644 — Hobson (Dr. F. G.), New Aspects in the Assessment of Physical Fitness, 812 Hodge (E. T.), The Geological History of Porto’ Rico, 593 Tuberculosis, - appointed Principal of conferred upon, by ~ as ey Lndex XV .+A.), elected to a Beit Fellowship for Scientific ch, 66 earc ‘ Dr. D. G.), Discoveries in the Hejaz, 528 . T.), Studies on Synapsis, ii., 539 ; The Problem Aapsis, 570 F.), elected to the Benn W. Levy Research tship in Biochemistry in Cambridge University, - Thomas H.), The Organisation of Scientific India, 452 College of Physicians of London, 1922, 755 Co.,” Ltd. (A.), Gift to the Liverpool University Fund, 376 (Dr.), ‘The Distribution of ‘Land and Water in ndinavian Mountain Problem, 623 . E.), awarded a Frank Smart Prize of the rersity of Cambridge, Miss L.), Shamanism among the Cahuilla Indians, fF. Gowland), The Present Position of Vita- 1 Clinical Medicine, 722 F. L.), The Thermionic Properties of Hot } _W.), Meteorology for All: Being Some Problems Explained, 323 ~ labits of the Sage Grouse, 786 -), and Ann C. Davies, The Effects of Collisions with Atmosvheric Neon, 633 _B.), The Aurora of March 22-23, 200 R. A.), An Experiment on the Spectrum, , The Empire Timber Exhibition, 691 ). and O. Chick, Some Recent Samples Cinchona Bark, 726 ei (B. F.), The Middle Cambrian Beds at Newfoundland, and their Relations, 843 Henry), Presentation of Mammalian’ and to the Natural History Museum, 209; dhism in the Pacific, 407 Extermination of the Australian Native ae - : ), “Museums and the State, 69 ), Faint Nebulz, 84 ), Birds in Town and Village, 651; The aturalist, 651. appointed Lecturer in Histary at Univer- ege, Swansea, 665 1.), Gift to the Appeal Fund of Liverpool : . The Deposition of Iron by Electrolysis, Uses of the Electro-deposition of Metals, .), A Device for Obviating the Use of the High p uired in Wireless Telegraphy, 624 (T LI.), The Industrial Fellowship System Promotion of Industrial Research, 665 | (Prof. A. &.), [death], 239; [obituary article], H. E.), Records’ of the Nile Gauges. 1913 to 1918, finand), and Vero C. Driffield, A Memorial by W. B. Ferguson, 609 .), appointed Professor of Civil Engineering in Id University, 601 on (R. W.), Intermediate Text-book of Magnetism Electricity, 515 T. W.), [obituary], 462 E. P.), P. W. Cobb. H. M. Johnson, and W. Weniger, Report on the Relative Merits of Monocular Binocular Field-glasses under Service Conditions, be HL), “The Viscosities and Compressibilities of uids at High Pressure, 57 (Dr. J. H.), [death], 555 > _G,. M.), appointed Croonian Lecturer of the | orth _Atlantic Region in Palzozoic Times, 212 ;° I. (F. O.), Knowledge and Power, 165 Ilford, Ltd., Panchromatism. Second - edition, 306 Imms (Dr. A. D.), and others, The Investigation of Grain Pests, 236; The Training of Practical Entomologists, Inchley (Dr. O.), appointed Lecturer in Pharmacology a King’s Coleee Loddon, 698 af Innes (R. T. A.), A Search for Proper Motions by the Blink Method ; Galactic Condensation, 759 : Inge (Dean W. R.), elected President of the Aristotelian Society, 622; The Idea of Progress, 431 Ingle (H.), Elementary Agricultural Chemistry. Third edition, 773 Inostranseff (Prof. A. A.), [obituary], 525 Jackson (Prof. A. V. W.), The Zoroastrian Doctrine of the Freedom of the Will, 763 Jackson (Dr. B. Daydon), Banks as a Traveller, 530; The Cost of Scientific Publications, 354 Jackson (Sir Herbert), elected President of the Institute of Chemistry, 19 Jackson (J.), Double Stars, 436 3 Jackson (V. G.), Cultivation of the Vine in America, 674 Jacobson (E.), and C. B. Kloss, The Sumatran Hare (Nesolagus Netscheri), 115 Jaffrey (Sir Thomas), Gift to Aberdeen University, 154 James (Rev. E. O.), An Introduction to cae As A General Survey of the Early History of the Human Race, 384 Jardine (E. E.), Practical Science for Girls: As Applied to Domestic Subjects, 705 Jarry-Desloges (R.), Different Phenomena observed on the Planet Mars, 603 Jastrow, junr. (Prof. M.), A Gentle Cynic: Being a Trans- lation of the Book of Koheleth, commonly known as Ecclesiastes, stripped of Later Additions; also its Origin, Growth, and Interpretation, 226; The Hittite Civilisation, 763 . Jeans (J. H.), Problems of Cosmogony and Stellar Dynamics, 31 Jee (Dr. E. C.), Fishery Investigations. Ser. III. Hydro- graphy, Vol, I.; The English Channel, Part II. ; Vol. II., Lightship Observations, Part I.; Vol. Ill., The Atlantic Ocean, Part I., 150 : : Jeffery (G. B.), Plane Stress and Plane Strain in Bipolar Co-ordinates, 632 : Jeffreys (Dr. H.), Gravitational Shift of Spectral Lines, 37 ; Tidal Friction and the Lunar and Solar Accelerations, 403; Tidal Friction in Shallow Seas, 632 Jellicoe (Lord), The Grand Fleet, 1914-16, 93 : Jenkin (Prof. C. F.), Presidential Address to Se@tion G of the British Association, 827 Jenkins (Dr. J. T.), The Sea Fisheries, 397 Jensen (P. B.), The Fish-food in the Limfjord, 1900-1917, 2 . Job P), and G. Urbain, Detection of Masked Sulphuric Ions in Complex Compounds, 283 te Johansen (Dr. A. C.), and Dr. Kirstine; Intensive Fishing, I 2 Johnson (Dr. S. C.), Pastimes for the Nature Lover, 774; Wild Fruits and How to Know Them, 774 Johnston (Sir H. H.), The Plumage Bill and Bird Protec- tion, 168 : Johnston (Lt.-Col. W. J.), New Editions of the, One-inch and Quarter-inch Ordnance Survey Maps, 312 : Jolibois (P.), and P. Bouvier, The Precipitation of Mercuric Salts by Sulphuretted Hydrogen, 603 Jolliffe (A. E.), appointed Professor of Mathematics at the Royal Holloway College, 568 Jolly (W. A.), The Reflex Times in Xenopus laevis, 699 Jones (D. W.), Chemical Sheet-Lead, 695 Jones (E. G.), Chemistry for Public Health Students, 705 Jones (Prof. E. T.), The Action of the Induction Coil, 369 Jones (LI. Rodwell), appointed a Lecturer in Commerce at the London School of Economics and Political Science, 568 Jones (Sir Robert), awarded the Cameron Prize of the University of Edinburgh, 622 xvi Index Nature, October 7, 1920 Jordan (M. E. C.), elected a Foreign Associate of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences, 463 Joynt (T. A.), appointed a Lecturer in Commerce at the London School of Economics and Political Science, 568 Kamakau, Ancient Religious Ceremonies of the Hawaians, 62 Kapp (Prof. G.), The Principles of Electrical Engineering and their Application. Vol. II., Application, 418 Kapteyn (Prof. J. C.), Researches on the Stellar System, 838 3 Karpinski (Prof. L. C.), Prof. H. Y. Benedict, and Prof. J. W. Calhoun, Unified Mathematics, 162 Keane (Prof. A. H.), Man: Past and Present. Revised, and largely re-written, by Mrs. A. H. Quiggin and Dr. A. C. Haddon, 255 ree: per oS Ne)» The Sir John Cass Technical Institute, Keeble. (Prof. F. W.), Presidential Address to Section M of the British Association, 828 Keen (B. A. ‘ Physical Problems in Soil Cultivation, 438 Keeping (H.), ‘‘ Reminiscences,’’? 624 Keith (Prof. A), How Far Can Osteological Characters Help in Fixing the Antiquity of Human Remains ?, 153; The Engines of the Human Body: Being the Substance of Christmas Lectures given at the Royal Institution of Great Britain, Christmas, 1916-1917, 195; The Mathematician as Anatomist, 767 Kellogg (Prof. V.), The United States National Research Council, 332 Kelly (R. J.), Donnybrook Fair, 433 Kennedy (J.), [obituary], 555 Kennelly (Dr. A. E.), The Transient Process of Establishing a Steady Alternating Electric Current on a Long Line from Laboratory Measurements on an Artificial Line, 843 eieson (Prof. A. M.), and Prof. W. V. Lovitt, Mathe- matics for Collegiate Students of Agriculture and General Science. Revised edition, 131. Kershaw (J. B. C.), Fuel, Water, and Gas ate for Steam Users. Second ‘edition, 227 Kessler (D. W.), Tests of the Physical and Chemical Pro- perties of Commercial Marbles of the United States, 181 Kestner (P.), presented with the Gold Medal Society of Chemical Industry, 654 Kidston (Dr. R.), Presentation of Mesozoic Fossil Plants to the Geological Department of the University of Edin- burgh, 280; and Prof. Lang, Asteroxylon Mackiei from the Rhynie Chert-bed of Aberdeenshire, 527 Kienast (A.), Equivalence of Different Mean Values, 474 Kiess (C. C.), and W Meggers, The Infra-red Arc Spectra of Seven Elements, 726 Kincer (J. B.), Sunshine in the United States, 791 Kinch (Prof. E.), [obituary], 784 King (A. S.), The Zeeman Effect in Furnace Spectra, 529 King (H. H.), Entomological Work in the Anglo-Egyy tian Sudan, 503 King (Dr. L. V.), appointed) Macdonald Professor of Physics at the Macdonald Physics Building, McGiil University, 721 Kingdon (K. H.), Low-voltage Ionisation Phenomena in Mercury Vapour, 632 Kingzett (C. T.), Posse Chemical Dictionary, 227 Kirkaldy (J.), [obituary], 784 Kitchin (F. L.), and J. Pringle, A Mass of Gault and of the Cenomanian Strata Inverted on Lower Greensand, 836 Kling (A.), and D. Florentin, The Differentiation of Masked and Apparent Sulphuric Ions in Complex Salts, 379 ; and A. Lassieur, The Separation of Tin and Anti- mony, 442 Knecht (Prof. .E.), Alpine Insolation Effects on Unprotected Wood, 90 Knibbs (N. V. S.), and H. Palfreeman, The Theory of Electro-chemical Chlorate and Perchlorate Formation, 602 Knobel (E. B.), The Cost of Scientific Publications, 327 Knoop (D.), .appointed a Reader in Commerce at the London School of Economics and Political Science, 568 ; appointed Professor of Economics in Sheffield Univer- sity, 665 Knott (Dr. C. G.), Cost of Scientific Publications, 425; Earthquake Waves and the Elasticity of the Earth, 730 Kobold (Prof.), Astronomical Announcements by Wireless Telegraphy, 403 Kodak, Ltd., Circular Light-filters for Work with the Microscope, 435 : Kofoid (Prof. C. A.), Noctiluca, 433 Konno (S.), The Heat Conductivities of Metals Below and Above Their Melting Points, 181 Konstam (E. M.), Land Drainage from the Administrative Point of View, re Kopaczewski (W.), A. H. Roffo, and Mme. H. L. Roffo, Anesthesia and Anaphylaxy, 540 Korezynski (A.), W. Mrozinski, and W. Vielau, New Catalytic Elements for the Transformation of Diazo- compounds, 763. Krempf (A.), The Development of Pocillopora ceias and Seriatopora subulata, 380 Kroeber (Prof. A. L.), Peoples of the Philippines, 420 Kromm (F.), A Star with a Large Proper Motion, 282 Kténas (C, A.), The Hydrocarbon Zone of Western Greece, 251 Lacroix (A.), An Eruption of the Karthala Volcano at Grand Comore in August, 1918, 666; The Eruption of Katla eee, in 1918, 314 Lacroix (F. A. A.), elected a Foreign Associate of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences, 463 Lalesque (Dr. F.), Arcachon, Ville de Santé: Monographie Scientifique et Médicale, 322 ‘Lamb (C. G.), Notes on Magnetism, 19 3 Lamb (Prof. H.), elected an Honorary Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, 88 Lamb (J.), The Running and Maintenance of the Marine Diesel Engine, 290 Lamplugh (G. W.), Anticlinal Uplift the Sequel to Deana: tion in a Gradually Deepening Trough, 338; Some Features of the Pleistocene Glaciation of England, 58 Lang (H., The Pygmies of Central Africa, 367 Lang (Dr. W. D.), Old Age and Extinction in Fossils, 212 Langmuir (I.), Theories of Atomic Structure, 261 Lankester (Sir E. Ray), Museums and the State, 100; Pre- sentation to, of the Gold Medal of the Linnean Society, 526; Progress !, 733; re-elected President of the Marine Biological Association, 303; Some Rostro- carinate Flint Implements and Allied Forms, 631 Lapicque and Brocq-Rousseu, Marine Algz as” Food for the Horse, 635 Lapworth (Prof. A.), Latent Polarities of Atoms and Mechanism of Reaction, with Special Reference to Car- bonyl Compounds, 346 Lapworth (Prof. C.), [death], 76; [obituary article], 110 Larmor (Sir Joseph), elected a Corresponding Member of the French Academy of Sciences, 113; Oration in Presentation of an Honorary Degree to, 568 Latter (O. H.), Note on the Habits of the Tachinid Fly, Sphexapata (Miltogramma) conica, 614 Laucks (I. F.), Commercial Oils: Vegetable and Animal, with Special Reference to Oriental Oils, 132 Lavington (F.), appointed Girdlers’ Lecturer in Economics in Cambridge University, 601 Laws (B. C.), Conferment of the Degree of D.Sc. upon, by the University of London, 409 Layard (Miss Nina F.), Worked Flints with Finger-grips, 557 Lazarus-Barlow (Dr. W. S.), appointed Professor of Ex- perimental Pathology at Middlesex Hospital Medical School, 698 Le Bon (G.), Certain Antagonistic Properties of Various Regions of the Spectrum, 571 Lecat (Dr. M.), La Tension de Vapeur des Mélanges de Liquides: L’Azétropisme. Premiére Partie, 129 Lee (H. A.), and H. S. Yates, The ‘* Pink Disease ’? in the Philippines, 115 Lee (Miss R. M.), The Scale-markings of Fishes, 275 Leechman (D.), The Present State of the Patent Law in the Light of the New Patent Act, 366 Index XVili (E. de K.), ern Alaska, 559 of. H. Maxwell), The Plumage Bill and Bird Pro- n, 168; and others, The Education of Economic omologists, 503 ee ; (R.), and J. Mesnard, Vitamines for the Culture of Bacteria, 315 x (Prof. RK. T.), awarded ‘a Mary Kingsley Medal, 697 (Sir William), to Deliver the Horace Dobell 722 ; (M.), The Reactions of the Metallurgy of .), Indices of Physical Prog'ress, 26 re. G.), Ry Agnes Browne, Some Derivatives 0 2, 034 -), [obituary], 19 _ d Borguel, Production of True Acetylene Hydro- leroy | from Epidibromhydrin, 635; and . The Phenylpropines, 699 : H.), elected Chairman of the Chemical Section Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society, ita Rag he Harmonics in the Neighbourhood of an > (Dr. H.), The Close Co-operation of the German nent and the ‘‘ Interessen Gemeinschaft,’’ 722 Prof. V. B.), and Prof. J. S. S. Brame, emistry. Fifth edition, 287 -), appointed Oliver Sharpey Lecturer of the e of Physicians of London, 1921, 755 Easy Method of Finding Latitude, 625 se of Mixtures of Formal and Chromium as Fixing Agents, 604. R.), Problems of Fertilisation, 225 W. Mz), elected a Fellow of the Royal sty of Science, 209 © : ppointed Adrian Brown Professor of Brew- m University, 154 bs: loyment Psychology: The Applica- ie Methods to the Selection, Training, The Canning River Region, $ Employees, 673 mmemorating the Work of, 654 , appointed Cayley Lecturer in Mathe- abridge University, 505 L.), and others, Lighting Conditions in Special Reference to the Eyesight of Destruction of the Glasshouse Tomato 5. L.), Mining and Manufacture of Fertilising als, and their Relation to Soils, 4 R. D.), appointed a Lecturer in Anatomy en University, 730 Norman), Contributions to Astrophysics, 831; articles], 781, 784 . : or W. J. S.), Central Wireless Station for . . 454; Helium: Its Discovery and Applica- 360; Recent Researches on Nebula, 489 Edmund Giles), [obituary article], 3o1 Oliver), Prof. A. Righi, 753 E.), Zine and its Alloys, 193 t. F. C.), Announcement that the Post Office Favour of Granting Wireless Licences for Ex- ntal Work, 80 i Py British Iron Ores, 419 sticity. Third edition, 511; elected an Member of the Royal Irish Academy, J.), Bees and the Scarlet Runner Bean, 742 Or. A. The Honorary Degree of Doctor of _Conferred upon, by Cambridge University, 730 ‘y (Dr. T. M.), appointed Professor of Physical Chemis- ry in Cambridge University, 630; and F. C. Hem- igs, The Properties of Powders, 217; and S. Wilding, e Setting of Dental Cements. 217 as (A.), Legal Chemistry and Scientific Criminal In- _ Yestigation, 772 . Lumiére (A.), Are Vitamines Nece y 2 oF Pala? sos Necessary to the Development Lundmark (K.), The Parallaxes of Globular Clusters and Spiral Nebulz, 215 Lunn (A. C.), The Commutativity of One-parameter Trans- formations in Real Variables, 667 Lunt (Dr. J.), The Expanding Disc of Nova Aquilze The Spectrum of 4 Argis, 149 Lyons (Col. H. G.), appointed Director and Secretary of the Science Museum, South Kensington, 463 » 595; Lyster (A. G.), [obituary], 143 MacAlister (Sir Donald), to Receive the Honorary De of LL.D. from the University of Dublin, 89 ae MacArthur (J. S.), [obituary], 112 MacBride (Prof. E. W.), Museums and the State, 68; The Method of Evolution, 655 ‘ MacCallum (Dr. Bella D.), appointed Assistant in Botany in Edinburgh University, 120 MacDougal (Dr. D. T.), The Components and Colloidal Behaviour of Protoplasm, 795 MacDougall (Dr.), Insects in Relation to Afforestation, 503 MacFadden (Dr.), Work of Inspectors of Food, 151 juego oe (M.), and others, The Iron Ores of Scotland. ol. xi., 419 : MacIntyre (Dr. J.), Degree of LL.D. conferred upon, by Glasgow University, 568 ; Mackenzie (Col. J. S. F.), A Night Raid into Space: The Story ‘of the Heavens told in Simple Words, 100 Mackenzie (K. J. J.), Cattle and the Future of Beef Pro- - duction in England. With a Preface and Chapter by Dr. F. H. A. Marshall, 62 Mackenzie (Sir Leslie), presented with the Medal of Honour _ Of the University of Brussels, 440 MacLachlan (Dr. N. W.), The ‘Testing of Bars of Magnet Steel, 122 Maclaurin (Dr. R. C.), [obituary], 144 MacMahon (Major P. A.), Congruences with Respect to Composite Moduli, 474 ¥ MacMichael (H. A.), Stone Worship, 115 MacMillan (Prof. W. D.), The Structure of the Universe, 789 MacNutt (J. S.), The Modern Milk Problem in Sanitation, Economics, and Agriculture, 385 McAdie (Prof. A.), The Attainment of High ‘Levels in the Atmosphere, 437; The Principles of Aérography, 479 McAulay (Prof. A.), Relativity and Hyperbolic Space, 808 McBain (Prof. J. W.), Colloidal Electrolytes, 760 ; McBride (G. McC.), The Possibilities of Cotton-growing in South America, 399 McCarrison (Col.); Vitamines in their Relation to Health. 557 McClelland (Prof. J. A.), [obituary article], 238; and A. Gilmour, The Electric Charge on Rain, 498; (the late Prof.), and the Rev. H. V. Gill, The Causes of the Self-ignition of Ether-air Mixtures, 634 McClure (Rev. Canon E.), Buzzards and Bitterns, 105 McCurdy (E.), Leonardo da Vinci, 307, 340 McDougall (Dr. W.), An Introduction to Social Psychology. Fourteenth edition, 2a1 ? McEwen (G. F.), and E. L. Michael, The Functional Rela- tion of One Variable to each of a Number of Correlated Variables, 82 McFarlane (J.), Presidential Address to Section E of the British Association, 826 McFarlane (Miss Margaret), awarded a Keddy Fletcher- Warr Studentship by the University of London, 155 McGregor (E. A.), The ‘‘ Red Spiders ’’ of America, 275 McIntosh (Dr. J.), appointed Professor of Pathology at Middlesex Hospital Medical School, 25. McIntosh (Prof. W. C.), International Council for Fishery Investigations, 167, 358 McKendrick (Major), and Major Morison, Influenza on Shipboard, 40 ; McLennan (Prof, J. C.), Helium: Its Production and Uses, 747, 778; Sources of Helium in the British Empire, 425: and A. C. Lewis, Spark Spectra of Various Elements in Helium in the Extreme Ultra-violet, 632; J. F. T. XVII Index Naiure, October 7, 1920 Young, and H. J. C. Ireton, Arc Spectra in vacuo and Spark Spectra in Helium of Various Elements, 632 McNamara (Dr. J.), The Flight of Flying-fish, 421 Mailhe (A.) A New Method of Formation of Nitriles by Catalysis, 283; A New Preparation of Amines by Catalysis, 442; The Catalytic Hydration of Nitriles, 795; and F., de Godon, The Preparation of Fatty Acids by the Catalytic Oxidation of the Primary Alcohols, 187; The Catalytic Formation of Ether Oxides, 27 wee Majorana (Q.), Gravitation, 283; vi., 251; ix., 844 Malinowsky (Dr. B.), Kula: The Circulating Exchange of Valuables in the Archipelagoes of Eastern New Guinea, 688; and others, The Economic Pursuits of the Trobriand Islanders, 564 . Mallock (A.), Genera and Species, 675; Growth of Waves, 777 ; Influence of Temperature on the Rigidity of Metals, 631; Muscular Efficiency, 197; Weather Forecasts and Meteorology, 580 Malone (Capt.), and Capt. Maitra, Encephalitis lethargica in Karachi, 834 Mangenot (G.), The Chondriome of the Vaucheria, 571 Mangham (S.), appointed Professor of Botany at the Univer- sity College of Sotthampton, 698 Manning (Dr. V. H.), appointed Director of Research in the American Petroleum Institute, 52 Mansbridge (A.), Technical Schools and Their Part in Adult ' Education, 23 Maquenne (L.), and E. Demoussy, a Case Favourable to the Action of Copper on Vegetation, 634; The Catalytic Action of Copper Salts on the Oxidation by air of Ferrous Compounds, 699; The Absorption of Calcium by Plant-roots, etc., 91 Marchal (Prof. P.), elected a Foreign Member of the Linnean Society, 366 Marconi (G.), An Appreciation of the late Prof. Righi, 526 Marr (Prof. J. E.), The Relationship of the Various Periods of Prehistoric Man to the Great Ice Age, 153 Marshall (the late Prof. A. Milnes), and the late Dr. C. H. Hurst, A Junior Course of Practical Zoology. Ninth edition, revised by Prof. F. W. Gamble, 516 Marshall (the late Rev. E. S.), Bequest to Cambridge Marshall (1) 7A 1 arshall (J.), “A Law of Force Giving; Stabili Rutherford Atom, 666 ‘3 roe Martin (Major A. J.), Presentation to, of the- Gold Medal of the Institution of Sanitary Engineers, 526; The Nature and Treatment of Sewage, 792 Martin (Prof. C. J.), elected a Member of the Athenzum - Club, 209 Martin (E. A.). The Condition of Kent’s Cavern, 742; The Glaciation of the South Downs, 530 Martin (J.), A Geography of Asia, 35 Martin (M. J.), Wireless Transmission of Photographs. Second edition, 451 Mason (T. G.), The Inhibition of Invertase in the Sap of Galanthus nivalis, 123 Mason (Dr. W.), appointed Professor of Engineering (Strength of Materials), in Liverpool University, 630 Massy (Miss Anne L.), a Revised List of the Species of Holothurioidea of the Coasts of Ireland, 433 Mathews (Prof. G. B.), Complex Elements in Geometry, 736 Matignon (C.), and J. A. Lecanu, The Reversible Oxidation of Arsenious Acid, 347: and Mlle. Marchal, The Pro- longed Action of Carbon Dioxide on Silicates- and Quartz, 44 Matisse (G.), Action de la Chaleur et du Froid sur 1’Activité des Etres Vivants, 161 Matthew (W. D.), Plato’s Atlantis in Palaogeography, Matthews (D. J.), Demoussy’s Engrais, 738 Matthews (R. Borlase), The Technical Library, sos Maulik (Prof. S.), The Fauna of. British India, including Ceylon and Burma. Coleoptera. Chrysomelide (His- pinze and Cassidinz), 64 Maurice (H. G.), elected President of the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea,: 86 Maury (Miss C. J.). The Shells of Porto Rico, 593 Max Miller (Dr. W.), The Bilingual Inscriptions at Phil, 592 667 Maxwell (Sir Herbert), Sir Edmund Giles Loder, 301; The Plumage Bill and Bird Protection, 169 Mayer (A.), Guieysse, Plantefol, and Fauré-Fremiet, Pul- monary Lesions determined by Blistering Compounds, 604; H. Magne, and 'L. Plantefol, Reflex Action Pro- duced by the Irritation of the Deeper Respiratory Tracts, 507; H. Magne, and L. Plantefol, The Reflexes Provoked by Irritation of the Respiratory Passages, 443 Mayo (C. H. P.), Elementary Calculus, 163 Meek (Prof. A.), The Physiology of Migrations in the Sea, I Meek (D. B.), Degree of D.Sc. conferred upon, by Glasgow University, 568 é Mees (Dr. C. E. Kenneth), The Nature of Photographic Images, 307; The Organisation of Industrial Scientific Research, 771 . Meggers (W. F.), and C. G. Peters, Measurements of the Index of Refraction of Arc for Wave-lengths, 53 Meldrum (A. N.), The Development of the Atomic Theory, 212 Mellanby (Dr.), appointed Professor of Pharmacology in Sheffield University, 601 ise Meltzer (Dr. S. J.), The Dualistic Conception of the Pro- cesses of Life, 763 ' ‘ ea Mennell (F. P.), Rare Zinc-copper Minerals from the Rhodesian Broken Hill Mine, Northern Rhodesia, 569 Mercer (J.), Symmetrisable Functions and their Expansion | in Terms of Biorthogonal Functions, 632 Mercer (Right Rev. Dr. J. E.), Some Wonders of Matter, 6 : Meccan (C. F.), A New Method for Anoroximate Evalua- tion of Definite Integrals between Finite Limits, 422 Merrill (E. D.), New or Noteworthy Philippine ‘Plants, I Merrill (G. P.), An Interesting Meteorite, 759 Merrill (P. W.), Variable Stars of Class Md, 244 - Merton (Dr. T. R.), The Structure of the Balmer Series of Hydrogen Lines, 314; The Title of Professor Con- ferred upon, by Oxford University, 40; and Brig.- General H. Hartley, The Separation of Isotopes, 104 Mesnil (Prof. F.), awarded a Mary Kingsley Medal, 697 Messel (Dr. R.), [death], 239; [obituary article], 270; Be- - quests by, 569 Metcalfe (J.), [obituary], 273 . : Meunier (J.), The Catalytic Action of Aluminium in the Preparation of the Chlorobenzenes, 571 _ Miall (Dr. S.), The Standard of Atomic Weights, 294 Michell (A. G. M.), A Simple Viscometer, 344 ate Michelson (Prof. A. A.), awarded the Albert Medal of the Royal Society of Arts, 496; The Application of Inter- ference Methods to Astronomical Measurements, 666 Middleton (Sir T. H.), Organisation of Scientific Work, 103 : The Place of Basic Slag in the Agricultural System of the Country, 183 ‘ Miers (Sir Henry A.), re-elected President of the Man-’ chester Literary and Philosophical Society, 303; C..G. Darwin, and Dr. H. Robinson, Moseley Memorial, 200 Mignonac (G.). The Catalytic Hydrogenation of Nitriles, 609; The Ketimines, 247 i Mill (Dr. H. R.), The Position of the Meteorological Office, 38; Woods and Water Supply, 158 ; Miller (Dr.), List of Observed Parallaxes, 500 Miller (Prof. D. C.), The Velocity of Explosive Sounds, 842 Miller (L. E.), In the Wilds of South America: Six Years of Exploration in Colombia, Venezuela, British Guiana, Peru, Bolivia, Argentina, Paraguay, and Brazil, 159 Millikan (Prof. R. A.), to Receive the Honorary Degree of ' D.Sc. from the University of Dublin, 89 Milne (E. A.), appointed Assistant Director of the Solar Physics Observatory, Cambridge, 376 5 We Milne (J.), The Analytical Geometry of the Straight Line and the Circle, 65 Milner (H. B.), Petroleum Geology, 608 Mitchell (Dr. A. C.), The Magnetic Storm of March 22-23 and Associated Phenomena, 170 ; Mitchell (C, Ainsworth), Characteristics of Pigments in Early Pencil Writing, 12 pent Mitchell (Dr. P. Chalmers), Impressions on the Physio- . graphy of the Nile Basin, 113; Value of Aviation in | Scientific Exploration, 336 /ndex xix A>), and C. P. Olivier, The Binary Krueger 60, L.), and C. Wriedt, A New Type of Hereditary phalangy in Man, 464 : liard (M.), Influence of a Small Quantity of Potassium _the Physiological Characters of Sterigmatocystis » 347 ; Colour and Chemical Constitution. Part xi., 667 Reid , An Early Neolithic ‘‘ Floor ’’ in the Neigh- ood of Ipswich, 527; Early Palzolithic Flint Im- 146,; Naturally Fractured Eocene Flints, 358; olithic Man, 289 - and Mrs. P. A.), Further Gift Towards the © Institute of Parasitology at Cambridge, 665 (Prince Albert de), Stray Mines in the North (Hon. E. S.), The Plumage Bill, 303 of Beaulieu (Lord), Some National Aspects of Ort, 4! ais . O.), appointed FitzPatrick Lecturer of the llege of Physicians of London, 1921, 755 (Dr. B.), appointed Professor of Biochemistry in University of Oxford, 537; E. Whitley, and T. A. bster, Sunlight and the Life of the Sea, 90; and A. Webster, Photosynthesis in Fresh-water Alge, The Ignition Points of Liquid Fuels, 245 i), fobituary], 76 x Fp fobituary], 76 . bd - Lloyd), appointed Emeritus Professor of and Ethics in Bristol University, 630 .), The Limestone Resources of New Zea- T. H.), Dr. C. B. Bridges, and A. H. ontribution to the Genetics of Drosophila 405 bs ), Scientific Apparatus and Laboratory ), elected President of the Oil and Colour ssociation, 527 : Evolution of Wealden Flint Culture from Times; 431 id others, The Imperial College of Science 471 Fae .), [obituary], 431 o the Bodleian Library, Oxford, 731 a m: Its Manufacture, Manipulation, J.), [obituary], 363. . ; appointed Professor of, Physiology at 2 for Women Household and Social a 2 698 Clarke, Reduction in Number of White Blood | those Handling Radium for Curative The Training and Functions of the Pineer, 52 C.), Notions fondamentales de Chimie Sixiéme édition, 63; and J. C. Bongrand, hes on Carbon Sub-nitride, 411; and G. 2 angpeadla 539 A New Genus of Australian Delphacide ra), 63. pose Gift of Mathematical Works to the African Public Library, Cape Town, 305 7. H.), H. Kirke Swann, and Rev. F. C. R. A Geographical Bibliography of British from the Earliest Times to the end of 1918. 7 Fa Jr. A. A.), Investigation and Standardisation of lysical Efficiency of Children, 26 . E.), The Cost of Laboratory Fittings, 294, 456 Dr. R.), [obituary article], 685 rof. C. E.), Products of Detonation of T.N.T., (J. B.), The Effect of Phvsical Agents on the of Mice to Cancer, 668 : and C. Voegtlin, The Chemical Isolation of ance Oldham S.), Science and the New Army, 135 Myers (Dr. J. E.), and J, B. Firth, Elementary Practical Chemistry. For Medical and Other Students, Second edition, 705 : Nagaoka (H.), Diffraction Image of a Disc, 436 Nansen (Dr. F.), The Discovery of Spitsbergen, 210 Nash (J. K.), The Nesting of. the Bee-eater in Scotland, 786 Wee (R. E.), Electricity: Its Production and Applications, 04 Neave (the late Dr, G, B.), and Prof, 1. M. Heilbron, The Identification of Organic Compounds. Second edition, 774 Neilson-Jones (W.), appointed Professor of Botany at Bed- ford College, 155 ‘ Neville (G. O.), The Aborigines of Western Australia: Their Treatment and Care, 248 Neville (H. A. D.), and L. F. Newman, A Course of Prac- tical Chemistry for Agricultural Students. Vol ii., Mare 1. 74% Newman (Sir George), The Origin and Growth of the Medical Department of the Local Government Board, 151; and others, The Place of ‘‘ Preliminary Science ’’ in the Medical Curriculum, 661 Newman (L. F.), and Prof. H. A. D. Neville, A Course of Practical Chemistry for Agricultural Students. Vol i., 291 Nichols (Prof, E. F.), Resignation of the Chair of Physics at Yale University, 440; appointed Director of Pure Science in the Nela Research Laboratory, 834 Nichols (E. L.), H. L. Howes, and others, The Fluor- escence and Absorption Spectra of Uranyl Salts, 498 Nicholson (Prof. J. W.), The Secondary Spectrum of Hydrogen, 166 Nicoll (M. J.), Hand-list of the Birds of Egypt, 674 Nicolle (M.), E. Césari, and C. Jouan, Toxines et Anti- toxines, 67 ‘ Nierenstein (Dr. M.), Waage’s Phytochemical Synthesis of Phloroglucin from Glucose, 391 Nordenfelt (T.), [obituary], ‘19 North (B.), assisted by N. Bland, Chemistry for Textile Students, 382 Northumberland (Duke of), elected President of the Royal Institution, 304 Nottin (P.), The Absorptive Power of Earth for Manganese, Noyes (A. A.), and D. A. MacInnes, The Ionisation and Activity of Largely Ionised Substances, 667 : Ogilvy (J: W.), British and Foreign Scientific Apparatus, Ohash? (Prof. R.), The Plumbiferous Barytes from Shi- bukuro, Japan, 569 : (R. D.), elected President of the Geological Society, 52; The Frequency of Earthquakes in Italy in the Years 1896 to 1914, 186 Onicescu (O.), Newtonian Fields in the Neighbourhood of a given Vectorial Field, 843 Onnes (H. K.), elected a Foreign Associate of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences, 463 Onslow, The Melanic Variety of Boarmia (Tephrosia) con- sonaria, 278 pene Orange (J. A.), Deflection of Light during a Solar Eclipse, 8 Ormandy (Dr. W. R.), Patents taken out for Mixtures Intended as Motor Fuels, 21; The Filtration of Colloids, 696 Orpen (Sir William), elected a Member of the Athenzum Club, 209 ; : Ortmann (Dr. A. E.), Correlation of Shape and Station in Fresh-water Mussels, 843 Osborn (Prof. H. F.), Report of the American Museum of Natural History, 1919, 724; and C.-C. Mook, Recon struction of the Skeleton of the Sauropod Dinosaut Camarasaurus, Cope (Morosaurus, Marsh), and W. K. Gregory, Restoration of Camarasaurus and Life-model, 667; Type Specimens of Fossil Horses from the Oli gocene, Miocene, and Pliocene Formations of North America, 117 XX Index Nature, Octvber 7, 1920 Osborne (Prof. W. A.), Marat and the Deflection of Light, 6 45 O’Shea (Prof. L. T.), [death], 239; [obituary article], 272 Osler (the late Sir bia a Proposed Memorial to, 50 Osterhout (Prof. V.), Respiration, 795 Oxley (Dr. A. E.), Wives and Molecular Structure, 231; Atomic and Molecular Forces and Crystal Structure, 327; Diamagnetism and the Structure of the Hydrogen Molecule, 581; Diamagnetism of Hydrogen, 709 ; Lang- muir’s Theory of Atoms, 105; The Magnetic Properties of Forty Organic Compounds, 243 Oyler (Rev. D. S.), The Shilluks’ Belief in Medicine Men, 527 Pacific Steam Navigation iCo., Gift to the - Liverpool University Appeal Fund, 762 Page (L.), Gravitational Deflection of High-speed Particles, 233 Palander (Admiral A. L.), [obituary], 754 Palmer (W. G.), The Catalytic Activity of Copper. Part i., 633 Parker (Prof. G. H.), The Phosphorescence of Renilla, 843 Parker (W. H.), appointed Director of the National Insti- tute of Agricultural Botany, 335 Parkinson (Dr. W. H.), and H. D. Sewage Filters, 131 Parsons (Prof. F. GS, and others, the British Isles, 531 Parsons (S. J.), Malleable Cast Iron. Second edition, 290 ies ees (Prof. J. R.), The Standard of Atomic Weights, Bell, Insect Life on The Colour Index of Partridue (W.), appointed Lecturer in Chemistry (Public Health), at King’s College, London, 698 Pascoe (Dr. E. H.), Relations of the Indus, the Brahma- putra, and the Ganges, 835 Patchell (W. H.), Operating a By-product Producer-gas Plant for Power and Heating, 148 Paulson (R.), Stages in the Sporulation of Gonidia within the Thallus of Evernia prunastri, Ach., 281 Pauthenier (M.), Ratio of the Absolute Retardations in Carbon Bisulphide for Increasing Durations of Charge, 699; Ratio of the Absolute Retardations in the Kerr Phenomenon for Different Wave-lengths in the case of Nitrobenzene, 634 Payman (W.), Need of a Safety Lamp in Chemical Works, 116; The Propagation of Flame in Complex Gaseous Mixtures, 279 Peachey (S. ‘y.). A Process for the Cold Vulcanisation: of Rubber, 625 Peake (H.), The Finnic Question and Some Baltic Problems, 723 Pearl (Prof. R.), The Consumption of Foodstuffs in America from 1911—1918, 597; and Production of Ayrshire Cattle, 245 Pearson (E. S.), awarded the Sheepshanks Exhibition in Astronomy in Cambridge University, 313 Pearson (Prof. Karl), Presidential Address to Section H of the British Association, 827; The Permanent Value of University Benefactions, 501; and Julia Bell, A Study of the Long Bones of the English Skeleton. J. R. Miner, Milk Part i., The Femur; Part-i., Section ii., The Femur ; of Man, with Special Reference to other Primate Femora, 767 Pease (F. G.), sgh Poe of the Moon, 267 Peirce (Prof. B. O.), Magnetic Characteristics of the Iron Core of a Transformer or of an Induction Coil, 243 Pendred (L.), Plant-life in Cheddar Caves, 709 Percival (A: S.), Some Methods of Approximate Integra- tion and of Computing Areas, 70 Péringuey (L.), Stone Implements of Palzolithic Type Throwing Light on the Manufacture in South Africa, 699; Strand-loopers, 558; The Whales Frequenting South African Waters, 507 Perkin (Prof. W. H.), University Grants, 805 Perot (A.), Comparison of the Wave-lengths of a line of the Cyanogen Band in the Light of the Sun and that of a Terrestrial Source, 794 Perotti (R.), Measure of Ammoniating Power of Soils, 844; Nitrogen of the Cyanic Group in Manures, 844 Perrett (Dr, W.), ‘‘ All-or-None ’’ in the Auditory nerve, 390; Photographs of Seven Vocal Notes, 39 Perry (Prof. J.), [obituary articles], 751, 752 Perry (W. J.).The Origin of Warlike States, 442; The Search for Amber in Antiquity, 274; The Search for Gold and Pearls in Neolithic Times, 250 Perrycoste (Honor M. M.), The First Act of a Young Thrush, 456 Petavel (Sir J. E.), elected a Member of the Athenaum Club, 209 Petch (T.), Revisions of Ceylon Fungi, Part vi., 20 Petersen (Prof. -), Our Gobies (Gobiidz) from the Egg to the Adult Stages, 527 Petrie (Prof. Flinders), A Remarkable Ebony Statue from Egypt, 463; and Dr. Dennison, Personal Ornaments Found in Upper Egypt, 210 Peyrouel (B.), A Parasite of the Lupin, Blepharospora terrestris, 844 Pfeffer (Prof. W.), [obituary article], 302 Philby (H. St. John B.), awarded the Founder’s Medal of the Royal Geographical Society, 112 Philip (A.), Reform of the Calendar, 22 Philip (J. B.), sence wtigiid with Plants, book of Science, 805 Philip (Sir Robert W. ), Degree of LL.D. Conferred upon, by Glasgow University, 568 Phillips (Rev. T: E. R.), The Planet Jupiter, 500 Phillips (W. J.), Insect Pests in the United States Affecting Grain Crops, Cultivated Grasses, and Wild Grasses, 662 A First School- Pictet (A.), and P, Castan, Glucosane, 795 Piedallu (A.), P. Malvezin, and L. Grandchamp, The Treat- ment of the Blue casse of Wines, 442 Pierantoni (Prof.), Physiological Symbiosis, 756 Piettre (M.), and A. Vila, The Separation of the Proteins of the Serum, 571 - Pilgrim (Dr. G. E. ), A Great Pliocene River Running on the South Side of the Himalayas, 836 Pilon (H.), authorised translation. The Coolidge Tube. Its Scientific Applications. Medical and Industrial, 739 Pilsbry. (Dr. H. A.), Review of the Land Mollusks of ee Belgian Congo, 433 Pitman (P.), Pelton-wheel Construction, 625 Pitt (Miss F.), The Colour and Markings of Pedigree Hereford Cattle, 211 Piutti (A.), Action of Chloropicrin on the Parasites of Wheat and on Rats, 283 _Pixell-Goodrich (Mrs.), Cause of the’ Death of Honey-bees, 53 | Pleasance (R. E.), appointed Demonstrator in Pathology in © Sheffield University, 601 Pocock (R. I.), External Characters of the South American Monkeys, 218 Poincaré (L.), [death], 50; seri 208 Pollard (S.), awarded a Smith’s Prize by Chakenge University, 88 ; tie hey H.), The FitzGerald-Lorentz Contraction Theory, . Bok. “8. T.), The Medical History of Ishi, 755 Pope (Sir W. J.), elected an Associate of the Académie Royale de Belgique, 463; nominated President of the Society of Chemical Industry, 432; elected President of the Society of Chemical Industry, 654 Porcher (C.), Milk and Apthous Fever, 699; Want of Food and the Chemical Composition of Milk, 571 Porritt (B. D.), appointed Director of Research by the Research Association of British Rubber and . Tyre Manufacturers, 179 Portier (P.), The Rabbit deprived of its Czcal Appendix Regenerates this Organ, 347 Posternak (S.), The Variations of the Composition of Ammonium Phosphomolybdate, 347 Pott (J. A.), [obituary], 334 Potts (F. A.), appointed University Lecturer in Zoology in Cambridge University, 537 Powell (B.), Methods for the Gauges, * 184 Prain (Sir David). elected a Foreign Associate of the U. Ss. National Academy of Sciences, 463 Verification of Screw Lndex xxi rof. T.), The Theory of Heat. d by J. R. Cotter, 228 Third edition. J. D.), Celt and Slav, 763 N.), Occurrence of Ozone in the Atmosphere, 645 . G. T.), The Meteoric Iron of Mount Ayliff, uland East, 156 (S.), The Double Refraction and Dichroism of nes of Ammonium Chloride in the Electric Field, .), [obituary], 112 Iborough R.), [obituary article], 333 -), Methods of Determining Time and Latitude, + rof. P. F.), The Peat Resources of Ireland, 791 3 t), Tropical Control of Australian Rainfall, 152 Standard Time in Finland, 145 ), Light Concrete, 91 ow (W. J.), [obituary], 208 Syouite or in ( ee ve: The Einstein Deflection of Light, 23 rof. S.), [death], 431; [obituary article], 494 _ (J.), and others; Canvas-destroying Fungi, so Manual of Tree Diseases, 577 eB. -), The Trematode Family Hetero- l.), and Prof. Baker, Generation of Sets of hedra Mutually Inscribed and Circumscribed, Flight at Very High Altitudes and. the Use . ssor, 282; Maps of the Network of Distribution in France, 571 , W.), yahees at Harkness Scholarship of University of Cambridge, 537 rof. FR). Plant Culture in Denmark, 761 . Canon H. D.), [obituary], 430 appointed Principal of the West Bromwich echnical Institute, 698 Schmidt’s Die Gliederung der Australischen 07; The Religion and Origin of the 0-con ulla Chandra), The Indian Chemical Service, late Lord), Proposed Memorial to, 50, 687; of a Committee to Collect Funds for a 3 ' c BS xc mination of the Light Scattered Respect of Polarisation. I. Experiments mmon Gases, 631; The Blue Sky and the arties of Air, 584 rcules), elected President of the Society tiquaries of London, 273; The Prospects of gical Research, 497 — and L. Dunoyer, Utilisation of Cirrus Clouds er Prediction, 251 . S.), Bygone Beliefs: Being a Series of Ex- in the Byways of Thought, 610 and Dr. MacNalty, Encephalitis lethargica, W.), The Heron of Castle Creek and Other es of Bird Life, 514 : , The D.Sc. (Economics) Degree Conferred upon, by the University of London, 25 (W. J.), The Corrosion of Coke-oven Walls, 695 's. Eleanor M.), A Comparative Review of Pliocene oras, Based on the Study of Fossil Seeds, 249; Two e-Glacial Floras from Castle Eden (County Durham), of. H. F.), Distribution of Land and Water on the h, 763; and S. Taber, The Porto Rico Earthquake October 11, 1918, 276 pores Boy (W. F.), The Difficulty of Inventors in Obtaining Recognition, 367 | (Dr. J.), and W, J. Hickinbottom : (1) The Influence f Electrolytic Dissociation on the Distillation in Steam of the Volatile Fatty Acids. (2) Some Applications of the Method of Distillation in Steam, 379; and others, Preparation of Acetone by the Fermentation of Starchy Material, 466 vateee (M. J.), The Teaching of Art in Local Museums, 7 Rendle (Dr. A. B.), Banks as a Patron of Science The Cost of Scientific Publications, 353 Rennesson (M.), Loss of Energy in the Dielectric of Com- mercial Cables, 218 Renouf (L.), The Mounting of Wet Specimens under Watch-glasses and Petri Dishes, 689 Renwick (F. F.), The Hurter Memorial Lecture, 689 Rew (Sir R. Henry), elected President of the Royal Statistical Society, 526; Food Supplies in Peace and War, 320; Social Service in Rural Areas, 731 Reynolds (Prof. J. Emerson), [obituary article], 49 Khead (E. L.), Technical Education and Mind Training, 439 Rhodes (C. E.), [obituary], 495 Rice (G. S.), The Mines and Methods of Working Them, in _ the Pas-de-Calais District, 688 Richardson (Lt.-Col. A. R.), appointed Professor of Mathe- matics at University College, Swansea, 665; Science _ and the New Army, 170 : Richardson (C. A.), Spiritual Pluralism and Recent Philo- sophy, 773 ; The Principle of Equivalence and the Notion of Force, 72 . Richardson (H.), appointed Principal of the Bradford _ Technical College, 505 Richardson (L. F.), Some Measurements of Atmospheric Turbulence, 57; The Supply of Energy to Atmospheric Eddies, 378 Richardson (W, A.), A New Model Rotating-stage Petro- logical Microscope, 570; The Fibrous Gypsum of Nottinghamshire, <69 » 539; ‘Ridgeway Ce W.), Two Wooden Maori Daggers, 274: and Dr. D. Barnett, The Origin of the Hindu _ Drama: Additional Evidence, 433 Righi (Prof. A.), [death], 462; G. Marconi, 526; . [obituary article], 753 eigen (Dr. E. van), Secondary Maxima and Minima, 761 Riquoir (G.), Colloidal Complexes and Sera, 187 Robb (Dr. A. A.), The Construction of a Magnetic Shell Equivalent to a Given Electric Current, 199 Robertshaw (G. F.), Examination of Lubricating Oils, 339 Robertson (Principal C. Grant), University Grants, 774 Robertson (G. Scott), Effect of Various Types of Open- hearth Basic Slags on Grassland, 184 Robertson (J. B.), The Chemistry of Coal, 382 Robertson (Prof. P. W.), and D. H. Burleigh, Qualitative Analysis in Theory and Practice, 705 Robertson (Sir Robert), The Research Department, Wool- wich, 710, 74 Robertson (Prof. Proteins, 257 Robinson (J. W. D.), The Devonian of Ferques (Lower | Boulonnais), 314 Robinson (Prof. R.), The Conjugation of Partial Valencies, 346; The Mechanism of the Production of Kynurenic Acid in the Dog, 346 Rocasolano (A. de G.), The Catalytic Decomposition of Solutions of Hydrogen Peroxide by Colloidal Platinum, 3 T. B.), The Physical Chemistry of the 603 Rogers (Sir Leonard), Fevers in the Tropics. Third edition, 33; Organisation of Scientific Work, 292; Return of, to England, 303 Rogers (R. A. P.), Perimeter of an Ellipse, 8; Dr. F. A. Tarleton, 554; Some Methods of Approximate Integra- tion and of Computing Areas, 138 é Rohwer (S, A.), and F. X. Williams, Philippine Wasp Studies, 600 Rootham (C.), Mr. Sedley Taylor, 143 Rose (Lady Jenny), Early Hawthorn Blossom, 234. Rose (W. N.), Mathematics for Engineers. Part ii., 260 Rosenhain (Dr. W.), Glass Manufacture. Second edition, 12 Rosenheim (O.), The Formation of Anthocyanins in Plants, 401 XXil L[ndex Nature. Octoler 7, 1920 Ross (Sir Ronald), Organisation of Scientific Work, 6; Philosophies ; Psychologies, 414; Fellow-workers, 455 Rothé (E.), A New Electrical Anemometer, 443 Roubaud (E.), The Mode of Action of Powdered Trioxy- methylene on the Larvz of Anopheles, 667 Roubaud. (E.), Use of Trioxymethylene in Powder for the Destruction of the Larvze of Mosquitoes, 604 Rouch (J.), Manuel Pratique de Météorologie, 451; The Height of Sea-Waves, 219 Routledge (Mrs. Scoresby), The Mystery of Easter Island: The Story of an Expedition, 583 Roux (Dr, E.), and Dr, C.-F. Muttelet, Aliments Sucrés. Sucres—Miels—Sirops—Confitures—Sucreries—Sucs et Réglisse, 641 Rowett (J. Q.), Gift to the Institute of Research in Animal Nutrition at Aberdeen, 80 Russ (Dr. S.), appointed Professor of Physics at the Middlesex Hospital Medical School, 25 Russell. (Dr. A.), Applications of Electricity, 418; The Capacity Coefficients of Spherical Conductors, 57; Occurrence of Cotunnite, Anglesite, Leadhillite, and Galena on Fused Lead from the Wreck of the Fireship Firebrand, Falmouth Harbour, 156 Russell (Dr. E. J.), A Student’s Book on Soils and Manures. Second edition, 130; Basic Slag and Its Uses in Agri- culture, 183; British Crop Production, 176, 206; Organisation of Scientific Work, 7; The Manufacture of Artificial Fertilisers, 4; The Nation’s Food, 320; Wheat and Wheat-growing, 224 Russell (Prof. H. N.), The Masses of the Stars, 500; The Planetary Families of Comets, 467 Russell (Sir Thomas W.),; [death), 302 Rutherford (Sir Ernest), elected an Honorary Member of the Royal Irish Academy, 113: elected a Fellow of the Royal Danish Society of Science, 209; To Deliver the Bakerian Lecture of the Royal Society, 80; Nuclead Constitution of Atoms, 500 Rutherford (Capt. W. J.), ‘‘ A Border Myth: The Stand- ing Stones at Duddo,”’ 623 . Rydberg (Prof. J. R.), [obituary article], 525 : Ryneveld (Col. van), and Capt. Brand, Completion of African Aeroplane Flight, 113 Sabatini (V.), Leucitic Lavas of the Volcano of Roccamon- fina, 844 Saccardo (Dr. P. A.), [obituary], 76 Sadler (Sir M. E.), University Grants, 740 Saha (M.. N.), Ionisation in the Solar Chromosphere, 232 Saillard (E.), The Sugar-beet During the War, 571 St. John (C. E.), The Einstein Displacement of Spectral Lines, 244 : Salmon (Dr. C. S.), appointed Lecturer in Physical Chemis- try at King’s College, London, 698 Sampson (Prof. R. A.), appointed Halley Lecturer for 1920, 56; Eiffel Tower Wireless Time-signals, 265 ; Longitude by Wireless Telegraphy, 370; Relativity and Reality, 708 Sanderson (F. W.), The Evil in Existing Educational Sys- tems, 561 : : Sanford (Dr. E. C.), Resignation of the Presidency of Clark College, 602 Sargent (H. C.), The Lower Carboniferous Chert-formations of Derbyshire, 58 Saunders (Miss E. R.), Presidential Address to Section K of the British Association, 828 ’ Sauzin (M.), The Propagation of Sustained Electrical Oscillations in Water and the Dielectric Constant of Water, 763 Savage (R. E.). Structure of Scales of Fishes, 275 Savoor (S. R. U.), Rotating Liquid Cylinders, 379 Savory (Isabel), The Romantic Rousillon: In the French Pyrenees, 163 _ Sazerac (R.), Culture of the Tubercle Bacillus on a Medium of Autolysed Yeast, 795 Scales (Dr. S.), appointed University Lecturer in Medical Radiology and Electrology in Cambridge University, 60 I Schafer (Sir E. Sharpey), London University Site and Needs, 484; The University Problem, 698 Schaumasse (M.), A New Comet, 658; Discovery and ~ Observations of the Comet 1920b (Schaumasse), 794 Schleiter (Dr. F.), Religion and Culture: A Critical Survey of Methods of Approach to Religious Phenomena, 451 Schlesinger (Prof. F.), and Z. Daniel, Capella, 183 Schlick (Prof, M.), Rendered into English by H. L. Brose, Space and Time in Contemporary Physics: An Intro- ies to the Theory of Relativity and Gravitation, 54 Schmidt (P. W.), Die Sprachen, 707 Schroeder (Major R. W..), Record Aeroplane Height Flight, Gliederung der Australischen 18 Schwarz (Prof. E. H. L.), The Kalahari and Ovamboland, 297 Scott (A.), A Swarm of Noctiluca and Pleurobrachia and Beroé in the Barrow Channel, 656 Scott (Dr. H.), appointed Curator in Entomology in Cam- bridge University, 345 Scott (H. H.), and C. Lord, Skeleton of Nototherium Found in Tasmania, 593; Studies of Tasmanian Mam- mals, Living and Extinct. Part ii., 796 Scott (J. W.), appointed Professor of Logic and Philosophy in the University College of South Wales and Mon- -mouthshire, 537 Scott (Sir Percy), Fifty Years in the Royal Navy, 94 Searle (A. B.), elected President of the National Associa- tion of Industrial Chemists, 785; The Preparation of Tungsten and its Uses in the Filaments of Incandescent Lamps, etc., 339; The Use of Colloids in Health and Disease, 351 Searle (G. F. C.), A Bifilar Method of Measuring the Rigidity of Wires, 473; An Experiment on a Piece of Common String, 474; Experiments with a Plane Diffraction Grating, Using Convergent Light, 474 Seeger (H.), The Lighting of Museums and Art Galleries, 627; The Lighting of Picture-galleries and Museums, 2 723 Selous (the late Capt. F. C.), Memorial to, 504 — emmes (D. R.), The Geology of the San Juan District, Porto Rico, 148 Senderens (J. B.), and J. Aboulenc, The Catalytic Decom- position of the Fatty Acids by Carbon, 411 Sergent (Dr. F.), awarded a Mary Kingsley Medal, 697 Seton (E. Thompson), Animal Heroes. Fourth impres- sion, 580; Monarch: The Big Bear of Tallac, 450; The Arctic Prairies: A Canoe-journey of 2,000 Miles in Search of the Caribou, 426 \ Seward (Prof. A. C.), A Study in Palzogeography, 223 ; Fossil Plants. Vol. iv.: Ginkgoales, Coniferales, Gnetales, 97; Organisation of Scientific Work, 7; The Origin of the Vegetation of the Land, 250 Seyewetz (Dr.), Photographic Developing Agents, 182 Seymour (H. L.), Astronomy in Town Planning, 691 Shanahan (Dr. E. W.), Animal Foodstuffs: Their Produc- tion and Consumption, with a Special Reference to th British Empire, 513 Shapley (Dr. H.), Increasing the Photographic Power o Telescopes, 625; Star Clusters, 54 Shaughnessy (Major), A New Radio Call Signal, 690 Shaw (F.), appointed Assistant Lecturer in Electrical Engineering in Birmingham University, 154 Shaw (Sir Napier), appointed Professor of Meteorology in the Department of Aeronautics at the Imperial College of Science and Technology, 841: Impending Retirement of, from the Meteorological Office, 144 Sheldon (W.), [obituary], 495 Sheppard (W. F.), Reduction of Error by Linear Com- pounding, 632 Sheriff (Miss C. W. M.), appointed Assistant Lecturer in Mathematics at King’s College, London, 698 Sherman (H. C.), The Protein Requirement of Mainten- - ance in Man, 668 Shidrowitz (Dr. P.), to Direct the School of Rubber Technology at the Northern Polytechnic Institute, 731 Shive (J. W.), Relation of the Moisture in Solid Substrata to the Physiological Salt-balance, etc., 310 Shore (A.), Alternating Current Work. An Students of Wireless Telegraphy, 133 Outline fer ~ te | Lndex XXi111 . G. H.), A Third Duplication of Genetic Fac- in Shepherd’s-purse, 795 n (Dr. L.), Abstracts of Papers Presented to the demia dei Lincei, January 18, 251; Feb. 1, Projective Vector Algebra: An Algebra of Vectors mdependent of the Axioms of Congruence and of aral els, 65; The Aspherical Nucleus Theory Applied 0 the Balmer Series of’ Hydrogen, 441 s (D.), The Formation of Basic Slag in the Manu- ‘of Steel, 184 (Lieut. N. L.), Local Weather Conditions at Mul- m, Cornwall, 281, ajor W. E.), Resignation of the Direction and lip of the Technical Review; appointed to 1e Intelligence Branch of ‘the Ministry of t, 722; Technical Libraries and Intelligence, (Dr. G. C.), appointed Director of the Meteor- , 721; The Antarctic Anticyclone, 777 ° T.), Hidden Treasure: The Story of a Chore ‘made the Old Farm Pay, 36 R. W.), Paper-making and its Machinery, 480 C.), Early English Magic and Medicine, 337; < Science and Philosophy, 373; ‘Science and ism, 127, 548 é ‘W. de), The Lunar Parallax and Related a ), Gens South African Entomophthoracez, 507 (Ada M. and Eleanor 'L.), Stories for the Nature The Fundamental Equations of Dynamics iin Co-ordinate Systems Vectorially Treated ed, from Rigid Dynamics, 65 others, Observations of the Total Solar ; 18, June 8, 117 J.), appointed Professor of Botany in Queen’s Belfast, 25; The Chemical Reversal of onse in Roots and Stems, 249; The oy ment of the Composite, 450 L.), Local Colleges and Adult Education, on. Sir Charles A.), bequest to Peterhouse, Cam- » 313 , By-products from Coke-oven Gas, 695 ited’ Reader in Estate Management in ersity, 120 - : sinted Director of Scientific Research of 9 245 age aaa Elliot), elected to the Mary Louisa Prentice Lectureship in Ophthalmology, 240; Past and Present, 255; Medical Re- » 72 Malcolm), appointed Assistant in Clinical e University of Edinburgh, 280 and A. R. Penfold, The Manufacture of thone, and Menthol from Eucalyptus Oils, ).); appointed a Lecturer in Commerce at the School of Economics and Political Science, 568 . C.), Misinformation and Misconception con- atural History, 146 The Balancing of Errors, 122; Tracing Rays an Optical System, 473 Sir William), presented with the Medal of r of the University of Brussels, 440 C.), Riebeckite-rhyolite from North Kordofan, i 5S . W.), A Theory of the Mechanism of Survival : Fourth Dimension and its Applications, 484 mai, Two Factors concerned in Spotting in Mice, of. F.). Apnlied Science and Industrial Research, Education in the New Era, 561; Le Radium: étation et Enseignement de la Radioactivité, ‘Traduit de 1’Anglais par A. Lepape, 805; Science and ife: Aberdeen Addresses, 1; The Public Support of Scientific Research, 309; The Separation of the Iso- topes of Chlorine, 516, 642° Ini ' Sola (C.), The New Minor Planet GM, 595 : Solvay (Dr. E.), elected an Honorary Member of the American Chemical Society, 590 Sonntag (Dr. C. F.), Comparative Anatomy of the Tongues of the Mammalia, 218 Sorabji (R. K.), Facilities for Indian Students in America and Japan, 377 Souder (W. H.), and P, Hidnert, Measurements of the Expansion of Samples of Porcelain, etc., 181 Souéges (R.), The Embryogeny of the Solanaceze, 442, 475 Spaight (Dr. J. M.), Aircraft in Peace and the Law, 483 Speare (A. T.), Experiments on Sorosporella uvella, 310 Speidel (C. C.), Gland-cells of Internal Secretion in the Spinal Cord of the Skates, 279 Spring (F, G.), and J. N. Milsum, Food Production in Malaya, 180 Squier (Gen.), Multipiex Telephony and Telegraphy over Open-circuit Bare Wires laid in the Earth or Sea, 467 Stacey (W. F.), Practical Exercises on the Weather anda Climate of the British Isles and North-west Europe, 13°; Stamp (L. D.), appointed Demonstrator in Geology at King’s College, London, 698 Stanton (T. E.), Miss D. Marshall, and Mrs. C. N. Bryant, The Conditions at the Boundary of a Fluid in Turbu- lent Motion, 44r Starkie (Dr. W. J. M.), [obituarv], 686 Stauffacher (Dr. H.), eue Beobachtungen iiber den Erreger der Maulund Klauenseuche : Die Entwicklung des Schmarotzers im Blut, speziell in den roten Blut- k6érperchen, 100 Staward (R.), Practical Hardy Fruit Culture, 545 Stead (Dr. J. E.), Progress made in the Ferrous Industries during the past Fifty Years, 403 Stebbing (E. P.), appointed Professor of Forestry in the University of Edinburgh, 537; Commercial Forestry in Britain : its Decline and Revival, 577 Stephens (Miss Jane), The Fresh-water Sponges of Ireland, 474 Stephenson (Prof.), Oligochceta from the Lesser-known Parts of India and from Eastern Persia, 656 Stephenson (T. A.), The Genus Corallimorphus, 474 Stevens (Dr. H. P.), The Stretching of Rubber in Free Balloons, 613 Stevenson (Dr. T. H. C.), The Fertility of, the Social : Classes in England and Wales, 655 Steward (G. C.), appointed Assistant Lecturer in Applied Mathematics in Leeds University, 698 Stewardson (H. C.), [obituary], 302 ? Stewart (Prof. A. W.), Stereochemistry. Second edition, 12 Stiles (Prof, C. W.), awarded a Mary Kingsley Medal, 697 Stillwell (Dr. F. L.), The Factors Influencing Gold Deposi- tion in the Bendigo Goldfield, 465 Stoklasa (J.), The Action of Hydrocyanic Acid on the Organism of Plants, 539 Stoney (Edith AS The Carrying Power of Spores and Plant-life in Deep Caves, 740 Stratton (Dr. F. J. M.), The Universities and the Army, 234 Street (R. O.), The Tidal Motion in the Irish Sea: its Currents and its Energy, 632 Stromeyer (C. E.), The After-effects of Cannibalism, 90 Strong (Prof. J.), elected President of the Association of University Teachers, 537 ' , Stuart (H. Akroyd), Claim for Recognition as a Pionee Inventor of Oil-engine Cycles, aga : Stuart (Sir Thomas P. Anderson), [obituary article], 111 Sullivan (L. R.), The Pygmy Races of Man, 367 ; Sulman (A, E.), Australian Wild Flowers. Second series, 34; Some Familiar Wild Flowers, 34 Sulman (F.), A Popular Guide to the Wild Flowers of New South Wales. Vol. ii., 34 Summers (A. 'L.), Asbestos and the Asbestos Industry: the World’s Most Wonderful Mineral and other Fireproof Materials, 193 ; , Sutton’ and’ Sons, Experiments in Seed Electrification. 337 Sutton (J. R.), A Possible Lunar Influence upon the Velo- city of the Wind at Kimberley, 700; Overgrowths on Diamond, 507; Statistics of Thunder and Lightning at - Kimberley, 507; The Relationship between Cloud and Sunshine, 667 XX1V Lnaex Nature, October 7, 1920 Swinton (A, A. Campbell), elected Chairman of the Council of the Royal Society of Arts, 654; Life and Letters of Silvanus P. Thompson 448; Receipt of Wireless Messages from Paris and Slough while Lecturing, 80 Sydenham (Lord), Science and the Nation, 468 Sykes (Maj:-Gen. Sir Frederic H.), Imperial Air Routes, 359 Sykes (Miss Ella), and Brig.-Gen. Sir Percy Sykes, Through Deserts and Oases of Central Asia, 330 Tancock (E. O.), The Elements of Descriptive Astronomy. Second edition, 131 Tanner (Dr. F. W:), Bacteriology and Mycology of Foods, 99 Tanret (G.), Pelletierene and Methylpelletierene, 442 Tansley (A. G.), The New Psychology and its Relation to Life, 770 Tarleton (Dr, F. A.), [death], 525; [obituarv article], 554 Tattersall (Dr. W. M.), Life-history of the Periwinkle, 373; Museums and the State, 102 Tavener (P. A.), ‘‘ The Birds of Eastern Canada,’ 623 Taylor (E. H.), Need for the Protection of the Philippine Hawksbill Turtle, 756 Taylor (Dr. Griffith), Agricultural Climatology of Aus- tralia, 442; Climatic Cycles and Evolution, 728 Taylor (H. J.), Day Continuation Schools, 23 Taylor (Dr. H. S.), Fuel Production and Utilisation, 609 Taylor (Dr. Monica), Aquarium Cultures for Biological Teaching, 232 Taylor (Sedley), [obituary article], 143 Taylor (W.), Scientific Apparatus and Laboratory Fittings 5 Taylor (W. T.), Calculation of Electric Conductors, 229 Templeton (J.), appointed Lecturer in Botany in Edinburgh University, 120 Terada (Prof.), Effect of Topography on Precipitation in Japan, 509 Terhune (A. P.), Lad: a Dog, 484 Termier (Prof. P.), ‘‘ Les Grands Enigmes de la Géologie,”’ 593: ‘* Les Océans a travers les Ages,”’ 624 Terras (H.), The Story of a Cuckoo’s Egg, 746 Thaxter (Prof. R.), elected a Foreign Member of the Linnean Society, 366 Thomas (H. Hamshaw), Aircraft Photorraphy in the Service of Science, 457; Petrographical Notes on Rocks from Deception Island and Roberts Island, etc., 282: re-appointed Curator of the Cambridge University Botanical Museum, 313; and E. G. Radley, Certain Xenolithic Tertiary Minor Intrusions in the Island o _ Mull, 473 Thomas (J. S. G.), A Directional Hot-wire Anemometer, 122 Thomas (T.), Revision Arithmetic, Logarithms, Slide Rule, Mensuration, Specific Gravity, and Density. Second edition, 229 Thomas (W. N.), Surveying, 801 Thompson (Prof. D’Arcy W.), Hydrographical Studies, 150; Poetry and Medicine, 414 Thompson (Dr. F. C.), awarded the Sorby Research Fe- lowship, 377 Thompson (Dr. J. M’Lean), New Stelar Facts and their Bearing on Stelar Theories for the Ferns, 250 Thompson (J. S.). and H. G. Thompson, Silvanus Phillips Thompson, D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S., his Life and Letters, 448 Thompson (L. Beatrice), Just Look! or How the Children Studied Nature, 651 Thomsen (T. C.), Memorandum on Solid Lubricants, 372 Thomson (D. H.), A New Alignment Diagram for Engin- . eers, 116 Thomson (Sir Joseph), elected a Fellow of the Royal Danish Society of Science, 209; La Théorie Atomique, Traduit par Prof. M. C. Moureu. Nouveau -Tirage, 36; Oration in Presentation of an Honorary Degree to, 568 Thomson (W.), and H. S. Newman, Behaviour of Amal- gamated Aluminium Wire, 90; Further Notes on the Filamentous Growths from Aluminium Amalgams, 506 Thorne (P. C. 'L.), Chemistry from the Industrial Stand- — point, 227 Thorpe (Prof. Jocelyn), The Indian Chemical Service, 324 ; Thorpe (Sir T. E.), Lewes and Brame’s Service Chemistry. — Fifth edition, 287; Monument to Charles Gerhardt, 436 Thring (L. G. P.), appointed Superintendent of the En- gineering Drawing Office of Cambridge University,- 345 Thurn (Sir Everard im), The Island of Stone Statues, 583 Tilho (J.), The Frequency of Fogs in the Eastern Sahara, 571 Tillyard (Dr. R. J.), The Cawthron Institute, 603; The Neuropteroid Insects of the Hot Springs Region, N.Z., in relation to the Problem of Trout-food, 667; The Panorpoid Complex. Additions to part 3, 667 : Timiriazeff (Prof. C. A.), [obituary article], 430 Ting (Sih Ling), Electron Emission from Hot Bodies, 441 Tinkler (Dr. C. K.), and Helen Masters, Applied Chem- istry. Vol. i., Water, Detergents, Textiles, Fuels, etc., 227 Tisdale (C. W. W.), and J. Jones, Butter and Cheese, 738 Tizard (Capt: T. H.), Use of Sumner Lines in Navigation, 552, 742 Tomes (Sir Charles), Gift of Microscovical Preparations to the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons of England, 557 ; Tonelli (L.), Primitive Functions, 251 Toni (Prof. G. B. de), elected a Foreign Member of the Linnean Society, 366 Toporescu (M.), The Lime and Magnesia carried down by Precipitates of Ferric Oxide, 475 Zi he Torrance (W.), Observations on Soil Erosion, 434 Tostevin (Eng.-Comdr. H. B.), The Use of Mechanical Reduction Gears between the Turbines and the Pro- peller in the Royal Navy, 148 Trafton (G. H.), The Teaching of Science in the Ele- mentary School, 420 aa Travers (Dr. M. W.), Scientific Research and the Glass Industry in the United States, 9; The Indian Chemical Service, 354 : ce Trechmann (Dr. C. T.), A Dried Specimen of Holopus from Barbados, 757 Treub (Prof. H.), [death], 208 Trillat (A.), ‘and M. Mallein, The Projection of Micro- ‘ organisms into the Air, 475 Trotter (A.), The Supposed Parthenocarpy of the Hazel- nut and its Possible Characters (ii.), 251 Trowbridge (Prof. A.), Sound-ranging as Practised by. the S. Army during the War, 116 a Trueman (Dr, A. E.), avpointed Lecturer in Geology at University College, Swansea, 665 ; Tsuboi (S.), Oshima, 787 Turner (Major C. C.), The Struggle in the Air, 1914-18, 229 : Turner (Prof. H. H.), The Cost of: Scientific Publications, * 326; and others, Papers on Astronomy published during IQI4-19, 407 : Turner (Dr. W. E. S.), appointed Professor of Glass Technology in Sheffield| University, 601 Turreli (Dr. W. J.), The History of Electro-therapy, 81 Turrill (W. B.), Botanical Exploration in Chile and Argen- tina, 433 : Tutton (Dr. A, E. H.), Monoclinic Double Selenates of the Copper Group, 538 ofa Tychonis Brahe Dani Opera Omnia. Edidit I. L. E. Dreyer. Tomus vi., 672 Tyndall (Prof. A. M.), appointed Dean of the Faculty of Science of Bristol University, 630 Unwin (A. H.), African Softwoods for Pulp Production, sao Urich (F. ), and others, Artificial versus Natural _ Methods of Control of Insect Pests, 503 Ussher (W. A. E.), [obituary], 144 Vail (T. N.), [obituary], 272 Vanghetti (Dr. G.), awarded the Riberi Prize, 557 /ndex XXV (P. J.), Total ‘Light of the Stars, 54 e (f. -), The American Tertiary, Pleistocene, Recent Coral-reefs, 401 1-Williams (Capt.), Discovery of supposed Saxon ains in Windsor Great Park, 209 (R. H.), appointed Assistant to the Professor of mistry in the University of Cambridge, 665 felt 2: E.), and R. Crombez, Anomalous Dis- in Methyl-violet, etc., 559 S.), Alloys of Oxides, 347 F. W.), The Wasting of Stellar Substance, 276 4.), The Columbian Tradition on the Discovery America and of the part played therein by the onomer Toscanelli, 803 (L.), The Resistance of Tissues to Light and a-violet Rays, ne Flight at High Altitudes, 346 ine (Dr. J. H.), Further Experiments on the Varia- tion of Wave-length of the Oscillations Generated by nic Valve due to Changes in Filament Current, The Origin of the Elements, 842 ), Milk and Hemolysis, 411 . Davy de), Comparative Geographical Distribu- Primula officinalis, P. grandiflora, and P. in the west of France, 411 } Study of Absorption based on the Properties of > it. *C.), A new Series of Complex Combina- Antimony Oxyiodides, 475 . L.), The Economical Use of Special Alloy he Construction of Bridges, 699 © -), Museums and the State, 70 late E. K.), Canonical Forms, 369 C. D.), The Persistence of Genera, 689 e Prince of), nominated as an Honorary Fellow ne Royal mey of Edinburgh, 335; patron of the Brit 1 School of Archzology in Jerusalem, 52 ae .), appointed Associate-Professor in Cytology r in Histology in Liverpool University, 376 7T.), The Probable Amount of Monsoon on, 129 | B.), to Deliver the Bradshaw Lecture, 722 . Graham), gift to University College, London, A -D,), The apparent ‘‘ Growth ” of Plants of Inanimate Materials) and of their apparent actility,’’ 410 E.), The Lycopodium Method of Quantitative oY, 249 (Lt. ty “The Recent Trans-African Flight,”’ of. J. J.), Medieval Medicine, 127; Science and icism, 547 Of M R.), The Pathology and Symptom- ry of Beri-beri, 241 ir Charles), Eugenics, Civics, and Ethics, 804 x (R. G.), and W. W. Coblentz, The Spectral ective Properties of Alloys of Aluminium, etc., 212 (H. P.), The Effect of a Magnetic Field on the ntensity of S al Lines, 379 iss E. M.), The Evolution of the Hastings Coast- 82 Dr. F.), Animal Life under Water, 651 ; (W. A.), Modern By-product Coke-oven Construction, (S. H.), A Natural ‘ Eolith ’’ Factory beneath the _ Thanet Sand, 378 F Vaterson (J.), Fleas and their relation to Man Domestic Animals, 787 _ and others, Parallax of the B-type Star Boss Watkins (L. T.), Libraries in Indian High Schools, 698 Watson (Prof. J. B.), Psychology from the Standpoint of a Behaviorist, 512 Watson (J. S.), Development of the Generating Stations of the Newcastle-upon-Tyne Electric Supply Co., 369 Watt (Sir George), Cotton-growing in the British Empire, 104; to deliver Lectures on Indian Forest Trees at Edinburgh University, 120 Watt (Dr. H. J.), The Foundations of Music, 98 Watts (Sir Francis), Tropical Departments of Agriculture, with Special Reference to the West Indies, 344 Watts (Prof. W. W.), The Evolution of the Bicycle, 435 Webb (Sir Aston), Value of Science and Scientific Research to Medicine and Surgery, 304 Webb (W. M.), The Brent Valley Bird-sanctuary, 614 Weber (Dr. F. Parkes), appointed Mitchell Lecturer of the Royal College of Physicians of London, 1921, 755 Webster (A. D.), National Afforestation, 577 pane hd 'L.), The Intensities of X-rays of the L series -» 667 Wedderburn (Dr. E. M.), The Importance of Meteorology in Gunnery, 492 Wedmore (E. B.), The Importance of Co-operative Scientific Research, 339 Weiss (H.), The Constituents formed by Reciprocal Pene- tration of Zinc and Copper at a Temperature where One of the Two Metals and All their Alloys are in the Solid State, 699 Wells (Prof. H. L.), Chemical Calculation Tables: fo. Laboratory Use. Second edition, 33 Wells (Dr. S. Russell), London Degrees in Commerce, 440; re-elected Vice-Chancellor of London University, 568 Wells and Southcombe, The Theory and Practice of Lubrication, 21 Wertheimer (Prof. J.), Seconding of Officers for Study at Universities, 41 West (F. L.), N. E. Edlefsen, and S. Ewing, Determina- tion of Normal Temperatures by Means of the Equa- tion of the Seasonal Temperature Variations, etc., 628 West (G. D.), A Modified Theory of the Crookes Radio- meter, 473; The Forces Acting on Heated Metal-foil Surfaces in Rarefied Gases, 122 West (Dr. S. H.), [obituary], 50 : Westaway (F. W.), Science and Theology: Their Common Aims and Methods, 607; Scientific Method: its Philo- sophy and its Practice, 5 Wharton (the late Rear-Admiral Sir W. J. L.), Hydro- graphical Surveying. Fourth edition, revised and en- larged by Adml. Sir Mostyn Field, 576 Wheaton (Dr.), Maternity and Child Welfare, 151 Wheeler (Dr. R. B.), appointed Professor of Technology in Sheffield University, 665 Wheeler (Dr. R. E. M.), appointed Keeper of the Depart- ment of Archzology in the National Museum of Wales, and Lecturer in Archeology in the University of South Wales and Monmouthshire, 569 Wheeler (Prof. W. M.), The Parasitic Aculeate Hymen- optera, 835; and I. W. Bailey, Feeding Habits of Pseudomyrmine Ants, 843 : Whiddington (Prof. R.), An Attempt to Detect the Fizeau Effect in an Electron Stream, 708; Science and the New Army, 135 oe j Whipple (Prof. G. C.), Vital Statistics: An Introduction to the Science of Demography, 131 ; Whipple (R. S.), Electrical Methods of Measuring Body Temperatures, 338 : White (B.), Gold: Its Place in the Economy of Mankind, 774; Silver: Its Intimate Association with the Daily Life of Man, 774 ate : White (Dr. N.), Health Conditions in Eastern Europe: Typhus a Serious Menace, 723 White (R. S.), Report on Outbreak of Pellagra amongst Armenian Refugees at Port Said, 592 : Whitehead (Prof. A. N.), An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Natural Knowledge, 446 auyse Whitehead (Prof. J. B.), The High-voltage Corona in Air, Fuel 8 Whitfeld (Dr. A.), appointed Lumleian Lecturer of the Royal College of Physicians of London, 1921, 755 XXvVI Lndex Nature, . October 7, 1920 Whitley (E.), Gift for the Endowment of a Professorship in Biochemistry in Oxford University, 313 Widal (F.), P. Abrami, and N. Iancovesco, The Proof of Digestive Hemoclasia and Latent Hepatism, 794; Proof of Digestive Hzemoclasia in the Study of Hepatic Insufficiency, 762; The Possibility of Promoting the Hemoclasic’ Crisis by the Intravenous Injection of Portal Blood Collected ' donne the Digestive Period, 699 Wild (L. J.), Soils and Manures in New Zealand, 130 Williams (Dr. A. M.), The Pressure Variation of Equili- brium Constant in Dilute Solution, 603 Williams (W. R.), [obituary], 76 Williamson (J. W.), Applied Science and _ Industrial Research, 387, 518; Remuneration and Superanuation of the Scientific Workers of Research Associations, 372 Wilson (C. T. R.), awarded the Hopkins Prize of the Cambridge Philosophical Society, 440; Investigations on Lightning Discharges and on the Electric Field of Thunderstorms, 377 Wilson (Prof. F. J.), and Prof. I. M. Heilbron, Chemical Theory and Calculations. Second edition, 805 Wilson (Prof. J.), Application of the Food-unit System to the Fattening of Sheep, 282 Wilson (J. S.), and G. A. Garfitt, Map of the Eyam Moor Circle in Derbyshire, 180 Wilson (Prof. J. T.), elected Professor of Anatomy in Cam- bridge University, 439 Wilson (R. E.), Researches on Nebulz, 491 Wilson (W. H.), and Miss T. D. Epps, Construction of Thermo-couples by Electro-deposition, 842 . Wilson-Barker (Sir David), The ‘‘ Flight ’’ of Flying-fish, B55-: Wilton (T. R.), appointed Lecturer in Dock and Harbour Engineering in Liverpool University, 505 Wimmer (Prof. L. F. A.), [obituary], 365 Winstedt (R. O.) Analogies between the Local Customs of the Malay Peninsula and those of the Brahmans of South India, 834 Winterbotham (Lt.-Col, Medal of the Royal Geographical Society, ciples and Practice of Surveying, 801 Witz (Prof. A.), Heat Economy, 212 Wohlgemuth (Dr. A.), Pleasure—Unpleasure: An Experi- mental Investigation on the Feeling-elements, 3 Wolf (Prof.), A Nova in a Spiral Nebula, 213 Woltjer, jun. (Dr. J.), Investigations in the Theory of Hyperion, 675 Wood Bros. Glass Co., Ltd., Catalogue of English Chemi- cal Glassware, 435 Wood (Miss J. F. ), History of Popular Education since the Act of 1870, 213 Wood (T. B.), and Dr. F. H. A. Marshall, Physiology - Farm Animals. Part i., General, Dr. F.- i. Marshall, 704 Woodland (Prof W. N. F.), The ‘‘ Flight ’’ of Flying-fish, 455; The ‘‘ Renal Portal ’’ System (Renal Venous Mesh- work) and Kidney Excretion in Vertebrata, ato H. S. L.), awarded the Victoria 112; Prin- Woodward (Dr. A. Smith), re-elected President of the Linnean Society, 496 Wordie (J. M.), awarded the Back Grant of the Royal Geographical Society, 112 Worsdell (W.), [obituary], 239 Wright (C. S.), Science and the New Army, 391 Wright (H. E.), Coke-oven Gas for Town Supply, 695 Wright (Lewis), Optical Projection: Fifth edition, re- written and brought up to date by R. S. Wright (in two parts). Part i., The Projection of Lantern Slides, 773 Weight (Wilbur), Unveiling a Statue to the Memory of, wright (W. B.), An Analysis of the Palzozoic Floor of North-East Ireland, with Predictions as to Concealed Coalfields, 368; The Asiatic Origin of Man, 728 Wright (W. HD), Certain Aspects of Recent Spectroscopic Observations of the Gaseous Nebulz, 842; Infra-red Spectra of Nebula, 149; Researches on Nebulze, 492 - Wyatt (R. B. H.), appointed Lecturer in Bacteriology in Birmingham University, 154 Wyatt (S.), Individual Differences in Output in the Cotton Industry, 657 Wybergh (W.), The Coastal Province, 689 Limestones of the Cape Wyeth (F. x: Development of the Auditory Apparatus in — Sphenodon punctatus, 26 Dh Z., International Council for Fishery Investigations, 262 Xanthoudides (M.), Excavations in Crete, 273 Yamasaki (E.), The Chemical Kinetics of Catalase, ie Yeatman (M. E.), British and Metric Systems of Weights ‘and Measures, 355 Yendo (Prof. K.), The Genus of Brown Seaweeds, Alaria, 66 4 Yerkes (Dr. R. M.), Psychological Examining and Classi- fication in the U.S. Army, 795 Yokoyama (Prof. M.), Fossils from the Miura Peninsula ~ and its Immediate North, 836 Young (J.), The. Royal Military Academy, 487 Younghusband (Lt.-Col. Sir Francis), Plea for a Wider Outlook in Geography, 465 Yule (G, U.), re-appointed University Lecturer in ’ Statistics in Cambridge University, 88 Zammit (Prof. T.), awarded a Mary Kingsley Medal, 697; conferment upon, of the Honorary Be cx of Doctor of © Letters by Oxford University, 44 Zanghelis (C.), A New View of he. "Naisene State, 339; New Researches on the Action of Gases in a very Fine State of Division, 763; and B. Papaconstantinou, Colloidal Rhodium, 411; The Acceleration of the De- composition of Hydrogen Peroxide Rhodium, 443 TITGCE Aberdeen University: W. G. Craib appointed Professor of Botany in, 120; Gift to, by Sir Thomas Jaffrey ; Con- ferment of an Honorary Degree upon Sir Jagadis Chandra Bose, 154; Dr. R. D. Lockhart appointed a Lecturer in Anatomy, 730 Aborigines of Central Australia, The Present Condition of the, E. N. Fallaize, 601 Absorption: Based on the Properties of the Nitrophenols, F. Viés, 506; Light by Elements in the State of Vapour, Sir James Dobbie and J. J. Fox, 538 Abstracts of Papers in Scientific Transactions and Periodi- cals, 758 Academic Research and Industrial Application, 449 Académie Royale de Belgique, Sir W. J. Pope elected an Associate of the, 463 INDEX. Academy, The Royal, 300 Acarina of the Intertidal Zone, J. N. Halbert, 474 Acetone, Preparation of, by the Fermentation of Starchy Material, J. Reilly, and others, 466 Acetylene Hydrocarbons, ' The Production of True, starting from Epidibromhydrin, Lespieau and Bourguel, 635 Acids, Alkalis and Salts, G. H. J. Adlam, 705 Acmopyle pancheri, Pilger, Structure and Affinities of," B. Sahni, 346 Actinometers of Arago and Bellani, The, i. Besson, 283 Acylketimines, C, Moureu and G. Mignonac, 539 Adelaide University, Dr. J. B. Cleland appointed Professor of Pathology in, 217 Admiralty, F. E. Research to the, 245 by Colloidal | Smith appointed Director of Scientific ‘ Lndex XXVii y Council to the Committee of the Privy Council for tific and Industrial Research, Sir John Cadman, __B. Hardy, and Prof. S. Young mbers of the, 590 erial Navigation and Meteorology, Lt.-Col. E. Gold, 775; _ Prof. E. van Everdingen, 637, 776 odynamics, Applied, L. Bairstow, 95; of a Spinning , R. H. Fowler, E. C.. Gallop, C. N. H. s, and H. W. Richmond, 377 hy, The Principles of, Prof. A. McAdie, 479 cal Research, 95, 342 cs: Education and Research in, Report of the ee on, 15; Lectures on, at the Imperial College Science and Technology, Sir Rithard Glazebrook, ; Research in, The Relationship of Education to, 14; prt of the Advisory Committee for Aeronautics for year 1918-19, 561 : Flight ; along Africa from North to South, Col. eveld and Capt. Brand, 113; From Cairo to e, Failure of the, 18; Height Flight, Record, jor R. W. Schroeder, 18 es, Wireless Telephony in, Major C. E. Prince, : on, National, A, D, Webster, 577 n: Art, H. V. Hall, 180; Softwoods for Pulp Produc- fe Mita ag he West Indi R ural :— ent in the West Indies, 344; Re- American, 310 rt the Farming Business, O. H. Benson . Betts, 35; Basic Slag and its Uses in, Dr. ssell, and others, 183; The Origin of, Major » 474 ; Peace and the Law, Dr. J. M. Spaight, 483; iy in the Servite of Science, H. Hamshaw Set iideition for the Regulation of Aerial (October 13, 1919), 637; Routes, Imperial, ir Frederic H. Sykes, 359; Service, Science h in the, 142; The Optical Properties of, ky, and, Hay Rayleigh, 584; The Struggle 4-18, Major C. C. Turner, 229 x. Yendo, 664 ; ration and Illustration of, 147 Chemistry among the Chinese, Dr. J. A. R. _ Supposed Dynamogenic Power of, aes The whole Truth About, G. E. Tertiary, The Synthesjs of, D. Gauthier, a, Projectiv e Vector, An Algebra of Vectors Inde- the Axioms of Congruence and of Parallels, » 65 Diagram for Engineers, A New, D. H. Thomson, Sucre Sucres—Miels—Sirops—Confitures— ies—Sucs et Réglisse, Drs. E. uttelet, 641 ; The Small Islands of, Prof. W. M. Davis, Roux and ihren Work. An Outline for Students of Telegraphy, A. Shore, 133; Electric Current, Transient Process of Establishing a steady, Dr. Kennelly, 843 Extreme, a Method of Reaching, Prof. R. H. ty Raeitinnted, and Aluminium Wire, The viour of, W. omson and H. S. Newman, 90; Amalgams, The Filamentous Growths from, W. Thom- son and H. S. Newman, 506; Catalytic Action of, in 1e Preparation of the Chlorobenzenes, J. Meunier, 571 ; s Manufacture, Manipulation, and Marketing, . Mortimer, 805 ; ‘ oh ohm Dr. H. D. Curtis appointed Director ee ; Dr. M. Grabham, 517 gator Pear, The, 408 ) All—or—None ” in the Auditory Nerve, Dr. W. Perrett, appointed. Allotments, The Development and Uses of, Sir Daniel Hall, 371 Alloys of Copper, Zinc, and Nickel, The, L. Guillet, gt Amanita, Determination of Poisonous Varieties of, by Colour Reactions, J. Barlot, 219 Amber in Antiquity, The Search for, W. J. Perry, 274 American: Agricultural Research, 310; Chemical Society, Dr. F. G. Cottrell awarded the Willard Gibbs Medal of the Chicago Section of the, 526; Dr. E. Solvay elected an Honorary Member of the, 590; Fisheries Society, Forthcoming Jubilee of the, 591; Fossil Verte- brate Animals, Prof. H. F. Osborn, and others, 117; Grape-growing, Manual of, U. P. Hedrick, 674; Museum of Natural History, Report for 1919 of the, Prof. H. F, Osborn, 724; Petroleum Institute, Dr. V. H. Manning appointed Director of Research in the, 527; Pomological Society, Re-organisation of the, by Prof. L. H. Bailey, 623; Tertiary, Pleistocene, and Recent Coral-reefs, T. W. Vaughan, 401 Amines by Catalysis, A New Preparation of, A. Mailhe, 442 Ammonium Phosphomolybdate, Variations of the Composi- tion of, S. Posternak, 347 Amundsen’s Trans-Polar Voyage, a Supporting Expedition for, 82; Further News of, 305 Anesthesia and Anaphylaxy, W. Kopaczewski, A. H. Roffo, and Mme. H. L. Roffo, 540 Ancient: Camps in Gloucestershire, 128; Egypt, Resump- tion of, 180; Entrenchments and Camps of Gloucester- shire, The, E. J. Burrow, 128 Anemometer, A Directional Hot-wire, J. S. G. Thomas, 122 Angiosperms, Reproduction of, Elementary Notes on the, A. H. Church, 162 Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, Entomological Work in the, H. H. King, 50 503 | Animal: Foodstuffs: The World’s Supply of, 513; Their Production and Consumption, with a Special Reference to the British Empire, Dr, E. W. Shanahan, 513; Heroes: Being the Histories of a Cat, a Dog, a _ Pigeon, a Lynx, two Wolves, and a_ Reindeer, E. Thompson Seton. Fourth impression, 580; Life under Water, Dr. F. Ward, 651; Luminescence and Stimulation, Prof. E. N. Harvey, 843; Nutrition, In- stitute of Research in, at Aberdeen, Gift to the, by J. Q. Rowett, 80; Products, The Chemistry of, 192 Animals, The Slaughter of, and the Distribution of Meat for Human Consumption, Appointment of a Committee of Inquiry Upon, 591 Anomalous Dispersion of tee Verschaffelt and R. Crombez, 559 Anopheles plumbeus, Misses Blacklock and Carter, 241 Anselm’s Problem of Truth and Existence, Rev. A. E.° Davies, Antarctic Anticyclone, The, Dr. R. M. Deeley, 808 Anthocyanins in Plants, Formation of, O, Rosenheim, 402 Anthropology : An Introduction to, Rev. E. O. James, 384; and Economics, Progress in, Sir Edward Brabrook, 530; Suggestions for the Classification of the Subject- matter of, E. N. Fallaize, 626 Anticyclones, R. M. Deeley, 677 Anti: -Dumping Bill, The, 125; -Gas Fan, Neglect in Re- gard to the Use of the, Mrs. Ayrton, 336; 422; 612; 613; Prof. A. J. Allmand, 453; 612 Antineuritic Vitamine, The Nature and Function of the, R. A. Dutcher, 667 Antiquaries of London, Society of, Election of Officers and Council of the, 273 Antiquity of Human Remains?, How Far can Osteological Characters Help in Fixing the, Prof. A. Keith, 153 Ants, Pseudomyrmine, Feeding Habits of, Prof. W. M. Wheeler and I. W. Bailey, 843 Apalaii Indians of the Amazon, The, W. C. Farabee, 240 Applied Science and Industrial Research, J. W. Williamson, 518; Major A. G. Church, 547 ° Apprentices in Shipyards and Marine Engineering Works, Education and Training of, 151 Approximate Integration, Some Methods of, and of Com- puting Areas, Prof. J. B. Dale; R. A. P. Rogers, 138 Methyl-violet, etc., G. C. Simpson, 777; XXVIil I[ndex [ Nature, October 7, 1920 April Meteor Shower, The, 276 Aquarium Cultures for Biological Teaching, Dr. Monica Taylor, 232 Arawaks, The Central, W. C. Farabee, 159 Arcachon, Ville de Santé; Monographie Scientifique et Médicale, Dr. F. Lalesque, 322 Archzocyathinz from the Weddell Sea, Dr. W. T. Gordon, 528 Archeological Research, The Prospects of, Sir C. H. Read, 497 Arc Spectra in vacuo and Spark Spectra in Helium of Various Elements, Prof. J. C. McLennan, J. F. T. Young, and H. J. C. Ireton, 632 Arcs of Primary Triangulation along the Ninety-eighth .Meridian in the U.S. and in Mexico, and on Triangula- tion in Southern Texas, Connection of the, W. Bowie, 14 Arctic: Expedition, Capt. Roald Amundsen’s, 240, 273; Prairies, The, E. Thompson Seton, 426 n Argds, Spectrum of, Dr. J. Lunt, 149 Aristotelian Society, Dean Inge elected President of the, 622 ; Arithmetic: for Preparatory Schools, An, with Answers, T. Dennis. Second edition, 67; Revision, Logarithms, Slide Rule, Mensuration, Specific Gravity, and Density, T. Thomas. Second edition, 229 : Armstrong College, Dr. W. N.-Haworth appointed Pro- fessor of Organic Chemistry at, 537 Army: Hygiene and its Lessons, Lt.-Gen. Sir Thomas Goodwin, 532: Prior to the Recent War, Gen. Sir John Goodwin, 52; The New, Science and, 61; Col. E. H. Hills, 103; Prof. L. N. G. Filon; Prof. R. Whiddington, 133; Lt.-Col. E. Gold,; Dr. C. S. Myers, 135; Prof. A. R. Richardson, 170; Col. K. E. Edge- worth, 2333 C. S. Wright, 391; The Scheme for the Education of the Rank and File of the, 121; The Universities and the, 157; F. J. M. Stratton, 234 Arsenic and Antimony Ores, H. Dewey, 338 Arsenious Acid, The Reversible Oxidation of, C. Matignon and J. A. Lecanu, 347 Art, The Teaching of, in Local Museums, M. J. Rendall, 627 Artillery Science, Sir George Greenhill, 268 Asbestos and the Asbestos Industry: The World’s Most Wonderful Mineral and othér Fireproof Materials, A. L. Summers, 193 Asia, A Geography of, J. Martin, 35 Asiatic Origin of Man, The, W. B. Wright, 728 Aspherical Nucleus Theory Applied to the Balmer Series of Hydrogen, The, Dr. L. Silberstein, 441 Asphodelus, A New Race of, Obtained by the Action of a Marine Climate, L. Daniel, 506 : Association: of Technical Institutions, Forthcoming Sum- mer Meeting of the, 631; of University Teachers, Prof. J. Strong elected President of the, 537 Asteroxylon Mackiei from the Rhynie Chert-Bed of Aberdeenshire, Dr. Kidston, and Prof. Lang, 527 Astrographic Catalogue, The, 403 Astrolabe : Diagram, Dr. J. Ball, 329; A Handbook of the Prismatic, Dr. J. Ball and H. K. Shaw, 329 Astronomical Announcements by Wireless Telegraphy, Prof. Kobold, 403 ASTRONOMICAL NOTES. Comets : Return of Tempel’s Comet, 436; Photographs of the Brorsen-Metcalf Comet, Prof. Barnard, 467; The Planetary Families of Comets, Prof. H. N. Russell, 467; Tempel’s Second Periodic Comet, 560; Denning’s Comet of 1881 and a Meteoric Shower, Rev. M. Davidson, 560; A New Comet, M. Schaumasse, 658; Tempel’s Comet, M. Fayet, 789 Instruments : A New Spectropyrheliometer and Solar Measurements made with it, W. W. Coblentz and H. Kahler, 625 Meteors : Bright Meteors, 54; April Meteors, 149; The April Meteor Shower, 276; A Bright Fireball, 370; Commencement of the Great Perseid Shower of Meteors, 595; An Interesting Meteorite, G. P. Merrill, 759 Observatories : The Madrid Observatory, 213; Memoirs of the Kodai- kanal Observatory, vol, i., part ii., 340; Parallax Work at the Sproul Observatory, Dr. Miller, 500; Publications of the Dominion Astrophysical Observa- tory, Victoria, b.C., vol. i., No. 1, 658; Annual Report for 1920 of the Hill Observatory, Sidmouth, 726; New Solar Radiation Station in Arizona, 726; The Union Observatory, Johannesburg, 759; Stony- hurst Observations in 1919, Rev. A. L. Cortie, 789; Publications of the Astronomical Laboratory at Gro- ningen, No. 29, Prof. J. C. Kapteyn, 838 Planets : Cape Observations of the Sun, Mercury, and Venus, 183 ; Conjunction of Jupiter and Neptune, 213; Occultation of a Star by Saturn, Prof. Plassmann and others, 244; Eclipse of the Moon, 276; Mars and Wireless Signals, 276; The Lunar Eclipse, 307; Conjunction of Mars with Spica, 340; Conjunction of Mercury with e Geminorum, A. Burnet, 370; The Planet Jupiter, Rev. T. E. R. Phillips, 500; Mercury an Evening Star, 529; The Lunar Parallax and Related Constants, Prof. W. de Sitter, 529; The New Minor Planet GM, 595 Stars: Occultation of a Star by Saturn, L. J. Comrie, 22; Total Light of the Stars, P. J. Van Rhijn, 54; Star Clusters, Dr. H. Shapley, 54; The Binary Star p Eridani, B. H. Dawson, 84; Faint Nebula, E. P. Hubble, 84; Spectrum of 4 Argis, Dr. J. Lunt, 149; Infra-red Spectra of Nebula, Dr. K. Burns and wt Wright, 149; Capella, Prof. F. Schlesinger and Z. Daniel, 183; A Nova in a Spiral Nebula, Prof. Wolf, 213; Stellar Spectroscopy at the Detroit Observatory, — P. W. = Merrill, of Stellar Substance, L. Hadley, Prof. 244; The Wasting Fo: Wo Nery ago: The Binary Kruegér 60, S. A. Mitchell and C, P._ Olivier, 307; The Duplicity of v Geminorum, Dr. Bernewitz, 340; Conjunction of Mercury with e Gemi- norum, A. Burnet, 370; Double Stars, J. Jackson, 436; | Diffraction Image of a Disc, Dr. H. Nagaoka, 436; The Masses of the Stars, Prof. H. N.* Russell, 500; Capture Orbits, Prof. L. Becker, 560; The Expanding Disc of Nova Aquilz, Dr. J. Lunt, 595; Galactic Con- densation, R. T. A. Innes, 759; Discovery of a Nova in Cygnus, W. F. Denning, 838; Parallax of the B- type Star Boss 1517, J. Vodte and others, 838 Sun: The Total Solar Eclipse of September 20, 1922, A. R. Hinks, 84; The Total Solar Eclipse of 1918, June 8, 117; Cape Observations of the Sun, Mercury, and Venus, 183; Kodaikanal Observations of Prominences, J. and Mrs. Evershed, 340 Miscellaneous : The Nautical Almanac for 1922, 22; Calendar Reform, A. Philip, M. Flammarion, 22 ; A Noon Reflector, Prof. C. V. Boys, 117; The Einstein Displacement of Spectral Lines, J. Evershed, C. E. St. John, 244; The Nature of Photographic Images, Dr. Kenneth Mees, 307; Longitude by Wireless Telegraphy, Prof. Sampson, 370; Astronomical Announcements by Wireless Tele- graphy, Prof. Kobbold; The Astrographic Catalogue, Tidal Friction and the Lunar and Solar Accelerations, Dr. H. Jeffreys, 403; The Zeeman Effect in Furnace Spectra, A. S. King, 529; Am Easy Method of Finding Latitude, N. Liapin, 625; Increasing the Photographic Power of Telescopes, Dr. Shapley, 625; The Date of Easter, 691; Astronomy in Town Planning, H. L. Seymour, 691; The Infra-red Arc Spectra of Seven Elements, C. C. Kiess and W. F. Meggers, 726; The Structure of the Universe, Prof. W. D. MacMillan, 789 Astronomy: At Oxford during the War, Prof. H. H. Turner, and others, 407; Central Wireless Station for, Major W. J. S. Lockyer, 454; Descriptive, the | Jnilies XXix nts of, E. O. Tancock. Second edition, 131; in Planning, H. L. Seymour, 691 s, Sir Norman ‘Lockyer’s Contributions to, Prof, wler, 831 > m Club, Prof. C. J. Martin, Sir William Orpen, Sir J. E. Pelavel elected mémbers of the, 209 Meteorological Influences of the Sun and the, . W. Gregory, 715; Ocean, an Oceanographical Meteorological Atlas of the, Pt. i., 368 : here: At Great Heights, Composition, [onisation, Viscosity of the, Prof. S. Chapman and E,. A. 570; High Levels in the, Attainment of, W. H. 454; Occurrence of Ozone in the, J. N. Pring, ce: Circulation, General, The Meteorology of the ate Zone and the, Prof. V. Bjerknes, 522; the Supply of Energy to, L. F. Richardson, Eecrogee ‘Rate of Solution of, and Oxygen by ter, Prof. WwW. E. Adeney and H. G. Becker. Part 9: Potential at the Algiers Observatory, A Variation of the, F. Baldet, 283; Turbulence, Measurements of, L. F, Richardson, 57; Varia- f Short and Long Duration in the Malay lago and Neighbouring Regions, and the Possi- to Forecast Them, Dr. C. Braak, 729 + and Molecular Forces and Crystal Structure, A. E. Oxley, 327; and Molecular, Structure, on, E. Oxley, 231; Structure, Theories of, I. Lang- 261; Theory, The Development of the, A. N. 1, 212; Weights, Isotopes, and, Dr. F. W. ; The Standard of, Prof. J. R. Partington, - Miall, 204 Théorie, Sir J.. J. Thomson; Traduit par sureu, Nouveau tirage, 36 nuir’s Theory of, S. C. Bradford, 41, 725; Oxley, 105; Nuclear Constitution of: Atoms, t Rutherford, 500; The Structure of, Prof. A. Boy 20 d Respiration, J. Amar, 635 -None ’’ in the, Dr. W. Perrett, ant, Observed at Montreal, Prof. A. S. f March 22-23, The, W. B. Housman, 200 iltural Climatology of, Dr. Griffith Taylor, ‘Delphacidee Homoptera), A New Genus of, .; Flies of the Family Asilide, Synonyms, ; ptions of, G. H. Hardy, 635; Hard- Native Fauna, Extermination of the, Die Gliederung der, P. W. Ray, 707 - : ‘ronomical Pendulum, An, A. Guillet, 506 els, Research on, 690 Scientific Exploration, Dr. P. Chalmers 336; Civil, Report of the Advisory Com- ag ; Report of the Department of, 592 A tor Pear, Cultivation of the, W. G. i Milk Production of, Prof. R. Pearl and + R. Miner, 245 communis, The Enzymes of, E. C. Grey, 538 : -Transmutation of, Dr. S. Gurney-Dixon, 131 Lecture, The, Sir Ernest Rutherford, 500 Series of Hydrogen Lines, The Structure of the, T. R. Merton, 314 edward. 530 Medal of Columbia University, The, awarded to Prof. Einstein, 590 tes in the English Triassic Strata derived from over- 7. Bre EB. J. E ussell; Sir Thomas Middleton, 183; Bainbridge ; _G. Scott Robertson; D. Sillars, 184 Batu Kurau Parish, Perak, Exploration of a Shelter in the, Il. H. N. Evans, 834 Bedford College for Women, Appeal for Funds by, 186 Bee-Eater in Scotland, Nesting of the, J. K. Nash, 786 Bees: Eye-Colour in, Prof. T. D. A. Cockerell, 518; and the Scarlet-Runner Bean, H. J. Lowe, 742 ; Beetles, Indian, 64 Behaviourism, Prof. H. Wildon Carr, 512 Beit Fellowship for Scientific Research, M. A. elected to a, 665 Belfast, Queen’s University: Dr. J. Small appointed Pro- fessor of Botany in, 25; Gift to, by F. A. Heron, 248 Belgian Congo Territory, Zoological. Collections made in the, during 1909-15, 593 Bengal, Biological Papers from, Dr. N. Annandale, 436 Benzene: Chlorination of, Kinetic Study of the, Bourion, 506; extracted from Commercial Chloro- benzenes, Impurities of the, F. Bourion, 443 Benzoic Acid, A Reaction for, based on its Diazotisation, M. Guerbet, 666 Benzoylphenylacetylene _ di-iodide, forms of, C. Dufraisse, 475 Beri-Beri, The Pathology and Symptomatology of, F. M. R. Walshe, 241 Bibliographies, The Compilation of, F. Bullock, 116 Bicycle, The Evolution of the, Prof. W. W. Watts, 435 Billingham-on-Tees, Sale of the Nitrate Factory at, to Brunner, Mond and Co., Ltd., 312 Biological Papers from Bengal, Dr. N. Annandale, and others, 436 Bipolar Co-ordinates, Plane Stress and Plane Strain in, _. G. B. Jeffery, 632 Bird: Life, The Romance of, 746; Protection, The Plumage Bill and, Sir H. H. Johnston; Prof. H. M. Lefroy, 168; Sir Herbert Maxwell; Prof. A. Dendy, 169; Dr. W. E. Collinge, 196; Prof. J. E. Duerden, 263 Birds: and Beasts, The Story-Book of, J. H. Fabre, 651; in Town and Village, W. H. Hudson, 651; Life and Lore . of, 514; of Eastern Canada, The, P. A. Tavener, 623; of Egypt, Hand-List of the, M. J. Nicoll, 674; of the British Isles, The, and their Eggs, T. A. Coward. First series, 132 Birkbeck College, A Course of Training for ex-Service Men for Positions on Rubber and Tea Plantations, 280 Birmingham University: A. A. Dee appointed an Rock Hogan , . ’ . The Stereo-isomeric Dr. Assistant Lecturer in Physics in, 120; A. R. Ling appointed Adrian Brown Professor of Brewing; Erection of a Memorial -Tablet to Prof. Adrian Brown; Gift from the Asiatic Petroleum Co.; F. Shaw appointed Assistant Lecturer in Electrical Engineering, and R. B. H. Wyatt Lecturer in Bac- teriology, 154; Impending Resignation of Sir John Cadman of the Chair of Mining, 409; Students in, 472; The Department of Mining to be re-organised and extended; Prof. F. W. Burstall elected Dean of the Faculty of Science, 505; Conferment of Degrees, 630; Increase in Cost of Fees; The Neces- sity for Increasing the Stipends of the Staff, Sir Gil- bert Barling, 730 Birth-Rate, The, W. L. George 82 Bitterns, Buzzards and, Canon E. McClure, 105 Black Smoke Tax, The, 471 Blepharospora terrestris, A Peyrouel, 844 Blood, The Circulating, in Relation to Wound-Shock, Prof. W. M. Bayliss, 9 Blow-flies, Experiments in Breeding, Prof. Enriques, 756 Board of Trade, Dr. Edridge-Green appointed a Special Examiner in Colour Vision and Eyesight by the, 654 Body Temperatures, Electrical Methods of Measuring, R. S. Whipple, 338 ** Book of the Dead,’’ The, Sir E. A. Wallis Bridge, 755 Books, Scientific and Technical, Sir R. A. Gregory, 41 Boss 1517, Parallax of the B-type, J. Vofite, and others, 838 Parasite of the Lupin, B. 3 Botanical Guides, 34 Botany: Applied, G. S. M. Ellis, 164; Applied Economic, Based upon Actual Agricultural and Gardening Projects, Dr. M. T. Cook, 34; A University Course in, 162; Structural, Elementary Notes on, A. H. Church, 162 XXX Lndex [ Nature, October 7, 1920 Botrytis cinerea, with colourless sclerotia, A Form of, W. B. Brierley, 186 Bowl, a Remarkable Stone, in the Museo Arqueoldgico, Madrid, B. G. Corney, 755 Brachyphalangy, Hereditary, in Man, A New Type, of, O. L. Mohr and C, Wriedt, 464 , Bradford Technical College, H. Richardson dppointed Principal of the, 505 Brain, The Function of the, Dr. T. G. Brown, 123 : Brass, 60-40, Some Properties of, Prof. C. H. Desch, 6 Bear Valley Bird Sanctuary, The, W. M. Webb, 614; 622 Bristol University: Forthcoming Award of the Vincent Stuckey Lean Scholarship; Proposed Extensions of the Engineering Faculty, 313; Prof. F. Francis appointed Pro-Vice-Chancellor, 601; Resignation of Prof. F. Francis as Dean of the Faculty of Science; Prof. A, M. Tyndall appointed Dean of the Faculty of Science, and P, Fraser Deputy Dean; Prof. C. Lloyd Morgan appointed Emeritus Professor of Psychology and Ethics; Dr. C. D. Broad appointed Professor of Philosophy, 630 British ; Aeronautics, 561 ; and Foreign Scientific Apparatus, D. H. Baird, 390; J. W. Ogilvy, 424; J. S. Dunkerly, 425; F. W. Watson Baker, 518; Prof. W. M. Bayliss, 641; and Metric Systems of Weights and Measures, A. S. E. Ackermann, 456; Association, The Sectional Presidents of the Cardiff Meeting of the, 112; Forth- coming Meeting of the, 399; The Cardiff Meeting of the, 524, 780; Subjects for Discussion at the Cardiff Meeting, 626; Bequest to, by I. W. Back- house, 630; Presidential Address, Prof. W. A. Herd- man, 813; Summaries of Addresses of the Presidents of Sections, 825; The Meeting at Cardiff, 830; Astronomical Association, Bequest to, by T. W. Back- house, 631; Chemical Mission on Chemical Factories in the Occupied Area of Germany, A Summary of the Report of the, 253; Chemists, Central Head- quarters for, 697; Cotton Industry Research Associa- tion, pending Scientific Appointments by the, 274; Constitution and Methods of the, Dr. A. W. Crossley, 372; First Annual Report of the, 840; Crop Production, Dr. E. J. Russell, 176, 206; Dyes Corporation, Sir Henry Birchenough appointed Chair- man of the, 303; East Africa, Profit and Sport in, being a Second Edition, revised and enlarged, of “‘ A Colony in the Making,’’ Capt. the Lord Cranworth, 392; The Development of, 392; Empire, Cotton- Growing in the, Dr. W. Lawrence Balls, 103; Sir George Watt, 104; Exhibition, The Forthcoming, 755; (Forestry Conference, The Principal Members of the, Received by the King, 687, 759; Order of the, Promotions and Appointments of the, 144; Sugar Research Association, The, 80; Timber Exhibition, The, 591; India, The Fauna of, including Ceylon and Burma, Coleoptera, Chrysomelidae (Hispinae and Cassidinae), Prof. S. Maulik, 64: Iron Ores, Prof. H. Louis, 419; Isles and North-West Europe, Prac- tical Exercises on the Weather and Climate of the, W. F. Stacey, 133; The Birds of the, and their Eggs, T. A. Coward, First Series, 132; The Colour Index of the, Prof. F. G. Parsons, and others, 531; Journal of Experimental Pathology, No. 1, 82; Lampblown Scientific | Glassware Manufacturers’ Association, Ltd., History of the Formation of the, D. H. Baird, 496; Motor Cycle and Cycle Car In- dustry, The. Research Association for the, Approved, 526; Ornithology from the Earliest Times to the end of 1918, A Geographical Bibliography of, W. H. Mullens, H. Kirke Swann, and Rev. F. C. R. Jour- dain. Part I., 3%53; Research Association for the Woollen and Worsted Industries. Report of, for 1918-19, 118; Rubber and Tyre Manufacturers, Re- search Associatiun of, B. D. Porritt appointed Director of Research by the, 179; School of Archeology in Jerusalem, The Prince of Wales Patron of the, 52; Science Guild, The Forthcoming Annual Meeting of the, 398; Annual Meeting of the. 468: Journal of the, June, 657; Sea Fisheries, The, 397 Bromohydrins and Dibromo-derivatives, me. Ramart-Lucas, 762 Brorsen-Metcalf Comet, Photographs of the, Prof. Bar- nard, 467 , Bruchus rufimanus, Boh, Distribution, Life-History, and Measures of Control of, R. E. Campbell, 310 Brussels University, The Medal of Honour Presented to Lord Dawson of Penn, Sir Leslie Mackenzie, and Prof. Sir William Smith, 440 Buddhism in the Pacific, Sir Henry Howorth, and others, 407 Buenos Aires, Discovery of Early Remains of Man in, Dr, C. Ameghino, 209; National Museum of Natural History, Dr. Ameghino appointed Director of the, 80 Butter and Cheese, C. W. W. Tisdale and J. Jones, 738 A. Haller and . Buzzard at Home, The, A. Brook, 746 Buzzards and Bitterns, Canon E. McClure, 105 Bygone Beliefs: Being a. Series of Excursions in the Byways of Thought, H. S. Redgrove, 610 Cairo, Proposed University at, 731 Calcium, The Absorption of, by Plant-Roots and its Anti- toxic Properties towards Copper, L. Maquenne and E. Demoussy, 91 Calculus: Differential for Colleges and Seconda ' Schools, Dr. €C. Davison, 65; Elementary, C. H. P. Mayo (with answers), 163 Calcutta, Report for 1918-19 of the Bureau of Educa- tion, 794 Calendar Reform, A. Philip, C. Flammarion, 22; C. Flammarion, Dr. A. C..D. Crommelin, 105 Camarasaurus, Cope (Morosaurus, Marsh), Reconstruction of the Skeleton of, H. F. Osborn and C. C, Mook, and Restoration of the Camarasaurus and Life-Model, W. K. Gregory, 667 Cambrian Horizons of Comley (Shropshire), The, and their Brachiopoda, etc., E. S. Cobbold, 314 Cambridge University: Girton College, Offer of a Fellow- ship by, 25; E. V. Appleton appointed an Assistant Demonstrator in Experimental Physics; Proposal to Create a Readership in the Morphology of Verte- brates and a Lectureship in Zoology; New Building Schemes, 56; Prof. H. Lamb; Sir Thomas L. Heath, Prof. W. H. Bragg, and-Dr. H. Head elected Honorary Fellows of Trinity College; A. Amos appointed University Lecturer in Agriculture, and G. U. Yule re-appointed University Lecturer in Statistics, 88; A Smith’s Prize awarded to S. Pollard; Grants from the Gordon-Wigan Fund, 88; Fresh Regulations for the Diplomas in Agriculture and _ Forestry Drafted, 89; Two Exhibitions Offered by Emmanuel College; Approval of the New Statute Authorising — the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy for Research, — 120; F. B. Smith appointed Reader in Estate Manage- ment in, 120; G. E. Briggs elected to the Allen Scholarship; The New Ph.D. Statute, 154; Gifts .towards the Hopkinson Professorship in Thermo- dynamics; The Linacre Lecture to be delivered by Dr. H. Head; Proposed Honorary Degrees, 312; The Sheepshanks Exhibition in Astronomy awarded to E. S. Pearson; Examination for the Diploma in Medical Radiology and Electrology; H. Hamshaw Thomas’ re-appointed Curator of the Botanical Museum; Bequest by the Hon. Sir Charles A. Smith to Peterhouse, 313; Report of Syndicate on the Relation of Women Students; Sir Geoffrey Butler appointed Secretary of the Board of Research Studies; H. F. Gadow appointed Reader in the Morphology of Vertebrates; Dr. H. Scott Curator in Entomology; G. F. C. Gordon Superintendent of the Engineering Workshops; L. G. P. Thring Super- intendent of the Engineering Drawing Office,’ 345; F. A. Milne appointed Assistant Director of the Solar Physics Observatory; The First M.B. Examination ; Relation of Women to the University; The Local Lectures Summer Meeting, 376; Conferment of Honorary Degrees, 409; Prof. J. T. Wilson appointed Professor of Anatomy, 439; Hopkins Prize Awards ve ndex XXxI to Dr. W. Burnside, Prof. G. H. Bryan, and _R. Wilson, 440; Dr. T. G. Adami elected an wary Fellow of Christ’s College, 440; Offer for rection, etc., of a Low-Temperature Station, Gift for a Biochemistry Building, 472; The t for the Sir William- Dunn School of Bio- nistry; Dr. T. G. Adami elected an Honorary y of Jesus College; J. E. Littlewood appointed vy Lecturer in Mathematics; J. H. Grace re- ted University Lecturer in Mathematics, 505; tution of Thermodynamics for Elementary Optics le A of Part II. of the Mathematical Tripos iended; Proposed Honorary Degrees; 505; A for a Degree in Horticulture, 506; An ad 2 "grant by the Government; Donation Received ctures in Tropical Agriculture; Dr. C. A. Barber ted Lecturer in Tropical Agriculture ; Miss: B. gh appointed Principal of Newnham College, _ Adrian appointed University Lecturer in y; F. A. Potts University Lecturer in E, W. Ravenshear awarded the Harkness p; R. E. Holthum and G. T. Henderson, Smart Prizes, 537; Dr. F..W. Aston elected Fellowehis in Trinity College; Latin Orations Presentation of Sir Joseph Thomson and Sir for Honorary Degrees, 568; Bequest eS, Marshall, 601; Dr. S. Scales ‘appointed _Lecturer in Medical Radiology and Elec- t. Lavington appointed Girdlers’ Lecturer s; J. Chadwick elected to the Clerk Sebolarsbip in Experimental Physics; H. F. the Hees W. Levy Research Studentship : J. Beamish to the Wrenbury og oa 601; Dr. T. M. Lowry essor of Physical Chemistry, 630; by Mr, and Mrs, P. A. Molteno towards : Molteno Institute of Parasitology ; ‘non appointed Assistant to the Professor ; Impending Conferment of Honorary ; The Balfour Memorial Fund Student- onorary Degree of Doctor of Law Con- A. L. Lowell, Prof. J. J. Abel, and ng, 730; Prof. S. J. Hickson elected ‘ellow of Downing College; A. J. Berry Fe > 761; Presentation to Dr. rigs Jones, 622 the British Empire, Eee: P. Car- d the United States, A Saiieies Tour (1919) the extile Districts of, Prof. A. F,. Barker, Insects of, 730; _ Natural History Studies mary Report ‘of the Mines Branch of of Mines of, for the year 1918, 242 peention, 1913-18, Reports on Crustacea, and Dr. C. Juday, 835; Progress, H. Godfrey, 147; Water-power ae iS. Dennis, 311 of Physical Agents on the Resistance of ‘ by Murphy, 668; Research Fund, The 1¢ Biochemical Preparation of, starting nose, Em. Bourquelot and M. Bridel, . The After-effects of, C. E. Stromeyer, 90 River Region, The, Northern Alaska, E. de K. ell, 55a ; ‘Ey K: Wakeford, 369 \lcock, 563 es Schlesinger and Z. Daniel, 183 bits, Prof. L. Becker, 560 mesg for Increasing Durations of Charge, Ratio of the Absolute Retardations in, M. ‘nier, 699; Dioxide, Prolonged Action of, on es and Quartz, C. Matignon and Mlle. Marchal, Monoxide in the Air of Mines, er for permation of Small Quantities of, J. I. Graham, the Diversity of Edinburgh, The, J. Ramsbottom; Major w. 624; Sub-nitride, New Researches on, C. Moureu and J. C. Bongrand, 411 Carbonyl Compounds, Latent Polarities Mechanism of Reaction, Prof. A, Lapworth, 346 Carnegie: Corporation of New York, Dr. elected President of the, 527; Foundation, The, and . Teachers’ Pensions, 596; Magnetic Observations taken on the, in February and March, 1920, 788; Results of the Magnetic Survey of the Atlantic made by the, J. P. Ault, 520; United Kingdom Trust, Sixth Annual Report’ of the, 56 Cass Technical Institute, Sir John, Membership of and Courses at the, Dr. C. A. Keane, 121 Catalase, The Chemical Kinetics of, E. Yamasaki, Catalytic: Action at Solid Surfaces, A Study of the, Dr. E. F. Armstrong and T. P. Hilditch, III. and IV., 314; V., Dr. E. F, Armstrong and T. P. Hilditch, 631; Activity ‘of Copper, Part I., We G. Palmer, 633 ; Chemi- cal Reactions and the Law of Mass Action, Dr. E. F, Armstrong, 696; Decomposition of Solutions of Hydrogen Peroxide by Colloidal Platinum, A. de G. Rocasolano, 603; of the Fatty Acids by Carbon, 3: B. Senderens and J. Aboulenc, 411; Hydration of Nitriles, The, A. Mailhe, 795 peer and the Future of Beef-Production in England, nad en Soap apes with a Preface and Chapter by F. H. A. Marshall, 62 Gratton Institute, Appointments at the, 590; Dr. R. J. Tillyard, 603 Cells, Multinucleate: An Historical Study (1879-1919), R. Beer and Dr. Agnes Arber, 90 Céllulose Acetate, Studies on, Dr. of Atoms and with Special Reference to, J. R. Angell 402 Fenton and A, J. Berry, 378 Celt pa ‘Slav, Prof. J. D. Prince, 763 Celts, Flat- based, from Kent, Hampshire, and Dorset, H, Dewey, 153 Census, The Forthcoming, Central: Asia, Through Deserts and Oases of, Miss Ella Sykes and Brig.-Gen. Sir Percy Sykes, 330; Australia, The Present Condition of the Aborigines of, EN: Fallaize, 601 Cephalopodes, Researches on the Posterior Salivary Gland of III., F. Bottazzi, 251 Cereal Seeds, Dry Heat Treatment of, D. Atanasoff and ALG. Johnson, 310 Cereals, Estimated Yields of, Throughout the World, 657; The Prospective Yields of, for 1919-20, 147 Cerebral Cortex, Sensation and the, Dr. H. Head, 363 Cerions, Experiments in the Breedin ng of, P. Bartsch, 545 Ceryl Alcohol and Cerotic Acid Sirs China Wax, A. Gascard, 506 Ceylon Fungi, Revisions of, Part VI. T. Petch, 20 Chadwick Public Lectures, Forthcoming, 20 Chaleur et du Froid, Action de la, sur 1’Activité des Etres Vivants, G. Matisse, 161 Cheddar Caves, Plant-Life in, L. Pendred, 709 Chemical: Age, Vol. I., 116; Analysis, Quantitative, A Text-book of, Dr. A. C. Cumming and Dr. S, A. Kay, Third Edition, 33; Calculation Tables: For 797 Laboratory Use, Prof. H. L. Wells, Second Edition, 33; Dictionary, Popular, C. T. Kingzett, 227; Engineer, The Training and Functions of the, Lord Moulton, 83; Industry, Society of, The Medal of the, awarded to P. Kestner, 366; Sir William J. Pope elected President of the; The Gold Medal of the, Pre- sented to P. Kestner, 654; Annual Meeting of, 695; Industries of German Rhineland, The, 253; Physiology, The Essentials of, Prof. W. D. Halliburton, Tenth Edition, 192; Research as Applied to Industry, An Impending French Institute for, 722; Notes on,’ An Account of Certain Conditions which apply to Original Investigation, W. P. Dreaper, Second Edition, 773; Service for India, A, Prof. H. E. Arm- strong, 669; Sheet-Lead, D. W. Jones, 695; Society, - Proposals for Election of Honorary and_ Foreign Members, 52; Election of Officers and Council of the, 145; and its New By-laws, 344; Women Made Eligible for Fellowships of the, 432 ; Text-books, 705; Theory XXXIl Index Nature, October 7, 1920 and Calculations, Profs, F. J. Wilson and I. M. Heilbron, Second Edition, 805 Chemistry : Annual Reports on the Progress of, for 1919, Vol. XVI., 708; and its Mysteries: The Story of what Things are Made of, told in Simple Language, Cac Ri\ Gibsony.995 Applied, A Practical Handbook for Students of Household Science, and Public Health, Dr. C. K. Tinkler and Helen Masters, Volcan, 227.2 Manuals on, 382; Elementary Agricultural, H. Ingle, Third Edition, 773; Practical, for Medical and other Students, Dr. J. E. Myers and J. B.. Firth, Second Edition, yo5; for Public Health Students, EG. Jones, 705; for Textile Students, B, North, assisted by N. Bland, 382; from the Industrial Standpoint, Pe es Thorne, 227; French Text-books of, 63; Industrial, New Books on, 227; Institute of, Annual General Meeting of the, 19; ‘Legal, and Scientific Criminal Investigation, A. Lucas, 772; of Coal, The, J. B. Robertson, 382; Organic, A Class-book of, Prof. J. B. Cohen, Vol. IL., 195; Physical, Introduction to: Prof. J, Walker, Eighth Edition, 129; Practical, 33; A Course of, for Agricultural Students, Vol. I., L. F. Newman ‘and Prof, iH. D. Neville, 291; Vol. Il., Part I., H. A. D. Neville and L. F. New- man, 33; Leather, A. Harvey, 382 ; Service, the late Prof V. B. Lewes and Prof, J. S. S. Brame, Fifth Edition, Sir ‘I. E. Thorpe, 287 Chemists : British, Central Headquarters for, 697; Indus- trial, The National Association of, < B. Searle elected President of, 785; Year Book, 1920, Edited by F. W. Atack, assisted by L. Whinyates, 2 vols., The: Ante-Natal and 740 Child Physiology : Principles of Post-Natal, Pure and Applied, W. M. Feldman, 638 Children, Physical Efficiency of, Investigation and Standardisation of the, Dr. A. A. Mumford, 26 Chile and Argentina, Botanical Exploration in, W. Turrill, 433 Chimica delle’ Sostanze Esplosive, Prof. M. Giua, 483 Chimie: Cours de, a l’usage des Etudiants P.C.N, et S.P.C.N., Prof. R. de Forcrand, Deuxiéme édition, Tome I. et Tome II., 63; Organique, Notions Fonda- mentales de, Prof. C. Moureu, Sixiéme édition, 63 Chindwin, Upper Burma, Races of the, R. Grant Browne, 281 Chloride of Bromine, The: Its Combination with Ethyl- ene, M. Delépine and ‘L. Ville, 539 Chlorine: and Various Vapours, The Action of, upon Plants, P. Guerin nad Ch. Lormand, 59; The Separa- tion of the Isotopes of, D. L. Chapman, 487, 611; Prof. F. Soddy, 516, 642; The Separation of the Element, into Normal Chlorine and Meta-chlorine, and the Positive Electron, Prof. W. D. Harkins, 230; Dr, F. W. Aston, 231; A. F. Core, 582, 677 Chlorobenzenes, Commercial, Analysis of, by Distillation, F. Bourion, 347 Chloropicrin: Act Upon Soluble Ferments? Does, G. Bertrand and Mme. Rosenblatt, 699; Action of, Upon Yeast and Saccharomyces vini, G. Bertrand and Mme. Rosenblatt, 507; Activity of, Towards the Higher Plants, Conditions which may Modify the, G. Bertrand, 347; Upon Some Bacterial Fermentations, G. Bertrand and Mme. Rosenblatt, 571; Upon the Higher Plants, G. Bertrand, 283; on the Parasites of Wheat. and on Rats, A. Piutti, 283 Chondriome of the Vaucheria, The, G. Mangenot, 571 Cinchona: Bark, ‘‘ Grey,’’? Some Recent Samples of, B. F. Howard and O. Chick, 726; Botanical Station, Con- tinued American Lease of the, 19 Civil: Aviation, Report of the Advisory Committee on, 556; Engineers, Institution of, Awards of the, 303; Election of Officers of the, J. A. Brodie President, 304; List Pensions, Some, 654; Service Estimates for 1920-21, Education and Science in the, 246 Clark University and Clark College, Resignations of Dr. G. Stanley Hall and Dr. E. C. Sanford; Appoint- ment of Dr. W. W. Atwood as Head of Both Institu- tions, 602 Clifton College Scientific Society, 631 Climate of the Netherlands, 600 { Climatic : Cycles and Evolution, Dr. Griffith Taylor, 728; Cycles and Tree-growth, Prof. Douglass, 562 Climatology of North-west Russia and France, 119 Cloud and Sunshine, The Relationship between, Sutton, 667; years 1916-18, An Analysis of, G. A. Clarke, 148 Clouds as Seen from an Aeroplane, Douglas, 218 Cluster Pine, The, Dr. M. Grabham, 675 Clytocosmus, An Undescribed Species of, Skuse (Tipulide, Diptera), Dr. C. P. Alexander, 635 Coal: Measures in the Central Marsif and at its Edges, The Course of the, L. De Launay, 634; Supplies, Our, The Conservation of, Prof. J. W. Gregory, 108; The Chemistry of, J. B. Robertson, 382; The Oxida- tion of, M. Godchot, 666 Coastal Limestones of the Cape Province, W. Wybergh, 689 Coke-oven : Construction, Modern By-product, W. A. Ward, 695; and Blast-furnace Gases for Heating and Power, [he More Economical Utilisation of the, G. W. Hen- son and S. H. Fowles, 695; Gas, By-products from, Dr. 1b Wey Smith; 695 ; for Town Supply, H: “E. Wright, 695; Walls, The Corrosion of, W. J. Rees, 695 Colloid Chemistry, Elementary, E. Hatschek, 705 Colloidal: Complexes and Sera, G. Riquoir, 187; Electro- lytes, Prof. J. W. McBain, 760; Systems, The Pro perties of, IV.: Reversible Gelation in Living Proto- plasm, Prof, wW. M. Bayliss, 26; Therapy, 351 Colloids: in Health and Disease, The Use of, A. B. Searle, 351; 696; The Physics and Chemistry of, Symposium and Discussion on, 654 Cologne Post, Anniversary of the, 211 Colour : and Chemical Constitution, Part XI., J. Moir, 667 ; Blindness, Card Test for, Dr. F. W. Edridge-Green, 575; Index of the British Isles, The, Prof. F, G Parsons, and others, 531; Vision, The Theory and Facts of, 575 Colouring Matters of Plants, 139 Columbia and Vicinity, Flora of the District SES. Hitchcock and P. C. Standley, 242 Columbian Tradition, The, on the Discovery of America Laboratory Manual of, - Forthcoming and of the Part Played Therein by the Astronomer Toscanelli, H. Vignaud, 803 Combustibles, The Application Value of, E. Damour, 634 Commercial Parasitism in the Cotton Industry, O. F. Cook, 548 : Compass : Mariner’s, 44 Complex Combinations : A New Series of, the Antimony Oxyiodides, A. C. Vournazos, 475 Composite: Ancestral Studies of, 450; The Origin and Development of the, Dr. J. "Small, 450 Concrete, Light, C. Rabut, 91 Conflict, The Philosophy of, and other Essays in War- time, Havelock Ellis, Second Series, 353 Congress, Librarian of, Report of the, for the year end- ing June goth, 1919, 537 Congruences with respect to Composite Moduli, Major P. A. MacMahon, 474 Conic Curves, A New Apparatus for Drawing, A. F. Dufton, 187 Conjoint Board of Scientific Societies, Report for 1919, 343 Conquest, August, 756 Continent, The Heart of a, D. Carruthers, 330 Continuation Schools and their Relation to Technical Insti- tutes and Colleges, Principal C. L. Eclair-Heath, 728 Contour Colouring, the Layer System of, Dr. 3 G. Bartholomew and, G. G. Chisholm, 328 Coolidge Tube: The Manufacture of the, Dr. W. D. Coolidge, 655; The Radiator Dental Type of, 758; Its Scientific Applications, Medical and Industrial, H. Pilon” translated, Copper: A Case Favourable to the Action of, on Vegetation, L. Maquenne and E. Demoussy, 634; in Plants, The Presence of, and particularly in food of veamert Origin, B. Guérithault, 763 j. Roe Distribution at Aberdeen during the — Capt, C.: Kia The Filtration of, Dr. W. R. Ormandy, =: The Gyrostatic, S. G. Brown, 44, 77; The Nature, _ October 7, 1920. Index XXXili Coriibporgbus The Genus, T. A. Stephenson, 474 * Correlation Coefficient, Partial, in Samples of 30, An Ex- G mental Determination of the Distribution of the, J. ham, 187 CORRESPONDENCE. avigation and oreesy: Lt.-Col. E. Gold, 775; fs van Everdingen, 776 Pear, The, Pr. M. Grabham, 517 None in the Auditory Nerve, Dr. tells, ‘The Small Islands of, Prof. W. a The, Dr. G. C. Simpson, 777; .R. M. R. M. Deeley, 677 Mrs. Hertha Ayrton, 422, 612, 613; Prof. d, asz. 612 r and Industrial Research, J. W. Williamson, ; Prof. F. Soddy, 422; Major A. G, Church, W. Perrett, M. Davis, se for Biological Teaching, Dr. Monica ti’ New, Science and, Col. E. H. Hills, 103 ;. Prof. G. Filon, 133; Prof. R. Whiddington, 134; E. Gold; Dr. C. S. Myers, 135; Prof. A. R. dson, 170; K. E. Edgeworth, 233; C. S. » 3913 Universities and the, Dr. F. J. M. 2! n aac Forces and Crystal Structure, Dr. — 327; and Molecular Structure, On, Dr. ae , 231; Structure, Theories of, I. Langmuir, ts, The Standard of, Prof. ¥. R. Parting- 2 Li uir’s oieoct of, S. C. Bradford, 41; Pia. 105 22-23, The, W. B. Housman, 200 Free, The Stretching of Rubber in, Dr. H. P. ; W. H. Dines, 613 the 9 aa ge Bean, H. J. Lowe, 742; r in, Prof. T. A. Cockerell, 518 agnetic Hydrogen Atom, A’ Possible Cause magnetism of, J. R. Ashworth, 516 -and Technical, Sir R, A. Gregory, 41 Bird Sanctuary, The, W. M. Webb, 614 ‘ Scientific Apparatus, D. H. Baird, vO ilvy, 424; J. S. Dunkerly, 425; F. W. ; r, 518; Prof. M. Bayliss, 641; and a, of se we ‘and Measures, M. E. : E. Ackermann, a Bitas, Rev. Canon E. Mite, 105 Reform, C. Flammarion; Dr. A. C. D. Crom- ce, The Indian, Prof. Jocelyn Thorpe, 324; Chandra R4y, 325; Dr. M. W. Travers, ce ation of the Element, into Normal e and Meta-Chlorine, and the Positive Electron, I. Harkins; Dr. F. W. Aston, 230; the “of, The Separation of, D. L. Chapman, 487, of Fad Soddy, 516, 642; A. F. Core, 582, wa arasitism in the Cotton Industry, oO. a ay Layer System of, Dr. J. G. G. G. Chisholm, 328 in de British Empire, ‘Dr. W. Lawrence ir George Watt, 104; Industry, ot Stim in the, O. F.’ Cook, 548 et, 29 tal Structure, Atomic and Molecular Forces and, Dr. . E. Oxley, 327 nt Saving ag: cee ‘Length of the Working Day, e D. Betts, al Coinage, H. ny ee 261 Integrals between Finite Limits, A New Method F Approximate Evaluation of, A. F. Dufton, 354, 455; _ F. Merchant, 422; Commander T. Y, Baker, 4 enetism: and the Structure of the Hydrogen Mole- i cule Dre As _ Oxley, 581; of Bohr’s Paramagnetic Hydrogen Atom, A Possible Cause for the, Dr. J. R. Ashworth, 516; of Hydrogen, The, Dr. J. R. Ash- worth, 645: Dr. A. E. Oxley, 709 oy of Philosophy in England, The, Dr. H. O. Forbes, Eiffel” Taiihee Wireless Time-Signals, Prof. R. A. Sampson, 265 Elements, The Constitution of the, Dr. F. W. Aston, 8, 547 Ellipse, Perimeter of an, R. A. P. Rogers, 8 Entomologists, Practical, The Training of, Imms, 676 Eocene Flints, Naturally Fractured, J. Reid Moir, 358 Equivalence, The Principle of, and the Notion of Force, C. A. Richardson, 72 Expenses of Scientific Work, Major A. G. Church, 72° Fellow-Workers, Sir Ronald se 45 Fireball of February 4, M. L. Dey, W. F. Denning, 105 Fishery bie ec haan International Council for, X. Y. Z. 262; Prof. C. McIntosh, 167, 358 PusGerakLnoin Contraction Theory, The, H. H. Poole, 200 Fizeau Effect in an Electron Stream, An Attempt to Detect the, Prof. R. Whiddington, 708 Flying-fish, The Flight of, ©. J. McNamara, 421; Prof. W. N. F. Woodland, Sir David Wilson- Barker, 455 Genera and Species, A. Mallock, 675 Glacial Anticyclone, The Mechanics of the, Experiment, Prof. W. H. Hobbs, 644 Gravitational: Deflection of High-speed Particles, Prof. S. Eddington, 37; H. G. Forder, 138; L. Page, 233; Shift of Spectral Lines, Dr. H. Jeffreys, a Halo, A Peculiar, Capt. C. J. P. Cave, 171 Hawthorn Blossom, Early, Lady Jenny Rose, 234 High Levels in the Atmosphere, Attainment of, W. H. Dines, 454 High Rates of Ascent of F cl Balloons, Dr. W. Bemmelen, 485; J. S. Dines, 581 Hydrogen, The Secondary Spectrum of, Prof. J. W. Nichol- son, 166 Hyperbolic Space, Relativity and, Prof. A. McAulay, 808 Ice, Curious Formation of, A, S. E. Ackermann, 741 Indian Chemical Service, The, Prof. Jocelyn Thorpe, 324; . Sir Prafulla Chandra Ray, 325; Dr. M. W. Travers, Rew Aw: D: illustrated by van 354 Industrial Research, Scientific Direction of, Major A. G. hurch, 40 Integration, Approximate, and of Computing Areas, Some Methods of, A. S. Percival, 70; Prof. J. B. Dale; R..A. P. Rogers, 138 Ionisation in the Solar | Ne M. N. Saha, 232 Isomerism, An Electronic Theory of, Pr. H. S. Allen, 71; W. E. Garner; S. C. Bradford, 171 Isotopes: The Separation of, Dr. T. R. Merton and Brig.- Gen. H. Hartley, 104; of Chlorine, The Separation of the, D. L. Chapman, 487, 611; Prof. F. Soddy, 516, 642; A. F. Core, 582, 677 Jupiter, "The Great Red Spot on, W. F. Denning, 423 Kent’s Cavern, The Condition of, E. A. Martin, 742 ate a and Power, L. Bairstow, 135; F, 'O. ja . W. Evans, 165 Laboratory Fittings, The Cost of. A. E. Munby, 294, 456; . Beck, 355; B. H. Morphy; C. Baker, 356; Bel- lingham and Stanley, Ltd.. W. Taylor; H. W. Ash- field, 357, ‘Langmuir’s Theory of Atoms, On, S. C. Bradford, 41; Dr. A. E. Oxley, 105 Light: [eflection of, During a Solar Eclipse, J. A. Orange; Dr. A. C. D. Crommelin, 8; the Deflection of," Marat and, Prof. W. A. Osborne, 456 London University Site and Needs, Sir E.Sharpey Schafer, Dr. 4 Magnetic: Shell, The Construction of a, Equivalent to a given Electric Current, Dr. A. A, Robb , 199; Storm of March 22-23, The, and Associated Phenomena, Dr. C. Chree, 136; Rev. A. L. Cortie, 137; Dr. A. C. Mitchell, 170 Marat and the Deflection of Light, Prof. W. A. Osborne, 45 Medical Education, Science in, Prof. S. J. Hickson, 643 XXXIV Ln dex octet aan Marat Motion of, A Dynamical Specification of the, | Telephotography, A Note on, A. B., 488 G. W. Walker, 198 Temperature Variations at 10,000 ft., C. K. M. Douglas, iblesaet ical Conditions of an Ice Cap, R. F. T. Granger, 709; Office, The Position of the, Dr. H. R. Mill, W. W. Bryant, 38° Migrations in the Sea, The Physiology of, Prof. A. Meek, 197 Mole Cricket, The, F. V. C., 29 Mortlakes as a Cause of River Windings, T. S. Ellis, 264 H. Bury, 391 Moseley Memorial, Sir Henry A. Miers, C. G. Darwin, and Dr. H. Robinson, 200 Muscular Efficiency, A. Mallock, 197 Museums and the State, Prof. E. W. MacBride, Prof. J. W. She ae 68; Dr. F. A. Bather, Dr. W Hoyle, 69; W. G, Wagner, 703 Sit °K. Ray Lankester, 100: Prof. J. Stanley Gardiner, 1o1; Dr. W. M. Tattersall, 102; F.R.S., 136 Musk Plants, Loss of Fragrance of, Hon. Col. C. J. Bond, Oo Officers, Seconding of, for Study at Universities, Prof. J. Wertheimer, 41 Organisation of Scientific Work, Dr. W. Bateson, J. S. Gamble, Sir Ronald Ross, 6; Dr. E. J. Russell, Prof. A. C. Seward, 7; Sir j. c. Bose, 39; Sir ie ee Middleton, 103; Sir Leonard Rogers, 292; in India, Sir Thomas H. Holland, 452 Ostrich, A Stalked Parapineal Vesicle in, the, Prof. J. E. Duerden, 516 Ozone in the Atmosphere, Occurrence of, J. N. Pring, 645 Percussion Figures, Dr, B. G. Escher, 171 Pilot Balloons, High Rates of Ascent of, Dr. W. van Bemmelen, 485; J. S. Dines, 581 Pine, The Cluster, Dr. M. Grabham, 675 Plant Life in Cheddar Caves, L, Pendred, 709 Plumage Bill, The, and Bird Protection, Sir H. H. John- ston, Prof. H. M. Lefroy, 168; Sir Herbert Maxwell, Prof. A. Dendy, 169; Dr. W. E. Collinge, 196; Prof. E. Duerden, 263 Rainbow Inside Out, Ay CoQ: Bartrum, 388 Relativity : and Hyperbolic Space, Prof. A. McAulay, 808 ; and Reality, Prof. R. A. Sampson, 708 Royal Military Academy, The, J. Young, 486 Science: and Scholasticism, Prof. J. J. Walsh, 547; Dr. C. Singer, 548; and the New Army, Col. E. H. Hills, 103; Prof. L. N. G. Filon, 133; Prof. R. Whid- i Sry 134; Lt.-Col. E. Gold, Dr. C. S. Myers, 135; Pro R. Richardson, 170; *K. E. Edgeworth, 233; C, <. AWright 391; Hickson, 643 Scientific: and Technical Books, Sir R. A. Gregory, 41; Apparatus from Abroad, Prof. W. M. Bayliss, — C. Beck, 355; B. H. Morphy, C. Baker, 356; lingham and Stanley, Ltd., W. Taylor, H. W. Ashfield, 357; British and Foreign, D. H. Baird, 390; J. W. Ogilvy, 424; J. S. Dunkerly, 425; F. W. Watson aker, 518; Prof. W. M. Bayliss, 641; Direction of Industrial Research, Major A. G. Church, 40; Publica- tions, The Cost of, Prof. W. A. Herdman, Prof, H. H. Turner, 326; . B. Knobel, W. W. ‘Bryant, 327; Prof. G, H. Hardy, Dr. A. B. Rendle, 353; Dr. Daydon Jackson, Dr. C. S. Myers, 354; Dr. C. G. Knott, 425; Research, Dr. J. W. Evans, 358; Re- unions at the Natural History Museum, Dr. G. F. H. Smith, 72; Work, Expenses of, Major. A. G. Church, 72; Its Spirit and Reward, Dr, G. J. Fowler, 387; Organisation of, Dr. W. Bateson, J. S. Gamble, Sir Ronald Ross, 6; Dr. E. J. Russell, Prof. A. C. Seward, veri eel Pag Os Bose, 39; Sir T. H. Middleton, 103 ; Sir Leonard Rogers, 292; in India, Sir Thomas H. Hol- in Medical Education, Prof. S. J. land, 452 Sea and Sky at Sunset, Lt.-Col. K. E. Edgeworth, J +5 358 ‘Spectrum, An Experiment on the, Dr. R. A. Houstoun, 421 Sphexapata (Miltogramma) conica, Note on the Habits of the Tachinid Fly, O. H Latter, 614 Spores and Plant Life in Deep Caves, The Carrying Power of, E. A. Stoney, 740 Sumner Lines in Navigation, Use of, Prof. G. C. Com- stock, Capt. T. H. Tizard, 742; Dr. J. Ball, 806 614 z au Thrush, The First Act of a Young, Honor M. M. Perry. — coste, 456 ; Trichodynamics, Dr. W. Lawrence Balls, 777 Universities, The, and the Army, Dr. F, J. 234 University : Grants, Sir Michael E. Sadler, 740; Principal C, Grant Robertson, 774; Prof. W. H. Perkin, 805; Stipends and Pensions, Prof. G. W. O. Howe, 582 Vapour Densities, Calculation of, R. G. Durrant, 742 Vocal Notes, Seven, Photographs of, Dr. W. Perrett, 39 Volcanic Rocks in the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, Dr. G. W. Grabham, 199 Waage’s Photochemical Synthesis of Phiorogiaces from Glu- cose, Dr. M. Nierenstein, 391 Wasps, W. F. Denning, 328 Waves, Growth of, A. Mallock, 777 Weather Forecasts and Meteorology, A. Mallock, 580 Weights and Measures, British and Metric Systems of, M. E. Yeatman, 355; A. S. E. Ackermann, 456 Wireless : Station for Astronomy, Central, Major W.-J. S. Lockyer, 454; Time-Signals, Eiffel Tower, Prof. R. A. Sampson, 265 ‘ M. Stratton, Corrosion Research Committee, Appeal for Funds by the, 304 Cosmogony, Problems of, and Stellar Dynamics, J. H. Jeans, 31 Cottage Building, Experimental, 792 Cotton: Climates of the British Empire suitable eh the Cultivation of, C. E. P. Brooks, 338; Egyptian, Re- searches on, Dr. W. L. Balls, 664 Cotton Growing: Future Organisation, 793; in South America, Possibilities of, G, McC. McBride, 399; in the British Empire, Dr. 'W. Lawrence Balls, 103; Sir George Watt, 104; Industry, Commercial Parasitism in the, O.. Forty-eighth Annual Report of the, 151 Long-range Forecasting in Java, 729 London: County Council, Compulsory Day Continuation Schools, Forthcoming Appointment of. Principals of, 280; Draft Scheme, The, The Education Act, 1918, 693; Degrees in Commerce, Dr. Russell Wells, 440; School of Economics, The Foundation-Stone of the New Wing of the, Laid by the King. 440; University, Appointment of Fellows of University College; The Degree of D.Sc. conferred on W. Rees. 25; Gifts to, bv the Sir Ernest Cassel Educational Trust; Dr. J. McIntosh appointed Professor of Pathology at the Middlesex Hospital Medical School; Dr. S. Russ ap- pointed Professor of Physics at the Middlesex Hospital Medical School, 25; Appeal for a War Memorial, 57: W. Neilson-Jones appointed Professor of Botany at Bedford College; Posts in connection with the Sir Ernest Cassel Benefactions; Various Gifts: Conferment of Doctorates; Award of Keddey Fletcher-Warr Studentships to Dr. Agnes Arber and Miss Margaret McFarlane; Annual Report of University College, 155: Forthcoming Public Lectures, 312 ; Courses of Advanced Lectures, 376; The University of, A Great Opportunity, 381; Government Offer of a Site, H. A. 'L. Fisher, 404; The Degree of D.Sc. conferred on B. C. Laws; Report xii [ndex { Naiure, October 7, 1920 of the Principal Officer for 1919-20, 409; Site and Needs, Sir E. Sharpey Schafer, 484; and the British, Museum, Chance of Increased Co-operation between, 528; Dr. S. Russell Wells re-elected Vice-Chancellor ; Acceptance of the Rockefeller Gift; Appointments ; Grants from the Dixon Fund, 568; The Degree of Bachelor of Science .in Household and Social Science to be Instituted, 569; Resolution re the Proposed Site for, 569; E. Barker appointed Principal of King’s College, 630; Mr. Fisher on King’s College, 665; V. H. Mottram appointed Professor of Physiology at King’s College for Women Household’ and Social Science De- partment; Dr. W. S. Lazarus-Barlow appointed Pro- fessor of Experimental Pathology at Middlesex Hos- pital Medical School; Dr. J. C. Drummond appointed University Reader in Physiological Chemistry at Uni- versity College, 698; Conferment of Doctorates; The Proposed Site; Appointments at King’s College, 698; University College, Opening of the New Buildings ot the Department of Applied Statistics, 470 ; Longitude by Wireless Telegraphy, Prof. R. A. Sampson, 37° y Lorraine, The Future of the Iron and Steel Industry in, Prof. H. C. H. Carpenter, 588 Louth: Disastrous Flood at, 432; The Thunderstorms of May 29, and the, 468; The Flood at, s94 Lower Carboniferous Chert-formations of Derbyshire, The, H. C. Sargent, 58 Lower Palzozoic Rocks of the Arthog-Dolgelley District, The, Prof. A. H. Cox and A. K. Wells, 123 Lubricants, Solid, Memorandum on, T. C. Thomsen, 372 Lubricating Oils, Methods of Examining, Plea for Uni- formity in, G. F. Robertshaw, 339 Lubrication, The Theory and. Practice of, Wells and South- combe, 21 Luciani, Prof. L.., Life and Work of the late, Sig. Baglioni, 44 Luck, or Cunning, as the Main Means of Organic Modifica- tion? An Attempt to Throw Additional Light upon Darwin’s Theory of Natural Selection, S. Butler, second edition, 773 Lunar: Eclipse, The, 307; Parallax, The and Related Constants, Prof. W. de Sitter, 529; Tides, The Effects oa on the Earth’s Atmosphere, Prof. S. Chapman, 50 McGill University : Resignation of the Principalship of, Sir Auckland C. Geddes, 17; Dr. L. V. King appointed Macdonald Professor of Physics at the Macdonald Physics Building of, 721 ~ Macgregor, The Dr. Jessie, Prize for Medical Science, Forthcoming Award of, 377 Machine Drawing, A Text-book'on, E. Blythe, 260 _ Mackinder’s ‘‘ World Island ’’ and its American ‘‘ Satellite,’ ; C. R. Dryer, 624 en: Flora of the Presidency of, J. S. Gamble, part iii., for Electrical Engineers, 3 Madrid Observatory, Annual of the, for 1920. 213 Magnet Steel, Bars of, The Testing of, Dr. N. -W. MacLachlan, 122 Magnetic: Declination, Simultaneous Values of, at Different British Stations, Dr. C. Chree, 632; Disturbances and Geological Structure, 175; Disturbances in Northamp- tonshire and Leicestershire, A Report on, and _ their Relations to the Geological Structure, Dr. A. H. Cox, 175; Induction in the Soft Iron Compass Correctors under the Influence of the Needles, L. Dunoyer, 539; Shell Equivalent to a Given Electric Current, The Con- struction of a, Dr. A. A. Robb, 199; Storm of March 4-5, Dr. C. Chree, 56: of March 22-23, The, and Associated Phenomena, Dr. C, Chree, 136; Rev. A. L. Corbie, 137; and Associated Phenomena, Dr. A. Crichton Mitchell, 170 : Magnetism: and Electricity, Intermediate Text-book of, . W. Hutchinson, 515; Notes on, for the Use of Students of Electrical Engineering, C. G. Lamb, 193; ‘The Decay of, in Bar Magnets, Prof. W. Brown, 123 Magnets, Permanent, in ‘Theory and Practice, S. Evershed, 435 ie me | Malaya, Food Production in, F., G. Spring and J. N.— Milsum, 180 Malleable Cast Iron, S. J. Parsons. Second edition, 290 Mammalia, Tongues of the, Comparative Anatomy ef the, Dr. C: F. Sonntag, 218 . Mammalian Remains from Cuba Anthony, 757. .- Man: Past and Present Prof. A. H. Keane. Revised, and largely re-written, by Mrs. A. H. Quiggin and Dr. A. C, Haddon; Prof. G, Elliot Smith, 255; The Ascent of, 708; The Asiatic Origin of, W. B. Wright, 28 Makehester: College of Technology, Work of the, in the War, 410; Resignation of J. C, M. Garnett of the Principalship of the, 630; Literary and Philosophical Society, Sir Henry A. Miers re-elected President of the, 303; J. H./Lester elected Chairman of the Chemi- cal Section of the, 335; University, Grant from the Carnegie United Kingdom Trust for the Foundation and Maintenance of a Library for Deaf Education, 155; Developments at, 278; The Appeal Fund of, 313; Gift by the King to the Appeal Fund, 630; J. H appointed Lecturer in Physics and Electrical Engineer- ing, 698 Manganese Ores, A. H. Curtis, 193 Manures : Soils and, A Student’s Book on, Dr. E. J. Russell, Second edition, 130; and, in New Zealand, 'L. J. Wild, and Porto. Rico, H. E. 130 ! Maori Daggers, Two Wooden, Sir W. Ridgeway, 274 _ Map-making in India, 277 Maps, New Ordnance Survey, Lt.-Col. W. J. Johnston, 312 : Marat and the Deflection of Light, Prof. W. A. Osborne, 6 Maite Algze as Food for the Horse, Lapicque and Brocq- Rousseu, 635; Biological Association, Annual General Meeting of the, Sir E. Ray Lankester re-elected Presi- dent, 303; Biological Structures and Functions, 279; Deposits, The Transfer of, from the Sea-floor to. the Surface of Glacier Ice, ‘F.. Debenham, 724; Diesel Engine, The Running and Maintenance of the, J- Lamb, 290 f : Mariner’s Compass, The, 44 : Marlborough College Natural History Society, Report for 1919, 337 Marriages between Make Valid, 241 ; on Mars: and Wireless Signals, 276; Conjunction of, with Spica, 340; Different Phenomena Observed on the Planet, R. Jarry-Desloges, 603 Martres d’Artiéres (Puy-de-Dome), Glangeaud, 315 Mason-Wasps, The, J. H. Fabre. Mattos, 291 Maternity and Child Welfare, Dr. Wheaton, 151 Mathematical: Books and Pamphlets, Gift of, to the South African Public Library, Cape Town, by Sir Thomas Muir, 305; Cosmogony, 31; Text-books, Recent, 162 Mathematician as Anatomist, The, Prof. A. Keith, 767 Mathematics: Critical, 256; for Collegiate Students of Agriculture and General Science, Prof. A. M. Kenyon and Prof, W. V. Lovitt. Revised edition, R. A. Fisher, 31; for Engineers, part ii., W. N. Rose, 260; of Elas- Hindus of Different Castes, Bill to The Geyser of, Ph. Translated by A, T. de ticity, 511; Pure and Applied,-Dr. S. Brodetsky, 65; — , Unified, Profs. L. C. Karpinski, H. Y. Benedict, and J. W. Calhoun, 162 Mathématique, Les Principes de 1l’Analyse, Exposé His- torique et Critique, Prof. P. Boutroux. Tome second, 256 Matinee and Determinoids, Prof. C. E. Cullis, vol. ii., 19% Matter, Some Wonders of, Rt. Rev. Dr. Mauhand Klauenseuche, Neue Beobachtungen iiber den Erreger der: Die Entwicklung des Schmarotzers im Blut, speziell in den roten Blutkérperchen, Dr. Stauffacher, 100 Bares Mean Values, Equivalence of Different, A. Kienast, 474 J. E. Mercer, : Index xliii al: Engineers, Institution of, Researches under Jirection of the, 53;. Reduction Gears, Use of, een the Turbines and the Propeller in the Royal , Eng.-Comdr, H. B. Tostevin, 148 School, part i., School Statics, W. G. ee (e y 103 very, Awards for, Visit of a Deputation of itish Medical Association and the British Science on, to Mr. Balfour, 18; Education, 573; Science , S. J. Hickson, 643; Research, Prof. G. Elliot 95 ; and the Practitioner, 541 ; Committee, The | the, 43; The Work of the, Sir Walter The Promotion of, 221;~Science and Sir T. Clifford Allbutt, and others, 661; dmission of Qualified, to the Fellowship of yal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh, 51 Medieval, Prof. J. J. Walsh, 127; Poetry and, *Arcy W. Thompson, 414 pes eehy, A Project for Systematic ratic » Il n British Mbenidopiera; J. W. H. Harrison, . Onslow, 278 ene, The haustoria of the Genera, Miss 3s 667 - >, The, A. Gascard, 314 er, 95 eeaktioa Miss Edgell, 603; Unconscious, Third edition, 774 Marine and Mechanical Engineers (Second- Board of Trade Examinations), J. W. cipitation of, by Sulphuretted Hydrogen, -P. Bouvier, 603 ; w Alternating, H. Georges, 91; as an 9; Conjunction of, with e Geminorum, Motion of, A Dynamical Specifica- alker, 198; Vapour, Low-voltage ain, K. H. Kingdon, 632 from One to Thirteen Years of Age, in Rarefied Gases, The Forces Acting on Jest, 122 a ivities of, S. Konno, 181; Institute Meeting of the, to be Held at Barrow- The Journal of the, vol. xxii., No. 2, G. Shaw Scott, 164; Minerals and, Detection of, especialfy Zinc, in , A. de Gramont, 411; The Elastic ind the Plastic Extension of, Prof. W. E. ie Mineralogy of the Rarer, A Handbook E. Cahen and W. O. Wootton. Second 4 E. Cahen, 259 I G. P. Merrill, 759 © ‘ ditic an Ice-cap, R. F. T. , 709; Conference, International, Work of the ig of the, 180; Influences of the Sun and tlantic, Prof. J. W. Gregory, 715; Instruments, *. Casella and Co.’s Catalogue of, 20; Magazine, he, 83 ; Observations in Netherlands East India, 1917, . KXavier’s College, Calcutta, Rev. E. 553 + sa The Position of the, W. W. “2? ee - Mill, 38; Resolution Scottish Meteorological Society on, 87; Im- tetirement of Sir Napier Shaw from the ship of the, 144; Dr. G. C. Simpson ap- Director of the, 721; Variations, Short-period, . van Rijckevorsel, 761 , Manuel Pratique de, J. Rouch, 451 , Aerial Navigation and, Prof. E. van .Ever- , 637, 776; Lt.-Col. E. Gold, 775 ; at Hong-Kong, or All: Being some Weather Problems Explained, _W. Horner, 323; in Gunnery, The Importance of, . E. M. Wedderburn, 492; of the Temperate Zone, The, and the General Atmospheric Circulation, Prof. V. _ Bjerknes, 522; Weather Forecasts and, A. Mallock, 580 in the Food Supply of the Nation, Report Meteors: April, 149; Bright, 54; Great Perseid Shower of, Commencement of the, 595 Methods, Dr. J. McK. Cattell, 795 Methwold, Norfolk, The National Demonstration Farm at, 179 Methyl! : Chloride and Bromide, The Preparation of, starting from Dimethyl Sulphate, Ch. Boulin and L. J. Simon, 218; Esters, Combustion of, with a Mixture of Sul- oe and Chromic Acids, J. Guyot and L, J. Simon, 197 Methylethylcyclohexanone, The Constitution of the, pre- pared by the Ethylation of a-Methylcyclohexanone, A. Haller and R. Cornubert, 379 Metric Literature Clues, 179 Mica Industry, The, in Eastern Transvaal, A. L. Hall, 787 Mice, Spotting in, S6 and Imai, 400 Micro-organisms, The Projection of, into the Air, A. Trillat and M, Mallein, 475 Microscopic Illumination, Dr. H. Hartridge, 275 Microscopy, Quantitative, The Lycopodium Method of, T. E, Wallis, 249 Microtome, A Universal, Sir Horace Darwin and W. G Collins, 570. Middle Cambrian Beds at Manuels, Newfoundland, The, and their Relations, B. F. Howell, jun., 843 Middlesex Hospital, Reorganisation and Co-operation of Research Departments of the, 240 Migrations in the Sea, The Physiology of, Prof, A. Meek, 19 Military Hygiene, Gen. Sir John Goodwin, 114 Milk : and Apthous Fever, C. Porcher, 699 ; and Hzmolysis, H. Violle, 411; Problem, The Modern, in Sanitation, Economics, and Agriculture, J. S. MacNutt, 385; Pro- duction of Ayrshire Cattle, Prof. R. Pearl and J. R. Miner, 245; The Problem of Clean and Safe, Prof. S. Delépine, 385 ; The Story of, J. D. Frederiksen, 229 Mind Training, Technical Education and, E. L. Rhead, 439 Mineralogical Abstracts, part i., 147 Mineralogy of the Rarer Metals, The, A Handbook for Prospectors, E. Cahen and W. O. Wootton. Second edition, revised by E. Cahen, 259 Minerals : and Metals, 193; from Monte Somma and Vesu- vius, Prof. G, Cesaro, 464 d * Mines in the Pas-de-Calais District, and the Method of © Working Them, G. S. Rice, 688 Models Illustrating the Atomic Arrangement in Potassium Chloride, etc., W. Barlow, 570 , Mole Cricket, The, F. V. D., 294 Molecular Energy in Gases, The, Sir Alfred Ewing, 472 Mollusca Obtained by the Crocker Land Expedition, Dr. W. H. Dall, 688 Monarch: The Big Bear of Tallac, E. Thompson Seton, 450 Monkey, The Antiscorbutic Requirements of the, Drs. A. Harden and S. S. Zilva, 499 ‘Monoclinic Double Selenates of the Copper Group, Dr. A. E. H. Tutton, 538 Monsoon Rainfall in 1920. The Probable Amount of, Dr. G. T. Walker, 1920, 724 Montefiore, Fondation George, Prize, 834 ‘ Montgomery, Mary Louisa Prentice, Lectureship in Ophthalmology, Prof., G. Elliot Smith elected to the, 240 Eclipse of the, 276; Photograph of the, F. G. Pease, 267 ; : Morocco, Some Results of a New Journey in, A. Brives, 475 Mortlakes as a Cause of River-windings, T. S. Ellis, 264; H. Bury, 391 ; Moseley Memorial, Sir Henry A. Miers, C. G. Darwin, Dr. H. Robinson, 200 Motion: High-speed, Langrangian Methods for, C. G. Darwin, 379; Study and the Manual Worker, 737; for the Handicapped, F. B. and Dr. L. M. Gilbreth, 737 Motor Fuels, Mixtures for Use as, Dr. W. R. Ormandy, 21 Mounting of Wet Specimens under Watch-glasses and Petri Dishes, L. Renouf, 689 Mowra Flowers, Suggested Use of, for the Manufacture of Alcohol, 147 : Murchison, Charles, Scholarship in Clinical Medicine, of the Royal College of Physicians of London, The, 280 xliv | Index Nature, October 7, 1920 Muscle, The Thermo-elastic Properties of, A. ¥. W. Hartree, 537 Muscular Efficiency, A. Mallock, 197 Museums: and Art Galleries, The Lightning of, H. Seeger, 627; and the Advanced Student, Report on, 463; and the State, Prof. E. W. MacBride; Prof. J. W. Gregory, ° 68; Dr. F. A. Bather; Dr. W. E. Hoyle, 69; W. G. Wagner, 70; Sir E. Ray Lankester; Prof. J. Stanley Gardiner, 101; Dr. W. M. Tattersall, 102; F.R.S., 136; Association, Annual Conference, 626; National, The State and the, 29; The Proposed Transfer of, to the Local Education Authorities, Dr; F. A. Bather and Sir A. Selby-Bigge; 114 Music, The Foundations of, * De. H. J. Watt, 98 Musical: Scale, The, J. Goold, 666; Sound, The Nature of. 98 Musings an Idle Man, Sir R, H. Firth, 100 Musk Plants, Loss of ’ Fragrance of, Hon, Bond, 709 Mussels, Fresh-water, Correlation of Shape and Station in, Dr. A. E. Ortmann, 843 Mysticism, True and False, Dr. W. F. Geikie-Cobb, 633 Myzus ribis, Linn., Preliminary Note on Antennal Varia- tion in, Miss Maud D. Haviland, 378 Colnts.: 3 Nascent State, A New View of the, C. Zenghelis, 339 National : Education, 213 ; Food Consumption in the United States, Prof; R. Pearl, 597; Food Supply, The, 371; Illumination Committee of Great Britain, Major K. Edgcumbe elected Chairman of the, 557; Institute of Agricultural Botany, W. H. Parker appointed Director of the, 335; Museum of Wales, Dr. R. E. M. Wheeler appointed Keeper of the Department of Archeology, and Lecturer in Archzology in the University College of South Wales and Monmouthshire, 569; Physical Laboratory, Annual Visitation of the, 595; Report for 1919 of the, 725; Physique, A Survey of, 202; Research Council, Relation of Psychology to the, Dr. J. R. Angell, 796; Prof. V. Kellogg, 332; Union of Scientific Workers, Progress of the, 5 Native Tribes of Western Australia, The, 248 Natural: History, Misinformation and Misconception con- cerning, Dr. R. C. Smith, 146; Museum Pamphlets (Economic Series), New Editions of, 787; Presentation to, by Sir Henry Howorth of a Collection of Mam- malian, and other Remains, 209; Staff Association, Scientific Reunion of the, 52; History, Popular, 651; Studies in Canada, 426; Knowledge, An Inquiry con- cerning the Principles of, Prof. A. N. Whitehead, 446; Wealth of Britain, The, Its Origin and Exploitation, S. J. Duly, 579 Naturalist, The Book of a, W. H. Hudson, 651 Nature: Hour, Stories for the, Compiled by Ada M. and ’ Eleanor L. Skinner, 804; Pictures, Twenty-four, E. J. Detmold, 352; -study of Plants, The, in Theory and Practice for the Hobby-botanist, - ae Dymes, 804 Nature, The Jubilee of, Congratulations upon, from the Nova Scotian Institute of Science, 113 Nautical Almanac for 1922, The, 22 Naval: Education, 445; Engineering, Progress in, Vice- Admiral Sir George Goodwin, 235; Research and Ex- periment, 245 Navy Estimates, A Vote for Scientific Services under the, S) Nebule: Faint, E. P. Hubble, 84; Recent Researches on, . D. Curtis, and others ; Major W. J. S. Lockyer, 489 Nela Research ‘Laboratory, The, 8 3.4 Neolithtc ‘* Floor ’’ in the Neighbourhood of Ipswich, An Early, J. Reid Moir, 527 Neon and Helium, Moving Striations in, Dr. F. W. Aston and T. Kikuchi, 633 Neptune, Conjunction of Jupiter with; 213 Nestling Feathers of Birds, The, Prof; J. C. Ewart, 250 Netherlands, Climate of the, 600 Neuropteroid Insects of the Hot Springs Region, Zealand, The, in relation to the food, Dr. R. J. Tillyard, 667 New Caledonia, The Botany of, R. H. Compton, 122 New Problem of Trout- Hill and New Zealand: Institute, The, 24; Fellowship of the, 88; Plants and their Story, Dr. L. Cockayne. Second edition, 707; Soils and Manures in, L. J. Wild, 1305, The Limestone Resources of, P. G. Morgan, 465 Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Electric Supply Co., the Generating Stations of the, J. S. Watson, 369 Newtonian Fields in the Neighbourhood of a given Vec- torial Field, O. Onicescu, 843. Nickel: Iron Alloys : The Anomaly of the, its Causes and its Applications, Dr. C. E. Guillaume, 438; -Steels, Expansion of the, Action of Metallurgical Additions on the Anomaly of, Ch.. Ed. Guillaume, 571; Standard, Values of the Expansions of, Ch, Ed. Guillaume, 634; The Thermal Change of the Elastic Properties of, P. C. Chevenard, 603; Wire, The Change in the Rigidity of, with Magnetic Fields, Prof. W. Brown and Ps O’Callaghan, 634 Night: Raid into Space, A, The Story of the Heavens told in Simple Words, Col. J. S. F. Mackenzie, 100; Sky Recorder, A, Royal Observatory, Greenwich, 281 Basin, Physiography of the, Dr. P. Chalmers Mitchell, 113; Gauges, Report upon the, for 1913-1918, H. E. Hurst, 275; Proposals for the Development of the Cultivable Area of the Valley of the, Opposition to the, Nile: 837 ir Nitriles: by Catalysis, A New Method of Formation of, A. Mailhe, 283; The Catalytic Hydrogenation of, G. Mignonac, 699 Nitrodichloroacetanilide, M. De Angelis, 844 Nitrogen : of the Cyanic Group in Manures, R. Perotti, 844; Products Committee, Final Report, 201; Problem, "The : By-products, 201 Crystalline Forms of, Ne Ultra-violet Spectrophotometry of the, F. Vlés, 475 ' ; Nitrasnohengiyecaxylarains (Cupferron), The Salts of, V. Auger, 379 Nitrototuidine, Some Derivatives of, A. G. G. Leonard and Agnes Browne, 634 Noctiluca: Prof. C, A. Kofoid, 433; Pleurobrachia and Beroé, A Swarm of, in the Barrow Channel, A. Scoit, 6 Noon ReBesne, A, Prof..C. V. Boys; 117; Norfolk and Norwich Naturalists’ Sica Transactions of the, vol. x., part 5, 115 North : America, Geodetic Survey in, 141; Meteorological Office Chart of the, Stray Mines in the, -East Ireland, An Analysis of the Palwozoic Floor of, with Predictions as to Concealed Coalfields, W. B. Wright, 368; Wales, A Handbook to the Vertebrate Fauna of, H. E. Forrest, 386 Atlantic Ocean, February, 181; Northern : Fur-seal, Present Position of the, Dr. Evermann, 623; Polytechnic Institute, Re-establishment of the School of Rubber Technology at the, under the Directorship of Dr, P. Shidrowitz, 731 Nototherium: Skeleton Found in Tasmania of the, 5593 H. H. Scott and C. Lord, 593 Nottingham, University College, Gift by Sir. Jesse Boot, 665 Nova: Aquilz, The Expanding Disc of, Dr. J. Lunt, 595 § in Cygnus, Discovery of a, W. F. Denning, 838; a, Spiral Nebula, Prof. Wolf, 213 Nuclear Constitution of Atoms, Sir Ernest Rutherford, 500 Nucleus, The Structure of the, 482 Nudity in India in Custom, and Ritual, Dr. W. Crooke, 723 ite sae mics and the Common Good, C. C. J. Webb, Occultism, The Prevalence of, E. Clodd, 432 Oceanography and the Sea-fisheries, Prof. W. A. Herdman, 813 Officers : Wertheimer, 41; versities, 340 Oil: and Colour Chemists’ Association, Dr. R. S. Morrell elected President of the, 527; -engine Cycles, Claim as a Pioneer Inventor of, H. Akroyd Stuart, 499 Seconding of, for Study at Universities, Prof. -: Training Corps, The, and the. Uni- Development of Prince Albert de Monaco, 282; . tit Cs Index xlv nercial, Vegetable and Animal. With Special ce to Oriental Oils, I. F.. Laucks, 132 cee Swamp, Georgia, F. Harper, 593 from the Lesser-known Parts of India and ym Eastern Persia, Prof. Stephenson, 656 + Instruments in Industry, 394; Projection, Lewis Wright. Fifth edition, re-written and brought up to y R. S. Wright. (In two parts.) Part i., The on of ‘Lantern Slides, 773 apneam ae Precision, Review of, March and . Dr, -E. E. Fournier d’Albe, 295; of Dr. nier d’Albe and Prof. A. Barr, 722 y Maps, New, Lt.-Col. W. J. "Johnston, 312 ounds: Magnetic Properties of, Major ALE. 3; The Identification of, the late Dr. G. B. Prof. I. M. Heilbron. Second edition, 774 Scientific Work: Dr. W. Bateson; J. S: oueanges Ross, 6; Dr. E. J. Russell ; Prof. ward, 7; Sir Leonard neeerss 292 i agg from Norfolk, J. H. Gurney, 81 . Study of, S. Tsuboi, ae Parapineal ccs | in the, Prof, J. E. 16; ‘Study in South Africa, Prof. jive. weemzanin and, Prof. E. H. L. Schwarz, tion of the, 225 | Garrod appointed Regius Professor of Prof. R. A. Sampson appointed Halley 1920, 56, <27; Dean Inge to deliver the ure on ‘*‘ The Idea of Progress,’’ 155; Offer. from E. Whitley towards the En- Professorship of Biochemistry ; Donation tension of the Organic Chemical Labora- sh Dyestuffs Corporation, 313 ; Con- inoraty Degree of Doctor of Letters ; Dr. T. R; Merton granted the 440 ; Dr. B. Moore appointed Pro- ry; Gift by W. Morrison to the ee pf Ss. Veil, 347; of Nitrogen, Im- ting to the Commercial Production of, in . Gros, 283 — here, Occurrence of, J. N. siti 645 Fe ieieents fot in. the River Gravels F tngiocd, J. Reid Moir, 146 t of a Department of Antiquities for. : Sina Edition, 306 ae: ‘The, Additions to” Part 3; Dr, ‘R. J. Scientific Congress; Forthcoming, 398 and its Machinery, R. W. Sindall, 480; In- rs on the Tub-sizing of Paper, the Coat- Finishing of Art Paper, and the iepea of phic Paper, T. W. Chalmers, 480 at the Sproul Observatory, Dr. Miller, 500 Globular Clusters and Spiral | Nebulz, ak alia of the, Exhibition of, 86. ‘Sciences, Prof. A. Fowler elected a Corre- ember of the, 52 | the Nature Lover, Dr. S. C. Johnson, 774 es of Ireland, The, Prof. P. F. Purcell, 79! hg ae Armenian metenece at Port Said, R. S. erine re dl “Methyl lleticrine, G. Tanret, 442 Wheel Construction, P, Pitman, 625 cil Writing, Early, Characteristics of Pigments in, ; voappeabe' Mitchell, 12 | Petroleum : Abolition of Compulsory Greek at, 17;. - Maquenne and E. Pepys, Evelyn and Swift, Weather men of, in Relation to British Climate, Capt. C. J. P. Cave, 393 Percussion- -Figures, Dr. B. G. Escher, 171 Periodicity in Weather and Crops, Sir William Beveridge, 379 Periwinkle, Life-History of the, Dr, W. M. Tattersall, 373 Petrographical Notes on Rocks from Deception Island and Roberts Island, ete., H. H. Thomas, 282 Geology, "H. B. Milner, 608 ; Economics of the, R. S. Dickie, 369 Petrological Microscope, A New Model Rotating-Stage, W. A, Richardson, 570 Petrology for Students : An Introduction to the Study of Rocks under the Microscope, Dr. A. Harker, Fifth Edition, 99 Pharmacodynamic ii aen Sub-epidermic, M. Ascoli and A. Fagiuoli, II., IIL., Pharmacology, Practical, pet W. E. Dixon, 420 Pharmacy, Science and, Progress in, C. A. Hill, 659° Phenological Observations for the Year 1919, : E, and H. B. Adames, 442 Phenylpropines, The, Lespieau and Garreau, 699 Philz, Decipherment of the Bilingual Inscriptions at, Dr. W. Max Miiller, 592 Philippine : Hawksbill Turtle, Need of Protection of the, E. H. Taylor, 756; Plants, New or Noteworthy, E. D. Merrill, 146; Wasp Studies, Part I., S. A. Rohwer; Part II., F. x Williams, 600 Philippines : "Palms of the, Dr. O. Beccari, 180; Peoples of the, Prof. A. L. Kroeber,. 420 Philosophies, Sir Ronald Ross, 414 Philosophy, A Forthcoming Congress of, ost A Photochimie, Etudes de, Dr. V. Henri, 640 Photographic : Almanac, The British Journal, and Photo- grapher’s Daily Companion, 1920, Edited by G, E. Brown, 67; Developing Agents, Dr. Seyewetz, 182; Images, The Nature of, Dr. C. E. Kenneth Mees, 307 Photography : Aircraft, in the Service of Science, H. Ham- shaw Thomas, 457; and its Applications, W. Gamble, Industry, Clark 749 Photosynthesis : in Fresh-Water Algz, Prof. B. Moore and T, A. Webster, 26; in the Green Leaf, The Beginning of, G. E. Briggs, 89 ; The Photoplasmic Factor in, Dr. F. F. Blackman, 89 weir shee Chemistry, 129; Examination of Men of Military Age by National Service Medical Boards from Novem- ber 1, 1917—October 31, 1918, Report upon the, 202; Fitness, The Assessment of, New Aspects in, Dr. F. G. Hobson, 812; Nature-Study, A Field and ‘Laboratory Guide in, Prof, E. R. Downing, 675; Progress, Indices of, Dr. Lempriere, 26 Physico-chemical Analysis: A Method of, of Commercial Chlorobenzenes, F. Bourion, 379; Application of a New Method of, to the Study of Double Salts, D. Dubrisay, 634 Physics: Elementary, Selected Studies in, A Handbook for the Wireless Student and Amateur, E. Blake, 739; for Junior Technical Schools, A First Year, G. W. Farmer, 229; Institute of, Foundation of the, Sir Richard Glazebrook elected First President, 304 ; Measurements, A Handbook of, E. S. Ferry, O W. Silvey, G. W Sharman, Jun., and D..C. Duncan, 2 Vols, 193 ; Some Applications of, to War Problems, 237; The Ultimate Data of, Prof. G. Dawes Hicks, 446 | Theoretical and Practical, 193 Physiological Symbiosis, Prof. Pierantoni, 756 Physiology : and National Needs, Edited by Prof. W. D. Halliburton, 286; of Farm Animals, 704; Useful, 286 Pigments in Early Pencil Writing, Characteristics of, C. Ainsworth Mitchell, 12 Pilot: -balloon Ascents, Methods of Computation for, J. S. Dines, 837; Balloons, High Rates of Ascent of, Dr. W. van Bammelen, 485 ; Soundings with, in the Isles of Scilly, Capt. Cave and J. S. Dines, 663; The Rate of Ascent of, J. S. Dines, 581 Piltdown Remains, The, P. T. de Chardin, 593 Pine, The Cluster, Dr. M. Grabham, 675 ‘Pink Disease ” in the Philippines, H. A. Lee and H. S. Yates, 115 xlvi Index Nature, October 7, 1920 Planet GM, The New Minor, C. Sola, 595 Planetary Families of Comets, The, Prof. H. N. Russell, 467 Plant: -cell, Structure of the, and its Metabolism, P. A. Dangeard, 251; The Binucleate Phase in the, Dr. Agnes Arber, 90; Culture in Denmark, Prof. J. K. Ravn, 761; forms, The Changes in, obtained experimentally, G. Bonnier, 539; Pests in the British Empire, Legislation in regard to, C. P. ‘Lounsbury, 502; Protection Insti- titute, Organisation in the U.S.A. of a, 687 Plants : Colouring Matters of, 139; Experiments with J. B. Philip, 805 ; Movements in, Experiments on, Sir Jagadis Chunder Bose, 305 ; Movements of, 416; Researches on Growth of, Sir Jagadis Chunder Bose, 61 5, 648; Resist- ance of, to Insect Attacks, Ballou, and others, 503 ; The Apparent ‘ Growth ’ ’ of, (and of Inanimate Materials), and of the Apparent “ Contractility,’? Dr. Waller, 410; The Geography of, Dr. M. E. Hardy, 386 Platana of the Cape Peninsula, The, C. L. Herman, 700 Plating with Nickel of Aluminium and its Alloys, The, L. Guillet and M. Gasnier, 475 Plato’s Atlantis in Paleaogeography, W. D. Matthew, 667 Pleasure-Unpleasure: An Experimental Investigation on the Feeling-Elements, Dr, A. Wohlgemuth, 3 Pleistocene Glaciation of England, Some Features of the, G. W. Lamplugh, 58 Pliocene: Floras, A Comparative Review of, based on the Study of Fossil Seeds, Mrs. Eleanor M. Reid, 249; River, a Great, on the South Side of the Himalayas, Dr. G. E. Pifgrim, 836 Plumage: Bill, The, and Bird Protection, Sir H. H. Johnston ; Prof. H. M. Lefroy, 168; Sir Herbert Max- well ; Prof. A. Dendy, 169; Dr. W. E. Collinge, 196; Prof. J. E.° Duerden, 263; ‘‘Talked Out,’’ 303; (Prohibition) Bill, Importation of, Second Reading Carried, 366 Plumbiferous Barytes from Siibukueo, Japan, Ohashi, 569 Poetry and "Medicine, Prof. D’Arcy W. Thompson, 414 Pocillopora cespitosa and Seriatopora sublulata, The De- velopment of, A. Krempf, 380 Poles of Metallic Arcs, The Pressure upon the, including Alloys and Composite Arcs, W. G. Duffield, ot ea & Burnham, and A. A. Davis, 121 Polynesian Origins, A New Theory of, Prof. R. B., Dixon, 6 Prof... -R. 793 Polysaccharides, The Hydrolysis of the, E. Hildt, 603 Pomology : Scientific and Systematic, 629; The Journal of," Nos. 1 and 2, 629 Population and Parenthood, Problems of (Being the Second Report of, and the Chief Evidence taken by, the National Birth-rate Commission, 1918-20), 543 Porcelain, etc., Measurements of the Expansion of Samples of, W. H. Souder and P. Hidnert, 181 Port Erin Biological Station, The, 179 Porto Rico: Scientific Survey of, and the Virgin Islands, N.'L. Britton and C. P. Berkey, 147; The Earthquake at, on October 11, 1918, Prof, H. F. Reid and S. Taber, 276; The Geological History of, E. T. Hodge, 593; The Shells of, Miss C. J. Mawry, 593 Potassium, Influence of, on the Physiological Characters of Sterigmatocystis nigra, M. Moilliard, 347 Powders, The Properties of, Dr. T. M. Lowry and F. C. Hemmings, 217 Power: Knowledge and, 93; L. Bairstow, Dr. J. W. Evans, 165 Precipitation in Javan, Effect of Topography on, Terada, 599 Pre-Glacial Floras, Two, from Castle Eden (Co. Durham), Mrs. Eleanor M. Reid, 249 Prehistoric: Man and Racial Characters, 153; Relation- ship of the Various Periods of, to the Great Ice Age, Prof. J. E. Marr, 153; Villages, Castles, and Towers of South-Western Colorado, J. W. Fewkes, 367 Pre-Palzolithic Man, J. Reid Moir, 289 Pressure on the Electrical Resistance and Thermo-electric Properties of Metals, Effects of, Dr. P: W. Bridgman, 529 135; F.O.L., Prof. Priapulus puoee are by the Canadian Arctic Expedi- tion, 1913-18 V. Chamberlin, 786 Primitive ee ie Tonelli, 251 7 Primula officinalis, etc., in the West of France, T he Cone parative Geographical Distribution of, Ad, Davy de Virville, 411 Privy Council, Sir T. Clifford Allbutt to be Sworn a Mem- ber of the, 590 Producer-Gas Plant for Power and Heating, Operating a By-product, W. H. Patchell, 148 Progress!: Sir E. Ray Lankester, 733; The Idea of, ean Inge, 431; An Inquiry into its Origin and Growth, Prof. J. B. Bury, 733 Prominences, Observations of, J. and Mrs. Evershed, 340 Proper Motions, Search for, by the Blink Method, R. T. A. Innes, 759 Protein Requirement of Maintenance in Man, The, H. C. * Sherman, 668 Bidens The, 257; The Physical Chemistry of the, Prof. . B. Robertson, 257 Protoplasm, The Components and Colloidal Behaviour of, Dr. MacDougal, 795 aa Psychological Tests in Industry, 673. Psychologies, Sir Ronald Ross, 414 ; : Psychology: Applied, A Laboratory of, 305; from ee Standpoint of a Behaviorist, Prof. J. B. Watson, New Conceptions of, 363 ; of the — : a (‘‘ L’Avenir des Sciences Psychiques ’’), E. Boirac; Translated and Edited with an Introduction by W. de Kerlor, 323; Social, An Introduction to, Dr. W. McDougall, Fourteenth Edition, 291; The New, -and its Relation to Life, A. G: Tansley, 770; Vocational, A ‘Laboratory of, 210 Psychotherapy, The Theoretic Basis of, 770 Public Health and Welfare, 151 Pulmonary Lesions determined by Blistering Compounds, A. Mayer, Guisysse, Plantefol, and Fauré-Fremiet, 604 Pygmies of Central Africa, The, H. Lang, 367 Pygmy Races of Man, The, L. R. Sullivan, 367 Pyruvic Acid, New Observations on the Biochemical Pro- duction of, A. Fernbach and M. Schoen, 251 Qualitative Analysis in Theory and Practice, Prof. P. W. Robertson and D. H. Burleigh, 705 i Queensland Ironbark, A New Species of, R. H. Cambage, 732 il Quintic Transformations and Singular Invariants, W. E. H. Berwick, 474 Rabbit, The, deprived of its Czecal Appendix, regenerates this Organ by differentiation of the Extremity of the Czcum, P. Portier, 347 Radio: Call Signal, A New, Major Shaughnessy, 690; -Diagnosis of Pleuro-Pulmonary Affections, E, Barjon, Translated by Dr. J. A. Honeij, 4; Research Board, O. F. Brown appointed Technical Officer to the, 463 ; Sub-Committees to assist the, 754 Radium: Facts, 435; for Curative Purposes, Reduction in the number of White Corpuscles in those handling, Mottram and Clarke, 400; Le, Interprétation et Enseignement de la Radioactivité, Prof. F. Soddy, Traduit de 1’Anglais par A. Lepape, 805 ; Railways, Electrification of, Appointment of a Committee on the, 113 Rainbow Inside Out, A, C. O. Bartrum, 388 Rainfall and Land Drainage, Dr. Brysson Cunningham, Mpbic Memorial Fellowships, Forthcoming Award of, 249 Rats: Destruction of, by Chloropicrin, G. Bertrand and M. Brocq-Rousseu, 73 Repressive Measures against, M. A. C. Hinton, 756 Rayleigh, The Late Lord, The Memorial to, 687 Rays, Tracing, through an Optical System, ae Smith, 473 Reactions started by a Primer, Some, E. Berger, 603 Reading, The Proposed University of, 88 Real Variables, The Commutativity of One-parameter Transformations in, A. C. Lunn, 667 _pard, 632 Reflex Action produced by the Irritation of the deeper at Tracts, A. Mayer, H. Magne, and L. “a ol, 507 : and Dispersion of Carbon Dioxide, Carbon , and Methane, C. and Maude Cuthbertson, ; of Air for Wave-lengths, Measurements of the of, W. F. Meggers and C. G. Peters, 53 _ Association, and the Civic Education League, osed Meeting of the, 376 t Geomet E. Cuningham, 350; and | Space, Prof. "A. McAulay, 808; and Reality, Prof. R. A. SampSon, 708 ; Theory of Gravitation, The Central Differential Equation in the, Prof, A. R. 186 n and Culture: A Critical Survey of Methods of roach to Religious Phenomena, Dr. F. Schleiter, ences, H. Keeping, 624 Portal ’? System (Renal Venous Meshwork) and Excretion in Vertebrata, The, Prof. W. N. F. 90dland Brat Pitaphorescence of, Prof. G. H. Parker, 843 ch : i actisioe for the Sill Industry, The, Approved, for the Cutlery Industry, The, Approved, 623 ; tions, Remuneration and Superannuation of atific Workers employed by, J. W. Williamson, 2; Defence Society, Annual Meeting of the, 557, 785; — Scope, and Difficulties of, Dr. W. L. - W. J. V. Osterhout, 795 +: Endurance, The Index of, J. Amar, 59; s, The Reflexes provoked by ‘Irritation of the, r, #. i and L. Plantefol, 443 a i. Rr} Essays on Wheat, 224 (J. D.), The Story of Milk, 229 A. D.), The Soil: An Introduction to the Study. of the Growth of Crops. Third ck (U,. .), Manual of American Grape-growing, 674 re L.), Mining and Manufacture ‘95 Fertilising rials, and their Relation to Soils, kenzie (K. J. J.), with a preface ‘dod chapter by r. F. H. A. Marshall, Cattle and the Future of Beef- eduction in’ England, 62 eg mead Prof. H. A. D. Neville, A Course ceria for Agricultural Students, res, 130 Shanahan ‘Wr. E. W.), Animal Foodstuffs: Their Pro- duction and Consumption, with a special reference to the British Empire, 513 Boy who made the Old Farm Pay, 36 -Staward (R.), Practical Hardy Fruit Culture, 545 jild (L. J.), Soils and Manures in New Zealand, 130 vod (T. B.), and Dr. F. H. A. Marshall, Physiology ny F Animals. Dr. F. H. Marshall, 704 Anthropology and Archeology : _ Burrow (E. J.), The Ancient Ritencimsots fad Camps of Gloucestershire, 128 “Farabee (Ww. oe ape Central Arawaks, 159 _ Harrison (Dr. H S.), The Ascent of Man, 708 James (Rev. E. 0,), An Introduction to Anthropology : A General Survey of the Berly History of the Human Race, 384 Part i., General, - . T.), Hidden Treasure : The Story of a Chore | Nature, oe Fy Gein 7, 00 L[ndex xlvii Reduction ‘of Error by Linear Compounding, W. F. Shep- Keane (Prof. A. H.), Man: Past and Present. Revised, and largely re-written by A. H. Quiggin and Dr. A, C. Haddon, 255 Kroeber (Prof. A. L.), Peoples of the Philippines, 420 Routledge (Mrs. Scoresby), The Mystery of Easter Island: The Story of an Expedition, 583 Schleiter (Dr, F.), Religion and Culture: A Critical Sur- vey of Methods of Approach to Religious Phenomena, 451 Schmidt (P. W.), Die Gliederung der Australischen Sprachen : Geographische, bibliographische, linguistische Grundziige der Erforschung der Australischen Sprachen, 7°97 Biology: Agar (Prof. W. E.), Cytology: With Special Reference to the Metazoan Nucleus, 482 Bartsch (P.), Experiments in the Breeding of Cerions, 545 Boerker (Dr. R. H. D.), Our National Forests : A Short Popular Account of the Work of the U.S. Forest Service on the National Forests, 577 Borradaile (L. A.), A Manual of Elementary Zoology. Third edition, 804 Brook (A.), The Buzzard at Home, 746 Buchanan (Capt. A.), Wild Life in Canada, 426 Church (A. H.), Elementary Notes on Structural Botany ; Elementary Notes on the Reproduction of Angiosperms, 162 Cockayne (Dr. L.), New Zealand Plants and their Story. Second edition, Cook (Dr. M. .. Applied Economic Botany: Based upon Actual Agricultural and Gardening Projects, 34 Coward (T. A.), The Birds of the British Isles and their ggs. First series, 132 Crabtree (J. H.), Grasses and Rushes, and How to Identify Them, 805; Wonders of Insect Life: Details of the Habits and Structure of Insects, 651 Davies (J. H.), A Map of the World (on Mercator’s Pro- jection), having special reference to Forest Regions and the Geographical Distribution of Timber Trees: Tim- ber Maps, Nos. 1 to 4, 577 Detmold (E. J.), Twenty-four Nature Pictures, 352 Doncaster (Prof. L.), An Introduction to the Study of Cytology, 190 Dymes (T. A.), The Nature Study of Plants in Theory and Practice for the Hobby-Botanist, 804 Ellis (Dr. D.), Iron Bacteria, 323 Ellis (G. S. M.), Applied Botany, 164 Fabre (J. H.), Translated by A. T. de Mattos, Mason-Wasps, 291; The Story Book of Science ; Story Book of Birds and Beasts, 651 Fawcett (W. ), and Dr. A. B. Rendle, Flora of Jamaica. Vol. iv., Dicotyledons : Families Leguminosze to Callitrichaceze, 738 Forrest (H. E.), A Handbook to the Vertebrate Fauna of North Wales, 386 Gamble (J. S.), Flora of the Presidency of Madras. Part iii., 36 Hardy (Dr. M. E.), The Geography of Plants, 386 Hiley is a The Fungal Diseases of the Common Larch, Hudson we "HH, Birds in Town and Country ; The Book of a Naturalist, 651 Jenkins (Dr. J. T.), The Sea Fisheries, 397 Johnson (Dr. S. C.), Wild Fruits and How to Know Them, 774 Lillie (Prof. F. R.), Problems of Fertilisation, 225 Marshall (the late Prof. A. M.), and the late Dr. C, H. Hurst, A Junior Course of Practical Zoology. Ninth edition, revised by Prof. F. W. Gamble, 516 Matisse (G.), Action de la Chaleur et du Froid sur l’Activité des Etres Vivants, 161 Maulik (Prof. S.), The Fauna of British India, including Ceylon and Burma. Coleoptera. Chrysomelide (His- pinze and Cassidinz), 64 Mullens (W. H.), H. Kirke Swann, and Rev. F. C. R. Jourdain, A Geographical Bibliography of British Ornithology from the Earliest Times to the end of 1918. Part i., 353 The The xlviii Lndex Octalenotiae Nicoll (M. J.), Hand-list of the Birds of Egypt, 674 Kingzett (C. T. ), Popular Chemical Dictionary, 227 __ Parkinson (Dr. W. H.), and H. D. Bell, Insect Life Laucks (I, F.), Commercial Oils: Vegetable and Animal, — on Sewage Filters, 131 Philip (J. B.), we dghe agp with Plants. book of Science, 805 Rankin (Dr. W. H. ), Manual of Tree Diseases, 577 Rees (A. W.), The Heron of Castle Creek and other Sketches of Bird Life, 514 _ Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew: Bulletin of Miscellaneous Information, 1919, 228 . Seton (E. Thompson), Animal Heroes: Being the His- tories of a Cat, a Dog, a Pigeon, a Lynx, two Wolves, and a Reindeer. Fourth impression, 580; Monarch: The Big Bear of Tallac, 450; The Arctic Prairies: A iodo probed of 2000 miles in Search of the Caribou, A First School- Tact (Prof. A. C.), Fossil Plants. Vol. 97 Skinner (Ada M. and Eleanor L.), Stories for ‘the Nature Hour, 804 Small ‘Dr. J.), The Origin and Development of the Composite, 450 Stebbing (E. P.), Commercial Forestry in Britain: Its Decline and Revival, 577 Sulman (A. E.), Australian Wild Flowers. 34; Some Familiar Wild Flowers, 34 Sulman (F.), A Popular — to the Wild Flowers of New South Wales. Vol. ii., 34 Terras (H.), The Story of a eckoe! s Egg, 746 Thompson (L. Beatrice), Just Look! or, Children Studied Nature, 651 Ward (Dr. F.), Animal Life under Water, 651 Webster (A. D.), National Afforestation, 577 Chemistry : Adiam (G,. H. J.), Acids, Alkalis, and Salts, 705 Annual Reports on the Progress of Chemistry for 1919. Vol. xvi., 708 Atack (F. W.), assisted by L. Whinyates, The Chemists’ Year Book, 1920, 2 vols., 740 Brannt (W. T.), and Dr. W. H. Wahl, Techno-Chemical Receipt Book, 739 Brown (G. E.), The British Journal Photographic Almanac and Photographer’s Daily Companion,’ 1920, Second series, How the if Cain (Dr. J. C.), The Chemistry and Technology of the Diazo-Compounds. Second edition, 449 Cohen (Prof. J. B.), A Class-book of Organic Chemistry. Vol. ii., 195 Cumming (Dr. A. C.), and Dr. S. A. Kay, A Text-book of Quantitative Chemical Analysis. Third edition, 33 Demoussy (Dr. E.), Engrais » Amendements Produits anticryptogamiques et Insecticides, 738 Dowd (M. T.), and J. D. Jameson, Food: Its Composi- tion and Preparation, 99 Dreaper (W. P.), Notes on Chemical Research: An Account of Certain Conditions which Apply to Original Investigation. Second edition, 773 Forcrand (Prof. R. de), Cours de Chimie a l’usage des Etudiants P.C.N. et S.P.C.N., Deux. édition. Tome i. et Tome ii., 63 Gamble (W.), Photography and its Applications, 740 Gibson (C. R.), Chemistry and its Mysteries, 99 Giua (Prof. M.), ees delle Sostanze Esplosive, 483 Halliburton (Prof. W. D.), The Essentials of Chemical Physiology. Tenth edition, 192 Harvey (A), Practical Leather Chemistry, 382 Hatschek (E.), Laboratory.Manual of Elementary Colloid Chemistry, 705 Henri (Dr. V.), Etudes de Photochimie, 640 Hurter (Ferdinand), and Vero C. Driffield, A Memorial Volume containing an Account of the Photographic Researches of, edited by W. B. Ferguson, 609 Ingle (H.), Elementary Agricultural Chemistry. Third edition, 773 Jardine (E. E.), Practical Science for Girls: to Domestic Subjects, 705 Jones (E. G.), Chemistry for Public Health Students, As applied 795 Kershaw (J..B. C.), Fuel, Water, and Gas bgcyyirn for Steam Users, 227 ‘ ‘Morureu (Prof. with special reference to Oriental Oils, 132 Lecat (Dr. M.), La Tension de Vapeur des Mélanges de Liquides: L’Azéotropisme.. Premiére Partie, 129 Lewes (the late Prof, Vivian B.), and Prof. J. S. S. Brame, Service Chemistry: Being a Short Manual of Chemistry and Metallurgy and their Application in the Naval and Military Services. Fifth edition, 287 — Lucas (A.), Legal Chemistry and Scientific Criminal In- vestigation, 772 C.), Notions hoa: Sieg de Chimie Sain Sixiéme édition, 63 Myers (Dr. J. E.), and J. B. Firth, Siaenecitane Practical Chemistry. For Medical and other Students. Setond edition, 705 Neave (the late Dr. G. B.), and Prof. I, M. Helles, Second The Identification of Organic Compounds. edition, 774 Neville (H. A. D.), and L. F, Newman, A Course of Practical Chemistry for Agricultural Students. Vol, 4s, 200) Wokitas Ot. ey 32 North (B.), assisted by N. Bland, Chemistry for Textile Students, 382 Robertson (J. B.), The Chemistry of Coal, 382 / Robertson Prof P. W.), and D. H. Burleigh, Qualitative Analysis in Theory and Practice, 705 Robertson (Prof. T. B.), The Physical Chemistry of the Proteins, 257 Roux (Dr. E.), and Dr. C.-F. Muttelet, Aliments Sucrés. Sucres—Miels—Sirops—Confitures—Sucreries—Sucs en Réglisse, 641 Searle (A. B.), The Use of Colloids in Health and Disease, 351 Soddy (Prof. F.), Le’ Radium : Interprétation et Enseignement de la Radioactivité. Traduit de l’Anglais par A. i is 805 beewriee (Prof. A. W. if Stereochemistry. Second edition, 129 Tanner (Dr. F. W.), Bacteriology and Mycology of Foods, 99 Taylor (Dr. H. S.), Fuel Production and Utilisation, 6 Thorne (P. C. L.), Chemistry from the Industrial Stan point, 227 Tinkler (Dr. C. K.), and-Helen Masters, Applied Chemis- try: A Practical Handbook for Students of Household Science and Public Health. Vol. i., 227 Walker (Prof. J.), Introduction to Physical Chemistry. Eighth edition, 129 Wells (Prof. H. L.), Chemical Calculation Tables: For. Laboratory Use. Second edition, 33 Wilson (Prof. F. J.), and Prof. I. M. Heilbron, Chemical Theory and Calculations. Second edition, 805 Engineering: Bairstow (L.), Applied Aerodynamics, 95 Baker (Prof. R. P.), Engineering Education : Essays for English, Selected and Edited by, 258 Bartlett (Capt. F. W.), and Prof, T. W. Johnson, Engin- eering Descriptive Geometry and Drawing, Three Parts, 515 Blythe (E.), A Text-book on Machine Drawing for Elec- trical Engineers, 260 Gill (J. F.), and F. J. Teago, Examples in Electrica] En- gineering, 195 Hill (J. G.), Telephonic Transmission Applied, 418 Kapp (Prof. G.), The Principles of Electrical Engineering and their Application. Vol. ii., Application, 418° Lamb (J.), The Running and Maintenance of the Marine Diesel Engine, 290 : Theoretical | and Geography and Travel: Cranworth (Capt. the Lord), Profit and Sport in British East Africa, being a second edition, revised and enlarged, of “A Colony in the Making,’’ 392 Cyprus, The Handbook of. Eighth issue, edited by H. C. Luke and D. J. Jardine, 291 . Lalesque (Lr. F.), Arcachon, Ville de Santé; Mono- - graphie Scientifique et Médicale, 322. | of Exploration in Colombia, Venezuela, British Kee - ont Bolivia, Argentina, Paraguay, and Poy ‘Savory (. sad The Romantic Roussillon : i 163 ‘ “Sykes. (Miss Bula), and Brig.-Gen. Sir Percy Sykes, Deserts and Oases of Central Asia, 330 ‘Vignaud (H.), The Columbian Tradition on the Dis- covery of America and the Part played therein by the _ Astronomer Toscanelli, 803 . In the French rth (Dr. T. Be > Geology of the Mid-Continent Oil- gree klahoma, and North Texas, 608 and W. O. Wootton, The Mineralogy of the Metals : A Handbook for Prospectors. Secona Ss a by E. Cahen, 25 E. C.), The Environment of Vertebrate Life in Late Liege in North America: A Paleogeo- f a: Natural Wealth of Britain: Its Origin xploitation, 5 er (D Eaitctogy for Students. Fifth edition, 99 5 Reid) ” Pre-Palzolithic Man, 289 and Physical Science : Ww: | (E. S.), Elements of Graphic Dynamics, 65 les (J. W.), Mensuration for Marine ‘and Mechanical ineers ( nd and First Class Board of Trade Ex- ), 163 . J.), Astrolabe Diagram, 329 J.), and H. K. Shaw, A Handbook of the ma ‘olabe, 3 , Selected Stadies i in Elementary Physics: A ok gts the Wireless Student and Amateur, 739 /, G.), School Mechanics. Part i., School rt P.), Les Principes de 1|’Analyse Mathé- Historique et Critique. Tome lencourt, Description et Usage de 1’Astro- (Prof, & C.), The SS, Line or Line of on as an Aid to Navigation, 552 > er R), Telephony without Wires, 5 PYOL.: - E.), Matrices and Determinoids. ther oe J. A.), Ions, Electrons, and Ionising Ra- Vol. sn ig oH Differential Calculus for Colleges and "Schools, one 65 ¥ A ), An Arithmetic for cle daha Schools. . Second edition, 67 bocsing (Prot (Prof. E. R.), A Field and Laboratory Guide in psa sare eee toy. 675 , ee Wireless Telegraphy and Telephony : Principles Present Practice, and Testing, 483 Tso Farmer G ), "A First Year Physics for Junior Tech- Man Schools, 229 Ferraris’ “ Dioptric Instruments ”’: Being an Elemen- vo sles eaeerican ot of Gauss’ Theory and its Applications. Translated by Dr. O. Faber from Prof. F. Lippich’s German Translation of Prof. G. Ferraris’ Italian Work entitled “ The Fundamental Properties of Dioptric In- wah? struments,” 542 Ferry (E. S.), and others, A Handbook of Physics _Measurements. Two vols., 1 | Fleming (Prof. J 93 . A.), The Propagation of Electric Cur- rents in Telephone and Telegraph Conductors. a ; Third _ edition, 611 .. Forsyth (Prof. A. R.), Solutions of the Examples in a Treatise on Differential Equations, 260 _ Fowler (R. H.), The Elementary Differential Cuameticy _ of Plane Curves, 321 Freundlich (E.), translated by H. L. Brose, The Founda- tions of Einstein’s Theory of Gravitation, 350 Hatton (Prof. J. L. S.), The Theory of the Imaginary in Nature, . ° Geile >. Lndex xlix “Mine (2) A Nee hea of Asia, 35 Geometry, together with the Trigonometry of the Ima- E.), In the Wilds of South America: Six ginary, 736 Heath (Sir Thomas L.), Euclid With Introduction and Notes, 288 Hutchinson (R. W.), Intermediate Text-book of Mag- netism and Electricity, 515 Jeans (J. H.), Problems of .Cosmogony and Stellar Dy- namics, 31 Karpinski (Prof. L. C.), Prof. H. Y. Benedict, and Prof. J. W. Calhoun, Unified Mathematics, 162 Kenyon (Prof. A. M.), and Prof, W..V. Lovitt, Mathe- matics for Collegiate Students of Agriculture and General Science. Revised edition, 131 Lamb (C. G.), er on Magnetism, 193 ‘Love (Prof, A. H.), A Treatise on the Mathematical Theory of Baaciciey Third edition, 511 Mackenzie (Col. J. S. F.), A Night Raid into Space, 100 Martin (M. J.), Wireless ‘Transmission of Photographs. Second edition, 451 Mayo (C, H. P.), Elementary Calculus (with Answers), 163 Worcet (Rt. Rev. Dr. J. E.), Some Wonders of Matter, in Greek. Book I. 67 Milne (J.), The Analytical Geometry of the Straight Line and the Circle, 65 Preston (Prof. T.), The Theory of Heat. Third edi- tion, edited by J. R. Cotter, 228 Rose (W. N.), Mathematics for Engineers. Part ii., 260° Schlick (Prof. M.), Rendered into English by H. L. Brost, Space and Time in Contemporary Physics : An ipo yg to the Theory of Relativity and Gravi- tation, Shore (A), x PI Current Work, 133 Silberstein (Dr. L.), Projective Vector Algebra: An Al- gebra of Vectors Independent of the Axioms of Con- gruence and of Parallels, 65 Slate (Prof. F.), The Fundamental Equations of Dy- namics and its main Co-ordinate Systems Vectorially Treated and Illustrated from Rigid Dynamics, 65 Tancock (E. O.), The Elements of Descriptive Astro- nomy. Second edition, 131 Taylor (W. T.), Calculation of Electric Conductors, 229 Thomas (T.), Revision Arithmetic Logarithms, Slide Rule, Mensuration, Specific Gravity, and Density. Second edition, 229 Thompson (J. S. and H. G.), Silvanus Phillips Thomp- son, D. LL.D., F.R.S., His Life and Letters, 448 Thomson (Sir F: J.) traduit par Prof. M. C, Moureu, La Théorie Atomique, 36 Triimpler (R.), Bestimmung fundamentaler Sternérter aus Héhendurchgangsbeobachtungen, 329 Tychonis Brahe Dani Opera Omnia. Edidit I. L. E. Dreyer. Tomus vi., 672 _ Whipple (Prof. G. Ci; Vital Statistics, 131 Whitehead (Prof. A. N.), An Soauity concerning the Principles of Natural Knowledge, 4 Woltjer, jun. (Dr. J.), eee ng a the Theory of Hyperion, 675 X-rays, The Examination of Materials by. A General Discussion held by the Faraday Society and the Réntgen Society, Tuesday, April ‘29, 1919, 132 Medical Science : Avery (Margaret), A Text-book of Hygiene for Training Colleges, 259 : ; Barjon (F.), translated by Dr. J. A. Honeij, Radio- Diagnosis of Pleuro-Pulmonary Affections, 4 Dixon (Prof. W. E.), Practical Pharmacology, 420 Edridge-Green (Dr. F. W.), The Physiology of Vision, with Special Reference to Colour Blindness; Card Test for Colour Blindness, 575 Feldman (W. M.), The Principles of Ante-Natal and Post- Natal Child Rags Pure and Applied, 638 er apes (Dr. S.), The Transmutation of Bacteria, Keith (Prof. A.), The Engines of the Human Body: Being the substance of Christmas Lectures given at the Royal Institution of Great Britain, Christmas, 1916- 1917, 195 we ¢ Be Index Nature, . October 7, 1920 Nicolle (M.), E. Césari, and C. Jouan, Toxines et Anti- toxines, 67 Pearson (Prof. Karl), and Julia. Bell, Long Bones of the English Skeleton, 767 Physiology and National Needs, edited by Prof. W. D. Halliburton, 286 Pilon (H.), The Coolidge Tube: Its Scientifie Applica- tions, Medical and Industrial, 739 Rogers (Sir Leonard), Fevers in the Tropics. Third edition, 33 Stauffacher (Dr. H.), Neue Beobachtungen iiber den Erreger der Maulund Klauenseuche, 100 Walsh (Prof. J. J.), Medieval Medicine, 127 Metallurgy : Curtis (A. H.), Manganese Ores, 193 Davies (G. M.), Tin Ores, 193 | Lones (Dr. T. E.), Zinc and its Alloys, 193 Macgregor (M.), and others, The Iron Ores of Scot- ‘land, 419 ‘ Metals, Institute of, Journal of the, vol. edited by G. Shaw Scott, 164 Parsons, (S. J.), Malleable Cast Iron. 290 xxii., No. 2, Second edition, Meteorology: * Elgie (J. H.), Elgie’s Weather Book: For the General Reader, 739 Horner (D. W.), Meteorology for All: Weather Problems Explained’, 323 McAdie (Prof. A.), The Principles of Aérography, 479 Rouch (J.), Manuel Pratique de Météorologie, 451 Stacey (W. F.), Practical Exercises on the Weather and Climate of the British Isles and North-West Europe, 133 Miscellaneous: Arthur (Sir George), Life of Lord Kitchener, 3 vols., 319 Bose (Sir Jagadis Chunder), Life Movements in Plants, Being some 416 ; Burke (E: T.), The Venereal Problem, 543 Bury (Prof. J. B.), The Idea of Progress : into its Origin and Growth, 733 Cannons (H. G. T.), Bibliography of Industrial Effi- ciency and Factory Management, 641 Corbett (Sir J. S.), History of the Great War, based on Official Documents. By direction of the Historical Section of the enh of Imperial Defence: Naval Operations, vol. 546 C. W.), Domville-Fife (Lieut. To-Day, 36 Elhuff (1), “Géolcal Science: First Course, 352 Firth (Sir R. H.), Musings of an Idle Man, 100 Fisher (Lord), Memories, 95 Flint (G. E.), The Whole Truth about Alcohol, 386 Fuller (Brevet-Col. J. F. C.), Tanks in the Great War, 1914-1918, 702 Gilbreth (F. B. and Dr. Lillian M.), Motion Study for the Handicapped, 737 Gough (G. W.), Half-past Twelve: Studies for the Odd Half-hours, 611 An Inquiry Submarine Warfare of Dinner Hour Hayward (Dr. F. H.), A First Book of School Celebra-. tions, 707; A Second Book of School Celebrations, 804 Henry (Prof. A.), Forests, Woods, and Trees im relation to Hygiene, 158 Héricourt (Dr. J.), The Social Diseases: Tuberculosis, Syphilis, Alcoholism, Sterility. Translated, and with a final chapter, by B. Miall, International Research Council: Constitutive Assembly held at Brussels, July 18 to July 28, 1919. Report of Proceedings, edited by Sir Arthur Schuster, 543 Jellicoe (Lord), The Grand Fleet, 1914-16, 93 Johnson (Dr. S. C.), Pastimes for the Wature Lover, 774 MacNutt (J. S.), The Modern Milk Problem in Sanita- tion, Economics, and Agriculture, 385 Mees (Dr. C. E. Kenneth), The Organisation of Indus- trial Scientific Research, 771 Population and Parenthood, Problems of (being the A Study of the Second Report of, and the Chief Evidence taken by, — the National Birth-rate Commission, 1918-20), 543 z Ross (Sir Ronald), Philosophies ; Psychologies, 414 Scientific and Learned Societies of Great Britain and Ireland, The Year Book’ of the. Thirty-sixth annual issue, 580 Scott (Sir Percy), Fifty Years in the Royal Navy, 92 Soddy (Prof. F.), Science and Life: Aberdeen Ad- dresses, 1 Spaight (Dr. J. M.), Aircraft in Peace and the Law, 483 Terhune (A. P.), Lad: A Dog, 484 Thomas (W. N.), Surveying, 801 Tisdale (C. W. W.), and J. Jones, Butter and Cheese, 738 Trafton (G. H.), The Teaching of Science in the Ele- mentary School, 420 bat: (Major C. C.), The Struggle in the Air, 1914-18, Walston (Sir Charles), Eugenics, Civics, and Ethics, 804 Watt (Dr. H. J.), The Foundations of Music, 98 Westaway (F. W.), Scientific Method: Its ' Philosophy and its Practice. New edition, 5 Wharton (the late Rear-Admiral Sir W.-J. L.), Hydro- graphical Surveying: A Description of Means and Methods employed in constructing Marine Charts. Fourth edition, revised and enlarged by Admiral | Sir Mostyn Field,” 576 Wright (Lewis), Optical Projection. Fifth edition, written and brought up to date by R. S. oe in two parts). Part i., The Projection of Slides, 773 Philosophy and Psychology: Alexander (Prof. S.), Space, Time, and Deity : The Gifford Lectures at Glasgow, 1916-18. Two vols., 798 Boirac (E.), translated and edited with an introduction by W. de Kerlor, The Psychology of the Future (‘‘ L’Avenir des Sciences Psychiques ’’),. 323 Butler (S.), Luck or Cunning, as the Main Means of Organic Modification? An Attempt to throw Addi- tional Light upon Darwin’s Theory of Natural Selec- tion. .Second edition, 773; Unconscious Memory. | Third edition, 774 Cohen-Kysper (A), Riicklaufige Entwicklung, 164 Ellis (Havelock), The Philosophy of Conflict : Essays in War-time. Second! series, 353 European Thought, Recent Developments in, Essays , arranged and edited by F. S. Marvin, 607 Jastrow, jun. (Prof.‘M.), A Gentle Cynic: Being a Trans- lation of the Book of Koheleth, commonly known as Ecclesiastes, stripped of later additions; Also its Origin, Growth, and Interpretation, 226 Link (Dr. H. C.), Employment Psychology: The Appli- cation of Scientific Methods to the Selection, Training, and Grading of Employees, 673 McDougall (Dr. W.), An Introduction to Social Psycho- logy. Fourteenth edition, 291 Redgrove (H. S.), Bygone Beliefs: Being a series of Excursions in the Byways of Thought, 610 Richardson (C. A.), Spiritual Pluralism and Recent Philosophy, 773 Smith (W. W.), A Theory of the Mechanism of Sur- vival: The Fourth Dimension and its Applications, 484 Tansley (A. G.), The New Psychology and its Relation to Life, 770 Watson (Prof. J. B.), Psychology from ‘he Standpoint of a Behaviorist, 512 Westaway (F. W.), Science and Theology : mon Aims and Methods, 607 Wohlgemuth (Dr. A.), The British Journal of Psycho- logy: Monograph Supplements. No. vi., sibicarm ci Unpleasure, 3 Diffecenvierange und and other their Com- Technolog Baker (R. T.), The Hci pineal of Australia and their Economics, 802 Chalmers (T. W.), Paper-making and its Machinery : Including chapters on the Tub-sizing of Paper, the Nature, if October 7, 1920 Index ° li ting and Finishing of Art Paper, and the Coating Photographic Paper, 480 ner (G.), Aluminium’: Its Manufacture, Manipula- n, and Marketing,’ 805 (R. E.), Electricity: Its Production and Applica- tions osenhain (Dr. W.), Glass Manufacture. Second edition, ¢ aa8 +)». mmers (A. L.), Asbestos and the Asbestos Industry : The World’s Most Wonderful Mineral, and other Fire- proof Materials, 193 Vhite (B.), Gold: Its Place in the Economy of Man- vee Tt ; Silver: Its Intimate Association with the _ Daily Life of Man, 774 8=— * aol A New Italian Review, 756 [useum, Bulawayo, Report of the, 367 Colloidal, C. Zenghelis and B. Papaconstantinou, tilisation of the Water-power of the, M. Fourniols, ards, Ellen, Research Prize, The, 366 eckite-rhyolite from North Kordofan, Sudan, W. C. mith, 7 y of Wires, A. Bifilar Method of Measuring the, . C, Searle, 473 : Flow, Estimating, from Rainfall Records, Lt.-Col. -E. E. Craster, 42; -windings, Mortlakes as a uf i! cause of, T. S$: Ellis, 264 § st Beef of Old England, The, 62 a, Leucitic Lavas of the Volcano of, V. Saba- FP niversity, Endowment from the U.S. General cation Board and G. Eastman, for a School of Me etc., 601 } : Gift to Medical Science, The,.Prof. W. M. Bay- re, The, Dean Inge, 431 nate Flint Implements and Allied Forms, Some, Lankester, 631 of London and Demobilised Men out of erimental Station, Visit of the Association Biologists and the Imperial Entomological e to the, 464 3353 ry, July, of the, 835; College of s, Edinburgh, The. Dr. Jessie Macgregor “yen Sra for the Delivery of Lectures of k ane itment of Lecturers in connection with 5; College of Science, Annual Dinner of Old mts of the, Speeches by Sir Richard Gregory, the Marquess of Crewe, and others, 281; for Ireland, d of the Fellowship Diploma of the, to H. Ramage and R. L. Wills, 25; College of Surgeons of England, Subject for the Jacksonian Prize for 1921, 249; The Duke of Connaught admitted an Honorary Fellow of io) Gift to the Museum of Microscopical Pre- R tions by Sir Charles Tomes, 557; Elections in ‘connection with the, 622; College of Veterinary Sur- (ooreagae O. C. Bradley elected President of the, 601 ; Danish Society of Science, Sir Ernest Rutherford, Sir Thomson, Sir George Grierson, and Prof. W. M. indsay elected Fellows of the, 209; Geographical ‘Society, Awards of the, 112; Institution Lecture Ar- zements, 80; Election of Officers of the, the Duke Northumberland President, 304; Irish Academy, L. Le Chatelier, Prof. G. E. Hale, Prof. A. E. H. Love, and Sir Ernest Rutherford elected Honorary _ Members of the, 113; Prof. G. H. Carpenter elected ; ry of the, 590; Military Academy, The, J. Young, 487; Navy, Fifty~Years in the, Admiral Sir __ Percy Scott, 94; Observatory, Greenwich, Annual --——s Visitation of the, 469; Society, Recommended Candi- dates for the Fellowship of the, 17; Reports of the Grain Pests (War) Committee, Nos. 4 to 7, 236; Con- versazione, The, 373; H. A. L. Fisher and Sir James G. Frazer elected Fellows of the, 556; Society of Edin- burgh, The Prince of Wales nominated as an Honorary Fellow of the, 335; W. W. Campbell, Prof. Y. Delage, Prof. H. A. Lorentz, A. G. Nathorst, Ch. E, Picard, Prof. C. Richet, and Prof G, O. Sars elected Foreign * Honorary Fellows of the, 556; Society of Arts, The Albert Medal of the, awarded to Prof. A. A. Michelson, 496; Award of Medals of the, 556; A. A. Campbell Swinton elected Chairman of the Council of the, 654; Statistical Society, Election of Officers of the, 526 Rubber: Cold Vulcanisation of, A Process for the, S. J. Peachey, 625; The Industrial Uses of, Offer of Prizes in connection with, 496; The Stretching of, in Free Balloons, Dr. H. P. Stevens; W. H. Dines, 613 Riicklaufige Differenzierung und Entwicklung, A. Cohen- Kysper, 164 Rupture and Flow in Solids, The Phenomena of, A. A. Griffith, 58; Russia, North-West, The Climate of, 119 Rutherford Atom, A Law of Force giving Stability to the, J. Marshall, 666 Safety ‘Lamps in Chemical Works, Need of, W. Payman, 116 Sage Grouse, Habits of the, B. Horsfall, 786 St. Andrews University, Forthcoming Conferment of Honorary Degrees, 440 Sainte-Geneviéve Observatory, Instruments and Work of the, G. Bigourdan, 475 Salisbury Public Library, Report for 1919-20 of the, 240 Salt-Land Reclamation, Practical, G. S. Henderson, 434 Salts necessary for Plant Nutrition, The Physiological Balance of the, J. W. Shive, 310 Salvarsan, The Composition of, Fargher and Pyman, 185 “San Juan District, Porto Rico, The Geology of the, D. R. Semmes, 148 Sands, Stratified, and Gravels replaced by ‘‘ Snow-white Granular Silica,’? W. H. Collins, 242 Saturn, Occultation of a Star by, 244 Savages of the Far Past, 384 Sawing Metals by Hand, Work done in, Ch. Fremont, 251 Saxon Remains, Supposed, Discovery of, in Windsor Great Park, Capt. Vaughan-Williams, 209 Scabiosine, A New Glucoside capable of Hydrolysis by Emulsion, Em, Bourquelot and M. Bridel, 187 __ Scandinavian Mountain Problem, The, O. Holtedahl, 633 Schaumasse Comet, 1920b, Discovery and Observations of, A. Schaumasse, 794 Scholarships, Plea for an Clay, 23 Scholasticism, Science and, Prof. J. J. Walsh, 547; Dr. C. Singer, 548 School: and University Training, Formation of a Consulta- tive Council of the Overlapping of, 602; Celebrations, A First Book of, Dr. F. H. Hayward, 707; A Second Book of, Dr. F. H. Hayward, 804 Science : and Crime, 772; and Engineering, 258; and Life : Aberdeen Addresses, Prof. F. Soddy, 1; and Pharmacy, Progress in, C. A. Hill, 659; and Philosophy, Greek, Dr. C. Singer, 373; and Research in the Air Service ‘142; and Scholasticism, Dr. C. Singer, 127; Prof. J. J. Walsh, 547; Dr. C. Singer, 548; and Scientific Research in Medicine and Surgery, Sir Aston Webb, 304; and the Nation, Lord Sydenham, 468; and the New Army, 61; Col. E. H. Hills, 103; Prof. L. N. G. Filon; Prof. R. Whiddington, 133; Lt.-Col. E. Gold; Dr. C. S. Myers, 135; Prof. A. R. Richardson, 170; Col. K. E. Edgeworth, 232: C. S. Wright, 391; and Technology, The Imperial College of, 173; and Theology: their Common Aims and Methods, F. W. Westaway, 607; Applied and Industrial Research, J. W. Williamson, 387; Prof. F. Soddy, 422; Major A. G. Church, 423; J. W. Williamson, 518; Major A. G, Church, 547; Artillery, Sir George Greenhill, 268; Education and, in the Civil Service Estimates for 1920-21, 246; General, First Course, L. Elhuff, 352; History of, Courses on the, 279; in Medical Education, Prof. S. J. Hickson, 643: in the Elementary School, Ampler Provision of, Dr. R. S. lii ' Index [ Nature, October 7, 1920 the Teaching of, G. H. Trafton, 420; Museum, South Kensington, Col. H. G. Lyons appointed Director and Secretary to the, 463; the Geological Survey) and Museum of Practical Geology, Reports on the, for 1919, 656; Practical for Girls: as Applied to Domestic Subjects, E. E. Jardine, 705; The Federation of, 3175 The Story Book of, J, H. Fabre, eh Scientific ; and Technical Books, Sir R. A. Gregory, ais Apparatus and Laboratory Fittings, C. Beck, 355; B. A. Morphy ; C. Baker, 356; Bellingham and Stanley, itd W. Taylor; H. W. Ashfield, 357 ; Apparatus, British and Foreign, D. H. Baird, 390; J. W. Ogilvy, 424; J. S. Dunkerly, 4253 Watson Baker, 518; Prof. W. Bayliss, 641; Apparatus from Abroad, Prof. W. M. Bayliss, 293; Direction of Industrial Research, Major A. G. Church, 40; Method: its Practice, F. W. Westaway. New edition, 5; Publi- cations, The Cost of, 285; Prof. W. A. ‘Herdman ; Prof. H. H. Turner, 326; E. B. Knobel; W. W. Bryant, 327; Prof. GH: Hardy; Dr. A. B. Rendle, 353; Dr. C: Myers, 354; Dr. C. G. Knott, 425; Research, Dr. J. W. Evans, 358; and the Glass Industry in the United States, Dr. M. W. T ravers, 9; Importance of Co-operative, E. B. Wedmore, 339; The Public Sup- port of, Prof. F. Soddy, 309; Reunions at the Natural History Museum, Dr. G. F. H. Smith, 72; Societies, Conjoint Board of, Report for 1919, 343; Work, Ex- penses of, Major mie ce: Church, 72; in India, The Organisation of, 565; Sir Thomas. H. Holland, 452 ; Work : Its Spirit and Reward, Dr. G. 5 Fowler, 387; Organisation of, Dr. W. Bateson : 5.5 . Gamble, Sir Ronald Ross, 6; Dr. E.. J. Russell ;_ Prof. A. Seward, 7; Sir J. C. Bose, 39; Sir T. H. Middleton, 103 ; Sir Leonard Rogers, 292 Scotland, The Economic Geology of the Central Coalfield of, Scottish "Shale Oil Scientific and Industrial Research Association, Approval of the, 210 Screw Gauges, Verification of, for Munitions of War, M. Cellerier; B. Powell, 14 Sea: and’ Sky at Sunset, Lt.-Col. K. E. Edgeworth; J. S. D. 358; -anemones, The Transplanting of, by Hermit Crabs, mR, Cowles, 668 ; -birds : Their. Relation to the Fisheries and Agriculture, Dr. W. E. Collinge, 172; Fisheries, Oceanography and the, Prof. W. erd- man, 813; The, Dr. J. T. Jenkins, 397; -waves, the Height of, J. Rouch, 219 Seed: Electrification, Experiments in, Sutton and Sons, 337; -wheat, the Treating of, for ‘Bunt, 211 Seedlings which turn Green in the Dark, H. Coupin, 411 Seismological Observations at De Bilt, Report of the, for 1916, 276 Selous Memorial at the Natural History Museum, The, 504 Sensation and the Cerebral Cortex, Dr. H. Head, 363 Serum, Proteins of the, Separation of the, M. Piettre and A. Vila, 571 Service Chemistry, the late Prof. V. B. Lewes and. Prof. fess Brame. Fifth edition, Sir T. E. Thorpe, 287 Sewage: Filters, Insect Life on, Dr. and H. D. Bell, 131; Systems, A. J. Martin, 792 Shamanism among the Cahuilla Indians, Miss L. Hooper, W. H. Parkinson Past and Present, 592 Sheep, the Fattening of, Application of the Food-unit Sys- tem to, Prof. J. Wilson, 282 Sheffield: University, Dr. . E. S. Turner appointed Professor of Glass Technology; J. Husband, Professor of Civil Engineering; Dr. Mellanby, Professor of Pharmacology; R. E. Pleasance, Demonstrator in Pathology, 601; Dr. R. B. Wheeler appointed Pro- fessor of Fuel Technology; D. Knoop, Professor of Economics, 665 Shell Flight. The Dynamics of, R. H. Fowler, 459 Shepherd’s-purse, A Third Duplication of Genetic Factors in, Prof. G. H. Shull, 795 Shilluks’ Belief in Medicine Men, The 527 Rev. D. S. Oyler, Its Philosophy and . Sodium Fluoride, Sierra Leone, DS ar alates Movements of Elevation in, F. Dixey, z Silicate and luna Rocks, Analysis of, W. F, Hille- brand, 836 Silicon Iron (Stalloy), The Miuastc Properties of, in Alter- _ ‘nating Magnetic Fields of Low Value, A. Campbell, 473 Silver’: Its Intimate Association with the Daily Life of Man, B, White, 774; The World’s Production of, Report on, Prof. H. C. H. Carpenter and Prof. C, G. Cullis, 72 Simocephalus vetulus, Production and Transmission of an Environmental Effect in, H. G. Cannon, 538 Sky, the Blue, and the Optical Properties of mee Lord Rayleigh, 584 Slag, a New Use for, 434 Sleeping Sickness Commission of the Royal Society, Re- ports of the, No. xvii., 663 Smithsonian, Lessons from’ the, Smoke Nuisance, ‘The, 471 Snowdon, Little Book "About, H. V. Davis, 787 é Social : Diseases, The, Tuberculosis, ‘Syphilis, Alcoholism, Sterility, Dr. a5 Héricourt. Translated, and with a final chapter, by B. Miall, 543; Service in Rural Areas, Sir Henry Rew, 731 | Société Helvétique ‘des Sciences Naturelles, © Forthauming Annual Meeting of the, 687 pee oe Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, The, to be known in future as the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 526 The Usefulness of, Employed as an Antisepti¢ for the Preservation of Railway-sleepers, H. Devaux and H. Bouygues, 379 Softwoods, African, for Pulp Production, A. H. Unwin, 627 599 Soil: Cultivation, Physical Problems in, B. A. Keen, 438; Erosion, Observations on, W. Torrance, 434; Tem- peratures, F. L. West, N. E. Edlefsen, and Eve: Capt. T. B. Franklin, 628; Effect of Weather on, Capt. T. B. Franklin, 282; The, An leckconeton to the Scientific Study ‘of the Growth of Crops, Sir A. D. Hall. Third edition, 384 Soils: A Standard Book on, 384; "Ammoniating Power of, Measure of the, R. Perotti, 844; and Manures, A Student’s Book on, Dr. E.. J. Russell. 130; in New Zealand, L. J. Wild, 130 Solanace, The Embryogeny of the, R. Souéges, 442, 475 Solar: Constant of Radiation, A New Method of Determin- ° ing the, C. G. Abbot, 667; Chromosphere, [onisation| in the, M. N. Saha, 232; Eclipse, The Total, of 1918, ° June 8, Dr. Slipher, and others, 117; of May, 1919, The, Prof. L. A. Bauer, 311; Radiation Station, ‘en in Arizona, 726; Variation and the Weather, Dr. . Abbot, 678 Solifugee of. South Africa, Survey of the, J. Hewitt, ci Solvay, International Institute of Physics, Impending Re- sumption of the Work of the, 399 Somersetshire : Archaeological and Natural History Society, Annual Meeting of the, Presidential Address to the, H. Balfour, 835 Sorby Research Fellowship, The, awarded to Dr, F. C. Thompson, 377 Sorosporella uvella, Experiments on, A. T. Speare, 310 Sound : -ranging as practised by the U.S. Army during the War, Prof. A. Trowbridge, 116 Second edition, South: Africa, Ostrich Study in, Prof. J. E. Duerden, 106; African Entomophthoraceze, Some, S.- H. Skife, 507; America: In the Wilds of, Six Years of Exploration in Colombia, Venezuela, British Guiana, Peru, Bolivia, Argentina, Paraguay, and Brazil, L. E. Miller, 159; The Wilds of, 1<9; American Monkeys, External Char- acters of, R. I. Pocock, 218; -Eastern Union of Scienti- fic Societies, Annual Congress of the, 530 Southampton, University College of, S. Mangham ap- pointed Professor of Botany at the, 698 Southern Pine Association, Gift from the, Work, «2 Space: and Time in Contemporary Physics: An Introduc- tion to the Theory of Relativity and Gravitation, Prof. for Forestry. at raid is October orn, tox Schlick. Rendered into English ‘ty HL. Dives, Time, and Deity: The Gifford Lectures at Glas- , 1916-18, Prof. S. Alexander. 2 vols., 798 ‘ - Spectra of various Elements in Helium in the seen Ultra-violet, Prof. J. C. McLennan, and A. C. Lewis, 632 , Genera and, A. Mallock, 675 of Explosions, 3e A: Anderson, 668 al: Lines, Intensity of, Effect of a Magnetic Field on , H, P. Waran, 379; Reflective Properties of certain Alloys, Preparation and Determination of the, R. G. ‘Waltenberg and W. W. Coblentz, 212 aiioter,. ryrheliometer, A New, and Solar Measurements with it, W. W. Coblentz and H. Kahler, 525 pic Observations of the Gaseous Nebulz, Certain cts of Recent, W. H. Wright, 842 Spectra An Experiment on the, Dr. R. A. Houstoun, 1; Certain Antagonistic Properties of various gions of the, G. Le Bon, 571 ohh yay gie Development of the Auditory Appara- etc., Wave-length, Catalogue of Hilger’s, sin, F. J. Wyeth, 26 oe a The Capacity Coefficients of, Russell, 5' (Miaicgramma) conica, Notes on the Habits of Tachinid Fly, O. H. Latter, 614 njunction of Mars with, 340 _Compensator, The, and New Problems of the echanics of Regulation, J. Drach, 443; Nebule, bu “soe and, The Parallaxes of, K. Lund- a Systematic Error in, J. H. Cole, 409 Plura ism and Recent. Philosophy, C. A. Richard- : The Diactvery of, Dr. F. Nansen, ,210 Dr. P. Bidder, 441; of Ireland, “the Fresh- Miss “Jane Stephens, 474 lant-life in Deep Caves, The Carrying Power \. Stoney, 740 rees, Injury to Foliage by the, 211 tory, Parallax Work . the, Dr. Miller, 500 n Finland, H.R., 1 at Duddo, The, "Capt. W. J. Rutherford, Pag e Large Proper Motion, F. Kromm, 282; Shapley, 543 Occultation of a, by L. J Comrie, 22 ible, J. Jackson, 436; The Masses of the, Prof. Rust, 500; Total Light of the, P. J. Van In, 5: pec mid’ the, Prof. E. W. MacBride; Prof. . F. A. Bather; Dr. 'W. E. ig OM Wagner, 70; Sir E. Ray Lankester ; i. Stanley Gardiner, 101; Dr. W. M. Tattersall, RS So 136 ; The, and the Nationa Museums, bees, Schoot (School Mechanics, Pye: wy G: ge Part. ae el: Ingot, Macrographic Study of the Propagation of Cooling in the Interior of a, starting from its solidifica- } Descolas and Prétet, 411; Ingots, the Minute ; in, G. Charpy, 27; Nickel, The Anomaly of Elasticity of the, C. E. Guillaume, 699 ; The Elasticity of Torsion of, with a high proportion of Chromium, : ard, 699; Special Alloy, in the Construction of Bridges, The conomical Use of, J. A. L. Waddell, 9; The Resistance of, to Cutting by Tools, Ch. remont, 187 ir: Facts, New, and their bearing on Stelar Theories for the Ferns, te M’Lean Thompson, 250 Stellar = Dynamics, Problems of Cosmogony and, J. H. Jeans, 31; Spectroscopy at the Detroit Observatory, yaaa: Substance, The Wasting of, Prof. F. W. Very, ¢ Eiecochaciintey, Prof. A. W. Stewart. Second edition, Stewart Prize of the British Medical Association, awarded to Dr. Harriette Chick, 432 _-Stipends and Pensions, University, 477 129 The, litt Stone : Wen hetiliel of Palzolithic Type Throwing Light on the Method of Manufacture’ in South Africa, Dr. L. Péringuey, 699; Mould, A Curious, Mrs. M. I Cunnington, 497; Statues, The Island of, Sir Everard im Thurn, 583; Worship, A Curious Case of, H. A. MacMichael, 115 Stonehenge, Restoring to a Position of Safety the Stones of, 209 Stonyhurst: College : 1919, Rev. A. L. A. L. Cortie, 789 Storm-petrel, Nesting Habits of the, A.. Gordon, 20 Strand-loopers, Dr. L. Péringuey, 558 Strasbourg University, Opening Address at Installation of the Chair of Mineralogy in, Prof. G. Friedel, 368 String, An Experiment on a Piece of Common, G. F. C. Searle, Sublimates produced by Metalloids and Metals Volatilised by the Blowpipe, Method for Collecting and Character- ising the, Ad. Braly, 219 Submarine ; Explosions, The Pressure-wave thrown out by, Observatory, Cortie, 624; Report and Notes on, Observations, 1919, Rev. H. W. Hilliar, 313; Warfare of To-day, Lt. C. W. Domville-Fife, 36 a5 -Sugar:-beet during the War, The, E. Saillard, 571; Production in England, Possibilities of, 434; Cultiva- tion in India, Dr. W. E. Brenchley, 840 Sulphuric Ions: Detection of Masked, in Complex Com- pounds, R. Job and G. Urbain, 283; in Complex Saits, the Differentiation of Masked and Apparent, A. Kling and D. Florentin, 379 Sumatran Hare (Nesolagus Netscheri), The,. and C. B. Kloss, 115 Summer, The Weather of the Present, 837 Sumner Line: The, or Line of Position as an Aid to Navigation, Prof, G. C. Comstock, . 552,;, Lines in Navigation, Use of, Capt. T. H. Tizard, 552; Prof. G. C. Comstock ; Capt. T. H. Tizard, 742; Dr. ¥: Ball, 806 Sun: as a Weather Prophet, The, 839; Mercury, and Venus, Cape Observations of the, 183; Meteorological Influences of the, and the Atlantic, - Prof. J. W. Gregory, 715; Observations of the, made at the Lyons Observatory, J. Guillaume, 218; 251 Sundial giving Legal Time throughout the Year, A, Ch. _ Gautier, 506 Sunlight and the Life of the Sea, Dr. B. Moore, E Whit- ley, and T. A. Webster, 90 Sunshine in the United States, L ipa: Rinker: 791 Surveying : W. N. Thomas, Bor; Principles and Practice of, Lt.-Col. H. S. Winterbotham, Sor Survival:' A Theory of the Mechanism of, The Fourth Dimension and its Applications, W. W. Smith, 484 Swanley Horticultural College, Proposal to allot a Treasury Grant for the, 472 Swansea: University College, Prof. C. A. Edwards ap- pointed Professor of Metallurgy, Dr. J. E. Coates Professor of Chemistry, Dr. E. A. Evans Professor of Physics, Lt.-Col. A. R. Richardson Professor of Mathe- matics, Dr. A. E. Trueman Lecturer in Geology, E. E, Hughes, Lecturer in History, 6 5; The Laying of the Foundation-stone by the King, 665 Grants to, by the Treasury, 841 Swift, Evelyn, Renin: and, Weather Notes of, in Relation to British Climate, Capt. C. J. P. Cave, 393 Syme, The David, Prize awarded to F. Chapman, 496 Symmetrisable Functions and their Expansion in Terms of Biorthogonal Functions, J. Mercer, 632 Sager Studies on, II., L. T. Hogben, 539; The Problem of, L. T. Hogben, 570 Synchytrium endobioticum (Schilb.), Perc., Life-history and Cytology of, Miss K. M. Curtis, 346 Synthetic Ammonia, The Manufacture of, and Production of Nitrates, 312 E. Jacobson T.N.T., Products of Detonation of, Prof. C. E, Munroe, 795 Tanks: and Scientific Warfare, 702; in the Great War, 1914-1918, Brevet-Col. J. F. C. Fuller, 702 Tannins from Wattle-bark, Extraction of, 724 liv Tu dex [ Nature, October 7, 1920 Tasmanian Mammals, Living and Extinct, Studies of. Part. ii., H. H. Scott and C, Lord, 796 Teachers in the U.S.A., The Supply and Remuneration of, 731 Technical: Colleges and the Universities, The Necessity for Close Co-operation Between, Principal C, Coles, 728; Education and Mind Training, E. L. Rhead, 439; In- stitutions, Association of, Annual General Meeting of the, 22; 727; Libraries and Intelligence, Major W. E. Simnet, 505; Library, The, R. Borlase Matthews, 505 ; Review, Retirement of Maior W. E. Simnett from the Editorship and Direction of the, 722; Schools and their part in Adult Education, A. Mansbridge, 23 Techno-Chemical Receipt Book, Compiled and Edited by W. T. Brannt and Dr. W. H. Wahl, 739 Telephonic Transmission: Theoretical and Applied, J. G. Hill, 418 Telephony and Telegraphy, Multiplex, over Open-circuit Bare Wires laid in the Earth or Sea, Gen. Squier, 467 ; Wireless, Prof. H. Eccles, 519; . without Wires, P. R. Coursey, 5 . Telephotography, A Note on, A.B., 488 Telescope, The Optimum Magnification of a, M. Battestini, | 443 Telescopes, Increasing the Photographic Power of, Dr. Shap- ley, 625 Tempel’s Comet: Return of, 436; 560; M. Fayet, 789; P. Chofardet, 794 3 Temperature: Curve, The Daily, Prof. L. Becker, 282; Life and, 161; The Influence of, on the Rigidity of Metals, A. Mallock, 631; Variations at 10,000 ft., C. K. M. Douglas, 614; in the North Atlantic Ocean and in the Atmosphere, Drs. B. Helland-Hansen and F. Nansen, 715 Terra Sigillata, Introduction to the Study of, Dr. F. Oswald and T. D. Price, 240 Terraces in Chalk Districts, The Mode of Formation of, L. Gentil, 315 Terre et des Planétes, L’Origine des formes de la, E. Belot, 559 Tetanus during the Great War, Prevention of, Major-Gen. Sir David Bruce, 785 : Tetrahedra, Generation of Sets of Four, mutually Inscribed and Circumscribed, C. V. H. Rao and Prof. Baker, 379 Textile: Industries and Technical Education in Canada and the United States, 789; Research in, 118; Students, Chemistry for, B. North, assisted by N. Bland, 382 Therapeutic Substances offered for Sale, Appointment of a Committee Upon, 273 Thermionic: Valve, The, in Wireless Telegraphy and Tele- phony, Prof. J. A. Fleming, 716; Valves, The Develop- ment of, for Naval Uses, B. S. Gossling, 559 Thermo: -couples, Construction of, by Electro-deposition, W. H. Wilson and Miss T. D. Epps, 842; -electricity, Recent Progress in, Prof. C. A. F. Thermostatic Metal, 793 Thompson: Life and Letters of Silvanus P., A. A. Camp- bell Swinton, 448; Silvanus Phillips, D.Se.,° LL.D., F.R.S., His Life and Letters, J. S. and H. G. Thomp- son, 448 Thrush, The First Act of a Young, Honor M. M. Perry- coste, 456 Thunder and Lightning at Kimberley, Some Statistics of, : Sutton, 507 Thunderstorms of May 29, The, and the Louth Disaster, Benedicks, 499 4 Tidal: Friction and the Lunar and Solar Accelerations, Dr. H. Jeffreys, 403; in Shallow Seas. H. Jeffreys, 632 ; Motion in the Irish Sea: Its Currents and its Energy, . R. O. Street, 632; Power, 427 Tides in Landlocked and Border Seas, Bays, and Chan- nels, Dr. A. Defant, 466 Timber: Exhibition, The Empire, A. L. Map, Nos. 1 to 4, J. H. Davies, 577 Timbers Grown in France, Forthcoming Researches upon, Howard, 691; 722 Time: and Latitude, Methods of Determining, C. Puente, 213; -reckoning of the North American Indians, 7§ Tin: and Antimony, The Separation of, A, Kling and A. — ‘Lassieur, 442; Ores, G. M. Davies, 193 eB Tissues, Resistance of, to Light and Ultra-violet Rays, — L, Vignon, 506 Topography, Effect of, on Precipitation in Japan, Prof. — Terada, 599 : Toronto University: Dr. V. J. Harding appointed Professor of Pathological Chemistry in, 537; the Appointment of Prof. A. T. De Lury as head of the Department of Mathematics, 762 Torquay Natural History’ Society, Journal of the, Vol. II, No. 6, 788 ‘ i Total Solar Eclipse of September 20, 1922, The, A. R. Hinks, 84 ee: Toxines et'Antitoxines, M. Nicolle, E. Césari, and C. Jouan, 6 . 7, | Trade Routes of the British Empire in Africa, G. F. Scott - Elliott, 274 Trans-African Flight, The Recent, Lt. L. Walmsley, 624 Transport, Some National Aspects of, Lord Montagu of Beaulieu, 469 Yee Tree: Diseases, Manual of, Dr. W. H. Rankin, 577: -growth, Climatic Cycles, etc., Prof. Douglass, 562 Trichodynamics, Dr. W. Lawrence Balls, 777 i Trioxymethylene : in Powder, The Use of, for the Destruc- tion of the ‘Larva of Mosquitoes, E. Roubaud, 604; The Mode of Action of Powdered, on the Larve of Anopheles, E. Roubaud, 667 ae Trobriand Islanders, The Economic Pursuits of the, Dr. B. Malinowski, and others, 564 Tropical: Agriculture, A College of, 153; Control of Aus- tralian Rainfall, E. T. Quayle, 152; Departments of Agriculture, with Special Reference to the West Indies, Sir Francis Watts, 344; Medicine, 33 Tsetse-Fly Problem, The, R. W. Jack, and others, 503 — Tubercle Bacillus: Culture of the, on a Medium of Auto- lysed Yeast, R. Sazerac, 795; The Chemical Compo- sition of the, A. Goris, 604 : J Tuberculosis, particularly in connection with the War, 55 ‘Tungsten: and the Oxides of Tungsten, Reversible Re- actions of Water on, G. Chaudron, 411; Preparation and Uses of, in Incandescent Lamp Filaments, ete., A. B. Searle, 339 ; ge Turbine Steels, The Mechanical Properties of, Dr. W. H. Hatfield and H. M. Duncan, 148 Turin Academy of Medicine, Award of the Riberi Prize to Prof. G. Vanghetti, 557 : Twins, Influence of the Male on Dr. C. B. Davenport, 755 ; Tycho Brahe, Dr. J. K. Fotheringham, 672 Tychonis Brahe Dani Opera Omnia, Edidit,-I. L. E. Dreyer. Tomus VI, 672 r Typhus Fever, 81 the Production of, rs ‘ Ultra-Violet, Extreme, Some New Spark Spectra in the, L. and E, Bloch, 27 Union Observatory, The, Johannesburg, Circular No. 17, usa: Increased Demand for Collegiate Education in the, 731: Army, Psychological Examining and Classi- fication in the, Dr. R. M. Yerkes, 795; Bureau of Mines, Dr. F. G. Cottrell nominated as Director of the, 432; Commercial Marbles of the, Physical and Chemi- cal Properties of, D. W. Kessler, 181; Engineering Research in the, A. P. M. Fleming, 598, General Edu- cation Board, Appropriations by the, 602; Glass Industry in the, Scientific Research and the, Dr. M. W. | Travers, 9; National Academy of Sciences, F. D. Adams, M. E. C. Jordan, F. A. L. Lacroix, H. K. Onnes, Sir David Prain, and S. R. y Cajal elected Foreign Associates of the, 463 ; National Food Consump- tion in the, Prof. R. Pearl, 597; National Research Council, Appointment of a Committee on Eugenics, 240 ; Election of Chairman of Divisions of the, 754; Elec- tion of Officers of the, 526; Prof V. Kellogg, 332; Statistics of School Systems in the, for 1917-18, 841; Sunshine in the, J. B. Kincer, 791 ‘he Structure of the, Prot. W. Db. MacMilia., S: and the Excess Profits Duty, 686; Researd. in Waste, Prof. J. C. Fields, 839; ‘Lhe, anc Y, 1573 #. J. M. Stratton, 234: the Officers Corps and the, 349 nd Higher ‘Lechnical Education, 509; Bene- the Permanent Value of, Prof. Karl Pear- College, London, the Engineering School ot, w Extension of, Prince Arthur of Connaught, 13; College of South Wales and Mon- W. Scott appointed Professor of Logi y in the, 537; Extension, -Public Discus- ‘mation Service of, 762; Grants, 701; Si: z ata re C. Grant Robertson, 774; . Perkin, 805; of California Publications. the Lick Observatory. Vol. xiii., 489; e, A Great Opportunity. 381; ‘Lhe, fler of a Site, H. A. L. Fisher, 404 ; The, Sir E. aah se Schafer, 698; Stipends ions, 477; G. W. O. H., 582; Teachers, Posi- - Relation to the Teachers (Superannuation) “sag a3 Conference of the International 9, 663 — tions of the, Dr. van Everdingen; S. Dines, 663 orescence and Absorption Spectra of, -H. L. Howes, and others, 498 Pans aes ‘- y rcs, The Use of, for Interferometry, J. Guild, , The Conjugation of, Prof. R. Robinson, nges de -Liquides : La Tension de, ie, Dr. M. Lecat. Premiére Partie, 129 culation of, R. G. Durrant, 742 ‘i re Origin of the, Prof. A. C. isinfection against, 834; Diseases, gh Council and Prevention against, on the Prevention of, Dr. A. M. , The, E. T. Burke, 543 opha, Reuss, An Species, and some others» E. Heron- 282 North Wales, A Handbook to the, 386; Life in the Late Paleozoic ir he Environment of, Prof. E. C. Case, lutions, The, P. Barry, 539 Torsional, An Example ot, C. Barus, y of, with Special Reference to Dr. F. W.. Edridge-Green, 575 Introduction to the Science of Demo- Prot C. Whipple, 131 _the Culture of Bacteria, R. Legroux and _ 315; in Clinical Medicine, The Present Prot of. F. Gowland Hopkins, 722; in their Health, Col. McCarrison, 557; Necessary Development of Plants? Are, A. Lumiere, Chemical Isolation of, C. M. Myers and C. Photographs of Seven, Dr. W. Perrett, 39 Rocks in the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, Dr. G. W. ‘ous am, 199 tri Testing of Scientific Glassware, 120 Phytochemical Synthesis of Phloroglucin from e, Dr.-M. Nierenstein, 391 tory of the Great, based on Official Documents. L, ade 1 Experimental Study of | ————— lv Naval Operations. Vol, i., Sir J. 5S. Corbett, 546; _ Probiems, Some Applications of Physics to, 237 Warble-flies, Lateral Spiracles in the Larvez of, Prof. G. H. Carpenter and F, J. $, Pollard, 835 Warlike States, Lhe Origin of, W. J. verry, 442 Washington, Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary _ in, Sir Auckland C. Geddes appointed, 17 ; Wasps, W. F. Denning, 328 Water: -chambers, The Permanent Régime in, C. Camichel, 314; Power Resources Committee, Second Interim Ke- port of the, 556, 765; Power Development, Canadian, . G. Dennis, 311; Resources, The Control of, 765; Supply Papers of the United States Geological Survey, 434; Supply, Woods and, Dr. H. R. Mill, 158 Wave: -length of the Oscillations Generated by an lonic Valve due to Changes in Filament Current, Variation of, J. H. Vincent, 121; -lengths of a Line of the Cyanogen Band in the Light of the Sun and that of a Terrestrial Source, Comparison of the, A. Perot, 794; -motion in a Deep Canal, Integration of the Equation of, II., U. Cisotti, 843 Waves, Growth of, A. Maliock, 777 Wealden Flint Culture from pre-Palzolithic Times, Evolu- tion of, H. Morris, 431 Weather : and Climate of the British Isles and North-west Europe, Practical Exercises on the, W. F. Stacey, 133; and Crops, Periodicity in, Sir William Beveridge, 370; Changes, Effect of, on Soil Temperatures, Capt. T. B. Franklin, 282; Conditions, Local, at Mullion, Cornwall, Lieut, N. L. Silvester, 281; Forecasts and Meteorology, A. Mallock, 580; Notes of Evelyn, Pepys, and Swift in Relation to British Climate, Capt. C. J. P. Cave, 393; of 1919, The, 243; of the Spring Season, The, 498; Prediction, Utilisation of Cirrus Clouds for, G. Reboul and L. Dunoyer, 251; Solar Variation and the, Dr. C. G. Abbot, 678 - Weights and Measures, British and Metric Systems of, M. E. Yeatman, 355; A. S. E. Ackermann, 456 Welfare Work, 55 West : Bromwich Municipal Technical Institute, E. Rawson appointed Principal of the, 698; Indies, Agricultural Development in the, 344; Distribution of Littoral Echi- noderms of the, H. L. Clark, 279: Report of the Tropical Agricultural College Committee, 153; The Geology of the, 24 Western: Australia, A Coloured Geological Map of, 498; Royal Society of, Journal and Proceedings of the, 1918-19, 559; The Aborigines of, G. O. Neville, 248; Greece, The Hydrocarbon Zone of, C. A. Kténas, 251 Whale, Sperm, Two Embryos of the, Dr. F. E. Beddard, re Oe Whales Frequenting South African Waters, Dr. L. Péringuey, 507 Wheat : and Wheat-growing, Dr. E. J. Russell, 224; Essays on, Prof. A. H. R. Buller, 224 ‘Wild Life in Canada, Capt. A. Buchanan, 426 Will? Is there a General, M. Ginsberg, 155; The Freedom of the, The Zoroastrian Doctrine of, Prof. A. V. W. Jackson, 763 Wind at Kimberley, A Possible Lunar Influence upon the Velocity of the, J. R. Sutton, 700 Wines, Blue Casse of, Treatment of the, A. Piedallu, P. Malvezin, and L. Grandchamp, 442 Wireless : Licences for Experimental Work, The Post Office and, 80; Messages from Paris and Slough, 80; Signals, Mars and, 276; Station for Astronomy, Central, Major W. J. S. Lockyer, 454; Telegraphy, Device for Obviat- ing the Use of High Voltages in, L. M. Hull, 624; Longitude by, Prof. Sampson, 370; to America, Reduc- tion of Charges for, 18; and Telephony: First Prin- ciples, Present Practice, and Testing, H. M. Dowsett, 483 ; for Use in the Army, 528; The Thermionic Valve in, Prof. J. A. Fleming, 716; Telephony, Prof. W. H. Eccles, 519; Duplex, Application of, to Aircraft, Capt. P Eckersley, 154; in Aeroplanes, Major C, E. Prince, 55; to and from Aeroplanes, and Wireless Direction-finding Apparatus, Demonstration of, 145; Time-signals, Eiffel Tower, Prof. R. A. Sampson, 265 ; Transmission of Photographs, M. J. Martin. Second ze ot Ag at ee cia yh Aim ait JS cy ee ae Reames 2) Seer F " if = * at re: ti; er ts ee . e hy, Bid lee es ss oe Penne eres Waar. uy ee F ceditions "45% ; Weather Forecasts Londadiwoar Souk "Yearbooks of the Sie Lea East ‘England, Pie fr Lan eR casas Ireland, ‘he, Thirty-six Wood, Treatment _ Preservation of, lof; oe BO OR a hn PE at pei eas cee kati Lk Woods and’ Water. Supply, ill, 158 . Yorkshire bar sia School of Geogeaphy, Forth Woolwich: The Research Ceoaren Sir Robert ‘Robert- Is: ‘son, .710,' 743; Exhibits of the, at the Impetial War Museum, .622 Wound-shock, The Circulating Blood i in Relation to, Prof. : W. ‘Bayli sly Wright Wilbur, Un ling a Statue to. es Memory of, se EN , Ay Goes ' J ‘ Xenulithic Tertiary Minor Initrusions, inthe, ining of Mull, Certain, Dr. H. H. Thomas, with. Chemical Analyses by E.G, Radley, 473 - hr ia aes Xenopus laevis, The Reflex Times, in, W. A. Jol iy. 699 X-ray: Spectra, The Fine Structure of, M. de Broglie, 475; aoe ‘Stands, Manipulation and Precision in Adjusting, Nitays = of the L Series, The ’ Intensities of, DL. ‘Webster, : The Examination of Materials by, A General Dis- ‘cussion held by the Faraday | —o and the. ai Seclety. perth 29. ee: 132 Maes be paid BOA ea ea Zesiiah Effect. he Pupense’ Spectra, The, Zinc : and Copper, The Constituents Serined i Penetration of, at a-Temperature- where - Two Metals and all their Alloys are-in -H. Weiss, 699 ; and its Alloys, -Dr. T - Copper: Minerals, Rare, from. the _ Hill Mine, F. P.. Mennell, 569; in RBs - Giaya, 315; ange fae -M. ‘Lemarchands, 282. ©. > Zonal Deposition, 498 Zoological Bibliography and Publication of the British Association Committee Zoology : Elementary, A Manual of, | Third edition, 804; Practical, A Jun late Prof. A. Milnes Marshall and -Hurst.. Ninth ‘edition, revised by Pr 516 bg: Se 4 q he has made very important contributions. Spal or Oe _ THURSDAY, _MARGH 4, 1920. oe Se Knowledge ray adeteanding. Science and Life: Aberdeen Addresses. By Prof. _ Frederick Soddy. Pp. xii+229. (London: | John Murray, 1920.) Price 10s. 6d. net. Hear, Land of Cakes and brither Scots, Frae Maidenkirk to Johnny Groat’s ; . eae If there’s a hole in a’ your coats, is ~ 1 rede ye tent it; ‘Soar A chiel’ s amang ye ‘takin’ notes, sane And, faith, he’ll prent it. OF... SODDY, who has recently removed - from the chair of chemistry in the University = Aberdeen to the newly created Lee’s professor- ship of inorganic and physical chemistry in the _ University. of Oxford, is well known throughout . the scientific world by reason of his work in con- nection with the subject of radio-activity, to which But ' it was not suspected, at least generally, that from “his northern post of observation he was finding so ‘many holes in the coats of the inhabitants of that part ‘especially, and of the institutions of the _ country generally, and that he would “prent it.’ Yet here is a volume which bears as sub-title "Aberdeen Addresses,” the delivery: of which _ must hhave caused many of his “unco’ guid” neighbours: to sit up and perhaps furieusement & f penser. But, as the old, cles | in |“ Silas Marner” _ said: “Where’s the use 0’ talking? ‘You can’t ' think what goes on in’ a cute ‘frian’s inside.” } ‘ ‘ (may "be! récalled” that 'scientific. ‘men have, ‘We must all agree with the author in the view _that “the times seem to call for outspokenness, if one has anything to say, rather than persuasive propagandism and time-serving compromise. for nearly av century,,.pdinted ont.the,dangers to the nation of the traditional school and university s training, | disastrous especially in that it embraces NO. 2627, VOL. 105 It A. WEEKLY ILLUSTRATED JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. “To the solid ground 5 : Of Nature trusts the mind which builds for aye.”—WorRDSWORTH. even those who are to be its rulers “und ‘states- ” men.” So Prof. Soddy has spoken, out) with, a voice which is bound to be heard even. by) these who, having no ears to hear, or understanding to learn, cannot help catching the echoes of, this new trumpet. -call. The essays may be broadly divided ; canto two groups, of which one contains an exposition .of the marvellous disclosures concerning the physical constitution of matter which have absorbed the concentrated attention of so many physicists ‘during the last twenty years, while | ‘the® “second group, addressed to various audiences; ‘shows the bearing of modern scientific Hersey on . the philosophies hitherto prevalent. © . Let us glance first at the former set OF essdys. For nearly a century the atomic theory of Newton ‘and Dalton had been accepted by chemists as the almost undisputed basis of their theoretical con- ceptions, and for all ordinary chemical pheno- mena the atom is still the fundamental unit of mass. Views as to the nature of the atom and its constitution now assume a different form. It is as though an observer, looking along a street, having formerly supposed each house to consist of a solid mass of bricks, now finds out that each contains many chambers and inhabitants capable of moving about. This knowledge has been obtained. in two ways. By bombardment the con- stituent materials and inhabitants have been dis- tributed in. various directions, and ina strange, unaccountable way the inhabitants of certain houses escape from them carrying aWay portions of the fabric, which is thus gradually led ‘tumble down. The metaphor can be carried, fo farther, but is sufficient to remind the reader of the con- ceptions gradually introduced as the ,resalt of experimental. work carried jon ‘first by Crookes, .and later especially by Sir Joseph Thomson, and, on the other hand, by the discoveries of B 2 NATURE | Marcu 4, 1920 Becquerel and the Curies in:connection with. radio- activity. Prof. Soddy has been associated with: research on radio-activity since r901, when, in Sir Ernest Rutherford’s laboratory in Montreal, he joined in framing the idea which. attributes radio-active change to the spontaneous disintegration of the atom. Later, in conjunction with Ramsay, he proved that the a-particles escaping from radium are electrified atoms of helium. In 1913 he also traced, simultaneously with other observers, the nature of the successive changes in. radio-active matter which ultimately lead to the production of non-radio-active elements, known case is lead.. The whole story is told in a condensed form in several of the essays in this volume, and ‘it could not be told better. Those who are interested in such subjects should obtain the book and read it. Turning, now, to the remainder of the contents of this volume, so many questions are touched on of which many would be regarded as debatable that it seems probable that readers will be divided into two camps, those who would cordially approve and support the views set forth, and those, chiefly the orthodox, who would deeply resent the attitude and conclusions of the writer. The first article, entitled “Science and Life,” deals with the influence which scientific discovery has exercised on the conditions of modern life, seen from various points of view, and contains little that is seriously controversial. There are, of course, passages which seem a little over-enthusiastic— e.g. the statement that, “if not yet, some time in. the future, the synthesis of food from the material constituents and any form of available energy will probably become possible ’’—but the review given of the sources of energy in Nature is useful as popular instruction. The author’s remarks on the relations of brains, labour, and capital seem rather to belong to the views likely to find ex- pression at the meetings of a young men’s debat- ing society, though it is certainly true that “the exploiters of the wealth of the world are not its creators,” and is likely to remain so until human nature undergoes a profound change. A similar remark might be made on the question which occurs in the second article: ‘Physical force, the slave of science, is it to be the master or the servant of man?” Of course, Prof. Soddy has a good deal to say on the subject of education. He is an experienced and distinguished teacher, but in one direction he seems -to overlook the necessity for clearly differ- éntiating ‘the kind of general. education which thust. necessarily be provided wholesale for the "NO. 2627, VOL. 105 | i of which the, best-. great majority, and that which should be adapted — to the exceptional youth, the genius, that rara_ avis for whom is wanted more in the shape of opportunity than in direct instruction along lines” which may or may not be useful to him. The great difficulty in regard to this kind of student is to recognise his qualities early enough. In con- nection with the continued appropriation of more. than their due share of scholarships, emoluments, and facilities of. all kinds by the authorities and powers which claim to represent humanist interests at the schools and universities, everyone con- cerned with such matters remembers Prof. Soddy’s criticism of the action of the executive committee of the Carnegie Trust for the Universi- ties of Scotland in January, 1918, and the inade- quate reply thereto. The whole of the relevant papers are added to this volume in a series of appendices A, B, and C. Many peau will find the lecture given to the Aberdeen University Christian Union on “Matter, Energy, Consciousness, and Spirit ” among the most startling of the utterances contained in this book. There are still many serious religious persons who find the almost universal abandon- ment of the Mosaic account of Creation and of so many of the Hebrew legends disturbing to the whole of their Christian faith and subversive of all religion. But the religious reader may get some comfort from this chapter if he will read it thoughtfully and with prejudice discarded as much as possible. Truth in the realm of science is of a quality and nature quite its own, and the man of science who frames a hypothesis does so | in the knowledge that, while it responds to every test applied to it up to that moment, it may be modified by further discovery or absorbed into and covered by a theory of a more comprehensive character. The continuous advance of knowledge. proves, however, that the foundations have been well and truly laid. “The scientific man seeks truth as a continually. developing revelation, and he changes his outlook on the world according as it unfolds itself before his eyes. The priest teaches that in some remote period of the world God Himself revealed Truth once and for all time, and his profession is to guard it against all comers. I do not believe that the soul, any more than the mind, can stagnate. It must grow or decay. Christianity cannot be crystallised into a creed binding for all time, and least of all into — a creed dating back to the century that preceded the relapse of Europe into intellectual barbarism. The world changes and has. changed in the. last hundred years out of all recognition. - a Ge Oe account of the new revelations of science, though . these have come about by a process the reverse Marcu 4, 1920] NATURE 3 srnatural. . . . They. constitute an essential f the whole truth, be our religious convic- r eee we must leave this interesting volume judgment of the many readers who will y be attracted by its contents. W. A. T. itish Journal of Psychology: Monograph ements. No, vi. Pleasure—Unpleasure: erimental Investigation on the Feeling- s. By Dr. A. Wohlgemuth. Pp. vii+ (Cambridge: At the University Press, : eee 14%; net. oad Dr. Wohlgemuth has have for the feeling-elements of the mind. ce Ke the author Sediatis may be re- He first step towards the building up of ne or at the application of the psycho- to practical life. Ity in the presentation as regards work kind consists of the fact that the data which the conclusions are drawn (i.e. the ; of the observers) are recorded in full, the largest portion of the book (137 Cabapa pages), references in the margin passages in the protocols from which Sdteawentiy stated conclusions have been . From the purely scientific point of view, procedure has everything to recommend it. : — no well-recognised and trustworthy is of summarising introspective data, such ere are, for instance, in the case of purely iative results, and the presentation of the lete material enables the reader and critic Seam at each step the author’s conclusions, yr to draw new and independent conclusions of sis ‘own, in a way that would not otherwise be sible. The opportunity of studying the vers’ gradually increasing power of analysing d describing the fleeting affective contents of mind should, moreover, be welcome to all who are interested in the possibilities of the modern NO. 2627, VOL. 105] - » & G3 method of exact introspection. in psychology. On the other hand, the inclusion of the full data has increased by not a little the size (and: doubfless also the cost) of the present work. It is impossible to summarise adequately the wealth of conclusions arrived at from the study of the protocols. A very few only of the more salient points can be mentioned here. The observers find that “the feeling-elements are not attributes or functions of sensations or other cog- nitive processes, but a separate class of conscious processes. Although generally closely dependent upon the cognitive and conative processes to which they belong, they often show a certain inde- pendence and detachment.” The feeling-elements possess two qualities only—pleasure and un- pleasure, this result supporting the more common view as against the multi-dimensional theories advanced by Wundt and certain others. Un- pleasure must be clearly distinguished from pain, which is not a feeling, but a sensation-——“‘a sensa- tion of a definite modality whose feeling tone is mostly unpleasant, but which may be neutral or sometimes even pleasant.” As regards the much-disputed question con- cerning the possibility of the co-existence in con- sciousness of distinct feeling-elements, some fairly strong evidence is brought in favour of such co-existence, the co-existing feelings being either of the same quality (i.e. both pleasant or unpleasant) or of different qualities (i.e. one pleasant, the other unpleasant). There are, how- ever, important individual differences in the ease and frequency with which such co-existence can be observed. A further disputed question—that of the local- isability of the feelings—is also answered in the affirmative, the localisation of feelings being closely dependent on the observer’s power of objectifying the feelings in question. In this con- nection it is interesting to observe that “the behaviour of feeling-elements is inverse to that of sensations in this way, that whilst sensations of the auditory and visual senses are more readily objectified than those of other senses, the feeling- elements when belonging to the former are less readily objectified and localised than when they belong to the latter.” An important difference between feeling and sensation was found in the fact that “there is nothing on the affective side of consciousness to correspond with the memory image on the cog- nitive side. The memory of a past feeling-element is merely knowledge—i.e. solely cognition. The. affective experience attaching to an ekphored | [i.e. recalled] cognitive experience isa new feeling. element, a new pleasure or a new unpleasure.” 4 NATURE [Marcu 4, 1920 Another difficult point on which much light is thrown concerns the influence of attention upon feeling. At first individual differences were dis- ‘covered which corresponded to the opposing views that have been held on this subject. It was found, however, that these differences resulted merely from a difference of attitude. “If a feeling- element is attended to as belonging to a cognitive content or as part of a situation or complex, it is intensified and becomes clearer; but if an attempt be made to focus the attention upon it to the exclusion of its cognitive concomitant, the feeling- element is destroyed.” On the other hand, the feeling-element is also destroyed, or at least weak- ened, if attention is directed exclusively to the purely cognitive aspects of an experience. Many of these results and of the others which we have no room to mention here have a practical as well as a theoretical interest, and the author a aes as-a result of the further study of the feelings; we shall be able to formulate canons in order ‘to increase pleasure and reduce unpleasure, to evolve, in fact, a normative science of kalobiotics. _ The book contains little or no theory, confining itself almost entirely to an elaborate statement and discussion of the experimental results. As such it makes, perhaps, a greater demand on the reader’s powers of concentration and endurance than is the case with most of the works that have hitherto appeared on this subject. Nevertheless, it constitutes fairly certainly the most complete and satisfactory study of feeling from its own point of view, and is one of the most important existing scientific contributions to this aspect of psychology. Radiological Diagnosis of Disease. Radio-Diagnosis of Pleuro-Pulmonary Affections. By F. Barjon. Translated by Dr. James A. - Honeij. Pp. xix+183. (New Haven: Yale Uni- versity Press; London: Humphrey Milford; Oxford University Press, 1918.) Price 10s. 6d. net. HE author points out that the perfecting of the instruments used in radiological exam- inations has changed a process regarded at first as a mere curiosity into a useful scientific and practi- eal method. Radiology has gradually extended its province in an extraordinary manner. It has entered the physiological and pathological study of all the important organs. In lesions of the lungs and pleura the radiologist can determine the topo- graphy of the trouble in a manner aptly called by Claude Bernard “a living autopsy.’’ No other method of exploration demonstrates so clearly and NO. 2627, VOL. 105] simply the functions of the heart and lungs. It shows, without the cardiograph, the pulsations of the auricles and ventricles and the aorta. It esti- mates, without the spirometer, the respiratory value of the lungs, and shows the movements of the diaphragm, the intercostal spaces, and the displacement of the mediastinum in inspiration and expiration. The author shows that the radiological method should not be used alone, but always in conjunc- tion with other methods. “The radiologist must be a physician. The interpretation of X-ray results demands a very accurate knowledge of anatomy, physiology, and pathology.’’ Con- versely, it is well also for the physician to be, in a less degree, a radiologist. The book contains a very full and complete account of the radiological appearances of the dis- — eases of the lungs and pleura, with many valuable hints to help the observer from falling into errors of diagnosis. The subject of pulmonary tuber- culosis is discussed in full detail. The perusal of this section leaves no room for doubt as to the extreme importance of the X-ray method in the diagnosis of this disease. Even in the early stages the exact position of the lesion is clearly shown, and its extent revealed. The progress of treat- ment, also, can be followed; in successful cases the gradual clearing of the affected portions of the lungs can be studied. The last part of the book deals with penetrating wounds of the thorax by war projectiles. It shows how the nature of the projectile is to be recognised, 5 how its exact. situation within the thorax is to be © localised, and how the radiologist may aid in deciding whether operative interference is advis- able or urgently needed. The book is printed in good type, and profusely illustrated by diagrams in the text and by ‘half- tone reproductions of X-ray prints and negatives in plates printed on art paper. The Manufacture of Artificial Fertilisers. Mining and Manufacture of Fertilising Materials, and their Relation to Soils. By Strauss L. Lloyd. Pp. vit+153. (New York: D. Van Nostrand Co. ; London: Crosby Lockwood and Son, 1919.) Price gs. net. HERE is at present no good book in English on the manufacture of artificial fertilisers, but there is ample room for one. Mr. Lloyd does not quite supply the need. He evidently knows something about the mining and working of Florida phosphate rock and the making of super- phosphate, but instead of giving a clear descrip- | tion of all this, illustrated by diagrams, he occupies * n SM 1920] NATURE 5 ble “space with an account of soils and soil an, analy is which the reader could far better obtain e ere. Yet there i is scarcely a more vital: in- y at the present time than the manufacture ficial fertilisers, nor is its importance likely As best chapters. are. the two on pebble phos- on hard-rock phosphate. The Florida hates are usually classified into four groups : rock, soft rock, land pebble, and river pebble, ‘which occur in the Eocene and more recent Hions. Of these the hard rock is the purest, gz phosphate equivalent to 80-85 per cent. Peek phosphate; the land pebble contains 1ewhat less, while for the soft rock and river le the corresponding figures are about 55 to per cent. The method of working is fairly described. The remaining chapters, however, not so good. More information might have given about the mechanical dens and other ‘ivances — used in the manufacture of super- phate. Scarcely anything is said about the shetre of mixed manures, although this is of the largest branches of the business. The ter on the fixation of atmospheric nitrogen is years out of date; no mention is made of the er or the Ostwald process ; the old view, now up elsewhere, is still put forward, that nide changes to “‘dicyanamide” (dicyano- le) and then to ammonia by bacterial action. da a second edition be called for, the author science of manuring. It might also be ask a chemist to read the proofs in view > about treatises on agricultural analysis n nif he entered a fertiliser factory, where he uld have to enalyse manures against chemists | some reputation.” _ The reader would thus be % sodit iy ie acid caused the bags to burst in transit, 2 is no substance which rots bags like free nlorine and fluorine—two elements given off when trate and damp ‘cabaaeeees are mixed.” E. J. Russet. ir Our Bookshelf. slephony without Wires. By. Philip R. Coursey. Pp. xix+414. (London: The, Wireless Press, iL d., 1919.) Price eS: pet.:|'* 1S book gives a fairly complete account. of .the ractical development of radio-telephony. | Accu- rate descriptions are given of very many types of ~ "NO. 2627, VoL. '105] P ‘chapter in the original issue. apparatus. The book, therefore, is more useful for reference than for learning the principles of the art. Little space is devoted to theoreti¢al con- siderations, but the author mentions some of the difficulties encountered, and indicates possible/lines of advance. The bibliography is very, complete, some 700 references. being given to original papers on the subject. From the commercial point of view, radio- telephony is not vety attractive at present, as its applications are mainly confined to those cases where the ordinary telephone service cannot -be used. It is possible by. using very costly apparatus to telephone on Jand over thousands of miles. For instance, New York and. San Francisco. were put in telephonic communication in November, 1917, although the distance is 3400 miles. The experi- ment was successful, but it did not prove ‘the commercial feasibility of such a long-distance “service, as the value of the ae in use: w hes talking was 400,000. Radio-telephony Was very useful | in the taiee months of the war, as communication, ,was ,estab- lished by its use not only between aeroplanes . and the earth, but also directly between aeroplanes. ° It has also proved useful in establishing Gommiunica- tion between moving trains and the ofditratty: fixed telephone systems. During the last ifew.»yéars the rapid development of radio-telephony: has! been mainly due to the researches of the physicist, and the mathematician. The problems it furnishes are of absorbing interest, and it is rapidly widen- ing our knowledge of the laws of Natute. | Scientific Method: Its Philosophy. and, its Practice. By F. W. Westaway. New edition. Pp, xxi+ 426. (London: Blackie and Son, Ltd., 1919.) Price 10s. 6d. net. ae gaa its Sir J. J. THomson’s committee on the’ position of natural science in the educational system’ of Great Britain expressed agreement with the view that “some knowledge of the history and philo- sophy of science should form part of the intel- lectual equipment of every science teacher in a secondary school.”’ There is no more enlightening and helpful volume from which to acquire, such knowledge than this by Mr. Westaway. | The implications of scientific reasoning, method,, and practice are clearly presented, and the examples are -both apt and instructive. Any © science teacher, whether in university or school, ‘who reads the book cannot fail to derive ea nae interest from it. In this second edition the chapter on. « Philo- sophers and Some of their Problems ’’ has been re-written, and is now a more precise statement of the specific claims of philosophy than was the A new appendix, entitled “ Retrospect and Reflections,’ susveys the function and influence of science and scientific method. in national life, superseding one,on “An “American School Course in Chemistry.” The index is missing in our copy of the book, though there was one in the first edition, but its absence” ‘is ‘possibly due to a fault of the binders. i 6 NATURE | Marcu 4, 1920 Letters to the Editor. [The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manuscripts intended for this or any other part of Nature. No notice ts taken of anonymous communications.] Organisation of Scientific Work. Tue relations between scientific inquiry and con- stituted authority, whether ecclesiastical or civil, have seldom been cordial or wholesome. Science was once a fearful dragon, to be destroyed or confined. With the discovery that the beast had powers from which profit could be made by cunning masters, it was found more expedient to tempt him into harness. Our former state was probably the better, or at least the safer, and most of us will agree with Prof. Soddy that the scheme devised by the Indian Industrial Commission is simply an offer of servitude undisguised. While there is time, those with whom the decision rests should be told very plainly that the adoption of such rules of service as those quoted in the leading article in Nature of February 19 must mean the alienation of all sincere and genuine investigators. Research, like art, literature, and all the higher products of human thought, grows only in an atmo- sphere of freedom. The progress of knowledge follows no prescribed lines, and by attempting such prescrip- tion the head of a Service would merely kill the spontaneity and enterprise of his workers. No one fit to be entrusted with research worthy the name would undertake it knowing that his results might be burked or withheld from publication at the whim of his superior in the Service. Such conditions may be appropriate to certain forms of technical or industrial invention, where the sole purpose is to get ahead of a trade rival, but‘we can scarcely imagine that the vast and manifold undertakings promoted by the scientific services of the Indian Government are to be conducted in that spirit. W. Bateson. The Manor House, Merton, S.W.1o. I HOPE you will allow me to express through the medium of NaTURE my concern at the proposal referred to in the leading article in the issue of February 19 to centralise in an Imperial Department the various scientific services in India—a policy which I believe to be likely to prove detrimental to good work, I was a member of the Indian Forest Depart- ment during the years 1871-99, so that my Indian ex- perience is not very recent, but I have kept myself informed of what was going on. Since I left India research institutes have been established in different provinces with officers attached to them required to devote themselves to the study of scientific questions. In my opinion, it is of the utmost importance that these officers should have as free a hand as possible, and be allowed to work in their own way on the subjects which they know themselves most competent to study. If they are called upon to work under a centralised Department, and perhaps to turn from branches of study which they thoroughly understand to others in which they may have to begin by reading up, much of their time will be wasted and the results poor. A centralised Department, to most people of Indian experience, means many reports and returns and constant correspondence, and. I believe the result of such: an innovation will be that some hors at the beginning of each dav will have to be spent on what may be called ‘‘clerical duties.’? If a scientific worker is to do his best, he must be able to spend NO. 2627, VOL. 105] all his time on his researches, and not be obliged to waste much of the day on clerical duties, only beginning his real work when tired and unable to do his best. Centralisation will also mean, in my opinion, the spending of much money in keeping up clerical staffs, which, as most Indian officers will admit, have a wonderful tendency to increase. It will be much better that the recommendations of the last paragraph but one of your leading article should be followed and the money spent in giving financial assistance to the universities and research institutes instead. The paragraph to which I refer puts the arguments for the continuance of the present system and its better development excellently in a few words, and I trust it may have the effect on the administrative authori- ties that I feel sure it must have had on the scientific men who have read it. J. S. GAMBLE. Highfield, East Liss, Hants, February 25. I HAVE not yet had time to study the Report of the Indian Industrial Commission, and may, therefore, be ignorant of some of the arguments for centralisation, but I am certainly in general agreement with the views expressed in the leading article in Nature of February 19, and by Prof. Soddy and Dr. Rendle in the issue for February 26, regarding the dangers of that method of research organisation. Investigations under centralised bureaucratic control must almost always be concerned solely with questions capable of receiving easy and immediate replies, for the obvious reason that directors and committees can rarely be persuaded to authorise attacks upon difficult or distant objectives, regarding which, perhaps, no replies at all may be forthcoming. Now the most important discoveries have. generally been made precisely by such attacks, and investigation is ‘a lottery in which the greatest prize often falls to him who takes the greatest risks. Directors and committees do not like risks, and, con- sequently, seldom make discoveries. I should like to know, for instance, how any ‘Indian Scientific Service’? would have attacked the malaria problem, which I commenced to assault (in a very foolhardy manner!) in 1890. to authorise my attempts, and even to publish my first results. On the other hand, it would have wasted, with ripe bureaucratic prudence, thousands cf pounds in looking for Plasmodia in marshes, or in trying to correlate various species of mosquitoes with local outbreaks of the disease, and I am sure it would have achieved nothing at all up to the present day. . We forget that, like really valuable art and inven- tion, scientific discovery is almost always due mainly to the individual. One might as well try to organise an Institute for the Writing of Poetry as institutions for making great discoveries or inventions. Like art, discovery is creative. It depends much more on the brain than on the hand, even in work requiring the most careful manipulative skill. Scientific services will not be able to pick up ‘discoverers’’ on every bush. All they can do is to organise hand-work, for which they may be useful. But if the Government of India wishes to obtain great results for its expendi- ture it must buy genius. Now genius may be defined as the quality which achieves success, and the only way to buy it is to reward success—as suggested by the Committee on Awards in Nature of January 8. What we all fear is that the Government of India will be tempted to spend much larger sums of money in buying, not genius, but its opposite. Sie At the same time certain researches, even of a petty kind, will require subsidies, and the Government I am sure it would have refused i SRY ketal RCH 4, 1920] NATURE 7 t also to possess expert advisers in many branches dence. Some kind of scientific service will there- be needed, but this should not be allowed to oss the whole field; and the best results are sure 2 obtained in the future, as they have been in the by untrammelled men of capacity working as ease. Ronatp Ross. discussing the best ways of fostering research it is important to remember that, the word reh”’ is used in two widely distinct senses: it stand either for the careful collection of observa- ons, or for the deduction of the principles expressing e relationship between one set of phenomena and r. The difference between them is like that the discovery of a new country and the careful ng of one known in a general way but not in . ould be unfair to set either of these kinds of h above the other; each is indispensable to the ther. Experience shows, however, that the power collect careful observations can be imparted to a number of men and women, while the power to the material and deduce from it anything more the comparatively obvious is rare and cannot arted. Further, this ability is not equally as between different classes of men or as men and women. recognition of the necessity for each kind of is essential to the proper conduct of a research tion, and one of the great difficulties is to find s of new ideas and to ensure that they shall harmoniously with the equally necessarv, but rare, collectors of observations. The difference m the two groups of workers is fundamental reaching, manifesting itself even in trivial e present discussion: the first group greatly immediate direction; the cui’ do not, pro- they see advantages therein. In all research utions of any size the chief problem is to keep roups of workers as nearly abreast as possible. tions made in advance of facts are often wrong metimes harmful. Facts and _ observations ated without any illuminating hypothesis or principle are rather drearv and soon forgotten. one of the tragedies of a life devoted to science often the fruit falls stillborn and is entombed ¥ journal, never again to see the light. We known such workers : apes j And, as year after vear : Fresh products of their barren labour fall From their tired hands, and rest Never vet com~s more near, Gloom settles slowly down over their breast. The only way of avoiding the tragedy and its banying waste is to ensure that both groups of ‘kers keep together. t is not only between these two groups, however, . ation is necessary; under modern condi- ns there must also be close relationship between workers in different subjects. Science is becoming easingly specialised; no one man now knows ich of any subject except his own. For the inves- gation of phenomena such as those of agriculture, lie outside the present arbitrary divisions of ence, recourse must be had to team-work; a bodv / young workers whose minds are still elastic must be interested in the problem and induced to work ether for its solution. xperience shows that successful co-operation is achieved only when a deliberate attempt is made to Secure optimum conditions for each individual. worker. NO. 2627, VOL. 1051 actions. One difference is particularly important How can a State system be adapted to fit these various necessities? For financial reasons complete elasticity is impossible; Treasuries must know their liabilities. In any Civil Service system promotion is almost in- evitably by seniority. Individual action and thought would be intolerable; everything must go through a chief, while anything repugnant to him must be sup- pressed. In all these directions the State system is absolutely incompatible with living research, although it might be consistent with much careful accumulation of facts, with survey work, and with the establish- ment of some central collecting institute. For these reasons I cannot believe that the intensely centralised system proposed for India could succeed. One man may organise work in one institution where he is accessible to the staff morning, noon, and night; but he would indeed need to be a superman of most exalted degree if he aspired to direct the research work of a country. The system devised by the English Ministry of Agri- culture is, in my view, much better. It possesses some degree of financial elasticity. While it contains the inevitable regulation about promotion by seniority, this is qualified by clauses under which the best man available can, nevertheless, be appointed to fill a vacant post. There is no attempt to govern from Whitehall; no general director, deputy director, or other official to run the research workers, but only occasional friendly gatherings of the chief officers to discuss common problems. Could not some such system be tried in India? E. J. Russet. Rothamsted Experimental Station, Harpenden. THE question of reorganising and _ developing scientific work in India discussed in the leading article in Nature of February 19 is. of the utmost importance to all concerned with the welfare and scientific reputation of the Empire. Now that there is a prospect of recognition by the Government of India and the Secretary of State of the necessity for increased expenditure on scientific investigation, it is essential that the new era should be inaugurated under the most favourable conditions. Two policies are apparently under consideration, which may be referred to respectively as centralisation and decen- tralisation; these are clearly defined in the article of February 19. The advantage of organising research within certain limits is generally admitted; facilities should be afforded for supplying information, for sug- gesting problems, and for the co-ordination of the activities of individuals or institutions, but it would seem that the policy of centralisation advocated by the Indian Industrial Commission, presided over by Sir Thomas Holland and “favoured by a number of administrators,’’ is much more than this. It is, in short, a proposal to bring scientific investigation into line with routine official work—a procedure which, one learns with surprise, has the support of several scientific witnesses examined by the Commission. If there is one thing vital for the successful prosecu- tion of scientific research of the best type and for the encouragement of the full development of a re- searcher’s capacity, it is freedom of action. ; Tt is safe to predict that verv few men possessing what may be called the research temperament would consent to submit to a bondage that would be not only irksome and irritating, but also fatal to indivi- dual initiative and enthusiasm. If adequate remunera- tion is offered and reasonable laboratory facilities are provided, good men will be easily secured. Given the right sort of men, I venture to think that the only rational course is to trust them to work out in 8 NATURE sae [Marcu 4, 1920 their own way, with such advice or assistance as may be asked for, the problems entrusted to them. The appointment of a head for each department cf science with the powers of a dictator would be the surest means of encouraging mediocrity, and of warn- ing off just that type of original thinker and indepen- dent investigator whose services would be of inestim- able value to the State. It may be contended that any State scheme, whether concerned with routine duties or original work, must be under some central direc- tion, but there is no reason why the direction should be of such a kind as would be tantamount to asking every researcher to place himself, body and soul, under a dictator. A. C. SEWARD. Botany School, Cambridge, February 26. The Constitution of the Elements. In continuation of my letter on the above subject in NaturE of December. 13, 1919, several more elements have been subjected to’ analysis, yielding interesting ‘* mass-spectra.’” Argon (atomic weight 39:88 Ramsay, 39-91 Leduc) gives a very strong line exactly at 40, with double charge at 20 and triple charge at 133. The last line, being closely bracketed by known reference lines at 13 and 14, provides very trustworthy values. At first this was thought to be its only constituent, but further photographs showed an associated faint line at 36. This has not yet been proved an element by double and triple charges, as the probable presence of OH, and the certain presence of C prevent this, but other lines of reasoning make it extremely probable that this is a true isotope, the presence of which to the extent of 3 per cent. is enough to account for the fractional atomic weight quoted. Helium was compared with O++ (8) by a special system of bracketing, and directly with C++ (6) by extrapolation. Both methods give its mass as 4, with an accuracy of 2 or 3 parts in 1000. By the same methods H,, H,, and H, all give con- sistent results for the mass of the hydrogen atom as 1-008 within experimental error, agreeing with the value given by chemical analysis, and, incidentally, confirming the nature of H, beyond doubt. These three lines are the only ones diverging from the whole number rule to a definite and measurable extent. Nitrogen is apparently a ‘“‘ pure’’ element, its doubly charged atom being 7 exactly. Krypton (atomic weight 82-92) has no fewer than six constituents: 78, 80, 82, 83, 84, and 86. The last five are strong lines most beautifully confirmed by double- and triple-charged clusters, which can be compared with great accuracy against A (40) and CO (28). These reference lines obliterate one of each group, but not the same one. The 78 line has not yet been confirmed in this way owing to its faintness, but there is no reason to doubt its elemental nature. Krypton is the first element giving unmistakable isotopes differing by one unit only. The partial pressure of xenon (atomic weight 130-2) in the gas used was only sufficient to show its singly charged lines clearly. These appear to follow the whole number rule, and rough provisional values for the five made out may be taken as 128, 130, 131, 133, and 135. Further examination of the multinlv charged mer- cury clusters indicate the probability of a strong line at 202, a weak component at 204.-and a strong band including 197 and 200, unresolvable up to the present. F. W. Aston. Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge, February 25. NO. 2627, VOL. 105 | Deflection of Light during a Solar Eclipse. Pror. ANDERSON has suggested in NaATurRE that the apparent displacement of stars observed during the solar eclipse may be ascribed to an unusual form of refraction in the terrestrial atmosphere. The discus- sion which has followed shows some lack of agree- ment as to the importance of such a refraction effect. I wish to suggest that it might, perhaps, be possible to form an estimate of the magnitude of this effect by making measurements of the apparent diameter of the moon during the eclipse. Star photographs would seem to be somewhat unsuitable, although one dia- meter of the moon may leave a clear enough trace on the plates (a diameter at right angles to the apparent motion of the moon relative to the stars). It should be possible, however, to obtain sharp silhouette images of the moon on plates devoted to this particular pur- pose; perhaps such photographs are already avail- able. The nature of the clockwork drive needed is dependent on the necessary exposure, and need not be discussed. J. A. ORANGE. Mr. ORANGE’s point is, of course, that we should use the one object in the field of which the light has not been through the sun’s gravitational field in order to get rid of the Einstein disturbance; also of ‘the suggested refraction by gases near the sun. IT have talked the matter over with Mr. C. Davidson, who agrees with me that nothing is to be done with existing photographs in this direction—the exposures were too long, and the moon’s limb too ill-defined; but it is possible that in future eclipses short ex- posures, given specially for the purpose, might vield something of interest. The chief difficulty is that we do not know the moon’s dark photographie diameter. It cannot be assumed equal to the bright photogranhic diameter, for irradiation (and other similar actions) go in the reverse direction. ay A. C. D. CROMMELIN. 55 Ulundi Road, Blackheath, S.E.3, February 28. Perimeter of an Ellipse. Tue following approximate formula for finding the perimeter of a fairly flat ellipse may be found prac- tically useful. Suppose a=1, then the length of a quadrant of the ellipse is nearly 1+0°60', where a is the major, and b the minor, axis. The formula works best from about b=o0-2 to b=o:5, after which the formula of Boussinesq is more accurate, V1Z. ={ac +6) 4 Jo. ; But the formula I give is for practical purposes quite satisfactory up to b=o-6, the relative error never being. large. It does not work if the ellipse is nearly circular. Boussinesq’s formula is of no use if the ellipse is flat. Other more accurate formulz could be given, bu the above has the advantage that it can be calculated very rapidly, and, within the range mentioned, I doubt if higher accuracy is ever required in practice. R. A. P. Rocers. Trinity College, Dublin, » February 16. Marcu 4, 1920] NATURE 9 HE great American glass works engineer, Mr. Owens, referring to the fact that he had been :d admission to an English glass works, once served to a friend of mine, ‘‘If a man refuses to me to his plant I generally reckon that he amed of it.” I had often wondered whether Owens’s countrymen really practised the icy which he preached, and last autumn the unity offered of putting it to the test. e a seven weeks’ tour through the States | aid almost daily visits to glass plants, with no ther introduction than the information conveyed y my private visiting card, and only once was my sit restricted to the office.. Generally I was yn the whole plant, and all my questions were kly answered ; sometimes I was even permitted ake a second round of the works on my own unt. In the research laboratories of both te companies and great industrial corpora- I was made doubly welcome. I can only Ss a sense of obligation, which I can never “was very frequently that I heard statements to the effect that the application of science justry in America was only in its infancy. a fact that American industry is absorbing whole output of the universities, and also draw- men from this country. America has found yplication of science to industry to be a pro- n which appears to be a sound one,..and, in rmity with American industrial policy, means science a fair trial. If men of science their value from the commercial point of they will rank equally with men of business ity, who are able to dictate the terms of their e to industry. ‘must be remembered that the American glass stry is relatively small, and even in Pittsburgh, re the glass factories are most numerous, it entirely overshadowed by the steel industry. owever, so far as scientific research goes, the industry is in a remarkably favourable position. The Geophysical Laboratory at Washington, D.C., which I visited, is primarily an institution for the vestigation of scientific problems connected with lasses, of which the earth itself so largely con- ‘sists, and the Bureau of Standards has devoted a considerable amount of attention to the subject. ‘In April, 1917, soon after America joined in the ‘war, American industry had to face a demand for an immense amount of optical glass. The work done by the staff of the Geophysical Laboratory is told in a few words in the director’s report for 1918: “Suffice it to say that with a staff of twenty “scientifically trained men, all trained in the hand- ling of silicate solutions at temperatures required fe - the making of glass, and familiar with the con- _ trol of the most important factors in the problem, _ it proved practicable to make rapid progress.” _ After two months the output had doubled, and _ rejections by Government inspectors had become NO. 2627, VOL. 105] -. under the control of Government. Scientific Research and the Glass Industry in the United States. By Dr. M. W. Travers, F.R.S. very rare. A few months later “the output had reached a magnitude such that an adequate supply of suitable glass was assured for national needs, and. . . many refinements were being effected to bring the quality of the glass to a higher level.” To achieve these results, the staff of the Geo- physical Laboratory did not remain in Washing- ton and issue advice to manufacturers, but actu- ally took over the scientific control of the plants, some of which were built after America’s entry into the war, and in such positions I still found some of them when I was in America. The Bureau of Standards also established a small manufactur- ing plant in Pittsburgh, and here some very im- portant work on glass pots for optical glass manu- facture was carried out by Dr. Bleiniger. Accounts of much of this work have been published in the American Journal of Science and the Journal of the American Ceramic Society, and the work is described as being carried out ‘“‘at the Geophysical Laboratory and at the plants of the Bausch and Lomb Optical Co., Spencer Lens Co., and Pitts- burgh Plate Glass Co., under the authority of the War Industries Board.” Anyone who is in- terested may learn exactly what was accomplished and what the position is at the moment, and may visit such of the plants as are in operation. Can anyone say what really has been accomplished in connection with optical glass in this country, what remains to be done in order to establish the in- dustry, and what organisation exists for doing it? The Bureau of Standards is, of course, an official institution; the Geophysical Laboratory is maintained by the Carnegie Institution, and is not I do not know how far the experimental work in connection with optical glass was subsidised by the Federal Government, but during the war very substantial funds for research work were at the disposal of the National Research Council, which was organ- ised, at the request of the President, by the National Academy of Sciences, and money from this source was available for such purposes. It must be noted that wherever an appointment had to be made in any matter of a scientific character, even in the case of officials, it was made on the recommendation of the men of science. In this we find an essential difference between American and British practice. The development of scientific glassware, other than optical glass, was left to individual effort, and was solved with equal success by several firms. The Corning Glass Works, at Corning, N.Y., suc- ceeded, however, in producing a very remarkable glass, which is called “Pyrex” glass, from which are manufactured both chemical hollow-ware and the so-called oven-ware. This glass has so low a coefficient of expansion and so high a tenacity that one can take extraordinary liberties with it, and it is much more highly resistant to changes of tem- perature than any glass previously produced. The 10 NATURE [Marcu 4, 1920 production of this glass is a very remarkable achievement. “Pyrex” glass and the Empire bulb-blowing machine were only two of the many interesting developments which I was shown at Corning. When I was there, Dr. A. L. Day, who has long been connected with the works, was acting as vice-president of the company ; and Dr. E. C. Sulli- van and Dr. W. C. Taylor, assisted by a con- siderable scientific staff, were in charge of the technical side of the work. Dr. Taylor told me that they had been carrying out a_ systematic survey of. possible combinations in glasses, and that as each glass was made experimentally its properties were investigated and recorded. In the Steuben Works, which are under the same management, and only a few hundred yards distant, Dr. J. C. Hochstetter was collaborating with Mr. F. C. Carder in the investigation of problems relating to coloured glasses. Scientific glassware was also being manufac- tured at the H. C. Fry Glass Works, where I | spent a day with Dr. Scholes and his staff, and at the Macbeth Evans Glass Co.’s plant, also near Pittsburgh, Pa., over which I was shown by Dr. Macbeth and Prof, Hower, who is consultant to the firm. I found quite a numerous scientific staff working in excellent laboratories, In the bottle-making branch of the industry the engineer predominates. I believe that the first bottle machine was English, and one would like to know why it is that the development of bottle machinery has been practically wholly American. The Owens machine, the Hartford-Fairmont flow feed, the Westlake machine, and the Empire machine are purely American, and they are American because Americans understand the value of sciencé organised in the service of industry, and are willing to give good brains a fair chance and to back. them with good money. Developments in this direction are entirely a matter of private enter- prise, in which consumers as well as manufacturers are often financially interested. To no branch of the glass industry has science at Cleveland, Ohio, Dr. W. been of greater service than to that of the electric lamp industry. I was able to spend two days in the research laboratories attached to the great plant of the General Electric Co. at Schenectady, in company with Drs. Whitney, Langmuir, Cool- idge, and Hull, whose names are as well known in Europe as in America. The staff of the laboratory is said to number more than 150 members, and the work carried on is in some cases purely scien- tific, and in others highly technical, processes being actually worked in the laboratory until the demand for the goods or material produced justi- fies the erection of separate factories. While I was M. Clark, the chief chemist of the National Lamp Association, was good enough to show me over the whole plant of his firm. Here a physical laboratory dedicated to investigations connected with illumination, but only indirectly with artificial lighting, has been established in recognition of the services of science to the industry. In several of the universities research is being carried out in connection with glass, and I had the good fortune to meet both Prof. Washburn, of Illinois University, and Prof. Silverman, of Pitts- burgh University, and to discuss with them their work on the chemistry and physics of glass. A short article permits me to deal only with isolated incidents in my tour, but the impression which I brought away with me and wish to convey to others is that there are a great many men of high scientific ability engaged in the American | glass industry, which has learned, as the German glass industry learned, to our undoing, that indus- trial progress implies. the co-operation of science and industry. American industry is not securing the co-operation of science for sentimental reasons, but with a view to competition with us in the markets of the world. To this movement science, through the National Research Council, organised by the National Academy of Sciences, in co-opera- tion with the national scientific and _ technical societies of the United States, is giving its hearti- est support. The Circulating Blood in Relation to Wound-Shock.! By Pror. W. M. Baytiss, F.R.S. ane system of vessels in which the blood is contained must be conceived of as a closed system. But the walls are distensible and elastic; they can therefore stretch and collapse to accom- modate varying amounts of liquid. This is pos- sible, however, only to a limited extent. Although the veins ie thinner walls than the arteries, and appear to be less supported by surrounding structures than are the capillaries, it is remark- able that they oppose a greater resistance to a bursting pressure than do the arteries. Veins, moreover, have a muscular coat which is in a 1 Discourse on ‘‘ The Volume of the Blood a its 'Sindllicaice,” delivered at the Royal Institution on Friday, February 13 NO. 2627, VOL, 105] more or less contracted state during life. Hence the introduction of more fluid into the system must encounter a certain resistance and raise the internal .pressure, unless the muscular coat actively relaxes to accommodate the fluid intro- duced. This closed system contains, under normal con- ditions, about four litres of blood in man. It consists, as is generally known, of the heart, of branching tubes (arteries), leading from the heart to the tissues, where they break up into a net- - work of much finer tubes, the capillaries, which unite again to form the veins, and so lead the blood back to the heart. Consider the distribution of the blood at the time when the heart is at rest. _ MARCH 4, 1920] NATURE 11 amount present in each part, including the itself, is obviously in proportion to the ty of each part. heart, however, works as a pump. The ‘in which the blood is circulated was first larly propounded by Harvey in 1616, although yardo da Vinci came very near to the dis- y more than a century before. Harvey saw ood sent out from the heart, propelled to the -in the arteries, and returned to the heart e veins. The course of the blood from one other through the minute capillaries could _Seen until the invention of the microscope euwenhoek, who made use of it in 1686 to » the blood tr aversing the capillaries in the ‘ the tadpole. he heart, then, when it contracts, drives out blood which is contained in its cavities, or + the whole of it. This same quantity must eo returned by the veins, otherwise the blood ud soon all be accumulated in the peripheral arts of the body. Further, the heart is capable driving out the more blood the greater the uantity it contains when contraction begins. is what has been called by Starling the “law 2 heart.” It depends on the fact that ar fibres contract the more powerfully the sr the length to which they are stretched to with—within limits, of course. see, therefore, that the amount of blood through the organs of the body in a given depends on the amount present in the heart al _ Since this is a definite fraction_of the whole blood, the irrigation, as we may call it, of the body is in proportion to the total quantity of blood. available. The importance of sufficient rigation is obvious. The blood conveys to the cells. the materials required for their work, these the most necessary is oxygen. If ily is too meagre, the first few cells with the blood meets exhaust it, and those d suffer from deprivation. Waste products removed at the same time. es the part played by the volume of the ul! blood in relation to the capacity of = vascular system was realised by Carl Ludwg and_ his school, who made many experimental investigations on the subject, the matter came espe y into prominence in connection with the ‘ xplanation and treatment of the state known reviously as “surgical shock,” but which occurred with alarming frequency i in men wounded in the late war. The name “wound-shock” is a mo = comprehensive name, although the use of the . d “shock” is liable to give a misleading im- ssion as to the rapidity of its onset, and to se confusion with “shell-shock,”’ another un- sfactory name, but used to designate an affec- of the nervous system of quite a different ture from that brought about by the wounds themselves. Wound-shock is not easily defined in ch terms as to distinguish it clearly from other nilar states, such as that due to loss of blood, t it may be said to be one of general collapse, in death if not combated in some way. NO. 2627, VOL. 105] It does not come on hepeniedintel) alte injury, but in the course of some two or three hours. It shows itself by pallor, coldness, sweating, vomit- ing, thirst, low blood- -pressure, and the other Symptoms which were early recognised as indi- cating a defective circulation. But what is the actual cause of this collapse of the circulatory mechanism? It was soon real- ised, by those who examined cases of wound- shock, that it was not due to any failure of the heart itself, nor was the central nervous system involved, except indirectly in the later stages. On the other hand, much difficulty was found in distinguishing between this state, even when attended by very little loss of blood, and that resulting from great loss of blood unaccompanied by serious injury. The latter is obviously the result of the defective volume of blood. and its consequences, since blood is known to have left the body. But why do the former cases also appear to be suffering from the same condition, when scarcely any blood has actually been lost? In the endeavour to find an explanation for this, we may call to mind the circumstance that blood may be effectively removed from circulation by being pooled away in some part or, other of the vascular system, as, for example, by a great dilatation of this part. The amount which is available for propulsion by the heart to serve for continuous irrigation of the tissues is reduced as much as it would be if the blood held in the pool were actually lost to the outside. Such changes in the capacity of the peripheral blood-vessels play a large part in the regulation of the blood-pressure and the supply of blood to various organs. We may inquire whether anything of this kind happens after severe injuries. The first step taken in the course of this inquiry was the discovery that some poisonous substance is produced in injured tissues. This, passing into the blood, is carried to all parts of the body. Sir Cuthbert Wallace, some years ago, had noticed that operations in which the cutting of large masses of tissue was involved were especially liable to be followed by shock. Quénu and others, during the war, were struck by the rapid benefit frequently ensuing from removal of the injured parts or even when they are tied off from con- nection with the rest of the blood-vessels, if such is possible. Cannon and myself found ‘that we could produce the state of wound-shock in anzs- thetised animals in the laboratory, and that it was due to a chemical agent, not to any effect on nerves. This being so, we see that we can replace the name of “wound-shock ” by the more descrip- tive one of “traumatic toxemia.’ But can we form any conclusion as to the chemical nature of this toxic substance or as to the way in which it acts? It is evidently pro- duced too quickly to be a result of bacterial infec- tion, and, indeed, McNee was able to exclude this possibility quite definitely. Dale and Laidlaw, however, showed that there is a compound of known chemical structure, called “histamine,” 12 NATURE ' [Marcu 4, 1920 and produced without difficulty from a constituent of the nitrogenous cell structures, which is able to produce a state of the circulation like that present in wound-shock. It was found that the effect was not due to a dilatation of the arterial part of the system, as was known to be the case in the fall of blood-pressure brought about by vaso-motor reflexes. Here the similarity to traumatic toxemia showed itself again, because it was known that arterial: dilatation was not present in this state. Next, Dale and Richards, by a number of ingenious experiments, were able to localise the effect in the capillaries, which became widely dilated and thus capable of taking up the greater part of the blood in the body, leaving the heart nearly empty, with too meagre a supply to carry on the circulation with any degree of efficacy. It is to be admitted that we have not yet definite proof that it is histamine itself which is responsible for the toxemia of injury. But that the agent is something which acts in the same way is made clear by the observations that have’ been made on wounded men. The determinations of the volume of the blood in circulation, made by N. M. Keith, may be espe- cially mentioned. Keith showed that, in severe cases, it may be reduced to little more than half the normal amount, although scarcely any has actually been lost by hemorrhage. The method used was that of introducing into a vein a known quantity of an innocuous dye which does not pass through the walls of the blood-vessels, and, after a short interval, taking a sample of the blood and finding how much the dye has been diluted. If the toxeemia is severe, a second property of the poison shows itself. This is an effect on the walls of the capillaries such that they allow the liquid part of the blood to escape by filtration. In this way the volume of the blood is still further reduced. The treatment, in principle, is obvious. Restore the blood-volume. It would appear that when blood has been lost it ought to be replaced by blood. The case of traumatic toxéemia is not so clear at once, because blood has not been actually lost, and it should be possible to keep um an effective circulation by some other liquid until the poison is got rid of and the pooled blood returned to circulation. In fact, as experience increased, it was realised that the important matter is to maintain the volume in circulation, whether by blood or other solution. An innocu- ous fluid seemed to serve practically as well as blood, and had the advantage of being always at hand and in as large a quantity as required. As to the properties of such a solution, it was soon found that a simple saline solution is very rapidly lost from the circulation and is useless. It is necessary to add to it some colloid with an osmotic pressure, such as gelatin or gum acacia. The colloid does not pass through the walls of the blood-vessels, and its osmotic pressure causes an attraction of water to balance that lost by filtration. Thus, although the slow circulation incidental to a small volume of blood is inade- quate, this very quantity, if diluted to normal volume, is able to serve effectively. Comparing the oxygen carried by the red corpuscles to railway passengers, it will be realised that if we have a limited number of trains, we can carry more passengers in a given time if the velocity of the trains is increased. Animal experiments made by Gasser showed that this is actually the case with the blood. After a loss of blood the injection of gum-saline might even raise the supply of blood- corpuscles to a level beyond what it was before the hemorrhage. The general conclusion is that the volume of the liquid in circulation must be kept up to its normal value, whatever this liquid may be. Of course, the number of red corpuscles cannot be allowed to fall below some particular value, and it has been found that about one-quarter of the normal quantity is the lowest compatible with life. If they fall below this, moreover, there is no production of new corpuscles. In the later stages of the war gum-saline was largely used in the British, American, and French Armies, and is reported to have saved many lives.. Unfortunately, if too long a time is allowed to elapse before treatment, nothing avails, not even transfusion of blood. Hence the importance of the early use of intravenous injection, and also of removal of the injured tissue by operation. As the war progressed, these procedures were, therefore, pushed more and more forward to the battle area, and with more and more favourable results. Characteristics of Pigments in Early Pencil Writing. By C. AtnswortH MITCHELL. Eales pigments may be classified in the fol- lowing groups: (1) Metallic lead or alloys of lead; (2) graphite cut from the block; (3) early composite pigments containing graphite, sulphur, resins, etc., but no clay; (4) graphite powder compressed into blocks; and (5) composite pig- ments containing graphite with clay and other ingredients. These pigments usually show dis- tinctive microscopic characteristics in the marks which they produce. NO. 2627, VOL. 105] When examined under the microscope with a magnification of about twenty diameters and the light at right angles, ordinary lead shows, in its vertical markings on paper, a series of irregularly — distributed patches, uniformly and brilliantly lit up, and marked with regular vertical striations which have the appearance of ridges. In the case of Borrowdale graphite (Fig. 1) the vertical lines show - relatively few brilliant straight striations (due to — siliceous impurities), and when these occur in the Marcu 4, 1920] | heavier strokes they are disjointed and irregular. | The fibres of the paper may be brilliantly lit up |» by particles of adhering graphite which reflect the | light, especially in those places showing a metallic ‘lustre to the naked eye. Less pure forms of graphite show more numerous Striations, but _ these are always more or less disjointed and irregular, and quite distinct from the fine stria- _tions in modern pencil markings. ___ the composite pigments (containing sulphur) in » early specimens of pencils in South Kensington _ Museum, which Mr. T. H. Court kindly placed _ at my disposal, show a faint greyish pigment, with occasional striations, whilst Brockedon’s graphite (1843) (Fig. 2) and other kinds of compressed _ graphite produce lines which show a rich black _ pigment with silvery dashes and lines distributed - fairly uniformly all over NATURE | | | | 13 | markings in ordinary metallic lead for graphite. | Through the kindness of Mr. J. P. Gilson, of the MSS. department, I have been able to examine | Specimens of early pencil marks in the writing and drawings in manuscripts in the British Museum. The earliest example was a drawing in the Stowe MSS., “Arms of Ancient Nobilitie ” (705), of the early seventeenth century. The particles composing the lines of this drawing all reflected the light brilliantly, but were much smaller, and lacked the striations which are characteristic of metallic lead. On the other hand, the lines had not the appearance of any form’ of graphite, the particles being disjointed and not showing any connecting interrupted striations, as are often to be seen in lines of graphite having a metallic lustre. It is therefore probable that this meine field. Modern pencil com- _ positions, mainly of _ graphite, clay, and wax, _all have a similar micro- _ scopic appearance in the _ vertical lines made by them on paper, which is quite different from the | markings of the old pencils of natural _ graphite, and in most _ cases from those made from the odd com- _ pressed graphite pow- der. In the modern pig- _ ments the fine siliceous _ particles, derived from _ the clay and impurities in the graphite, are _ evenly distributed, and appear in the pigment _ on paper as fine beaded _striatioris, which are uniform and. parallel * throughout the line (Fig. 3). Chemical _ methods of distin’ _ guishing between | these pigments have been described by the present ' writer (J. Soc. Chem. Ind., 1919, XXXVili., 3837). _ Some particulars of early pencil markings are " given in a curious book by C. T. Schénemann | (Versuch eines Systems der Diplomatik, Leipzig, _ 1818, 2 vols.) upon the codices preserved in the _ libraries in Germany. In vol. ii. (p. 108) it is |» asserted that lines in blacklead (Reisblet) had been drawn on the ‘Codex Berengarii _ Turonensis” of the eleventh or twelfth century, _ which was in the Wolfenbiittel library. The _ “Codex Guidonis Aretini de Musica ” (eleventh or _ twelfth century) in the Géttingen library contained _ vertical and horizontal lines showing traces of _ blacklead (p. 112), whilst the ‘Codex Theophili ” _ (twelfth century) in the Wolfenbiittel library showed very fine vertical lines in blacklead. _ Now, as graphite was not known until about 7 1560, it is obvious that Schénemann mistook the marking, 1831. X 20. NO. 202 VOL. 105] Fic 1.—Typical early gaphite Fic. 2.—Brockedon’s compressed Fic. 3-—Typical modern cumposite (Mark made pencil. X 20. Geol ogical graphite, 1843. by specimen in M useum). X 20, drawing was done with a metallic pencil in which lead did not predominate. A later MS. (1691) (Add. 22,550) includes drawings in which the lines show the large isolated particles with the vertical striations char- acteristic of metallic lead. In another Stowe MS., 686 (circ. 1630), the lines in the drawings have the appearance of ordinary graphite. The pencil markings in two note-books of Sir Thomas Cotton (Harley, 6018, about 1630-40) and Cotton Ap- pendix, xlv. (1640-44), have all the characteristics. of graphite. : The writing in Lord Hardwicke’s “Notes on Briefs”’ (1718) is undoubtedly in graphite, but a drawing by Vertue (Add. MS. ari) (1741) has the appearance of metallic pigment. A note-book of Hogarth (Egerton MS. 3011) (prior to 1753) contains heavy pencil writing, the pig- ment of which is a particularly rich graphite. 14 NATURE [| Marcu 4, 1920 The pencil outline of a drawing on the top of ink in another of MHogarth’s note-books is also in typical graphite. The lines in the drawings of a later volume of Stowe MSS. (993), about 1747, show fine ‘interrupted striz, such as are frequently noticeable in the marks made by pure graphite. In “Heraldic Collections” (Stowe MS. 661) of 1763-64 the pigment in the drawings of the coats- of-arms is also in graphite, and shows the fibres of the paper lit up by adherent particles. An inter- esting example of graphite markings is to be seen in a letter from Prof. Herrmann (1780) from Stras- bourg (Add. MS. 22,935, fol. 140b). This contains a pencil drawing of a fish, in which the pigment has formed branching striations along the lines of the paper fibres. Flaxman was in the habit of making drawings on the backs of the envelopes of letters received by him at Buckingham Street, Fitzroy Square, and a series of these, dating from about 1800 to 1814, is preserved in the British Museum. In every instance the pigment in these drawings is typical of pure graphite, and even interrupted striations are only of exceptional occurrence. In view of the fact that Conté’s composite clay process was invented in 1795 in Paris, it is inter- esting to note that a card sent to Flaxman by the painter Fleury Epinat, of Lyons, between 1805 and 1814 was written with a pencil produc- ing the characteristic fine regular beaded striations of the modern type of pencil. This is the first instance noted of the occurrence of writing in a composition pigment in the MSS. in the Museum. Of the other manuscripts and drawings of the early nineteenth century, mention may be made of a letter of Byron (about 1809) which is written in a particularly brilliant graphite, and of the pencil corrections made by Keats (about 1820) in his manuscript of ‘‘ Hyperion,” which are also in pure graphite. The same characteristics of rich pigment deposit, showing only scanty, irregular, broken striations, may. also be seen in a letter of Lord Wellesley written about 1828. ; - The manufacture of graphite pencils by the original method of cutting from the block was continued until about 1869, overlapping the modern process; but, as the old pencils must have been widely distributed, it is not surprising that the characteristics of pure graphite are frequently to be found in writing, and especially in drawings, for several years after that date. Hence it is quite in accordance with the development of the industry that the note-book of James Thomson, the author of “The City of Dreadful Night,” for the year 1869 should be written with a pencil which produced no silvery striations. The Relationship of Education to Research in Aeronautics. HE relation of education to research is a ' simple one in most fields of scientific work, in that the universities provide both one and the other. This simplicity cannot, however, extend to the subject of aeronautics, because the cost of experimentation is so great and the organisation required so complex. In the future the universi- ties may perhaps be equipped even for this exten- sion of their activities, but at the present time, and for many years to come, the experimental work will in general be beyond their means. The Government, however, for its own sake, needs to continue to carry on aeronautical research, and the question naturally arises: What are to be the relations between the Government research estab- lishments and the university teaching establish- ments? The Committee appointed in October, 1918, by Lord Weir to advise on this matter has now reported, and its recommendation is to merge the staffs undertaking these two classes of work. At the present time it is scarcely practicable or wise to found more than one school of aeronautics, and the Committee selects the Imperial College of Science as its home, suggesting that the staff of the school should for the most part be composed of those members of the Government research establishments who are best qualified for the work, and can be permitted to spend part of their time at the Imperial College. The Committee also provides that the Advisory Committee for Aeronautics should come to an end, and that its former powers should—with certain additions—be made over to a new body, the Aero- NO. 2627, VOL. 105] _ sidered). nautical Research Committee. The Advisory Com- mittee has had a very distinguished history. Its composition was mainly non-official, and it became a watchful and highly independent body able and ready to intervene in any matter where it thought such intervention was required. With the many reorganisations of Air Service matters during the war, whether relating to the R.N.A.S., the R.F.C., the Air Board, the Air Ministry, or the R.A.F., it became the one continuously operating body, and rendered services to the State of a value which can be realised only by those who kept in touch with its wide activities. The Education and Research Committee endeay- ours to pay tribute to the Advisory Committee, and it must have had some difficulty in finding words appropriate to the occasion. It seems that the Government took definite decisions some six months ago that an Aero- nautical Research Committee should be created to replace the existing Advisory Committee; that, in addition, research work should be undertaken by a Research Association to be formed by the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, on the usual terms, if the industry should so desire; and that the Imperial College should be the educational centre (although applications from provincial universities for grants would be con- The Committee, taking note of these decisions, suggests that the new Aeronautical Research Committee (A.R.C.) should supervise both research and education. Any plan for the supervision of research needs to take into account ARCH 4, 1920] NATURE oe) nature of the establishments where it is at nt undertaken. These places are the Royal Air- faft Establishment (Farnborough); the National aysical Laboratory (controlled by the D.S.I.R.); rtlesham Heath, Biggin Hill, Pulham, Grain, ‘stowe, and possibly other Government aero- ies. All of these, except the R.A.E. and the ., are controlled by the Director of Research Air Ministry on behalf of the Air Council, is responsible for these centres and pays them. The Committee does not attempt to: ursue the allocation of responsibilities further, at such allocation need not be expected to lead ‘difficulty, since much of the work from these es found its way in the past to the old sory Committee, and will doubtless in the ure find its way to its successor. .s regards the educational side, the Committee tions an estimate that before the war the total y number of honours graduates in engineer- including civil, mechanical, and electrical, and n naval architecture, etc., from all the universities the United Kingdom averaged only about two ed, and that of these it rightly considers fraction of the future number are likely to themselves entirely to aeronautics. It inly seems probable that the number will be ite small; the Government has its own Air : ice establishments, and these will naturally take a proportion of the possible entrants each year. Moreover, the most promising career for eronautical engineering work at present is the f ment service, since it is the Government which controls nearly all the research and no ‘small proportion of the full-scale design, to: say nothing of the ordinary Service work and its a on to the adventurous. The only factor yould seem capable under present condi- f adding materially to the numbers of udents taking an aeronautical engineering course at the Imperial College or elsewhere would be if the Government used this means for the training of its own future technical staff. __ The course, once formed, is to consist of twelve ‘months’ specialised teaching, coming after the usual degree or diploma course in engineering already provided at the universities and great technical schools. The subjects selected for this course are: Aerodynamics; aero-engines; general design; instruments, meteorology, and navigation. _The proposed staff includes a general director, who would be the Zaharoff professor of aviation, two other professors, and a number of lecturers. This staff should, the Committee suggests, act’ as a _clearing-house for the study of the results of experimental work, whether full-scale or in the laboratory, and for the dissemination of con- clusions ‘based thereon as forming the right _ foundation for further design.. As the Committee naturally adds, no school for providing this education can be successful unless the students are brought into direct touch with practical prob- lems during their tuition, and unless those en- we in teaching are also occupied in, or. direct- “Ing, scientific research or experimental design. NO. 2627, VOL. 105] 4 a a 4 _ Thomas, Prof. J. E. Petavel, and Lt. Some extracts from the Committee’s report are subjoined. INTRODUCTION.’ _ The Government has now decided how provision is to be made for research in aeronautics. We desire at the outset to emphasise the necessity for that research. The Department of Scientific and Industrial Research is to continue the provision for fundamental research at the National Physical Labora- tory, and to assist the aeronautical industry in the Same manner as other industries by taking part, when desired, in the formation of a research associa- tion. In our view, at the start of a new industry something more is required. At the present moment the industry is passing through a crisis; Govern- ment support is necessary if it is to spp. 58 satisfac- torily. The time is critical and the development of civil aviation is beset by numerous difficulties, and calls for. the fullest consideration. It is urgently necessary that the policy adopted should command the support ofall who desire to maintain the superiority in the air gained during the past eventful years, and that ample funds should be provided for carrying it into effect. A difficulty which arises in the case of a new industry of this kind lies in the fact that the scope of the work is inadequate to maintain automatically a sufficient number of experts in design and produc- tion. A research organisation may elucidate problems and provide general information and specific facts, but before these can bear fruit of industrial value they must be interpreted and applied by a suitable technical staff, closely associated with the works organisation. At the end of the war most of the works had collected a team of technical experts of marked ability; many of these teams have now been disbanded, and further disintegration is in progress. We see no possibility of. achieving the desired result except by such Govern- ment action as will secure the retention of adequate technical staffs. During the war this country obtained the lead in aeronautical research; it would be lamentable to see the fruits. of the work pass from a paralysed industry to better-supported foreign competitors. -In the later sections of our report we recommend the establish- ment of an. organisation. for aeronautical research to assist the Air Council, and, in our view, it is im- portant that the work of that organisation should be available in great measure for the assistance of the industry and for the advance of civil aviation, as well as for the Services. Should an industrial research association be formed, it should be linked up with .the organisation we recommend. ‘ Education and research are clearly very closely inter- related. The education with which we have chiefly concerned ourselves is that suitable for aeronautical engineers and constructors—that is to say, post- graduate work for which the students _ will be fitted by a previous undergraduate course of either. mechani- cal. or general engineering training at one of the universities or technical colleges. We have not. dealt with the training of pilots or of mechanics. The course we contemplate will comprise a special study of the following matters:—Aerodynamics, the laws of motion of bodies moving in the air, illustrated by experiments and researches in wind-channels; the principles of design and construction; engines and the methods of propulsion of aircraft; and the inves- YD __ 1 Abridged from the Report of the Committee on Ed } in Nemcacancth (Cmd. 554. Nites ad, net) to Mr. Winston S. Churchill, Secre- tary of State for Air. The members of the Committee were : Sir R. T. Glazebrook, K.C.B. (Ch ‘irman), Sir Alfred Keogh, G.C.B., Sir H. Frank Heath, K C.B., Sir Froncis G. Ogilvie. er ae Page, Mr, G. Holt ol. H. T. Tizard. 16 NATURE [Marcu 4, 1920 tigation of instruments used in flight, with problems in meteorology and navigation. The engineer must also gain, the practical knowledge acquired only in the. workshop, and must have experience of the full- scale researches necessary to test and verify his theoretical conclusions. Such a. course might eventually involve one or more centres of theoretical instruction with experimental aerodromes and labora- tories where the full-scale problems may be worked out, but as the number of persons likely to require this higher post-graduate education will not be great we consider that it will be wise for the present to concentrate the work in one central institution with which the experimental aerodromes should be closely connected. Such a central institution we find in the Imperial College of Science and Technology, at which the professorship lately founded by Sir Basil Zaharoff ‘is to be held. To turn. now to research. This is the means by which ,advance in aeronautics is possible, and it is required, by all interested in the progress of the sub- ject : by the State, whether for the purposes of defence or’ to enable*it to lay down the rules necessary for the: safety of aircraft. when used for civil purposes; by the professor, whose aim is to increase knowledge ; -and.by.. the industry, in order that it may maintain the. superiority which British aircraft has already achieved... Research is difficult, its requirements are costly,“arid the men who can undertake it are few. “To establish separate research laboratories and aero- dromés“for each of these special interests is, for the ‘Moment,y»out of the question; here, again, combina- tion jis called for—combination, too, with the agencies concerned in education. At the same time we recog- nise_ fully, that special problems may be dealt with at other research centres, and we trust that every en- ‘couragement may be given to these for such work. Since the commencement of practical aeronautics, research, has been directed by the Advisory Committee for ‘Aeronautics, a body, under the presidency of the late Lord Rayleigh, avpointed by the Prime Minister in’ the ‘yéar 1909 ‘for the superintendence of the investigations at the National Physical Laboratory and for.general advice on the scientific problems aris- ing in.connection with the work of the Admiralty and War. .Office in aerial construction and navigation.” _ Full-scale research has been carried out at Farn- borough, in part at the initiation of the Advisory Committee, in part at that of the military authorities ; the Committee, however, has no control over the work ,there, and occupies only an advisory position with regard to it. During the war other centres of full- scale. research were established—e.g. the Isle of Grain and Felixstowe for seaplanes, Kingsnorth and Pulham for. airships—and the Advisory Committee has been kept in close touch with the work in progress at all of these.. Its activities have been of the greatest value. In our view, a central co-ordinating body of this kind is essential, and it is now pronvosed to establish an Aeronautical Research Committee, to which the duties..of::the Advisory Committee would be trans- ferred, and certain other duties and_ responsibilities added with regard both to the central research aero- dromes and to education. The proposed Committee should be in a position to supervise effectively such work ‘As comes within its purview. The work in aeronautics conducted at the National Physical Laboratory would also, usually, be. under- taken on the initiation of the Committee. the expendi- ture for such work forming part of the budget of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research. Insxorder to connect the Committee with the educa- tional work and to render the onportunities of. research at .Farnborough. and elsewhere available both to teachers and to students, we suggest that arrange-~ NO. 2627, VOL. 105] ments should be made between the Committee and — with My the Imperial College for dealing with matters which they are jointly concerned. ; In this conneesiiis moreover, we suggest that it would be possible At a number of cases for members of the research staff to act as professors or lecturers at the college. ~ ; ae j ” ! (is. ear CONSTITUTION OF THE AERONAUTICAL RESEARCH | COMMITTEE. | here - The Aeronautical Research Committee should in- clude representation of (a) the Department or Depart- ments responsible for (i) naval and military aero- nautics, (ii) the regulation of civil aerial tra . (b) the Department of Scientific and Industgial Re! search, including direct representation of the National Physical Laboratory; (c) the aircraft industry; (d) the ‘Imperial College; as well as (e) other members of scientific attainments. The chairman of the Com- mittee should be an eminent man of science, and in a position independent of the Government Depart- ments represented on the Committee. He and the other non-official members of the Committee should receive suitable remuneration. : eet FUNCTIONS OF THE AERONAUTICAL RESEARCH COMMITTEE. ties It should be the duty of the Aeronautical Research Committee to devote itself to the advance of aero- nautical science, and, with this object, in particular (1) to advise on scientific and technical problems relat- ing to the construction and navigation of aircraft; (2) to undertake or supervise such research or experi- mental work as is proposed to the Committee by the Air Ministry, and to initiate any research work which the Committee considers to be. advisable; to carry out such work itself or to recommend by whom the work . should be carried out; (3) to take over complete responsibility for the Air Inventions Committee and for the Accidents Committee; (4) to promote educa- tion in aeronautics by co-overating with the governors’ of the Imperial College; (5) to assist the aeronautical industry of the country by scientific advice and re- ‘search, and to co-operate with any research associa- tion that mav be established; (6) to prepare for the approval of the Air Council a scheme of work and estimate of expenditure for the year, and to administer the funds placed at its disposal by the Air Council; and (7) to make reports from time to time to the Air Council. : CO-ORDINATION OF THE RESEARCH AND EDUCATIONAL ORGANISATION. We have referred to the need for close association between the reseafch and experimental work and the strictly academic portion of the higher education. . No school for providing this education can be success- ful unless the students are brought into direct touch with practical problems during their tuition, and unless those engaged in teaching are also engaged in or directing scientific research or experimental design. The arrangements whereby the student will divide his period of post-graduate instruction between work on books and at lecturés and practical work at re- search stations should apply also in regard to the duties of the teaching staff. These should be such as to enable a professor or lecturer to spend part of his time in giving instruction at the Imperial College, while giving the rest to investigations at one of the research centres: pets ih The School of Aeronautics should provide advanced instruction as’ regards aeroplanes, seaplanes, airships, ‘and kite-ballodns in (1) aerodynamics; (2) aéro- engines arid ‘methods of propulsion; (3) design, ys "Marcu 4, 1920] NATURE 17 cluding structure and materials; and (4) instru- ments, meteorology, and navigation. It would follow, terefore, that certain of the professors or lecturers each of these subjects will discharge double respon- ‘sibilities (a) as members of the staff of the Imperial College and (b) as officers of the research organisa- directed by the Aeronautical Research Com- - The Interim and Final Reports of Special Com- “mittee No. 5 of the Civil Aerial Transport Committee tain much valuable information as to the organisa- tion of teaching and research. One factor of import- which they emphasise is the need for a trained to act as a clearing-house for the co-ordination dissemination of aeronautical knowledge in all its ts. The Central School of Aeronautics should, our view, serve this purpose. The functions of the teaching staff of the School y be stated Scare four one gio Soveb closely ted, purposes :—(a) To study, co-ordinate, sum- 2, apply, and extend the knowledge derived from experimental work carried out by the individual Board of Education. - question of salaries for teachers of various technical institutions had been carefully , and the following scale was submitted nd approved by, the meeting, and ordered to be ae to local education authorities and the ' bodies of technical institutes for their con- tion, namely: Principals in four grades of ranging from 12501. down to 5ool., and rising l increments during five years to 15001. and of departments in three grades ranging 901. down to 4ool., and risine by annual incre- during ten years to gool. and 6ool.; heads of technical and commercial schools to be classed s of departments; lecturers in three grades from 4ool. down to 250l., and rising by annual during three years to 6ool. and 4pool. er by Mr. A. Mansbridge on ‘ Technical ‘and their Part in Adult Education,” it rged that a great crusade against the vy use of leisure is a pressing need of the ‘here can be no better way for.the worker to his off-hours than that which leads to the ent of his interests or his skill. Technical , however, never flourish in a community not regard the matters with which it deals umental importance to the whole health of tion which merely regards it as a means of i others must always be content with f achievement. The education of a man lies than the pursuit of knowledge or training. turn to influencing or contemplation of the “movements of men, others to the creation al things, and each alike serves his genera- he direction be true. Mr. Mansbridge pleaded technical institutes should make provision for | and women to study in their leisure time rs, technical or non-technical, in which they sted, or rather for which they possess the aptitude. He asked that serious attention be given to the notable Report of the Com- ee on Adult Education issued in July last. er was read on ‘‘Day Continuation Schools” H. J. Taylor, of Dewsbury, in which he urged earty response should be given to the invita- n of Mr. Fisher to local education authorities to iblish these schools voluntarily on the lines laid vn by the Board of Education in its recent cir- ir, namely, that such schools must give as great measure, of liberal. education, both phvsical and fal, as opportunity and time afford. Mr. Taylor ded that the most effective way in which the conditions could be met. was by arranging for a com- plete day each week for groups of boys and girls, and cited. the efforts of the Dewsbury Education, Com- ' mittee and of the employers. of the town (without reducing the wages of their employees) to establish such a. school as. illustrating its possibilitv. ‘ _A further paper was.read by Dr..R. S. Clay, of the Northern Polytechnic, London, in which he advocated _ an ampler. provision .of scholarships, throughout the whole sphere of education by the institution to each ten thousand of the population of six junior scholar- NO. 2627, VOL. 105] 23 ships from elementary to secondary schools, six indus- trial scholarships, three intermediate scholarships to enable the recipients to continue their education at the secondary school until the age of eighteen or nineteen, one senior scholarship to the university or the technical institute, and one post-graduate or research exhibition tenable at the close of the graduate course. Resolutions were adopted dealing with lengthened vacations, so that teachers of special subjects should have facilities for keeping in touch with industrial developments; maximum teaching hours for ordinary lecturers and heads of departments; the appointment of a consultative committee com- prised of representatives of industry, and including representatives of universities and technical institu- tions,. to advise the university and _ technological branches of the Board of ‘Education’ on all matters affecting the relationship of. university ‘and higher technical education to industry; and, finally, the provi- sion that should be made in the preparation of schemes required by the, Education Act of 1918 for the con- tinuation of study on the part. of science teachers by means of suitable tutorial courses of science lectures and practical work, together with facilities to attend meetings of scientific and technical societies and to visit special educational centres and industrial works. The Einstein Deflection of Light. HE idea of detecting the Einstein deflection by measures of two neighbouring stars has occurred’ to many people, and Prof. C. V. Raman writes- to suggest that the apparent distance of the two com- ponents of a binary star may be influenced by the effect. It seems, therefore, worth while to examine the conditions, and to try to discover whether any sensible effects are to be expected. First, it is easy to show that where the linear distance between the two stars is small compared with their distance from the sun, then the angular shift of the further star, due to the Einstein effect, is diminished as seen from the sun in the approximate ratio: Distance between the stars/their distance from the sun. That is, it becomes absolutely evanescent, and the effect suggested by Prof. Raman is non- existent. Secondly, let the two stars be at different distances: from the sun; for simplicity, take the distance of the A B Fic. 1.—To illustrate the production of an image of a distant star by the gravitational bending of its light by a nearer one. nearer star as half that of the further; let their angular diameters be 0-002" and o-oo1" respectively, and let the angular distance between them be 1”. Then the light from the further star passes the nearer star at a distance of 1000 of its radii. If the bending of a grazing ray be 2”, the bending in the actual case is 0-002", and the apparent shift as seen from the sun o-oo1”. It appears that in. no case where the two star-discs are sufficiently far apart to be. easily separ- able is the Einstein shift appreciable. A second Einstein effect has been imagined, viz. the formation of an image of the distant star on the reverse side of the nearer one. - From C, the centre of the latter, draw tangents CA, CB, and produce them. backward to DE. Then DE is one-millionth of a second. Now it is only along the arc DE that the Einstein image is produced, and the radial diameter 24 NATURE | Marcu 4, 1920 of.the image can easily be shown to be of the same order as DE; whence the angular area of the image is, say, one-millionth of the area of AB; and since no optical arrangement can increase the surface. bril- jiancy of an image, the latter is fifteen magnitudes fainter than AB, and therefore utterly invisible. It is only when two stars approach each other so closely, that their discs are almost in contact that any. sensible Einstein effect occurs; and since the two discs are in this case absolutely inseparable, the visible effect would be simply a slight brightening. In view of (1) the rarity of such close appulses, (2) the impossibility of predicting them, and (3) the transient nature of the. brightening, which would last for only a few days, the prospect of detecting such a pheno- menon is. very small. The outburst of nove cannot be explained in this ‘manner,.as some have suggested, for it could not possibly produce a ten-thousandfold increase in light; ‘moreover, the light-curve before and after maximum would. be exactly symmetrical, which is assuredly not the case, with nove, the increase of light being much ‘more rapid than the decline. It is to be noted that even if some brightening were observed in an apvulse, it would be impossible to sav whether the light-bending followed the Newtonian cr the. Einstein law. A. C.D. CROMMELIN. The New Zealand Institute. Te publication of the fifty-first volume of the Transactions and Proceedings of the New Zealand Institute marks the commencement of a new epoch in the history of that very vigorous scientific organisation. The volume itself compares very favourably with those of past years, and its contents show that there is at least one part of the British Empire where pure science is being cultivated as ‘strenuously as before the war. We are glad to see that the institute is receiving more support from the New Zealand Government, while the large member- ship of the nine constituent societies scattered through- out the Dominion clearly indicates the influence which jt is exerting upon the New Zealand public. The volume opens with obituary notices and por- traits of three distinguished New Zealanders— Alexander Turnbull, who devoted his leisure to the ‘collection. of a magnificent library, bequeathed to the Dominion, including 32,000 bound volumes, dealing especially with the history of the Pacific Islands; Henry Suter, known throughout the scientific world as a'distinguished student of conchology, and author of the ** Manual of the New Zealand Mollusca”; and ‘Thomas Adams, who did great work for his adopted country in the promotion of scientific arboriculture. Of the numerous. original memoirs which the volume contains, it is not too much to say that they embody a large amount of information of high ‘scientific value, and if they relate almost exclusively to. matters of local interest, dealing chiefly with the fauna, flora, and geology of the islands, this is only as it should be, for it is in these fields that the New Zealand, man of science finds his magnificent oppor- tunities. Where there is so much to choose from it is difficult to single out particular contributions for notice, but the attention of zoologists should be directed to the very interesting discovery of a second species of New Zealand frog, Liopelma Hamiltoni, found by Mr. Harold Hamilton on Stephen Island, in Cook Straits, and described (with excellent coloured: illus- trations) by Mr. A. R. McCulloch, of the Australian Museum. This species is closely related to the long- known but rare Liopelma Hochstetteri of the North Island, the only previously known New. Zealand NO. 2627, VOL. 105] amphibian. In the botanical field Dr. J. E. Hol- loway continues his admirable studies on the genus Lycopodium, while geology is well represented. by papers by Dr. P. Marshall, Mr. R. Speight, — others. In the department of geophysics Mr. A. W. Burrell contributes a very interesting account of a working model to demonstrate the’ manner in which ocean currents may be caused by the rotation of the earth, eee hes Beer In conclusion, we may note that the institute has” decided to elect a body of fellows, limited to forty in number, who are to have the privilege of writing after their names the letters F.N.Z.Inst.—a distinction which we do not‘ doubt will have a real value in the world of. science. ies The Geology of the West Indies. — BAsly in 1914 Dr. T. Wayland Vaughan, of the United States Geological Survey, paid an official visit to several of the smaller West Indian islands, partly with help from the —— Institution of Washington. Besides studying the stratigraphical geology of the islands and making notes on their physiography, he also collected large series of fossils which were sent for detailed examination to Washing- ton. He thus obtained material for a valuable con- tribution to our knowledge of the Tertiary sedimen- tary rocks which form the greater part of these islands, and made possible satisfactory comparisons with the corresponding geological formations of the southern United States. Dr. Vaughan has already published several preliminary notes on his results, and an especially important memoir on some fossil corals and the formation of coral-reefs. His final report, however, on the details of local geology and the general conclusions are deferred until all the fossils are examined and described. He has just edited a series of these descriptions, which has been pub- lished by the Carnegie Institution (Publication No. 291, 1919) in a small volume illustrated by beautiful photographic plates. Calcareous algz from the Eocene limestone of St. Bartholomew and from the Oligocene limestone of Antigua and Anguilla are described by Mr. Marshall A. Howe. Lithothamnium and related forms are well illustrated by enlarged sections. The Foraminifera are not only described with excellent figures by Mr. J. A. Cushman, but also discussed from the geological point of view. Some of the larger orbitoid species make correlations possible with corresponding rocks both in continental America and in Europe, while the ' small Miocene species allow very definite correlations _ with Panama and the coastal plain of the United States. The Bryozoa, described by Drs. F. Canu and R. S. Bassler, are of Upper Oligocene and Lower Miocene age, and notes are added on the distribution of those species which occur in other parts of the world. The Eocene and Oligocene mollusca, described by Mr. C. W. Cooke, are of.great geological import- ance, and comparisons are facilitated by faunal lists. The account of: the Decapod Crustacea, by Miss Mary J. Rathbun, is:almost entirely new, .only two species of one genus (Ranina) having previously been recorded. from the: Tertiary formations of the West Indies. A few genera are distinctively American, but some: have close affinity with those at. present living in the Indo-Pacific region. ct Neg hema We congratulate Dr. Wayland .Vaughan and his ‘colleagues on the thoroughness with which: they are accomplishing «their: task, and we look. forward to the publication of the concluding sections of this great contribution:to the geology and paleontology of. the Central American regions6))*! )o. 47) Tee ig 2 4 [ARcii 4, 1920] NATURE 25 versity and Educational Intelligence. st.—Dr. James Small, lecturer on botany in ¢ Se London, and in the London School nacy, has been appointed professor of botany on to Prof. Yapp. — gees: RIDGE.—It, has already been announced ‘that a of Girton College has given 10,000l., to be ed, both capital and interest, durine the next ent} rs for the encouragement of research by men ee cit citeticel,. physical, and natural ., We now. learn that a fellowship of the g3o0ol. a year is offered by the college for hh in such sciences as chemistry, electricity, ngineering, botany, logy, medicine, agriculture, *. The election of the fellow will take place in ape of the award by the council being “later than June 30. “Women who are or have taken honours in a final degree ination of any university, and members of the College Roll, are eligible for the fellowship. fellow will be elected for three years in the first ice. Applications for the fellowship: must be the secretary of the college on or before h 31.. Each candidate should describe a course research and submit~a dissertation or published k, in addition to any other evidence she may ire to furnish of her fitness to undertake the pro- sd course of research. pON.—The Senate has received two letters from Haldane of Cloan, chairman of the Sir Cassel Educational Trust, offering important connection with the new degrees in com- 1e trustees offer an endowmént of 150,o000l. n, producing 7500l. a year, for the provi- eight, or possibly more, teaching posts in # and currency, foreign trade, accountancy and “methods, transport and shipping, industrial tion, and commercial law, and propose that ‘should include three Sir Ernest Cassel professor- : apaar and currency, foreign trade, and ney and business methods respectively. They suggest that the teaching in all the above- subjects should be given at the London School nomics, it being understood that accommoda- 1 for increased teaching is to be provided in the _ néw buildings now being erected at the school, with _ the assistance of the sum of 50,0001. recently given ‘by the General Committee for Degrees in Com- _ merce, on the new site granted by the London County vaaiene ‘The peat also offer ee to os ea Py ve - an annual grant up to 3000/. a year, for five yeats in the first instance, for the provision of addi- tional instruction in the following modern languages required to meet the needs of students in commerce: French, German, Spanish, Portuguese, Italian, Rus- sian, and Arabic, together with a further sum of toool. for the current year to:meet the expenditure on additional modern-language instruction incurred i Sell Nag ‘They also place at the disposal of fiversity a sum of toool. a year, in the first ance for five vears, for travelling scholarships for the benefit of students in commerce. The offers have “en accepted by the Senate, and the Vice-Chancellor as been asked to convey to Sir Ernest Cassel and to the chairman of the Cassel ‘Trust ‘‘the warmest ‘thanks of the Senate for these’ great gifts for the _ cause of education, from which they anticipate the most fruitful results:’”? ~ sli hath | Dr. James McIntosh has been appointed as from March 1 to the University chair of pathology tenable oo ee Hospital »Medical School. During ‘ war Dr. McIntosh carried: out investigations at the Royal Herbert Military Hospital, Woolwich, on cerebro-spinal fever, and at the London Hospital on NO. 2627, VOL. 105] i. gas-gangrene. For the last nine months he hasbeen a full-time investigator on the staff of the Medi¢al Research Committee. Dr. McIntosh is the author of numerous reports and other articles in medical and scientific journals, Dr. Sidney Russ has been appointed as ’from March 1 to be the first incumbent of the Joel chair of physics tenable at the Middlesex Hospital Medical School. The work of this professorship, ‘recently established by the munificence of Messrs. S. B. and J. B. Joel, will deal especially with physics in’ relation to medicine. From 1906 to 1910 Dr. Russ was demon- strator in physics at the University of Manchester, and was appointed physicist to the Middlesex Hospital in 1913. He is the author of a large number of articles and other’ papers dealing with radio-activity and other aspects of medical physics. ; The following have been appointed fellows of Uni- versity College :—Mr. F. J. F. Barrington, assistant surgeon, Surgical Unit, University College Hospital; Mr. W. C. Clinton, assistant professor in the depart- ment of electrical engineering and Sub-Déan’'of the college faculty of engineering; Miss Ethel M. Elder- ton, Galton research fellow in the department of applied statistics and eugenics; Dr. T. H.C. Steven- son, superintendent of statistics at the ‘General Register Office, and fellow and joint secrétary of the Royal Statistical Society; and Dr. Ethel N. Thomas, lecturer in the department of botany, and keeper of the department of botany in the National Museum of Wales. , 1. dH? The degree of D.Sc. (Economics) has been conferred on Mr. W. Rees, an internal student, of the, London School of Economics, for a thesis entitled)‘ An Agrarian Survey of South. Wales and- the,.March, 1284-1415.’?. ide wd On Wednesdav next, March 10, at 5.30 p.m... Lord Moulton will deliver an address at University College on “The Training and Functions of the Chemical Engineer.” Prince Arthur of Connaught will, preside. Oxrorp.—The King has been pleased to'.approve of the appointment of Sir Archibald E.) Garrod, K.C.M.G., F.R.S., to be Regius professor of medi- cine in the University in succession to. the late Sir William Osler, Bart. HOV. Ori Tue fellowship diploma of the Royal College of Science for Ireland has been awarded to Mr. Hugh Ramage and Mr. R. L. Wills. . Mr. W. D. Ecoar will deliver a course of four public illustrated lectures on_‘ Optics”’ at Gresham College, Basinghall Street, E.C.2, at 6 o’clock, ‘on March 9, 10, 11, and 12, in place of the -course announced for delivery by the Gresham professor, .of geometry, who is suffering from illness. 4) |) Tue Master and fellows of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, propose to elect in July next a holder of the Almeric Paget studentship in political''science, economics, and kindred subjects.. The studentship is of the value of 1sol., and tenable for one’ year. Applications should be addressed to Mr. W. Spens, Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, by, at latest, July 1. : Tue next of the series of lectures for teachers on “Recent Developments in Science,” arranged by the Education Officer of the London County Council, will be on ‘The Dve Industry,” by Prof. G. T. Morgan, and will be delivered at Finsbury Technical College, Leonard Street, City Road, E.C.2, on Saturday, March 20, at 11 a.m. The chair will be, taken by Dr. M. O, Forster, depes H.R.H. Prince ArtHuR oF CONNAUGHT. will) preside on March 19 at a luncheon to be held at the Savoy 26 NATURE [Marcu 4, 1920 Hotel, when the proposals. for the reconstruction and we-equipment of the engineering laboratories at University College, London, will be explained by the treasurer, Sir Ernest Moir, and others. It will be remembered that an appeal for 100,000l. towards this object was recently issued. Already more than 33,0001. has been collected—that is, about one-third of the total stim required. It is urgently necessary that the wholé fund should be subscribed by June at the latest, in order that the buildings may be put in ‘hand. Further donations should be sent to H.R.H. Prince Arthur of Connaught at 42 Upper Grosvenor ‘Street, W.1. In School Hygiene (vol. xi., No. 1, February) Dr. A. A. Mumford. puts forward an interesting scheme for the investigation and standardisation of the phvsical efficiency of children which is characterised by. the ‘breadth of view we should-expect from the author of the ‘‘ History of the Manchester Grammar School.” “Grading his subjects in six age-groups from two to eighteen, he indicates the materialistic tests which are appropriate. A boy of about thirteen, for example, should be able to run 100 vards in 14 seconds; for. the oldest boys Flack’s manometer test of expiratory force is of value. But realising, as medicine has come to realise more and more in recent years, the influence of the mind on the body, he emphasises the necessity of studying the emotional incentives to be found in the imagination, and would. have the school medical officer pay attention to sulkiness as much as to adenoids. In the discussion of. the paper Dr. Lempriere, of Haileybury, describes the quick, practical. utility of height-weight ratios as indices of physical progress. Athletes are taller and heavier. than the average, ““erocks’? shorter and lighter; it is, perhaps, charac- ‘teristic that nothing is said about the physical qualities of the scholars. and dunces. Societies and Academies. LONDON, Royal Society, February 19.—Sir J. J. Thomson, president, in the chair.—B. Moore and T. A. Webster: Studies of photosynthesis in fresh-water alge. (1)The \ fixation of both carbon and nitrogen from the atmo- ‘sphere to form organic tissue by the green plant-cell. (2) Nutrition and growth produced by high gaseous ‘dilutions of simple organic compounds, such as formaldehyde and methylic alcohol. (3) Nutrition and ' growth by means of high dilutions of carbon dioxide and oxides of nitrogen without access to atmosphere. ‘The primeval living organism, like the inorganic col- ' loidal systems which were its precursors, must have possessed the power of fixing carbon and nitrogen, and building these up into reduced organic compounds with uptake of energy. The source of the energy was sunlight. This power is still possessed by the lowliest type of synthesising cell existing, namely, the uni- cellular alga. A synthesising cell must have existed prior to bacteria and other fungi, since’ these can exist only upon organic matter,’ and the primeval world before the advent of. life could contain no organic matter. Their specific reactions show that even the ultra-microscopic filter-passing organisms are highly organised products on the path from the in- organic towards life, and hence it follows that there is a long intermediate range of evolution. The first synthesising system( acting. upon light was thus prob- ably an inorganic colloidal system in solution,. capable of adsorbing the simple organic substances which it synthesised. It is therefore futile to search for the origin of life at the level of bacteria and torule. NO. 2627, VOL. 105] ‘loidal» systems. ———— As complexity increased with progressive evolution, more and more rapid transformers for the capture of the energy of sunlight came into et transformers are found in the ‘green ‘cell for fixation of both carbon and nitrogen. The earlier trans- formers in the inorganic colloidal systems can only utilise light of short wave-lengths; the later trans- formers. in the living cells are adapted to utilise longer wave-lengths; and the very short wave-lengths, which are lethal, are cut off by their colour-screens of chloro- phyll,, etc.—W. M. Bayliss: The properties of col- iv.: Reversible gelation in living protoplasm. With intense dark-ground illumination it is possible to see that the apparently clear pseudo- podia of Amoeba are filled with numerous very minute particles in Brownian movement, thus affording further evidence of the liquid, hydrosol nature of — simple protoplasm. By electrical stimulation this sol can be reversibly changed into the gel state, evidenced by the sudden cessation of the Brownian movement.— F. J. Wyeth: The development of the auditory ap- paratus in Sphenodon punctatus. This memoir con- tains-a detailed and fully illustrated account of the development of the auditory apparatus and associated structures in the New Zealand Tuatara. As this important type is on the verge of extinction, it was thought desirable to treat the subject fully, although, as might be expected, the developmental history agrees © closely with that found in other reptiles. The work was carried out: chiefly by means of wax-plate recon- struction models. The third and fourth visceral clefts are closed by a backwardly growing operculum, but separate dorsal and ventral openings of the’ clefts were not observed. The existence of two pairs of head-cavities was confirmed, those of each pair com- municating with each other by transverse canals. The vascular system was found to exhibit a number of primitive features. The region investigated in- cludes cranial nerves vi.-xii., the development of which was worked out in detail. The general development of the internal ear and auditory nerve is thoroughly normal. The development of the cristae and maculz acusticze from the primitive néuroepithelium is given in detail. A well-marked macula neglecta is found. As regards the much-debated question of the origin of the columellar apparatus, evidence is brought for- ward in support of the contention that this is essentially a derivative of the hyoid arch, and it is maintained that the auditory capsule contributes at most a portion of the foot-plate of the stapes. Linnean Society, February 19.—Dr. A. Smith Wood- ward, president, in the chair.—Major H. C. Gunton ; Entomological-meteorological records of ecological facts in the life of British Lepidoptera. The author believed that interesting facts would be obtained by - recording and plotting the results of observations made by a number of entomologists in various locali- ties. The scheme exhibited was derived from his notes from February to December, 1919, within: a radius of four miles from Gerfard’s- Cross; Bucks, which includes oak and beech woods, héath, marsh, — and cultivated land. Special signs are used to denote the occurrence of species of macro-Lepidoptera on sallow-bloom in the spring, ivy in the autumn, sugar, and light. Thirty-five species of buttérflies and two hundred and forty svecies of moths are thus tabulated and correlated with meteorological data. The diagram places many facts before the eye, as the long con- tinuance of certain species, the presence of more than one brood, and the like.’ Sugar scarcely appeals when honey-dew is abundant, and artificial light is’ ineffec- tive during bright moonlight. Other problems, as of immigration, still await solutions." % Rm ang 27 MARCH 4, 1920]. ots < PABIS. lemy of“ ‘Sciences,’ February. 9.—M... Henri es in the 1a a A. Dangeard: The @, vacuome, and spherome in Selaginella 1a.—G, Charpy: The minute fissures “i steel she mode of formation and method of detec- f ‘minute cavities in steel ingots are described, with an account of their alteration, during and forging——M: Leclerc du Sablon was a correspondant for the section of botany in on to the late M. Farlow, and M. Luslon dant for the section of mineralogy in suc- _M. Walcott, elected foreign. associate.— The reduction of contact transformations. and; A reduction of Abelian integrals.—J. ee eeeenary glaciation of Central L. and E. Bloch: Some new spark spectra treme ultra-violet. Measurements for wave- between 1855 and 1500 A.U. are given for -violet spectra of cadmium, bismuth, nickel, er.—J. A. Le Bel: New observations on cata- phenomena.—D. Gauthier: The synthesis of tertiary alcohols. A correction relating to tution of a body previously described.—J. d L. J. Simon: The action of water. on chlorosulphonate.—A. Mailhe and F. de Godon : lytic formation of ether oxides. © Calcined an excellent: reagent for the conversion of alcohol into ether, with a yield of 71 per cent. s reaction has been extended to propyl alcohol d of ether 54 per cent.), isopropyl alcohol (vield r cent.), isoamyl alcohol (yield 28 per cent.), eese.—E. F. Galiano: The histology hearts of Sepia officinalis and their alippe: Researches on the evolution _of certain plant-cells by the method aaaok! and M. Brocq-Rousseu: The of rats by chloropicrin. Both the rat and the readily destroyed by the vapour of chloro- _ as this substance is without action upon and dyes, it can be utilised for the - n of rats in ships. = Bw _ Books Received. Course of. Practical Chemistry for Agricultural ts. By L. F. Newman and Prof. H. A. D. le. Vol. i. Pp. 235. (Cambridge: At the Uni- Press.) 10s. 6d. net. eit ate reatise on the Mathematical Theory of Elas- ero. A. Eb. Love. Third edition. (Cambridge: At the University : 6d. net, ist ae the aa Lever. «By Dri: Sic. on. Pp. 136. ondon: Holden and Harding- Ltd.) - 1s. . , . Department of Applied Statistics, University of London, University sollege. Drapers’ Cacti Re- search Memoirs. Biometric Series. X.: A Study of e Long Bones of the. English Skeleton, By, Karl rson and’ Julia Bell.’ Part i.: The Femur. Text, chaps. i. to vi., pp. v+224; Atlas, pp. vii+plates lim: i 1, Tables. -of Measurements and Observations. Part i., section ii. Text, pp. 225-539; Atlas, pp. vii+ ‘ tes Ix-ci. (Cambridge: At the University Press.) Part i., Text and Atlas, 30s. net; part i., section ii., Text and Atlas; 40S: net. - Tanks in the.Great War, 1914-1918. By Brevet- Col. J. F. C. Fuller.. Pp.. xxiv+331+vii plates. (London: John Murray.) 21s. net. _ NO. 2627, VOL. 105 | NATURE = " SSNS | The Heron, of Castle Creek, and other Sketches of Bird’: Life.* By -A. W. Reéés.~ Pp. 218. (London: John Murray.) 7s. 6d, net. The Soil: An Intreduction to the Scientific Study of the Growth of Crops. By Sir A. D. Hall. Third edition. Pp. xv+352. (London: John Murray.) 7s. 6d. net. i Medieval Medicine. By Prof. J. J. Walsh. Pp. xii+221. (London: A. and C. Black, Ltd.) 7s. 6d, net. Laboratory Manual of Elementary Colloid Chemis- try. By E. Hatschek. Pp. 135. (London: J. and A | Churchill.) 6s. 6d. Euclid in Greek. Book i. With Introduction and Notes. By Sir Thomas L. Heath. Pp. ix+239. (Cambridge: At the University Press.) os. net. Sleeping for Health. By Dr. E. F. Bowers. 128: (London: G. Routledge and Sons, Ltd.) Foodstuffs ; Animal Their Production and Con- sumption, with Special Reference to the British Empire. By Dr. E. W. Shanahan. Pp. viii+331- (London: , G. Routledge and Sons, Ltd.) 10s, 6d. net. rs Intermediate’ Text-book of Magnetism and Elec- tricity. By R..W. Hutchinson. Pp. viii+620- (London: W. B. Clive.) 8s. .6d. ‘The Mineralogy of the Rarer Metals. By E. Cahen and W. ©. Wootton. Second edition. Revised by E. Cahen. Pp. xxxii+246. (London: C. Griffin and Co., Ltd.) tos. 6d. The Running and Maintenance of the Marine Diesel Engine. By J. Lamb. Pp. xii+231+4 plates. (London: C. Griffin and Co., Ltd.) 8s. 6d “Memoirs. of the Geological Survey, Special Reports on the Mineral Resources of Great Britain. Vol. xi.: lron Ores (continued). The Iron Ores of ‘Scotland. “By M. Macgregor and others. Pp. viit+240. (Edinburgh : H.M.S.O.; Southampton : Ordnance Survey Office.) tos. net. Motion Study for the Handicapped. By F. B. Gil- breth and Dr. L. M. Gilbreth. Pp. xvi+165. (London: G. Routledge and Sons, Ltd.) 8s. 6d. net. Qualitative Analysis in Theory and Practice. By Prof. P. W. Robertson and D. H. Burleigh. Pp. 63- Scotland, (London: E. Arnold.) 4s, 6d. net. ig Tychonis Brahe. Dani Opera Omnia. _ Edidit 1. L. E. Drever. Tomus vi. Pp. v+375- (Hauniz : Libraria Gyldendaliana.) Moses: The Founder of Preventive Medicine. By P. Wood. Pp. xi+116. (London: S:P.C.K.) 4s. net. Manual of American Grape-Growing. By W. P. Hedrick. Pp. xiii+4584+xxxii plates. (New York: The Macmillan Co.; London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd.) 15s. net. Diary of Societies. ¢ THURSDAY, MARCH 4. Royat Institution or Great BritTatn, at 3.—Lt.-Col. E. “Gold : The Upper Air: (i) Modern Methods of Investigation, and their Application in the War. Rovar Society, at 4.30.—Dr. F. F. Blackman : The Protoplasmic Factor in Photosynthesis.—G. E. Briggs: The Beginning of Photo- synthesis in the Green Leaf.—Prof. B. Moore, KE. Whitley, and T.. A. Webster : Sunlight and the Life of the Sea. E LINNEAN Society, at 5.-Dr. A. B. Rendle, 'E. G. Baker, and S. L. Moore : A Contribution to the Flora of New Caledonia based upon the Collections of R. H. Compton in 1914. : ; Roya CoLiece or Puysicrans, at 5.—Dr, A. Castellani : The Higher Fungi in relation to Human Pathology (Milroy Lecture). ) Roya Instirure oF Pustic Heautu, at 5.—Dr. T. G. Maitland: Hospital Treatment of Pulmonary Tuberculosis . RovaL Sociery or: Mepicinr, at 5.30—Dr, W. Edgecomb : Visceral Fibrositis. —Discussion on paper by Dr. Ferreyrolle : Immunity and Mineral Water Treatment. Cyemicat Society, at. §.—E. H. Rennie, W. T. Cooke, and. H. H. Finlayson : An Investigation of the Resin from Species of Xanthorrhea Not Previously Examined.—l.. S. Bagster: The Reaction between Nitric Acid and Copper.—M. Chikashige : Ancient Oriental Chemistry and 18° _NATURE poHaé [Marc 4, 1920 _ VT aati wr nad ak, Yom Ses Alliéd“Aits. “TN ~ Makheries : Coagulation of Metal Sulphide Sols art II. Influence of Temperature on the Rate of Coagulation of Arsenious Iphide Hydrosols. (OVAL SOCIETY OF \MEDICINE Obstetrics and oa Te Section),. a a S+G. Ley: Utero-Placental Apoplexy (Recidedt Hemorrhage). " inalysis of Fifty Cases. > ‘FRIDAY, Marci § Roiar ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY, at 5. tA. Perens? Discussion.) J. de Graaf Hunter and Others: The Earth's Axes and Figure. « epcnere InstiruTE (at 296 Vauxhall’ Bridge ‘Road), at 6.—E. S. ndrews : Some Properties of Steel. INsTiTUTION OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS, at 6.—Adjourned Discussion on Recent Advances in Utilisation of Water Power. E. M. Bergstrom. AnstTiTuTION OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERS (Students’ Meeting) (at City and Guilds (Engineering) College), at 7.—Roger T. Smith: Presidential Address, “TECHNICAL Inspection AssociaTION (at the Royal Society of Arts), at 7:30.—W. L. Baillie : Sampling—Some Probleis and Fallacies. JUNIOR arbi Asai OF “ENGINEERS (at’ 39 Victoria S reet), at 7. 30. H. : Notes on Gauge Testing and Measuring Appliances. ‘Rovat res ITUTION or GREAT: BRITAIN, at 9.—Hon. J. W. Fortescue: Military History... SATURDAY, Marcu 6. Rovat InstrTUtION -OF GREAT Britain, at opie J. J. Thomson : Positive Rays: ° ; MONDAY, Marcu 8.° Rovat InstiTUTION oF GREAT BRITAIN, at 3-—Sir John: Cadman : qncten Development of the Miner's Safety Lamp. ‘Royat Grocrappicat Society (at Lowther Lodge), a ef vagy rs So¢rery (Annual General Meeting) (at Taaieats of Physio- logy, University College), at 5.30.—S. Zilva : The. Fat-Soluble 5 ge td Factor in Cabbage and Carrots.—A. Harden and S. 5S. Zilva : he Antiscorbutic Requirements of the Monkey.—A. Harden and 3. S. /Zilva: Dietetic Experiments with Frogs.—O. Rosenheim and J. C. Drum- ‘mond: he Association of Fat-Soluble A with Lipochrome Pigments.— i. R. Henley: Bacterial Process for the cag apt of Acetone. Surveyors’ Instirution (Junior Meeting), at -ARISTOTELIAN Soctety (at 74 Grosvenor Street), at 8.—M. Ginsberg: ‘Is there a General Will ? Soa Society or Lonpon, at 8.30.— Dr. ‘W.-H. Willcox : Seb adiam : The Clinical Aspect.—Dr. L. E.- Hill: spect Heat The. Physiological s TUESDAY, Marcu 9. RbGaL Horticutturat Society, at 3.—J. Hudson : ‘be Grown under Glass without Fire ical Roya InstiruTion or Great BRITAIN, at 3.—Prof. A. Keith: British ‘Ethnology—The Invaders of England. . OvaL COLLEGE oF Puysicrans, at 5.—Dr. J. L. Birley : The Principles edical-Science as applied to Military Aviation-(Goulstonian Lecture). INSTITOTION™ OF Civic “ENGINEERS, ‘at 5.30 —Maj.-Gen. Sir Gerard Heath?” Royal Engineer Work in the GreatsWar. British Psycuo.ocicat Society (Education Section): (at London Day Training College), at 6.—D. J. Collar: A Statistical Survey of Anith: metieakA bility. Re feioansenic ‘Socrery or Great Britain (Scientific and Teéclinical Group), at _7.—G. I. Higson: Photomicrograpby in Photo- Sropbig, Resparch<— ——K. Hickman: (1) A New Washing Device and Plate Kocker;(z) Dark-room Illumination by means of Lamps.in Liquid Cells. ‘QUEKETT Rrtekoscer ea: Cup, at 7.30. WEDNESDAY, Marcu to. Rovat. InstiruTion oF GREAT BRITAIN, at 3.—Sir John Cadman : Petroleum and the War. Rovat Society or Arts, at 4.30.—H. M. Thornton : Gas in Relation to Industrial: Production and National Economy. GrolocicaL Society or Lonpbon, at 5.30.—Prof. A. H. Cox and A. K. Wells: The Lower Palzozoic Rocks of the Arthog-Dolgelley District. THURSDAY, Marcu it. ‘ROYAL Neeiervine or GREAT BRITAIN, at 3.—Lt.-Col. E. Gold: The Upper Air: (ii) Results and their Interpretation. InstiruTs: or MeETAts (at Institution of Mechanical Engineers) (Annual General Meeting), at 4.—Eng. Vice-Admiral Sir George Goodwin : Inaugural Address. Rovat ‘Sotizty, at 4.30.—Probable Pabers—W. G. Duffield, T. H. Burnham, and A. A. Davis: The Pressure upon the Poles of Metallic Arcs, including Alloys and Composite Arcs.—J. incent : Further Experiments, on the Variation of Wave- length of the Oscillations Gen- erated by an Ionic Valve Due to Changes in Filament Current.—H. A. Daynes't\(1)"The Theory of. the Katharometer ; (2) The Process of Diffusion through a Rubber Membrane. Rovat Cotiece oF Puysicrans, at_5.—Dr. J. L. Birley : The Principles of Medical Science as applied to Military Aviation oaeeren Lecture). Royat, ese oF Mep'c:neE (Occasional. Lecture), at, 5.—Sir Jagadis Bose:;. Pja nt and Animal Response (with Demonstrations of Growth by the ablane Crescograph). Citp:STupy Society (at Royal-Sanitary Institute), at 6.—Miss M. Jane Reaney : The Educational Needs of Adolescence. IwstirvtioN or Ececrricat. ENGINEERS (at Institution of Civil Engineers), 6.+W:"H. Patchell! ene a By-Product Producer-Gas Plant for ae nae ‘Heating.—S. H. owles: Production of Power from Blast furnace, : Olt AND Cor OUR CHEMISTS’ AssociaTION (at 2 Furnival Street); at’ 7 — J. B,. Shaw: Various Points in the Manufacture of Lake and Pigment Colours. OptTicaL SociETy, at 7.30. INSTITUTION QF -AUTOMOBILE. ENGINEERS (Graduate Section), at 8.— C. A. Chappell : Magnetos. Insrey in br Meats (at’ Institution. of Méchanical En gineers) (Annual eee eeting), at 8.—Dr. G. D. Bengough, R. M. Jones, and Ruth Pirret : Fifth Report to.the Coricalon Research Committee.—R. Seligman a Se Apt i pes: : The Action on, Aluminium of.Hard Industrial Waters, “é° Mepicine (Neurology Section), at’ 8.30.—Prof. Je Ses om nedl Results of End-to-end Suture of Peripheral Nerves. NO. 2627, VOL. 105] Fruits which can ee en ks ee) -MALAcoLoGicaL Sociery oF Lonpon (at, Linnean VW Ba at 6. oe CARRERA RAAT ENE Serpe rea UN oe Des xs ’ “"FRIDA AY, Marcu 12. INSTITUTE OF METALS (at Institution of Mechanical Engineers) (Annua ree Rp ty at 10.30.—J. Neil MacLean: The Art of sting High . / Brass. —H, Moore a ee _ Betkinsale The Rem unt 2~ ere I er . Stee in 103 perature Annealing a : sentaint L. afagheeh, aad i Kathlces “Bin :ham:* Zine Alloy | withA minium died Copper . W. Rosenkain: A Model for Re ing the Constitution of Ternary Alloys, —A. C. Vivian ; Tin-P ork —wW.C. peeps and E.L . Khead : Some Notes on the Effect ; of Hy Pcs of me Jed (at q istitutiord of Mechanical Engineers) (Annual © General Meeting), at_2.30.— E. Alkins: The Effect of P. Seman Drawing upon some Physical Properties of Commercially Pure re —F. Johnson: The Influence of Cold Rabie on the Physical Properties « of Copper. hake L,.. Haughton :-' he'S ay ‘thermal. Reece 5 Force as an Aid Yo the Investigation. 7 ‘ihe SC okinnioea lloy ‘ —H. H. Hayes: The Polishing and 1Etching of Zinc for * cro-examina- tion.— W. E. Hughes: Idiomorphic Crystals of Electro-d ited Copper. © Roya. AsTRoNomIcAL Society, at, 5. ‘4 Puysicat Society or LONvoN, at 5.—F, W. Newmar TA ef Gases in the Electric Discharge Tube.—F. S.°G. ‘Phomas: A Directional Hot. Wire Anemometer:—Dr. Hans ‘Pettersson? Bo Exhibit ito. a ew Micro balance. Rovau Institution oF GREAT BriTAaIn, at 9.—W. String. Figures. : SATURDAY.. MARcH 13:_ Royat InsTITUTION OF GREAT BRITAIN, ‘at il y. J. Thomson = A Positive Rays. ‘ CONTENTS. : PAGE: Knowledge and Understanding. By W.A.T.... 1 A Natural History of the Feelings . ty 3 Radiological Diagnosis of Disease . . The Manufacture of Artificial Fertilisers. E. J. Russell, F.R.S. . . Our Bookshelf |... . . Letters to the Editor :— Ms ae of Scientific Werk,—Prof, W, Bateson, J. S: Gamble, F.R.S.; Sir Ronald KC.B., F.R.S.; Dr. Boas Russell, Prof, A. C. Seward, F.R.S. . 6 The Constitution of the-Elements.-Dr. F. W. Aston 8 Deflection of Light during a Solar beisntas” 5. aed Or-nge; Dr. A. C. D. Crommelin pe a4 9 " By ‘Dr. Ross, F.R.S., ; Perimeter of an Ellipse. —R. A. P. Rogers 5 Scientific Research and the Glass Industry in the ey United States: By Dr. M. W. Travers, F.R.S. . 9 The Cireptatiog Blood in Relation to Wound-shock. 2 By Prof... W. M. Bayliss, F:R.S. . . 10 Characteristics of Pigments in Early Pencil Waiting. (Illustrated.) By C, Ainsworth Mitchell —~ . 12 The Relationship of Education to Research fe Acronautics ).°. “Vo Rmraerares et Pe ot Fa nc Me Notes... os Our Astronomical Column :— : s Occultation of a Siar by Saturn... 1 ns * 5 6 SBE The Nautical Almanac for 1922... «2 ss + « 22) Calendar Reform : aE Nighi an eae The Association of Technical Institutions . 22. The Einstein Deflection of Light. ex Diagram.) ae By Dr. A.C. D. Crommelin ... 23, The New Zealand Institute ...... Ree) 1) 24, The Geology of the West Indies. . . ik ea) ca University and Educational Intelligence | ae nah oa 25 Societies and, Academiés*. 2 i). 2. a eee : Books Received... , sss fo te Diary of Societies » 60. 6 1 ee ee ee ee ie OF Editorial and Publishing Offices: ~ me that pathological histology, which should mptoms, receives rather scant attention. nothing is said of the changes in American inosomiasis, and those of malaria and black- r fever, for example, are very incompletely ain, although twenty-one pages are allotted to discussion of pre-suppurative hepatitis, we our- selves do not know what a liver in this condition uld look. like, as no post-mortem descriptions given. Under blackwater fever it is stated that “the rasite most commonly met with i -o the malignant tertian, the other forms being rare.” If the other orms are rare, as in’a malaria district like West Africa, or the Duars.in India, this is only what one would expect ; consequently, the statement has little significance; but if we are considering a district like the Panama Canal, where the simple A malaria cases, then this statement is not true, for | NO. 2628, VOL. 105 | of diagnosis consumes, we think, too much I only certain basis for the interpretation. tertian parasite forms about 26 per cent. of the we find that about the same percentage—viz. 24 per cent.—-of the blackwater cases show simple tertian parasites, and on the Madera River, Brazil, where simple tertian forms about 30 per cent. of the malaria cases, the percentage for the black- water cases is 42 per cent. On p. 66 we find a common error repeated— viz. that tsetse-flies in the resting position can be distinguished from all other flies by the wings “closed like the blades of a pair of scissors’; and on p. 86, probably through a lapse of memory, it is said that tartar emetic is specific for American trypanosomiasis; unfortunately, it appears to have no action on it. Misprints are rather numerous: Crintridia for Crithidia, Trio- mata for Triatoma, lenticularis for lectularius, sodia for sordida, tropical for bis a galinarum for gallinarum, etc. Readers who do not already know the work will find something different from the ordinary text- book, but we think they would: be glad if the author’s well-known clinical enthusiasm could express itself more tersely and—dare we say it >— more critically. J. W.. We S. Practical Chemistry. (1) A Text-book of Quantitative Chemical Analysis. By Dr. A. C. Cumming and Dr. S. A. Kay. Third edition. Pp. xv+416. (London: Gurney and Jackson; Edinburgh: Oliver and Boyd, 1919.) Price 12s. 6d. net. ; (2) A Course of Practical Chemistry for Agri- ‘cultural Students. Vol. ii. Part i. By H. A. D. Neville and L. F. Newman. Pp. 122. (Cambridge: At the University Press, 1919.) Price 5s. net. (3) Chemical Calculation Tables: For Laboratory Use. By Prof. H. L. Wells. Second edition, revised. Pp. v+43. (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc.; London: Chapman and Hall, Ltd., 1919.) Price 6s. 6d, net. . HERE is always a tendency among students of analytical chemistry to value their work by its quantity and the nearness of their results to what is assumed to be correct, and in this they are often encouraged by those who have the direction of their studies. They do as they are told in their text-book—weigh out so much, dis- solve in 200 c.c. of water, add 20 c.c. of a stock reagent, heat to boiling, wash three times by decantation, and so on; and in the end, though they get an excellent result they have learned not so much chemistry as if they had made an apple dumpling by intelligently following the instructions of a cookery book. o 34 NATURE [| MarcH 11, 1920 There is only one way to learn practical chemistry, and that is to study the work as well as do it. A student should not pass from an estimation until he knows definitely the reason for every step in the process, how it can be proved to be complete, and why the operation is done in the way it is rather than in an alternative way. He should make a rule of proving that his pro- duct is what he means it to be, and that it is pure. In short, he should make a thorough study of every piece of work. He may get fewer results, but he will have learned more chemistry, and he will have gained the only true confidence, namely, that founded on knowledge. We deprecate, as a rule, general instructions, such as that every precipitate should be ignited two or more times until it ceases to change in weight. Some products need it, The point for consideration is, What is present that it is desired to get rid of by the ignition, and what conditions are necessary to eliminate it with certainty? Unless the- student knows this and concentrates his attention upon it, he is work- ing by mere rule of thumb. As to purity of pro- duct, we have known a conscientious and careful worker to get a good result for one of the minor constituents of an ore, but when it was suggested that he should examine the product that he had weighed, he did so, and found that it did not contain even a trace of the compound of which the thought it consisted. (1) The manual by Drs. Cumming and Kay is an excellent text-book for students. It includes a full course of mineral analysis, finishing with instructions for the analysis of several alloys and ‘ores, gas analysis, water analysis, organic analysis, the determination of molecular weights, and various desirable tables. There are many ‘helpful and practical hints, though we think that some parts might profitably be a little expanded on the lines indicated above. The method of igniting ferric hydrate without separation from the filter paper containing it is, of course, not original with the authors, but we think that it will be found generally to lead to a notably short weight, because the reoxidation of the reduction products is very uncertain. (2) This “Part” of Messrs. Neville’ and New- -man’s course deals only with exercises on “pure organic chemistry.”” It covers the examination of many classes of organic bodies, finishing with pro- teins and enzyme action. course for students of agriculture. Like so many others who refer to the production of acetaldehyde for detection purposes, the authors describe its odour as characteristically fruity. (3) The “Chemical Calculation Tables ” include NO. 2628, VOL. 105] some do not. : It is a well-arranged. a five-figure table of logarithms with a double | thumb index that enables the user to turn imme- diately to any desired page either backwards or | forwards. There are extensive tables of factors — and weights, giving both the number and the > logarithm, and tables referring to gas calculations and molecular weight determinations. It is exactly what one wants to facilitate calculations in the laboratory. : Cre Botanical Guides. © (1 1) Applied Economic Botany: Based upon Actugl Agricultural and Gardening Projects, By Dr. M. T. Cook. (Farm Life Text Series.) Pp. xviii+261. (Philadelphia and London: J. B. Lippincott Co., 1919.) Price 7s. 6d. net. — (2) Some Familiar Wild Flowers, Photographed by A. E. Sulman. Pp. ii+65. (Sydney: Angus and Robertson, Ltd., n.d.) Price 1s. net. (3) Australian Wild Flowers, Photographed by A. E. Sulman. Second Series. Pp. ii+6r. (Sydney: Angus and Robertson, Ltd., n.d.) Price 1s, net. (4) A Popular Guide to the Wild Flower of New South |WVales. By Florence Sulman. Vol. ii. Pp. xxxi+249+71 plates. (Sydney: Angus and Robertson, Ltd., 1914.) Price 6s, net. j (1) HE title of Dr. Cook’s book is mislead- ing; from the preface we learn that it is intended as a_ guide work in the study of plants, such as should be carried on in any high school, objects would be served by a good general prac- tical introduction to the study of plant life, and this, we gather, is what Dr. Cook is attempting. Part i., “Plant Life,” occupies nearly three-— fourths of the volume. Beginning with the seed and seedling, the form of the various plant organs and their uses to the plant are described in suc- cessive chapters, and exercises for practical work are suggested at the close of each chapter. A short chapter on the anatomy of the angiosperm- ous plant follows, then a brief description of the chemical composition and a chapter on plant food and growth, and finally very short chapters on the Gymnosperms,_ ecological relations, forestry, plant-breeding, weeds, Pteridophytes, Bryophytes, Thallophytes, and Bacteria. The remainder of the book, part ii., entitled “Important Families of Economic Plants,” is an account of a number of plants of economic value arranged in their families, with a short and often very inadequate description of the characters of each family. The general effect is scrappy. There to experimental — and as a pre- | liminary work to the agricultural studies which © are now recognised in many high schools. These ~ [ARCH IT, 1920] NATURE 35 ‘a large number of figures, many of which are good, but others are poor, as, for instance, some of th ose in the chapter on flower-types. A photo- rraph of two ripe ears of Indian corn is described as the pistillate flower. The use of the terms “ endo- Boks ” and “exogenous” for the stem of the “‘monocotyledon and dicotyledon respectively is not ] élpful ; and to describe the flower. as consisting ‘leaves which have ‘been greatly modified in ‘and colour” may be misleading. Annual re invariably referred to as annular rings. . is disappointing. and (3) The two little books by Mrs. Annie’ ographs of some of the common Aus- wild flowers, and each is very well worth ling. There is no letterpress apart from ort preface and index; the botanical and, ‘such exists, the popular names are given each plate, and the colour of the flower is d. There is little attempt at arrangement ; ly the species of the same genus are together, but members of the same family in different parts of the books. If the Id arrange the plants in some definite » and indicate in each case the family to e plant belongs, she would add to the ss of these little volumes. : Sulman’s “Popular Guide to the Wil f New South Wales” is complementary ume previously issued. It forms a very well-arranged working flora descriptive umber of New South Wales flowering ants, illustrated by clear, well-drawn, and emin- tl helpful full-page illustrations. The arrange- that of Bentham’s “Flora Australiensis.” are a useful illustrated glossary, a list of s of reference, a key to the families, twenty- »f which are included, and, at the end of the ume, a colour index, by which a clue may be | to the name of a flower. The descriptions plants are clearly written, and a great deal ormation is given in a small space. -—- Our Bookshelf. riculture and the Farming Business. By O. H. 3enson and G. H. Betts. Pp. xvi+778. (Lon- don: Kegan Paul and Co., Ltd., n.d.) Price tos, 6d. net. . fessrs. BENSON AND Betts have essayed an ambitious task; it is no less than to make their volume a clearing-house for the mass of valuable scientific information about agricultural problems ‘now accumulated at experiment stations and col- NO. 2628, VOL. 105] leges, but not always wanted by practical farmers. Although the book emanates from a London pub- lisher, it is entirely written for the American farmer. The scope of the book is unusually wide; it deals with office equipment, crops, animals, manures, soil fertility, implements, motor-cars, roads, education, recreation and health, and finally there is a miscellaneous chapter including such diverse subjects as the removal of stains, the quantity of seed to sow per acre, a planting table, etc. Full information about all these things could scarcely be expected, and yet a vast amount of material is collected. Unfortunately, it is of. very unequal value; there are few tables of figures and practically no references; the student wishing to check the data cannot do so, and the farmer seeking information is not told where he can obtain it. Thus, under “The Origin of Wheat,” the only information given is: ‘“ Just where wheat came from none can say. Some think it originated in the Valley of the Nile or the Euphrates, or possibly that it may have come from Sicily. Wherever it originated, it seems to have developed from one of the wild grasses. Certain scientists think it descended from the lily; others tell us. that it is probably a descendant of the wild ammer.” This statement is not very satisfying. Like many others in the book, however, it might serve to whet the farmer’s curiosity, and some good would then be served by references to trustworthy specialised books or bulletins. If a second edition is called for, the authors might well seriously con- sider these points. A Geography of Asia. By Joseph Martin. (Mac- millan’s Practical Modern Geographies.) Pp. vili+ 298. (London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd., 1919.) Price 5s. THE tendency of school geography to embrace too much and so to fail in achievement has been avoided in this book, which is well proportioned and thoroughly geographical throughout. Mr. Martin has the courage to omit considerations of geological structure where it has no direct bearing on human activity. Physical explanations of climatic problems are generally omitted. The diagram of the planetary. winds is an improvement on that produced in most text-books, but should have the polar high-pressure areas added. Asia is treated under the larger natural regions, but these are not allowed to obscure the political units -which are an essential to a full understanding of world geography. Each chapter is prefaced by some simple statis- tical matter on which is based a number of exer- cises designed in the main for oral answers. At the end of each chapter are a number of mapping exercises. The extent to which wide generalisa- tions are admissible in school geography will always be a disputed point, but statements that certain climates are unhealthy to Europeans, if true, require explanation. Even a_ school geography should emphasise the part played by the mosquito. 36 NATURE | MARCH 11, 1920\/ More than fifty excellent black-and-white maps, most of which show relief, and as many finely reproduced illustrations add considerably to the value of the book. One or two small points might be corrected in the next edition. The number of emigrants entering Asiatic Russia was scarcely 250,000 a year immediately before the war. The figure given for Siberia on p. 264 is much too high. It would be more correct to say that the Kara Sea ‘is navigable for two months than that it is ice-free for that period. The railways to Kuznetsk and Minusinsk should be noted. The use of a volume like this must result in raising the standard of geographical teaching, and, incidentally, in justifying full attention to the subject in the school curriculum, Submarine Warfare of To-day, By Lieut. Charles W. Domville-Fife. (Science of To-day Series.) Pp. 304. (London: Seeley, Service, and Co., Ltd., 1920.) Price 7s. 6d. net. THE Allied peoples, to whom the defeat of the German submarine campaign has meant so much, . cannot fail to be interested in the means by which that defeat was consummated. Hitherto they have had to rely on scraps of information—per- haps true, perhaps not—whispered in the ear or appearing furtively in the Press. An urgent demand undoubtedly exists for a comprehensive statement of the case. Lieut. Domville-Fife has given us that—and more. His book is full of romance as well as of facts. The victory over the submarine was won, not by any sovereign remedy for their depredations, or by a single weapon invincible in attacking them, but by the cumula- tive effect of a multitude of devices, each itself imperfect, but employed systematically and in spite of numerous failures. To which must be added— and the author gives this its proper proportion by telling actual incidents in a fine literary style—the bravery and pertinacity of the men on the ships. The only criticism which is permissible is that the book is somewhat lacking in detailed descrip- tion of the instruments used—the directional hydrophone, for example. Possibly this omission is due to the continued maintenance of official secrecy in such matters. This probably also accounts for the lack of all reference to certain new devices which were used with considerable effect, or to the development of others which will in future render the action of the submarine increasingly difficult. Hidden Treasure: The Story of a Chore Boy who Made the Old Farm Pay. By J. T. Simpson. _ Pp. 303. (Philadelphia and London: J. B. Lip- pincott Co., n.d.) Price 6s. net. Mr. Simpson has woven many of the features of modern farming into a story of an American college youth who went to a Pennsylvanian farm owned by a very conservative uncle just about to marry and set up housekeeping. The young man’s suggestions for improvements are received with the usual incredulity, the uncle even declining to. oil the wheels of the grindstone, because he has NO. 2628, VOL. 105] ‘casting the end. ‘quently found self-sown. appears under the name Delonix, an unnecessary never done it before. But before’ the onslaught 1) of the boy’s “git up and git,” and the insistence of the up-to-date wife, the uncle’s prejudices slowly . break down, and in one way and another the old run-out farm is gradually improved. New con- crete buildings are put in, the tractor is intro- — duced, the dairy herd is improved, and in course — of time the farm becomes a completely modersy/ establishment. The young man _ receives his reward; the local banker becomes interested in” him, a desirable farm falls vacant, and in chap. xiii. (ominously enough) an eligible young — woman turns up equipped with brown eyes and shy glances, and although the recorded conversa- tions all relate to agricultural improvements, the perspicacious reader will have no difficulty in fore- Flora of the Presidency of Madras, By J. S. Gamble. Part iii. Leguminosae—Caesal- pinioideae to Caprifoliaceae. Pp. 391-577. (London: Adlard and Son, and West Newman, ~ Ltd., 1919.) Price ros. net. Tue third part of Mr. Gamble’s handy little flora contains the remainder of the polypetalous dicotyledons. Mimosa sections of Leguminose, containing many forest-trees and shrubs, and, among others, the important families Combretacee, Myrtaceze, Melastomacez, and Cucurbitacee. As in previous parts, descriptions are given of families and genera, but the determination of the species depends on the keys in which the characters of the principal organs are fully contrasted. No typographic distinction is made between native and introduced genera, such as Parkinsonia (tropical American) and Eucalyptus (Australian) ; E. globulus, the blue gum, is largely grown in forests on the Nilgiris and other hills, and is fre- Another alien genus It includes the Cesalpinia and revival from Rafinesque; it includes the familiar — “flamboyant” generally known as _ Poinciana regia. As with the previous part, the author has been restricted in the preparation of the work to — ‘material available in the great herbaria in this country, but for future parts the Indian collections will again be available. La Théorie Atomique. Par Sir J. J. Thomson. Traduit de l’Anglais par le Prof. M. Charles: Moureu. Nouveau tirage. Pp. vi+57. (Paris: Gauthier-Villars et Cie, 1919.) Price 2.40 francs net. THIS is a translation of the Romanes lecture of 1914, made during the war under the full inspira- tion of the Anglo-French comradeship in arms. The translator stipulated that the proceeds should go to the British Red Cross; Sir J. J. Thomson insisted that they should go to the French Red Cross; and, as neither would give way, they finally agreed that they should benefit the Belgian wounded. Prof. Moureu has given an excellent - translation, which fully. preserves the “intérét passionnant” of the original lecture. ae RCH II, 1920] NATURE By Letters to the Editor. Editor does not* hold himself responsible for opinions bpressed by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake to turn, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manu- intended for this or any other bart of NATuRE. No | taken of anonymous communications.] Deflection of High-speed Particles. H Pace has given a very simple method of the motion of high-speed particles in a al field on Einstein’s theory (Nature. 26, p. 692). In one respect his results differ which have been obtained by more methods, and I think that some error must pt in, either through a failure of his ap- fon or from some other cause. He finds Rejetiae travelling with the velocity of light undeflected, whereas a ray of light is d. It would be difficult to reconcile this with ciple of equivalence, which seems to require oe gee of a material particle should that of a light-pulse as the velocity that of light. ~ erential gee of the orbit of a material ving with any speed is [Report, Physical p. §1, equation (31-2)] ‘+u=m/h?+3mu’, (u=1/r), constant h=r°d@/ds. It is from this exact t the motion of perihelion of Mercury is For motion with the speed of light ds=o, infinite, and the equation becomes — @u/dP+u=3mu’. 1s . cos*6 + 2 sin%6), 27 RE. * . co-ordinates this becomes 4=R-—— mpt are found by taking y very large with x, giving oe =R+ 2” mo RT ss lence th ee between them is 4m/R, agreeing the result for the deflection of light rays. . verified by the usual methods the other result given by Mr. Page, that for radial » force (relative to the co-ordinates used) is on if the speed exceeds 1//3 times the _ regard to the question whether the system atom on the sun can be identical with that of non the earth, inasmuch as the warping of ime is different in the two places, it is clear the identity cannot be exact; but this loophole - escape from the predicted shift of the Fraunhofer es does not seem to be very promising. If the als ’’ of vibration of the two atoms are not ae, the difference must depend on some in- of space-time which differs at the two places. not think that any invariant of order m/r exists. simplest invariant which does not vanish is 88S Sos BaveBapy ' t is rather laborious to work out the actual value of his (since it consists of 65,536 terms), but it appears > be of order m’?/r?. The Fraunhofer displacement ands on terms of the much greater order of magni- tude m/r. A. S. EppINncToN. Observatory, Cambridge. NO. 2628, voL. 105] Gravitational Shift of Spectral Lines, THE assumption that the equations of motion in a gravitational field can be deduced from a condition of the form 8fds =o is in itself. little more than a very natural way of expressing the principle of least action. The greatness of Einstein’s theory really lies in the suggestion, made apparently on purely a priori grounds, that a certain set of six relations between the coefficients in the formula for ds*, which are true when no heavy body is near, still hold near one. These are found to make the coefficients determinate, whereas previously they were quite arbitrary, and the observed motions of the planets, including the advance of the perihelion of Mercury, are at once deduced. _ The displacement of star images during an eclipse is based on the further very plausible assumption that a light-wave moves like a material particle of zero mass starting from an infinite distance with the velocity of light thete. Now that this displacement has become a result of observation, the data are just enough to make it possible to reverse the argument and deduce the fundamental assumption of the theory from observation, as I have done in a. forth- coming papér in the Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. Neither in Einstein’s discussion nor in mine is any identification of ds with an invari- able line element in four-dimensional space-time relevant to the theory; and as the application of thé theory is purely physical, I think it undesirable that any such abstract idea should be made to appear as part of it. Physically, the invariance of ds means simply that the motion of a particle can be described in terms of any set of co-ordinates we like to choose. In discussing these phenomena all positions and times are referred to an observer at the centre of the | sun, and it is not necessary to determine the relations between his measures and ours, for the uncertainty in these would not affect the observed quantities appreciably. The problem of the shift of spectral lines, however, depends essentially on such a com- parison. About part of the theory of it there can be no reasonable doubt, namely, the assumption that the vibration on the earth appears to any observer to have the same period as the vibration on the sun that causes it. What is doubtful is whether the atom on the sun vibrates in the same time as a similar atom on the earth. Einstein assumes that it does not, but that the increase in ds in a period is the same for both, and deduces the shift of the spectral lines. There is nothing very bizarre about this; it only means that when we move about we must refer our observations to time standards in the place where these were originally used, and not expect that they will serve the same functions if we carry them about with us. An analogy from colour will illustrate this. Suppose we have a standard of redness in the form of a particular red body. We judge the redness of other bodies by comparison with this. Now suppose we go to a place where the prevailing illumination is green, but where our standard of redness is still visible through a window. We then say that none of the things in the room look red, but our judgments as to what outside bodies look red are the same as before. Our standard is now brought into the room. Are we going to say that it looks red still? If we do, we shall have to say that the red external bodies that haye not been moved have been changed in colour by the motion of our standard, which is at least in- convenient, and which most people would call absurd. Therefore we say that our colour standard has been altered bv its displacement, and choose another standard from among the visible external bodies. Similarly, if an observer on the earth went to the ' false. 38 | NATURE +} A 7 [Marcu 11, 1920 sun his time standard would not be that determined by bodies he -had carried with him, but the standard found by observing from the sun similar bodies on the earth, and he would judge that his time standards were changed by being displaced. Of course, if they were not changed, the spectral shift would be zero. The colour analogy, however, shows that there is no special reason to believe that they are unchanged, and it. certainly seems most likely that the invariable quantity in such a displacement is ds, for this is _ already known to be of fundamental importance in other problems. The shift, therefore, is probable, though if it were absent it would not be very difficult to construct a theory that would fit the fact. If it were true that dt was the same for atoms on the sun and on the earth, we might expect our standards of length also to be the same; but this leads to a surprising result, for if they were, the measure of the wave-length of the emitted light would be proportional to (g,./::)3, so that it would not be possible to continue to use the wave-length as a standard of length; thus such a hypothesis would lead, not to a simplification, but to an added com- plexitv. It may also be noted that the spectral shift depends on the part of Einstein’s law that agrees with Newton’s, so that the two stand or fall together if this phenomenon is crucial. Einstein’s law, however, rests on firmer ground than the theory of the spectral shift. As to whether this shift exists, the available data on an average point to one of nearly the predicted amount, and are cer- tainly much nearer this than zero. They show a great variation in the amount of the shift, which must be explained before the question can be regarded as solved. Many causes are capable of producing this variation, but what seems to me likely to be the chief does not appear to have received much attention. The ptediction rests on the assumption that the vibrating atoms are in similar surroundings, which is plainly It is, indeed, required by the theory of stellar evolution that the whole constitution of a star must alter owing to successive types of atom becoming un- stable and passing over into more stable forms. In- stability demands that the slowest free vibration of the atom: has its frequency reduced to zero, and in the process the other periods must be affected. The remarkable fact is not that there are shifts, but that the observed spectra are as much like terrestrial ones as they are. HAROLD JEFFREYS. Meteorological Office, S.W.7. The Position of the Meteorological Office. ‘Twat the study of the atmosphere and the practical applications of meteorology should be supported and encouraged by the Government is a proposition so obvious that it is accepted in every civilised country. It does not, however, follow that the meteorological service of a country should be conducted as a branch of the civil service, still less of the military service, and British meteorologists must be grateful for the emphasis. laid in the leader in Nature of February 26 on the importance of scientific control of official ‘meteorology. do not know enough of the present constitution ‘of the Meteorological Office to offer any criticism of the Air Ministry ‘in relation to it, but I am_ very strongly in’ agreement with the resolution of the Roval Meteorological Society as to the importance of full. inquiry. before changing the constitution of the Meteorological Office, which has led to such remark- able advances in meteorological science since 1905. NO, 2628, VOL. 105] The transfer to the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, which you state to have been contemplated at one time by a+ Committee of the Cabinet, would, it seems to me, have been. a natural development of the constitution under the Meteoro- logical Committee, and it would have been free from the dangers to scientific progress which are, not un- naturally, feared from a subordinate position in the Air Ministry. Had a full inquiry been held, I doubt whether the claims of the Air Ministry would have been preferred to those of the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries, the Admiralty, the Board of Trade, and, in particular, to those of the Ministry of Health. The union of the British Rainfall Organization with ‘the Meteorological Office has altered its centre of gravity so far as to make its equilibrium less stable in the Air Ministry than it would be in either the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries or the Ministry of Health. As part of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research the Meteorological Office would be in neutral territory, and could be equally serviceable to all the great Departments, each of which would naturally be represented on the Advisory Com- mittee controlling the organisation. The position would then be analogous to that of the Geological Survey, which, perhaps, is the official scientific body most nearly akin to the Meteorological Office. For scientific bodies of this kind freedom from all unnecessary -trammels of officialdom is necessary in order to permit the expansion and development which are essential to healthy life and practical usefulness ; and in a body of such universal usefulness as the Meteorological Office in its present expanded form some representation of the industrial and economic applications of meteorology upon the advisory com- mittee or other controlling board is nearly as im- portant as the representation of independent men of science. Hucu Ropert MIL. Hill Crest, Dorman’s Park, Surrey, . if March 2. THE issue of NarurE for February 26 contained an account of the Royal Meteorological Society’s resolu- tion in reference to the transfer of the Meteorological Office to the Air Ministry, a leading article dealing with the same subject, and correspondence on the organisation of scientific work, part of which seems directly applicable to the same theme. — If it be true that the Meteorological Committee is no longer to exist, the society’s protest appears amply justified. Otherwise the position of the Meteorological Office as a branch of the Air Ministry, with a scientific advisory committee, would appear not very dis- similar to that of the Natural History Museum; or perhaps a better comparison would be with the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, which is under the Ad- miralty, the Astronomer Royal being supported by a scientific advisory committee in the shape of the Board of Visitors, of whom only one, the Hydrographer, directly represents the Admiralty, the rest being either — university. professors of astronomy or else expressly. nominated by the Royal Society or the Royal Astro- nomical Society. CS Ae Tienes The Meteorological Department at Greenwich, though now in its eightieth year, is too recent to expect direct representation on the Board, especially as its activities have not generally run in the direc- tion of research, but the fact remains that’ the’ work at Greenwich has points of contact not only with the Admiralty, but also with the Board of Trade, the Post Office, the Meteorological Office, the Colonial Office, and other bodies. It ought not to be ‘impossible to CH II, 1920] NATURE 39; ‘due attention from the Meteorological Office to ements of the Board of Trade and of the Agriculture and Fisheries, even though icity, and possibly for financial reasons, it is 1 the Air Ministry and its separate expenses in the account of that Department. meee 3 WALTER W. Bryant, ime Hon. Secretary. Meteorological Society. Y _ Organisation of Scientific Work. [He fostering and development of the resources of a means of scientific research is not a mere of academic interest, but one. on which: the mic existence of the country depends. For- y the Government of India has realised the of the situation, and is anxious to develop the tialities of the country through the applica- science, as Japan has already done with her More limited resources. It is obvious that the access of the proposed scheme will largely depend : th - uragement of investigation among the ents and workers, who will necessarily be recruits for the work of the utilisation enous talent in the services of their own _A quarter of a century ago, when science as in its infancy in i Sing I ventured to through an ever-increasing ingenuity of sary for extending the boundaries~ of there would in the near future. be seen n advance of skill and of invention among , and that, if this skill could be assured, lications would not fail to follow in many an activity. . vations have since been fully réalised; , the extremely delicate instruments which ed me to carry out all my investigations nstructed entirely by Indian mechanicians, been assured that the most skilled Ameri- ent-makers could not have produced ap- 2 delicate. As regards scientific advance AN departments, it is generally recognised ie present period in India may truly be described snce to the practical scheme now under the ation of the Government of India, the leading in Nature of February 19 states very fairly iparative merits of the two alternatives, namely, centralisation under a proposed Imperial t, and that of decentralisation, under which kkers will be\given as free a hand as _ Under the centralisation scheme the work estigator would depend on the previous sanc- the head of the Service, who would probably f any scientific eminence, or might even be scientific qualification; and, most serious of e would not be able to publish his results with- the consent of the. official head of his special it. The possible abuses of such conditions viently obvious to all. real investigator is making a great adventure > unknown, and all the initiative and all the _must therefore be his own. Nothing could be so istrous for the growth of knowledge as to place etent men under an incompetent machine. ally, who should be the judge of the value of the rls accomplished? Such judgment should not be spartmental or secret; the verdict should come from pen court of the scientific world itself, and this it euectively put an end to official or non-official petence. Mean J. C. Bose, loomsbury Square, London, March 6. NO. 2628, vot. 105]... Photographs of Seven Vocal Notes. Dr. A. O.-Ranxkrne, by means of the invention described by him in Nature of February 5, has placed me under a great obligation in furnishing ocular con- firmation, desirable for those whose hearing is un- disciplined or poor, of observations made by the unassisted ear on the inherent pitches of vowel sounds. No one who can hear harmonics of a sustained note from the larynx reinforced suc- cessively by a continuous change in the. pitch of the mouth-cavity acting as a resonator should remain in doubt as to their place in the tablature, for, the pitch of the voice being known, if a harmonic sequence is heard, such as 4:5.:6:7,. the vibration number of any one of these overtones is the product of a simple multiplication. The well-known spherical resonators, applied in turn to the ear, cannot be changed instantaneously, destroy the all-important con- trast, and have failed. The late Lord Rayleigh’s com- pound resonator (Phil. Mag., 1907, p- 321) would do better service, but I do not know that anyone has used it for this purpose. The table in text-books of physics, physiology, etc.,.shows an extreme error of two octaves. The inherent pitches of the vowels of ordinary speech from oo to ee range from about fii to div. Taking two octaves .as the extreme compass of the mouth shaped for vowels, this supplies such “real characters ’’ for vowel sounds as Bishop Wilkins and his friends looked for in vain, and the use of an alphabet thus réctified will make it unnecessafy for English-speaking children to learn to spell, while the re-formed print. writing will obviate spelling. reform. ‘I have explained this seeming paradox in a book now in the press. The films were marked before exposure. (1) ‘128 not, ?6.’? This means that a note c physical pitch is to be sung in which the singer hears the sixth harmonic intensified in the mouth, the vowel- quality more or less resembling the vowel in not pro- longed. When the negative was changed back into sound by Dr. Rankine, the harmonic no longer in question (6, g”) was clearly heard by him, and after- wards by myself. The octave comes out in the photo- graph surprisingly strong. I suspect that it may be largely a self-combination tone. I do not with cer- tainty distinguish the octave in any quality of my voice unless it is strengthened in the mouth, as when the vowel oo is sung to a top note of chest register. Six more films were exposed on February 16. Brief samples of all six are here shown. (2) ‘192 not, ?4.” The voice being raised a fifth, to g, the mouth-tone g” is now harmonic 4. The four light bands and four dark lines in each period are evident. The inequality of the spacing reminds us that the thing photographed is not a simple tone with the double octave imposed upon it, but a voice in which the fourth harmonic component is made especially prominent. | (3) ‘256 not, ?3.” The voice at middle C, c’ phy- sical pitch, the overtone g” is now harmonic 3. — | (4) ‘‘128 book, ?5.’? The pitch of the resonator is lowered to e” by an unusual protrusion and rounding of the lips. The pitch of the vowel in book as spoken in southern England is considerably higher than e”. One vibration in each periodic group is of the fre- quency 128X5. The rest appear displaced by the octave or the double/ octave. (5) ‘256 book, ? high.” The quality of the vowel is not affected, but now the pitch of the resonator is too remote from the nearest of the lower harmonics of c’,-2 and 3, c” and g”; and the only tone audible | from the mouth is a very high, thin sound, noted more than once as undoubtedly a sharp F, harmonic 40 NATURE | Marcu 11, 1920 11 of c’, fiv+. No such frequency is visible on the film, which seems to have recorded only the funda- mental and the octave. This vocal note might fairly be called a ‘‘dud.’’ Though sustained with greater effort than (3) above, there is no ring in it, energy being wasted in the attempt to force a vibration in a mistuned resonator. When a singer happens upon a note of this kind he instinctively alters the oral con- figuration. Hence the endless complaints that some vocalists, no matter what language they sing, distort the vowels. It is impossible always to combine good resonance with purity of vowel sound, and the higher the voice, the more frequent the occurrence of such an unfavourable conjuncture as here illustrated. It is a matter of arithmetic. Period |rzas' 2, rae (16) “128 not, ? 6.’ The seventh harmonic was not-‘on the programme. The proposal was to repeat (1) louder. The note began well, but while forcing the voice I became doubtful whether I could hold out until the one second which was to receive duration had come and gone, and listening anxiously for the click of the shutter lost ear-control of the harmonic. _In fact, I have to confess to a facial lapse, as sometimes happens when, one is having a photograph: taken. A slight enlargement of the lip-opening in the direction of the vowel in far, a nearer approach to the vowel. in not as I speak it naturally, introduces harmonic 7 of the fundamental 128. It would: be easy to demonstrate this at another sitting. - The earlier part of the film is all at sixes and sevens. The strip reproduced with its apparently lop-sided octave proves that the period has been correctly marked in ar), NO. 2628, VOL. 105 | (7) ‘128 Somerset R.’’ It was hoped to discover ~ why the Wessex or American 7 should sound harsh to unaccustomed ears. So far, the ear tells me more than the eye. : It would be interesting to try a longer film marked ‘128 we may, pa, all go too, ?17 to 5.” W. PERRETT. University College, Gower Street, London, W.C.1, February 27. Scientific Direction of Industrial Research. EMBODIED in its rules, the National Union of Scientific Workers states that one of its objects is ‘‘to secure in the interests of national efficiency that all scientific and technical departments in the public service, and all posts involving scientific knowledge, shall be under the direct control of persons having adequate scientific attainments.’’ The executive com- mittee of this union realised that it had to over- come much prejudice existing against the application of this rule to the older Departments of State; but from the very circumstances which gave birth to the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research it imagined that the Department would adopt this rule as a cardinal principle, and enforce it in its rela- tions with the many manufacturers’ associations the co-operation of which was invited in the formation of research associations for the benefit of British indus- tries. Until the great war cut off supplies from Germany the British nation as a whole had realised neither its dependence upon that country for dyes, drugs, — instruments, and glassware, among other things, nor the fact that great German industries had been founded upon the original work of British men of science. The war brought enlightenment; the nation discovered that its manufacturers, either from apathy or ignorance, had failed to exploit British brains for the benefit of the British communities; and it is safe to assume that the Department of Scientific and Indus- trial Research came into being to remedy this state of things and to bring the manufacturing interests into touch with the real scientific worker as distinct from the essentially ‘‘ business’? man. \ The appointments of Sir Herbert Jackson, Prof. Crossley, and Dr.. Slade as directors of research of different industrial research associations were wel- comed by this union as an indication of the Depart- ment’s acceptance of the principle laid down by all men of science, but later appointments have given rise to dismay, particularly that of Mr. R. L. Frink as director of the Glass Research Association, referred to by Dr. Travers in Nature of February 5. Mr. Frink appears to have been successful as the head of a commercial organisation connected with the window- glass and bottle-glass trade, but careful inquiry has failed to provide evidence that by training or experi- ence he can claim to be a man of science. My union feels compelled, therefore, to: protest with all its power against the appointment. It has sent its protest both to the Glass Research Association, which made the appointment, and to the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, which approved it. From the former no reply has been received, — although a month has elapsed since we made our protest; from the latter the following extracts from the reply are a confession of impotence to deal effec- tively with the matter : ‘Tt is the intention of the Government that, so far as the conduct of the affairs of research associations is concerned, this shall be in the hands of the associa- tions themselves... . ‘ oie ‘“* Accordingly, the responsibility for the selection of © a director of research and for the conditions of his NATURE 41 ent rests in each case with the research asso- ition, and not with this Department.” ‘the case of the Glass Research Association the contribution to its funds for the next five years jarters of the total. In view of its relatively bution, the State should be able to exer- than a merely nominal control over the of the director; if it cannot do so, it immediate steps to remedy its position. inion of the National Union of Scientific it is the subordination of the scientific ie “business man’’ which has been sible in the past for the tardy develop- cientific industry in this country. It feels is appointment negatives the aims outlined by ment, and that the whole industry - will the consequent neglect of the scientific glass research work and from the un- f scientific workers to submit to such elieve that the matter is one of the and that the result of our repre- s matter, not only with a commercial but also with the Department charged of scientific interests in the country, the relations of science and industry _ A. G. CHurcH, ee es Secretary. -Westminster, 6. s Theory of Atoms. objecti ion to Langmuir’s theory of atomic e difficulty of accepting his hypothesis ons. In view of the extraordinary y, it is important to inquire if O----- a} 1 eo ' i ? ——_— , an ‘ : Pek “On: HA : ' i! / , 9? ee argument from the fixity of direction of orces necessarily holds. There appear ous ways in which the rotation can be of the stable groups of electrons formed by ation of atoms. figures represent utically, according to Langmuir’s system, groups of electrons in the outer shells of of neon, fluorine; and oxygen. In the case 1orine molecule the six electrons, forming two with two electrons in common, may revolve ole. The same thing may happen in the molecule, or the electrons may revolve as three ts. Revolution of the stable groups of electrons -add to the stability of the molecules formed by combination and increase the directional steadi- : NO. 2628, VOL. 105 | Piatacdes ba ness of the valency forces. In this way it may be possible to reconcile Langmuir’s theory with that of Bohr. S. C. Braprorp. The Science Museum, South Kensington, London, S.W.7, February 16. Seconding of Officers for Study at Universities. THe War Office 5 Poenec fi recently issued rightly points with satisfaction to the arrangements made to allow Regular officers to take a full course of study at a university (A.O. 323 of 1919). Unfor- tunately, however, the conditions under which officers may avail themselves of this privilege are such that only the wealthy ones will be able to take advan- tage of it, for while seconded they will receive no pay or dilowance from Army funds; indeed, it has not even been decided.whether the whole or any portion of the period spent at a university will count towards pension. I venture to suggest that pressure should be brought to bear on the War Office to secure that these privi- leges shall be open to officers of small means by allowing them to retain their pay and allowances during the time they are undergraduates. J: WERTHEIMER. Venturers’ Technical College, > Merchant Bristol, March 8. _ . Scientific and Technical Books. . .. OnE part of the Descriptive Catalogue of the British Scientific Products Exhibition organised by the British Science Guild last year was devoted to selected lists of books on science and technology. The guild has been asked to extend these lists, so as to include not: only all branches of science, both bio- logical and physical, but also the chief technical sub- jects. It has undertaken to do this, and a com- mittee, of which I am chairman, has been appointed to prepare such a catalogue. The lists will be limited to books of British origin actually in current catalogues of the publishers, so that they can be obtained in the usual way throug booksellers. | School books and elementary manuals will not be included, and the general standard will be that of college cowrses in scientific and .technical subjects | or of works libraries: Each list will be submitted to authorities upon the subject with which it deals, but in order to secure that no important work is omifted the committee invites the assistance of everyone interested in its task. Such aid may be afforded by sending (to the British Science Guild, 6 John Street, Adelphi, London, W:C.2) lists or single titles of British books of standard value or proved worth in any branch of science or. industry.. I shall much appreciate help of this kind which any readers of NATURE may be able to give. R. A. GrEGorY. Daylight Saving and the Length of the Working Day. SuMMER time this year is to begin on March 28 and end on September 27 (Nature, February 26, p. or). In this connection it may be of interest to point out one effect of the Daylight Saving Act which appears to have escaved notice. During the six months when the Act is in operation the physiological working day is lengthened by one hour—that is to say, we are all practically compelled to be in active movement (of body or brain) for an hour longer than we: normally should be. This lengthened day is accompanied by a curtailment of sleep, particularly in the case of working men who have to rise early, and children. It would be of interest to know the effect of these conditions on the worker’s rate of production and the demand for shorter hours. | Anniz D. Berts. » Hill House, Camberley. Pe 42 NATURE {Marcu 11, 1920. Rainfall and Land Drainage.” By Dr. Brysson CUNNINGHAM. ‘THE problem of the economical disposal of surplus rainfall in cultivated districts is one which naturally engages the attention of the agri- culturist and, as a consequence of his needs and interests, of the meteorologist, the engineer, and the lawyer. All three aspects of the matter have been dealt with recently in an article in Engineering and in two papers read before the Surveyors’ Institution. The precipitation cf atmospheric moisture is counterbalanced in part by. the processes of (1) evaporation, (2) transpiration, and (3) percolation, the residue forming the run-off which collects on the surface of the ground and ultimately finds its way to sea by watercourses, either natural or artificial. In cultivated areas it is essential » that the soil should be drained promptly and effec- tively, and left in a ‘‘moist,’’ as distinguished ‘from a “wet,” or saturated, condition. _ Ill- drained land is incapable of experiencing the full benefit of those seasonal physical and chemical changes which promote the growth and develop- _ ment of crops. ee The article by Lt. -Col. Craster discusses the proportion of run-off to rainfall, and the author finds that it varies in this country, as also in America, roughly between the limits of 33 and 67 per cent. It has been found that 0-065 in. ae water is required to wet a crop of rough grass about 5 in. in height, the aftermath in a hayfield, _ up to the point at which it commences to drip on to the soil. It may therefore be assumed that the amount of water required to wet vegetation and the surface of ploughed land is not less than 0-04 in. or 1 mm. The whole of: this amount is lost by direct evaporation after every fall oferain. If the number of days with a rainfall of 0-04 in. or more be 127 (as in the North-East of England in 1918) and the number of days with less rainfall be 67, the direct evaporation for this area will be 0°04 x 127+0'02 x 67=6'42 in. As regards tran- spiration (i.e. absorption by vegetation), figures from German sources show that a beech wood transpires 142 ‘in. of water’ per year; a crop of oats, 8°98 in. ; and a crop of barley, 4°88 in.. For an average of 9 in. per year this moun be divided | as follows: July, 25 per cent. ; June, 18; August, 15; May, 12; April and September, 8 each; March and October, 5 each; and the remaining months, I per cent. each. Percolation is more difficult to estimate, owing to variable geological conditions, but, as a rough rule, may be taken at not less than 1o per cent. Summarising these figures for the North-East coast of England, there would be a residue, or run-off, of 8°7 in. out of an. annual rainfall of 26°8 in., i.e. 32°5 per cent., Fort William, Inverness, a run-off of 52-67 in. out of an annual rainfall of 78°7 in., 1.e. 67 per cent. 1 “Estimating River Flow from Rainfall Records.” By Lt.-Col. J. E. E. Craster. _ Engineering, January 2. **'Land Drainage from the Engineering Point of View.” By C. Hs J: Clayton. ‘*fLand Drainage from the Administrative Point of View.” By-E. M Konstam. The last two are papers read before the Surveyors’ Institution on January 12. NO. 2628, VoL. 105] and: for’ From a survey of the flood discharges in Eng- land and Wales, Mr. Clayton arrives at the con- clusion that, while no general rule can be laid down, it is permissible to assume that in average areas the run-off to the sea is from 50 to 60 per cent. of the — As the general average rainfall total rainfall. is about 32 in. per annum, this means that, roughly, 1800 tons of .water per acre. finds its Way annually into rills, brocks, streams, and rivers. Taking into consideration the fact that about. 60 per‘cent. of the whole rainfall occurs in the six months October to March, the general proposition is established that 36 per cent. ‘of the total rainfall has to be received by watercourses during a period: of 182 days, whence it follows that an average wet period run-off to sea is 0-0633 in. per day. In designing drainage channels and in order to cover reasonable cases of abnormal rainfall, Mr. Clayton advises that this figure should be multiplied by 5, and the result so nearly equals 1 per cent. of the total annual rainfall that he recone the adoption of this standard. , The calculation is pursued furthes to the deter- mination of the flow in tidal rivers necessary to discharge this accumulation of land water. Apply- ing the rule to a catchment area of half a million acres, the total volume to be discharged within an ebb-tide period of fourteen hours per day is 576,000,000 cu. ft., or, say, 11,430 cu. ft. per sec., which for a distance to sea of twenty miles would necessitate a channel with a theoretical mean area of 2721 sq. ft. The maintenance and deepening of these eaitlet channels are important considerations, but, unfor- tunately, the jurisdiction and < supervision exercised ‘over them are casual and unsystematic in the ex- treme. Before the railway era, river and canal navigation brought in revenues from tolls which enabled due regard to be paid to the drainage needs of the districts through which they passed, but the decay of inland navigation has resulted in the loss. of these financial resources, and drainage condi- tions have, in many cases, become deplorable. This view is endorsed in Mr. Konstam’s paper, which deals with the legal and administrative point of view. The startling assertion is made that it is doubtful whether there is a single river in England which is at present in a satisfactory condition as a means of draining water from agricultural land. Whether strictly or approximately true, the situa- tion calls for earnest attention. Drainage authori- ties—known as Commissioners of Sewers in many | parts of the country—date back to medieval times, and their powers and functions have, in many cases, become ineffective and cbsolete. The Land Drainage Act of 1918, however, does something” _ towards alleviating the situation by enabling the | Board of Agriculture and the Ministry of Transport to sanction the transfer of a navigation undertak- ing to drainage functions. _No doubt in, PEncens of be establighed. ’ : : ‘ ' - Marcu 11, 1920] NATURE 43 \A HEN a bertaive small fraction of the National ‘Health Insurance funds was set apart for es of research, the experiment was regarded by many scientific men with suspicion or rence. It was suggested that the State aid, ; provided for research, would result only in atin a new class of Civil Servants, and might, lead to the sterilisation of such of the men as had earned appointment under eme by the excellence of their early re- It was also objected that any concen- 1 of State aid in a central institute or among = group of workers would be effected only at e of starvation of the work already being out with insufficient means in the various *s and research institutes of the country. rk of the Medical Research Committee the first five years of its existence has y refuted such @ priori objections, and eed, justified the view that the action taken epresents the greatest advance in the ion of scientific effort in the service of science that has yet taken place in this _ The Committee seized the opportunity by the war, and initiated and supported investigations urgently required for the treatment of our soldiers in the field. So ‘succeed that, by the end of ‘the war, ired for practically all the mem fitted ‘inquiry not only the opportunity, but ate payment, either by way of com- the Navy, or Army, or Air Force, or report points out, the casualties and of peace are not smaller and less painful, less conspicuous and more familiar, than of war. For example, the epidemic killed during a few months more people in their prime than fell in battle ae ain. war. Fully justified, then, are made by the Medical Research Com- to create and maintain organised scientific work, which shall repeat and continue for the maladies of peace the same success as was effected r those of war. Taking the difficulties of the tion into account, the report is really a won- record of achievement, Committee carries out its work in two In the first place, it maintains a small 1 s of workers in whole-time service. Most of these will pursue their researches in the central nstitute, located in the old Mount Vernon Hos- ‘pit , which has been adapted for this purpose ; the ugh, where the object of the work requires it, _ these workers may be attached to hospitals or laboratories elsewhere. Thus during the past year both Dr. Lewis and Dr. Elliott were attached as whole-time workers to University College Hos- pital, and other whole-time workers pursue their researches at Cambridge, Oxford, and St. cy National Health Insurance. Fifth Annual Report of the Medical a (amg fen bee scaniupasie 1918-19. Pp. 90. (Lcndon: H.M. Stationery No. 2628, VOL. 105 | * ons. The Work of the Medical Research Committee. Bartholomew’s Hospital. In the second place, the Committee assists organised research already in progress at different universities and medical schools by means of grants made in payment for part-time work. We are glad to see that the Committee declares its desire to assist in this manner the work of the units which are being formed in London for higher clinical teaching and research. The record of work for the, past year must be regarded as highly creditable and a striking testi- mony to the value of the aid which the Committee has been able to render. Scarcely any aspect of medical science has been left untouched. Collec- tive investigations have been undertaken on tuber- culosis, on dysentery, on typhoid and paratyphoid, on the treatment of wounds, and on cerebro-spinal fever and influenza. Fundamental problems of nutrition have been attacked especially by the Committee on Accessory Food Factors, which has carried out researches not only in this country, but also in Vienna, and thrown much light on the causation of rickets and on the factors con- cerned in normal growth. The investigation of the disorders of the cardio-vascular system, in- cluding the causation of soldier’s heart (in which such valuable results were attained during the war), has been continued, and a special depart- ment for this purpose has. been instituted under the care of Dr. Lewis. The research into trench nephritis is being continued by Dr. MacLean and extended to include all forms of nephritis. The report records also the results of researches on the effects of oxygen lack, on chronic arthritis, on wound shock, on industrial fatigue, and ; on many other subjects. The great value of the Committee’s ware is that in a time of transition, when the community is slowly awakening to the value and necessity of research in medicine, but has not yet provided the necessary organisation and support, it is making © it possible for practically all provided with the necessaty ’ intellectual endowments to take up scientific work, at any rate for a time. No doubt many of these workers will later pass into prac- tice; but the Committee by its action is creating a reserve of scientific workers, from which the country will be able to draw its teachers and teams of research workers, when once it recognises the need for them and is prepared to provide such salaries that a man can devote himself to the advancement of knowledge without taking vows of celibacy and poverty. There will always be a small handful of men in every country who will devote their lives to this cause. Faradays, how- ever, are few and far between, and the vast majority of men of first-class intelligence are not prepared to make the supreme sacrifice. The country has need of these men to fill its depleted ranks of scientific workers, academic and indus- trial, but it will not obtain their services until it ean provide a career in science equal in status and remuneration to that afforded by other professions. 44 NATURE [Marcu II, 1920 The Mariners Compass. ORE than 300 years ago William Barlow, writing of the compasses of his day, said that, though the compass needle was “the most admirable and useful instrument of the whole world,” yet nothing was more “bungerly and absurdly contrived.” How little advance was made in the succeeding two centuries can be gathered from Peter Barlow's remark to the Lords of the Admiralty in 1820 that “the compasses tn the British Navy were mere lumber, and ought to be destroyed.” It was Barlow himself who made the first notable improvements in compasses during the nineteenth century, and his work was_ the prelude to the. important investigations of Airy, Archibald Smith, Kelvin, and others. The prac- tice of “swinging ship’”’—that is, turning a ship slowly round and noting the deviations of the compass in different positions by taken bearings— was introduced in 1810 by Matthew Flinders, who also invented the use of the “ Flinders bar,” a rod of soft iron placed near the compass to correct for changes in the magnetism of the ship due to the vertical component of the earth’s magnetism. The graduai increase in the employment of wrought-iron fittings in wooden ships; the use of iron cables instead of hempen; the placing aboard of ponderous iron boilers and engines; and, lastly, the construction of the vessel itself of iron, each in its. turn added difficulties to the problems involved. Barlow, in his attempts in 1819 to find a remedy for the large deviation due to the extend- ing use of iron in ships, made the first experi- mental investigation of the phenomena of induced magnetism. From his inquiry he was able to give a simple means of correcting ships’ compasses by fixing soft iron discs in suitable places near the compass, and he afterwards introduced a type of compass having four or five parallel straight strips of magnetised steel fixed under a card, which remained the standard pattern until Kelvin brought out his famous patent in 1876. The mathematical investigations of Poisson an‘ of Airy about 1838 led to the introduction of methods of correction by the use of permanent magnets, and also of the well-known soft iron spheres. Many of Airy’s experiments were made in the iron vessel Rainbow off the old Woolwich Dockyard. The story of Kelvin’s share in the improvement of the compass has often been told. Asked in 1871, by his friend Norman Macleod, to write an article atte s for the newly founded magazine, Good Words, Kelvin. chose as a topic the mariner’s compass. The first part of his article appeared in 1874,,and the second not until five years later. ““When I tried,” he said, “to write on the mariner’s com- pass, I found I did not know néarly enough about it. So I had to learn my subject. I have been learning it these five years.” The Admiralty standard compass, adopted in 1842, and in use when Kelvin took up the matter, had a card 7} in. in diameter, and under it four needles; each of which was a long, straight bar of flat clock spring placed on edge. The card and the needles weighed about 1600 grains, and had a period of vibration of 19 sec. So considerable was the friction that the binnacle was often kicked by the sailors to make the card move. Kelvin’s “gossamer structure” of eight small needles weighed about 170 grains, and had -a period of about 40 sec. The cold reception Kelvin received from the then Hydrographer to the Navy, and Airy’s remark on the compass, “It won’t do,” remind one of the reply made to Berthon in 1835: “The scréw was a pretty toy which never would and never could ~ propel a ship.” i The ultimate adoption of the Kelvin compass was largely due to Lord Fisher, who had one on board the Inflexible at the bombardment of Alex- andria in 1882. Torpedo craft, however, continued to be supplied with a form of compass in which the whole card floats in liquid, and improvements made in this type led to its being adopted as the standard compass about 1906. Since this has come the invention of, first, the Anschutz, then the Sperry, and, now, the Brown gyro-compasses, the introduction of which has taken place during the last ten years. As remarked by Mr. S. G. Brown in the Royal Institution discourse reproduced below, | the gyro-compass is a necessity in a submarine, while in larger vessels it has the great advantages that it can be placed below the water-line more or less immune from gunfire, and lends itself to utilisation with fire-control apparatus and the tor- pedo director. All the work on compasses for the Navy is to-day carried out at the new Admiralty compass observatory at Ditton Park, near Slough, where the work of the five departments—the gyro- compass branch, magnetic compass branch, optical branch, experimental branch, and air compass branch—is superintended by the director, Capt. F, O. Creagh-Osborne. fees i The Gyrostatic Compass. By S. G. Brown, F.R.S.* THE subject of this lecture is the gyrostatic compass, often called the gyro-compass. An engineer of: my acquaintance was asked if he under- 1 Discourse delivered at the Royal Institution on Friday, January-30. NO. 2628, VOL. 105] stood what a gyro-compass was, and he replied, ‘Of course I do; it is a magnetic compass mounted upon a gyroscope.” Now the gyro-compass has au g to do with magnetism or the magnetic compass. 7 he PK } Marcu II, 1920] NATURE 45 kt. y iting that 7 two instruments have in common is the property of pointing north and south. I am anxious that this should be clearly understood, because m a recent lecture I gave at Bournemouth on this very subject one of the audience asked me after the ecture how the gyro-compass was shielded from out- side magnetic influence. I pointed out, as I had endeavoured to do during the lecture, that the gyro- apass had nothing to do with magnetism, and, therefore, did not require shielding. he magnetic ‘compass and the gyro-compass are, in fact, two absolutely different instruments operated by entirely erent laws, although they are for the same purpose. “many people do not understand why a gyro- ass is needed when the magnetic palligany is available, it is worth while to describe briefly gnetic or mariner’s compass before attempting lain the gyro-compass. e€ mariner’s compass tras es fixed side by side, and balanced upon a sharp _ A card divided into thirty-two (points of the ompass) is attached to the needle, and swings round with it, so that the point marked N on the card always points to the north. _ The earth, as we know, is a magnet, but not a very powerful one, and it has been calculated that if were wholly of iron it would have an intensity of 1etism 17,000 times greater than it has. All the me, the magnetism is sufficiently strong to give a directive action to a pivoted needle. The mag- poles of the earth are not coincident with the aphical poles, but are situated some distance good T al etek 3? | 1. The north magnetic pole was discovered by Sir Ross to be situated in latitude 70° 5’ N. and longi- 46’ W. in Boothia Felix, just within the Arctic some 1000 miles away from the actual pole. th this displacement of the magnetic poles we irreguiar distribution of the magnetism over _surface of the earth; and thus the magnetic 2 does: not og truly north and south at many s of the ’s surface. In London, for instance, it points at an angle of 16° W. of the true north. This angle is called the deviation or variation of the needle. To enable ships to steer by the compass, ‘ etic ts have been prepared and the deviation lifferent places Scere tel measured. These mag- charts have to be checked and altered from time time, as the deviation slowly varies from year to ar. Thus in London in 1659 the needle pointed true rth, while in 1820 there was an extreme ‘westerly ariation of 244°. Since then it has been slowly com- ¢ back to something like 16° at the present time. n a wooden ship the accuracy of a good modern netic compass leaves little to be desired, but on ron ship the case is quite different. The magnetic of the earth tends to be weakened in the length- se direction of the iron ship, because a portion of e magn enters the ship, while across the ship = field is stronger; and as it is essential that the agnetism in which the needle lies should be uniform strength in whatever direction the ship may happen point, it is important that this stronger field should uced cape method of magnetic shielding. This _is accomplished by fixing a pair of iron globes athwart _the ship on the two sides of the compass. The effect of _ the iron of the ship and the corrections that have to _ be made to the compass is to reduce the diréctive force _of the earth’s magnetism, and thus the compass is tendered slow and sluggish in its action. This is particularly the case on board a battleshin. In the terior of a submarine the: force is still further reduced, so much so as to render the magnetic com- pass useless for this class of vessel. It is quite vossible on an iton ship to correct the No. 2628, VoL. 105] . s of a magnetic needle, or of several magnetic errors of a compass, but as the ship itself may be a magnet, and its strength a variable quantity, it is important that the navigator should test the readings of his compass at every available opportunity, and particularly at the commencement of each voyage. The ship’s magnetism may quickly change through the hammering action of the waves, through the heating action of the sun on one side of the vessel, or through an earth on any of the electric wires that may be running near the compass; all these things together add to the anxiety of the captain, as he is never quite certain how far the compass is correct in its readings. The swings of the modern compass are damped by immersing the needles and card in a liquid such as alcohol, but as this fluid is attached to the ship and turns with it, swinging the ship in any direction carries the liquid round and reacts on the needle and card, so that the compass has a tendency to be carried round with the vessel. This lag in the instru- ment renders it difficult to hold a ship dead on her course, and the path, as a consequence, is sinuous, and may oscillate, even in a calm sea, as much as 7° each side of the correct heading. As a ship has usually to steam entirely by the readings of the compass, any error is serious. For instance, if there is an error of 3°, and the ship is steaming at sixteen knots, she will move one English mile off her course every hour. It is obvious how necessary it is to have absolutely correct readings. Lord Kelvin was the first seriously to study the errors of the magnetic compass. He started in 1871, and in 1876 produced his well-known instrument. Although it was a great advance on any compass in the British Navy, he had the greatest difficulty to get it adopted; finally, in 1879 he proposed to place an instrument at the disposal of the Admiralty at his own expense. This offer was accepted. In spite of this, it was only through the acquaintance of influen- — tial naval officers, particularly of Capt. (now Lord) Fisher, that the compass was ever adopted. In 1880, eighteen years after the commencement of his experi- ments, and long after it was in common use in com- mercial ships, he received official notification that his 10-in. compass was to be adopted in future as the standard of the Navy. It is fortunate that we have an alternative method of securing a_ north-seeking property in the gyro-compass, an instrument of much greater accuracy than the magnetic and with none of its errors; for if deviations do occur they are known deviations, and can therefore be allowed for. Evans and Smith, in 1861, were the first to discover how important it was to mount’ the needles on the card so that the moments of inertia of the moving system should be the same about all directions—that is to say that the system should be in dynamic balance, otherwise the rolling of the ship would cause deviations in the reading. I have lately discovered that another deviation may be brought about, not by an oscillation in one direction, but by the card being set wobbling; the needles and card would then have a force applied trying to carry the moving system round in the direction of the wobble. I have a magnetic compass here to demonstrate this. It consists of a heavy brass disc mounted on a vertical frictionless spindle. The needles are fixed to the disc, and the whole movable system is carried on a pendulous mounting, as in the gyro-compass. The disc and needles are in correct static and dynamic balance. Swinging the pendulum in any one direction produces no deviation, but by making it swing in a circular conical path, thus giving a wobble to’ the plate, a serious deviation is caused in the reading of the compass. The error is pérmanently maintained against the earth’s attraction so long as the circular 27 46 NATURE [Marcu II, 1920 motion: of the pendulum persists. When the compass is carried round in a horizontal circular path without wobble, the plate still goes round, or tries to go round, with a circular movement.- This should be of interest to mathematicians. Before leaving the instrument I will set it spinning so as to demonstrate the frictionlessness of the vertical axis: It is rotating now entirely by means of the energy of the motion of the plate, and I think you will find at the end of the lecture that it is still” revolving, but, of course, not so fast as at present. The magnetic. compass is a simple piece of ap- paratus; but it is complicated in its readings and cor- rections, and points to the magnetic north. The eyro- compass is a complicated instrument, but simple in its readings, and it points to the true north. Before proceeding to describe the gyro-compass I wish ‘to direct attention to the equipment here dis- played. A gyro-compass is in full operation, and at the present moment. is recording its movement upon a travelling strip of paper. About half an hour before the lecture started the compass was deflected from the north position, and it has since been left to itself. The record shows that it is engaged in swinging back Fic. 1. again to the north, recording a curve upon the paper strip, and this record can be followed during the whole of the lecture. The compass is working two repeaters, which truly copy the reading of the master compass. Of course, any number of repeaters could be used on board ship if it were necessary. The steering repeater (Fig. 1) has a card that revolves four times to one of the master, and the divisions are, therefore, very much enlarged. The other is a cor- rection repeater; it moves backwards and forwards very slightly, and this motion we term the ‘hunt.’’ In the steering repeater the ‘“‘hunt’’ has been cut out by providing the mechanism within the case with a requisite amount of slackness. About sixty-eight years ago Foucault did what was thought a wonderful thing at the time; he gave a lecture-room proof that the earth was rotating on its axis—he looked through a microscope at a gyrostat. He could not get a frictionless, free, vertical axis, so that the experiment could not last for long. I shall ‘be able to show you a piece of apparatus which carries out Foucault’s idea in a perfect way, and will be visible to this audience. NO. 2628, VOL. 105] A gyrostat consists of an accurately balanced spinning wheel, mounted’ with as little friction as_ possible, and in such a way that the axis of thé: wheel may point in any direction in space. Mere translation in space has no action on the instrument; - carrying it about, for instance, does not alter the direction of the axis. On the other hand, the gyrostat is acted upon by any force that tends to tilt the’ axis’ or to give the axis a new direction in space. The wheel (Fig. 2) spins round its axis; call the If we impress a force upon the. wheel tending to tilt or rotate it round another axis ob, then the rule is that the spinning wheel will ‘‘ precess”’ . direction of this oa. or move in such a direction as to try to make the two axes oa and ob coincide, and the direction of spin of the wheel to coincide with the new direction of rota- tion that we are trying to produce by the applied force. An electric circuit has similar mathematical laws - to those of the gyrostat, and may be used as an illustration. The circuit here used (Fig. 3) consists of Fic. 2. an outer fixed coil and a central suspended coil. A strong direct current indicated by a is kept flowing in the central coil; this corresponds to the spin cf the wheel. If a direct current indicated by b is sent round the outer coil, then the central coil will move in such a direction as to make not only the axes of the magnetic fields of the two coils, but also the direction of the two currents, coincide. In, fact, the coils will move, or try to move, in such a way as to make the self-induction of the whole circuit a maximum. This is very much like the gyrostat, or, in fact, any piece of mechanism which under impressed forces tends to move so as to make the whole moment of momentumamaximum. Suppose, therefore, a gyrostat has its axis oa fixed parallel to the earth’s surface, but free to turn in “‘azimuth,’’ as it is called, upon a frictionless vertical spindle; the earth will act upon such an instrument, and it would be a gyro-compass. The earth as it rotates is continually tilting the axis of the wheel in space;° the wheel will therefore turn faRcH 11, 1920] | NATURE 47 to set its axis of rotation as nearly as possible to the axis of the earth. It is only when axes coincide that the wheel is free of any Heng -action—that is, when it is pointing th; deviate the axis, however slightly, from tion of rest, and the action of the earth comes im to precess the wheel back again to the ere is a simple form of gyrostat with three Ss of freedom. If I hold it in my hand and 2 On my axis, this does not move the wheel, still keeps pointing to the same part of the On the other hand, if I restrain or clamp its degrees of freedom so that I am able to the axis of the wheel during my revolution, the is caused to precess and to set its axis parallel axis on which I am revolving. Reversing the the wheel also reverses. is what takes place with the gyrostat on the surface provided it is frictionlessly mounted. 1 an instrument is before you, and I will try to rate by its means the rotation of the earth. is rotating inside this case at 15,000 revolu- per minute. The case is constrained to move Fic. 3. this vertical frictionless axis. Mere motion anslation has no effect in changing the direction e axis of the wheel, but if this room rotates the about which the room is rotating. We all believe that this room is rotating about the axis of the earth; if so, the axis of the wheel must itself parallel to the axis of the earth, but it _ must be kept horizontal, and, therefore, it will point north and south. Here it is pointing in an east-and- west direction; it is held by a string. I will now burn the string. and it will find for us the true north. Observe that it is really the true north direction, whereas that magnet points to the magnetic north. ‘set it away from the north, but on the other side, and repeat the experiment. . ‘Such a simple form of gyro-compass could not be any use on a moving ship, because the rolls of the ship would react too violently on the spinning A and cause considerable deviations in the read- ings of the compass. The use of a gyro-compass on ~ Tand is very limited. and its great value at the present _ time is on board ship. The spinning wheel is acted NO. 2628, VOL. 105 of the wheel tends to set itself’ parallel to the upon by forces which tilt the axis. Now, a rolling and pitching ship is about the worst place to put a gyrostat to act as a compass, because the ship’s movements all tend to tilt the axis. The problem, therefore, is to make the compass insensible to the movements of the ship and respond only to the slow angular rotation of the earth. To indicate the severity of the ship’s movements, I may recall a recent trip of this gyro-compass on board a fast destroyer. During a severe gale the ship was recorded to roll more than 50° of total angle. Many of the crew were forced to lie on the decks, the lockers emptied their contents, and even some of the oil-lamps suspended from the ceiling were unseated by the pitching of the vessel; yet the gyro-compass maintained its accuracy, and allowed the ship to be steered safely into harbour, to which she had to run for safety. In all this whirlwind of movement the gyro-compass heard, and only responded to, the still, small voice of the earth’s rotation. For use on board ship the compass must be mounted on a pendulum in gymbal rings, and its period of oscillation is lengthened to something like 85’, which is usual in practice, so that the rolls, which are of the order of 7 to 15 seconds’ period, shall have but.small effect on. the compass. In this case the rotation of the earth does not act directly upon the gyro-wheel, but by means of the force of gravity through the pendulous weight. -Unfortunately, this. form of mounting introduces troubles of its own. Suppose we study. our simple gyrostat and see what happens when we attach a weight to the end of the horizontal spindle; this will give us some idea of what occurs when the force of gravity is, acting through the pendulum trying to tilt the gyro-wheel. -We know from our law that the wheel will precess under the tilting action, but the new direction of rotation that we are trying to produce by means of the weight, unlike that produced by the earth, which is always in one direction, is in this case continually carried round by the precessing wheel, and the pre- cession is, therefore, permanently maintained. We also find that if we hurry the precession the spindle rises, lifting the weight; while, on the other hand, if we delay, the precession, the spindle drops and the weight falls. The rate of precession is proportional to the weight. Halving. the weight, for instance, halves the rate at which. the wheel rotates round the vertical support. Coming back again to our pendulous-mounted gyro-compass (Fig. 2); suppose the spindle is pointing west and is horizontal, then the earth as it rotates will leave the wheel pointing in this one direction in space, but the weight will try to follow the earth’s rotation, and will start precessing the gyro towards the north. The rate at which the wheel comes to the north depends upon the weight W attached to the casing. All the time the wheel is coming to the north the earth is adding to the rate of the pre- cession, and the spindle is, as a consequence, tilted, and deflecting the weight at the north position. Under these conditions the effect of the weight is to continue the precession, and the gyro-wheel will swing through the’ north position, and continue to move until the effect of the earth arrests and reverses the motion. ; The compass will therefore continue to swing through the north position with constant amplitude backwards and. forwards; undamped. To render the compass of use, some method of damping the swing must be introduced’ so that the compass may finally settle on the north. This damping can be carried out by means of friction, preferably fluid friction; between the vertical spindle and its support; but, although this will damp the swings, it is inadmissible because . NATURE | Marcu II, 1920 the movements of the ship would react through the friction and cause errors in the reading. Anschutz, in his early form of compass, by use of an air blast, gets rid of this connection with the ship. The air blast was arranged to oppose the movement in azimuth when the wheel tilted, and thus he ob- tained an effective method of damping. The strength of the air blast, which varies proportionally to the tilt, should be nothing when the compass is at rest on the north—that is, when the tilt is nothing—and this would be true with the compass on the equator. In other latitudes, however, the compass rests at the north with a tilt still remaining. It does not come back to the horizontal position because the axis of the wheel is trying to set itself parallel to that of the earth. This leaves a residual air blast continuously acting, producing a permanent twist in azimuth and a constant error. It is, therefore, preferable to damp the swings of the compass by acting upon the tilt rather than upon its movement in azimuth, because in this case there will be no latitude error. The tilt is a maximum at the middle of each swing—that is, when it is moving throush the north position—and it is the return of the weight to its truly vertical position that is resnonsible for the continuation of the oscilla- tion; we therefore require some method of neutralis- ing the action of the weight, not before, but after, the compass has reached the north. This I accom- plish in the Brown gyro-compass by automatically moving a liquid from one bottle to another, and in such a direction as to counterbalance the weight, pre- cessing the gvro-wheel, and I delav its action bv means of a valve or constriction in the tube joining the two bottles. The force with which the compass seeks the north is proportional to the product of the rotation (one revolution in twenty-four hours) and the spin of the wheel. The faster we.can spin the wheel, the more do we obtain directive force. It is for this reason that the wheel is rotated at its maximum speed and strength consistent with the rise of temperature. Taking the Brown gyro-compass as an example, the wheel, which is 4 in. in diameter and 4} lb. in weight, runs at 15,000 revolutions per minute. The maximum directive force of the earth on this wheel— that is, when the spindle is pointing east to west—is only the weisht of 30 grains, with a leverage of 1 in. This small force is continually diminishing in value as the axis approaches the north direction, and vanishes absolutely in that position. If the compass was deflected, say, 1° from the north, then the force of restoration is only 4 grain at a leverage of 1 in. It will therefore be seen how important it is to eliminate as completely as possible any friction on the vertical axis that would tend to oppose the direc- tive action of the earth. There are three forms of gyro-compass now in use: the Anschutz (German), the Sperry (American), and the Brown (British). In the Anschutz the vertical axis is supported by a bath of mercury, and in the Sperry by a suspended wire, the twist, if any, being taken out by a follow-up motor through an electric contact, which switches on the current to the motor; while the Brown is operated by a hydraulic system of support. The lower end of the vertical spindle acts as a ram and stands upon a column of oil. The oil is under great pressure, some soo lb. per square inch, and is kept pumning uv and down, and thus raising and lowering the vertical axis continually some 180 times every minute. The continual movement of the spindle results in a practically frictionless vertical support, so that the total movins vart. some 7} Ib. in weight, can be carried round in azimuth by the smallest force, due to the earth’s rotation: in fact. so small is the friction No. 2628, VoL. 105] that the compass, if deflected, will always come back again to its true north position, certainly within one-tenth of a degree. I think I am safe in saying that it is the most perfect frictionless support yet given to the vertical spindle of any gyro-compass, or, indeed, of any machine. Garey In an earlier part of this lecture it was stated that the period of oscillation given to a gyro-compass is of the order of 85’. I .will now try to explain why this is so. The earth has no angular movement from south to north, but has one from west to east, due to the daily revolution on its axis. A ship, how- ever, sailing to the north at, say, twenty knots an hour introduces an angular movement in that difection because it is moving over the curved surface of the ocean, and would complete a revolution of the globe in forty-five days. If there were a gyro-compass on the ship the instrument would be sensible of these angular movements, set itself so as to make a com- promise between them, and, as a consequence, point, not to the true north, but one or more degrees west of the actual pole. This division is termed the ‘ north steaming error.”’ Knowing the latitude, the speed of the ship, and its direction towards the north and south, the extent of the error can be accurately cal- culated, and speed-correction tables have been pre- pared so that this error can be determined for any latitude, speed, and heading of the ship, and can be allowed for. Automatic means have also been devised to make these necessary corrections in the reading of the compass. For instance, my special form of repeater has been designed so that the card can be set eccentric, and, when once set, the correction will be automatically applied without any further reference to the tables. ‘ When a ship is in harbour a gyro-compass 6n board points due north, but when the ship starts steaming to the north the compass begins an oscillation so as to bring the axis of the wheel into the new resting — position to include the north steaming error in the reading. Getting up speed will, however, have another effect on the compass. We know that, the gyro-wheel is acted upon by a pendulous weight. | As the ship changes its speed the acceleration will — act upon the pendulous weight and cause an oscilla- tion to be started. This oscillation is termed the ‘ballistic deflection.’’ The permanent north steaming error and the transi- torv error due to the ballistic deflection are in the same direction, and mathematicians have calculated that with an undamped gvro-compass, if the time of its oscillation is set to 85’ in any particular latitude, the ballistic deflection can be made exactly the same as the deflection due to the north steaming error; this being so, the compass should move into its new resting-place without further oscillation. This would be true if, as before indicated, the compass were un- damped in its swings, but the mathematicians have overlooked. the fact that all gyro-compasses are damped, and the ballistic deflection must, therefore, include a term due to the damping. This damping term up to the present has been neglected, but in practice it is found that when a ship is steaming and turning to alter its course the compass does not come dead-beat to its new position, but has an oscillation started which is common to all existing gyro-compasses. The extent of this oscillation mav be termed the “‘damping error.’’ a merchant ship the damping error is of little moment, but on a war vessel which is manceuvring it may be serious, as it may swing the compass off its cor- rect reading by several degrees. omg (To be continued.) NATURE 49 Obituary. or, J. Emerson Reyno.ps, F.R.S. JAMES EMERSON REYNOLDS, se death at seventy-five years of age yunced in Nature of February 26, was (844 in Booterstown, a suburb of dis father was a medical practitioner prietor of a medical hall, and it was while his father that he first became enamoured idy of chemistry. Destined to follow in sion of his father, Reynolds studied .and became a licentiate of the Royal Physicians and Surgeons of Edinburgh. practised in Dublin for a short time, sire was to devote himself to chemistry, March, 1867, he was appointed “keeper ” at the National Museum in Dublin, following year analyst to the Royal Society. It was here that he made important contribution to chemistry. 1869 he discovered thiocarbamide, the hur analogue of urea, which he obtained as result of the isomeric transformation of thiocyanate. This was a discovery ed a good deal of attention at the jebig and, later, Hofmann had both ssful in their attempts to isolate the fact, Hofmann had previously ‘sug- at ammonium thiocyanate was probably later, in a paper communicated to siety, Reynolds described the pre- interesting compound of acetone me _ oxide, of the composition O 3HgO, which was the first -of a colloidal mercurial derivative. The under which this body is formed con- ry delicate reaction for the detection eynolds was appointed to the chair in the University of Dublin in suc- the late Dr. Apjohn, having previously 0 years professor of chemistry at the se of Surgeons of Ireland. He quickly for himself a high reputation as a lecturer, and for a few years his ; ere mainly directed towards the elopment of the teaching of chemistry on ‘in _ Shortly after his appointment he | the writing of his well-known ental Chemistry for Junior Students,” was ultimately published in four small ames. The first volume was a_ distinctly. inal work. By the aid of a progressive series ple and helt tested experiments, the junior Gent was enabled to verify for himself the damental laws of chemistry by quantitative its. Whilst the quantitative method is now ally adopted in the early training of the , Reynolds must be given the credit of ‘been the first to introduce it, now forty ago. The experimental illustration of his NO. 2628, VoL. 105] chance to discard medicine soon came lectures was a matter to which Reynolds gave great attention and a good deal of his time. If, from one cause or another, an experiment failed, which was of rare occurrence, it was always successfully repeated on the following occasion. As a result, his lectures were very attractive, and the discipline which he maintained in his classes was proverbial in the college. This, it can be understood, was not attained without the display of a certain amount of well- meant severity, and, though Reynolds always refused to nourish popularity at the sacrifice of a surrender of discipline, he was nevertheless held in high esteem by all young men who came under his tuition. Past students have many times spoken to the writer of ‘their great appreciation of Reynolds as a lecturer, teacher, and disciplin- arian. Whilst his professional duties absorbed most of -his time, Reynolds continued research, and, from a comparison of the specific heats of silver and beryllium (glucinum), which he had prepared in a nearly pure state, he showed that the atomic weight of the latter must be taken as g, and that the element was a member of the family of alkaline earths, . In 1885 his researches on organic derivatives of silicon, in which this element was united to nitrogen, were commenced. The results were described in a series of more than a dozen papers published in the Transactions of the Chemical Society up to 1909. Amongst several new sub- stances which were prepared, perhaps the most interesting was the beautifully crystalline silico- tetraphenylamide, Si(NH.C,H;),, the — carbon analogue of which has never been obtained, and by the action of heat silico-diphenylimide, Si(NC,H,)., was obtained, the carbon analogue of © which is well known. After twenty-eight’ years’ occupation of the chair of chemistry in the University of Dublin, Reynolds retired in 1903, and went to live in London, where he continued work in the Davy-Faraday Laboratory. Reynolds’s last contribution to chemistry, published in the Proceedings of the Royal Society in 1913, was an _ interesting synthesis of the mineral anorthite, CaAl,Si,0,, which he prepared by the combined action of oxygen and water vapour at a high temperature on the synthetic substance Ca(SiAl),, which he had previously prepared. Reynolds had many honours conferred upon him during his career. He was elected a fellow of the Royal Society in 1880, and vice- president in 1901, president of the Chemical Society 1901-3, president of the Society. of Chemical Industry 1891-92, and president of the chemical section of the British Association in 1893. Reynolds died suddenly on Tuesday, February 17, at his residence in London. He was an honorary M.D. and Sc.D. of the University of Dublin. He married, in 1875, a daughter of Canon Finlayson, of Dublin. He leaves two: children, a son and a daughter. ifs 50 NATURE | Marcu 11, 1920 WE much regret to see the announcement of the death on March 9 of M. Lucien Poincaré, Vice-Rector of the University of Paris, at fifty-eight years of age, Dr: SamuEL Hatcu West, who died on March 2 at the age of seventy-one, was well known in London as a consulting physician. He was trained at Oxford under Rolleston and Acland, and as Radcliffe travel- ling fellow he studied in Vienna and Berlin. He was physician to the Royal Free Hospital and to the City of London Hospital for Diseases of the Chest, but his life’s work was carried out at St. Bartholomew’s Hospital, where he received his medical education, and held successive medical appointments until he be- came full physician. Dr. West was a successful clinical teacher, and many generations of students will be grateful to him for the thorough manner in which he taught them to examine a patient, system by system,_ so that no important organ. could be overlooked. Dr. West deserved his high reputation as a careful clinical observer. Diseases of the lungs were his particular study, and on this subject he produced a monograph in two volumes which is a monument of industry and a veritable mine of information. He delivered the Lettsomian lectures at the Medical Society of London in t1go00, taking as his subject ‘‘ Granular Kidney,’’ but it is by his teaching and his work on diseases of the lungs that he will best be remembered. “G. P. -B.,” — writes :—‘* All ever worked at the ‘ Stazione will be grieved to read of the whose obituary notice by Prof. R. Dohrn appears in the Ziirich Zeitung of February 19. Hugo Eisig was born in Baden in 1847. When Anton Dohrn, aged thirty-one, decided to sink his whole fortune in the building of the Naples ‘station, knowing that it would suffice to rear up only the ground story, his friend Kleinenberg went with him; Ejisig, seven years their junior, offered himself also, and was accepted. Many years of great difficulty followed, and then many years of very great success. Through all Ejisig continued the career which he had chosen as part and, parcel of the Stazione Zoologica. His contribution to zoology is not to be measured by his published work, even though it in- cludes his great ‘ Monograph of the Capitellide.’ ‘To all of us who worked at Naples he was a friend, loyal, sympathetic, unselfish, and gentle: .In 1907 Eisig retired on a pension from his administrative post in the Zoological Station, but continued his own zoological work. ‘Two years later Anton Dohrn died, and was succeeded by his able son, but in 1915 Prof. Reinhard Dohrn, with Eisig and others of the staff, had to leave Naples for the hospitality of the Ziirich Zoological Museum and Swiss territory. There Eisig died on February 10 last from the after-effects ofan operation which appeared to have been successful. He died in exile from his home of forty-four years, but in the warm memory of many friends all over the world.’”’ NO. 2628. VOL. 105] A CORRESPONDENT, zoologists who have Zoologica’ of Naples death of Prof. Eisig, Notes. A MEETING convened by the Chancellor of the Uni- versity of Cambridge and the president of the Royal Society was held on Thursday, March 4, at the rooms — of the Royal Society, to consider the question of a memorial to the memory of Lord Rayleigh. After a preliminary statement by the president of the Royal — Society announcing the purpose of the meeting, speeches in favour of the proposal to erect a memorial were made by Mr. A. J. Balfour, Sir Charles Parsons, Dr.- P. Giles (Vice-Chancellor of the University of Cambridge), Sir Arthur Schuster, Sir Richard Glaze- brook, and Sir Joseph Larmor. It was agreed that a fund should be raised for the purpose of placing a memorial, preferably a window, in Westminster Abbey. A general committee was appointed, as well as an executive committee, to consider details, and also the further question of raising a fund in memory of Lord Rayleigh, to be used for the promotion of research in some branch of science in which Lord Rayleigh was specially interested. | A PUBLIC meeting was held in the University Museum, Oxford, on March 6, to initiate a memorial to the late Sir William Osler, Bart., Regius professor of medicine in the University for the past fifteen © years. The Vice-Chancellor presided. Sir Clifford Allbutt, who introduced the proposal, paid a feeling and eloquent tribute to the memory of Sir William Osler, to the wide range of his intellect, and to the singular charm of his character. He referred to his international reputation and to the binding influence — he had on the medical profession in many lands, to his love of peace and goodwill, and to the extra- ordinary power he exerted in diffusing without — diluting friendship. ‘The president of Magdalen, Sir Herbert Warren, mentioned the many-sidedness of — Osler’s interests and activities, the breadth and _ accuracy of his scholarship, and the clear and steady optimism with which he regarded life and its progress in all ages. Sir William Church, who introduced the specific proposal that the memorial should take the form of an Osler Institute of General — Pathology and Preventive Medicine, stated that such — a-memorial as that suggested would be a singularly appropriate tribute to the outlook and ideals that Osler had kept before him in his life-work. Prof. Thomson emphasised the need of new laboratory accommodation in Oxford for teaching and research. The Dean of Christ Church and Sir Archibald Garrod — also spoke. tary, Prof. Gunn, had received expressions of sym- pathy with the proposed memorial from a large It was announced that the hon. secre- number of people representing many interests, and — that a collateral committee had been formed America to aid in raising the memorial. A MOVEMENT has been started to commemorate the — life and work of the late Sir James Mackenzie David- — son by an appropriate memorial. The proposal is | that steps should be taken to found a Mackenzie ~ Davidson chair of radiology at some university, but, © whereas nothing could be more fitting as a memorial to the work of one who devoted a large part of his — q in ‘ RCH II, 1920] NATURE 51 s development of the subject of radiology, it the thirty signatories of the appeal that, claims of the subject are to be met, there be an X-ray institute. The applications of in medicine have vastly extended both in and in treatment during the last ten years, ew knowledge as to the properties of X-rays crystal analysis has opened out many new of investigation and of application. If the widening ‘in these respects, there are signs of a growing need for improved teaching y fields of X-ray activity. The institution a in radiology by the University of Cam- one indication of the demand that exists ent day for instruction in vs subject - st likely way in which the Aiba Holts -rays can best be welded into an efficient 10 es and it is hoped that the response to ... “meeting of the International the Exploration of the Sea was held in ist week, March 2-6. The countries repre- d, Norway, and Sweden. France sent Mr vet first time, and the United States received the delegates. self a number of sections for the con- of particular questions; these were the scheme of research to enable the nts to make a convention for the of the North Sea fishing-grounds ; duct of the hydrographic and plankton ches; biological, statistical, and historical in- ns with. respect to the herring; the European The meeting re- tish Isles; a limnological survey ; inter- ery i statistics ; and certain basal physical al matters. Much interest was ex- held several meetings. The ir “sectional meetings were very _ in- but it was clear that no immediate were to be expected. The personnel of ‘the had not undergone much change. In_ the of Sir John Murray the organisation has great loss, but the genial and forceful of Dr. Johan Hjort is still an asset of 2. Prof. Otto Pettersson vacated the chair H. G. Maurice, of the English Ministry of and Fisheries, to whom the continued e of the international investigations through- period of war is largely due. pING to the British Medical Journal, Sir ick Banbury’s Bill to Prohibit the Vivisection is is down for second reading on March 19. It will be remembered that when the same Bill was intro- duced last year a Government amendment allowing experiments to be made on dogs under special certi- ficates was carried. The title was also changed. Sir Frederick Banbury himself moved the third reading with these amendments. The Bill was, however, rejected. It is now brought forward again in the form in which it existed before the Government amendments—that is, prohibiting all experiments on dogs. Although there seems some hope that the prospects of its progress in Parliament are not very favourable, its unexpected temporary success last year must not be forgotten, and careful watch is impera- tively necessary. It is inconceivable that the Govern- ment can allow a Bill of this kind to pass, nullifying, as it does, the activities of so many of their Depart- ments. Sir Frederick Banbury admitted that he had ‘failed to mention ’’ the safeguards against possible cruelty already existing in the Statute Book. The opinion of the medical profession is sufficiently shown by the unanimous vote of the clinical and scientific meeting of the British Medical Association in London last April. It was agreed that such prohibition of experiments on dogs would have a deplorable effect in hampering the progress of physiological and patho- logical investigation, Since many important fields of research are only available when dogs can be used. They are the only large animals that can be kept in health and comfort under laboratory conditions. THE admission of qualified medical women to the fellowship of the Royal College of Surgeons of Edin- burgh reminds us of the fight waged in the late sixties and early seventies of last century for the admission of women to the classes and examina- tions of the faculty of medicine of the University of Edinburgh. The fight was lost by the gallant band of women—septem contra Edinem. It has been fought and won in the fifty intervening years, and this resolution of the Royal College marks the fall of the last barrier to equality of the sexes in medica® education in this ancient seat of learning. Women medical students have recently been admitted to the complete courses in the faculty of medicine, and the extra-mural Edinburgh School of Medicine for Women has been merged into the University. It remains to be seen whether the new régime will justify those who have borne much anxiety and labour to promote it. We believe it will. The Scottish women proved their quality in the hospitals they equipped and staffed in the various seats of war. They have started a small hospital in Edinburgh staffed by women only. There is an increasing body of medical women and women students attached to the University, and among them will be found doubtless the same capacity for work and leadership which was so nobly exem- plified by the late Dr. Elsie Inglis. With all the examinations open to women which lead to hospital staff appointments, it is hoped that an_ increasing number of highly qualified women will present them- selves as candidates when vacancies occur, and that appointments will be open to merit irrespective of sex. Much of the work to be done in the future in the State-aided hospital is obviously of a character to 52 NATURE | ; Ssneew II, 1920 demand the services and judgment of qualified medical women. THE twenty-sixth James Forrest lecture will be delivered at the Institution of Civil Engineers on Tuesday, April 20, at 5.30 p.m., by Sir Dugald Clerk, K.B.E., F.R.S., upon the subject of ‘‘Fuel Con- servation in the United Kingdom.”’ Pror. A. Fow ter, professor of astrophysics, Imperial College of Science and Technology, South Kensington, and president of the Royal Astronomical Society, has been elected a corresponding member of the Paris Academy of Sciences, astronomy, in succession to the late Prof. E. Weiss, -of Vienna. Pror. J. STANLEY GARDINER has, at the request of the Deputy-Minister of Fisheries, undertaken tem- porarily the direction of the scientific work of the Fisheries Department of the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries. Prof. Gardiner’s particular duty will be to restart fishery investigations, which have neces- sarily been in abeyance during the war. Tue Faraday Society has arranged a general dis- cussion on ‘Basic Slags: Their Production and Utilisation in Agricultural and other Industries,’’ to be held on Tuesday, March 23, from 7.30 to 10.30, in the rooms of the Chemical Society, Burlington House, London, W.1. Prof. F. G. Donnan, vice- president, will preside over the discussion, and there will be papers by Dr. E. J. Russell, Prof. C. H. Desch, Sir T. H. Middleton, Sir Daniel Hall, Prof. D. A. Gilchrist, and others. Tue U.S. National Research Council has received a gift from the Southern Pine Association of 10,000 dollars to meet the incidental expenses of a co-ordinated scientific study by a number of inves- tigators of the regrowth of trees on cut-over forest- lands, with the view of determining the best forestry emethods for obtaining the highest productivity. The investigation will be conducted under the advice of the Research Council’s special committee on forestry, and will not duplicate any present Government or other undertakings along similar lines. _ It was announced at the ordinary scientific meeting of the Chemical Society on March 4 that the fol- lowing had been proposed for election as honorary and foreign members, and that a ballot for their election would be held on March 18: W. D.: Ban- croft, V. Grignard, H. Kamerlingh Onnes, E. Paterno, P. Sabatier, J. B. Senderens, S. P. L. Sérensen, and G. Urbain. The annual general meeting of the society will be held at Burlington House on Thursday, March 25, at 5 p.m., to receive the address of the president, Sir James J. Dobbie, and to elect the officers and council for the ensuing year. Tue following officers and council of the Geological Society have been elected for the ensuing year :— President: R. D. Oldham. Vice-Presidents: E. J. Garwood, G. W. Lamplugh, Col. H. G. Lyons, and Prof. J. E. Marr. Secretaries: Dr. H. H. Thomas and Dr. H. Lapworth. Foreign Secretary: Sir Archi- bald Geikie. Treasurer: Dr. J. V. Elsden. Other No. 2628, VoL. 105] in the section of. Prof.. Members of Council: Dr. F. A. Bather, Prof. W. &.- Boulton, R. G. Carruthers, Dr. A. M. | Davies, J. F. N. Green, R. S. Herries, J. Allen Howe, Prof. O. T. Jones, Prof. .P. F. Kendall, W. B. R: King, — Dr. G. T. Prior, W. C. Smith, Prof. H. H.aSwinner= > ton, and Prof. W. W. Watts. Tue first of the Chadwick public leche on mili : tary hygiene was delivered by Gen. Sir John Goodwin, — Director, Army Medical Service, on March 8 at the B Royal Society of Arts, the subject being Hygiene Prior to the Recent War.’? The lecturer dealt with the history of hygiene from the earliest times up to the period immediately preceding the war, “Army. The ravages wrought by disease during the various — campaigns of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries and their effects upon the armies in the field were © detailed, and emphasis was laid on the lessons gained during the South African War in the prevention of disease. The various measures that have been elaborated to improve the health of the Army were — outlined, and stress was laid on the good results accruing from education in hygiene of the Army as a whole. In India, during the years 1878-82, the number constantly sick among the European troops was 68-1 per 1000, with a mortality of 20:5; in 1912 the corresponding figures were 28-3 and 4-6 respec- tively. Immediately preceding the lecture Chadwicl< gold medals and prizes were presented to Surg.-Comdr. Edward L. Atkinson, R.N., and Brig.-Gen. W. W. O. Beveridge, A.M.S., health of the men of the Navy and Army. — ‘ WE are authorised to announce that H.R.H. the: for services in promotines the — Prince of Wales has been graciously pleased to ‘become the patron of the new British School of Archzology : in Jerusalem, referred to in Nature of December 18 last (p. 398). The school has been formed for the — study of the wide and important field of archeological fl research which has now been opened up in Palestine — and the surrounding districts. The director, Prof. f. Garstang, of the University of Liverpool, is shortly proceeding to Palestine to complete the organisation of the school. As soon as the political destiny of — Palestine has been fixed and a mandate formally — assigned, it is hoped that a department of antiquities — will be formed, under which the school looks forward — to collaborating with the Palestine Exploration Fund — in the excavation of an important site which has — already been provisionally selected. Anyone who is — interested in the school is invited to communicate with the secretary at 2 Hinde Street, Manchester Square, W.1. THe Natural History year by holding a double reunion on March 2 and 3. At the first most of the members of the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea were present, and the exhibits arranged in the board-room included many specimens—some being classical type-specimens— collected during the voyage of the Challenger. second reunion other exhibits were added, so that the whole series was of wide interest, and there was. an. attendance of nearly fifty visitors, amongst whom may At the a a eS A Se eS ee ey a a Museum Staff Association opened its series of scientific reunions for the current RCH II, 1920] NATURE 53 tioned Eset Rothschild, Sir Ronald Ross, Prof. Poulton, Lt.-Col. Winn Sampson, Mr. F. E. , Prof. J. Stephenson, Dr. H. O. Forbes,’ Mr. Scharff, Prof. J. P. Hill, Dr. S. Kemp, Dr. on Jackson, Prof. J. Graham Kerr, Mr. on Copeman, Mr. G. T. Bethune Baker, Allen, Dr. H. H. Thomas,.Dr. C. Christy, J. E. Duerden. é f-yearly council meeting of the National ‘Scientific Workers, presided over by Mr. -, of the National Physical Laboratory, | University College on March 6. The of the union has necessitated the ap- a full-time secretary, and Major A. G. been appointed to fill that office. The mittee in its report outlined the function and that of the research council, which | will _ Shortly be constituted. Tt will NG and ensure that the views ns of employment of scientific workers s display an anxiety to ensure that research shall be in the hands of shown capacity for leadership in . A report on ep rights presented an ea salary bhootd have no nexpectedly remunerative.’’ On _ the B. Dale, the council unanimously strongly against the differential an and women as regards the method to. the Civil Service and the salary therein as recommended by the Re- | ee tice of the Civil Service W y Council. rs ; “unusually warm over the southern British Isles, and at Greenwich Ob- = mean temperature for the month was 4°. above the normal; the mean, how- igher in 1914, when it was 449°, and the both maxima and minima readings. were er. There were four days with a shade tem- 60° or above, whilst there is no previous Greenwich with more than two such ince 1841, and in all only seven days as a period of seventy-nine years. Frost > only occurred on four nights ‘during and the lowest temperature was 27°. The bright sunshine was eighty-seven hours, thirty hours more than the normal, and re three days at Greenwich with eight hours of sunshine. Rainfall was much below the and in London there was no day during the th a fall of o-1 in.; the total measurement 9 in., which is the driest February since 1895 0. 2628, VoL. 105] any extra payment because his and 1896. Rain was measured only on eight days- The whole winter, December, January, and February, has been unusually mild over England, and at Green- wich the mean temperate for the three months was 42:8°, which is 35° warmer than the average for sixty years. The winter of 1915-16 was slightly warmer, and the winter of 1898-99 was warmer by about 1°. The warmest winter during the last eighty years, 1868-69, was warmer than the winter just ended by nearly 2° In view of the prevalence of disease amongst honey-- bees during recent years, it has become a matter of practical importance to be able to distinguish with: certainty between individuals which have died* from disease and those the death of which is merely the result of old age or exhaustion. Mrs. Pixell-Goodrich contributes an interesting paper on this subject to the Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science (vol. Ixiv.,, part 2). It appears that during the summer, when actively engaged in collecting honey and pollen, the worker-bees very soon wear themselves out and die a natural death at the age of about six weeks. Senescence—or perhaps one should rather say exhaus- tion from over-exertion—is accompanied by well- marked and easily recognisable changes in’ the nerve-. cells of the “brain.’’ The cytoplasm of these cells: undergoes gradual reduction in quantity, until only a vestige remains around the nucleus. The examina-- tion of the nerve-cells appears to be the most trust-- worthy method yet proposed for determining the age- of bees, but, unfortunately, it involves a considerable- amount of labour in the case of each individual. examined. 7 THe Bulletin of the Bureau of Standards for: July 12, 1919, contains the results of the measure- ments of the index of refraction of air for wave- lengths 2000 to 10,000 tenth metres at different tem- peratures and pressures made by Messrs. W. F. Meggers and C. G. Peters to meet the demands of modern accurate spectroscopy. The Fabry and Perot interferometer was used in the measurements, the plates being of glass or quartz 4-2 cm. in diameter and 06 to o8 cm. thick. They were rendered’ partially reflecting by films spluttered from a metallic cathode in vacuo. Iron or copper arcs and neon or argon tubes served as sources of light. The inter- ference rings were photographed and the diameters of the first three measured. Between the limits of pressure used—73 to 76 cm.—the refractive index was found proportional to the pressure. The variation of the index with temperature between o° C. and 30° C, is not sufficiently well represented by the usual ##—1 proportional to density law. The index of refrac- tion at normal temperature and pressure is given by 0°00057 38A? é 53 sgh 160? wht sign of an appreciable absorption band in the infra- red part of the spectrum. the equation »?—1= shows no: THE annual report of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers gives particulars of the various researches. , which are being carried on under the direction of ' the institution. The following grants were made by- 54 \ NATURE cleanin: 1I, 1920 the council for the year :—Alloys, 220l.; steam- nozzles, 150l.; hardness tests, 150l.; and cutting tools, 100l. ‘The alloys research has been carried on at the National Physical Laboratory, and the eleventh report will be presented at an early date. The construction of the experimental apparatus for the steam-nozzles research has been further delay for lack of funds, but help has been promised by a grant of 5o0ol. from the Turbine Blade Research Committee of the British Electrical and Allied Manufacturers’ Asso- ciation. It is intended to erect the apparatus at the Dickinson Street Power Station, Manchester, and the experiments will be conducted under the super- | vision, of Prof. G. Gerald Stoney and Mr. S. L. Pearce. Hardness tests have been carried out at the National Physical Laboratory by Dr. T. E. Stanton, and it is hoped that reports will be presented this year. to dred of other museums, and: we receive “them. But this is just enough to let us— ine what could be done if*such mutual aid wére 1on’a tecognised footing; if, forinstance, the small ‘of' museum paleontologists of Great: Britain (and. i?) was°so organised.as to cover: the: field; and. ployed that each specialist could help rand advise) 3 dWn' Subject in all museums: as part of his uties. At the first:-meeting: of the’ Museums KSsociation® in 1890:\a committees was appointed to considersome such co-operation; but’ little practical esu Pay ensued, not for lack of ‘goodwill, but because . 5 Cc TmICIAL’ n tions’ stand in» the oway.)' What:-applies palzontotogy appliesto. all other: branches of -know- $6. *But«this is only ‘one of the improvements that | SET. To AEM) tT: T per 7 dissimilar as the management brains best adapted for the purpose in view. : nig t spring from a reform such as we have in view. NO. 2629, VOL. 105 | Many other good results there could be, among them, perhaps, a better training for curators. “But that the results shall be good it is necessary for the directing board to be composed of men with museum sympathies and. experience. . Therefore, whether . the Ministry be that of Education or some new Ministry of Learning and Research, it should exert its financial or ‘other control over museums through a special museum board. :In this way those branches’ of museum work which do not meet the public eye would run less risk of being overlooked. Any large natural history or other science museum is part of the arma- ment employed by man in his unceasing warfare against the forces of Nature. Intellectually ‘and economically that is its main purpose. As the Earl of Crawford, in replying for the Government. on the debate raised by Lord Sudeley, rightly said: ‘It is not the popular guide-books, but the technical and specialised publications issued by museums which really count. They are of vital importance.’’:” Visits to a museum, like visits to a battleship, may be of high educational value, especially under the: guidance of a qualified demonstrator, but—well, the inference is obvious. Only one point needs emphasis. Museums, no less than battleships, should be under the adminis- tration of those familiar with the principles: ‘and methods of the respective warfares. t Mot F. A. Barner. Wimbledon, March 13. 2olf ? TuE relation of the State to the national museums, and of the latter to each other, discussed in’ NaTURE for March 11, is a matter calling for very careful consideration at the present time. A Ministry of Learning and Research, such as is there ‘suggested would render very useful service if" it could (1)'sée that the governing body of each institution was’ cont posed of persons duly qualified for their work; (2) define the scope of each institution, so as ‘to diminish the risk of competition for désirable. Speci- mens, and to provide each with a definite’ piece’ ‘of work for the benefit: of the community; (3) provide: each institution with a due proportion of financial’ assistance; and (4) arrange such a scale of salaries as would ensure the appointment and dvi. rst At this point central control should cease, and each’ governing body be left to do its own work, with the assistance of its staff. Sie aEstEe OO The proposal to place museums and libraries under’ the Board of Education, to which the article ‘alludes,’ has no reference, I believe, to national museums, ‘but’ I should like to place on record my strong disapproval | of such a step. A museum has many duties’ to: pér- form, and education in the sense in which the Board deals with it is only one, and not the most important,’ of them. On the basis of a very extensive acquaint ance with provincial museum curators, I have. ‘no; hesitation in saving that they are fully alive to the educational possibilities of their work.. Many of them» have rendered valuable. service to. the education: authorities of-their- localities, and many. more would have done so had they been permitted; but this does not -prevent them from seeing that their’ museums« -have other functions to perform which ‘doi-not,/fall within the purview of education committees’ as: at present: constituted. In the first place, they ‘are stores | houses of material for enlarging the bounds of human knowledge; secondly; they provide objects of: interest and beauty. for. the ‘intellectual ‘and azsthetic contem- plation’ of the citizen; .and, thirdly, they furnish ‘material for the university student, : post-graduate and» ‘undergraduate. as well as’for ‘children of’ schdol. ages» -. Mav I say in conclusion, thaty in yoy opinion, . the 70 NATURE [Marcu 18, 1920 chief thing that is wrong with museums, national and provincial, is (as Bernard Shaw says of the poor) their poverty ? Wo. Evans Hoy e. National Museum of Wales, Cardiff, March 165. — In the timely and suggestive leading article on museums in Nature of March 11 there are references to the Museum of Practical Geology that need explana- tion, not because they are incorrect, but because they are symptomatic of that forgetfulness of the funda- mental purposes of this museum which has long been obvious in some quarters. It is true that ‘“‘the Museum of Practical Geology was a _ necessary concomitant of the Geological Survey,’’ but this was not, and never has been, its sole raison d’étre. It was founded as the Museum of Economic Geology—that is, of economic geology in its broadest aspects. It had, therefore, from its inception two functions to perform: (1) To serve as the storehouse and exhibition for all the concrete documentary material collected during the making of the geological maps—material of the greatest value as a demonstration of the facts of British geology and usefully employed for educational, industrial, and purely scientific purposes; and (2) to act as the national repository of material illustrative of all those mineral resources that form the basis of mining, metallurgical, arid other industries. The first of these functions is purely British in scope, the second is world-wide. As regards overlapping with the Natural History Museum, there is none; and alternatively, as the lawyers say, if there is any it, should cease, since the functions of the two institutions are clearly differentiated. The scheme of the geological and mineralogical departments of the Natural History Museum is academic, and that of the Museum of Practical Geology economic. On the other hand, the _ Imperial Institute in respect of its mineral exhibits does overlap the functions of the older institution. This is a question requiring attention in any scheme of reconstruction. Witiiam G. WAGNER. March 15. Some Methods of Approximate Integration and of Computing Areas. ENGINEERS and shipbuilders are continually requir- ing to find the area of a surface bounded by curved lines. If both the upper and lower boundaries are curved, it is a simple matter to divide the surface into two by a straight line, find the area of each part separately, and add them together. Simpson’s rule is almost universally used for this purpose, but a little consideration will show that a more accurate evaluation of the area can be obtained in most cases by using other rules. We will consider an area contained by a base line, two vertical ordinates at the ends, and a number cf intermediate ordinates placed at equal distances along the base line. If the base line be divided into m equal intervals, each of a length h, there will, of course, be m+i1, or n, ordinates. When the height of these ordinates is known, and the value of h the interval also, an approximation to the value of the area can ‘be obtained which increases in accuracy with the number of ordinates taken and measured, when the curve is of an anomalous shape. (1) If the upper boundary be a straight line, an exact result will be obtained by merely the two end ordinates y, and y, and the length of the base line h; A=sh(v,+y, ‘ ; (2) If the upper boundary be a parabola, an exact NO. 2629, VOL. 105] rh will be obtained by bisecting the base line, and then —(n +Y3+ 4y2); where h is half the base line. This is Simpson’s well-known rule: If any odd number of ordinates be taken, say 7, it is considered as a succession of three areas bounded above by three parabolas, i.e. the area from y, to y, is added to the area from y, to y,, and this, again, is added to the area from y, to y,. The formula used is then 4 —,, A oe FY, +2 Vyet+V5+4 Vt I+Ie | If m denote the number of additional areas com- puted by this method, the general formula will take . the form oo een ae A Se [21 tys+m+2 Vi+omt4 ea It should be especially noted that this formula must be used only when the number n of ordinates is odd and the number of intervals even. In the second and third terms the values 1, 2, 3, etc., are assigned successively to the symbol m, ending with that value of m which denotes the number of additional areas © that are to be computed. The formula is based on the assumption that y=a+bx+cx?, and gives the best possible approximation to the true area if only three ordinates are given. why (3) If, however, four ordinates be given, we, may assume that y=a+bx+cx?+dx*, and the resulting formula based on this assumption, wen 34. —— , . —— Ax <| yty+3 +I} will give the best possible approximation if only four ordinates are given. This formula should be used only when the number of ordinates is 4+3m, and it then becomes cn od Chagergnaers | : A we], ynvant2 Vi+gnt+3 TatIs+Iaxan4Iaram | (4) If five ordinates be given, we shall obtain a more accurate result by assuming that y is a quartic function of x, and for 5, 9, 13, or 5+4m ordinates the following formula may be used: eon 2H ———— ASS aL? NtVs+amt14 Yy+amt 12 VetV3+4m+32 V2 I+ IaxemtIacon | (5) Similarly, if 6+5m ordinates be given, y may be regarded as a quintic function of x, and the for- mula becomes : hve h REBT pm Aw 52) 19 Vit Io+rsm+ 38 Vi 45m+ 75 VatVetIo+5mtI5+5m + 50 T+ ee (6) Again, if 7+6m ordinates be given, y may be assumed to be a sextic function of x, and we then have the formula : AeA] gr +z 46m+82 + mete 40 Witz +6m Vir+em 216 Yo+Vet+Ix+0m+Io4om+ 27 VatVstV3+omtI5+6mt 272 V+Yex0n In all these formule the first term consists of the sum of the first and the last ordinate. In (2), (3), (4), (5), and (6) the values 1, 2, 3, etc., are assigned suc- cessively to the symbol m in the following terms according to the number of ordinates. Thus if in (6) nineteen ordinates are given, 19=7+6m, so m=2. a eee ; Marcu 18, 1920] — ; - NATURE 71 en m=o, the ordinates with m as a part of their cript are omitted in all but the first term. -Example.—Suppose the base line be divided into equal Sh agehdgad (h=%), and the value of the q y,=0 Y2=0°5527708 -- Ys =0°7453560 Y,=0°3660254 Vs =0-942 : . ¥—e= 09860133 (6), (3) which is adapted to 4+3m es, and (2) which can be used when 3+2m es are employed. We should expect to get a ore accurate result when the higher-order formula ; employed, this we shall find to be correct. he values given refer to the quadrant of a circle, ) that the true value is 7/4, or 0-78539816 .. . ‘method (6), putting m=o, the result is 0-7791866, 07972 per cent. too small, method (3) the result is 07758061, or 1-342 per method (@) the result is 0777531, or 1-063 per result is curious, and shows that a small arc 2 approaches more nearly to a small arc of ala than to a small arc of any cubic curve, will be noted that method (6) gives a much ‘may, however, use a combination of the above for instance, we may take five ordinates by ) and the remaining two intervals by rule (2). first three ordinates increase more rapidly than three, we should naturally leave the last be dealt with by rule (2). In this way a 0-7! 54, or a defect of o-0069027, or an per cent. is obtained. Had we the order and used Simpson’s rule for the wo intervals, the defect would have been , Or an error of 1-o102 per cent. sion, it may be stated that if the nature is unknown a more accurate result will obtained by using the highest-order formula be used with the given number of ordinates. different formule are used, it has just been that the most accurate result is obtained when ver-order formula is used for that part of the in which the variation of the ordinates is the If the curve be a parabola, an absolutely result is obtained by using only three by means of method (2). ; may be thought that plotting the curve and _ estimating its area mechanically by means of a plani- _ meter will be always the best and speediest method to adopt, but this is by no means the case. It often takes far less time to calculate, say, thirteen ordinates to use method (6) than to trace the curve. Snek os A. S. PERcIVAL. “Westward, Newcastle-upon-Tyne. OE I ye An Electronic Theory of Isomerism. _ Tue interesting suggestions made by Mr. W. E. Garner in Nature for February 19 with regard to a _ possible explanation of the isomerism of certain _ Organic compounds may be examined from a different, _ but perhaps simpler, point of view by employing the _ “ring electron ” or ‘‘ magneton ”’ of Mr. A. L. Parson. The electron is looked upon as a circular anchor ring of negative electricity rotating about its axis at a high speed, and therefore behaving like a small magnet. In connection with atomic and molecular NO. 2629, VOL. 105] > numbers | have directed attention elsewhere to the ‘rule of eight,” according to which a difference of 8 or a multiple of 8 is frequently found between the numbers of the unit electric charges associated with analogous atoms or molecules. In the theory of the “cubical atom”? put forward by Prof. Gilbert N. Lewis and developed by Dr. Irving Langmuir, one of the most stable configurations for the atomic shell is that in which eight electrons are held at the corners of a cube. The single bond commonly used in graphical formulz involves two electrons held in common by two atoms (Fig. 1); the double bond implies that four electrons are held conjointly by two atoms (Fig. 2) Or if the pair of electrons be regarded as the most stable grouping of all, it may be, as Lewis and Langmuir suggest, that the pairs of elec- trons held in common by two atoms are drawn closer FIG. 3. together by the magnetic attraction between them. Dextro- and lzvo-rotatory forms of a compound might then be represented as mirror images as in Fig. 3. The letters N and S in this diagram may be taken to represent the polarity of the external face of the ring electron. Mr. Garner suggests the possibility of the existence of a large number of optical isomerides amongst organic compounds, but the view here put forward does not lead to that conclusion; on the contrary, it seems to give exactly the same number of isomerides as the ordinary structural formula. It is true that it is possible to reverse in the diagram the magnetic polarity of one or more pairs of electrons, but even if the arrangements so obtained were stable, it is doubtful whether they would represent different iso- merides. It would not be possible to explain the phenomenon of free mobility about a single bond 72 NATURE ° [| Marcu 18, 1920 which is assumed in_ stereo-chemistry if such a reversal of the magnetic axis were accompanied by a change in the nature of the compound. Such modi- fications, however, might conceivably account for muta- rotation. It was thought that in the case of a double bond, such as exists in cinnamic acid, it might be possible to have a larger number of isomerides than would be given by the ordinary theory, but a close examination of the structural formulz based on the cubical atom has shown that (subject to the limitation already referred to) this is not so. The view here suggested appears to afford an adequate basis for a theory of optical activity. Such activity arises from a difference effect, and can be manifested only when there is lack of compensation amongst the electrons associated with the various parts of the molecule. If the chemical bond is to be attributed to a pair of electrons, it is easy to under- stand how such compensation can be brought about in the great majority of chemical compounds. In the case of a single asymmetric carbon atom, the sym- metrical arrangement of each of the four electron pairs is disturbed by the presence of the adjacent groups, resulting in only partial compensation. Thus in the compound Cabcd, the pair of electrons asso- ciated with group a is under the influence of the unlike groups c and d, and, therefore, cannot be sym- metrical. But if c and d are made alike, the whole molecule will have a plane of symmetry indicated by the broken line in the left half of Fig. 3. Thus the molecule will be inactive through ‘internal com- pensation ’’ with respect to the electrons which form the outer shell of the carbon atom. I may add that the ring electron, constrained to move backwards and forwards along its linear axis, is admirably adapted to replace the ordinary electron moving backwards and forwards along a spiral path postulated in Drude’s theory of rotatory liquids. It may be permissible in this connection to emphasise the remarkable success that has attended Langmuir’s development of the “octet” theory, by means of which it is possible to predicate the physical and chemical qualities of a substance, and even its crystalline structure. Langmuir states that the theory seems to explain all the cases of stereo-isomerism with which he is. familiar. ‘‘ For example, in the amine oxides, N R,R,R, O, nitrogen is quadricovalent, so that these substances exist as optical isomers, just as in the case of a carbon atom attached to four different groups.’? Such a compound is, in fact, represented by the diagram already given. H. S. Aten. The University, Edinburgh, March 2. The Principle of Equivalence and the Notion of Force. I sHaLt be grateful to be permitted to make an inquiry in connection with the principle of equivalence through the medium of the columns of Nature. In the recent forms of the theory of relativity it has been asserted that in the neighbourhood’ of matter we may alternatively conceive the existence either of a field of gravitational force or of a dis- tortion in the space-time continuum, the two con- ceptions being equivalent. The point then arises, however, as to whether, in arranging the body of ideas and propositions constituting hysical science in logical sequence, the idea of force (at any rate, ‘‘force” in the sense of ‘‘action at a distance’’) or that of dis- torted space-time should be regarded as logically prior. The possibility of adopting the idea of distorted space- time as prior, and hence of finally dispensing with the notion of force from the physical scheme, evidently depends on a further generalisation of the principle NO. 2629, VOL. 105 | of equivalence. connection with other forms of action at a distance, such as the forces in a magnetic or an electrostatic field. Apparently we cannot regard these as equivalent to a space-time distortion, for they lack the uni- versality of gravitation, seeing that only bodies of specific types of material are deflected by them. I should therefore like to ask two questions: (1) Is it possible to extend the principle of equi- valence in any way so as to include all forms of action at a distance? (2) If not, is there anything purely logical point of view, by ained, even from a iscarding the notion of gravitational force while we are still unable to discard by the same method the notion of certain other forces which in many respects exhibit a close analogy to gravitation? OF, ©, Prins 4 The Crescent, St. Bees, Cumberland, March rt. Expenses of Scientific Work. A JOINT committee of the British Association of Chemists, the Institute of Chemistry, and the National Union of Scientific Workers is putting forward the claim that the following expenses should be allowed as a charge against income in arriving at the assess- ment of those who earn their living either by purely scientific pursuits or by the application of science to industry :— (1) Subscriptions to scientific and technical societies and libraries, and to scientific and technical periodicals. (2) Purchase and renewal of scientific and technical books, instruments, materials. (3) Rent and expenses of study or laboratory. (4) Travelling and other expenses incurred in attend- a, scientific meetings. 5 ). Provision of special clothing for work: and re. — newal of clothes damaged in the course of employ- ment. (6) Other research. expenses incurred A form of memorial to be presented to the Lords of | the Treasury is being sent to all bodies representative of scientific workers for their consideration and Ste: port. Some claims for abatements under the above head- ings have already been made by individuals with varying success. I should be grateful for any informa- tion available in support of the petition. | e A. G, CHuRCH, Secretary. National Union of Scientific Workers, 19 6©Tothill Street, Westminster, - London, S.W.1, March 15. Scientific Reunions at the Natural History Museum. I write to correct a small error that has crept into the note on the meeting of the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea which appeared in Nature for March 11. When the members of that council visited the Natural History Museum on March 2 they were entertained, not by the Trustees, but by the Staff Association, the occasion being a scientific reunion, as was, indeed, stated in a later note in ‘the same issue. JI may add that these reunions are held with the approval and permission: of the Trustees. G. 1 ee HERBERT | ‘SMITH, . ‘Hon.. Secretary. © Natural History eee Staff Association. For a difficulty seems to arise in ~ apparatus, chemicals, and other’ in the course of NATURE Exchequer in introducing a Bill into the ise of Commons for the purpose of debasing sr Currency from 925 to 500 parts per 1000 directed public attention to the acute shortage silver which exists. This action is unavoidable silver currency is to be maintained, since the of the metal has risen so much that coins 9 longer tokens. They are, in fact, worth y considerably more than their face value, there is, accordingly, a temptation to melt ss ; that the transaction would bring in. Such a procedure is, of course, illegal. In the years ding the war the market price of silver, e subject to fluctuations, was never far from per “standard ounce.” This expression is er unfortunate, since it is not the ounce that* standard, but the quality of the metal. Its meaning is a troy ounce of silver alloy con- ning 92-5 per cent. of the metal. With standard silver at about 5s. 6d. per ounce, the jins reach parity. During recent weeks the market price has fluctuated between 7s. and 5d. per ounce, though it is true that a remark- able fal of 64 in the price took place on _ March 5, and a further fall of 54 on March 11, owing to the improvement in the exchange with the United States of America.- As _ stated, however, the Chancellor’s action is neces- sary, since the minting of silver coins is possible only at a heavy loss. Nevertheless, this Bill was in the House, although the opposition not carried to a division. It so happens that in January this year the rt and appendices of the Committee appointed _ by the Secretary of State for India to inquire into - Indian exchange and currency were published and presented to Parliament. In vol. iii. will be found dix xxx., which contains a report on the _ world’s production of silver.!_ This is the work of Prof. C. Gilbert Cullis and Prof. H. C. H. Car- ter, who at the request ‘of the Secretary of tte for India undertook an inquiry more than year ago into the output of silver during recent _ years in the various silver-producing countries ; _ the prospects, so far as they could be estimated, future output; and the causes by which it is likely to be influenced. Their report covers some sixty foolscap pages. The subject-matter is pre- sented in five main sections dealing severally with the raw materials from which silver is obtained, the location and quantitative importance of centres _ where silver-bearing ores are mined, the processes _ involved in the extraction of the metal, the dis- tribution and relative importance of the centres where refining is carried out, and the conclusions affecting the supplies and price of the metal. _ It appears from this report that in 1860 the Sttary of State for India to inating ito Indian Hxcharge and gah hong 1 No. xxx., *‘ Report on the World’s Production of S H. C. H. Carpenter and Prof. C. Gilbert Cullis. NO. 2629, VOL. 105 | a ver.” By Prof. Pp. 182-241. down and sell them for the considerable | . The World’s Production of Silver. E recent action of the Chancellor of the | world’s production of “fine ”—i.e. pure—silver was 30 million ounces. With some fluctuations this increased steadily until 1912, when the output was 233 million ounces, or nearly eight times that of more than half a century earlier, From that date, although a continuance of the upward trend was to be expected, a decline in production set in and continued down to the end of 1917, which was the last year for which complete figures are avail- able. It is clear from the report that this reduc- _ tion in output is assignable not to any sudden failure of the world’s resources, but to an inter- ruption in the winning of them. The main source of the sunnly of silver ore is the American Continent, which in 1912 produced 82-5 per cent. of the total output. Approximately three-quarters came from North America and Mexico, the former furnishing 42 per cent. and the latter 32 per cent. Mexico was the largest single producer. A decrease in Canadian produc- tion had set in shortly before this, due to the pro- gressive exhaustion of the Cobalt mines, but this was more than compensated by an increase in the production of the United States. The key to the shortage of the world’s supplies is to be found in Mexico, where, owing to a series of political revolutions, the production fell from an average of close upon 74 million fine ounces for the years T910-13 to an average of little more than 30} million fine ounces for the years 1914-17, a reduc- tion of some 434 million out of a total reduction of 50 million ounces in the world’s output. _ This serious diminution in the supply came at a time when, owing to the withdrawal of gold from circulation on account of the war, there was an unusually keen demand for silver, particularly for coinage purposes. The report of the Currency Committee points out that the coinage of the British Empire absorbed nearly 108 million ounces of fine silver in the years 1915-18, as against 30% million ounces in the years 1910-13, and there is evidence that there have been similar increases in the coinage of other countries. Moreover, whereas China from 1914-17 was a seller of silver, and her net exports amounted to more than 77 million ounces, she has since become a per- sistent buyer, and the recent remarkable rise in the price of the metal is due to her purchases. India has for many years been a heavy buyer of the metal, and in times of normal trade was the largest importer of this commodity. War con- ditions have accentuated this, and in the three fiscal years April, 1916, to March, 1919, purchases for the purpose of liquidating trade balances amounted to more than 500 million ounces, which was probably very nearly the entire world’s pro- duction for the period. These have been the chief _ (but not the only) factors in raising the price of _ silver to its extraordinary level. It is clearly seen from the report that silver is mainly obtained as a_ by-product from mines | which are worked for some other metal or metals. 74 NATURE | Marcu 18, 1920 ‘Relatively few properties are worked solely or even mainly for silver, and only a small propor- tion of the world’s supply has of late years been derived from them. It is therefore essentially a by-product. The more important economic metals with which it is most commonly associated are gold, copper, lead, and zinc. These five metals tend to be gregarious, and many deposits contain all of them. It is also found with tin, as in Bolivia, and with nickel and cobalt, as in Ontario, but such cases are uncommon. Although in dif- ferent regions or in different parts of the same region the above five metals are found in a great variety of combinations, certain of these are par- ticularly common. Thus gold and silver almost invariably occur together either with or without base metals. Again, lead and zinc nearly always accompany each other, and ores carrying these two metals, notably those in which lead pre- dominates, are often richly argentiferous, the lead and silver forming an especially characteristic association. Copper in like manner is usually accompanied by small quantities of gold or of both gold and silver. The presence or absence of base metals in silver-yielding ores is of par- ticular importance, since it determines the exist- ing diversity in their metallurgical treatment and occasions their classification into two groups, known respectively as “milling ores” and “smelt- ing ores,” the former signifying those in which the values are entirely or mainly in precious metal. From the figures quoted in the report, it appears that, broadly speaking, about two-thirds of the world’s supply of silver in 1912 was obtained from base metal, and one-third from precious metal, ores. Further, only one-fifth was obtained from mines worked exclusively for silver, while four-fifths was derived as a by-product from mines which were worked primarily for one or more of the metals—gold, copper, lead, and zinc—and would not have been in operation if their silver had been the only metal present. Formerly, the precious metal ores were the more important source of supply, but in the last few decades more and more of the metal has been won from base metal ores. It will be seen, therefore, that the authors, in endeavouring to estimate the future production of silver, have been forced to take into consideration the mining and metallurgy of four other important metals as well. It is stated in the report that in 1912 the New World—i.e. the American Continent—furnished 82°5 per cent., and the Old World only 17-5 per cent., of the mine production of silver. The output in the British Empire was 21-7 per cent. Mexico led with 32-0 per cent., followed closely by the United States with 28-3 per cent. Towards the production of refined silver the New World con- tributed 73-0 per cent., and the Old World 27-0 per cent., the contribution of the British Empire being 18-2 per cent. The interesting fact emerges that the United States of America refined just about one-half the world’s silver (49-6 per cent.), whereas Mexico refined only 14:2 per cent. NO. 2629, VOL. 105] More than half the Mexican mine production was refined in the U.S.A., and very nearly the same ~ proportion of the Canadian output. It will be seen, therefore, that the position now held by the U.S.A., as the chief source of supplies of refined silver, is one of considerable importance. The same is true to an even greater extent for the metals copper and zinc. The authors’ view of the future is that if normal industrial conditions are restored in regions of curtailed production, a silver output at least as great as any yet attained may reasonably be anticipated. If, however, conditions affecting industry in general, and mining and metallurgical industries in particular, do not become favourable in these regions, a long period must elapse before the world’s output can return to the previous high-water level, and a still longer one before the advance beyond that level interrupted since 1912 can be resumed. So long as the political ‘conditions remain unsettled in Mexico, supplies from that country will continue to be small. This is particularly serious, because of the large dimen- sions of the normal Mexican output. . With the demand for silver more urgent than any previously experienced, the restoring of the mines and mills of Mexico to unhampered pro- duction has become a matter of pressing inter- national importance. It must be borne in mind, however, that any extension in the mining of precious metal ores will take time, and that the mining of base metal ores is for the moment below normal, and will continue so as long as the surplus supplies of copper, lead, and zinc produced during the war remain unabsorbed. Silver production — will probably, therefore, remain for a time at a low level. When, however, increased precious metal mining reaches the production stage, and the temporary check to base metal mining has been removed, the authors anticipate a steady increase in the output of the metal. It is well to remember that, although silver has long occupied an important position as “second string’ among metals suitable for currency, there are important industrial demands for it for other purposes. It is only necessary to mention two of these. First, in addition to the mechanical properties which make it valuable as a currency metal, there are others which have long been known and utilised in the silversmith’s art. Standard silver lends itself readily to rolling, stamping, spinning, and mechanical operations employed in the manipulation of the metal in the arts, and upon them important industries giving employment to many workers are _ based. Secondly, the well-known sensitiveness of silver salts to light, made use of in photography, is being increasingly utilised in the ‘moving picture”’. industry, which in recent years has absorbed a considerable proportion of the total output of the metal. Both these industries are formidable competitors for silver produced to-day, and they will have to be reckoned with by future Chancellors of the Exchequer. I. RCH 18, 1920] NATURE 75 DER the title, “Calendars of the Indians North of Mexico” (University of California tions in American Archeology and Ethno- -yol. xvi., No. 4), Miss Leona Cope has d and arranged a large amount of informa- saling with the divisions of time in use the Indians of North America, including linguistic 1 material. The term “calendar ” e taken in a very elastic sense, for the power of keeping account of an interval is usually limited to two or three years, never went so far, apparently, as even to “number of days in a month. The only rule seems to be a complete absence of nity, variations of system being found even the most closely related groups. The basic is naturally the lunation, indicated by an on which is related etymologically, with- ception, to the moon, and reckoned generally new moon, but in some cases trom full _ Whe month is sometimes divided into E ly depending on the lunar phases, ‘variable in length and number. In eral, the seasons are vaguely marked periods directly connected with the months, though latter are sometimes divided into a summer winter series. When the wide range of in the area is considers, a corresponding Practice is natural enough. Thus it is that the Ee eulasd Eskimo find a division of the day in the ebb and flow des, or that a Point Barrow Eskimo y that there are nine “moons,” and after moon, but the sun only. But the varia- _Time-reckoning of the North American Indians. tions within connected groups make the study a complicated one. This appears especially in the attempts to con- nect the series of months with the year. For the most part, covering the whole of the eastern and central region, there is no astronomical founda- tion. There is no uniformity in the time of begin- ning the year. In general, twelve months are recognised and are designated by purely descrip- tive names associated with some seasonal event. Some tribes have thirteen or even more months, but the mode of adjustment is quite crude, a month being sometimes intercalated or omitted only when a palpable discrepancy with the seasons shows the need. Only in the south-west, along the Pacific coast, and among the Eskimo of the far north is an astronomical element introduced. This takes the form of observing the winter sol- stice; the equinoxes, if recognised, are never used for the purpose. A particular variation in the naming of the months takes a numerical form. This occurs on the Alaskan coast and further south; only two tribes have a complete system of this kind, while a third is unique in combining numbered months with a solstitial basis. Ritual ceremonies are also represented in the names of the months among western tribes. Apparently, the Kaniagmiut Eskimo are alone in naming months from the rising of the Pleiades or Orion. Altogether the astronomical element in this com- plex subject is small, and the present memoir, which contains three maps representing the regional distribution of different types or systems, has its chief interest on the linguistic side and as a study of primitive culture. HE premature death of Dr. Charles Gordon Hewitt, Dominion Entomologist of Canada, uccumbed to an attack of pneumonia, follow- influenza, on February 29, is a serious loss to cal science. To an aptitude for field observa- cultivated from his earliest youth, Dr. Hewitt knowledge and skill in the latest labora- methods. While eagerly devoting attention » the numerous economic problems which came efore him, he always appreciated the necessity _constant purely scientific research. He ked, indeed, in the most favourable circum- nees, and made the best. use of his opportunities. _ Born near Macclesfield in 1885, Dr. Hewitt ssed from the local grammar school with a arship to the University of Manchester. After oe with honours in zoology, he was u ited assistant demonstrator in that science, id F wiien a new department of economic zoology as founded at Manchester, he became the first lecturer. During this period he hired a green- he 1ouse and made an exhaustive study of the life- NO, 2629, VOL. 105 | Obituary. Dr. CHARLES Gorpon HEwiItTT. history of the house-fly, which formed the subject of his thesis for the doctorate. He was a pioneer in such work in this country, and his general results were eventually published in the form of a Cambridge manual. At the same time he undertook researches on the large larch saw-fly, which was ravaging the plantations of the Man- chester Corporation round Thirlmere. He was also interested in the feeding habits of certain insectivorous birds. In r909 Dr. Hewitt was appointed entomologist to the Dominion of Canada, and at once began to organise laboratory work on the lines which he had already proved successful. He also paid much attention to the improvement of the law relating to injurious insects, Gradually his interests widened, until in 1917 he increased his responsibilities by accepting the post of consulting zoologist to the Canadian Commission of Con- servation. He took an active part in the work of the Commission, at@ contributed several papers on the protection of mammals and birds 70 _NATURE [Marcu 18, 1920 to its annual reports. His advice was duly appreciated and considered in framing legislation. Dr. Hewitt was a corresponding member. of the Zoological Society of London, and he received the gold medal of the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds. By the death of Sir Ropert Morant at the early age of fifty-seven the Civil Service loses one of its ablest and most remarkable members. His great powers of organisation found full scope for their exercise when he was, in 1902, appointed Secretary of the recently created Board of Educa- tion. The appointment was well merited, for it was to his indefatigable industry in supplying material, to his skill in dealing with details, and to his ingenuity in overcoming difficulties that the Education Bill of 1902 was safely carried through Parliament. As permanent head of the Board of Education his restless energy and ceaseless activity bore down all opposition, and made him ready at all costs to carry out his own ideas. Organisation was indeed with him a rulitfg passion, and the smooth working of a complicated machine tended to become more important than the purpose the machine was intended to serve. During the ten years that he held the post of Secretary he served under five different Presidents, and the rapid suc- cession of his temporary chiefs was not altogether unconnected with his own remarkable tenacity of purpose and skill in carrying it into effect. While his undoubted talents and magnificent powers of work have thus left their mark on the educational system of the country, it still remains to be seen if the vast and expensive machinery he called into existence will be more of a help than a hindrance in the development of our national education. In 1912, on the appointment of Mr. J. A. Pease as President of the Board of Education, Sir Robert Morant was promoted to the chairmanship of the English Commission formed under the National Health Insurance Act. He lived to see the early opposition to this Act gradually die away, and the Act itself become part of a great scheme of health legislation. To this Commission he devoted the same power of organisation and intensity of effort, and his early death is probably largely owing to his unsparing use of these great talents in the public service.—C. A. B. THE death is announced of the veteran Italian botanist, Dr. PIER ANDREA SACCARDO, emeritus professor in the Royal University of Padua. Born at Treviso in 1845, Prof. Saccardo joined the Royal Botanic Garden of Padua in 1866 as assistant director, and in 1878 became director—a post which he retained for the remainder of his official life. He was also professor of botany in the Royal University. He is best known for his systematic work on the fungi; his ‘“Sylloge Fungorum omnium hucusque cognitorum” has been, since the publication of vol. i. in 1882, the working handbook of systematic mycology. Succeeding NO. 2629, VOL. 105 | parts or volumes appeared at intervals, the last, vol. xxii, in 1913; other eminent mycologists have co-operated in this great work. Prof. Saccardo also published numerous separate memoirs dealing with the fungi. His “Note Mycologice ’’ was a series of descriptive papers in various journals devoted to mycology from 1890 to. 1916, when series xx. appeared in the Nuovo Giornale Botanico Italiano. But his activities were not limited to the fungi. Under the title “La Botanica in Italia” (1895, 1901), an exhaustive compendium of Italian botanists and their work from the Roman epoch onwards, he made a valuable contribution to botanical biblio- graphy. volume to the “Flora analitica d’Italia” (by Fiori, Paoletti, and Béguinot), entitled “Crono- logia della Flora Italia,” a systematic list of the earlier records of the species of ferns and flower- ing plants, native or naturalised in Italy. Prof. Saccardo was also the author of a pamphlet, ‘““Chromotaxia,”’ on colour nomenclature, for the use of botanists and zoologists. In recognition of his eminent services to botany he was elected in. 1916 a foreign member of our own Linnean Society. WE regret to note that Engineering for March 5 records the death of Mr. Wiuti1AM RICHARDS WI.u1AMs on February 23. Mr. Williams studied engineering at the Royal Engineering College, Coopers Hill, and was appointed in 1887 assistant engineer to the Public Works Department by H.M. Secretary of State for India. His work in India was chiefly connected with irrigation. ~ In 1go1 he was appointed to the Irrigation Service in Egypt, and ultimately became Inspector-General of Irrigation, Lower Egypt. Mr. Williams had been a member of the Institution of Civil Engineers since 1906. WE have received from Dr. Angel Gallardo, now president of the Argentine National Council of Education, a copy of his obituary notice of Dr. F. P. Moreno in El Monitor de la Educacion Comun (Buenos Aires, December 31, 1919). Dr. Gallardo gives some account of Dr. Moreno’s later work for education, to which we briefly referred in Nature for January 15, and empha- sises especially the importance of his efforts to provide for the children of the poorer classes. Among other institutions, Dr. Moreno established the Boy Scouts in Argentina. The notice is accompanied. by an excellent portrait, which is, | however, a little blurred in the printing. We much regret to see the announcement of the death, on March 13, in his seventy-eighth year, of PRor. CHARLES LAPworTH, for many years professor of geology and physiography in the University of Birmingham. In 1909 he contributed a supplemental — ARCH 18, 1920 | E directed attention to several faults that have s rectified if the compass is to be of use on a I shall now discuss the last, but by no e least, of the errors that may arise if the is not properly designed. This error was | when the ADR gt pate was first brought it proved a most difficult fault to correct, elimination has had more to do with the the later forms of gyro-compass than any gyro-wheel is precessed towards, and kept to, the north by an ordinary pendulum it will work well on board ship provided that ip is steaming on a fairly smooth sea; but if irection of the ship points anywhere in the its—that is, north-west or north-east, south- -south-east—and the ship rolls, the wheel will set itself so as to bring the rim of the spinning eel in line with the roll; and in a long-continued heavy roll the compass may show an error of _more—a most serious fault, and one that ender the instrument quite useless in a heavy his. error is called the ‘‘quadrantal error.” nt of the error depends upon the violence of y’s rolling and the direction of the axis of the . If the ship points direct north, south, east, t, the error is nothing, but it would be a maxi- any of the directions before méntioned. | nk Anschutz was the first to point out the nd suggest a cure. This I gather from one ublications in the year 1911, in which, spéak- le tendency of the compass to wander when ship, he says :—‘‘ Theoretically, the influence lic turning movements on a gyroscopic ap- must disappear completely if not only the but also the apparent, movements of inertia novable system become equal for each plane.’’ go back again and study our simple gyro- we see that the movable system is not sym- . In the direction of the axis of the wheel et of tilting movement is more or less resisted the spinning wheel—this may be termed the ed direction; while at right angles to this— , in the direction of the rim of the wheel—there resistance to tilting encountered, and this direc- we term the direction of free swing. A simple orm of gyro-compass pointing, therefore, in a direc- On, say, north-west on board a rolling ship has a force applied to it tending to turn it so as to bring its direction of free swing into line with the roll. Anschutz gets rid of the error by multiplying the umber of his gyro-wheels and by making the istrument as symmetrical as possible. In England juadrantal error was first discovered and studied, eve, by the Admiralty Compass Department. In ar 1914 the Sperry Co. claimed to have effected re for the error by attaching the pendulous weight, directly to the gyro casing, but through a pin ‘ranged to move in a slot in the casing. In order hat the axis of suspension of the pendulum may emain vertical when the compass oscillates with the olling of the ship, a small auxiliary gvro was em- lo to stabilise the pin connection between the endulum and the gvro casing. _ We therefore see in these applications of Anschutz and Sperry two -eneral ideas. In the first case the idea is to make everything symmetrical, like a ball, that there is no stabilised or free swing direction cul t IVEG isconrse delivered at the Royal Institution on Friday,, January, 30. inued from p. 48. : NO. 2629, VOL. 105] iyyes NATURE a7 The Gyrostatic Compass. By S. G. Brown, F.R.S.' to the wheel, and; therefore; no tendency to turn; while in the second a method is provided to pre- vent the point of application of the pendulum weight from moving and acting as a crank, and, by keeping the pendulum weight always vertical in the north- west direction, to destroy its power of turning the compass. In the Brown compass the quadrantal error is eliminated by making the weight operate completely out of phase with the roll—that is, at 90° displace- ment. If a gyro-compass is worked by a weight which tends to precess the wheel in phase with the roll, then there must be a quadrantal error, but there will be no error if it is forced to operate completely out of phase with it. It is also essential, as Anschutz has remarked, that the real moments of inertia shall be the same in all directions of the movable system of the compass; that is to say, the moving system should be in dynamic balance, as it is termed. If a child’s hoop is suspended by a string and is swinging in one direction, the hoop tends to set itself lengthwise to the direction of the swing. On the other hand, if an exactly similar hoop be_ placed over, but at right angles to, the first, and suspended as before, then on swinging the hoops there will be no tendency for them to turn, as they are now in dynamic balance. It is for this reason that the mass distribution of the moving system of the gyro-compass should be in dynamic balance, and to carry this out adjustable weights are fitted, usually in the direction of the spindle of the wheel, to counteract the weight of the supporting ring of the gyro casing, and thus there is no tendency for the compass to turn, due to this cause, when under the action of rolling. The Brown gyro-compass is shown diagrammatically in Fig. 4. Blaserna. rape Tnstitute of Research in Animal Nutrition at Aberdeen has received a gift of t10,oool. from Mr. iB Aw _Rowett. The amount required from public sources for _the establishment of the institution is MR, AL; As 7 SWINTON, during his presi- dential address, to the Wireless Society of London on February 28, reviewed, with the aid of experiments, adyances'.in wireless telegraphy since 1914, and received, in full view of the audience, messages from Gen,,‘Ferrié. in Paris,and from the Slough station of the: Radio Communication Co, These messages were received, not,on the usual external aerial, but on a simple loop of wire standing on the lecture-table. Ine, the. eourse of a speech at a Conference of Pro- vineial; and: ‘Suburban Wireless Societies, held on Februaty 27: under. the presidency of Sir Charles Bright;) Capt.. F. C. Loring announced that the Post Office :is:.in..favour of granting wireless licences of about ,to:;watts where an. amateur can prove that he thoroughly: understands the apparatus and is a pro- ficient, operator, and that his. transmitting station’ is to, ;be;.used for’ genuine experimental work and not merely.. for ,communication .between. other ‘stations: in . a general way. WE are officially informed that Dr. Carlos Ameghino 1as, ‘been appointed director of the National Museum . in succession to,|_ of ‘Natural History, Buenos Aires, Dr. ‘Angel Gallardo, Minister of ‘Education. The new director ; younger brother of the late Dr. Florentino Ameghino, NO. 2629, VOL. 105 | who retired in 1916 to become: is.‘ the. earlier part of his career Dr. plored many parts of Patagonia and made. ithe. great collections of fossil vertebrate, remains.,.which. were studied and, described by his brother. . During, recent years he, has been interested in the evidence: fort “ts association of man. with extinct Bigh Argentina. bay Tue council of the Linnean Society has is sai to the fellows a statement of the present ‘financial _posi- tion and outlook of the society, recommending. them to increase the annual contribution from 3l.. to 4l. The cost of publication is now so high that the Wein. actions have already been suspended, and the Journal is so much reduced that the issue of many valuable papers has to be postponed for an. indefinite time. The due maintenance of the library and the prepara- | tion of an up-to-date catalogue are impossible in existing circumstances, and all establishment charges ; still tend to rise. If the difficulties appeared to be temporary some of the small invested funds. of the society might be used, but as there is no prospect of a return to former conditions an increased income is absolutely essential. Nearly all the learned societies are at present faced with similar problems, and the time seems to have arrived when there should be some action in common to consider the posits of ome from public funds. Tue following are among the lecture arcasi@ectiente at the Royal Institution after Eastér :—Major G. W. C. Kaye, two lectures on recent advances in X-ray work; Prof. Arthur Keith, four lectures on British ethnology: The Invaders of England; Major C. E. Inglis, two lectures on the evolution of large bridge construction; Mr. Sidney Skinner, two lectures on (1) Ebullition and Evaporation, (2) The Tensile Strength of, Liquids; Mr. R. Campbell Thompson, two lectures on (1) The Origins of the Dwellers in Mesopotamia, and (2) The Legends of the Baby- lonians; Mr. A. P. Graves, two lectures on Welsh and Irish folk-song (with musical illustrations); Prof. W. H. Eccles, two lectures on the thermionic vacuum tube as detector, amplifier, and generator of elec- trical oscillations; Prof. Frederic Harrison, two lec- tures on (1) A. Philosophical Synthesis as Proposed by Auguste Comte, and. (2) The Reaction and the. Critics of the Positivist School of Thought; and Prof. J. H. Jeans, two lectures on recent revolutions in physical science, '(1) The Theory of Relativity, and (2) The Theory of Quanta (the Tyndall lectures). The Friday’ evening’ meetings will be resutied on April 16; when‘ Prof. J. A. ‘McClelland % will ‘deliver me discourse on ions And ‘uclei. ’ Succeeding discourses will probably ‘be’ give “by Prof. H. Maxwell Lefroy, Prof. F. O1 Bower, the Right Hon. Lord ‘Rayleigh, Prof. Karl Pearson, ‘Prof. J. A. Fleming, Prof, W. Lb. Bragg, and other” ‘Retitlemien. : o's / gt GF oes OnE ‘of the, Industrial, Bechrch Associations: formed, in connection. ‘with, the, Department: of Scientific aad: Industrial Research is the British Empire:; Sugar. Research Association. _.If, the. association ;plans its Carlos Ameghino,, ae XN ARCH. 18, 1920] NATURE 81 - ona fifliciently large scale, and raises soool. a * from the trade for five years, grants of the same and for. the same period will be made from funds. The offices of the association are in “House, 62 Oxford Street, W.1. The objects association are to establish, in co-operation e Department of Scientific and Industrial ch, an Empire scheme for the scientific inves- n, either by its own officers or by universities, schools, and other institutions, of the ; arising in the sugar industry, and also to e and improve the technical education of who are or may be engaged in the industry. is being made of the field of research which y to be beneficial to the industry, and it is ed to establish a bureau of information to any member of the association can apply for nce. In the, first instance, the whole of the h undertaken will be carried out in existing ms, and it will be necessary to enter into nts with the bodies controlling these institu- for the use of laboratories and the services of scientific investigators. With regard to the production of sugar, experiments on the cul- ae sugar-cane and of the sugar-beet will ken in suitable parts of the Empire. In nection it is hoped that very close relations stablished with Colonial Agricultural Depart- The organisation and general supervision of earch work will eventually be entrusted to a f research, and it is hoped to establish a ugar Research Institute if and when it . Sine. Algeria most gun-owners are able to trim roughly flints they require for the long-barrelled muzzle- guns and pistols which still form the principal of the nation. Mr. M. W. Hilton-Simpson, Museum, Oxford, came across a spetialist who flints for sale. This worker’s methods are bed in the March issue of Man. He em- rough stone for striking the flakes from the and for trimming the flakes thus struck off he -utility implement of the country, a combina- n of a hoe and pick. This man’s features indicate infusion of negro blood, but flint-chipping does seem to be a special negro trade, the man being n in the population. “Or ‘the eighteen species of BA sautricle found the State of California, four, inhabiting cultivated s, have become’ pests. The: life-histories of these ‘and of the harmless species have been very care- _ described by Messrs. Joseph Grinnell and Joseph ixon in vol. vii. of the Monthly ite Commission of Horticulture. In one district fested by the Oregon ground-squirrel the authors imated that there were 112 adults to the acre or 4000 to the square mile, and that these would con- ne in one day more than two tons of green forage, nich. would be sufficient to feed ninety head of cattle ring the same time. NO. 2629, VOL. 105] aged in collecting specimens for the Pitt- ‘small tool resembling in outline the universal: resident of one of the oases where there is a negro Bulletin of the BirD-LOVERS will read with no small pleasure Mr. J. H. Gurney’s ornithological notes from Norfolk for 1919 in British Birds for March. Perhaps the most interesting of these notes are those referring to the bittern, which seems to be returning to the Broads in increasing numbers to breed. It is satisfactory to learn that, so far as can be ascertained, this year no nests were raided, though in one nest the brood, un- fortunately, died. The little owl, he tells us, which up to 1914 was confined to a few districts in the west of the county, is quickly spreading throughout the whole of Norfolk. The prevailing prejudice against this bird he considers scarcely to be justified, since “the test of dissection is rather in its favour than otherwise.’’ During the war vast quantities of a tar- like substance were spread over much of the North Sea for military reasons. One would have imagined that the need for this had now ceased, but in these notes are records of numerous divers and guillemots picked up in an exhausted condition owing to this compound clogging the plumage. In the fourth part of his study of the Mala- costracous Crustacea obtained by the Ingolf and other Danish expeditions from deep. water in the seas round Iceland and South Greenland (‘‘The Danish Ingolf Expedition,” vol. iii., part 6, Copenhagen, 1920), Dr. H. J. Hansen describes the Cumacea and Phyllocarida. Of the former group no fewer than sixty-six species are enumerated, of which twenty- four are new—a surprisingly large proportion of novelties in view of the attention that has been given by G. O. Sars and others to the Cumacea of northern . waters. Together with Dr. MHansen’s previous memoirs on the Isopoda and Tanaidacea, this report serves to bring into prominence both the extraordinary richness of the micro-fauna of the sea-bottom and thé imperfection of our knowledge of it even in the better-known regions of the ocean. From the point of view of systematic zoology, if not also from that of marine bionomics, a one-sided impression is apt to result from confining attention mainly to the more easily studied species of the plankton. In dealing with the Phyllocarida Dr. Hansen is able to throw new light on the strueture of the limbs and mouth- parts of the long-known and much-studied Nebalia. In the March issue of Medical Science: Abstracts and Reviews (vol. i., No. 6), one of the reviews is devoted to the subject of typhus fever. Owing to the war this disease has been very prevalent in Europe during the last four years; for example, in Poland 124,620 cases were recorded between January 1 and July 27, 1919. Lice are the agents by which the disease is transmitted, but the causative micro- organism is still unknown. The blood-serum gives agglutination with a Proteus bacillus, the Weil-Felix reaction, which is of considerable value for the diagnosis of the disease. AN interesting lecture on the history of electro- therapy by Dr. W. J. Turrell is published in the Archives of Radiology and Electrotherapy for February (No. 235). In England electrical treatment appears to have been first practised by. the clerical profession. 83 ‘NATURE [Marcu 18, 1920 In 1756 a book on the subject was published at Wor- cester by Richard Lovett, a lay clerk at the cathedral, in which he records the treatment of a number of diseases with electricity. In 1780 John Wesley, the great divine, anonymously published a book entitled ‘““The Desideratum; or, Electricity made Plain and Useful.’’ In this he appeals to the medical profession for a trial of the curative effects of electricity, and records many alleged cures. WE have received the first number of a new British journal devoted to pathology, entitled the British Journal of Experimental Pathology. It is published bi-monthly under the editorship of a board of editors by Messrs. H. K. Lewis and Co., the annual sub- scription, post free, being 2l. The journal has been founded for the publication of original communica- tions describing the technique and results of experi- mental researches into the causation, diagnosis, and cure of disease in man. Among the contributors to this first number are Prof. Bayliss (‘Is Hamolysed Blood Toxic?’’), Dr. Cramer (‘‘On Sympathetic Fever and MHyperpyrexial MHeat-stroke’’), Prof. McIntosh and Mr. Smart (‘‘ Determination of the Reaction of Culture Media’’), and Mr. Fildes (‘‘ Sero- logical Classification of Meningococci’’). The journal is well produced, and will, we believe, fill a lacuna in the means of publication of research work at the disposal of British pathologists. Mr. W. L. GreorcE, who gave evidence before the National Birth-rate Commission, has contributed to the Fortnightly Review for March a summary of the arguments he presented to that body, which does not appear yet to have arrived at a conclusion upon them. The line he takes is that a high birth-rate corresponds with a low degree of education, a low level of com- fort, and poor foreign trade. He views, therefore, with calmness, and, indeed, with satisfaction, the recent decline in the birth-rate, and would take active steps in that direction by promoting the understanding of contraceptives and other preventive measures. Whether this could be done without leading to grave evils may be doubted. At any rate, Mr. George is justified in opposing proposals tending in the other direction, such as those for the endowment of mother- hood, which would have the effect of encouraging im- prudent. marriages or illicit connections, and, as they involve an expenditure that he sees is financially impossible, must fall to the ground. He would have us base our quest for national prosperity on good births rather than on more births, on quality rather than on quantity. Like all difficulties that arise out of the passions and the instincts of mankind, the problem is soluble only by an appeal to reason and by a gradual education of the will in men and women. It should be noted that large families have given to the community many valuable members. A suppoRTING expedition for Roald Amundsen’s trans-polar voyage has been organised by the Nor- wegian State. Some details from Scandinavian sources: are published in La Géographie. (vol. xxxiii., No.1). The expedition which reached Greenland last summier:.is in charge of Lieut. G. Hansen, a Danish naval officer who accompanied Amundsen in_ the NO. 2629, VOL. 105 | voyage of the Gjoa in 1903-5. Lieut. Hansen is now wintering at Etah, in about 78° 15’! N. This month he hopes to leave with a dozen sledges for Cape Colombia, the most northerly point of Grant Land, in 83° N. Stores and provisions for a year will be taken. Amundsen, who proposes to leave his ship, the Maud, at the most northerly attainment of its drift, is expected to make for Cape Colombia, and may arrive there in March, 1921. At a meeting of the Royal Geographical Society on March 8, a paper was read by Miss E. M. Ward n ‘The Evolution of the Hastings Coast-line.” We can scarcely agree that the Wealden dome stretches from Beachy Head to the North Foreland, as it does not extend beyond the Warren at Folkestone, where the chalk of the North Downs comes down to the sea, or that the North Foreland’ is in the Channel, as we might be led to believe. It may be pointed out that the eastward-flowing drift of flint beach is general on the South Coast, and that this has resulted in most of the southern-flowing rivers being turned to the — east, whilst forming a spit of beach on the seaward — side of the stream, this being the result of the con- flict between the eastward-flowing tide and the south- ward-flowing stream. As the streams lost their velocity and carrying power they deposited their silt, and finally the conflict between sea and mud ended in the victory of the former, when the sea made its bold attack on the land, which is still going on, and against which engineers are fighting. The exist- ence and continued growth of Dungeness have never yet been satisfactorily accounted for, but there is some reason to believe that the destruction of the Hastings headland let loose vast quantities of beach which had accumulated on its western side, and that this gave rise to the various low terraces still to be observed on the west-side of the Ness. Miss Ward finds it difficult to believe that at Hastings there was a promontory in Neolithic times even so much as seven miles in length, but it is fairly generally be- lieved that the passage between England and France was comparatively narrow in those times, and Prof. Boyd Dawkins even suggested that Neolithic man came across on dry land. In the Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (vol. lv., December, 1919), Messrs. George F. McEwen and Ellis L. Michael deal with the functional relation of one variable to each of a number of correlated variables when the representa- tion by linear regression is unsatisfactory. The basal — idea is to assume that the dependent variable may be represented by a sum of functions of the indepen- dent variables, and to determine these functions by dissection of the material into a series of groups. If, for instance, a variable w is to be expressed in terms of x, y, and z, a series of groups of (w, x), (w, y), and (w, z) are formed; a first approximation to the relation between w and x is obtained by taking the averages of the (w, x) groups; corrections are then derivéd from the averages of the (w, y) and (w, 2) groups; from the second approximations third approximations are derived, convergence being ob- NATURE 83 one. Similarly the other functional relations ined. The idea of defining a. function by ‘by various mathematicians; the most obvious ‘of its statistical applicability is that an amount of arithmetic would be required to more than a very small number of corre- values. The method, however, deserves consideration . feteorological Magazine, an official publica- Meteorological Office, was first issued new title about the middle of February. The incorporates Symons’s Meteorological Maga- nd the Meteorological Office Circular. For ce in reference, the serial numbers of Meteorological Magazine are being carried inge has come about through the absorp- British Rainfall Organization in the Office. The cover of the new pub- s the portraits of four pioneers of meteoro- whom were associated with the Meteoro- ic Of these Admiral FitzRoy had the Office at its initiation, when it was a the Board of Trade, and Mr. Symons was nt sixty years ago, but left after a short riod and devoted himself to the collection of rm a. from which evolved later the “British Organization. Gens. Sabine and Strachey sively chairmen of the Meteorological | controlled by the Royal Society. Little s been introduced into the style and ‘the publication, and it is evidently not 9 make any radical alteration. In addi- interesting article on ‘Weather in s’’ for the preceding month, which has rly appeared in Symons’s Meteoro- agazine, an article is now given on ‘‘ Weather which will doubtless be valued by readers -ON . Lord. Moulton. delivered a lecture at Univer ieeiree on “The Training and Functions ical Engineer.’’ The lecture was presided H LH. Prince Arthur of Connaught. Lord fe and suitable training for those who -had chemical operations on a large scale. In th chemical laboratory work is carried out | quantities of pure substances with every ence at hand and regardless of cost and In chemical industry, on the contrary, it at ’ to carry out operations on vast quanti- “impure. substances with no conveniences with the greatest possible regard to the matters cost and economy. The question of change of was all-important, since it was extremely diffi- to secure on a ‘large: scale that uniformity of tions easily obtained in a research labora- and fundamental for the success of the ation. Lord Moulton the subject of costing and costs, since, as he “pointed out, the success of an _ industrial NO. 2629, VOL. 105] ‘of a series of corresponding values has been | _tion.”’ laid great emphasis | operation in the real world of chemical industry, as compared with the success of a _ chemical operation in the ideal world of the research labora- tory, depended entirely on its cost. It was a noble and dignified business to make things cheaply so: that they could be utilised by large numbers of people. In conclusion, Lord Moulton referred to the fact that the Ramsay Memorial Committee had given 25,000l. for the building of a laboratory of chemical engineer- ing at University College. He earnestly hoped that the further sum of 50,o00l. which was required would be forthcoming. A vote of thanks to Lord Moulton for his interesting lecture was proposed by Prof. F. G. Donnan, who referred to the great work Lord Moulton had done during the war-as Director-General of the Explosives Supply. Mr. James Thin, 54 South Bridge, Edinburgh, has just issued a useful and comprehensive catalogue of new and second-hand books on technical and scientific subjects. The prices named in the second-hand section are very reasonable. A laudable feature of the cata- logue is the giving of the dates of publication of the volumes, Tue Oxford University Press will shortly publish an English rendering, by H. L. Brose, of ‘“Space and Time in Contemporary Physics: An Introduction to the Theory of Relativity and Gravitation,” by M. Schlick, with an introduction by Prof. F. A. Linde- mann. The work is intended for the general reader. It deals with the problem of the structure of cosmo- — logical space, discusses the relation of psychological to physical space, and analyses the significance of measurements in physics. Tue Reader’s Index—a bi-monthly magazine issued by the Croydon Public Libraries—for March and April contains much useful guidance for readers, including a reading list of books and periodical articles on the Einstein theory. We notice references to articles in NaToRE of June 11, 1914; December 28, 1916; March 7 and 14, 1918; November 13, 1919; and December 4, Ir, and 18, 1919. A NEw series of books dealing with the textile indus- tries has been arranged for by Sir Isaac Pitman and Sons, Ltd. The editor will be Prof. R. Beaumont, and one of the first volumes in the series to be published will be that by the editor on ‘‘ Union Textile Fabrica- tion,” which will contain three main divisions dealing respectively with bi-fibred manufactures, compound- yarn fabrics, and woven unions. Another volume in the series will treat of ‘‘Flax Culture and Prepara- It will be the work of Prof. F. Bradbury. Mr. D. N. Wapta writes to say that the two illus- trations from his “Geology of India’? reproduced in Nature of January 15 were not his own photographs, but from the collection of negatives at the offices of the Geological Survey at Calcutta. Acknowledgment of this was, unfortunately, omitted from the ‘book, and our reviewer assumed, therefore, that the. photo- graphs were the author’s. 84 {Marc 18) 1920 Our Astronomical Column. ‘Tue Torat Sorar Ecripsk OF SEPTEMBER 20, 1922.— Mr. A. R. Hinks read:'a paper at the meeting of the Royal Astronomical Society on March 12 on the condi- tions along the track of totality in this eclipse. The nearest available station is in the Maldive Archipelago, where the sun’s altitude is 343° and duration 4m. 11s, It is recommended that an uninhabited islet be ‘selected, as there is less risk of illness on,one of these, the others having a bad reputation for Euro- peans. Also it should be’ an islet in the centre of a lagoon, as the outer ones experience vibration from the surf, which would spoil fine definition. The weather is likely to be clear but windy. Christmas Island, south of Java, is near the noon point; the sun’s altitude is 783° and the duration 33m. at the south point of the island. There are a flourish- _ ing phosphate industry on the island, a monthly ‘steamer from Singapore, and good jetties and cranes ‘at Flying Fish Cove, whence there is a railway to the south coast. Much of the island is covered with forest (haunted by large land-crabs), so some clearing might. be necessary to give enough sky room _ for adjusting the equatorial mounting which it is intended to. use, here. The weather conditions in September promise to be very good. . The west coast of Australia offers difficulties, the country being barren, and there being no port in the neighbourhood of the track. The east end of the track in Australia is in Queensland, just south of Brisbane. The sun’s altitude here is only 18°, but it -is possible to obtain an altitude of about 26° by travel- ling by rail into the interior. The. programme will include a répetition of the investigation of the Einstein shift; there is a fair field of stars round the eclipsed sun, though they are much less. bright: than those of the eclipse of May, 19109. “. Tue Binary Star p Ermpani.—This southern binary ‘star’ (R.Av ith. 36m. 45s., S.°. decl. 56°. 36') was first noted as double by Dunlop in. 1826, and. ob- served by Sir John Herschel at the Cape, 1834. to 1836. It was for some time doubtful whether the ‘relative motion was not rectilinear, but curvature is now definitely established. Mr. B.H. Dawson gives a determination of the orbit in the Astronomical Journal, No; 762, as follows :—Period 218-9 years, T 1806-14, e'0-721, a 8-025", 301-40°, i +114:26°, §{1-03°. There 4s still much uncertainty, as only one quadrant has been observed. The large size of a makes the pair ‘an cinteresting one. Apastron was passed in 1916, and the stars are now 9” apart. Both are of magni- tude’ 62; the proper motion of the middle point ‘between them is +0-0336s.,. +0:022", according to Boss. ° : : Faint NeEsuta.—Publications of the Yerkes Ob- “Servatory, vol. iv., part 2, is occupied with an account of a research on faint nebule by Mr. Edwin P. Hubble. Mr. Hubble took a series of photographs, ‘with the 24-in. reflector at the Yerkes Observatory, of some rich nebulous regions, including seven well- defined clusters, containing more than five hundred ‘nebula. The measures for ascertaining their posi- ‘tions are given; but, owing fo the bad figure of the images in the outer parts of the field, the precision is not considered very great. The exposures did not generally exceed two hours, as beyond that point very little seemed to be gained. The average diameter of the nebulz is about 25”, but in certain regions, notably in Perseus, they are distinctly smaller, about: 15”. The question of the distance and status of these small nebulz is discussed at some length, but the evidence appéars to be insufficient to decide whether they are in ‘the remoter parts of the galactic system or -alto-» gether, outside it, NO. 2629, VOL. 105 | i Oe ternational Fishery. kavestacatianaaaa “THE: first meeting’ since’ the autumn ‘of? 13 Of *" ‘the International Council for’ the Exploration of .the Sea took place in the Surveyors’ Institution, West- minster, on March 2-6. The Council’ exists ‘to ‘con-. sider and conduct investigations into the fisheries of ‘the North Atlantic; to examine how far these fisheries ‘are being depleted by fishing; to investigate’ natural methods, such as by breeding, etc., of keeping up the stock; and in cases of certain’ future’ failure of supply to suggest’ the necessary remédial measures. The Council has been conducting researches for nearly twenty years, but its operations during the war were brought almost to a standstill. For the most part it deals with the sea-fish common to all countries, but a special sub-committee considers the salmon, and. a second the eel; shellfish are not investigated. The countries represented were France, Belgium, Holland, Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Finland, and Great Britain, each country having two delegates, with scientific experts from the fishery authorities of each. France was represented for the’ first time, but Ger- many and Russia dropped out of representation; the meeting was too hurriedly convened to allow of the — U.S. Congress appointing delegates, and there was no representative of Canada, the eastern fisheries of — which are mainly coastal. Great Britain was repre- sented by Mr. H. G. Maurice and Prof. D’Arcy Thompson as delegates, Mr. Holt representing Ire- iand, while most of the scientific staffs of the three ‘countries took part in the deliberations of thé com- mittees, including Prof. Stanley Gardiner (temporary Director of fone Research) and Comdr. Jones (of the Scottish Office). March 2 was devoted to general business and the formation of committees, the whole body meeting together under the chairmanship of Prof. Petterssen (Sweden). After a telegram of respectful homage had been dispatched to the King, the chairman referred in sympathetic terms to the troubles of the last years and to. the increased importance to Europe of safe- guarding its supplies of fish. Commodore Drechsel (Denmark) and others spoke of the closure of the greater part of the North Sea as the most gigantic scientific experiment ever made in respect to the closure, of areas, and one from which we might be able to draw the most important deductions in respect to the conservation .of our fish supply. Mr.,. Maurice pointed out the difficulties under which all countries are at the present time labouring, and appealed to all to help in drawing up practical programmes of work such as each country could guarantee to carry out. The meeting then split into two committees for | fishery investigations and. fishery statistics and for hydrography and plankton (floating life in the sea). The committees met twice daily during the next three days to draw up their programmes to be sub- mitted on Saturday, March 6, to the whole body of delegates. The main deliberations of the Fish Committee were in respect to the plaice. All were agreed. that the fishery statistics of Western Europe up to 1914 proved that there had been a most serious ‘depletion of the stock of plaice on the fishing-grounds. of Western Europe, particularly in the southern half of the North Sea. The apparently probable disappear- ance of.this fish, from the point of view both of the industry and of the consumer, was felt to, be so calamitous. that..even. the. strongest measures were thought to..be justifiable, It was proposed that the Council should suggest to the diplomatists to negotiate a size-limit and the permanent closure .of certain areas to. provide a reserve, from which the young plaice might spread so as to restock the open grounds. It was pointed out that Denmark had. already insti- \Marcw 18, 1920] \WATURE $5 _a-size-limit of nearly 10 in., but that Holland.did favolir Ohne of more than about 8'in. The repre- atives.of, Great Britain considered that. the etfect closure of areas on the industry had not been t studied; that the closed areas must be as $s possible, consistent with the preservation of se stock of the North Sea; and that the study lect of the war. in having closed, great areas iterially assist the Council.in arriving at the tical results. | = British view was finally adopted, and it was to undertake a year’s intensive plaice inves- with the view of considering the whole ques- 1921 and making recommendations. The ée then proceeded to draw up a programme tigations. A thorough collection of statistics >.marketed was deemed essential. Further- n accurate knowledge of the sizes of the fish ~ marke and as caught on commercial ‘was recommended. The liberation after of a series of fish would be necessary to r wandering during the year. Further ex- ‘in the liberation of marked fish of small Dogger Bank were recommended. The sounds should be more fully investigated rted. The liberation of a large series of drift- » both surface “ayaa mg deemed essential Soa iy iin the drift of the eggs and youn which float for many weeks in the Han by The mination of numbers of eggs so as to ascertain he in wid _of spawning in different areas was ec ible, as well as an investigation into the on which the larvz feed. | ost of the spawning areas of the plaice are off coasts of Great Britain, it was generally recog- this country would have to concentrate in the ar mainly on these plaice investigations, but was expressed that the examination of the and wanderings of the lemon-sole would slected, while the other fish occupying inds. should be carefully recorded. The con- mination of the constitution of the herring of the other work on the life-history, a ., of the herring was recommended, Great in being requested to collect samples and to send | to Norway, the representatives of which (Dr. , Prof. Gran, and Dr. Lea) undertook to examine METRE LS , 1. ; . ; e Danish representatives described their plans second great expedition in the North Atlantic , among other objects, for the spawning- ‘the fresh-water eel, which their previous wed to be somewhere in the latitude of and at depths of at least 1000 or 1500 “They also gave an account of the com- results obtained by the importation of the eels (elvers) and their liberation in Danish and lakes. Dr. Johansen (Denmark) and Dr. n. (Sweden) described the work of their respec- countries on the movements of salmon and sea- , the ages of these fishes for spawning, the libera- xe) 4 ieee ‘showing results of considerable mic importance—results capable of immediate cation. in many British rivers could ‘the difficulties ‘to pollution be overcome. Hyvdrographical and Plankton Committee divided. into sub-committees for, its’ two ‘subjects. BS. » former ‘is mainly concerned with the currents on: the fishing-grounds in respect both to the movements of such sh as herring, mackerel, and pilchards, and! c 1e drifting of fish-eggs and young. It was atl considered that the hope of foretelling the. ovements of the fish and the success or otherwise the spawning year by year dependéd on a more) ensive study of the movements of Gulf Stream’ ‘in em ‘t Toast f ‘NO, 2629, VOL. 105] ' tion on which he “Prof. Behal, Prof. Joubin, and Dr. ‘meeting with the English and Irish representatives waters from Barents, Sea to Iceland and down the European coasts to Mogador; with more intensive investigations in the North Sea. ‘Vhe nature of ‘the spawning was deemed peculiarly important, as .on this depends to a large degree the success of. the fishing some years afterwards when the spawn has grown into fish of marketable size. Extensive. tem- perature records and water samples from a series of transoceanic liners month. by month were recom- mended, and the hope was expressed that the United States would co-operate by collecting. samples on liners cutting the Gulf Stream nearer where it leaves the Straits of Florida. A full programme of hydrographic work was recom- mended in the southern half of. the North Sea in ‘view of the plaice investigations. Here the sea is so shallow that the water is thoroughly churned up from surface to bottom, and, in consequence, surface samples only, mostly from passenger ships, were pro- posed. The drift-bottle programme was approved and somewhat extended in the’ hope of understanding better the isobaric, temperature, and salinity charts of the region in respect to the movements of fish, with the view of making them usable by fishermen. The plankton sub-committee, under Prof. Gran, drew up a very small programme on account of present difficulties, but it decided to recommend researches on the physico-chemical conditions of sea- water in respect to the life in the sea. It regarded - this basal research as impossible either to initiate or carry out under the Council, and so decided to record its opinion as to the necessity of such researches on living animals in respect to the water in «which they live. It was pointed out that the acid or allka- line nature of the water affects the rate of growth of young fish, and that further knowledge here in respect to trout, salmon, and plaice might become at*once - of economic importance. Animals, too, show growth in the most carefully filtered sea-water—a ‘matter of the greatest importance, the meaning and utility. of which could not be foretold. It is well known that the blood of human beings can be replaced by sea- water, but not so effectively by artificial sea-water, which is made from distilled water by dissolving in it the various salts. The ‘possible meaning of this was discovered by Dr. Allen (Plymouth) working on minute marine animals, and points to those mys- terious substances ‘‘vitamines,’’ of which so much has been heard in the last six years and so little is known. ° The searcher’ for economic results, .in fisheries must have the basal theory and knowledge in respect to his living fish duly developed as the founda- has to build. Incidentally, an increase in knowledge of this soluble food, etc.,.should be rapidly applicable to oyster- and mussel-farming, and the sub-committee could only hope that the requisite genius to give further ideas would soon be found. ; The development of lakes and rivers for the pro- duction of food was of special interest to Mr. Holt (Ireland), the Swedish and Finnish representatives, and Dr. Redeke (Holland), the last giving an account of the very great development of the fresh- waters of his country. So far as fish were concerned —salmon is treated separately—the subject is of little importance to Great Britain, but the possibilitv of the development of a button industry by the cultiva- tion of mussels was thought worthy of investigation. France was represented by M. Kersoncuf (Director of Marine Fisheries), accompanied by M.. Tissier, e Danois. of his authority and the dignity of his status ly determined and unequivocably declared. are matters calling for early attention, for exists, not without foundation, that, i t in ‘commercial and industrial circles the has been very generally permitted to occupy of influence: compatible with the import- “his métier, in the governmental sphere ert has, more often than not, been rele- to a position in which his every purpose is le more or less ineffectual, one, moreover, which the exercise of his legitimate activities barely tolerated by those lah an the clerical controlling positions, During ‘the past few years the piety 4 asiness regarding the unsatisfactory footing on which the technical staff in the public services finds itself has been quickened, owing largely to 2 appreciation on the part of the public of the t that it was the failure in governmental ters to give heed to the advice of the technical reagg included or suppressed. We are cious that it would be very difficult to bet ive. saebiplete references at the present time, 1 because of the unfortunate preference for onymous reports which was so prevalent in _ the early days of the war; but this difficulty should be oye ‘by the publication of the reports in _ their final form, and we shall hope then to see Pehose additions which will make this book the _ standard work of reference in its subject. _ The printing and paper of the book are good, __and a special word of praise is due to the illus- trative diagrams, which appear to have been _ re-drawn specially for this work. The book is thick and rather heavy, and those who will make _ it a work for daily reference will probably find it desirable to clothe it in rather stronger binding. 7. ex ie - Gymnospermic History. ES Foskit Plants: A Text-book for Students of Botany and Geology. By Prof. A. C. Seward. = Vol. iv. : Ginkgoales, Coniferales, Gnetales. ae Biological Series.) Pp. xvi+543. (Cambridge : At the University Press, 1919.) Price 1 guinea net. every science, works wiiah Saline together _ the data of the subject are essential, and to ; none more so than to paleobotany, which is haned Bete...» NOs, 2030, ; FP 105 | x his: investigations into any particular ques- | s than the mere gratification of their per- . ssion (how otherwise—to take examples at : Rankine cycle,” ‘“Bernoulli’s equation,” or on the correlation of fragmentary remains from all countries and of all ages. Prof. Seward has served his science well in completing the almost Herculean task of writing a text-book covering the whole field of these plant remains. The first volume appeared many years ago, and this, the fourth, is the final one of the series, This disappointingly closes with the higher Gym- nosperms, the series of plant families treated, and the author does not propose to continue the work so as to deal with the flowering plants. This is perhaps scarcely surprising, as the data bearing on the flowering plants are very complex and of a. fragmentary and unsatisfactory. nature, and have, moreover, been little studied in this country. Some up-to-date handling of the Angiosperms is greatly to be desired, and students will await with some impatience the appearance of the independent work Prof. Seward promises, in which he proposes to deal with the generalities of plant distribution, taking the fossil Angiosperms into account. Prof. Seward’s text-book should be a useful tool, not only to palzobotanists in particular, but also to all students of either botany or geology in general. Somewhat lost sight of in the mass of fossil species, there are, prefacing each group, excellent accounts of the living representatives of each family. In a volume of such laborious detail as: the present one, which appeals to the specialist rather than to the average layman, there must, of course, be many comparative trifles which tend to side- track any critic by inducing an attempt to deal with minor controversial matter. To do this, however, in a general review would be both ungenerous and unfair, because the amount of public recogni- tion and the gratitude which scientific authors receive is small and out of proportion to the labour and to the sacrifice involved in their tasks. Misprints are remarkably few, and the general perspective of presentation is well preserved, although here and there the author has naturally , indulged in rather longer descriptions of one or two individual species which are first published in this book than such specimens would be allowed had they been published separately at an earlier date. It is doubtful, as a matter of general policy, whether a text-book is the place to publish new species at all, although any research worker must have in his notes records of small and relatively unimportant species which scarcely deserve inde- pender.t memoirs, and the temptation to put them in the text-book must be very great. _ Knowledge of the higher Gymnosperms largely depends on petrified material of secondary timber, for although fragments of foliage impressions with a few cones are known, they are compara- 98 NATURE | MarcH 25, 1920 tively rare. The Mesozoic and Tertiary rocks, however, are rich in silicified and other petrified woods, many of which belong to the coniferous genera. The determination of these woods is a particularly difficult branch of paleontological re- search, demanding great patience and knowledge of the finer points of plant structure. Wood deter- aminations are often—-indeed generally—neglected, owing to the difficulty of mastering the technique ; but, as Prof. Seward truly says, “the student cannot afford to neglect this line of inquiry if he desires to obtain a comprehensive view” of the essentials of paleontological plant history. In the present volume a considerable proportion of the space is allotted to the careful and critical con- sideration of the species based on secondary wood. The terminology of this section is not entirely that adopted by other leading workers in this field, but tends perhaps to simpler grouping of the subject by the elimination of certain “genera ” which -are based on distinctions too subtle for secure determination, such, for instance, as the Phyllocladoxylon of Gothan. The elimination of doubtful genera, principally those which have names suggestive of affinities remote from those with which they properly are really to be asso- ciated, on the whole tends towards the clarifying of the science. In conclusion, one can only urge every geologist and every botanist not only to possess himself of Prof. Seward’s text-book, but also to acquaint himself with its contents. The Nature of Musical Sound. The Foundations of Music. By Dr. Watt. Pp. xvi+239. \ (Cambridge: University Press, 1919.) Price 18s. net. Henry J. At the HE author unfolds a new theory to Account for the fact that certain combinations of sound, called. concords, are “pleasant,” while others, called. discofds, are “unpleasant.” In " place of the ancient theory by which the “harmony of numbers ” in the sense of proportions of string- length to pitch has dominated these questions since the days of Pythagoras, he considers. that sound possesses “volume,” an attribute some- what difficult to grasp at first sight. So far as we can understand the new theory, the volume of a low sound contains within itself the volumes of all sounds higher than itself; the proportions of the various volumes coincide with the well- known proportions of those of pitch. Hence the volume of the sound represented by C is exactly double that of the next C above it, and the volume of G, lying between the two, is two-thirds that of the lower C. NO. 2630, VOL. 105 | } : As the lesser volume is contained in the greater, i there is “‘fusion’”’ of volume when two sounds are heard together. This fusion being complete in the octave, the two sounds coalesce to such an extent as sometimes to be heard as one sound. We are to understand, then (so far as we can make out), that the octave is the ‘ ‘ pleasantest ” interval. Next come fifths and thirds as pleasant intervals; and the discords, the volumes of which do not fuse with the root volume, are classified as “unpleasant ” (pp. 24 et seq.), or words to that effect. We confess that this theory is so novel that we find it hard to grasp. To the musician a discord is not an “unpleasant” part of his raw material; it is simply a chord that requires to be “resolved” into a succeeding chord. It has, therefore, the element of motion, while the con- cord suggests repose. The theory of fusion raises the ancient question of the prohibition of consecutive fifths and octaves. The author discusses at great length all the well-known attempts at explanation, and adds his own. Probably the prohibitions are merely conventions, as suggested by Cyril Scott, quoted in a footnote on p. 132. In the tenth century Hucbald says of the ancient organum of his day: “If sung with suitable slowness, you will see that it produces a sweet concord.” The present reviewer, wishing to scoff at the notion that suc-_ cessions of fifths and octaves could “produce a > sweet concord,” asked the choir of the Plainsong Society to sing a specimen of tenth-century organum. To his and their surprise they found Hucbald entirely vindicated. And Dr. Watt — shows (p. 84) that Gevaert, making a similar experi- ment at Ghent in 1871, found exactly the same result: ‘‘ The impression made on the ona was profound.” The only example Dr. Watt gives in musical notation (p. 120) is a series of consecutive fifths by Karg-Elert, played very slowly on the softest organ stop. He offers an explanation of its “beauty ”’; we think, however, that the same passage, if sung or played rapidly and loudly, would be anything but beautiful. Dr. Watt revives the old controversy as to whether the interval of the fourth is a concord or discord. We thought that musicians had long settled that the fourth from the bass, since it requires resolution, is a discord, while the fourth from any other voice is a concord, since it does not require to move. | The book ends with chapters on “The Object- ivity of Beauty” and “Aisthetics as a Pure Science.” To those wishing to investigate the nature of sound, its new outlook should prove interesting. . net. ‘Food: Its Composition and Preparation. A ext-book for Classes in Household Science. By ; T. Dowd and Jean D. Jameson. (The y Technical Series.) Pp. viiit+ 173. (New k-: John Wiley and Sons, Inc.; London: pm ian and Hall, Ltd., 1918.) Price 6s. net. ESE two books are very laudable attempts by our American cousins to place the im- fant question of food on a scientific basis. The Fuabagtit home to people at large the im- portance of such study, but one hopes, in days of a ace, not only that investigations will continue, ‘put also that their application will be carried out te \ a. greater extent. (1) The first of the two books mentioned above is very complete, not only in_ the number of important foods dealt with, but also in the numerous methods of investigation described to detect impurities and prevent _ contamination with undesirable admixtures. It is the science of cleanliness in technical costume. _ The preface informs us that the work is written 4 for those who wish to fit themselves for food “control ; but as it presupposes a thorough training in bacteriology and chemistry, we fear it will "scarcely appeal to those who are food controllers here. What is really wanted is a book that he who runs may read, a book intelligible to the manufacturer, the packer, the tradesman, and the housewife. To present such with the graphic formule of, say, amino-acids and fats would be simply to terrify them. Still, the book should be useful to a more limited section of the population —namely, the analysts and bacteriologists. Its 3 | price strikes one as exorbitant even in these days iy high charges. _ (2) The second book is of a much more practical ; nature, and will be welcomed by all those engaged j in the study of household science. It is an excel- _ lent chemical introduction to the science of intelli- _ gent cookery. The authors have taken care _ to provide themselves with a good preliminary knowledge of physiology and bio-chemistry, and _ if they go a little wrong in a few details, such as 4 in their account of the vitamines, the slips are _ trivial, and do not affect their main arguments or __ their main endeavour, which is to rescue cookery from the domain of empiricism and ignorance. W. D. H. NO. 2630, VOL. 105] Marcu 25, 1920] NATURE 99 Science of Food. Our Bookshelf. Bacteriology and Mycology of Foods. By Dr. | Petrology for Students: An Introduction to the id Wilbur Tanner. Pp. vit 592+ 10 plates. Study of Rocks under the Microscope. By Dr. ek: John Wil as ie. 1, Alfred Harker. Fifth edition, revised. (Cam- w York: Jo Ss called ate sale ie tal bridge Geological Series.) Pp. viii+ 300. : Chapman and Hall, Ltd., 1919.) Price (Cambridge: At the University Press, 1919.) Price 8s. 6d. net. A HEARTY welcome must be extended to this new edition of one of our most widely known geo- logical text-books, which has had considerable influence in securing systematic and accurate descriptions of rocks by British petrologists. The present edition contains a few pages less than the previous issue, but this has been accomplished by diminishing the space at the headings of chapters and by the excision of superfluous notes and references to occurrences of minor interest, so that the value of the book is in no way diminished. New illustrations have been added, and_ the chapters on metamorphism largely re-written. As in previous editions, the author rejects names given unnecessarily to local varieties, which he distinguishes simply by reference to the places. from which the names were formed. This process might with advantage have been carried very much further. There is, however, already so much diversity in petrological nomenclature, not only in different countries, but also among individual geologists, that the author is probably wise in refraining from attempting any far- reaching reforms. Perhaps in another edition a certain number of analyses of the more important rock-species might. be included, as well as their specific gravities,. which afford a valuable means of checking the determination of rocks in the field. J. W. E. Chemistry and its Mysteries: The Story of What Things are Made Of, Told in Simple Language. By Charles R. Gibson. (Science for Children.) Pp. 246. (London: Seeley, Service, and Co., Ltd., 1920.) Price 4s. 6d. net. Here is another of Mr. Gibson’s wonderful books for children. This time Mr. Gibson treats of the elements of chemistry, the conception of chemical constitution, combustion and respiration, electro- lysis, spectroscopy, and “queer things” such as radium and liquid air. The author has not lost his powers of stating scientific propositions in simple and attractive form without departing (except in quite minor details) from the strictest accuracy. We confess that we had thought modern children rather more sophisticated and apt to regard as ridiculous analogies drawn from nursery games; but in this matter we bow to Mr. Gibson’s judgment. His success in what he has set himself to do is beyond question; criticism, if any were offered, would concern rather his objects. But this is not the place to inquire whether it is really useful, or even harm- less, to present the complex and highly theoretical conclusions of modern science without any serious attempt to present also the evidence on which they are based. Ree) NATURE [ Marcu 25, 1920 Neue Beobachtungen iiber den Erreger der Mau- lund Klauenseuche: Die Entwicklung des Schmarotzers im Blut, speziell in den roten Blut- kérperchen. By Dr, Hrch. ‘Stauffacher. Pp. 62+plates. | (Zirich, 1918.) Price 8 francs, - Tue author seine: and illustrates a number of curious linear and spherical bodies found in the red corpuscles of animals with foot-and-mouth disease, and works out a life-history for them , along the lines familiar from the parasites of malaria. - The difficulty in all such investigations is to be sure that the intracellular appearances represent the cause rather than the effect of the disease, and to distinguish between a parasite and | some remnant of the nucleus of the erythroblast | seems often to be impossible. Sometimes the nuclear remains are plain as such; sometimes by special methods they can be brought to take a basic stain in cells which by ordinary procedures would appear normal; it is quite possible that they | may be thus unmasked in consequence of a para- sitic illness. What curious objects may be found in red corpuscles is readily appreciated by examin- ing the blood of a.dormouse or of a new-born rat. The nail- or tadpole-like bodies shown very clearly in the first photograph are extraordinarily similar to those demonstrated some years ago by Braddon in: (or on) the red cells in rinderpest. A Night Raid into Space: _ Heavens told in. Simple ae S. F. Mackenzie. " Hardingham, n.d.) Price. 2s. 6d. net. Words. the elementary facts of astronomy. , It is avowedly written for those who have absolutely no oven ‘matical’ knowledge. ~ Unfortunately, ‘there is | many placés an absence of the necessary’ precision of staterhént. The Story of the By Col. Pp. 143. (London: Henry ‘Thus the’ description of precession | suggests that it affects the earth’s orbital’ motion, | there being no mention: of the ‘equatorial plane. “Moreover, the: action is ascribed wholly to the, “sun, though the: moon’s contribution is’ twice as #reat. The description ‘of sidereal time, and the explanation of ‘the spectroscopic determination | of ‘radial velocity, are misleading. Also the erroneous statement’ is made that the Babylonian year contained 360 days, and had-an intercalary ‘month ‘every sixth year. Its real length was 12 lunations, or 354 days, and there were 7 inter- calary months: in 19 years. Altogether the book ‘meéeds careful | ‘revision ; if this were carried out, it, could be recommended as a simple handbook. ‘Musings ‘of an Idle Man. Pp.. xii +3509. : Danielsson, Ltd., 1919.) Price 7s. 6d. net. Tuis book comprises ' seventy-five. readable and suggestive essays on the most varied subjects, ranging from ‘The Origin of Life ” to “Good and Bad Form.” In an essay on “The End of Life” the author envisages the final destruction of life by heat due to radio-activity. NO. 2630, VOL. 105 | By Sir R. H. Firth. (London: John Bale, Sons, and obstructive, eS ees Letters. to the Editor. [The Editor does not hold himself responsible opinions expressed by his correspondents. Neith ’ can he undertake to return, or to correspond wi the writers of, rejected manuscripts intended f. this or any other part of Nature. No notice is taken of anonymous communications. ] ; Museums and the State. Tue old danger arising from the haphazard appli tion of a, name ‘Surrounds the public institu which are called ‘“‘museums.’’ By a ie ee its ancient gcubicaton: the word ‘‘museum’? is now used to designate a collection of natural history specimens, pictures, antiquities, machinery, bpd work or other articles (rarely libraries), . well as the building where it is exhibited to the either with or without charge for admission. There are various so-called ‘‘museums ”’ supported by public funds, either national or municipal. The proposal to create a new body of Government clerks (or to aggrandise an existing one) on the pretence that museums form a ‘genus ’’ which all alike require central control of one and the same ‘‘ tape and sealing- wax”’ type, and that the well-known ignorant, and therefore impartial, Civil Servant is to have new fields of plunder thrown open to him—as “ administrator”’— is not surprising. We are familiar with such schemes, but, none the less, this is one that all. serious. lovers of science and of art should resist to the uttermost ! What is needed in regard to our existing national and other public museums is not the creation of highly paid posts for otherwise unemployable “‘administra- ublic tors,’? but definite legislation after inquiry and report © by a Royal Commission as to the specific p purpose, scope, and method of work to be followed in each of those great museums which in this ‘country receive ‘support from public funds. ‘Overlapping ”’ col- irre book: describes in a chatty, discursive ar | lections, and neglect of this and that. department ‘could be at once prevented by assigning to each museum its propér function. and by making its income depend upon its doing what it is intended that it shall do. No central salaried body, no ‘‘committees ”’ of dele- gates, trustees, or members of governing bodies are » required. They certainly would prove incapable and as such “committees ’® have - gencraty shown themselves to-be. . The defects in the working of our national museums have arisen from the fact that they have come irto existence in obscure, sutreptitious ways and by chance —witness the history of the British Museum, of the Victoria and Albert Museum, and of the new so-called Science Museum. They have no programme, no clear assignment of scope and purpose to guide them, and no attempt is made by successive Governments to define their functions and. to ensure for each of them and for other “‘museums” ‘supported by public funds a reasonable. system of management and con- trol designed so as.to ensure their activity and development as efficient instruments, of public service. A central bureau of managing clerks pretending to deal under. a heterogeneous “committee ’’ with all the various branches of science and*art concerned in the life and progress. of.all our museums would be an exaggeration of the worst features of the present management by irresponsible and incapable “* trustees.” I am convinced that what is needed is the separa- tion and independence of the chief departments now agglomerated in the national museums and their redistribution to form a series of independent institu- tions each under its own highly expert specialist as director, with no other interference than that of a visitatorial. board assigned to each museum, approved cet ee ee, ah et el Ee Se ee Marcu 25, 1920] NATURE TO! the Government, and reporting annually on the and requirements of its own particular museum. h an institution is Greenwich Observatory. Limit- my suggestions to the natural history sciences, I uld h a separate ‘‘museum’’ for zoology and imal palzontology; another for geology (the study » history of the earth’s crust, not merely palz- logy) with mineralogy and petrology, uniting the sum of the Geological Survey with certain portions the British Museum; another for botany formed by removal to the great and flourishing establishment of the botanical department of the British um; and another for anthropology and human ontology. There seems to me no reason, no antage, in mixing up the administration of these at centres of special study and research with one ther or with the museum of ancient art, or for sociating any of these with the great national public Our museums are liable to suffer from the erroneous tion that their chief purpose is to furnish ready truction to school-children and ‘the general public.” ‘ing with special reference to natural history, I it will be admitted that (as in the case of s records, antiquities, books, etc.) the main most important function of a museum is the _ acquisition, study, and safe and permanent guardian- _ ship of specimens—specimens which are often unique _ or of extreme rarity and value, and form the actual _ evidential basis of the natural history sciences. This ardianship is necessarily to be associated. with ‘perennial study and development of the collections and abundant publication of finely illustrated mono- graphs, catalogues, and descriptions by the museum and his staff. These duties are, in spite of obstacles, performed in a highly creditable way by ‘the present staff of the Natural History Museum, thich, were it free from the dead-weight of an un- and the nation. In my judgment, the exhibition of the collections in galleries, through which the public may promenade or be personally conducted by. itinerant lecturers, is matter of subordinate imvortance. But it is one of ce value to the public, and must be seriously taken t n hand museum. It is the simple fact that many (but not all) of the fine things in museums of natural history can readily be exhibited to the public so as to give pleasure and instruction, and it is desirable to enlist the y and interest of the public by exhibiting with the greatest skill and judgment specimens so dis- played and labelled as readily to attract attention and ‘convey information suited to those who have no special knowledge of the branch of science in which the “specimens have their place. : ne It is, however, of the utmost conseauence that this kind of exhibition should be strictly limited in amount, and that what is done in the way of such exhibition should be the very best possible—the specimens most carefully chosen because they can be well seen and appreciated when in a glass case and without being handled, and because the information which they and others placed with them afford is of first-rate import- ance or of a specially fascinating character. It is a profound mistake to attempt to set out the mass of __. the contents of a museum in this way. Neither space nor skilful design and handiwork can be afforded for _ £*exhibiting’’ huge collections in this stvle. The __ public is wearied and confused by too great profusion, and galleries which are needed for the preservation and study of collections by exverts are liable to be ___ sacrificed to the satisfaction of a mistaken demand ____ for the setting out of a sort of high-class Noah’s Ark NO. 2630, VOL. 105] - a les iene and irresponsible committee of trustees, | ; render even more abundant services to science and dealt with wiselv by the director of each — through which a visitor may wander in a state of dreamy contentment, hypnotised by the endless stream of queer or brilliant things appearing and disappearin ‘ ‘ ppearing barere him without any effort or comprehension on his part! In any case, it is, I think, important not to allow the great public museums to become class-rooms for ill-provided schools. I should like to see the system which is used in the American Museum of Natural History in New York introduced. ‘There is a large lecture-room in the museum, and courses of lectures on the contents of the museum, illustrated by photo- graphic lantern-slides, are given by highly qualified members of the museum staff. Copies of the lectures and the lantern-slides are also supplied by the museum to schools around New York, so that pupils can be prepared by them beforehand for recurring visits to the museum. Though the specimens in a museum may be very thoroughly and well labelled, as in Crom- well Road, it is the fact that no method of insisting upon attention to a label has yet been devised. The public seem to be scared by labels. Nothing is so cer- tain to secure attention as a man standing up in front of the visitor and telling him all about a specimen whilst pointing to this or that part of it. The Natural History Museum has more of its col- lections in quiet study-rooms and less of them paraded in bewildering rows in show-cases than has any other public museum in Europe, so far as I know. But it has, nevertheless (in my opinion), too many galleries and cases given up to public exhibition. Even now (after the heroic efforts of Sir William Flower, in whose footsteps I followed in this matter) many of the cases are overcrowded and many are hopelessly placed as regards lighting, and should be abandoned as public show-cases. There appears to have been no attempt on the part of the architect of the Cromwell Road museum to erect a building with the lighting or height and shape of galleries necessary for such a museum. e trustees were neither consulted in the matter nor com- petent to give an opinion if they had been. _ I should wish, in conclusion, to refer anv readers of Nature who may wish to see a little fuller state- ment of my opinions concerning the scope and methods of ‘“*museums”’ to the chapter on museums in my “Science from an Easy Chair,’ second series, 1913, pp. 310-29. E. Ray LANKESTER. ino I CORDIALLY welcome the suggestion in the leading article in Nature of March 11 that the Natural History and other science museums should be placed under the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research. For this Department to take over the Natural History Museum, the Science Museum, the Museum. of ‘Practical Geology (and the Geo- logical Survey), and Kew Gardens there need be no change in its constitution. No Royal Commission need be invoked, for the Department would be merely undertaking duties for which it was formed, these institutions being the depositories of most: of the basal collections, the facts, upon which much of science is founded. The administration of all could be carried out under one scheme, since the work. of all is akin, and the men required to recruit their staffs are drawn from the same class of university men, having similar early training, with diverse specialisations later on. The present condition in the above museums is most unsatisfactory in respect to differences in the pay and position of their ‘staffs. Thus, according to Whitaker, the assistants at Kew and in. the Science Museum start at zool. a vear, while geologists and naturalists with similar training start in the two others at r5ol.; all have war bonuses at present. At Kew there are . 102 NATURE [Marcu 25, 1920 eleven in the lower gvade (300l.-5ool.) .and_ three above; in the Science Museum the numbers are three and six; and in the Geological Survey twenty and ten. In the Natural History Museum there are thirty-two graded up to 500l. a year as against eight above. The position in the latter is so bad that there has been a constant leakage for many years from its highly specialised staff into) university and other appointments, the salaries in which exceed those paid in the museum. There is no abundant field of men with private incomes and natural history tastes upon which to draw. The fact that only about one man in four or five who join the staff can hope ever to receive an income above 5o0o0l. a year prevents any of the best students of universities from entering, while the museum, as the basal institute of several Sciences in this country, demands the services of the best men, and of the best men only. The Natural History Museum is, furthermore, out of date in that, while the sciences it represents have advanced, it has taken little account of these advances; its staff has all the same duties as it had twenty or thirty years ago, and, still numbering the same, can undertake new duties only by neglecting older ones. It was never intended to be a museum solely for education and amusement, but the policy pursued in regard to it in the last twenty years has neglected its other sides in respect to research, and its assistants have become more and more the cataloguers, arrangers, and cleaners-up of specimens. The staff less and less takes part in the proceedings of scientific societies because it cannot afford to belong to them. May I suggest’ that the pay, position, and grading of the ‘staffs in all the above four institutions should be those of the Home Civil Service, and that the numbers in different grades should be the same as in that Service? The prestige and position of the Civil Service are such that it is an object of ambition to the boy, and no lower position will attract’ the picked students of science. J. StanLEy GARDINER.’ Zoological Laboratory, Cambridge March 15. Tue timely leading article which appeared in Nature of March fr raises the very important ques- tion of the future administration of the national museums and art galleries of this country. With the main recommendations of the article I am in com- plete agreement. There is little doubt that the ad- ministration of the national museums and art gal- leries on federal lines from a central Government Department: would make for greater efficiency and economy, obviate considerable overlapping, and lead to the fuller use and development of the unique collections housed within their walls. The Department of Scientific and Industrial Research has already assumed control of the Museum of Practical Geology, and the machinery, therefore, for the ad- ministration of the whole of our national museums is already in existence, and only requires adapting and expanding. Such a central Museum Department could be of the greatest service to the provincial museums and art galleries of the country if extended to include them and link them all up in one comprehensive scheme. At present the provincial museums are isolated. There is a lack of co-ordination and co-operation in their work, and they need the advice and assistance of a central body to help them in their development. The national museums between them cover the whole field of museum activities, and their amalgamation into a federal scheme would provide a Department | able to deal with any branch of museum work, and to render invaluable assistance to the provincial and private museums ‘throughout the country. NO, 2630, VOL. 105] The National Gallery and the Tate Gallery would — supply the nucleus for fine arts, the British Museum (Bloomsbury) for pre-history, anthropology, antiquities, | and numismatics, | the British Museum (Natural History) for natural history, the Victoria and Albert Museum for industrial and applied art, and the Imperial Science. Museum for applied and techn logical science. eas It is sufficient to indicate one or two ways in which the assistance of such a Department would be of the highest value: “ft (1) In the development of a comprehensive system of circulating collections for all branches on the same lines as is now done for industrial art by the Victoria and Albert Museum. (2) The provision of a staff of experts in all branches who could be placed at the service of museums for specialist work on collections. (3) The provision and circulation of approved casts of important and rare specimens. (4) The standardisa- tion of museum cases and fittings to allow of their production on a'cheaper and more efficient scale. A Department such as I have indicated, linking up all the museums into one comprehensive scheme, would lead to the co-ordination of museum work throughout the country. The resources of the museums for each and every available line of research would be accurately known. The provincial and’ private museums would benefit enormously by having their collections accurately labelled, and be able to utilise and develop their collections to the ‘best advantage. By means of the circulating collections the vast resources of duplicate and reserve material in museums would be rendered available and accessible to the nation at large. . The cost of such a scheme would not necessitate an undue burden being placed on the State. (1) The Government museums are already provided for by direct appropriations. The extension of their work on the lines I have indicated would necessitate larger staffs, but the labours of each expert would not then be rigidly confined to the one museum ‘to which he was’ primarily attached. While the plan would require organisation and co-operation, it does — not seem to involve any drastic change in the presen management or governance of such museums. — (2) The public museums of the country could remain, as at present, under the control of the local governing bodies, and their financial resources be pro- vided, as now, by the levy of a rate. et (3) Private museums would need financial assist- ance from the State, and this might be given in the form of grants-in-aid based on the amount of money provided by the resources of such museums. _ The institution of a central Government Depart- ment would naturally necessitate Government control and inspection of museums, but such control, wisely and judiciously exercised, would stimulate their development. The Department should clearly recog- nise that its function would be to help and advise museums, not to hinder them by the imposition of irkséme regulations. Museums should be encouraged to preserve their individuality and to develop along their own lines. It is, perhaps, scarcely necessary to add that a central Department should have as its chief executive officers men trained in the various branches of museum work, whose vety training and experi- ence would give them the necessary knowledge to deal sympathetically with questions of museum administration, and to foster that spirit of research which is fundamental to the proper development of museums. _W. M.. TatTERSALL. The Museum. ‘The University, Manchester. identified and. the national “Marcu 25, 1920] NATURE 103 Ovi _ Organisation of Scientific Work. HAVE not read the report of Sir Thomas Holland’s nission which has led to a discussion in thé is of Nature, and I do not wish to express n opi ion on its conclusions. Those who know some- of the conditions of India and of the many nomic problems awaiting attack will at least agree country offers a great field for the investiga- nd a difficult ome from the point of view of those d in the administration of funds for research. purpose in writing is to support Dr. Russell’s on the importance of team-work in scientific igations (Nature, March 4, p. 7). It seems to t in discussing the proper relation of the State entific work our conclusions will depend chiefly precise meaning which we attach to ‘ research.” . Bateson writes (ibid., p. 6): ‘Research, art, literature, and all the higher products of ' thought, grows only in an atmosphere of jom.”’ But should not the word used here be ence”? Is not “research”? the art by which wledge is advanced? And is it not the case that s art there is need for the co-operation of men ntly endowed? “ Bricklayers’? may be wanted 1 as ‘“‘architects ’’ in the building up of know- nor are delays in programmes, other than ig, necessarily due to the lack of a plan. by ‘research worker’? one meant only the fer,’’ then I should agree with Sir Ronald Ross _p. 6) that the policy of organising institutes r scientific research and institutes for the writing poetry might be considered together. But research cers are not all ‘‘masters.’? There are other essential to progress in certain branches of cnowledge, never likely to make great discoveries, laps, but, since the State needs them, it must le t to live; and it is the function of the cial’? not to direct their work (that must be left “master ”’), but to see that they live under ns likely to promote efficiency. I am not sure ee with Prof. Bateson.’ There may be er in State action, but it seems to me to be safer _ While arguing for the recognition of the importance of co-operation in research, let me add that, whatever yart the worker in a research laborato arly is part of a team for the advancement Daieledoe. and that he should regard himself as a tential discoverer. I welcome Dr. Russell’s analysis the functions of the staff of an institution main- d for research, as it brings out what seems to me fundamental point in this discussion, but I feel sure t he would agree with me in deprecating any rigid ification of workers as tending to cause dis- agement. Whatever the natural qualifications of members of a team of workers may be, two are ntial for real progress: the desire to learn more the willingness to help others. Bees sig T. H. Mippieton. Dean’s Yard, Westminster, S.W.1, . March 19. Science and the New Army. our leading article of March 18 on ‘‘Science and New Army”’ directs attention to some hopeful res in our future military organisation, but many ill share with you the doubt whether any real funda- nental reform has yet been effected. The new policy “farming out ’’ research work to civil institutions sounds suspiciously like the old policy, so well practised the past, of getting technical work done and advice given without the obligation of paying anything for it. ~ NO. 2630, VOL. 105] - ee i “¢ x success. Doubtless it may be argued that so long as scientific men are complaisant enough to work for nothing. a Government Department which paid them would be guilty of extravagance. Ultimately, however, it will be found good policy. and sound economy to recognise that skilled knowledge is worth its hire, and scientific men, in their turn, may perhaps learn that in attach- ing a low valuation to their own labour they help to confirm the widely held idea that expert training is a thing of small account. The Army would keep more closely in touch with all scientific progress in any remote degree affecting the conduct of warfare—and who can set limits to this qualification ?—if it retained men of proved competence with the duty of posting the General Staff in all such advances of knowledge. These men need not, in fact should not, give their whole time to the work ; it would be an essential condition that they should be in full activity as re- searchers, teachers, or professional engineers, chemists, etc., and it would be equally essential that they should be remunerated at adequate rates. No unpaid com- mittee, however august the membership, will fill the want. I must confess that I scarcely understand. what is ment by “preliminary design of apparatus,’’ stated to be part of the functions of the military institutions. Of what value is a preliminary design if the under- lying principles are not understood, and wherein does it differ from a mere statement of what some un- _instructed amateur thinks can be done by “electricity” or by ‘‘cog-wheels ’’? Furthermore, unless these mili- tary institutions are directed by trained specialists, the “applied researches’ entrusted to them are not likely to be crowned with any consvicuous measure of E. H. Hits. Cotton-growing in the British Empire. In Nature of February 26 Sir George Watt reviews in a critical spirit the report to the Board of Trade of the Empire Cotton-Growing Committee. Much of his criticism is based on an expressed aversion to committees, which has misled him into stating that we propose our central (cotton-growing) research institution should be staffed by a ‘committee of voluntary workers.’’ This is quite erroneous. The report itself describes in some detail the permanent staff which is suggested. Some of the criticisms are due to the reviewer not having realised that the Committee was dealing with cotton-growing alone, and that the British Cotton In- dustry Research Association is working in co-operation with the Empire Cotton-Growing Committee through a joint body (of which I happen to be chairman), so that his desire for the Cotton-Growing Committee to establish its central research institution in Manchester, where no cotton will grow, is invalid. Nor do I think that his suggestion of a programme for the members of the research institution as being “‘research, education, and cotton production” makes a sufficiently clear discrimination between means and ends; but chiefly I regret that the reviewer has missed our main thesis, which concerns the need for know- ledge, based on pure science, as the essential to pro- gress in this matter. Indeed, he seems to be com- pletely antagonistic to this view of ours when he states that ‘‘general principles of education must never be allowed to take the place of specific training and definite results.’ It is no little thing that a utilitarian body, representing all aspects of the cotton trade, from the native cultivators to spinners and manufac- turers, should have come into the open with such a plea for the encouragement of pure science, as being the basis of useful development, and it is indeed un- 104 “NATURE | MarcH 25, 1920 expected to find this plea condemned by a reviewer in the columns of Nature. Nevertheless, Sir George Watt makes a legitimate criticism when he says that our proposals *‘do not seem to resolve themselves into: the promulgation of a concrete scheme of increased and improved pro- duction.’’ I would like to explain why we deliberately avoided advancing such a scheme in this report. The consideration of actual steps to be taken in cotton production is the next stage in the Committee’s work, to which it has already settled down. When this report was issued we were penniless, and could not with any utility consider how money should be spent until we were assured of :—(a) Annual financial support from Lancashire. (b) Regular financial sup- port from H.M. Government. (c) Approval of policy from the Governments of the Dominions, Colonies, and Protectorates. Since our report was issued (a) the home industry has agreed to make a voluntary annual levy on itself; (b) our maintenance charges are assured, so that our executive can be built up, while the question of further support is under consideration; and official informa- tion as to (c) is awaited. A large income is already in sight, and the way is becoming clear for practical planning and guidance as distinguished from the enunciation of principles., It should be noted that the capital required actually to grow the cotton which this country now purcheses outside the Empire is of the order of 250,000,000l., being more than a thousand- fold the sum asked for in our report. But those principles had to be settled first, and I for one regret that Sir George Watt should have ‘ missed their significance through misunderstanding the present stage of our development and our inabilitv to be anything else hitherto but a ‘“‘committee,’’ if we were to represent the native peovles abroad as well as the operatives at home, with all the inter- vening stages of industry, of administration. and of knowledge. W. LawrENce BALLs. Edale, Derbyshire, March 8. _ 1 am obliged for the opportunity given me to read Dr. Lawrence Balls’s reply to my review in NATURE of February 26 of the report issued by the Committee » on Cotton-Growing, within the British Empire, ap- pointed by the Board of Trade. Dr. Balls seems to me, in the main, to admit my- contention, namely, that the Committee’s report, as it stands, does not resolve itself into a concrete scheme of increased and improved production of cotton. In fact, it may be said to. be unfortunate that the Committee did not anticipate such criticisms as mine by giving the public some hint of the possible future stages of its opera- tions. The public were anxiously awaiting a full scheme, and one that would give distinct prospect of success, but in place of getting such we are now told we have only seen (as it were) the first instalment, and must look for better results in the future. But, turning to some of Dr. Balls’s observations on my review, I do not find that I have stated that the report contemplates the staffing of the central research institution by committees of voluntary workers. It is surely self-evident that there would have to be permanent officials appointed to the cen- tral research institution, as also to the branch institu- tions. But what I did object to was that these officials should be put under a panorama of six com- mittees, as seemed contemplated by the authors of the report: .I am old enough to recollect the great Cotton, Commission in India. Indeed, my official connection with that country might be said to have commenced with having to try to pick up the dis- hevelled threads of that futile expenditure of public NO. 2630, VOL. 105] money. The late» Mr..C.°B. Clarke,: in the preface to his edition of Roxburgh’s ‘‘Flora of India,” alludes to the issue of one of the Commission’s reports as follows :—‘‘ We have had plenty of Govern- ment and other reports, some very large and expen- sive ones, it is true, but we have very little economic work by persons competent as botanists; and wi reference to one large and expensive report lately issued on an: Indian economic plant it was discovered after it was printed that the Commission never learnt what the plant was.”’ The result of the great Cotton Commission of India was officialism, Cotton Frauds Acts, and other such futilities. It is the knowledge of past failures having very largely proceeded from officialism that makes me urge with all the earnestness I possess that the staff of the central and branch research institutions should be as free and independent as the professors of a university. They need no supervision more than is exercised by Departmental control in the allocation of funds and in the laying down of general rules and political instructions. Official control should be with the principal or principals of the college or colleges of cotton, but with no one else. : I am at a loss to understand Dr. Balls when he says I have missed ‘‘our main thesis, concerning the need for knowledge, based on pure science, as the essential to progress in this matter.”” The Com- mittee, as I understood the report, recommends that cettain universities should be asked to establish lee- tureships and readerships; my scheme was that the research institution or institutions, in addition to con- ducting research, shculd undertake the entire educa- tion of both the experts and the practical planters, and thus have their own professors of plant physio- logy, plant genetics, mycology, entomology, and the like. ; My recommendation is thus to concentrate all effort in the hands of a body of highly trained scientific and practical experts, to place all the funds available in their hands, and to hold them responsible not only to increase the supply, but also to improve the quality of the cotton produced within the British Empire. GEORGE WATT . (Formerly Reporter on Economie Products with the Government ‘of India). Annandale House, Lockerbie, March 13. The Separation of Isotopes. In a recent discussion (Phil. Mag., vol. xxxvii., p. 523, 1919) of a number of methods of separating isotopes Prof. Lindemann and Dr. Aston have shown that there is little prospect of effecting by the methods considered a separation which will yield pure samples of the isotopes in a reasonable time. Dr. Aston has recently announced the discovery that chlorine consists of a mixture of at least two isotones having atomic weights 35 and 37. It appears that there is here a possibility of effecting a separation of the isotopes by a direct method which does not seem to be anplicable in the case of most other elements. posed depends on the assumption that in the absorp- tion spectrum of chlorine, which contains a vast number of narrow lines, there is a difference between the wave-lensths of the absorption lines due to mole- cules containing different isotopes. Supposing that ordinary chlorine contains the isotopes Cl,, and Cl,, in the ratio 3: 1. the molecules will con- sist of Cls:Clas, ClesCle, and Cl,Cle in the ratio 9:6:1. It follows that if white light traverses a column of chlorine of such a length that the radiations absorbed by Cl,-Cl,. are reduced in intensity by a factor 1/10°,’ the corresponding factors in the case of Cl,;Clyy and Cl.,Cl,, will be: 1/10'*. and 1/10” respec- ‘The method pro-° 7 ee ie ee a a Marcu 25, 1920] -NALURE rO5 tively. Suppose that the light-after passing through this column of chlorine enters a vessel containing a mixture of hydrogen and chlorine, which combine the influence of the light absorbed by the rine, it would appear to follow that the initial es of reaction for the molecules Cl,;Cl,;, Cls7Cls;, Cl,,Cl,, should be in the ratio 1: 10°: 10%*. The 1 ochloric acid thus formed should therefore consist ost entirely of HCl,, if the reaction is allowed to eed for a suitable time. ' this experiment should prove successful, it would dently be possible to prepare a ‘‘filter’’ from the rine thus obtained which would favour the forma- of HCl,,. It is fully recognised that there are a ber of factors which may affect the success of the ‘iment, which is now being tried; it is hoped that ilts will be obtained before long, but the method ms worthy of mention as involving principles which ve apparently not been considered hitherto in this nection. Tuomas R. MERTON. 2s ad * Haroip Hart ey. Balliol College, Oxford. eee. _ Galendar Reform. © _ Vous avez cent fois raison de souhaiter un accord ique entre les partisans de la réforme du drier, et je vous demanderai, pour ma part, la nission | répondre quelques mots A _ votre judicieuse invitation. On peut lire dans mon Annuaire astronomique pour : o que la réforme radicale que j’ai proposée en g, en et en 1891 étant trop difficile a réaliser, manité étant incapable d’accepter des solutions nnelles en quoi que ce soit, nous pourrions nous ier A la simplification suivante : mois partagés en 4 trimestres égaux de 30, et. , le premier mois de chaque trimestre amet t un lundi et le dernier jour du troisiéme > Le rer j ; t voisin solstice peut étre iservé. Ce serait, tous les ans, un lundi. . _La féte de PAques pourrait étre fixée au dimanche Bee Le tre trimestres égaux de g1 jours chacun al ake jure, il y aurait un jour de féte=o pour années ordinaires et deux pour les années bis- 0d n aurait ainsi un calendrier perpétuel et universel. Sie CAMILLE FLAMMARION. le 8 mars, 1920. _ Cavenpar reformers will welcome M. Flammarion’s alteration of his scheme to one which minimises the changes from the existing calendar, while it secures the removal of its anomalies and inconveniences. It would seem advisable to choose some day for the __ extra-week day that is already a public holiday. Christmas Day, New Year’s Day, and Whit-Sunday ave been suggested. _ From the astronomical point of view the most im- ‘portant amendment is the placing of the leap-day at the end of the year, so that the interval from the beginning of the year to any calendar date is constant. 2 aa : ; A. C, D. CROMMELIN. } On Langmuir’s Theory of Atoms. — Mr. S. C. Braprorp’s criticism in Nature of March 11 of Dr. Langmuir’s theory is scarcely justi- fiable, considering that the latter clearly states in his paper (Journ. American Chem. Soc., vol. xli., p. 868, ___—- gig) that the equilibrium positions of the electrons are determined in part by magnetic, and in part by NO. 2630, VOL. 105] electrostatic,. forces, a ag rotations. he electrons are probably rotating (some right- handedly, others left-handedly) in very ‘snl orbits about certain fixed points, e.g. the corners of each cube, the centres of such orbits being the positions of Dr. Langmuir’s “ stationary ’’ electrons. Such rotations are exactly what is required for the explanation of directed valencies and the paramagnetic or diamagnetic properties of the elements. From magnetic con- siderations, Mr. Bradford’s suggestion as to the nature of the rotation is inconceivable, since the one he pre- scribes would make fluorine and a number of other elements paramagnetic, contrary to experimental data. Moreover, the frequencies of such rotations, which he suggests might be identified with Bohr’s spectral fre- quencies, would be affected by temperature changes. Electrons rotating right- and left-handedly about definite points, in small circles the radii of which are small compared with the accepted radius of the hydrogen atom, appear to be necessary; but there is little possibility of reconciling such small orbital motions with the coplanar ones of Bohr, the radii of which are, under normal conditions, essentially of the conventional atomic size, and under certain conditions far larger. A, E. Ox ey. University College, London, March 12. © the former necessarily implying Fireball of February 4. On Wednesday, February 4, at 6 p.m., a very bright meteor appeared in the sky at Naini Tal (India). It travelled from west to east at an altitude of about 60°, and was visible for fully five seconds. The yellow fireball left a bluish-white trail, which remained hanging in the air for a considerable time, and then gradually dispersed. About half-way through its course a big puff of vapour came out of the meteor, which probably indicated the burst- ing. Half a minute later a thundering noise was heard, which continued to rumble for a quarter of a minute. It had been snowing an hour before, but the sky was perfectly clear at that time. ‘ M. L. Dey. Central Chemical Laboratory, Naini Tal, India, February 5. Ir is curious that on the same date a large fireball was observed in England at 6.14 p.m., but in this case the object moved from east to west, i.e. in a contrary direction to the one seen by Mr. Dey. It is, however, by no means rare that two or more fire- balls appear on the same night, though they are © seldom members of the same meteoric system. W. F. DENNING. —_—— —_ Buzzards and Bitterns. In the Times of March 12 it is stated that “the Lakeland buzzards are extending their breeding range .. . and that a nest was detected in the Buttermere Valley.’’ It would thus seem that the buzzard was finding its way by instinct to a region where, in old times, it had obtained an easy prey in the bittern, which gave its name to the mere. The early name of the bittern was “butter,’’ and a Buttermere is mentioned in a charter ascribed to a.p. 863 as occurring jn Wilt- shire. There are a number of place-names in the country involving the designation of the bird, although its ‘‘bump”’ is no longer heard, as by Tennyson’s Northern Farmer. Epmunp McCrure. 80 Eccleston Square, S.W.1, March 13. 106 NATURE | Marcu 25, 1920 Ostrich Study in South Africa. By Pror. J. E. DUERDEN. "T°HE domestication of the two-toed ostrich in South Africa has rendered available for observation and experiment large numbers of a creature in many respects worthy the attention of zoologists. While this bird’s lack of intelligence and absence of any personal recognition may dis- courage the lover of animals who looks for some response for care and attention bestowed, its towering size, wayward strength, and nuptial viciousness yet engender a wholesome regard. The high industrial importance which attaches to its plumage has made necessary an intensive study of the physiological conditions which influence feather growth, as well as of the genetical con- siderations which determine its advance. It is true that, as the foundation of an industry appeal- ing only to adornment and luxury, the bird fell on evil days during the war; but the outlook for the future is now encouraging. Though in the wild state the ostrich is one of the most nervous of birds, its instinctive fear of man the unusual can be kept in abeyance on the farm by close association and constant handling from the chick stage onwards, and with intelligent control it is rendered amenable to all the necessary restraints of domestication. Should neglect occur, however, the wild nature asserts itself, and restraint is afterwards impossible, irresponsive as it remains to any “breaking ”’ process. During the past fifty years or so the farmer has worked out the main conditions necessary for the production of plumage of the highest excel- lence, without, however, any concern as to the physiological principles involved. As epidermal outgrowths, growing at the rate of a quarter of an inch a day, the unripe plumes are found to be extremely responsive to any variation in the condition of nutrition of the bird. Even the slight difference of blood-pressure between day and night is often found to leave its impress on the growing feather in the form of an alternation of denser and weaker annulations, while, should the bird be in a reduced state, a kinking of the feather sheath at a ring of night growth may result-in the formation on the opened plume of the familiar defects known as “bars” (Fig. 1). Reduced nutrition may even result in complete stoppage of feather growth, particularly: in the case of chicks, a new plume pushing out the old on the restoration of. better conditions. Of all parts of the body, epidermal structures seem the first to suffer from insufficient nutrition and to retain a more or less permanent impress of it, as is so often exemplified in nails, hoofs, horns, wool, and hair; but in the rapidly growing ostrich plume the response appears more manifest, and an economic importance attaches thereto. The clipping of the plumes is no more’ harmful to the bird than is the cutting of the hair or the trimming of the nails to ourselves. They are taken as soon as opened out for fear of deteriora- NO.- 2630, VOL. 105] tion, while the quills are allowed another two months in which to complete their growth. Several helpful facts are disclosed on the extraction of the quills. Thus, the drawing of the quill invariably serves as a stimulus to the germ below, and the new feather appears at the lip of the socket in about a month’s time. All being drawn simul- taneously, a full, even crop of plumes is secured, each regular and perfect in its growth, owing to mutual protection—a great contrast with a crop from a wild or uncared-for ‘bird, which is made up of plumes at all stages of growth as a result of moulting irregularities. Before maturity of plumage is reached, a feather drawn out of time is intermediate in character between those of the Fic. 1.—Ostrich plumes showing barring defects and sloping butts, results of reduced nutrition. plumage before and those coming after. The time of quilling is the most critical of all the operations connected with the farming of the bird, as it determines largely the nature of the succeeding feather crop. The state of nutrition, sexual stage, period of the year, and climatic and food con- ditions have all to be considered. Where only a single clipping annually is secured, adult birds are, if possible, quilled at such a period‘as will bring the crop to ripeness about the beginning of the breeding season—that is, the middle of winter. While the growing plume is highly responsive to changes of nutrition, the farmer soon dis- covered that the response was limited, and that with all his care only certain birds produced superior plumes... As in other domestic animals where much importance is attached to details of Marcu 25, 1920] ©: NATURE 107 Sa Vee Pe nutiz of feather structure were encountered, all hich have a big industrial bearing. Searcely two birds produced plumage alike in character, d the whole object of the breeder has been to @ together in a single plume the best of all the sristics distributed among the original wild ‘ks. Without any knowledge of Mendelism or > factorial hypothesis, the ostrich farmer has y "grasped the genetic distinctness of the in- able “points ” of the plume, and the impos- ity of procuring those desired except from f lresdy exhibiting them. The best plumage ‘ds in South Africa to-day are the product of two or three original strains ; all the rest have n discarded as breeders, through not showing ao merit. No new character or mutation in : - has ever occurred + ‘since domestication. lection in breeding is based on plumage alone, se characters having been found to be Te lated with it. It is manifest that any ostrich a bddtective plume also and be discarded on nance alone, however desirable the plume of the germ might be known to be; hence ‘armer is more justified in selecting his ers on production than he would be in select- pedigree alone. It is not much that the st can do for the practical breeder in cases his kind; he can, however, expound to him soundness of the principles on which he is ing and thereby encourage him in his efforts. x with the other members of the ratite the ostrich has long been regarded as in respects: degenerate or as undergoing retro- ive evolution. The relative smallness of the s and the presence of only two toes to the -many other directions in which loss has place, particularly in connection with the nal derivatives, scales, feathers, and claws. Miohsiands: of specimens available provide = material for observing the various stages Process and the manner in which the loss In such studies it becomes important ‘to distinguish between diminution in size and the | oat of constituent parts of a structure. Thus, — althe aby h the wings are so disproportionately small, 5 co dh gtd y are actually less degenerate than in . any other living bird. “The first and second digits bear claws, and the third digit has some- Ss a free second phalanx and may bear feathers. e outer toe of the foot is far less in size than _ would be expected of the fourth in the sauropsidan _ sequence, yet it retains all its five phalanges. Also, as showing the independence of the de- generative changes one of another, it may be _ observed that, though the wing is structurally less reduced than in other birds, the foot is unique in having only two toes; it is more degenerate than _ in any other living bird. _ That a type has undergone degeneration in any respect can be established only by comparison with belongs, comparative anatomy affording us a safe NO. 2630, VOL, 105 | m and production, great variations in the are manifest features, but a closer study © closely related members of the group to which it | standard. On‘this basis there can be no quéstion of the various lines of degeneration represented in the ostrich, and if among the multitude of specimens examined differences of degree are met with along these lines, it is a fair inference that they represent the various stages of the process, and reveal to us the manner in which evolution proceeds. Whether the occurrence of these inter- mediate stages within extremes proves that evolu- tion is actually in progress to-day may be a reasonable inference in the case of such an animal as the ostrich; but, as Prof. Bateson. has pointed out, it can be definitely established only by com- parisons at long intervals of time showing a general average reduction. Comparing, then, the various stages in the de- generation of any particular feature of the ostrich, it is found that wherever a sufficient number of Fic. 2.—Series showing stages in degeneration of a feather. individuals can be got together a continuous series is presented, linking up the extremes (Fig. 2). Thus birds are to be found with wing quills vary- ing in number all the way from 44 to 33; the under-covering of down may be practically lack- ing, while all stages occur leading up to a feeble development over the greater part of the body; the under-surface of the wing may be naked with the exception of a much reduced single row of under coverts, but intermediate stages occur cul- minating in three rows of coverts; many degrees in reduction of the upper coverts are also encoun- tered ; the second phalanx of the third finger varies from a free distinct bone to a triangular vestige fused to the end of the first phalanx. On the little toe the claw varies from a stage where it is well developed to one where it is altogether absent, .and the scutellation of the big toe may 108 NATURE [Marcu 25, 1920 either. be continuous with that on the tarsus or show stages in “breaks” at one or two of the joints (Fig. 3). These and other facts of a like character go to prove that the degenerative: evolu- tionary processes in the ostrich are all ortho- genetic in their nature, and that a retrogressive change set up in any one direction Is likely to be continued until final elimination of the part in question. The continuity is probably more apparent Minis SS = = = = = = = = = - = = ‘A \ ae Fic. 3.—Series showing various stages in the loss of scales over the big toe. than real; for if the somatic changes correspond ‘with alterations in the germ plasm, it must be in- ferred that these are discrete in their origin, and apparent continuity is conferred mainly by intermixture and owing to the smallness of the changes. The stages must, however, be succes- sional and represent a definite tendency in the germ plasm, in contrast to the haphazard nature of the mutations usually studied—a tendency which appear to have a contribution to offer. is held to be wholly apart from any considerations as to the welfare of the bird, as well as from environmental influences. i To the highly contentious question of the inherit- ance of acquired. characters, the ostrich: would Owing to the loss of its second toe, the crouching bird, for mechanical reasons, no longer makes use of the symmetrical axial callosity at the ankle, but develops an accessory one to the side. This is formed anew with each generation, and must have done so ever since the second toe disappeared, though presumably this happened thousands and thousands of generations ago. No hint of the accessory callosity occurs on the newly hatched. chick; it is not inherited, but has to be acquired anew each time. On the other hand, the here- ditary axial callosity, though unused for the same period, shows no signs of reduction; it has per- sisted through the ages, though non-functional. Further, the ostrich rests upon its sternal and pubic projections, and a strong callosity is de- veloped over each. These would unquestionably form as a direct response of the skin to the pres- sure and friction involved in crouching, but are found to be hereditary, showing on the newly hatched chick. Hence we are presented with an hereditary structure which would also be formed independently as a result of the ordinary activities of the bird were it not already provided, strongly compelling us to suspect that the presence of the former is in some manner directly connected with the latter; in other words, that a character origin- ally developed as a result of external stimuli has in time become so impressed upon the organism that it now makes its appearance apart from the primary stimuli. re The question of the origin of the three or four species of ostrich also makes some appeal to the evolutionist. No one intimately acquainted with the northern and southern ostrich would dispute their specific distinctness, but the East African and Somali species appear to be founded on inter- mediates of the two. Moreover, the northern and southern. birds freely interbreed, and their offspring are fertile, some of the characters blend- ing and others showing Mendelian segregation. Unquestionably all the representatives of the genus Struthio are a common stock, continental in their distribution, in which miftations have occurred in certain areas and not in others, but not of such a nature as to. prevent free inter- breeding. The Conservation of Our Coal Supplies.* By Pror. J. W. Grecory, F.R.S. OAL is the main material foundation of British industrial supremacy. The importance of coal is given by Mr. Justice Sankey as his first reason for its State ownership. The rapid British industrial progress at the end of the eighteenth 1 Address.to the Philosophical Society, Glasgow, on March 10. NO. 2630, VOL. 105] century was due to our abundant coal. Modern coal mining began in Belgium earlier than in Britain, but British mines soon had the greatest output in the world. In 1800 they produced two- thirds of the world’s coal, in 1860 the proportion was 60 per cent., and in 1913 the United States, Marcu 25, 1920] NATURE 109 _ Britain, and Germany together produced 87 per cent. of the world’s coal. It was not until 1899 that the British output was surpassed by that of United States; but, in spite of the ease of king of the American fields, our yield per unit of coal area is sixteen times as great as that of America. The British output of nearly 300 million tons is irrefutable evidence of the skilful organisa- yn of the British coal industry and of the courage capacity of the British miner. This drain of 300 million tons a year inspires disquietude as to how long it can last. The first authoritative estimate of our coal resources was ‘that of the Royal Commission of 1865, which estimated them as roughly 150,000 million. tons. Later estimates have increased this amount to about 200,000 million tons, which would main- tain the 1913 output for 600 years; the United _ States supplies would be maintained for 1500 _ years, those of Germany for more than-1500 years, _ while the coal fields of China would last for several _ millenniums. The world is in no immediate danger _ of a coal famine, but the British industrial position _ is threatened by the continued rise in the price of coal, which may hamper competition with _ countries with cheaper supplies. _ issued a warning of this danger, and his main _ prediction has been amply. justified, for during the | _ seventy years from 1834 to 1904 the price of _ coal almost doubled, while that of general com- - modities fell by about a quarter. The increased _ cost of coal cannot, therefore, be explained by such influences as variations in currency. __ The maintenance of the British output at a price _ which will enable British manufacturers to compete with those of foreign coal-producing _ countries depends on the increase of our coal _ reserves by the discovery of buried coal fields, _ such as doubtless occur under the younger rocks _ of eastern and southern England, while an exten- _ sion of the Scottish coal fields may occur in north- __ eastern Ireland under the lava sheets of Antrim. _ The coal field of South Yorkshire and Nottingham- _ shire has been enlarged since 1905 by the dis- __ covery of 400 square miles of coal-bearing country, - most of which is already being worked or _ developed. The eastward extension of this field _ is less than was expected by the Coal Commission _ of 1905, but its eastern and southern margins are still undetermined. The Kent coal field was found, in consequence of a geological prediction, during boring operations at Dover in connection with the Channel tunnel. Private bores for water have thrown light on the possible range of the coal in _ the south-east of England, but there are large areas which are unlikely to be tested by private enterprise. It is deplorable that they should be _ left unproved, as a few bores between the Not- _ tinghamshire and Kent coal fields, and between _ London and Bristol, might lead to the discovery __ of very important additions to the national coal __ reserves. Such bores should be put down at the ‘national expense, the cost, if successful, being charged to the ‘area benefited. As much light may be thrown on the distribution NO. 2630, VOL. 105] Jevons in 1865. of concealed coal by private: bores, the journals of all deep bores should be communicated to the Geological Survey and published either annually or, if desired by those who have paid for them, after an interval of ten years. The national coal supplies will be increased by the working of deeper seams. The extreme limit of coal mining has been regarded as 4000 ft., but that depth has been greatly exceeded in metal mining, and 4900 ft. is the accepted Continental limit for coal mining. The working of thinner seams is becoming prac- ticable by the use of machinery and by working coal in conjunction with the adjacent clays; but the extension of thin-seam working would be hin- dered by a Government scheme for the national- isation of coal. The nationalisation of all minerals, since clay and limestone often form the ground in large areas, would mean the nationalisation of the land. The nationalisation of coal alone would seriously hamper that combined working of coal with clay or limestone on which the development of thin-seam working is mainly dependent. It may also pay the nation to arrange for the extraction of seams so thin that they cannot be worked at a profit, for if the labour be available the direct loss may be recompensed from the profits earned by the coal in other industries. It has often been suggested that to make our coal. last longer the output should be restricted, but that policy, fortunately, appears now to have no advo- cates. The universal demand is for an increased output. Its restriction is opposed to the sound commercial principle, ‘“‘Use an asset while you can.” Unrestricted output is, however, justifiable only so long as coal is used economically, Great savings are possible. Sir George Beilby estimates that the average British consumption of coal per horse-power per hour is 5 lb., and that it should be no more than 1} lb., thus saving 56 million tons of coal a year. Greater saving appears possible by economy in the use of coal than from the numerous alternative sources of power, though resort to them will become neces- sary if coal prices rise. Economy in coal is the most promising method of reducing the drain on our coal reserves. The_ country has used only about 6 per cent. of its total coal. Our coal supply would maintain the 1913 output for centuries, but if the annual output increases until, as some authorities expect, it is trebled, the handicap of high price may be on us in less than a century. By economy in coal con- sumption great industrial expansion is possible on the present output. The essential factors with regard to the coal question are that no other source of power is available in this country on a large scale; coal is still indispensable, while it is limited in amount and irreplaceable ; and, owing to the exhaustion of the more easily worked seams, a steady rise in price will continue, and probably at an accelerated rate. Ultimately the nation «must enforce economy in the consumption of coal, prevent waste in mining, and be prepared to work. seams at a ‘L110 “NATURE [Marcu 25, 1920 _ direct financial loss. The coal industry can be conducted on those lines in accordance with three possible policies—nationalisation, one coal trust for all the British fields, or group working by a combine for each coal field, co-ordinated by national control. Which of these policies is best is not a geological question. The problem for geologists is whether one of these policies is neces- sary at once, owing to the diminution of our coal reserves. The recent rise in the price of coal has been due partly to a just increase in miners’ wages, partly to the higher costs of supplies, and partly to some spontaneous hypertrophy of price in distribution. Compared with these influ- ences, the contribution to the soaring of coal prices by the geological factors is trivial. The conditions of our coal supplies do not render immediately necessary any drastic action in the conduct of the industry. In countries such as India, where the total coal reserves relative to the area and popula- tion are small, nationalisation may be the soundest economic policy, but we are far from the time when the three great coal-producing countries— the United Kingdom, the United States, and Germany—will find nationalisation necessary owing to the approaching exhaustion of their coal supplies. ape The direct issue before the nation at present is between national ownership of the minerals ‘with centralised Government control of mining—which may give us the drawbacks of nationalisation without its advantages, and is repudiated by both the miners and the mine owners—and a scheme of nationalisation combined with local administra- tion of the industry by those engaged in it. The issue between nationalisation and the pre-war _ system may not be put to the nation unless as a ~ result of the conflict between the nationalisers who advocate central control and those who advocate local control. The pre-war system has no chance of permanence unless developed to give the miners better conditions and a share in the control and financial fluctuations of the industry, combined with regulations to enforce economy in the use of coal and to secure less waste in mining, and with the determination of the extent of the concealed coal fields on which the future of the country will ultimately depend. Obituary. PrRor, CHARLES LapwortTH, F.R.S. S work of Prof. Charles Lapworth (who _ died on Saturday, March 13) in the sciences of geology and geography will continue to influ- ence and inspire the growth of these sciences for many years to come. At the moment we can but mourn the loss of one worthy to be classed with the greatest of the old masters. 3 Gifted with a vivid and flexible imagination which he kept in his most brilliant excursions well under the control of his data, with unwearied patience in the collection of fact by his own observation or that of others, with an active. and most orderly mind for grouping and arranging ideas, with the moral courage to hold his hypo- theses in test until the survivors of them became proved theories, with a perfect genius for strati- graphy, an instinct for geometry, and the. hand of an artist, Lapworth had the qualities requisite to bring the study of the older paleozoic rocks to the level of an exact science, to throw new light on the mechanism of earth-movement, and to forge the links between geology, “the geo- graphy of the past,” and the geography of the present. : In 1864 Lapworth grasped the opportunity of work in the Southern Uplands, the country redo- lent of Scott, his favourite author. Spending every leisure moment in walking over ground thus made sacred to him, and possessing. the gift of close and accurate observation, he could not help becoming interested in the landscape and the. rocks; and he soon found himself studying the geology of the region in company with his friend James Wilson... NO. 2630; VOL. 105] It happened that the landscape of this area concealed under an aspect of simplicity, but revealed to the eye of genius, a rock-structure of extraordinary complexity, to which there was apparently no clue except a few obscure pen-like markings, called graptolites, in the Moffat shales ; and these had been tried for the purpose, but “turned down” as useless. Lapworth, however, determined to give them a second chance, and, as. a result of systematic collecting, a keen eye for a country, and a retentive memory for minute, but significant, lithological variation, accompanied by a more elaborate piece of geological mapping than his predecessors had ever attempted, succeeded in proving that they could be used to unravel a rock- succession, even though it was more crumpled, inverted, and tangled than any other then known. The rock succession and tectonic structure thus made out were tested against the simpler succes- sion and relations and the more normal fossils. of the Girvan area, and proved correct. At the same time, the graptolite zones that Lapworth had established were tested by comparison with suc- cessions made out partly by others, but mainly by himself at home, and by workers in Scan- dinavia, Bohemia, etc., proving that he had suc- cessfully performed at Moffat the double feat of working out the succession by means of the structure, and the structure by the succession. The correct reading of the Uplands having shown that an apparently simple upward succession might be altogether misleading, and that this region gave support, and not contradiction, to general laws previously established in the organic and Marcu 25, 1920} NATURE II! inorganic world, suggested the probability that the varying interpretations of the Highland problem might admit of a like solution. While i was able to carry and apply his tectonic iples to the Highlands, definite organic suc- on now failed him, and he was driven to nd mainly on his stratigraphical methods applied to variations: which were mainly litho- ogi Again, most elaborate mapping, and something akin to inspiration in the interpretation yf it, came to his aid, and in ‘a few months he had proved that the secret of the Highlands was hat the.region was the basal wreck of an ancient untain chain exhibiting tectonic features akin those worked out by Escher and Heim in the s. Lapworth was passing forward to the fuller tudy of the metamorphic area of the Highlands when his work was cut short by illness, and, in ‘spite of his wish to do so, he was never able to take it up again. : The tectonic work, however, led on to the sug- ive study of the rock-fold, which formed the ject of his address to the British Association Edinburgh (1892), in which he passed from the ‘structure of mountain chains to that of continents and oceans, and onward to the antilogous crests -and troughs of the earth’s crust as a whole, includ- ing that great “septum” the Pacific girdle of fire, the “wedding-ring of geology and geography.” Later, Lapworth laid before the Geologists’ Asso- ciation his conception that a great continental wave sweeping round the earth would produce _ results analogous to those revealed by the succes- sion of stratified rocks. In this, as in his other work, while possessing deep and sympathetic know- ledge of the researches of such geologists as Suess, Heim, and Bertrand, he held steadily to the views of the mechanics of the earth’s crust to which his independent thought had led him. __ The success of his own graptolite work and the _keenness with which it was being followed up by young observers led him to propose a new classi- fication of the Rhabdophora, and to contemplate a _ monograph on the Order. This has now been com- sted by Miss Elles and Mrs. Shakespear under s guidance and editorship. Although his duties at Birmingham, and the great amount of professional work involved by- his position there, kept Lapworth fully occupied, s ideal diversion was always the discovery of new facts and their delineation on maps. Field classes, week-ends, and longer holidays were always devoted to this, resulting in the completion (of large-scale maps of Nuneaton, the Lickeys, Dudley and the Coal-field, the Wrekin, the Long- mynd and Caradoc, the Shelve country, and, last _ but by no means least, with his friend Dr. Stacey _ Wilson, the Harlech area. Little of all this work has been published. He loved to add to it, _ to improve and polish it, to fill in difficult corners in detail, and to show his treasures to his friends, delighting that they should realise some of the Steps which led to his conclusions, and appreciate _ some of the labour of discovery. : _ As a great teacher Lapworth earnestly desired to NO. 2630, VOL. 105] cs WY hl equip his students to take their share in furthering the advance of science and to remove anything that could retard its progress. It was only fitting that the man who had stilled the Lowland con- troversy, and wrested its secret from the High- lands, should give the law in the “Silurian” con- troversy and make the opponents sink their differ- ences by the adoption of his term “ Ordovician.” Sir THomas P. ANDERSON STUART. It is with deep regret that we have to record the death, on February 29, in Sydney, of Sir Anderson Stuart, the well-known and _ highly respected professor of physiology in the University of that city, and the dean of its medical faculty. He had been in failing health for some months previously, but the fatal outcome of his malady was unexpected by his numerous friends. Anderson Stuart was born at Dumfries in 1856, and was the son of Alexander Stuart, Dean of Guild. He received his early education at the Dumfries Academy, and later studied in Germany (Wolfenbiittel and Strassburg) and in the Uni- versity of Edinburgh, where he _ graduated M.B., Ch.M. with honours in 1880. The next year he was appointed assistant of the professor of the Institutes of Medicine at Edinburgh, and later took the M.D. at that University, obtaining the gold medal. It was in 1883 that Anderson Stuart went to Australia as professor of physiology at Sydney, which post he held until his untimely death. His was a forceful character, and he threw himself with enthusiasm into the work of teaching and research there. He will be remembered for many useful pieces of original work in’ connection with the circulation, the physiology of swallowing, and the eye. His various models and schemata, in which he manifested extreme ingenuity, are standard helps to teaching in all modern labora- tories. His work as dean at a later stage in his career brought the medical school into high repute, and at the meeting of the British Association in Australia in 1914 he pointed out with justifiable pride the new buildings of the medical school, fully equipped with all modern appliances and accommodation for research and teaching, which formed the successful culmination of his efforts. But Anderson Stuart was more than a professor, more even than a dean; he was a sagacious man of the world, and was appointed on many occa- sions delegate by his University to various inter- national congresses, and consulted by the Govern- ment of New South Wales on many questions of public importance mainly related to educational problems. He was thus a well-known figure, not only in Great Britain, but also in other European countries. In his adopted country Anderson Stuart’s life was a long story of official appointments success- fully discharged. He was twice president of the Royal Society of New South Wales. He was medical adviser to the Government of. that colony, a NATURE [Marcu 25, 1920. and took a prominent part in all public health and educational movements; he was health officer to Port Jackson, president of the Board of Health, chairman of the board of the Royal Prince Alfred Hospital, trustee of the Australian Museum, and held many other public posts too numerous to mention. His activities in so many directions were recognised by the conferment of honorary degrees (M.D., Universities of Melbourne and ' Sydney; LL.D., University of Edinburgh; D.Sc., University of Durham), and finally by the honour of knighthood in 1914. Anderson Stuart was held in high affection by his students, colleagues, and numerous friends in both hemispheres. He leaves a widow and several sons (who saw service in the recent war) to mourn his loss, and to them our ~ heartfelt sympathy is offered. By the death of Mr. J..S. MacArtuur on March 16 industrial chemistry has lost a notable exponent. Mr. MacArthur’s name will always be remembered in connection with the Forrest- MacArthur patent for the extraction of gold from its ores by means of cyanide. It is given to few men to discover a process which has had such a far-reaching effect in almost every branch of civilised life. The influence of an enor- mously increased quantity of gold available for mankind has been—as, indeed, it must be—pro- found, no matter whether it is for good or for evil. Compared with the huge sums of money involved, the amount accruing to Mr. MacArthur out of this patent was infinitesimal. His type was essentially a pioneering one. The initial work in connection with the extraction of gold was carried out with small funds in a laboratory which was in reality a cellar at the back of a Glasgow tene- ment house. After this work was completed, Mr. MacArthur engaged in many commercial ventures in connection with chemistry and mining, but, with the possible exception of his last, none of them seemed to possess the elements of permanent success. This was the extraction of radium from its ores, which he carried on first of all in Cheshire, and then practically on the shores of Loch Lomond, in order to avail himself of the purest possible water. He was proud of his works there, and delighted to feel that he was able to carry on his work in the midst of such beautiful surroundings. Mr. MacArthur’s person- ality was delightful and genial. His travels had been world-wide, and to anyone _ interested in mineralogy and travel he was_ indeed entertaining. Mr. JAMES PRocTER, whose death occurred on March 6, was born in 1841. He took a prominent part in the design and manufacture of the engines required for blast-furnace work and iron and steel works, and is said to have been the first British engineer to construct blowing engines with mechanically controlled valves. Mr. Procter was a member of the Institution of Mechanical Engin- eers and of the Iron and Steel Institute. NO. 2630, VOL. 105 | Notes. iy As president of the British Association at its meeting in Cardiff on August 24-28 next, Prof. W. A. Herdman, of Liverpool University, will deal in his inaugural address with oceanography, of which he will give a general survey, and discuss in detail certain special problems and recent investigations, with par- ticular reference to the sea-fisheries. The following presidents of sections have been appointed :— A (Mathematics and Physics), Prof. A. S. Eddington ; B (Chemistry), Mr. C. T. Heycock; C (Geology), Dr. F. A. Bather; D (Zoology), Prof. J. Stanley Gardiner; EE (Geography), Mr. J. McFarlane ; F (Economics), Dr. J. H. Clapham; G (Engineer- ing), Prof. C. F. Jenkin; H (Anthropology), Prof. Karl Pearson; I (Physiology), Mr. J. Barcroft; K (Botany), Miss E, R. Saunders; L (Education), Sir Robert Blair; and M (Agriculture), Prof. F. W- Keeble. In the interests of physiological and medical re- search, we may congratulate ourselves that the debate on the mischievous and unnecessary Dogs Protection Bill of Sir F. Banbury was ‘adjourned ”’ on Friday last. Owing to the length of the discussion on the really important Early Closing Bill, that on the former Bill was prolonged until the rising of the House. It may be pointed out once again that no other animal of the size of the dog can be kept under laboratory conditions in a healthy state, and that the general chemical changes in this animal are closely similar to those of man, mainly owing to its omnivorous nature. The letter by Dr. Thos. Lewis in the Times of March 19 shows how obstructive the exclusion of the dog would be to one branch of investigation of great practical utility; and an equally strong case could easily be made out for many others. The report of the last Royal Commission on Vivisection shows that adequate provision against any possible cruelty has already been made, even if it were necessary to do so. His Majesty THE Kina has approved the award of the Royal medals of the Royal Geographical Society as follows :—Founder’s medal to Mr. H. St. John B. Philby, for his two journeys in south-central Arabia, 1917 and 1918; and Patron’s medal to Prof. Jovan Cvijic, Rector of the University of Belgrade, for dis- tinguished studies of the geography of the Balkan Peninsula. The council of the society has awarded the Victoria medal to Lt.-Col. H. S. L. Winterbotham, for his exceptional services to the country in the initia- tion and development of scientific methods of/artillery survey and the production of high-class maps of in- accessible areas. Other awards are :—Murchison grant to Miss Czaplicka, for her ethnographical and geographical work in northern Siberia; Cuthbert Peek grant to Mr. A. W. Pearson Chinnery, to assist him in continuing his work in the unexplored parts of New Guinea; Back grant to Mr. J. M. Wordie, for his scientific work on the Antarctic Expedition of 1914-17; and Gill memorial to Mr. Reginald Farrer, for his journeys on. the Chinese borders of Tibet. oral 25, 1920] WATURE L13 P the: ‘meeting of the Royal Irish Academy on March 16, the following were elected “members in the section of science :— : ri Louis le Chatelier, Prof. George Ellery ‘Prof. Augustus Edward Hough Love, and Sir : peaeeriord. Syatletia of railways. The Gicinttion is ted as follows :—Sir Alexander Kennedy (chair- , Sir Alexander Gibb, Mr. C. H. Merz, Sir p Nash, Sir John Snell, Sir sonal Thornton, and - Redman. - Recording | Secretary of the Nova Scotian tute of Science has been good enough to inform s that at a meeting of the institute held at Halifax ‘March 8, on the motion of Mr. H. Piers, seconded _D. Fraser Harris, it was ‘resolved that the Scotian Institute of Science convey to the. pub- rs and Editors . of NatTuRE, London, its con- lations on the occasion of the fiftieth anniversary , establishment of that well-known - scientific and wish Lim continired success in ‘the os fac systematic. Steiotiiies in Mediter- 1. oceanography was started at. an _ inter- i eeegaey) nee held at Madrid. ‘Accord- to. La. : Géographie for January (vol. xxxiii., No. 1), States represented were France, Italy, Spain, se, Monaco, Egypt, and Tunis. A _commission founded, with headquarters at Monaco and the ‘of Monaco as president. This commission will - the methods to be. adopted. . Ships for. the are under construction or being planned by a Spain, and-Monaco. A. beginning will | and Monaco and Spain in the Straits » . were used. The fitst left Brooklarids'-on - 4 and was wrecked at Wadi Halfa on— “a1. ‘A new start was made from Cairo on ‘eb - 22 with an ‘aeroplane fitted with the engines ror the first machine, and a flight was made so far. is OSaengee where the machine crashed on March 6. 1 March 17 a machine was supplied by the Union ment to replace this, and with it’ Col. van. slid and Capt. Brand completed their. African air B Oute of more than five thousand miles. Though ot associated with scientific observation during the ney, the flight is a notable feat in the history of NO. 2630, VOL. 105 | ), Sir John Aspinall, Mr. A. R. Cooper, Mr. Philip made th sie: spring, ‘France and Italy working i in the ib niga ar. The secretary of the central commission — De J tapcbiard, Musée Cetanogranhique, Monaco. . Dr. CHALMERS MITCHELL, in cablegrams from Dar- és-Salaam, published in the Times of March 15 and 16, graphically. summarises his impressions on the physiography of the Nile basin as seen in_ his flight from Cairo to Tabora. His despatch depicts the unity of the processes which have moulded the surface of north-eastern Africa. The dominant features due to earth movements are being slowly smothered by sheets of sand and silt deposited in river deltas, in the marginal lakes formed where tributaries are barred entrance to the main river by the raising of its bed and banks, and in wide basins slowly being con- verted to plains by wind-borne dust. _Dr. Chalmers Mitchell represents East Africa as having been cracked, whereas most other lands have been folded, and its vastest plains as due more to wind than to water. The lowlands are being filled by sub-aerial drift which buries the lower irregularities, and leaves the peaks rising abruptly out of the plains like reefs through the sand; upon a shore. In the second part of his report Dr.. Chalmers Mitchell refers to the beauty of the country, despite its. aridity, and. offers strong’ testimony -to, the progress which, has been achieved: in the Tanganyika territory, owing to “much ingenuity and vast.expenditure. of ;money, well laid out.” His remarks on the elephants, , giraffes, and antelopes observed during. the flight, show that the aeroplane would be of great service 19 pines in the search for big game.: , Ir has frequently been suggested oe the: very v Heavy cylinders used for compressed gases aré now out of date, and’ that the advances made’ during recent years | in the science of ‘metallurgy, particularly in connec- tion with steel and its alloys, should énable - a vessel to be produced which is lighter as well as safe. .’ In con- sequence of these suggestions the Department of Scien- tific and Industrial Research forméd a ‘Gas’ Cylinders Committee in 1918, the members of the Committee being. Fro. Ce i. Carpenter (chairman), Prof. C.. V.. Boys, Prof. E.G. Coker,’ ‘Diy J.'A. Harker, Major Cooper-Key, Prof, F. C. Lea, Eng: {Capt. J. McLaurin, Sir Charles Parsons, Major sah) Stewart, and Prof. J. F. Thorpe. Compressed. gases were much | used during the war, for various purposes, such as, for. example, in supplying oxygen for airmen flying at high altitudes and for poison-gas warfare. Indus- trially also, in war, as in peace, there has been an immense .development in the use of oxygen and acetylene for welding, of carbon dioxide and ammonia | for refrigeration, of hydrogen for ballooning, étc., which no doubt will be maintained. Arising from the neces- sity of war, very light cylinders have been manufac- tured for the purposes above mentioned, and slightly heavier cylinders were made to an Admiralty specifica- tion. . The Gas Cylinders. Committee, in conjunction with the leading tube. manufacturers, has made a number of.tests of cylinders based upon these war specifications, and it is hoped-that as a result of this work it may be possible to recommend the adoption of cylinders considerably lighter, than those now in general use, Tue first engineering school to be established in London was that at University College. Since 1828 LI4 NATURE [Marcu 25, 1920 a succession of engineers have been educated there under an eminent series of professors, and it would be a thousand pities if its work in this direction were now to be cramped for lack of funds. The case was ably put by Prince Arthur of Connaught at a lunch at the Savoy Hotel on Friday last. His Royal High- ness explained that the present scheme of extensions of the engineering laboratories of University College had a pre-war inception, and he paid a tribute to the valuable anti-submarine and other electrical research work carried out during the war by the professors at the college. The war had made us realise the necessity for adequate provision for scientific education and research, and he urged the need for the laboratories opened twenty-seven years ago by his father to be modernised and brought up to date. Twenty-four thousand pounds out of the 100,000l. which they were asking for had already been subscribed, including 10,0001. from Lord Cowdray in memory of his son, the Hon. F. G. Pearson, who lost his life during the war. Lord Cowdray had also promised a’ further 10,000l. when a total of 70,0001. had been collected. Dr. Russell Wells (Vice-Chancellor of the University of London) also emphasised the necessity for improved technological education for the future prosperity of the country, and announced further subscriptions aggregating more than 4oool. Sir Ernest Moir (honorary treasurer to the fund) supported the appeal, and Sir Robert Hadfield referred to the valuable research and educational work done at the college, which could not be continued without adequate funds. Sir Gregory Foster (Provost of University College) explained how important it was that the extensions should be put in hand without delay, and pointed out that, although the Government policy was to pro- vide grants for maintenance purposes, capital expendi- ture had to be met entirely by voluntary subscription. A PAMPHLET entitled ‘‘Currency Reform and the Need for a Nickel Coinage on a Decimal Basis,” issued by the Decimal Association, directs attention to the recommendations in favour of decimal coinage which have been made from time to time by com- mittees appointed by the Government to consider the question of currency reform. The simplification of account-keeping and of conversions of values into foreign equivalents which the introduction of a decimal coinage would necessarily secure is an advantage which would benefit the whole of our business community, and, in addition, effect a great saving of time in our schools. The Decimal Asso- ciation is in favour of the pound-mil system, which retains our gold coins and replaces the present bronze coinage by new denominations of 4 per cent. lower value. The main objection to the alternative decimal ' systems is that they would impair the prestige of the pound sterling, which under the pound-mil system is retained intact. Proposed changes in the materials of our coins are now under consideration by the Government, and the pamphlet urges that the oppor- tunity should be taken to get rid of our present in- convenient system and introduce a new coinage on a decimal basis. NO. 2630, VOL. 105 | THE second of the Chadwick public Jectures on _ military hygiene was delivered by Gen. Sir John — Goodwin, Director A.M.S., on March 15. The lecturer reviewed the Army hygiene during the recent war. The clothing served out to the troops was of the best, and special attention was devoted to feeding and rationing. The water-supply in large measure was subjected to chlorination in order to purify it, bleaching-powder being principally used for the purpose. Special measures were taken for cleansing purposes, bathing stations being established where the men bathed, and in the meanwhile their uniforms were sterilised and fresh underclothing was served out to them. Destructors were built, or extem- porised out of biscuit-tins, etc., in which all the camp refuse was burnt. Special means were devised to prevent waste. Thus in the destructors all the solder from old tins was melted out and collected, and fat from the kitchens was saved and sent home for manu- facture into glycerine and munitions. By these measures the health of the Army was preserved to a degree unknown in former campaigns. For example, in 1916, among a total strength of a million and a quarter of all nationalities, the number of cases of enteric fever was 0-2 per 1000 men, whereas in ~~ Boer War the figure was 153 per I000. Tue February number of the Museums. Tiubnat contains the report of a conference between Sir Amherst Selby-Bigge, Secretary of the Board of Education, and representatives of the Museums Asso- ciation, headed by Sir Martin Conway, on the pro- posed transfer of museums to the local education authorities. The association presented a reasoned protest, laying stress on the fact that the educational activities of museums must necessarily be subsidiary to their primary function of collecting and preserving the works of Nature and of man, and to the study of this material in prosecuting ‘‘the highest aim of a museum . the advancement of science, art, and industry.”” It. is the results of that study which eventually become available for the education of the public. The argu- ments in favour of linking up all the museums of the country with the national museums under the control of a separate museum board were advanced by Dr. Bather, who instanced among the prospective advantages of such an arrangement “the ,loan- circulation of natural history and other objects from the British Museum, the provision of expert help, and the cataloguing of the wealth of our scattered museums.’’? Sir A. Selby-Bigge, in his reply, claimed that the conception of education had recently widened so as to include the chief functions which the deputa- tion assigned to museums, The previous number of the Museums Journal reprints, with comments, the recom- mendations concerning the staffs of the national museums made by a Royal Commission, the report of which (Cd. 7338), issued in April, 1914, was obscured by the smoke of war. A “Sprciat Report on the Prevention of Venereal Diseases,’? by Dr. ‘A. Mearns Fraser, Medical Officer of Health for Portsmouth, has recently been addressed by him to the Health and Housing Committee of the Marcu 25, 1920] NATURE 115 aoe Council, and is worthy of the careful con- ; of all authorities concerned with national “San Dr. Fraser urges that the highest aim of a S aealleccity should be the prevention, not the ment, of disease, and that the necessity for exten- e provision for treatment is evidence of the neglect failure of prevention. He shows clearly that the scessful prevention of venereal disease by scienti- aecredited means can be achieved only by the tion of certain sanitary measures which are readily ble and easily applicable. These measures con- in ne use of a solution of permanganate of potash nediately after exposure to infection and of an nt containing calomel. The provision of these nfectants by any local health authority is not sug- ted, but the authority is recommended to take such steps as are necessary to spread the knowledge of the ‘means of self-disinfection, so that those who insist _ on satisfying their sexual appetites by promiscuous intercourse may be instructed how to protect them- selves: from diseages which, when contracted, are _ notoriously so often communicated to innocent women and children. Since it is far more easy to disinfect men than women, it is rightly urged by Dr. Fraser _ that it is of the first importance to prevent the infec- tive germs from entering the body of the male, for if one sex can be protected from infection venereal diseases will be well on the way towards extinction. _ The report gives ample consideration and reply to a Vatious objections which have been- persistently made - against the inclusion of venereal diseases in the cate- F gee? of infectious and preventable diseases which can now be dealt with on a apa ora lines. ti 3 A cuRIOUS case of stone worship is described by . H. A, MacMichael among the Tungur-Fur tribe in ‘the Sudan (Sudan Notes and Records, vol. iii, Bit 4, January, 1920). "The stone is known as the ‘Bride’s Stone” or the ‘Custom Stone.”’ Rites are : on marriage, at the circumcision of a child, ata birth, and when a high official visits the place. _ But that at marriage is; as the name implies, the _ me most usual. After the marriage rite the pair are made ; rub some blood of a sacrificed animal on the stone n the form of a cross. If they are too poor to afford , they offer a piece of cowdung. Then they are toa neighbouring well, where the officiant takes ids, shoulders, waists, enaea: and loins of the le, and binds some green grass on their necks. les, and wrists—all doubtless intended as a fer- ier in ati Norfolk and Norwich Naturalists’ Society attained its jubilee, and we congratulate its members on their fifty years of good work. The name of ‘‘naturalist’’ is in danger of extinction. ce) ar pursuits are so specialised that we have ornitho- gists, marine biologists, and protozoologists who yet prec ould scarcely be called naturalists. Another peril to the Bi 1e of naturalist was brought about by Mr. Arthur Balfour’s use of the word “naturalism ”’ to denote vhat other people call ‘‘ materialism.’’ It would be a Diccsan pities to lose familiarity with this most NO. 2620 vot. toc! honourable name of naturalist, or to pervert it to a false use. Happily, we are safe so long as the Norfolk and Norwich Naturalists’ Society flourishes, and others like it. Its latest number of Transactions (vol. x., part v., 1918-19) is altogether admirable, with Mr. W. P. Pycraft’s paper on “Some Neglected Aspects in the Study of Young Birds,’”? Mr. Robert Gurney’s ‘Breeding Stations of the Black-headed Gull in the British Isles,’? and Mr. W. G. Clarke’s ‘‘The Fauna and Flora of an Essex Common.”’ The whole issue is well illustrated and well edited; and Dr. Sydney Long, the society’s hon. secretary and editor, says truly that new problems and new points of view con- tinually arise. ‘It is to: be hoped that members of our society may devote attention in the future to such questions as the limiting factors in the distribution of our flora and fauna, to the peculiar physical and biological features of our great asset, the Norfolk Broads, or even to such practical questions as the advancement of agricultural methods by the applica- tion of modern ideas on heredity and soil fertility.’’ Tue Sumatran hare (Nesolagus Netscheri) is one of the rarest of known mammals. Hitherto’ only two specimens have ever found their way into a museum, and these are in the Natural History Museum at Leyden. Messrs. E. Jacobson and C. Boden Kloss are therefore to be congratulated on being able to describe four recently captured examples in the Journal of the Federated Malay States Museums (vol. vii., part iv.). The specimens were obtained by Mr. Jacobson after a long and almost hopeless search — in south-west Sumatra. In its coloration this animal is remarkable, being broadly striped with dark brown on a “buffy or greyish” background, forming a strik- ing pattern, which is admirably shown in two photo- graphs of a living animal. The skin of. this creature is so exceedingly thin that it was possible to prepare the specimens captured only after hardening in spirit. It is nocturnal in its habits, and haunts the remote parts of the forest at an altitude of from 600 to 1400 metres. Hence it is almost unknown, even to the natives. So far as can be ascertained, it would seem to live in burrows at the base of big trees or in holes in the ground made by other animals. Mr. Jacobson succeeded in keeping one of the specimens here described for more than a year, during which time it fed readily upon cooked rice, young maize, bread, and ripe bananas. But its favourite food in the wild state would appear to consist chiefly of the juicy stalks and leaves of different species of Cyrtandra, which plants form a large part of the undergrowth of the forests in which it lives. Repeated experiments showed that these plants were preferred to all others, and were consumed in large quantities. Tue Philippine Journal of Science (vol. xiv., No. 6) contains an account by H. A. Lee and H. S. Yates of the so-called ‘‘pink disease’? which has_ recentiy appeared in the Philippines, spreading rapidly and causing serious stem- and branch-disease of citrus- trees. The organism is a well-known fungus, Cor- ticium salmonicolor, which, though not previously reported upon citrus, is known to cause disease on rubber-trees (Hevea brasiliensis), cocoa, coffee, and 116 NATURE [Marcu 25, 1920 other plants, economic and wild, in the Orient, where it is now widely distributed, though in rgoo the diséase was practically unknown. Tue Journal of the Franklin Institute for February | contains the address on ‘‘Sound-ranging as Practised by the United States Army during the War’’ delivered at the meeting of the physics section of the institute in October last by Prof. A. Trowbridge, of Princeton Uni- versity. The methods used were those developed by our own Sound-ranging Section, and are known to many of our readers. They depend on the differences of the times of arrival of the sound of a gun at six stations near the gun, and are both sensitive and instru- mentally very accurate. almost all due to uncertain meteorological conditions at the time of observation. As compared with other methods of location of enemy guns, the American - experience is summed up in the following numbers :— During a three weeks’ rapid advance sound-rangers accounted for 21 per cent., and flash-rangers for 79 per cent., of the guns located. During the two following weeks, when the advance had been: checked, sound was credited with 54 per cent., and light with 46 per cent., of the locations. These records are charac- teristic, and show that the Sound-ranging Section required a little longer to get. into efficient action than the Flash-ranging Section. ‘WE have received a copy of the first volume of the © Chemical Age (June-December, 1919). Besides more or less ephemeral matter, the volume contains a> number of important articles possessing a permanent interest. Among these may be mentioned ‘The Chemist’s Place and Function in Industry,’ by Sir Robert Hadfield; ‘‘Recent Developments in Indus- trial Catalysis,’? by Dr. H. S. Taylor; ‘‘The Com- mercial Synthesis of Organic Compounds from Acetylene,”? by Mr. M. J. Marshall; and ‘‘The Syn- thesis of Ammonia,’”’ by Dr. E. B. Maxted. A useful feature of the journal is the weekly account; with | illustrations, of patent literature; this keeps the reader early in touch with advances made both in this country and abroad, and will be of value to the industrial chemist and the chemical engineer. It is satisfactory to find that the promising standard of the early numbers is well maintained in the later issues. Ir is more than a hundred years since Sir Humphry Davy first described his wire-gauze safety lamp to the Royal Society (1818). The-chief use of the lamp has, of course, been in the coal-mining industry. Danger of gaseous explosions also exists, however, in various chemical works where inflam- mable liquids are dealt with, a frequent cause being the use of naked lights in the repair or cleansing of large holders in which such liquids have been stored. Even at some distance from the liquid a naked light may be dangerous, as vapour given off may render the atmosphere capable of propagating flame. Atten- tion is directed to this fact in the Journal. of the Society of Chemical. Industry (February 28) by Mr. W. Payman, who advocates the use of some form. of safety lamp where artificial illumination is required in such circumstances, and describes various forms of lamp, suitable for the purpose. NO. 2630, VOL. 105 | The residual errors are ; ENGINEERS who have to solve problems based on the properties of steam, and especially those connected with steam turbines, will welcome a new alignment diagram constructed by Mr. D. Halton. Thomson, and published in Engineering for March 5. The principal part of the diagram is based on Callendar’s equations for the properties of steam, and by applying the prin- ciple of duality Mr. Thomson has succeeded in produc- ing an alignment diagram which represents not only the simpler of the Cailendar equations, but also the others not hitherto amenable to this treatment. The diagram has scales showing (a) the total heat of superheated or supersaturated steam, and also the total heat of wet steam; (b) the amount of superheat; (c) the dry- ‘ness fraction; (d) the total entropy; (e) the hydraulic efficiency for multi-stage turbines during superheated or supersaturated expansion; (f) the specific volume of superheated or supersaturated steam, and also of wet steam; (g) the absolute pressure; and (h) the saturation temperature. An auxiliary scale gives the relation of the heat drop and the steam velocity, and the Wilson point is marked on the chart. A straight- edge laid across the scales gives the whole of the required properties at once. As an example of the ‘kind of complex problems which can be answered in this way, we quote the following from the article :-— In a four-stage turbine the steam expands’in thermal equilibrium from 200 lb. per sq. in. absolute and superheat 100° F. to 1-5 lb. per sq. in. absolute; the stage efficiency is 0-65 and the reheat factor 1-045. Required the pressure, specific volume, and quality at the end of each stage. By no means the least interesting part of the article is an appendix showing the methods employed by Mr. Thomson in trans- forming the equations to the form desired. . Dr. GrirFITH Taytor, the Australian meteorologist, delivered during the war courses of lectures on meteorology to the Commonwealth Flying School and at the University of Melbourne, and as a result he is now publishing, through the Oxford University Press, ‘Australian Meteorology, with Sections on Aviation and Climatology.”? The volume will include chapters on the study of the weather chart, work at a small station, the peculiarities of the Australian rainfall, the special storms and hurricanes of Australia, actual pro- cedure in upper-air research, the discussion of long- distance forecasting and the application of meteorology to aviation, etc. In the Veterinary Review for February (vol. iv., No. 1) Mr. Fred Bullock contributes an instructive article on the compilation of hibliographies. Full details are given of the proper manner of compiling a bibliography, and a number of examples of correct and incorrect references to journals and other pub- lications are given and criticised. Messrs. Crospy. Lockwoop anp Son, 7 Stationers’ Hall Court, London, E.C.4, have just issued a new select list. of books published by them on chemical technology.. A copy will be. sent to any reader of NaTurE post free upon application to. this well-known firm. of. publishers of modern sven industrial, and technical books. — ‘ nie NATURE 117 “Marcu 25, 1920] Be te 2 s Our Astronomical Column. Tora, Sorar Ectipse or 1918 Junge 8.— . Iviii., No. 4, of the Proceedings of the American ophical Society is entirely taken up with a dis- sion of the observations made during this eclipse. photographs taken by the Lowell Observatory sdition at Syracuse, Kansas, bring out very clearly ‘connection between the prominences and _ the l arches. It is pointed out that this connection 1 easier to trace at sun-spot maximum than at um. Dr. Slipher’s photographs of the coronal um indicate that coronium is much more abun- in the equatorial than in the polar regions. srs. Jakob Kunz and Joel Stebbins were stationed Rock Springs, Wyoming, and measured the total t of the corona by photo-electric cells. Compari- | was made with the full moon through the inter- -mediary of standard candles. Allowing for absorption _ by the atmosphere, the total light of the corona was candle-metres, just half the value found for the full moon. Comparison of the corona with the sky _ near the sun before and during the eclipse showed that the corona gave 1/10th of the sky light (same aréa) _in full sunshine, and six hundred times the sky light during totality. It is obvious that most of the illu- mination of the landscape during totality comes, not- _ from the corona, but from the distant regions of the terrestrial atmosphere, which are outside the shadow. _ Endeavours are being made by Prof. Hale at Mount _ Wilson to ee the corona in daylight by the use of Mr. John A. Miller, of the Sproul Observatory, describes some researches to detect motion in coronal _ streamers by comparing plates taken at different _ stations. Recessions from the sun of 90, 60, and 15 miles per second were indicated for three different streamers. Mr. Miller also states that the forms of 4 oar) the streamers can be explained on the sup- position that they are projected matter acted on by a epulsive force. ES A Noon Rerrector.—Prof. C. V. Boys describes the English Mechanic for March 5 an ingenious ttle ir ent which he states to be capable of ing apparent solar time within a_ second. a s essentially a transit instrument; a small mirror, : se in 2 : “Iti ; in. ameter, is mounted on an axis about 2 in. _ long, cylindrical ends which rest in two Y’s, _mounted on a stand which is capable of being firmly Full details : i nyges# of the various parts are given in the ticle, with instructions which should enable any son with a mechanical bent to construct it. Small ovements for fine adjustment in level and azimuth _ are allowed for in the design. Some protecting cover and some means of fixing firmly after adjustment is _ secured are also demanded, as it is somewhat tedious _and troublesome to adjust it with high accuracy. The mirror is so small that the reflection of the sun on the opposite wall is fairly well defined, like a pinhole image, and the author states that he has frequently _4een able to see large sun-spots clearly.. There is a certain amount of penumbra, but by practising uni- _formity in observing either the inside or the outside of the penumbral fringe the time of transit of the _sun’s centre may be determined to a second. The ridian is marked by a line on the north wall of the om; the noon image of the sun may be brought to same point at all times of the year by rotating e mirror axis in the Y’s. NA 9692N Wot tor] _ fixed in a window of southern aspect. ' discoveries, American. Fossil Vertebrate Animals. AMERICAN palzontologists are making good pro- gress with their detailed studies and déscriptions of the original type-specimens of the various species of extinct vertebrate animals found on theit con- tinent. Most of the first descriptions were necessarily hurried and superficial, often unaccompanied with figures, and they are scattered in’ numerous small publications. Later discoveries have indicated more clearly the features that are of special significance and need particular attention in each case, so that new descriptions are of fundamental importance for exactitude in the science. Realising this, Prof: H. F. Osborn has just completed a valuable work by ‘bring- ing together a series of up-to-date technical descrip- tions and figures of all the type-specimens ‘of fossil horses from the Oligocene, Miocene, and Pliocene formations of North America (Memoirs of the ‘Ameri- can Museum of Natural History, new series, vol. ii., part i.). He not only deals with every species on a uniform plan, but also discusses in ample detail the correlation of the various formations from which the fossils were obtained. Besides reproducing the original figures already published, he adds many more, and among these the pencil drawings by two Japanese artists are especially noteworthy. A series of new drawings collected to illustrate the evolution of the upper and lower molars of the horses is a welcome compendium. Other fossil mammals are described and discussed in the sixth volume of papers on vertebrate palzeonto- logy extracted from the Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History, 1915-17. We noticed some of these contributions at the time of their publication, and we are glad to have them so conveniently collected. Several notes on the mammalian remains of the Lower Eocene by Messrs. W. D. Matthew and W. Granger add to our know- ledge of the type-specimens by comparison with later which are described and illustrated in detail. The paper on the Eocene Notharctus by Messrs. W. Granger and W. K. Gregory is also fundamentally important for a discussion of the origin of the Primates. In another valuable memoir Dr. Gregory pursues this subject, and reviews our present knowledge of the fragmentary fossils which seem to afford some information as to the origin of man. The skeleton of Diatryma, a heavy running bird > ft. high, from the Lower Eocene of Wyoming, is described by Messrs.’ Matthew and Granger as repre- senting a new order of uncertain relationships. Some of the Cretaceous Dinosaurs described bv Prof. Osborn are also remarkably bird-like; and the won- derfully preserved Corythosaurus described bv Mr. B. Brown, though evidently an amphibious Dinosaur related to Iguanodon, has a bony. crest which would make the outward shave of its head like that of a cassowary. In the volume from the American Museum there are also some notes on the gigantic Dinosaurs related to Diplodocus, but a still more important contribution to our knowledge of these reptiles is Prof. R. S. Lull’s detailed description of Barosaurus in the Memoirs of the Connecticut Academy (vol. vi., pp. 1-42, pls. i- vii.). Barosaurus seems to have a longer neck and shorter tail than Diplodocus, but is otherwise very similar to the latter. The gigantic Sauropoda, indeed, are not easilv classified, and we still need many more technical descriptions like that before us. Some of the type-specimens of the Permian and Triassic reptiles are also redescribed and, discussed by Baron von Huene and Mr. D. M. S. Watson in the Bulletin of the American Museum; but the most 118 NATURE [ MARCH 25, 1920 striking recent addition to our knowledge is a fine skeleton of Dimetrodon from the Permian of Texas, described by Mr. C. W. Gilmore in the Proceedings of the U.S. National Museum (vol. lvi., pp. 525-39, pls. 70-73). Mr. Gilmore has restored the reptile as shown in the accompanying figure, and none of the proportions are hypothetical except the length of the thin end of the tail. The total length is about 7 ft., while the greatest height at the middle of the dorsal crest is nearly 5 ft. It must have been an agile reptile, and the serrated sabre-shaped teeth would be very effective for the capture and tearing-up of its prey. The feet have sharp claws. The remarkable crest on the back is formed by the projection of the greatly elongated neural spines of the vertebra, as in the existing little lizard, the basilisk, of tropical America, shown in the upper corner of our figure. of the largest, wealthiest, and most active of the associations under the Department. The annual income, apart from special donations and interest, is nearly 12,000l., and it is hoped that ultimately the association will embrace the two thousand firms engaged in wool manufacturing in the British Isles. The outstanding feature of the year covered by the report has been the appointment of a director of research, Major H. J. W. Bliss having taken up his duties on March 24 last year. Among the interesting matters dealt with in the report are the seven reports on researches or inves- tigations undertaken by the association; the partial engagement of two specialists and the appointment of two investigators; the development of consulting work; the dissociation from the larger educational institutions—particularly the University of Leeds and Fic. 1:—Restoration of a primitive carnivorous reptile, Dimetrvodon gigas, from the Permian of Texas, made by Mr. Charles W. Gilmore for the U.S. National Museum, Washington ; about one-twelith natural size. Inset, the ex sting lizard, Basiliscus plumifrons, from Central Ame ica, showing dorsal crest formed by projecting neural spines. The use of this crest is uncertain, but the most plausible suggestion seems to be that the reptile lived among scrubby vegetation, and the outgrowths, pro- tectively adorned, may have helped to osraresn it. 5 aay BY Research in Textile Industries. Pe ING its initial impetus from the activities of the University of Leeds, later aspiring to wider activities in the West Riding of Yorkshire, the British Research Association for the Woollen and Worsted Industries has now attained to full status under the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, and, according to the report for 1918-19 of the council, just published, may claim to be one NO. 2630, VOL. 105 | the Bradford Technical College—and the start on the development of. private laboratories at Frizinghall, Bradford; the institution of a library and informa- tion bureau and the indexing of past textile publica- tions and research; the formation of two joint com- mittees, one to deal with woollen carding and spinning, and the other with sheep-breeding; the receiving of deputations; and the formation of five local committees for England, Scotland, and Wales. Reference is also made to the progress of research, | especially in the United States and in Germany, atten- tion being directed to the large sums of money spent and the large staffs engaged by individual firms, and the inference drawn that, large as the resources of the British Research Association are, they will have to | be much augmented if the requirements of the wool industry are to be satisfactorily met. A little homily Marcu 25, 1920] NATURE 119 emedying the Neglect,” ‘‘The Basis of Research,”’ ‘Research: What it is not.” t is to be regretted that the report shows a certain of appreciation of the conditions under which ntific research and investigations may be con- The appointment of a director who comes and unbiased to the wool industry is an experi- nent well worth watching in view of future develop- nents. But how comes it that the actual laboratories to be divorced from the Yorkshire University of ds? This action appears all the more strange it is noted that of the seven researches and westigations undertaken, five have been carried out 1 the University of Leeds; of the four appointments made to the staff, three are from the University of eds; and of the two large researches conjointly ) taken, both originated in the University of weeds, the second being started by drawing upon the U “hap de unique flock of Soay sheep. It is further somewhat strange to read that “in the simplest matters it is not possible to find informa- ‘tion in a correct and authoritative form,’’ in view of the fact that the country which has been specially comme _in the report for its highly developed re- ucted. _ 5 at : oa activities (the United States of America) adopts shire text-book as its standard work of refer- and that Australia similarly regards Yorkshiré publications on wool. here indicated are only a passing phase, and that ulti- ately credit will be rendered to those institutions, articularly the University of Leeds and the Bradford echnical College, and individuals who by their ours in the past have made possible the develop- ment of this association, © - Research work on wool presents such remarkable difficulties that apparently the only possibility of sound progress in the future lies in the closest and most _ amicable association of all institutions and individuals ially qualified to assist in introducing science and scientific method to the greatest. possible extent throughout the wool industries. It may be that the secrecy insisted on bv this association is essential in th 3 f +s th ests of subscribing members, but the broader in- _terests of research are represented by an approximately equal Government contribution, and it is obvious that these broader interests can best be fulfilled by a well- considered scheme of association between the educa- tional. institutions in question and the Research SE Pace ar oe | _ Climatology of North-west Russia and ae France.’ ‘CINCE the withdrawal of the British Forces from ~ Ar l and Murmansk, the climate of North-- west Russia has become a matter of less interest to the average Englishman than was the case six months ago, but to the meteorologist the district remains one ce. The climatic features of the area in vinter must be considered in relation to its inter- ‘mediate position between the relatively warm waters of the Arctic Ocean and the intense cold of Central _ Asia. The effect of these two influences is seen in _ the approximate equality of temperature in January at Alexandrovsk, near the mouth of the Kola River, in the north, and Petrograd in the south, notwith- standing a difference of nearly 10° in latitude between the two stations. a (1) “The Climate of North-west Russia.” Pp. 26-++4 plates. (London: Meteo ological Office, 1919.) : y : : : (2) “ Etudes sur le Climat de la France.” Deuxiéme Partie: ‘‘ Région mex Cae et du Sud.” By A. Angot. Pp. 114+13 plates. (Rézime ‘ Ss rues, NO. 2630, VOL. 105 | 5 : ‘ given on “The Effect of Neglect in the Past,’’ We hope that the tendencies . _The comparative warmth of the Arctic coast is likely to become a matter of considerable economic importance, as it enables the recently developed port of Murmansk to be used for navigation throughout the year. The dates of the forming and breaking-up of ice on the Nova, Dvina, and Onega Rivers and on Lake Onega are shown in a table in the work under notice, where are given not only the mean date, but also the periods within which the date will occur on the average, (a) once in two years, and (b) once in five years, thus indicating the degree of variability experienced. This may be a matter of nearly as much importance as the actual mean value. : The climatic conditions of North-west Russia are presented in a series of tables giving data for seven stations, while letterpress directs attention to the more important features. It may cause surprise to learn that a temperature of 85° F. has been recorded at Archangel, while the average highest reading for July is 80° F. The percentage of cloudy skies in North Russia is high even in the summer—a feature which is well brought out by diagrams of a novel type, which show the frequency of fog, precipitation, and over- cast, cloudy, and clear skies for Archangel and Kola. Upper-air temperatures are presented for Petrograd, where trustworthy means are available, and also for Kiruna, in Swedish Lapland, where the number of ob- servations is less satisfactory. In the two tables in which these data are set out, increasing height runs in one case up the page, and in the other down. It .seems desirable that one or the other of these methods should be standardised. ‘There is much to be said for reversing the older method and following the more natural way by running increasing heights up the page, so that the greater heights are above the smaller. he paper does not aim at being a complete treatise upon the subject of the climate of North-west Russia, but within a small compass a good deal of interesting information is put together. The second of the two publications under notice is of a different and more specialised type, dealing with but one branch of climatology, namely, rainfall, for the southern and south-western districts of France. This forms the second part of a larger work which is to cover the rainfall of the whole of France, and, as the discussion of the data is left over until the publication. of the whole is complete, the present volume contains little but tabulated matter. The region embraced is bounded by the Rhone on the east and by the Pyrenees on the south, while north- ward it stops somewhat short of the Loire. The thirty Departments included in the area are represented by some g50 rainfall stations, the mean ‘density’ varying in general in the different regions from 4 to 1 station per 10 km. square. In the main tables each Department is dealt with separately in the following manner :—First are set out brief particulars of the different stations giving height above sea-level and the period covered by the observations. Next are given the mean monthly and annual fall in millimetres for each station reduced to the common period 1851- 1900. Finally, for selected stations the proportionate fall in each month of the year is shown. The means from these selected stations show the annual march of rainfall for the ,.Department as a whole, and in this case correction is made for the unequal lengths of the months. At certain stations, more numerous in some Depart- ments than in others, the rain-gauge is placed upon a roof, which leads to an unsatisfactory exposure. It is pointed out that the errors introduced by such an exposure’ are proportionately greater in winter than in summer, so that the annual curve is distorted. It is worth noting that the normal height of the rim 120 NATURE | MARCH 25, 1920 of the gauge above the ground is 1-5 to 1-8 metres in France, so that a correction would be necessary before making comparison of the results with British records, An excellent ‘series of charts at the end of the volume indicates the rainfall distribution in each month and in the year as a whole. In the study of these charts’ one misses a contour map of the country. The annual fall varies from 500 mm. in two small areas on the shores of the Mediterranean to more than 1500 mm. in the mountainous regions. It is note- worthy that, after the Mediterranean seaboard, parts of the Atlantic coast take a high place among the driest regions of southern and south-western France. This is particularly the case in the summer months. A wise discretion has evidently been used in rejecting stations of doubtful accuracy in the preparation of the district means, and in other ways it is evident that trouble has not been spared to render the results as trustworthy as possible. J. SD, Volumetric Testing of Scientific Glassware. Yi Weedon sted work in the chemical and physical laboratory depends not only on the worker, but also to a large extent on-the trustworthiness of his glass measuring apparatus, such as burettes, pipettes, and calibrated flasks. Whilst it is no doubt true that every operator who is master of his craft should be able, on: occasion, to~verify the accuracy of his measuring instruments, it is also. true that both time and practice are required to do it well, to say nothing of the ‘fact that special equipment is necessary for some of the verifications. Hence it is important, both to makers and to users, that facilities should be avail- able for the testing of such instruments by experts, upon whose -testimony reliance can safely ‘be placed. At the National Physical Laboratory apparatus of the kind in question has been tested, in respect of its accuracy, for the past fifteen years, but on a small scale only. Such instruments were. mainly obtained - from abroad in pre-war days, and it is only within the last two or three years that the making of them has developed appreciably in this country. . With the growth of the industry here it became necessary to make arrangements for ‘testing and certifying glass volumetric apparatus on a larger scale than heretofore. .Facilities were therefore provided and regulations drawn up, in co-operation with manu- out systematically what are known as “‘Class. A” tests—that is, tests on apparatus required to be of the highest degree of accuracy. A» pamphlet describing the arrangements and regulations was issued in July, 1918, and a new building has just been’ completed, with special equipment for dealing with this class of work on a large scale. Instruments required to be only sufficiently accurate for commercial purposes are designated as “Class B.” A permanent. scheme for commercial testing. of such bodies, is now under the consideration of the Govern- ment. Pending the settlement of this scheme, manu- facturers may note that the National Physical Labora- tory is. prepared to undertake ‘Class B”’ tests, which for the present will be carried out at.Teddington. | It is hoped eventually to arrange for this work to be done at local centres. ‘A full account of the methods of testing, limits of ‘error allowed, details of construction, and fees charged is given in a new edition of the laboratory pamphlet, “Volumetric Tests on Scientific Glassware.’’ Copies of this pamphlet may be obtained free of charge on application to the Director. The “Class A” tests are designed for instruments NO. 2630, VOL. 105 | intended to possess the highest degree of accuracy — required in scientific use. Whilst the ‘Class B” tests are less stringent, the limits of error assigned are such as all graduated apparatus of good com- mercial quality should comply with, and are necessary for obtaining satisfactory results in ordinary routine analysis. ee It is very desirable that the scientific glass-making industry developed in this country during the war should remain as a permanent asset: To attain’ this end the graduated apparatus produced should be not only well made, but trustworthy in respect of accurate calibration. From the maker’s point of view; the advantage of having apparatus guaranteed by an im- partial institution is invaluable for establishing a reputation for accuracy. As regards users, they will no doubt be glad to know that it is now possible to obtain apparatus the correctness of which has been impartially verified. The monogram of the National Physical Laboratory is the hall-mark of British scientific glassware so far as accuracy of measurement is concerned. ; Beeb. University and Educational Intelligence. ABERDEEN.—Mr. W. G. Craib, formerly assistant at Kew, and now of the botanical department, Edin- burgh University, has been appointed to the chair of botany vacant by the death of. Prof. J. W. H. Trail. ' BirmincHamM.—Mr. A. A. Dee has been appointed an assistant lecturer in physics. — + gee _ CaMBRIDGE.—The governing body. of | Emmanuel | College offers to research students commencing resi- sidence at the college in October, 1920, two exhibi- tions, each of the annual value of 5o0l. and tenable: for two years and, on .the..recommendation of the | student’s director of studies, for such longer period as the degree course may require. The governing body may also make additional grants to students | whose means are insufficient. to cover the expense of residence at Cambridge or whose course of research may entail any considerable outlay.in.the provision of apparatus or materials. The exhibitions will be awarded .at. the beginning of October, and applications should be sent so as to reach the Master. of Patmanuel | (The. Master’s Lodge, Emmanuel College, Cambridge) nu- | not later than September 18. facturers and users of scientific glassware, for carrying | The new statute authorising the degree of Doctor of Philosophy for Research has been Bh pees by his Majesty the King in Council, and regulations giving effect to the new statute will be offered for accept- ance at the. first Congregation in the Easter term. Mr. F. B. Smith, of Downing College, has been appointed reader, in estate management. _. Vacancies are announced in the Cayley lectureship in mathematics and in'the University lectureships in physiology and zoology. Candidates must apply to the 5 ! ' Vice-Chancellor. by. April 20. articles by State institutions, or by other approved | EpINBURGH.—In consequence of the appointment of Mr. W. G. Craib, of the botanical department, to the chair of botany in the University of Aberdeen, it has been arranged as'a matter of urgency that Sir George _ Watt, formerly professor ‘of botany in the University of Calcutta, deliver the course of lectures on Indian forest trees during the summer term. Mr. James Templeton has been appointed lecturer in botany in succession to Mr. Pealling (resigned), and Dr. Bella D. MacCallum full-time assistant in the same department. se With the assistance. of the Scottish Committee of ‘the Royal Aeronautical Society, the services of four _ lecturers had been obtained to give a series of lectures aoe nr eee "Marcu 25, 1920] NATURE h21 aeronautics in connection with the engineering ss at the Universities of St. Andrews, ot and Edinburgh. The University Court voted a grant of sol. to defray the cost of the lectures in Edinburgh, ind suggested that the lectures should be open to the IDHC... . M. ere’ Breuil, of, Paris, ia meant appointed Munro lecturer on prehistoric archzolo for the -academical year 1920-21. - . _ Liverroo..—The University, through its Chan- 21 or, Lord Derby, has just issued an appeal to its _ constituency, the counties of Cumberland, Lancashire, Cheshire, and North Wales, for funds that will enable _to come abreast of present needs. Some of the as o>! _ are obviously inadequate, while all of them are now a » small ; thus the practical course in elementary physics is being repeated eleven times each week. The library needs to .be extended; the chemical laboratories are so overcrowded: that work is being _ carried on in Army huts; new departments are con- temp! and interesting developments are being _ thought out. A chair in the mathematical theory of Statistics, a ship-model tank, a department of col- oidal chemistry, and.a department of marine food try’ are among” the ‘futurist ’’ ideas that make appeal so relevant to a rcial centre. It»is hoped that the sum of a on pounds. mav ‘be: obtained; and of this about ,oool. is urgently required for pressing expan- . Already about 200,000l. has been promised. 5 SD lig oA, f : 4 On Saturday last, March 20, the third annual dinner _ of the metallurgy department of the. Sir. John. Cass 4 4 chnical Institute was held, Mr. ,G. Patchin, the El head of the department, being in the chair. Dr.C. A. re Keane, the principal, replying. to the toast .of the q te, stated that. at the present time. there are more | han a thousand individual students attending the various courses. In 1904 there were three courses Be etsents in ie metallurgy depart- ment, and this year there are eleven courses and one hundred and twenty students. . _ One of the most valuable provisions of the new _ Army scheme is that which relates to the education _ of the rank and file. The intention is to provide men _ in the Army with an educational training equal, or _ even superior, to what is available in civilian life. Every officer in command of a company will be held responsible for the instruction of his men, not only n drill and oe agg but also in the class-room and rkshop, and the result will certainly be increased se and efficiency. elliges ct re oa ca dae aa of this subs tial reform Col. Lord Gorell, who since 7R: 18 has been Deputy Director of Staff Duties & (Educa tion) at the War Office, Sir Henry Hadow, and Mr. P. A. Barnett are largely responsible, and _ they are to be congratulated cordially that the scheme A certificates of education is to come into peration on July 1, 1921. Four classes of certificates _ are to be awarded on the results of examination. _ For the third-class certificate candidates must be rble _-to read intelligently a selected piece of English prose, ite a simple letter, work simple sums up to and luding vulgar fractions in reference to concrete é nples, and answer questions on a course of citizen- ship and history. The second-class certificate will ~ apparently require a standard of attainment comparable _ with those of the former Preliminary Local Examina- _ tions of Oxford and Cambridge; and the first class, _ involving English, mathematics, geography and map- _ reading, and (optional) an ancient or modern language, ‘ approximately that of the First School Examination. NO. 2630, VOL. 105 | La _ laboratories have been in existence since 1881, and | great industrial and . By taking, in addition, two or three single subjects from different groups, a special certificate may be ob- tained. Various practical subjects may be taken for the second-class . certificate, and the groups for the special certificate include mechanics, chemistry, physics, botany, zoology, geology, physiology, civil, mechanical, and electrical engineering, agricultural chemistry, and commerce. We shall ‘watch with close attention the application and results of this educational scheme. Societies and Academies. LONDON. Royal Society, March 11.—Sir J. J. Thomson, president, in the chair.—W. G. Duffield, T. H. Burnham, and A. A. Davis: The pressure upon the poles of metallic arcs, including alloys and composite arcs.. In a previous communication (Phil. Trans., A, ccxx., p.°209, 1919) the authors showed that the poles of a carbon arc behaved as though they repelled one another, and methods were described by’ which the pressure upon each pole could be measured. Reasons were given for attributing this effect to the reaction consequent’ upon the emission of électrons from the poles under the influence of thermionic or photo-electric action. The present experiments relate to arcs between iron, copper, and silver terminals, the rate of variation of the pressure with current ‘density being measured for the anodes and cathodes. The pressures were greater than in the carbon arc, that within the copper arc being the largest. Assuming that the pressure is due to the projection of electrons, a comparison between the kinetic energy of the elec- tron and that of the metallic atom at the temperature of the poles showed sufficient agreement to suggest that the electrons before projection were in thermal equilibrium with the metal of the pole. The reactions upon electrodes composed of an alloy of silver and copper were also measured, likewise those within an are between a silver and a carbon pole. In this case the pressure was determined mainly by the material of the pole under examination. The problem of the mechanism whereby a gas may be heated is briefly discussed. Some account is also given of the varia- tion in the potential difference between the poles when the material of one is altered.—J. H. Vincent : Further experiments on the yariation of wave-length of’ the oscillations generated by an ionic valve due to changes in filament current. Eccles and Vincent have found that in an oscillatory circuit maintained by a thermionic valve with ‘a grid coil coupling, the wave- length has a maximum value for a, certain filament current. This effect is studied further in this paper. In order to vary the filament current, rheostats were designed and used in which the change of resistance was unaccompanied by any sensible change in the self-induction of the filament circuit. The methods of measuring the change of wave-length due to the variation of filament current were different from that employed by Eccles and Vincent, but it was found that the results obtained were independent of the particular method by which the wave-length was studied. It is suggested that changes in several of the variables of a valve-maintained circuit produce effects of the same sign on the wave-length and the amplitude of the oscillations. The wave-length and amplitude decrease with the decrease of the grid voltage or of the plate voltage. They also decrease when the coupling of the grid coil with the main oscillator coil decreases. Increasing the. resistance in either the condenser branch or the induction branch of the main oscillating circuit lessens the amplitude and wave-length; while altering the filament current 122 NATURE | Marcu 25, 1920 | in either direction from that giving the maximum wave-length gives also a decreased amplitude.—H. A. Daynes: The theory of the katharometer. ae 136 Some Methods of Approximate Beeps and ot pide Computing Areas.—Prof, J. Dale; R. A. P. Rogers... 138 Gravitational Deflection of High- speed Patticles—= Forder 2.0) 5s ce 2 a 138 Colouring Matters of Plants . 139 Geodetic Survey in North Amerign, By E. H. H, 141 Science and Research in the Air Service . . * 142 Obituary: Mr. Bewley (Ayia By Dr. Cyril Rootham 143 Notes 8.0 6 wie A ee 144 Our Astronomical Column :— April Meteors: cso Ne ie ° 149 Spectrum. of 7 Argis ©. 5. ys (so ee 149 Infra-red Spectra of Nebulae . .... 149 Hydrographical Studies. rf Prof. D'Arcy. Ww. Thompson, C.B.,.FIRIS: 2.5 (22. 150 Public Health and Welfare... ........4— 151 Education of Engineers. By W.C.U....... 152 Tropical Control of Australian Rainfall, By W.W.B. 152 Prehistoric Man and Racial Characters ..... 153 A College of Tropical Agriculture ........ 153 Duplex. Wireless Telephony 3 '+ 3.) 44.3) ee 154 University and Educational Intelligence. .... 154 Sociéties ahd Academies (0005. 3", 52.0) a ee 155 Books Received... 3)" 0.0 See ee ee 156 Diary. of Societies «:.0 3). (3a ie. oe eee 156 Editorial and Publishing Offices: MACMILLAN AND CO., Ltp., ST. MARTIN’S STREET, LONDON, W.C.2. Advertisements and business letters to be addressed to the Publishers. Editorial]. Communications to the Editor. Telegraphic Address: Puusis, Lonpon. Telephone Number: GERRARD 8830. '¥. : NATURE 1 3 / —— 1920: _ THURSDAY, APRIL 8, _ The Universities and the Army. » RE than a year ago—on February 20, . / Igtg—an article on ‘‘ Education in the ” was published in these columns in which t reasons were advanced for a new policy. ‘Durir the intervening period, numerous contribu- n have been made to various newspapers and reviews on the same subject, and book has suc- d book animadverting on the educational . of the Army organisation as revealed by ir. Great disappointment will be felt that neere representations have so far produced - useful result than the Memorandum on Estimates of 1919-20, recently published ‘War Office “in amplification of the speech Secretary of State in introducing the Esti- 3 That speech, delivered by Mr. Churchill yruary 23, was able and serious within at exiguous limits, but it contributed = to the question of educational reform’ in t aspects. We are forced, therefore, 1 to the amplifying Memorandum in the s hope of finding the question discussed lines and in a scientific spirit. It proves a Mother Hubbard cupboard containing schoolboy essay freely embellished with taphors. Thus : One of the important lessons of the war has the extent’ to which the Army is cependent niyersities. Great strides were made in ion before the war, with the result that ersities responded to the call for help in did manner.” belated recognition of the valuable work eer oraitics in connection with the war is ntee to the British public, whose ears attuned to the sad diapason of the war’s ad. The fact that the Secretary: of State, in Dect, found the subject unworthy of even assing reference is surely disconcerting. Ve . pointed out recently that the Memorandum ves to be commended for the proof it affords e recognition by the Army of the import- : of scientific research conducted both under ges. Every science and every scientific NO. ). 2632, VOL, 105 | worker can make some contribution to national ‘defence. To give Mr. Churchill his due, he appears to realise the economy of men and money which may result from new applications of science. He quoted in his speech, as an example of the possi- bilities of. the Air Force, the case of the recent Somaliland campaign, which, at.a cost of 30,000l., achieved much more than an expedition before the war which cost 2,500,000l. ; and he described a new form of tank, which, so far from damaging the roads, actually improved them, and possessed an engine which, instead of overheating the interior, exercised a_ refrigerating effect. But what we ask, and what we shall insist on- know- ing, is whether this new spirit is to permeate the whole Army, or whether, when the wounds of war are healed and its bitter memories pass into subconsciousness, the Army will revert to its old traditions. Fortunately for the Army and for the nation! one of the root causes by which these traditions were fed has been effectively removed. Before the war, officers were not paid a living wage, and that system was deliberately pérpetuated in order to maintain the tradition of the officer as a gentleman of means and leisure who did half a day’s work for half a day’s pay. As a writer in the New Statesman observed (January 25, 1919): “Tt is no use pretending now that the system gave us an efficient Army. One does not gather grapes from thorns. The ablest boys in the country’s schools went almost invariably into other callings. Some. few officers, with the German menace before their eyes, did indeed work with most praiseworthy, unpaid energy in the years immediately preceding the war. But no gratitude to the ‘ Old Contemptibles ’ should blind us to the fact that, however devoted their officers were, they were clearly outclassed as pro- fessional men, both by their German opponents and by their French Allies; and that in spite of the unique opportunities afforded by Colonial and Indian war experience. Under the revised rates of pay of Army officers, a junior subaltern receives pay and allowances amounting to 3201, a year if unmarried, or 394]. if married, and is able to look forward to generous increments on promotion and to an adequate pension. It will be a breach of trust if, under these conditions, the Army Council does not pro- pose far-reaching reforms as regards standards of education and training for the commissioned ranks. G 158 NATURE [ApRIL 8, 1920 ‘There is no reason why a standard of pro- fessional training at least equal to that required by other professions, such as medicine and en- gineering, should not be required by the Army, and the only imaginable obstacle to this reform are the protests of old ‘Regular officers, who think that the system which produced them must be the best possible. That particular obstacle has been overcome more than once in the history of the British Army, and it should not deter Mr. Churchill if ‘he will devote to this reform some of the energy which he expends so generously on more forlorn objects. To pass from destructive to constructive criticism, we would urge that the standard of ‘education represented by three years’ study at a University should, as a_ general rule, be demanded of all Army officers; in other words, ‘that the raw material for the commissioned ranks should be University graduates rather than public- ‘school boys. The military colleges at Woolwich and Sandhurst should no longer be used as ‘seminaries for the elementary education of adolescents. A great economy of public money would be effected by this simple reform. According to the Estimates for 1919-20, Sandhurst for 700 cadets will cost a gross amount of 195,350l., being 279l. 1s. 5d. per cadet per annum, while Wool- wich for 280 cadets will cost 86,850l., or 31ol. 3s. 7d. per cadet per annum. It is “pure” education which these young men chiefly require ; they should obtain it in the Universities, which can offer a wide variety of curriculum and abun- dant facilities for social intercourse with all types of student. The University contingents of the Officers Training Corps are admirably adapted for providing elementary military training, which could be supplemented within the Army before and after the student takes his commission. Inci- dentally, the Army would be able to select for its commissioned ranks mature men possessing a livelier sense of vocation than can be expected from schoolboys. If the quality of the raw material were improved in the way suggested, there should be no ground for nervousness as to the finished product. Methods could easily be devised of advancing and specialising the military training of these young _University graduates. In time a corps d’élite would be formed able to study the art of war in all its aspects and to apply new scientific ideas and discoveries to national defence. NO. 2632, VOL. 105] Woods and Water Supply: Forests, Woods, and Trees in Relation’ to Hygiene. By Prof. Augustine Henry. (The Chadwick Library.) Pp. xii+ 314. (London: Constable and Co., Ltd., 1919.) Price 18s. net. ROF. HENRY writes of forests, woods, and trees with an enthusiastic appreciation Of the beneficent part they play in the economy of Nature and in the service of man. He has devoted great energy to the study of his subject, and collected data of much value which will prove very useful to those engaged in projects of afforestation in this country. The importance of the subject is, we believe, fully realised by the Government, and Prof. Henry adduces so many instances of local authorities which have begun to move in the matter that we may hope to see the restoration of the woods on waste lands making steady progress year by year. The book before us is an amplification of the Chadwick Lectures delivered by Prof. Henry at the Royal Society of Arts in 1917, and the author no doubt looks upon it in large measure as propa- ganda in the cause of tree-planting on a national scale. The first three chapters, however, deal with matters of profound scientific importance— the influence of forests on climate, the sanitary influence of forests, and forests as sites for sana-. toria. These are difficult matters, as Prof. Henry fully realises, and some of them have agitated students of physical geography for generations. The difficulty of the question of the influence of forests on climate arises in great measure from the fact that climate has a great influence on forests, so that in wooded areas the interplay of cause and effect becomes extremely complicated. Prof. Henry has read up the subject widely, but the nature of his book makes it impossible for him to focus the results sharply enough. : He abundantly justifies the thesis that an increase of forest growth is of national importance for improving the hygiene and the economic condition of this country; but he scarcely attempts a scien- tific demonstration of the mechanism by which the beneficial effects are produced. He does, indeed, direct the attention of his readers to many recent investigations which it is most useful to. have brought together, and for this guidance the student who wishes to go farther should be sincerely grateful. We cannot, however, accept the results of some of the series of observations refcrred to without a more Critical discussion of the methods employed and the data recorded in different pa~ts of the world. In particular we agree with Prot. Henry in his opinion that the effect of afforestation in Aprit 8, 1920] , NATURE 159 asing ~the general rainfall is probably gible in the British Isles. e greater part of the volume is devoted to ‘question of national importance—the afforesta- on: of water-catchment areas, with particulars f the extent to which the work has already pro- dj. This is timely, for the whole question of Wi ater resources of the country is now under vi ation by a Committee appointed by the es of the Board of Trade and the Minister alth. Prof. Henry shows clearly that the ering grounds for the reservoirs of water » by gravitation are well fitted in almost y ease for planting with timber-trees up to ce to show that covering a certain pro- of the surface with forest growth, so being detrimental to the yield of the s, is even helpful. Curiously enough, he does efer to the important influence of high vegeta- and especially of trees, in precipitating ure from mist, a phenomenon which is shown strikingly when one is traversing a road gh a wood in a thick mist. The road s perfectly dry, while the drip of water the branches on either side gives out the d of abundance of rain, and the ground be- oa trees soon becomes saturated. As Dr. Marloth proved on Table Mountain many years 1x0, even such inconspicuous growths as a bed of /can draw pe streams from a cloud drift- on a bare stretch of soil or rock. No a certain amount of water is in this way d to a forest-covered catchment area without * recorded in properly exposed rain-gauges. the other hand, if, as certain experiments e in Germany and ganted on p. 3 seem to est, the transpiration of forest trees is greater the evaporation from an exposed water s e, the net result may be to reduce the amount of water reaching a reservoir, and this t be a serious matter in a dry summer. Even we admit that afforestation does not appreciably ase the available run-off, it seems unlikely it can seriously diminish it, and the balance probability is that planting a water-catchment ‘is beneficial. A wide belt of woodland sur- ding a reservoir must reduce the wash of rface material into the streams, and so retard ‘silting up of the reservoir. But, what is more important, the value of the forests when ce established will justify the acquisition of the nole drainage area of their water supply by authorities which could not otherwise justify the expense of such a step; and it is only on gow NO. 2632, VOL. 105 | which is the property of the water authorities that it is possible to keep the area free of population or of farm stock, and so secure the water abso- lutely from all sources of pollution. This is scarcely the place to criticise the list of catchment areas for water supply in the United Kingdom, which fills 135 pages, and appears to be based on official figures; but one cannot help regretting that the data quoted are not more homogeneous. Rainfall figures, for instance, are given only in some cases, and even then they are often misleading from the lack of information as to how the average was computed. The ‘responsibility for this is on the local authorities themselves, and we can only thank Prof. Henry for his diligence in bringing so many facts together that the room for improvement in the ‘form of statement stares one in the face. , No remedy for these ill-assorted statistics can be found until some central water authority comes into existence which can co-ordinate all the local efforts in accordance with one national and scien- tific system. One slip, however, should be corrected—the allocation of Haweswater to the supply of Penrith on p. 175 and on the map on p. 173. This should be Hayeswater, a small tarn lying between Haweswater and Ullswater. Hucu RospertT MILt. The Wilds of South America. (1) In the Wilds of South America: Six Years of Exploration. in Colombia, Venezuela, British Guiana, Peru, Bolivia, Argentina, Paraguay, and Brazil. By Leo E, Miller. Pp. xiv+428. (London: T. Fisher Unwin, Ltd., 1919.) Price 21s. net. (2) University of Pennsylvania. The University Museum Anthropological Publications. Vol. ix., The Central Arawaks. By William Curtis Farabee. Pp. 288+xxxvi plates. (Philadelphia : The University Museum, 1918.) (1) M*: MILLER’S well-illustrated book is the attractively written personal narrative of seven exploring expeditions to South America, all but one sent out by the American Museum of Natural History, mainly to collect mammals. and birds. There are few wild countries left which have not been ransacked with the hope that the amassed specimens may include some _ species “new to science,” but there are still fewer the fauna and flora of which have been correlated intelligently with scientific observation of the pre- vailing environmental conditions. Several Ameri- can museums stand in the front’rank of such 160 NATURE [Aprit 8, 1920 enterprises, well planned, with, perhaps, restricted but intense purpose. Mr. Miller, of the American Museum of Natural History, was a member, or the leader, of these expeditions, which from the spring of 1911 to the beginning of 1916 covered an enormous amount of ground: Colombia, in which faunistic paradise alone he spent nearly two years; Venezuela and British Guiana; Bolivia and Argentina; and Roosevelt’s famous journey. It is worth noting that our active author finished this book in an aviation concentration camp pre- paring to ‘do his bit.” » This narrative contains no tedious itineraries. It is a condensed account of, in the aggregate, five years’ travelling, with many hundreds. of episodes, observations, and reflections, which cover a very wide field, from old churches to local industries, Stone and scenery, plants and creatures, just as he happened to come across them. There are no _ blood-curdling incidents, although he had his fair share of danger. Since we are taken through steaming-hot tropical low- land forests, over rivers by raft, canoe, or steam launch, across desert plateaux on to snow-covered mountains, to wild natives and modern towns, a few bare samples or headings must suffice to indicate the range of the work : A successful search in the highlands of Colombia for the “Cock-of-the-Rock,” of which beautiful bird’s home life, nest, and egg's little was known. Humming-birds becoming intoxicated with the sap of some tree tapped by woodpeckers. A study of the different modes of feeding of various birds as observed side by side: the parrots climbing to the tip of the fruit-laden branch; the large-billed toucans are enabled to reach a long distance for the coveted morsel, whilst the trogons, with short neck, delicate feet and bill, hover about the fruit. Whilst one river was muddy and potable, another, close by, had clear red water, unfit for drinking, and it contained only a few kinds of fish, but no crocodiles, sandflies, or mosquitoes were about. Mr. Miller suggests that monkeys may keep the malaria infection alive in districts which, because of this plague, are practically uninhabited by human beings. In some parts of Bolivia vampires were so common and so little shy that the author was able not only to watch their biting and sucking, but also to sweep them off the mule with a butterfly- net—a feat which frightened the suffering beast so much that it sank to the ground with a groan. The Sirioné tribe in the same country use bows so powerful that the hunter has to lie down, to grasp it with the feet, and to draw the cord with both hands. They are fierce savages, not ‘“ Indios reducidos ”—i.e. not yet broken and cowed—and NO. 2632, VOL. 105 | no wonder. They had fixed some protégés of a mission station to trees by means of numerous long thorns. The padre in turn had seven cap- tives tied to posts, and after four of them had died from starvation and sullenness, the priest took pity upon the remaining three and released them. z As usual, the Indian’s: mind is rathvan perplex- ing. A woman asked the exorbitant price of 4 pesos for a fowl, which she said was a first- class game-cock; when told that the bird was wanted for food only, she at once parted with it for 60 centavos. On a_ sandstone plateau, at an ebeidailelt of 13,400 ft., was growing the gigantic “ Puya,” one of the Bromelia family, and humming-birds (Pata- gona gigas) hovered over its numerous flowers. Monstrous lies grow sometimes from a grain of truth, and so do colossal horned snakes in Brazil. Their size at least is proved by a cunning” mixture of circumstantial evidence and further re- flection: for instance, the discovery by trust- worthy hunters that the so-called horned snakes. are really not horned creatures, but such as have swallowed an ox tail foremost, the spreading” horns ultimately lodging crosswise in the corners. of the mouth—quite a sufficient explanation in countries. where anacondas are said to grow to 40 metres in length. But there are also very many observations and valuable reflections by the author himself, frequently concerning the supposed work- ing of natural selection. For example, if the struggle for existence is as keen as is often thought, how can the female insectivorous bat, encumbered with her baby fully three-quarters as. large as herself, compete successfully with the unhampered males? There is also an important account of the cow- bird’s (Molothrus) parasitic habits, compared with which those of our own cuckoo seem insignificant, dozens of eggs being dropped into a single nest of the Owen-bird (Furnarius), so that the latter deserts it.—That human curse of the tropics, the plume-hunters, in Paraguay and elsewhere, now scatter poisoned fish over the egret’s feeding- grounds during the breeding season. (2) Mr. Farabee’s work oa the Arawaks is one- of the volumes containing the results of an ex- pedition, from 1913-16, sent to South America by the Museum of the University of Pennsylvania. It deals in detail with the Arawak tribes, their somatic characters, mode of life, traditions and beliefs, ornaments, weapons and other imple- ments. One hundred pages are devoted to the- language. The general account is most interesting reading but the book is really intended for the specialist.. - a _ Apri 8, 1920] NATURE 161 are, however, no fewer than thirty-six plates " excellent photographs, notably those which sent the people and their mode of life. 1e greater number of Arawaks inhabit the savan- sof southern British Guiana and the neighbour- : parts of Brazil. The largest of the tribes is of the Wapisianas, and they number only 1200. Others amount to fewer than one ed each, all rapidly decreasing. Mr. “Melville, magistrate and protector of Indians; has lived amongst them for twenty-five a ears, guarding them from the unscrupulous ex- oite “No traders or missionaries have yet ished themselves amongst them, hence their al honesty, their simple purity, and their nitive religious ideas have not been destroyed.” The author says that the coincidence between yur classical and the Wapisiana interpretation of he zodiacal and other constellations is not to be ondered at. To call Orion the warrior is obvi- us ‘enough. But the Pleiades are “the turtle’s ne it full of eggs and father of the rains,” the be- ginning of the June wet season. Spica is the corn- planter; Scorpio, the anaconda; and Antares, the ion’s heart, a red macaw swallowed by. the° 5 ideas of his own which he strives to realise, and as his experience grows he forms lines of policy for him- self, and is not very tolerant of others. His career is one of continuous self-assertion from the beginning. He may derive his ideas from instruction or inspira- tion, but the expression of them is his own; and what may be only the natural expression of his genius may look like disloyalty to his superiors in the world of red tape. The positions of the two types with regard to finance are’ equally diverse. The Civil Servant has no difficulty in establishing the position that as the Minister wants things done he will, of course, be pre- pared to provide adequate remuneration for those who carry out his wishes. Money is therefore forthcoming. But the expert has to convince the Minister, or per- suade someone else to do so, that his projects are worth trying in the public interest and can be justified in Parliament. He has to ask for permission and facilities for research, the results of which are, ex hypothesi, unknown; to ask for pay in addition is to invite refusal of everything. Moreover, the discipline of a body of experts is quite different from that of a public office. What is wanted from an expert is his own spontaneous opinion as a guide to action—a something which a Civil. Servant is not expected to possess. It seems to follow that experts and Civil Servants are as different as oil and vinegar, and the endeavour to mix them promiscuously in one organisation will not work. They belong to different atmospheres; what stifles one gives buoyancy to the other. Somehow or other an advisory side for formulating policy ought to be organised on different lines from those of the administrative side which carries out the policy. But if there is a separate organisation on the technical side it ought to have direct access to the Minister finally responsible, and not be fenced off from him by a secretariat trained on different — lines. There are sure to be misunderstandings and ultimate despair if all the work of a pro- fessional technical staff has to pass upwards and downwards through the refracting and distorting medium of an inexpert secretariat. The scheme of organisation must be in sectors reaching continuously from the Ministerial centre to the circle of recruit- ment. The technical staff itself will want the assist- ance of ‘civil servants’? content to follow out the policy which is indicated. The mischief begins when the Civil Service forms a complete belt in the inner regions of the organisation. In that case an inexpert Minister is completely surrounded by inexpert advisers, and then power is cut off from knowledge. Tue vast conflagration of the late war rendered conspicuous many truths that were little suspected by the majority, and not the least of these was the importance, the necessity, of organised and accurate scientific knowledge and research for national success. Unfortunately, this is already in danger of being forgotten while we are engaged in the strenuous task of preserving for our country its due and fitting place in the industries and activities of the world, and the leading article in Nature of March 25 has sounded a very necessary note of warning. It rightly emphasises the need that the ultimate administrative authority should be vested in men with technical knowledge and experience, and not in Civil Service officials appointed originally, for the most part, on the basis of purely literary attainments. This authority will, however, never be conceded to the man of science until the scale of his remuneration corresponds to the importance of his work. It was_ repeatedly 166 NATURE [ApriL 8, 1920 demonstrated during the war that scientific men who from motives of patriotism accepted a low scale of salary for their services in Government Departments were accorded an equally modest official status. The ultimate basis on which an adequate recogni- tion of the importance of the scientific technical expert must rest will be the estimation in which science and scientific research are held by the great mass of intelligent men and women. It must be realised, in the first place, that a training in science on the right lines and under the right men will be as efficient in broadening the outlook on the world and stimulating the imagination of the student as a detailed study of the vicissitudes of ancient wars or the eccentricities of Greek and Latin irregular verbs. It must also be recognised that no course of science can be con- sidered complete unless it has included a session at least spent in scientific research, humble though it may be and directed by more experienced workers. But it must be genuine research, not merely a ‘heuristic ’? imitation of the real thing. The more science graduates who have learnt to understand what research means there are scattered about the country—in factories, in counting-houses, in Government offices, in educational establishments of every kind, and, most important of all, in municipali- ties and legislative bodies—the wider will be the recognition of the value of science. Unfortunately, scientific studies are seriously handi- capped in the competition for university students by the fact that the fees are, as a rule, distinctly higher than those for arts. There is, therefore, a strong pecuniary inducement for parents to select an arts rather than a science curriculum for their children. Such a handicap is obviously opposed to the national interest, and should not be allowed to continue. In view of the urgent reasons for associating research with higher scientific education, it is to be regretted that the general tendency of Government policy should be to divorce industrial research from the universities and to place it in the hands of asso- ciations of commercial firms. The discoveries that open up new lines of development in great manufac- turing industries are arrived at by processes essentially similar to those that lead to advances in pure science, and if we are to get the best results it will be by the co-operation of the vigorous university life which has sprung up in recent years at so many centres in busy industrial districts with the commercial enter- prise in its vicinity. Finally, if we are to secure to science its full weight in the councils and policy of the country, we must not confine our propaganda to the ‘governing ”’ or upper classes, or to the ranks of professional workers, or to those engaged in commercial pursuits, but we must develop by all the means in our power a love of science in the great army of the manual operatives, whom it would seem that in a not distant future we shall, willingly or unwillingly, have to acknowledge as our masters. With their increased leisure there should be no difficulty in enlisting a large contingent of men and women who will be interested in science, either for its own sake or for its value in enabling them to understand the meaning of the work in which they are engaged. Some of them will in all probability definitely embrace a scientific career, and in this they should receive every assistance and encouragement, while others will render no less service as amateurs and as missionaries of science among their fellows. Already, I am told, a great deal is being done in this direction in connection with University College, Not- tingham, and no doubt much is being accomplished on similar lines at the Midland and Northern uni- versities. At present the operations of the Workers’ NO. 2632, VOL. 105] - needs still to be extended much further, a consi L amount of exact knowledge of individual lines is Educational Association are largely confined to the somewhat restricted domains of constitutional law and history and political ecenomy, but a few years may see a attractive studies in the broad realms of science. March 31. Joun W. Evans. | The Secondary Spectrum of Hydrogen. THE recent investigation by Dr. Merton of the effect of an admixture of helium on the intensity distribu- tion in the hydrogen spectrum appears to have given a very strong clue towards the elucidation of that spectrum. On the photographs taken by Dr. Merton (reproduced in part in Proc. Roy. Soc., October, 1919) the- spectra appear completely different in the cases of pure hydrogen and of hydrogen mixed with helium. Many lines, in the first case quite strong, are totally absent in the second; others remain practically unaltered in intensity; while a third set appears in the second case, though practically or completely invisible in the first. Such results seem, at first sight, to point to the existence of at least three classes of lines which are mutually independent, one class being unaffected by helium and the others affected in opposite senses. A somewhat exhaustive investigation which I have made recently in regard to these photographs, kindly lent to me by Dr. Merton, and the previously pub- lished tables of the spectrum has convinced me, how- ever, that this interpretation is not the correct one. It was known already that the secondary pling of hydrogen contained two sets of lines, one showing, and the other not showing, the Zeeman effect. A third and doubtful set were abnormal in regard to the Zeeman effect. Dufour examined many of the strong lines in the spectrum, and, although his investi son able available. Fuleher also had previously investigated the low- potential discharge in hydrogen, and isolated two band spectra peculiar to this discharge, which spectra we may call the Fulcher bands. and their most important part is in each case a set of triplets which recur towards the red end. Although they do not readily fit the Deslandres type of formula, I have been able to establish a mathematical relation- - ship between the two bands, from which it appears that they must be considered jointly as one band. In addition to the triplets there are many associated sets of single lines, which Fulcher considered, on experimental grounds, to belong to the same band system. Dr. Merton’s results have made a valuable con- tribution which enables us to isolate these Fulcher bands completely from the rest of the spectrum. The conclusions at which I have already arrived mav be summarised as follows :— The secondary spectrum of hydrogen consists of a set of band spectra—how far divided into sets which are mutually independent in the mathematical sense is uncertain, but at least partially so divided— together with a superposed spectrum of single lines. The band lines are those which show no Zeeman effect, and the lines of the superposed spectrum all show the Zeeman effect. This general statement still requires considerable experimental work to establish its complete truth, but the evidence so far available is sufficient to leave little doubt in the matter. — Dr. Merton’s spectra, taken in the presence of helium, preserve what I ‘have cafled the superposed great development of more stimulating and They differ from more . ordinary bands in their large component separations, © ee ee oe eee Apri 8, 1920] NATURE 167 2 = m without much change of intensity, and it is oubtedly due, on all grounds, to a different atomic - molecular mechanism from that producing the is. This superposed spectrum exhibits very pro- ced ‘constant frequency difference ’’ effects, and e is good reason to believe that sets of series stra of the ordinary Rydberg type may be included it and form the basis of the constant differences of ve-number. The series spectra of hydrogen would 1 be no longer confined to the Balmer series. n the photographs the behaviour of the ‘band ”’ } is peculiar. The ‘“head”—a word not used in ordinary sense, but as denoting the strongest line e band and the one most remote from the red ; preserved in intensity in helium, or even d, while all the other members disappear. A in pure hydrogen may be weak, but if it is really nd-head in this sense, it is prominent in the nce of helium—the head is not always the st line in a band in pure hydrogen. This con- tion is the real clue to the interpretation of the aphs, and it has been found possible to isolate tire Fulcher band, which is of a remarkable ure and accounts for the great majority of lines Ha and Hg, in part of which region the is Measures have been very incomplete and ling. Other strong bands of similar character eur in other regions, and it is already clear that complete analysis involves only a few such indi- vidual bands showing no Zeeman effect, together with line spectrum showing Zeeman effect, and ap- tly capable of arrangement in constant frequency ces 1c view of the importance this spectrum has now ssumed in relation to atomic structure a preliminary atement of its nature appears to be desirable. BS J. W. NicHotson. ‘University of London, King’s College, his March 21. International Council for Fishery Investigations. \ PERUSAL of the programme of the International uncil for Fishery Investigations, as outlined in TURE of March 18, substantiates the criticisms pub- hed 1g02 and 1903, as well as later. In the ts of the fisheries and of the public in these times it is imperative to direct attention once e to the position. In the original programme of _ about twenty years ago the Council were to discover whether the yield of the sea-fisheries was increasing diminishing, and cially to demonstrate the poverishment of the sea (as if the myriads of ova on the fishmongers’ slabs every year afforded no lesson); to show to what extent fishing-grounus could be depleted without danger; to point out what fishing atus was destructive; to investigate the small 1 grounds; to make discoveries of practical import- to the fisheries; to publish annual results; and i" aod to produce data (even within two years) on wi British and foreign legislation could be based. ow, after sixteen to twenty years’ labour and a at expenditure of public money (for salaries went during the war), it is found that the impoverish- ent plea is dropped, along with most of the heads _ just mentioned as requiring solution. The new scheme, to take the heads in the order in which hey appear (see Nature, March 18, p. 84), includes an inquiry into the result of ‘tthe most gantic scientific experiment ever made in respect to e closure of areas.’’ It is unlikely that the fisheries f the North Sea will be to any extent altered by the partial closure caused through the operations of the NO. 2632, VOL. 105 | investigations will shortly be published, but Grand Fleet. The ways of Nature are not so simple. Then comes the old phantom of the diminishing plaice and the protection of the race by a size-limit, an impracticable idea so far as the security of the younger plaice goes. The larval, post-larval, and smaller forms are in prodigious numbers, and are safe. Nor is con- fidence in the Council increased when the ten years’ work of the Scottish Fishery Board’s ship, Garland, in the closed areas is now regarded as ineffective, and the subject not sufficiently studied! In other words, the deliberate conclusions of the Scottish Board, so resolutely upheld, and on which the closure of the Moray Firth and other areas was based, are null and void. That is one way of escaping from an untenable position. The Council may well spare the “intensive study ’’ of the plaice so far as’the prosperity of the British fisheries is concerned, and so with further experiments on plaice-marking and drift-bottles, as well as on the food of the young. Nothing important on these heads can result from continued expenditure. The lemon-dab requires little attention, for, like other doomed fishes of the kind, it has re-asserted itself. There is no urgent need for studies on the herring, though this was supposed to be one of the diminishing fishes not long ago. Yet a word must said in favour of the Danish exploration of the North Atlantic, where, and in the Mediterranean, Dr. Johs. Schmidt carried out such excellent work on the life-history of the eel. The hydrographical and plankton work of the Council has hitherto borne little fruit in the matter of the fisheries, and it is unlikely that, after twenty years’ probation, more will be accomplished. The revival of the bathybius-myth in the form of the supposed ‘‘vitamines’’ in sea-water may give point to a sentence, thus: “‘ The searcher for economic results in fisheries must have the basal theory and knowledge . . . as the foundation on which he has to build,” but that is vox et praeterea nihil unless a prac- tical acquaintance with the whole details of the life- history of the sea-fishes is possessed by him. Mere collation of statistics without such a check is of little avail inthe complex problem of the sea-fisheries, which, however, now as heretofore, hold their own against the combined attacks of their own kind, as well as of man, seals, whales, birds, and invertebrates. Marine animals have been kept in pure sea water without food for years, yet the suggested application of the ‘“‘ vitamine ’? theory to the oyster and mussel does not offer much scope. THe best. parcs for, fattening the oysters have much more than “ vitamines,”’ and even the ejectamenta, etc., of the mussels in the estuaries will by and by raise mounds several feet above sea-level. Four French names are given as members of the Council, but they are less familiar than those of Fabre-Domergue, Canu, Cligny, Raveret-Wattel, and Pellegrin. Again, one British name is conspicuous by its absence, viz. that of Dr. A. T. Masterman, a highly trained and talented fisheries expert. It is to be hoped that no interference by officialdom, as dealt with in the leading article in Nature of March 25, is connected with his retirement. Those who remember the case of Sir Joseph Hooker and Mr. Ayrton have reason to be jealous of the official status of experienced men of science in carrying out their researches for the benefit of the country. gl Finally, there can be little doubt that Britain would be better and more economically served by competent workers in its marine laboratories, where, moreover, young zoologists. could acquire a competent know- ledge of the marine fisheries. W. C. McINTOsH. 168 NATURE [APRIL 8, 1920 The Plumage Bill and Bird Protection. Tue protection of beautiful and interesting birds is the object of Col. Yate’s and Lord Aberdeen’s Bill now before Parliament. The chief end is to close Great Britain (and presumably all parts of the British Empire controlled from London) as a market in which the plumage of wild birds (excepting eider down and ostrich feathers) may be bought and sold. The reasons for excepting the down of the eider duck and the plumes of the ostrich need scarcely be explained. The eider duck strips herself of the downy feathers she develops during the breeding season and lines her nest with them. This down can be obtained without injur- ing the bird, or even without depriving her nestlings, who leave the downy nest soon after birth. Such a large proportion of ostrich plumes is obtained from tame birds (and the wild ostrich chicks are so easily domesticated) that it is scarcely worth while pursuing the wild bird for its feathers. Moreover, the plumes can be removed from the tame birds painlessly. The Bill is drawn so as to protect wild birds from persecution by closing to the trade in ‘their feathers the very important British market, which, together with the “Strong action of the United States and Canada, will go far towards extirpating this ecom- merce. We should protect beautiful, useful, interest- ing, and harmless birds—adjectives which include all the avian class except, perhaps, the, house-sparrow, the tree-sparrow, and the wood-pigeon, because :— (1) They are beautiful in shape, in plumage, in their manner of life, or in their voice, and they always add to the zsthetic charm of a landscape. (2) The majority of birds feed upon insects, ticks, land mollusca, small fodents, or carrion. They are our principal allies in keeping the insect hosts at bay and destroying the sources and disseminators of germs which breed disease in man, beast, and plant. They save our food crops and our timber-trees from destruction by insects, snails, and slugs; they attack snakes; and they assist to maintain the balance of creation in favour of man. (3) Sea-birds—especially gulls, aulss, petrels, gannets, frigate-birds, cormorants, and penguins—are the pro- ducers of guano useful in agriculture and horticulture. (4) Many fruit-eating birds are great distributors of the seeds, stones, and nuts of valuable timber-trees or trees producing spices, dyes, drugs, or fruits of value to humanity. Ergo, all birds, save the sparrows and the European wood-pigeon (which is very destructive to crops, and is believed to spread the germs of diphtheria), should be protected from attacks which are not necessitated by some real human need. What would be such a need? The preservation of the bulk of a food crop, or the necessity for the bird’s flesh, or the requiring of its under-plumage as a material for warding off cold. The last-named requirement does not affect the tropics or sub-tropics. Most insect-eating or guano- producing birds are unfit for food, and are disliked from that point of view by the savage quite as much as by the white man. Penguins and a few other sea- birds yield a valuable oil, but there is no reason why penguin rookeries should not be established for that purpose provided the species is properly preserved from serious diminution. Yet the amount of oil thus obtained is trifling in comparison with the yield from whales, porpoises, seals, and fish; and these in- habitants of the seas and oceans are more protected by their habitat from devastating attacks than are birds resorting to a terrestrial life during the breeding season. At anv rate, the extermination of marine mammals or of fish is not such a loss to landscape beauty or to the economics of human life as is the destruction of sea-birds. NO. 2632, VOL. 105] What is the offset against this argument for wild- — bird preservation? What quality do beautiful and interesting wild birds possess that they should be — attacked, pursued, and destroyed until in many cases they become extinct? They produce feathers and plumes of great beauty in colour or of exquisite out- line or texture which are desired as a personal adorn- ment by certain European—not Asiatic, American, or African—women, who stick these trophies in head- coverings or as a trimming on their corsage. There is also in about half a dozen instances a further use of wild birds’ plumage in the making of artificial flies used by anglers. Sr All that European women of anglers can in reason require in the way of plumes, wings, tails, or skins of birds for their decoration or other purposes can be obtained without cruelty from the domesticated or preserved birds that are killed for food or kept for egg production— ostricnes, the domestic fowl in a hundred varieties, the common pheasant and other pheasants bred in aviaries, pea-fowl, turkeys, guinea-fowl, pigeons, grouse, partridges, ducks, geese, certain kinds of wild duck sufficiently preserved to be in no danger of dying out, and so forth. Trade in such feathers is in no way restricted by the Plumage Bill. It is not right that rare and beautiful or exceedingly useful wild birds of the tropics and sub-tropics should be destroyed, eliminated from the landscapes for the sole purpose of decorating the persons of European women. We are told that the disuse of this practice would throw out of employment four or five thousand persons in England, France, and Holland; but surely they could find work in dealing with the feathers of domesticated birds. H. H. JOuNstTon. St. John’s Priory, Poling, Arundel. ery Ir is desirable in a discussion on the Plumage Bill to ensure that knowledge is not controlled by senti- ment, and that the solid facts of the matter are borne ~ Supporters of the Bill give three © definitely in mind. main reasons for it. They claim that the Bill will stop (1) the extinction of rare birds; (2) cruelty in that it will stop the killing of breeding birds, an serve their slaughter of statements that these points (in that it has no action in the places where the birds occur); that deal of perfectly harmless and legitimate trade; and that the real protection of birds must be an inter- national matter, which was being quite easily brought about by voluntary effort, which effort will be killed by the Bill. The important points are to consider (1) whether there is cruelty, (2) whether birds are being made extinct owing to the plumage trade, (3) whether the present Bill will prevent cruelty and extinction, and (4) whether any alternative proposal can be suggested. In regard to cruelty, it is extremely difficult to secure real evidence apart from unsupported state- ments. In a letter to the Times a few days ago Mr. H. J. Massingham produced a private letter detailing horrible cruelty in China with getting egret plumage. There is an American bulletin that details the killing so pre- irds at all. Against the Bill are the of 150,000 or 300,000 “‘ albatrosses and noddies.” One may admit the first as “\crueltv,’”? but scarcely the second so long as hunting and shooting are carried on in England. The Right Hon. Sir C. E. H. Hobhouse in the House of Commons referred to an auction of 75,000 herons, and to another of 77,000 herons, 22,000 crowned pigeons, 25,000 humming-birds, and 162,000 Smyrnian kingfishers. But is this wrong? No one could say that this trade was making any bird extinct. oung; and (3) cruelty in the actual © it effects nothing in regard to it stops a great . NATURE 169 2 trade wants them in thousands, and would not FF bird so rare that it was available only in idreds. think there is no evidence of any bird being de extinct by acts of the plumage dealers, whose erest lies in birds being abundant, but the Bill the scientific collector to bring in the rarest um In this connection some persons emphasise ‘the destruction of insectivorous birds as being a pity; ‘an insectivorous bird may itself destroy beneficial ects—say, dragon-flies, which themselves feed on t mage. Ir. C. W. Mason and I have published a very eful analysis of the food of birds in India, and decided that herons were injurious (see Memoirs the Agricultural Department of India, vol. iii., 1). I have before me three such memoirs, all by omologists, relating to England, Australia, and lia; and it is necessary to distinguish very clearly at the value of a bird is. Apart from this, no 1e interested in Nature could desire the extinction any species of bird or other life at all, and we ee 1 not restrict our precautions solely to beneficial fhe third point is whether the proposed Bill will tect the birds. It will not, because it simply pro- s importation into England of all plumage except ch and “gag unless it is wre or is per- _ property. e plumage goes just the same to ari: fost > bird P psi | at all. The same mount of plumage will come to England, only it will all up in Paris. The fourth point is: What can be offered in its place? I suggest the Bill should prohibit the import of scheduled birds, and that if evidence is brought of uelty or of approaching extinction,’ the importation f the bird from that locality should be prohibited by y adding it and its locality to the schedule. There ht well be a Standing Committee attached to the Board of Trade to hear representations and to vary schedule. The t is greatly mentioned. It is said to be stroyed for its plumes while the young birds are helpless in the nest; but I have photographs of an egret farm in Sind, and there are hundreds of such farms. The egrets’ plumes are taken without uelty, and the birds are not killed. Why, then, idiscriminately forbid egret plumes and destroy an industry in India? Why not exclude Chinese egret, and represent the matter to the Chinese Govern- nent? Why bar also the possibilities of farming emu, 1, marabou, lyre-birds, pheasants, etc. ? The Committee for the Economic Preservation of Birds up to August, 1914, endeavoured to put this matter right. It is a fact that this Committee had secured the co-operation of the plumage trade f Paris, Vienna, Berlin, and London, and that the whole trade voluntarily stopped the import and use of the plumage of a number of birds which were thought to be in danger of extinction or to be beneficial. This was the only effort to secure the real remedy, inter- ational co-operation; and the present Bill completely wipes out that possibility. Perhaps the present discussion will produce the solid evidence (apart from opinion) on which the ‘supporters of the Bill rest; up to the present there has been little other than sentiment. One last point that has a scientific bearing is that the Bill allows the importation of plumage for ‘scientific purposes and for museums. The scientific collector specialises on rarities which the museums need, and it is exactly this tvpe of collector who needs to be stopped; but the Plumage Bill is backed precisely by the ornithologists who want rare skins, and so can get them. NO. 2632, VOL. 105] 1 think the Bill needs a great deal of recon- sideration, that a reasonable Bill can be drafted which will protect birds, and that the present one allows for tne collection of the nearly extinct birds and does nothing to protect the cases where there is cruelty. H. M. Lerroy. Ir I were still in Parliament 1 should give as cordial support to the Importation of Plumage (Pro- hibition) Bill as I would have done to the late Lord Avebury’s Bill had I been in the House of Lords when he introduced it. But I recognise that if the measure is to receive support from men of science, it must be based mainly on scientific rather than on humani- tarian or sentimental grounds. I notice that Prof. H. M. Lefroy, in a recent letter to the Times, seems to assume that the advocates of prohibition are actuated by sentiment only. He asks whether they consider it less cruel to kill spring chickens for their flesh than pretty birds for their plumage. If this is meant for argument, it seems particularly feeble, unless the whole question of the ethics of consuming. animal food is to be raised. If it were as easy to rear egrets, birds of paradise, rifle-birds, etc., for the sake of their plumage as it is to rear cattle, sheep, and domestic fowls for their flesh, probably none but extreme humanitarians would raise serious objections, even if the birds had to be killed, which is not necessary in ostrich-farming. From a scientific point of view, the matter seems to resolve itself into the question whether the extinction or drastic reduction of the most beautifully clad birds can be viewed with indifference. I cannot speak at first hand about the extent to which reduction has been carried, but the evidence on this subject has proved sufficient to convince the Legislature of the United States that restriction of the plumage trade was necessary if some of the choicest species were to be saved from extinction. I cannot but hold the conviction that the true functions of naturalists are not limited to the mere work of collecting, recording, and classifying, and that it is incumbent upon them to aid in resistance to the extermination of such existing species as do not interfere with the welfare of human beings. But, after all, I can claim no higher standing than that of a field-naturalist, setting more store on a bird in the bush than two in a glass case or on a lady’s hat! HERBERT MAXWELL. Monreith. THE subject of the Importation of Plumage (Pro- hibition) Bill now before Parliament is one in which all zoologists, and, indeed, all lovers of Nature, should take a lively interest. It seems almost certain that much cruelty is involved in the operations of plume- hunters, and it is difficult to see how it could be otherwise, especially when the plumes are collected during the breeding season. This question, however, I leave to others who have the necessary evidence at hand, together with the important problem of the part played by the birds in the destruction of noxious insects. The point I wish to emphasise is the irreparable loss, not only to science, but also to mankind in general, which will result from the extermination of many of the most interesting and beautiful creatures that exist. Unfortunately, there appears to be no limit to the lust of personal gain. Were it possible to pluck a star from the heavens and sell it for the decoration of a lady’s headdress, star-hunters would doubtless be as active as plume-hunters in destroying man’s rich inheritance. It is clearly our duty to preserve for future genera- tions, as well as for our own enjoyment and edifica- / 170 NATURE [ApRIL 8, 1920 tion, the wonderful products of Nature by which we are still surrounded.. The destruction of a work of art would be condemned as vandalism by all educated people, and it is difficult to believe that any intelligent woman would willingly be a party to the destruction of some of Nature’s finest masterpieces. It has taken many millions of years to produce a humming-bird or a bird of paradise, and what work of art can com- pare with these living gems? Their destruction, once accomplished, would be irrevocable, and future genera- tions of zoologists, with all their science of genetics, might strive in vain to produce anything to replace them. Should such wantonness be permitted merely to satisfy the greed and vanity of a few human beings? I think not, and therefore I hope the Plumage Bill now before Parliament will be passed, and that other nations will follow our example in endeavouring to put a stop to a practice which is a dark blot on civilisation. Possibly an even more hopeful method of accom- plishing this aim would be by the formation of women’s societies for the express purpose of discoun- tenancing the fashion of wearing plumage derived from wild birds, except in the case of those the destruction of which is demanded for other and sufficient reasons. Such societies might do much useful work in enlightening the ignorant and thought- less and in fostering a wholesome public opinion. Possibly they exist already; if so, now is their oppor- tunity. ARTHUR DeENDy. The Magnetic Storm of March 22-23 and Associated . Phenomena. THE magnetic storm of March 22-23 was one of the most considerable recorded at Eskdalemuir during the last nine years throughout which continuous records have been obtained. It began with the abrupt disturbance. known as a “sudden commencement”’ at gh. 12m. G.M.T. on March 22, the rapidity of the change in the horizontal components at that time being so’ great that the photographic impression of the moving light-spot was too faint to enable its details to be traced. The main features, however, began to develop immediately afterwards. On the traces recording the changes in declination and the westerly component there were no very large motions in the interval between the sudden commencement and 143h., but there occurred the intense agitation due to oscillations of short period. At the same time the northerly component of force gradually rose, having superposed upon it several large, slow motions as well as numerous short-period oscillations. The larger motions of both horizontal components began soon after 16h., and by 17h. the declination trace had passed beyond the edge of the recording sheet. At this time, when the extreme westerly declination was reached, its value must have been at least. 1° 43’ beyond its undisturbed value. The north component trace was similarly off the sheet upwards (i.e. with increased value) from 16h. to 2oh. From 20h, until midnight the disturbance in the horizontal field was on a lesser scale, but during the four hours after oh. 30m. there occurred a series of large and rapid oscillations. For example, in six minutes from rth. 20m. to th. 26m. the declination shifted eastwards through 23°. The northerly com- ponent fell rapidly in value after midnight, and the trace was off the sheet downwards several times between oh. and 4h. The total range of this com- ponent must, therefore, have exceeded 7ooy—an un- usually high value. From 4h. to toh. on March 23 the motions were smaller, but extremely rapid, the period averaging about four minutes. After toh. no further considerable disturbance occurred, but a NO. 2632, VOL. 105] notable sudden change, in a direction north-east- ~ downwards, took place with its maximum at igh, 17m, The vertical force magnetogram for the storm is of more than usual interest. ponent is concerned, the ordinary course of events during a magnetic storm which begins before mid- night includes a gradual increase in downwards force towards a maximum which is reached before mid- night, followed by a fall for an hour or more; then a check, followed by a further fall, and a gradual recovery to nearly normal value, which may be reached about 8h. In the present case four pro- minent maxima are shown _ before . midnight—at 14h. 27m., 17h. 24m., 20h. 1om., and 23h, 49m. range of disturbance between the second and highest maximum and the second minimum (at 1gh, 6m.) was 565y- Soon after midnight there occurred an ex- tremely rapid fall in value which sent the trace off the sheet for nearly six hours. _ The subsequent recovery was characterised by well-marked pulsations the period of which was irregular, but averaged about five minutes, and were of unusually large amplitude. The occurrence of these pulsations in vertical force at the end of a storm is a feature requiring attention in any theory attempting to explain magnetic storms. The disturbance was accompanied by an auroral display, including the ‘‘curtain” form at a consider- able altitude, and extending, at oh. 50m. on March 23, to within 30° of the southern horizon. There was little cloud at the time, but low mist made observa- tion of details difficult. : ' A. CRICHTON MITCHELL. Eskdalemuir Observatory, March 26. Science and the New Army. NaturE of March 25 publishes a leading article — ‘Knowledge and Power,” a letter from Col. E. H. Hills, and a paragraph in the “ University and Educational Intelligence,’’ all dealing with related subjects. A sentence in the last-named paragraph throws light on the other communications. It reads: ‘Every officer in command of a company will be held responsible for the instruction of his men.’ The paragraph neglects to state, however, that the majority of these officers entered Sandhurst or Woolwich at an immature age, probably without competition, and are almost as ignorant as the men whose education they are to supervise. : During the war the lack of scientific knowledge and of habits of exact thought of these officers was shown not only by their persistent attempts to prevent — the use of scientific means, but also by their child- like faith in a formula or. parrot-cry. “Follow the barrage,” ‘‘ Counter-attack,” ‘‘ Defence in depth,”’ are some that come to mind—formule passed down through the official channels to be applied without thought to all possible situations. In this country war is still looked upon as an art, whereas it is rapidly becoming an exact science. The firing of millions of projectiles, involving an enormous expenditure of energy, not only in lives, but, what counts almost as much in the long run, also of labour, is a matter for exact calculation if the maximum probable results are to be obtained. At the present time such problems are solved by intuitive methods, and will be so whilst the present. system of officering the Army obtains. All hope of any real progress must be abandoned until a change is made; then, perhaps, we shall no longer see directors of research absolutely ignorant of, the problems that are being solved or await solu- tion. A. R. RiIcHARDSON. Imperial College of Science, South Kensington, S.W.7, March 31. So far as this com- — sete \ RIL 8, 1920] NATURE 171 _ An Electronic Theory of Isomerism. VE read with considerable interest the sugges- Dr. H. S. Allen in Nature for March 18 that angmuir atom could be applied with advantage study of organic compounds. Dr. Allen is, how- , doubtful if the “ cubical atom” of Langmuir wiil the existence of isomerides of the type of the malic acids, the glutaconic acids, the cinnamic , B-, and y-sugars, etc.; and it is certainly to give formulz for the triple linkage on the atom. These difficulties disappear with the hr atom (Nature, February 19, p. 661) and the ification of the Langmuir atom proposed by Major .. E. Oxley (ibid., March 25, p. 105). With both ories n and s valenciés are obtained, and, so far as tative examination of valency in organic ry is concerned, it is difficult to decide between o models. Major Oxley has, however, shown his theory can give an adequate explanation of magnetic properties of organic compounds, and Il success may be obtained with a theory of optical ‘crucial test appears to lie in the calculation of tical activity of substances in the crystal form, is probable that in the liquid condition a large r of isomeric forms exist. alterations in optical activity which occur with ange of solvent and the phenomena of muta- otation and of racemisation appear to be connected vith changes in the direction ie of electrons. ‘hese changes could, perhaps, be more easily ex- ined by the small orbital motions demanded by the Langmuir theory than by the larger orbital motions in the theory of Bohr. W. E. Garner. niversity College, London. . view of Dr. A. E. Oxley’s remarks in Nature of March 25, I should like to point out that the abject of my letter was to inquire whether the sup- _ The difficulty of explaining diamagnetism on the theory of the astronomical atom is well known. Possibly 2 difficulty may disappear when the nucleus is better derstood. If electrons are considered as_point- ses, supposition that they revolve in very { nali orbits without any constraining force seems arbitrary. Dr. Allen’s theory of ring electrons is ferable, and undoubtedly removes certain difficul- ties. Ita rs, however, that to account for spectral ; the diameter of the orbits must be comparable that of the atom, which implies that the electrons ‘olve round the nucleus. Since the structure of the atom is still uncertain, ould it not be preferable to avoid, if possible, in a c ical theory a statement as to the immobility of the electrons? S. C. Braprorp. _ Science Museum, South Kensington, S.W.7. a Percussion-Figures. C. V. Baman describes in Nature of October 9, 19, percussion figures in isotropic solids. These ures are known in geology, and are found on nded boulders of compact, homogeneous rocks, h as flint and quartzite. Albert Heim?’ described 1871 the ‘‘ percussion-cones ’’ (Schlagconus) brought artificially on pieces of flint by a powerful short Vierteljahrsch~ift der Naturf. Gesellschaft in Ziirich, 1871, p. 140. NO. 2632, VOL. 105] ‘The measurements were taken at blow with a hammer. FF. Miihlberg,? of Aarau (Switzerland) was perhaps the first geologist who described the percussion-figures (Schlagfiguren) on rounded boulders (1885). On some of the quartz- boulders from the River Aar, near Aarau, he found from hundreds to thousands of circular cracks, which he explained by the abrasion of boulders which for- merly received coniform cracks through the numerous impacts during their transport through the river-bed. hese percussion-figures must be intersecting figures of cones and the surface of the boulder, and, there- fore, will form, on sufficiently great boulders, nearly circles, ellipses, and parabolas. Miihlberg described thus percussion-figures arising from torrent-action, whereas A. Bigot * (1907) emphasised that the “ figures de percussion ’’ arise from wave-action.. He noticed them on the beaches of Basse-Normandie, particu- larly on quartzite boulders. Finally, P. N. Peach * (1912) gave a very fine picture of the ‘bulbs of per- cussion” found on a rounded stone (chalk flint) dredged by the Michel Sars about 230 miles south- west of Mizen Head, Ireland. He pointed out that these figures indicate that ‘‘ the stones had originally been dashed. against each other by torrent- or wave- action.”’ Besides the term above-mentioned, Peach also uses the term ‘chatter marks,’? which seems to me less commendable, because this expression is also used by T. C. Chamberlin * for a special type of glacial striz on the rock-bed. These curved figures were also described by Hagenbach in 1883, and afterwards called *‘arcs de Hagenbach”’ by L. Rollier.* Batavia, Java, February 11. B. G. Escuer. A Peculiar Halo. On March 16 I observed a peculiar halo here; its form is best shown by a rough sketch. The angles were taken with a pocket slide-rule held at arm’s length, and are, therefore, only approximations, but the relative values are probably fairly correct. The halo was brightest at the point above the sun, and faded off somewhat on each side; it ended rather abruptly at the points shown in the sketch. The colours, with red nearest the sun, were not very pure, but they were purer in the arms than in the centre. The phenomenon was visible from 14.45 to 15.40, with intervals of disappearance when a sheet of alto- stratus became so thick that nothing could be seen through it but the glare of the sun. It was not possible to see any higher layer of cloud, but the halo probably had its origin in a layer of cirro-stratus. 15.40; a few minutes later the halo disappeared for the last time. C. J. P. Cave. Sherwood, Newton St. Cyres, Devon, March 20. ra had, 2 Programm der Aarg hen , Aarau, 1885; Dre heutigen und fritheren Verhiltnisse der Aare bei Aarau, p. 4. 3 Bull tin de lx Soc. géol. de France. 4e série, tome iv. (1904), p. 98. 4 Proc Roy. Soc. Edin., 1912; also Musrey and Hjort, ‘‘The Depth of the Ocean,” p. 205. 5 7th Ann. Rept. U.S. Geol. Survey, p. 218. 6 Bulletin de la Soc. Belfortaine d’ Emulation, No. 27, 1908. 17 2 NATURE [AprIL 8, 1920 Sea-birds: Their Relation to the Fisheries and Agriculture. By Dr. WALTER E. COLLINGE. 1 Achaea the past few years there has been a growing opinion on the part of the general public and those connected with our fisheries that the enormous number of sea-birds on our coasts are inimical to the fisheries and to a less extent to agriculture. This view has been fostered to a large degree by the public expression of irresponsible statements and by the fact that we do not possess any exact and trustworthy know- ledge of the nature of the food of these birds. Even amongst ornithologists and other students of wild-bird life widely divergent views are held. Hitherto no investigation sufficiently compre- hensive has been made, and in those cases where the birds of a restricted area have been studied, or where an insufficient number of specimens has been examined, the results have proved incon- clusive, and, owing to the methods employed, ‘to some extent misleading. About two and a half years ago, under the auspices of the Carnegie Trust for the Universities of Scotland, an investigation was commenced in which it was proposed to examine large series of each species from numerous localities during each month of the year, and to estimate the food by the volumetric method. Although this research is not yet complete, sufficient data are in hand to warrant an expression of opinion upon _ this subject, and it is felt that such is highly desirable at the present time, when so many erroneous views are being circulated. Up to the present, fourteen species have been examined, represented by upwards of three thou- sand specimens. The species are cormorant, shag, common gull, herring gull, great black- backed gull, lesser black-backed gull, black- headed gull, kittiwake, common tern, razorbill, guillemot, little auk, puffin, and great northern diver. Whilst it is not possible here to reproduce the numerous percentage tables showing the nature of the food for each species during the various months of the year, or those illustrating the seasonal variations or the percentages of the different species of fish destroyed, it is possible to make a general statement which we believe future work will more fully amplify and confirm. First, we would point out that the importance and amount of fish that has been generally regarded as forming the diet of most of these birds are not borne out by an actual examination of their crop and stomach contents. Fish does not (with such exceptions mentioned later) con- stitute the bulk of their food or anything like the major portion of it. Indeed, one has only to watch carefully such species as the black-backed gull, the herring gull, and the lesser black-backed gull on the shore after the ebb of the tide to realise how essentially these birds are the scavengers of the shore. If they turn landwards, then injurious insects, earthworms, frogs, and carrion are greedily fed upon. Further, if one confines one’s NO. 2632, VOL. 105] observations to birds drowned in the fishermen’s nets, entirely misleading ideas are obtained, for these few birds constitute but the merest fraction of the huge bird population frequenting our coasts. The above-mentioned fourteen species may be divided into three classes, viz.: (i) Purely fish feeders; (ii) largely fish feeders, but most of the fish are not utilised by man as food; (iii) fish feeders to less than 20 per cent. of the total bulk of their food. Most of the species fall into — In class (i) is placed the cormorant — and shag, for, so far as observations go, their class (iii). food consists entirely of fish, and chiefly of food fishes. In class (ii) is placed the common tern. The remaining eleven species must all be placed in class (iii). From information obtained from various sources, there is a general consensus of opinion that the cormorant and the shag do an enormous amount of harm to the fisheries. advanced in their favour, though it is open to question whether our fish supply would show any increase even were these birds exterminated. Respecting the common tern, sand eels constitute fully 50 per cent. of its fish diet; the gunnel or butter fish, gobies, young gurnard, herring, and haddock are also taken. ie It is not possible here to give the details of the analyses for all the remaining species; we shall therefore select one, the black-headed gull. More than five hundred specimens of this species have been examined, obtained from various localities and during each month of the year. This species is selected because it has increased enormously during the last twenty years, and is now generally regarded as one of the most injurious both to the fisheries and to agriculture. Of the total bulk of food consumed in a year, 96 per cent. consists of animal matter, and 4 per cent. of vegetable matter. Of the former the actual amount of food fishes found was 11-5 per cent., and of other fishes (not utilised by man as food) 9 per cent., or a total fish diet of 20-5 per cent. Edible crustacea are present to the extent of 4 per cent., and other forms, non-edible, to that of 10 per cent. Marine worms constitute 18-5 per cent., molluscs 4 per cent., echinoderms 2-5 per cent., injurious insects 22 per cent., other insects 1-5 per cent., earthworms 10 per cent., and miscellaneous animal matter 3 per cent. Of the vegetable matter, 2-5 per cent. consists of cereals, and 1-5 per cent. of miscellaneous matter (Fig. 1). If the huge bulk of food from which these figures have been obtained means anything at all, it indicates clearly and definitely that this species is a highly beneficial one. By no reasonable deduc- tion can it be shown to be otherwise, for nearly two-thirds of its food is of a neutral nature, viz. 60 per cent. (38 per cent. of which consists of shore refuse.) Only 18 per cent. is injurious, and 22 per cent. is highly beneficial. We - ? 7 Nothing can be © os “fs _ Aprit 8, 1920] NATURE 173 el certain that no one who has had experience n work of this character will for a moment ques- on whether this percentage of food, which is con- ring a benefit upon agriculture, balances the ury that is inflicted upon an inexhaustible and r-increasing fish supply. Very similar figures might be advanced for the ‘maining species, none of which are taking more in 20 per cent. of tish per annum of their total ik of food. Is the sea so impoverished that we nnot afford these birds this amount of fish-food a exchange for their beneficial action in destroying re than 20 per cent. of injurious insects (of hich 7-2 per cent. consist of wireworms in the ise of the black-headed gull) ? erect h ris | oy | fil inourious / Alii) INSECTS. 4 22-0 : RL NON-EDIBLE 50 A eae 3 3.10 CRUSTACEA a aM 10-0 3 fo! | MARINE ee ki fae ° “a he /s | WORMS. ve o ae 1S: AJ) i. f 8-5 .. © . z) _ Fic. 1.—Diagrammatic representaticn of the percentage of food of the 48 % oe gull. The portions shaded by lon ‘tudinal lines represent food that it is beneficial the birds should eat ; those stippled, food that 4 it is injurious they should eat, and the blank portions food of a neutral _ Mature, __ The records, both individually and collectively, show that the bulk of the food of these birds is not fish, but animal matter of a neutral nature. _ Of course, if one classes all annelids, non-edible -crustacea, and molluscs as fish food, then very different figures may be obtained; but those who are acquainted with the abundance and the nature of the marine life cast up on the shore will agree with us in regarding these as a neutral factor. __ If the figures are summarised for all the species in class (iii) (so far as our investigation has gone), the verdict is certainly in favour of these birds. It is very easy to condemn a species because at some particular season of the year or in some district a certain number have been found to be feeding upon food fishes; but, as has been fre- quently pointed out, such partial records do not give a true estimate of the food as a whole. It must not for one moment be thought that we are endeavouring to explain away the injuries inflicted, but we contend that it is unfair to judge any _ species of wild bird upon a local or partial record ; the nature of the food generally throughout the United Kingdom and over the whole year is what we have endeavoured to learn. Very interesting results have been obtained as to the seasonal changes of food and the variations in different localities. Sex and age also influence the quantity of food taken, and although the figures are yet incomplete, they point to the fact that the males take a larger quantity of food than the females, and the young birds more than the old. It is not within the province of this inquiry to | discuss the question of the impoverishment of the _ sea, but it will be impossible to conclude it without taking cognisance of the leading views on the subject and their bearing upon this question. Finally, all the work goes to show that with a few exceptions—e.g. the cormorant and the shag— _ the food of each species is partly beneficial, and, _ even if for the moment we admit that the per- centage of the fish destroyed is an injury, we must take into consideration the benefits derived by reason of the nature of the remaining food. This varies in different seasons of the year and according to the nature of the locality, but if an average is taken of the eleven species in class (iii), we find that the total percentage of injuries is less than that of the benefits, and that the bulk of the food is of a neutral nature. It is obvious that, after examining upwards of three thousand specimens, with the _ results obtained, the question of the food of our com- moner sea-birds and their effect upon the fisheries and agriculture can no longer remain where it was; and, whilst not advocating any special pro- tection, except in one or two cases, any agitation for their destruction cannot be condemned too forcibly, for, altogether apart from sentimental reasons, it is extremely unlikely that our fisheries would benefit or show any marked improvement, even were hundreds of thousands of these birds destroyed annually, whilst agriculture would certainly be the sufferer by such a loss. a The Imperial College of THE Chancellor of the Exchequer, speaking in XZ the House of Commons on March 16, expressed concern at the extraordinary expansion of business in the promotion of companies, and _ said he was convinced that the time had come when part of the money thus called for only | creates increased competition for the limited / -—*NO. 2632, VoL. 105] Science and Technology. supplies of labour and material which are all that are available. Few of us can doubt that this concern of the Chancellor is more than justified, but it is not only for purely industrial enterprise that appeals to the public at large are being made daily for large sums of money. Owing to the universal rise in prices, educational institutions 174 NATURE [APRIL 8, 1920 find themselves seriously handicapped in their endeavours to fulfil the functions assigned to them. In the case of such educational institutions as the schools and colleges maintained wholly, or almost wholly, from rates and taxes, the solu- tion is less difficult, and may be found in an increased education rate combined with an increased Government grant. For the universities which have to depend largely upon fees and endow- ment, and can rely only partly on Government grants, the difficulties created are very serious. It should, however, be borne in mind that money expended on education is one of the most pro- ductive forms of national expenditure, and, what- ever may be the dangers of the inflation of indus- trial capital, the nation is not yet within remote danger of educational inflation. Rather is it suffering grievous detriment from the semi-starva- tion of its higher educational institutions. Among the higher educational institutions which are in need of financial help, the Imperial College of Science and Technology holds a_ prominent place, and an appeal issued some months ago by the governing body makes clear the magnitude and urgency of this want. The Imperial College of Science and Technology was_ incorporated under Royal Charter in July, 1907, and was established “to give the highest specialised instruc- tion and to provide the fullest equipment for the most advanced training and research in various branches of science, especially in its application to industry.” The governing body was also required to carry on the work of the Royal College of Science, the Royal School of Mines, and the City and Guilds (Engineering) College, institutions previously existing, but which in 1907 became associated as integral parts of the new institution. The Imperial College is thus an association or federation of colleges, deliberately charged by the terms of its charter to afford facilities for the highest work in pure and applied science, espe- cially in its application to industry. As an indica- tion of the magnitude of its work, it may be noted that in the year 1907-8 there were 665 students, including 20 engaged on __ post- graduate work, and the annual expenditure on maintenance approximated to 50,0001. In the year 1913-14—the year before the war—the number of students was 943, including 185 engaged on post-graduate work, and the annual expenditure on maintenance approximated to g0,oool, During the war the numbers of students were reduced by about two-thirds, but in May last year there were 841, including 110 post- graduates, and as the numbers are rapidly increas- ing there is every indication that the college will soon be busier than ever before. On the basis only of the pre-war annual expenditure, the Imperial College is as large as Manchester Uni- versity, larger than Liverpool University, and twice as large as Bristol University. Its rank in science and technology, whether viewed from the range and standard of its teaching and research, NO. 2632, VOL. 105 | or from its equipment, is at least-as high as that of any existing university in Great Britain. ; In order that the college may rise to the height of its responsibilities and fulfil the functions assigned to it by its charter, the governing body estimates that for new buildings and equipment at least 600,000l. is required, and for the adequate development of the work of the college a further annual income approximating to 100,000. The capitalised value of the total additional require- - ment has been put in round figures at more than 2,000,0001. It is large, but much less than the amount required for a modern battleship, and is not incommensurate with the importance to the nation and the Empire of the work which the — college has to do. a From a quarter to one-fifth of the total number of students are carrying on original investigations under the direction of their respective professors, and this, together with the research work of the staff, results in considerable additions to know- ledge annually. The investigations range over a wide area of science, especially in its application to industry. The contributions thus made to increased industrial efficiency are no mean factor in the national development and prosperity. At the same time, in the course of these investigations the relevant researches in pure science are not neglected, and thus much is done continually to widen the bounds of knowledge as knowledge. — The teaching work carried on in the college may be divided into (a) associateship and (b) post- associateship. The former consists of courses, approximately of honours graduate standard, lead- ing respectively to associateships of the Royal College of Science (A.R.C.S.), the Royal School of Mines (A.R.S.M.), and the City and Guilds Institute (A.C.G.I.); and the latter of courses of study and of research, comparable in standard with M.Sc. and D.Sc. work, leading to the diploma of membership of the Imperial College ADC Styled “Imperial ” from the first, the college has constantly to bear in mind the growing industrial needs not only of the Kingdom, but also of the Empire, and to do this it must possess a flexi- bility and an adaptability suitable to the ever- changing conditions of industry. To take one example, the war disclosed, as in a flash, the peril- ous condition of the optical glass and optical instrument industry in this country through the dependence for many years on foreign supplies, particularly from Germany. A new department of technical optics has been established by the governors of the Imperial College, which, by research, by the supply of trained technologists in this field, and by the education of the users of optical instruments, must go far to second the efforts of the manufacturers to build up and stabilise this important and essential national industry. At no time was the need for an intensive and extensive development of science, both pure and applied, more needed than at the present time of national reconstruction after five ' . . _ APRIL 8, 1920] NATURE 175 years of a devastating world war, and in this task of extending our knowledge of pure science and application to the whole field of industry the perial College is called upon to play a vital and dominant part. The recognition of how great and important are 2 responsibilities thus cast upon the Imperial lege has led to a movement for obtaining for e college the status of a university with the ver to confer degrees in its own subjects or ulties. The movement is backed by the unani- us support of the rector and professors of the Imperial College, and it is supported, so far as can be ascertained in any organised way, by the overwhelming majority of the past and present students of the college. The issue raises, no doubt, questions that are novel and complicated in relation to university education in general and to the University of London in particular. Nothing but good can come from a free and frank examina- tion of the proposition in all its bearings, undis- turbed and unprejudiced by lesser interests than that of increasing the efficiency of university education and especially of scientific education. HE research described in the report before us Bo was undertaken at the instigation of the Iron _ Ores Committee of the Conjoint Board of Scien- til © Societies. Certain lines and centres of mag- disturbance had been noted in Britain so if ago as 1890 by Riicker and Thorpe, and a mew magnetic survey by Mr. G. W. Walker in the years 1914 and 1915 confirmed the existence of these disturbed areas. It is well known that iron is the only element which gives rise to mag- _ hetic effects of considerable intensity, and it was therefore of importance to determine ‘whether any _ relationship could be established between the loca- tion of these disturbances and the distribution of _ iron ores. q The detailed magnetic survey of (1) the proved sheet of iron ore, mainly in the state of ferrous carbonate, round Irthlingborough, and (2) the known areas of magnetic disturbance about _ Melton Mowbray, was therefore undertaken by _ Mr. Walker. At the same time, Dr. Cox reviewed the geology of the areas and collected specimens of rocks which promised to afford evidence in the ; matter, while the magnetic susceptibilities of | Wilso materials were determined by Prof. Ernest fh n. _ The results of the magnetic and petrological q examination of the rocks confirm the opinion that the magnetic susceptibility of rocks depends scarcely at all upon the percentage of metallic iron they contain, but upon the condition—i.e. f #tate of oxidation—of that iron; and _ that, _ although rocks composed of ferrous compounds _ show higher susceptibilities than those constituted _ of fully oxidised ferric compounds, only those rocks in which the iron occurs as the mineral _ magnetite have notable magnetic susceptibility. It was shown that parts of the granite of Mount Sorrel have a susceptibility more than four times as great as that of the most magnetic of the local urassic iron ores, and ten to fifteen times as yreat as certain basic igneous rocks, which, though high in iron, contain no appreciable amount of magnetite. Another point of some interest is the variability of magnetic properties shown by samples taken from one continuous rock mass. eng to ies Geological Structure.” yD » Series A, vol. ccxix., pp. Sense ; : NO. 5 eas. VOL. 105] Magnetic Disturbances and Geological Structure.! of the dolerite sill proved in the Owthorpe borehole was a fine-grained rock having a glassy base; its iron ore occurs as magnetite, and the magnetic susceptibility of the specimen examined was 472 x 10-5 C.G.S. units. The coarse-grained rock from the centre of the intrusion, however, in which the iron ores crystallised as ilmenite, gave a susceptibility of only 10-3x 10-5 C.G.S. units. A like low susceptibility was noted also in the basalt from the Southwell borehole. The magnetic phenomena of the Irthlingborough district are adequately explained by the presence of such a large, flat-lying sheet of feebly magnetic rock as the Bajocian iron-ore bed, but in the Melton Mowbray district the proved limits of the marlstone iron-ore bed bear no relation to the observed magnetic phenomena. Moreover, the consideration of the magnetic irregularities obtained in the Melton Mowbray district shows that the source of the disturbance cannot be less than 3000 ft., and may be as much as 10,000 ft. beneath the surface. The only rocks in this region which have the requisite magnetic suscept- ibility and may be expected to occur at these depths are dolerites, such as are found intrusive ,into the Coal Measures throughout the Midland “coalfield area, or possibly granites like those which have invaded the old pre-Carboniferous rocks in Charnwood Forest. Mr. Walker’s observations show that, near to Melton Mowbray, there are two main magnetic disturbances, and that the line joining them ranges north of west and south of east from Melton Mowbray towards Rempstone, passing a little south of the latter place. This line agrees with that of a known fault of small throw which cuts the Mesozoic rocks, and may be expected to have a much larger throw in the Paleozoic and older strata underground. Similar magnetic dis- turbances are noted near certain large faults in the Nottingham district. Riicker and Thorpe showed that magnetic disturbances are always to be expected where a sill or dyke of highly susceptible rock is displaced by a fault, and that, if any rock containing magnetite is intruded as a dyke among non- -susceptible rocks, similar magnetic disturbances must occur. It is known that in many districts the place of intrusions has been determined by faulting, and it is pointed out by Dr. Cox that the concealed coalfield of Notting- 176 NATURE {APRIL 8, 1920 hamshire should end off at an anticline, probably faulted, in the region about Melton Mowbray. Such an anticline has an east-and-west trend, and carries round the strike of the Coal Measures from its general north-east-and-south-west to an east- and-west direction. The Rempstone-Melton Mow- bray magnetic disturbances, therefore, are inter- preted as additional evidence of the existence of a fault which in the underlying Paleozoic rocks may have a considerable throw; and it is regarded as probable that a sill of dolerite is dis- placed by this fault, or that an irregular mass of dolerite is intruded along it. The hope is expressed by the author that a like method of attack may prove to be of use as a guide to the divining of the position of faults beneath a cover of unconformable strata in other districts—e.g. in concealed coalfields, where dolerites or other rocks containing a high propor- tion of magnetite are present. Unfortunately, however, or fortunately from the point of view of the coal miner, dolerites are not an invariable con- comitant of coal seams, and it therefore follows that the use of the method in determining the limits of concealed coalfields would appear to be somewhat restricted. British Crop > Production.,* By Dr. Epwarp J. Russg.i, F.R.S. (SOF production in Britain is carried on in the hope of gain, and thus differs fundamentally from gardening, which is commonly practised without regard to profit and loss accounts. Many poets from times of old down to our own days have sung of the pleasures to be derived from gardening. But only once in the history of literature have the pleasures of farming been sung, and that was nearly two thousand years ago. Ah! too fortunate the husbandmen, did they but know it, on whom, far from the clash of arms, earth their most just mistress lavishes from the soil a plenteous subsistence.—‘‘ Georgics,” Bk. II., i., 458 e¢ seg. “Did they but know it”! Even then there seem to have been worries! This seeking for profit imposes an important condi- tion on British agriculture: maximum _ production must be secured at the minimum of cost. This condi- tion is best fulfilled by utilising to the full all the. natural advantages and obviating so far as possible. all the natural disadvantages of the farm—in other words, by growing crops specially adapted to the local conditions, and avoiding any not particularly well suited to them. From the scientific point of view the problem thus becomes a study in adaptation, and we shall find a considerable interplay of factors, inasmuch as both natural conditions and’ crop can be somewhat, altered so as the better to suit each other. ° It is not my province to discuss the methods by which plant-breeders alter plants; it is sufficient to know that this can be done within limits which no one would yet attempt to define. The natural condi- tions are determined broadly by climate and by soil. The climate may be regarded as_ uncontrollable. “What can’t be cured must be endured.’? The scheme of crop production must, therefore, be adapted to the climate, and especially to the rainfall. The rainfall map shows that the eastern half of England is, on the whole, drier than the western half. In agricultural experience, wheat flourishes best in dry conditions and grass in wet conditions; the vegeta- tion maps show that wheat tends to be grown in the eastern and grass in the western part. The strict relationship is that seed production is appropriate to the drier, and leaf production to the wetter, districts. The great soil belts of England south of the Trent run in a south-westerly direction; north of the Trent, however, they run north and south. A heavy soil, like a wet climate, favours grass production; a light soil, like a dry climate, is suitable for arable crops. The great influence of climate is modified, but not over- ridden, by the soil factor. The arable farmer grows three kinds of crops: corn, clover or seeds hay, and fodder crops for his 1 Discourse delivered at the Royal Institution on Friday, February 20. NO. 2632, VOL. 105 | animals or potatoes for human beings. The same general principles underlie all, and as corn crops are of the most general interest (though not necessarily of the greatest importance), they will serve to illus- trate all the points it is necessary to bring out. We have seen that wheat is cultivated more in the eastern than in the western portion of the country. The figures for consumption and production are as follows :— Millions of Tons per Annum. Production in England Production in United er and Wales Kingdom United 4 ft yt ee 57 ® Before Before . Kingdom war 2914 1918 2989.) eae 1984 1918 = rg19 Wheat .. 7°40 1°60 2°3 1°83 pis | 20 2°0 Barley ... 1 96 I*2 1*2 11 1'6 1'5 1°3 Oats... 4 30 1'4 2'0 1°6 3'0 4°5 4°2 During the war very serious attention was paid to the problem of reducing the gap between consumption and production. A working solution was found by lowering the milling standard, retaining more of the offal, and introducing other cereals and potatoes; a very considerable proportion of the resulting bread was thus produced at home. But the war-bread did not commend itself, and disappeared soon after the armistice; since then the consumption of wheat has gone up, and the divergence between consumption and production has again become marked. There is no hope of reducing consumption; we must, therefore, increase production. Additional production may be obtained in two ways: by increasing the yield per acre, and by increasing the number of acres devoted to the crop. The yield per acre is shown in the following table :— Measured Bushels per Acre.” (1908-17) Average yield per acre : England A good fi High - JEUGn, Scotand “SSS eae Eas Wheat iat BIO 39°9 40 to 50 96 Barley oe BEG 354 40to60 ~- 80 Oats cn 98S 38-9 60 to 80 121 The average results include bad farmers and bad seasons; the good farmer expects to do considerably 2 Unfortunately the terms ‘‘ bushel” and ‘“‘quarter” (8 bushels) lack definiteness, being used officially in three different senses and ig in several others also. The following are some of the definitions of a bushel :— Official Statistics. Corn Returns Grain Prices Frequent, A definite Act. Order. Practice. volume having Volume occu- Volume occu- Volume occu- the following pied by follow- pied by follow- pied by follow- average weight ing weight ing weight ing weight Ib. lb. lb, Ib. Wheat ... 61°9 60 63 63 Barley ... 53°7 5° 55 56 Oats Pee | 39 42 i 42 it 8, £9.20} NATURE — 177 but he has many things in his favour: superior ge, greater command of capital, and posses- of good land; he will, therefore, always stand the average. Even his results can be improved ; recorded. yields show what can be done resent varieties and present methods in ally favourable circumstances. ‘The figures ‘measure of the scientific problem, which is er what changes would be necessary in order the enormous gap between the average and . In three directions progress is possible; we iodify the plant or the soil, or we may miti- he effects of unfavourable climate. f the soil can be brought into cultivation at is necessary to carry out certain major opera- —draini ing enclosing, etc.—which have to aintained in full order. These lie outside our nt discussion; we must assume that they are operly carried out, which is by no means always e case. Given adequate drainage, soil conditions srofoundly modified by cultivation, which has yped into a fine art in England and Scotland, is, indeed, far better practised here than in most countries. But it is an art, and not yet a e; the husbandman achieves the results, but no 1 yet state in exact terms precisely what has ed. A beginning has been made, and a labora- the study of soil physics has been instituted xthamsted and placed under Mr. B. A. Keen, we hope gradually to develop a science of on. For the present cultivation remains an further, it is essentially a modern art. The al implements, as shown ‘in the Tiberius MS. th century) and the Luttrell Psalter (fourteenth ), were crude, and left the ground in an ex- rough condition. Great advances were made ighout the nineteenth century. Robert Ransome, ipswich, took out his first patent in 1785 to e the plough; he was followed in 1812 rd, of Bedford, and later by Crosskill, gga sicatbine and et ey rae ritish | ment-makers famous throughout d. Given time and sufficient labour, the good farmer using modern implements can accom. vonders in the way of cultivation. unately, neither time nor labour is always . Ploughing is possible only under certain conditions, and there are many days in our when it cannot be carried out. Unless, there- arge staff of men and horses is kept, the often cannot be done in time to allow of sowing er the best conditions. The early days of the sports a plant play almost important a part in its subsequent hist as they in the case of a child. Illustrations ce ake too merous of the adverse effect of being just too late good soil conditions. One from our own fields as follows :— Just-in time .... Nov. 24, 1915 26- ust too late ... Feb. 17, 1916 193 The farm-horse will not be speeded up, but main- Ss an even pace of 2} miles per hour. According the old ploughman’s song still surviving in our ges, an acre a day is the proper rate :— We ve all ploughed an arre, I'll swear and I'll vow, ; For we’re all jolly fellows that follow the plough. ut under modern conditions it is impossible to more than three-quarters of an acre a day ploughed heavy land, and the scarcity of teams threatened bring arable husbandry into a hopeless impasse. ‘tunately for agriculture, the internal-combustion ine appeared on the farm at a critical moment in NO. 2632, VOL. 105] Yield ot wheat Seed sown 1916. Bushels per acre the shape of the tractor, and has brought the promise of a way-out. The tractor has two important advantages over the horse. First of all, it works more quickly. Its pace is 34 miles per hour instead of 2} miles. It turns three furrows at a time instead of one only; on our land it ploughs an acre in four hours instead of taking nearly a day and a half, as required by horses. There is no limit to the work it can do; even an acre an hour is no wild dream, but may yet be accomplished. It therefore enables the farmer to get well forward with his ploughing during the fine weather in late summer and early autumn, and thus to obtain the great advantages of a partial fallow and of freedom to sow at any desired time. On our own land our experience has been as follows :— Dates of Completion of Sowings of Wheat and Oats. Year Wheat Oats 1916 | February 17 October 16 1917, March 16 3 17 | Horse only 1918 January 26 ee ee 1919 November 26 is 5 Tractor Further, if the plough is correctly designed and ° properly used, the tractor does the work fully as well as horses—even the horse-ploughman admits that. It: therefore increases considerably the efficiency of the labourer, which, as we shall see later on, might advantageously be raised: The cost of working is apparently less, though it is difficult to decide this until one knows what the repairs bill will be. In our case the cost is:— — Cost of Ploughing per. Acre, Autumn, 1919. -By tractor - By horses Se he ; aa _ Labour ~ ise Io 2 Maintenance ... _ 22 6 Oil and petrol oP AE — Depreciation and repairs ... 6 3 _- “at. 6 32 8 Time taken ... 4 hours 14 days *. The internal-combustion engine is only just at the beginning of its career on the farm, and no one can yet. foresee its developments. It is. being used at present simply like a horse, and is attached to imple- ments evolved to suit the horse.. But it is not a horse; its proper purpose is to cause rotation while it is being used to pull, and in some cases, indeed, this pull is reconverted into rotary motion. The second oe method of improving soil condi- tions is to add manures and fertilisers. Farmyard manure is more effective than any other single sub- stance; it is likely to remain the most. important manure, and if available in sufficient quantity it would generally meet the case. Realising its importance, Lord Elveden generously provided funds for extended investigations at Rothamsted into the conditions to be observed in making and storing it. This work is still going on, and is leading to some highly important developments. Farmyard .manure, however, is not available in sufficient quantities to meet all requirements. The chemist has long since come to the aid of the farmer ; he has discovered the precise substances needed for the nutrition of the plant, and prepared them on a large scale. Like cultivation, this is largely a British development; it was in London that the first artificial manure factory was established in 1842, and for many vears the industry was centred in this country. The fertilisers now available are as follows :— 178 NATURE: [Aprit 8, 1920 — Nitrogenous—Nitrate of soda, nitrate of lime, sul- phate of ammonia, and cyanamide (nitrolim). Phosphatic—Superphosphate, basic slag, phosphate, guano, and bones. _ Potassic—Sulphate of potash, muriate of potash, and kainit. - gricultusel chemists have worked out the proper combinations for particular crops, and obtained many striking results. Without using any farmyard manure they have maintained, and even increased, the yield of corn crops, fodder crops, and hay ; and in the two latter cases there has been an increase, not only in yield, but also in feeding value per ton. In spite of seventy years’ experience there ‘is still much to be learned about the proper use of artificial fertilisers, and they may still bring about even fuller yields from the land. The. yield of corn crops can be increased by artificial fertilisers, but not indefinitely; the limit is set by the strength of the straw. As the plant becomes bigger and bigger, so the strain on the straw increases, until finally, when the plant is some 5 ft. high, it cannot stand up against the wind, but is blown down. Little is. known about the strength of straw. It is a property inherent in the plant itself, and differs in the different. varieties. It is affected by the season, being greater in some years than in others. It is affected also by soil conditions. At present the strength of the straw is the wall against which the agricultural improver is pulled up. The problem can undoubtedly be solved, and the plant-breeder and soil- investigator between ‘them may reasonably hope to find the solution. Another great effect of artificial fertilisers which has not vet been fully exploited is to mitigate the ill- effects of adverse climatic conditions. help to counteract the harmful influence of cold, wet weather; potassic fertilisers help the plant in dry conditions. The combination of a suitable variety with an appropriate scheme of manuring is capable of bringing about considerable improvement in crop production. A demonstration with the oat crop on these lines was arranged last year in a wet moorland district, and the crops when seen in August were as follows: Estimated crop mineral Bushels. ‘ Local variety, local treatment... 27 Harvest late < phosphatic manuring 45-54 » earlier earlier, Special variety Be cay ~~ 66 { _phatic manuring... ... 54 stands up well The potato crop is governed by the same general principles as corn crops. It furnishes more food per acre than any other crop, but it is much more expen- sive to produce, and therefore is grown chiefly in districts where the conditions are particularly well suited to it: the Fens, Lincolnshire, the plains of Lancashire, and the Lothians, though "smaller quanti- ties are grown in almost every part of the country. The production and consumption are as follows :— Potatoes: Annual Production and Consumption. * Production In England and Wales ae United Kingdom Consumption Pre-war ror8 zones Pre-war 1918 1029 6°5 30 42 2°7 £5 9°2 6°3 Millions of acres 0°46 0°63 o'748 1°20 I'5r. 1°22 We are thus self-supporting in the matter of potatoes. We do, however, import about half a million tons per annum of early and other potatoes; we also export seed potatoes and some for food—in all, about one million tons per annum. (To be continued.) NO. 2632, VOL. 105 | Phosphates . Notes. WE regret to announce the death, on April 35 at eighty-four years of age, of Capt. E. W. Creak, C.B., F.R.S., formerly Superintendent of Coma Hydrographic Department, Admiralty. eee ¥ “Tue following names were inadvertently omitted from the list of Commanders of the Order of the British Empire (C.B.E.) announced in last week’s issue of NaturE :—Mr. C. E. Fagan, secretary, British Museum (Natural History); Sir W. H. Hadow, Vice- Chancellor of the University of Sheffield; and Mr. A. R. Hinks, F.R.S., secretary of the Royal Geo- graphical Society. . Lorp SupDELEY has given notice of the following motion which he proposes to bring before the House of Lords on April 21:—‘To call attention to the decision of his Majesty’s Government to discontinue the appointment of an official guide at Kew Royal Botanical Gardens; and to move to resolve, That the Government be requested to carry out at these gardens the system of free popular guide-lectures on the same plan as adopted with marked success in the Govern- ment museum and picture galleries of the Metropolis, and to take such further steps as after inquiry may be found desirable for developing the resources of these gardens to the fullest extent in the interests of scientific and popular educaiam together with a” recreation of the public.’’ THE Ricut Hon. F. D. Acranp recently chen in the House of Commons whether the Lord President of the Council ‘tis aware that dissatisfaction is being expressed by scientific workers with the appointment of a man without scientific qualifications as director of research to the Glass Research Association; whether, as the Department of Scientific and Indus- trial Research provides four-fifths of the funds of the © association, the Department was consulted before the appointment was made; and does he approve of the appointment as giving a guarantee that State funds devoted to scientific research will be wisely expended ? ee Mr. Fisher replied to the question, and his answer included the following statements :—{1) The successful candidate has a wide and successful experience of scientific research into the problems of the glass industry, and is considered by the association to be the man best suited for organising and directing the research needed by it. (2) The responsibility for the selection of a director of research rests in each case with the research association concerned, and not with the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, which has no power to approve or disapprove the appointment of any individual. (3) The Department guarantees three-quarters of the expenditure of the research association up to a certain limit, but payment of the grant is conditional, among other things, on the approval by the Department of the programme of research and of the estimate of expenditure thereon. (4) The Advisory Council of the Department, after considering all the relevant circumstances with great care, recommended the approval of the expenditure involved in this director’s appointment. a Apriz 8, 1920] NATURE 179 Mr. B. D. Porritr has been appointed director of research by the Research Association of British Rubber and Tyre Manufacturers. THE annual meeting of the Iron and Steel Institute ill be held at the Institution of Civil Engineers, Westminster, on Thursday and Friday, May 6 and 7, will be adjourned from May 7 to May 14, when final session will be held at the Mappin Hall, effield. On the opening day the retiring president, . Eugéne Schneider, will induct into the chair the president-elect, Dr. J. E. Stead, the Bessemer gold ‘medal: for 1920 will be presented to Mr. Harry Brearley, and the president will deliver his inaugural address. The autumn meeting of the institute will ‘open at Cardiff on September 22. Tue World Trade Club, of San Francisco, which is ‘conducting an active propaganda in favour of the com- pulsory adoption of the metric system of weights and ‘measures, both in this country and in the United States, has issued under the title ‘‘ Metric Literature Clues” a list of references to books, pamphlets, documents, and ‘magazine articles on standardisation in terms of metric units. Although ‘far from being a complete biblio- graphy of the metric system, it includes most of the full list of the publications of the United States Govern- _ the title of a book or article is followed by a brief sum- mary of its contents, sufficient to indicate to those in- ___ terested in weights and measures whether it is worth _ while consulting the work in question. This is the most practical and useful publication of the World Trade Club with regard to the metric system that has yet come to our notice. AT a meeting of the Association of Economic Biolo- gists held on March 24 the following papers were _ read: (1) Mr. D. W. Cutler, “The Relation of Pro- - tozoa to Soil Problems ”’; (2) Mr. J. F. Martley, ‘‘ The Resin-Galls of the Wood of the Sitka Spruce (Picea __sitchensis)”; (3) Dr. W. Lawrence Balls, ‘The Nature and Scope of Botanical Research in the Cotton In- dustry ’’; (4) Dr. M. C. Rayner, “The Calcifuge Habit in Ling (Calluna vulgaris) and other Ericaceous _ Plants”; (5) Dr. H. Wormald, ‘‘ Shoot Wilt of Plum _ Trees.” Perhaps the outstanding feature of the _ meeting, emphasised alike in papers and discussion, was the necessity of pure research as a basis for all economic applications of biology. Not only is it im- _ possible to conduct investigations into any applied aspect of a biological problem in which at the same time equal attention is not given to the more funda- _ mental considerations, but more usually it is also not possible to separate the economic from the pure issues. A further point of importance, arising particularly in _ the discussion on Dr. Balls’s paper, is the great shortage _ in this country of young botanists competent to under- take research on industrial problems. With the ex- pected development of research associations and the partial recognition by manufacturers of the vital place of the botanist in industry, this factor will become increasingly apparent and be a serious menace to progress. NO. 2632, VOL. 105] best-known works on the subject, and contains a fairly ment and of the Bureau of Standards. In. some cases Tue Port Erin Biological, Station will be occupied during the Easter vacation (March 20 to April 20) by nine or ten professors, each with a group of senior students, including Profs. Doncaster, Harvey-Gibson, Johnstone, and Herdman (Liverpool), Prof, Gamble (Birmingham), Dr. Tattersall (Manchester), Mr, Douglas Laurie (Aberystwyth), Prof. Benjamin Moore (London), Prof. Cole (Reading), Prof. Stephenson (Lahore), and Prof. Dakin (Western Australia), There are also groups of other post-graduate workers and senior students from Cambridge, Nottingham, Liverpool, and other centres, as well as a large botany class in the earlier part of the vacation, to .be followed by a zoology class later. The laboratory accommodation is strained to the utmost capacity, and additions to both building and staff are urgently required. The usual excursions for shore-collecting and plankton work and dredging are being arranged, and the fish-hatching is in full swing. The season is an early one at sea. The phyto-plankton has consisted for the last ten days of March mainly of Coscinodiscus and Biddulphia, and the plaice in the spawning-pond have produced fertilised eggs at least a month earlier than usual— the first hatched larvae were noticed on February 9— and herring are being caught each night in the bay. The Bill transferring the biological station and fish hatchery from the Manx Government to the Oceano- graphy Department of the University of Liverpool has now passed through the House of Keys, and ‘the University takes over the control of the institution and the work as from April 1 last. The director wishes it to be known that this makes no change in the use of the biological station by researchers from other universities. . THE Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries last year purchased an estate of more than 1500 acres of typical heath-land at Methwold, in Norfolk. This estate is to be a National Demonstration Farm, and one of the chief objects for its existence is to show what can be obtained from poor heath-land by the adoption of good husbandry methods. The Weekly Service for March 20 from the Ministry of Agriculture gives a short account of the work to be undertaken at this farm. Two hundred acres of the estate have been reclaimed from bracken land, so that at the present time 1043 acres are under arable cultivation, 43 acres under grass, and 441 acres are waste heath. The chief part of the scheme will be the building up and - improvement of the land by chalking and by the addition of organic matter. Tobacco-growing on a comparatively large scale will also be a feature of the cultivation. By encouraging the growing of this crop the Ministry hope to supplement the experimental work carried out during the past six years by the British Tobacco Growers’ Society, Ltd., and also to assist those smallholders in the neighbourhood who may be inclined to try tobacco-growing when there is a central station at hand to supply the necessary information and to provide for the treatment of the crop. The scheme also includes stock-rearing, poultry- keeping, and pig breeding and rearing on the open-air system. The result should prove very valuable both for large-scale farmers and for smallholders, since the 180 NATURE [Apri 8, 1920 fields are of a good size and well adapted to the use of implements of a large, up-to-date form, while the light and early character of the land should render it specially suitable for small arable dairy holdings. Tue revival of Oriental research is happily marked by the reappearance of Prof. Flinders Petrie’s admir- able journal, Ancient Egypt. Great changes have oc- curred since the outbreak of hostilities. In Egypt the main actors are gone—Sir Gaston Maspero, his son Jean Maspero, Legrain, and Barsanti. On the English side the losses have been equally severe—Sir A. Ruffer, H. Thompson, I. Dixon, and K. T. Frost, all victims of the war; and at home the early death of Prof. Leonard King has left history and archzology crippled. But, so far as was possible, work has gone on, par- ticularly under the new conditions in Palestine, where a school of archzology, under the superintendence of Prof. Garstang, is being founded. The.British School in Egypt is starting work with a large staff, and in the United States, under Prof. Breasted, the Oriental Institute of the Chicago University has been opened. But funds are badly wanted botn in Egypt and in Palestine, and though this is an unfavourable time .for such an appeal, there is good hope that British archeologists will provide the necessary assistance. In the Museum Journal (vol. x., No. 3, September, 1919) Mr. H. V. Hall discusses the question of African art. So much has been said, Mr. Hall remarks, about the uniformity of African culture that the variety which exists tends sometimes to be overlooked. The people of eastern and southern Africa are chiefly interested in the products of the animal, those of central and western Africa in the products of the vegetable, kingdom. Speaking broadly, the region east of the lakes and south of the Zambezi-Congo water- shed is the home of pastoral tribes, and the Congo and the Lower Niger races practise agriculture. Hence ‘the latter have more leisure to devote to art- work. The question of foreign influence on the negro is of great importance. There are at least four routes from the north and north-west by which the dark heart of the continent can be reached. A growing mass of evidence points to the conclusion that, even in historic times, these routes have never been quite barred to civilising influences; especially in the expan- sion of old Egypt the solution’ of many problems of culture apparently indigenous in Central Africa must be sought. A COMMITTEE appointed by the Royal Anthropological Institute is engaged in collecting information regard- ing megalithic monuments. As an example of the scientific method of conducting such a survey, Messrs. J. S. Wilson and G. A. Garfitt, in,the March issue of Man, supply a map of the Eyam Moor circle in Derby- shire. This. work is important in connection with Sir Norman Lockyer’s investigations. ‘‘ In the survey of the Eyam Moor circle several large stones were noted on the near horizon towards the N.E. and E. The path of the sun at sunrise for the latitude of the circle, after making allowances for refraction, was NO. 2632, VOL. 105] calculated for different declinations of the sun and plotted on the chart. It will be seen that the position — of prominent stones.plotted on the diagram: appears to” mark the position of sunrise at midsummer and at the equinox. On the diagram the position of sunrise is shown for the present obliquity of the ecliptic, or sun’s apparent declination of 23° 27’, also for an obliquity of 23° 57’, which, according to the estimates of astronomers, would have been correct 2000 years before the Christian era. The small difference in the position of the sun indicates the difficulty of fixing the age of a monument by this means.” Tue Department of Agriculture, Federated Malay States, in view of the necessity for an increased local production of foodstuffs, has issued a special Bulletin (No.. 30) on ‘Food Production in Malaya,” compiled by Mr. F. G. Spring and Mr. J. N. Milsum. The booklet contains 112 pages and 12 plates, costs one dollar, and brings together a large amount of useful information. It includes sections on seasons and rainfall, types of land (whether coastal or inland), soils, tillage, agricultural machinery, rotation of. crops, manures, and insect pests and other diseases. Suitable cereal, pulse, and root crops are described, and their cultivation, harvesting, yield, and economic — uses considered in some detail. The principal cereals are ragi (Eleusine coracana) and rice; various millets and sorghum form subsidiary crops; the chief pulses are green and black gram, cow-pea, and the ground-nut; and the chief root-crops sweet ena yams, and manihot (tapioca). A SYSTEMATIC enumeration of the palms of the, Philippines is given by Dr. O. Beccari in the Philip- pine Journal of Science (vol. xiv., No. 3). One hundred and twenty species are at present known to be indigenous, which, with the exception of about a dozen species of relatively wide geographic distribu-. tion, are endemic forms. .4n discussing the relation- ships of the palm-flora, Dr. Beccari concludes that the Philippine species have in great measure originated in the archipelago, but their phylogeny may be traced to species growing chiefly in Borneo, Celebes, the Moluccas, and Indo-China, excluding about a dozen species whieb: possessing adaptations for easy dissemination, have a rather wide distribu- tion. A small Polynesian element is represented by Adonidia, the only genus peculiar to the archipelago, and Heterospathe. In the Philippines a few large genera have given rise to numerous species, whereas in Polynesia monotypic or oligotypic genera are numerous, and no genus contains a great number of species. Tue Meteorological. Magazine for March gives a short notice of the work of the International Meteoro-_ logical Conference held in Paris in October last, taken from the account of the conference published in | Paris by the Bureau Central Météorologique. Further details will be welcomed when they are published by the meteorological authorities in our own country. The preceding meeting of the body was held at Innsbruck in 1905, so that much advance in the L 8, 1920] NATURE 182 » had to be reported and new methods of working 1 for, especially with regard to aviation. The contains a reproduction of a photograph of s of the conference. Meteorological Office chart of the North Atlan- an for February contains some notes on the and distribution of ice in these waters, and some t of the ice patrol of the United States Govern- ich was resumed in 1919 after several years’ ion during the war. Two coastguard cutters sen detailed for the purpose of locating icebergs ck-ice in the vicinity of trans-Atlantic steamship _ During the months of April, May, and June two vessels alternate on patrol, each taking n days in the ice region, exclusive of the time in going to and from Boston for coal and sup- Movements of ice are reported by wireless at hours daily. At 6 p.m. (75th meridian time) ice ation is sent broadcast with a 600-metre wave- The message is repeated three times. At . the same information is sent out, using a wave-length. At 4 a.m. a message defining e and southern limits of the ice is sent to the York Hydrographic Office. Ice information is t at any hour to any ship with which the patrol can communicate. It will be recalled that this work which was initiated by the Scotia subse- to the loss of the Titanic. The chart also bears interesting map showing the drifts on the east coast Greenland, in Baffin Bay, and in Davis Strait of various ships that have been imprisoned in the ice, and castaway crews during the last hundred years. The rch chart gives an account of the relation of the rth Atlantic ice to currents and fogs. Currrapunyr, in the Khasi Hills in India, is often ted as -having the greatest known annual rainfall. ng to the Indian Meteorological Department, mean: annual rainfall there is 426 in. The greatest ition is said to have occurred in 1861, when of go5 in. was recorded, though doubt has been expressed as to the accuracy of this record. It , however, that the Cherrapunji rainfall is sur- by records on the mountains in the Hawaian Is. Thus Mount Waialeale is the peak (5080 ft.) ‘sland of Kauai, but is inaccessible except to ost expert mountaineers. On this account it very difficult to maintain the station, and the has finally had to be discontinued. According the Monthly Weather Review (U.S. Dept. of Agric.), . xIvii., No. 5, during the periods August 2, 1911- arch 26, 1914 and May 31, 1915-August 13, 1917, total of 1782 days, there was recorded on Mount Waialeale a total precipitation of 2325 in., or an average of 1-3047 in. per day. In a 365-day year this Id amount to an annual precipitation of about 6 in. No records were obtained during the years ‘4 and 1918, but these years were considered the ttest since the local Weather Bureau Office was plished in the Hawaian islands. Comparative ‘iimates from. trustworthy records obtained at near- by stations indicated that the rainfall at Waialeale nust have exceeded 600 in. From May 21, 1915- NO. 2632, VOL. 105 | May 30; 1916, the recorded rainfall of Mount Waia- leale was 561 in. The Hawaian islands are known for other very damp spots. Thus Puu Kukui, 5000 ft., on the Island of Maui, had. a seven-year average of 369 in. (maximum 562 in. in 1918), On the Island of Hawaii, at a certain spot of 4000-ft. elevation, the rainfall in 1914 amounted to 504 in. At at least a dozen other spots, all more than 1000-ft. elevation, the rainfall in each of the years 1914 and 1918 exceeded’ 350 in, TECHNOLOGIC Paper No. 123, by Mr. D. W. Kessler, of the Bureau of Standards, Washington, is devoted to the tests of the physical and chemical properties. of fifty of the commercial marbles of the United States. Marble has been selected as the first stone: to be tested, but the whole of the deposits of stone: in the country are to come under test in course of time in order to provide the knowledge required by architects in designing structures. The tests are of tensile and compression strengths, specific gravity, porosity, absorption of water, effect of freezing, chemical composition, electrical resistivity, expansiorm with heat, and liability to warping. The trade name and origin of each sample are given, and the tabulated’ results of the tests fill twenty pages.. The properties. of the samples differ widely, although the specific gravities do not differ more than about 5 per cent. from each other. On heating, each sample expands, and on afterwards cooling fails to regain its original dimensions. In consequence of this, marble sub- jected to frequent heating and cooling is liable to warp. ScienTiFic Paper 352 of the Bureau of Standards, Washington, gives the results of the measurements of the expansion of forty samples of porcelain, about the same number of samples of bakelite and similar mate- rials, and about a dozen samples of marble and lime- stone, made by Messrs. W. H. Souder and P. Hidnert, of the Bureau. The samples were in the form of rods 30 cm. long and 1 cm. square section, and were heated in a horizontal electric furnace. The expansions were measured by a pair of microscopes mounted on a bar of invar. For the porcelain samples the coefficients per degree Centigrade between 0° C. and 200° C. vary from 2 to 20 millionths, according to the composition, — and between 200° C. and 400° C. from 3 to 11 mil- lionths. - Beryl porcelains haye the smallest coeffi- cients. For bakelite and similar materials-no values can be given, as there is so much contraction on again bringing the material to its original temperature. The marbles up to 100° C. have coefficients between 5 and 15x10-*, and at higher temperatures larger values. On cooling to their original temperature they show a permanent expansion. When cooled to —80° C. marble expands to nearly the same extent as when heated to 80° C., so that it has its maximum density in the neighbourhood of 0° C. Tue Science Reports of the University of Sendai, Japan, for December, 1919, contain a paper by Mr. S. Konno on the heat conductivities of metals below and above their melting points. The metals were tested in 182 NATURE {APRIL 8, 1920 the form of, circular discs about 2 cm. thick and | to make sensational discoveries, and there is so far 25 cm. in diameter enclosed in a porcelain tube between iron cylinders of the same diameter. In the upper iron cylinder heat was generated by a measured electric current. The fall of temperature through the disc was determined by means of thermo-couples. For tin, lead, zinc, and aluminium the heat conductivity de- creases gradually up to the*melting point. At the melting point the conductivity decreases abruptly, but in the liquid state its rate of decrease with increase of temperature is slight. Bismuth increases in conduc- tivity on melting, but change of temperature has little effect on the conductivity in either the liquid or the solid state. Antimony has its maximum conductivity at the melting point. In all cases the electrical and heat conductivities change in the same direction on melting, but neither above nor below the melting point does their quotient agree with electronic theories. Tue trouble of working gelatine plates under tropi- cal conditions seems at last to have been overcome. In the Journal of the Royal Photographic Society for March, Mr. A, P. Agnew, of Messrs. Ilford, Ltd., describes the “Ilford tropical hardener ’’ that is now supplied by Messrs. Johnson and Sons. Mr. penew found that a ‘‘quite weak solution of formalin” became very effective when certain salts were dissolved in the solution. Many sodium salts were found useful, while potassium and magnesium salts are not so effec- ‘tive, and ammonium salts are unsuitable. Some salts have no effect, while chlorides, bromides, and nitrates in general have an opposite action—that is, they soften the egelatine. The exposed plate is put into the suit- ably diluted hardening solution for three minutes, then rinsed and developed, etc., as usual. Plates so treated at pe tac varying from 100° to more than 140° F., then fixed in a plain hypo solution at 40° F., and finally washed for two hours at more than 100° F, remained firm and did not even show signs of reticula- tion. Such trying conditions as these would never occur in practical work. A PHOTOGRAPHIC developing agent must be able to reduce silver bromide that has been changed into the developable condition, as by exposure to light, while under the same conditions it is unable to reduce silver bromide that has not been so changed. There are many reducing agents that make no distinction between these two states of silver bromide. Some twenty years ago Messrs. A. and L, Lumiére found certain details of chemical constitution that appear to confer developing power, and since then they and others have extended the investigation. In the British Journal of Photography for March 26 there appears a translation of a paper by Dr. Seyewetz (of Lumiére’s) in which the author summarises our present know- ledge of this matter. Knowing the necessary con- stitution, a very large number of developers have been introduced and actually put upon the market, but the greater number have commercially disappeared, because in some -way or other they were incon- venient to use. Dr. Seyewetz says that it is improb- able that new developers will displace those now in common use. As in the case of dyes, it seems difficult NO. 2632, VOL. 105 | no indication of the direction in which to seek for new developers that would prove acceptable, as, for example, by permitting a reduction in the period of exposure. Besipes the paper on H.M.S. Hood, read at the recent meeting of the Institution of Naval Architects by Sir Eustace d’Eyncourt, there are important articles in the Engineer and Engineering for March 26 dealing with this ship. The building was commenced - in April, 1916, at the Clydebank yard of Messrs. John Brown and Co., Ltd., the first of the main belt ‘armour-plates (32 tons each) reached the yard in June, 1918, the ship was launched on August 22, 1918, and the fitting out was completed in January of this year, when the huge ship passed down the Clyde to the open sea. On the trial trips the turbines developed 157,000 shaft-horse-power, the speed attained being 32 knots. The overall length is 860 ft., the extreme breadth 104 ft., the mean load draught 28-5 ft., and the displacement at load draught 41,200 tons. The hull is fitted with a bulge or blister for securing the ship against effective attack by torpedo. The armour ranges from 12 in. thick amidships to 5 in. aft. The deck over the magazines is 3 in. thick. There are eight 15-in. guns, all on the middle line, each pair being mounted in an armoured barbette. The secondary armament consists of twelve 5-5-in. guns, and there are four 4-in. anti-aircraft guns mounted on the superstructure. The ship is fitted with six | torpedo tubes for 21-in. torpedoes. There are eight electric generators, four of which are driven by re- ciprocating engines, two by geared high-speed impulse turbines, and two by eight-cylinder Diesel oil engines. About 360 electromotors are installed, Wepinsts. from % to 140 brake-horse-power. Sir ALFRED Ewing is bringing out alse imme- diately, through the Cambridge University Press, a treatise on ‘‘ Thermodynamics for Engineers,” in which the author aims at making readers familiar with the physical bearing of the fundamental ideas of the subject by means of an elementary introduction and by dealing with practical problems in the theory of heat-engines and of refrigeration. A more mathematical treatment of general thermodynamic relations follows. There will also be an appendix sketching in outline the molecular theory of gases, with special reference to internal energy and specific heat. Another book on the list of the Cambridge University Press is by Prof. A. S. Eddington, entitled “Space, Time, and Gravita- tion.’ It is promised for the coming summer. A FORTHCOMING addition to Sir Edward Thorpe’s series of Monographs on Industrial Chemistry is of current interest, seeing that it will treat of “The Manufacture of Sugar from the Cane and Beet.”’ It will be by T. H. P. Heriot, of the Royal Technical College, Glasgow, and’ give special attention to the principles underlying factory operations, Erratum.—On p. 138 of Nature of April 1, col. 1, line 15 from the bottom of the page, bx should be éxi in the equation y=axi+bx!. The fractional index was broken during paging of the issue. “Apnn 8, 1920] NATURE 183 ‘ es Our Astronomical Column. .—A knowledge of the parallax of Capella of special interest owing to the close resemblance of this star’s spectrum to that of the sun and the fact that it is a spectroscopic binary with a period of 104} days. Prof. F, Schlesinger and Mr. Z. Daniel » made a new determination at the Allegheny srvatory (Astr. Journ., No. 765). They observed 1 the principal star and Furuhjelm’s distant com- ion. The weighted mean parallax (absolute) is "+0006". Earlier results are: Elkin, 0-079"; ost, 0-051"; and Adams and Joy, 0-105”. The star B.D.+61° 2068, the proper motion of which ‘is 7", was also measured for parallax at Allegheny, the large value 0-139”+0-007" (absolute) being found. The corresponding absolute magnitude is 9-3 visual and 10-5 photographic. Attempts were made some twenty years ago to detect the duplicity of Capella telescopically. It was con for a time that the 28-in. equatorial at Greenwich gave an elongated image, but, in view of the failure of the great American refractors, little _ reliance was placed on this. A letter from Prof. Hale dated January 6 last (Observatory, March) announces that success has been obtained by interferometer ‘methods with the 1oo-in. reflector. It was deduced ‘that the separation on December 30, 1919, was 0-042", and the position angle 148° or 328°. It is hoped that a continued series of such observations will give a _ determination of the inclination of the orbit, and hence of the masses of the components. There is even a prospect that the diameters of such giant stars as Sirius, Antares, and Betelgeux may be deter- _minable with the interferometer. ae Cape OBSERVATIONS OF THE SuN, MERCURY, AND _ Venus.—The Cape observations of these bodies, made _ with the new transit circle and the travelling-wire micrometer during the five years 1907-11, have just been distributed, together with a discussion of results. _ The corrections to the equinox derived from the three ‘bodies are in good accord, and indicate that New- _comb’s system of right ascensions needs the constant -eorrection —o-05s. The corrections to Newcomb’s longitudes of perihelia of Mercury, Venus, and the earth are —o-78", +68”, and —7-4" respectively. _ These are of interest in relation to the Einstein con- _ troversy. Newcomb applied the corrections to the centennial motion of the perihelia given by the _ Asaph Hall hypothesis, according to which gravita- - tion varies as 71-7°°°°*, This formula gives s +4337", +16-98", and +10-45" for Mercury, Venus, and the earth, whereas Einstein’s' formula gives _ +42-9", +8-6", and +3-8”". It will be seen that the adoption of Einstein’s law of gravitation bv the Nautical Almanac would mean a movement towards _ Newton’s law, not a departure from it. _ The following semi-diameters of Mercury and Venus eats er a he tions :—Mercury (latitude observations) 3-36"+0-03", 4 oman 3°79" +0-17"; Venus (latitude) Roortoos"” (longitude) 8-97"+0-04”". The tabular values — 3:34” and 8-40". extent on obsérvations made during transits, they are likely to be somewhat too small. The Cape results may be too large owing to irradia- tion, but, since all the observations were made in _ daylight, this is not likely to be excessive. But as the are _-mass of Venus is only five-sixths that of. the earth, it is probable that its diameter is also smaller, whereas __» the Cape figures make it equal to the earth. NO. 2632, VOL. 105] at distance unity were deduced from the observa- As these depend to a considerable Basic Slag and its Uses in Agriculture. es important discussion on basic slag and its uses in agriculture, organised by the Faraday Society, at which a number of leading representatives of the steel makers and of agriculturists were present, was held in the rooms of the Chemical Society on March 23. Prof. F. G. Donnan presided over the meeting. The discussion was opened by Dr. E. J. Russell, who gave a general survey of the subject and indi- cated the nature of the problems concerned. The basic slag produced by the basic Bessemer process had earned a high reputation as a potent agent in the improvement of poor pastures. The effect is indirect, and results from a stimulation of the white clover— whether the action of the phosphate is on the clover plant or on the nodule organism is not yet certain. But whatever the reason, the effect on pasture land is very marked, and British agriculturists could absorb some 300,000 or 400,000 tons a year if this could be produced.” Unfortunately for agriculturists, however, the Bessemer process is in danger of supersession, and the basic open-hearth process is taking its place.. This new process gives two kinds of slag, both poorer than the Bessemer slag in phosphates, One of these slags is made by the use of calcium fluoride, and in consequence is less soluble than the other. The great problem before the investigator at the present time is to enrich the low-grade slags so as to make them better worth grinding and transport than they now are. Open-hearth slag made without fluorspar has hitherto proved practically as effective as the old Bessemer slag when compared on the basis of equal amounts of phosphorus. Fluorspar slag has proved to be of less value, although considerably better than was at first thought. It is usually assumed, though by no means proved, that the phosphate is the only effective constituent in the slag. At various times it has been suggested that lime, manganese, or iron might be useful; it is also possible that slag contains a silico-phosphate which might have more value than the ordinary phosphate. The enrichment of the slag cannot apparently be brought about by any change in the pig iron, owing to the great disparity in price between steel and slag; fractionation is, however, possible, or the addition of ground mineral phosphate to the molten slag. Further experiments would be necessary before any decision can be made. Sir Thomas Middleton gave an account of the place of basic slag in the agricultural system of this country. British farmers tend more and more to produce animal rather than human food. The two main human food- crops—wheat and potatoes—occupied no more than 3,000,000 acres before the war, while 36,000,000 acres were devoted to the crop requirements of cattle and sheep. The value of the wheat and potatoes was about 27,000,000l., while the live stock brought in some 125,000,000l. The supreme importance of basic slag arises from the fact that it helps to produce animal food; it is essentially a pasture fertiliser. In the Cockle Park experiments the untreated pasture yielded about 20 Ib. of lean meat per acre per annum; after treatment with basic slag the yield rose to 105 Ib. of meat per acre. The results of many other experi- ments show that on thousands of acres in this country the yield of meat might be increased by the use of basic slag. Nor are the advantages of slag confined to grass land. By ploughing up more grass, valuable additions could be made to the tillage land, and if the remaining grass were treated with basic slag there 184 NATURE [ArriL 8, 1920 would be no falling off in total yield, in spite of the diminished area. Mr. Bainbridge gave an account of the experiments by Dr. Stead and Mr. Jackson on the solubility of basic slag in citric and carbonic acids. The reason why fluorspar makes the phosphoric acid in slag insoluble is that a reaction occurs between fluoride and phosphate, producing an artificial apatite, which, as regards insolubility, resembles natural fluorapatite. Even the most soluble phosphatic slags undergo this change and become insoluble on melting with fluor- spar. Carbonic acid, after long-continued attack, generally dissolves out more phosphoric acid than a single attack by the standard citric acid. Mr. G. Scott Robertson gave details of the field tests: made to compare the effect of various types of open- hearth basic slags on grassland. These experiments were made in Essex on London clay, Boulder clay, and chalk. They show that all the phosphatic slags are effective fertilisers; but there are important differences in the agricultural effects, which are not connected with solubility according to the citric acid test; indeed, this test affords no indication of the fertilising value of open-hearth slags. Details of the botanical exam- | removed in the middle of the process. By this method ination of the plots showed the striking effect of the | basic slags in reducing the amount of bare space and in increasing the amount of clover. Mr. Daniel Sillars made an important contribution from the metallurgical side, discussing the formation of basic slag in the manufacture of steel. The phos- phide of iron, Fe,P, in which state of combination phosphorus exists in molten iron, is oxidised by reactions of the type— -5Fe,0,+2P=15FeO+ P.O, 5Fe,0,+ 8P=15Fe+ 4P.0,. The P,O,; formed may combine with FeO to form Fe,(PO,)., which, however, is unstable in the pres- ence of a large excess of iron, and a reaction such as Fe,(PO,),+11Fe=8FeO+2Fe,P results, and it is in consequence of this reaction that the acid process of steel-making is unable to remove phosphorus. In the basic process the presence of lime affords an oppor- tunity to the phosphoric acid to form a stable body by the reaction— Fe,(PO,), + 4CaO =Ca,P,0,+ 3FeO. The calcium phosphate formed is only _feebly attacked and decomposed by the metallic iron, but manganese and carbon attack it more vigorously and cause the phosphoric acid to be reduced and the metal to be re-phosphorised. These reactions are, of course, proceeding concurrently, and it is necessary to main- tain a certain concentration of ferrous oxide in the slag to minimise, so far as possible, the tendency to re-phosphorisation. | Re-phosphorisation is probably due to the reaction between ferrous phosphate and lime being slightly reversible, whereby a small con- centration of ferrous phosphate is always present, which is reduced by the carbon unless a source of oxygen is. supplied by ferrous oxide in the slag. In ordinary practice the open-hearth process is carried out by allowing the slag formed by the oxida- tion of the silicon, phosphorus, and manganese to flow over shutes made in the fore-plates into slag-pots under the furnaces, and no attempt is usually made to remove more slag than that which flows out natur- ally when the level of the slag in the furnace is higher than the level of the fore-plate. The slag left behind is carried on, and forms part of the finishing slag, which latter is therefore much greater in volume, and therefore lower in phosphoric acid, than the slag NO. 2632, VOL. 105 | of operation the time spent in tapping the furnace for separation of the slag and for the formation of a new slag is saved, but the slag is inferior both in richness and in citrate solubility if that still forms a criterion of excellence to the agriculturist. Mr. Ridsdale took part in the discussion, and exhibited specimens of slags examined in the classic investigations by Stead and Ridsdale; and Mr. W. S.- Jones contributed a paper on the improvement of low-grade basic slags. As a result of the discussion it was decided to ask the Ministry of Agriculture to form a Committee which should study possible practical steps to effect improvement in quality and in quantity of the phos- phatic slags. Verification of Screw Gauges for Munitions of War. ae: HE Bulletin de la Société d’Encouragement pour l’Industrie Nationale (November—December, 1919, No. 6) contains an article by M. Cellerier, of the Conservatoire des Arts et Métiers, on the verification 'of screw gauges, with particular reference to the | Ministry of Munitions. methods advocated by Mr. Bingham Powell, who was engaged in the United States during the war as Inspector of Gauges and Standards for the British These methods related chiefly 'to the measurement of the full, effective, and core diameters; the verification of pitch was neglected until quite a late period of the war, owing to the lack of instruments possessing the requisite precision and rapidity. eee Bet Extreme accuracy is of the highest importance in measurements of pitch, as any error in the of this error if the gauge is to be accepted as correct. Where the permissible deviations are very small, an error in pitch of a few ten-thousandths of an inch may thus completely annihilate the tolerance on effec-— tive diameter. Inaccuracies of pitch are often regarded as essentially progressive; but this is not _ always the case, as deformations due to hardening may introduce variable errors of quite appreciable magnitude. The method frequently adopted of verifving the pitch by measurements made on a length comprising a number of threads is accordingly much less trustworthy than the practice, long in vogue in France, of testing separately a number of consecutive threads. , For the latter process measuring machines of the pattern used at the National Physical Laboratory are narticularly suitable, but at the time when the demand for extreme accuracy in screw gauges for war-work first became pressing it was impossible to obtain one of these machines in America without considerable delay, and accordingly Mr. Powell found it necessary to devise an instrument on the spot. He dispensed with the optical contrivance which forms an essential feature of the laboratory machine, and substituted for the spherical contacts a lever terminating in a small _ sphere which rests freely in the screw and can be — guided conveniently in the axial plane from one thread to another. The lever consists of a very light needle, arranged in such a way that the apparatus can also be used for testing internal screws or nuts by means of appropriate casts taken by an ingénious and delicate method, but only a small segment of the internal thread can be obtained in this way for testing - purposes. pitch makes it necessary for the maximum limit of effec- tive diameter to be reduced by double the amount ~ + L 8, 1920] “NATURE regards the measurement of diameters, although dinary micrometer will suffice’ for ‘the external sion, it is not suitable for determining either ective or the core diameter. Before testing the e diameters it is necessary to know the errors pitch, in order that the appropriate reductions made in the maximum limit of tolerance. A er with point contacts should never be used or the effective diameter, as it bears only on ¢ parts, and, further, the points wear down Even when new, its contacts for screw- rarely have the correct angle. It is, however, 1 check on results obtained by the aid of wire s, especially for investigating anomalies which apparent in these results. bi Powell has made a special study of wire con- for testing effective diameters. He employs natically two series of wires for each pitch of few. One series is such that the wire bears exactly the theoretical effective diameter of a_ perfect ; in the other series the wire bears on the sides -serew not far from the outer edge, but so as id the rounded-off part in Whitworth threads. correct diameters for the series are calculated simple formula. The wires, which are finished inding, must be perfectly cylindrical, and_ their have to be ascertained to an accuracy of in.; any error in the diameter. of the wire ied threefold in the result obtained for the They are made of hardened steel, about 2 in. in length, or longer for very large ; but their exact adjustment is only necessary about half an inch in the centre of the lensth. verification of internal screws may be effected by emoloving either an external screw having correct dimensions for external, effective, and > diameters, or a screw correct for maximum and diameters, but slightly small for core dia- A plug is also used in this case for verifying minimum diameter of the internal screw. If > gauges enter the nut, the test is regarded as anit as the external screw may appear to give a good even if it bears on only one diameter of the while the other diameters may be far outside the tolerance. A large number of different gauges in order to verify separately every er of an internal screw. : - Powell has drawn up a list of equipment lired in the verification of screw gauges. ‘This udes a pitch-measuring machine, an apparatus for casts of internal screws, a projecting ar- -, an instrument for measuring the three eristic diameters of external screws, a collec- suitable wire contacts, small triangular prisms - verifying core diameters, standardised micro- neters, Johansson gauges, anda complete set of _ standards for measuring diameters, pitch, and form of eet threads. __ A theoretical explanation of the principles of the ; ods employed would have been of interest. In sence some doubts arise, for example, as to the eal value of profiles of screw-threads projected screens. Again, the contacts of small cylindrical s on the helicoidal surfaces of threads cannot be rded as the same as that of a circle and two tersecting straight lines, although the formule emploved, which are stated without proof, apnear to = founded on a consideration of this kind. In con- on, Mr. Powell’s methods are by no means tirely novel, but they were verv successful during war, and will no doubt be found instructive by I'those engaged in the manufacture and verification screw gauges. ‘NO. 2632, VOL. 105] ; but, in reality, this is not alwavs the 185 The Composition of Salvarsan. WHEN salvarsan was first introduced for use in : medicine the German manufacturers stated that it contained ‘‘ about 34 per cent. of arsenic,’’ which is the percentage calculated for a pure dihydroxydiamino- arsenobenzene dihydrochloride, C,,H,,O,N,As,,2HCl. This statement was afterwards altered to ‘‘ the arsenic content of the preparation corresponds to the formula C,.H,,0,N.As.,2HC1,2H,O as a result of Gaebel’s observation that the drug loses 7-6 per cent. by weight on drying, and contains only 31-5 per cent. of arsenic.” Last year Kober, in the United States, ventured the opinion that the combined solvent in salvarsan is not water, but methyl alcohol, and suggested that the latter might be the cause of variable toxicity in sal- varsan—a suggestion which is rather far-fetched in view of the fact that, even on Kober’s assumption, a maximum normal dose of salvarsan could contain only 0-04 gram of methyl alcohol. This and other questions connected with the com- position of salvarsan have been investigated in the Wellcome Chemical Research Laboratories, and in a paper contributed to the meeting of the Chemical Society on March 18 Messrs. Fargher and Pyman showed that the combined solvent in salvarsan is water; and though small quantities of methyl alcohol may also be present, due to the use of this alcohol in the liquid from which the drug is precipitated, the amount never exceeds 1-4 per cent., and is frequently nil, It was also found that the sulphur always present in commercial salvarsan as a result of the use of sodium hyposulphite' as a reducing agent in its preparation, occurs in at least two forms: (1) as a sulphaminic acid, probably ‘salvarsan’? monosulphaminic acid hydrochloride, and (2) attached directly to arsenic; whilst a third portion may be in physical association with salvarsan, which has certain colloidal properties. These results support the conclusion expressed in the recent Special Report (No. 44) of the Medical Research Committee, that though salvarsan is not a chemically pure substance, there is no known chemical impurity with the presence or proportion of which its varying toxicity can be brought into relation. In this con- nection it is interesting to note that a specially pure salvarsan free from sulphur, prepared by Messrs. Fargher and Pyman, was tested by the Medical Research Committee and shown to be more than normally toxic. Chemical testing alone is, therefore, insufficient to determine whether any particular batch of salvarsan is suitable for medical use, and it is on this account ‘that the Medical Research Committee has elaborated the system of biological testing, described in the Special Report already referred to; to control the issue of salvarsan in this country. It is satisfactory that the Committee is able to report that, from the point of view of permanence of effect, the British and French salvarsan preparations are therapeutically as good as the German. University and Educational Intelligence. “THE governors of the Huddersfield Technical Col- lege have received a gift of 20001. from Mrs. Mary Blamires, widow of Alderman Joseph Blamires, in memory of her late husband, himself a former student, and afterwards a governor, of the college. The scholarship is to be used for the promotion of research in chemistry. Tue headquarters of the Yorkshire Summer School of Geography, now being organised by the University | of Leeds, will this year be the County School, Whitby, 186 NATURE r , (APRIL 8, 1920 the school buildings having been kindly lent by the governors for this purpose. The object of the Summer School is to provide theoretical and practical instruction in the methods of geography and to furnish opportunities for the discussion and elucidation of problems connected with the woop f of the subject. The course will consist of lectures, laboratory work, field work, and demonstrations. Lectures will begin on Morning morning, August 2, and the course will end on Saturday, August 21. Among the lecturers will be Prof. Kendall (professor of geology in the University of Leeds), Dr. A. Gilligan (lecturer in economic geology), Mr. C. B. Fawcett (lecturer in geography), Dr. W. G. Smith (lecturer in agricultural botany at the Edinburgh and East of Scotland Insti- tute), and Mr. W. P. Welpton (lecturer in education and master of method in the University of Leeds). Applications for tickets should be made to the Secre- tary of the Yorkshire Summer School of Geography, The University, Leeds. BeprorD College for Women, a constituent college of the University of London, and the largest and oldest university college for women in England, has issued an appeal for funds. At the moment, when there is an overwhelming demand by women for higher education and training, the college must either refuse admission to highly suitable students and starve or close down certain departments, or it must enlarge its buildings and increase its endowments. Seven hundred students now crowd into buildings adapted for four hundred and fifty, with the result that in many cases classes have to be triplicated and class- rooms and apparatus shared between different depart- ments. A sum of lecture-rooms and laboratories. A second 100,000l. is required for endowment, notably for scholarships, the various departments of science, the department of social studies, and the training department. A third 100,0001. is badly needed for a hostel. An opportunity for acquiring an admirable site just outside Regent’s Park has presented itself. Whether the college can take advantage of this must depend on the generosity of the public. It should, perhaps, be emphasised that, apart from such developments, the income of the col- lege is by no means sufficient for its present needs in view of the enormously increased cost of mainten- ance and the necessity for raising all salaries. The work of universities in the past could never have been done had there not lived generous men and women who believed thev could render no greater public ser- vice than by endowing colleges and thus furnishing opportunities for rich and poor to acquire sound learning. May we hope that a like generosity and a like belief exists to-day? The Queen’s interest in the college is well known, and has taken the practical form of giving a donation. Subscriptions should be sent to Viscountess Elveden, hon. treasurer of the Bedford College Endowment and Extension Fund, Bedford College, Regent’s Park, N.W.1. Societies and Academies. LONDON. Royal Society, March 18.—Sir J. J. Thomson, presi- dent, in the chair.—W. B. Brierley: A form of Botrytis cinerea with colourless sclerotia. A form of. Botrytis cinerea with colourless sclerotia is described. This was obtained by the isolation and growth of a colour- less sclerotium, which was formed in a culture of a normal strain derived from a single spore. The ' primary. origin of the change resulting in the albino form is located in the hyphal mother-cell from which’ NO. 2632, VOL. 105 | 100,0001. is needed for additional’ the initial colourless sclerotium arose. Lotsy’s dictum that ‘“‘certainty of purity is a conditio sine qua non to obtain proof of the existence of mutation in living beings” is accepted, and it is shown that such a state is possibly not realisable in the fungi. It is suggested that somatic fusions resulting in a change of genotypic values are the mechanism whereby evolution in the fungi has taken place.—R. R, Gates: A preliminary account of the meiotic phenomena in the pollen mother-cells and tapetum of. lettuce (Lactuca sativa). In a preliminary study of meiosis in the pollen development of lettuce, several points have appeared which have a general bearing on cytological concep- tions and the problems of genetics. The exceptional condition has been found in lettuce, in which every ‘intergrade occurs between pollen mother-cells and tapetal cells. Even synapsis has been observed in binucleate tapetal cells, which emphasises the physio- logical aspects of the synaptic contraction. The tapetal cells are peculiar in being often very much elongated and lying lengthwise of the anther. Ultimately they break down and form a plasmodium surrounding the pollen-grains. | Cytomyxis also occurs, though rarely, during the stage of synapsis in the pollen mother-cells. ; March 25.—Sir J. J. Thomson, president, in the chair.—A. R. Forsyth: Note on the central differential equation in the relativity theory of gravitation. The critical equation in Prof. Einstein’s theory is— 2 2 (#) + 18= "+25 ut om, (35) = (uw —a) Sa (u—y), where a, 8, y are proved to be real and positive for the known planetary bodies in the solar system, and are arranged so that a>f>y. There is no need for initial approximation. The equation can be integrated exactly, in terms of elliptic functions. The integral is— | a _., I-+en {(b6—2)/p} u=y+(B—y) r+dn (oom Nie} where ¢=a at perihelion; the modulus of the elliptic functions is given by— so that ? #=8-7 and p={2m (a—y)}—% a-y : Further, the advance of the perihelion in one revolu- tion is— CNONY ae 4pK—2z, ae ee where K is the complete first elliptic integral with the modulus k. These expressions are accurate (and not approximate) in relation to the initial equation. For approximations in connection with the known members of the solar system, k? is small, so that K is slightly greater than 37, and p is slightly greater than unity. The advance of the perihelion is 27.3m7/X?; and the value of u is— ou “4 {1 +e cos (p =o) +8 alle i, +3% ¢(-@) sin (-a)}. —R. D. Oldham: The frequency of. earthquakes in Italy in the years 1896 to 1914. paper is an attempt to discover whether there is any variation in the frequency of earthquakes which can be attributed to the stresses set up by the gravitational attraction of the sun and the moon. In addition to some small and more or less doubtful variations, there was found to be a very marked maximum frequency about the time of the new moon, when the declinations of the sun and moon were of the same sign and at the full NATURE 187 1 they were opposite, together with an equally ed minimum frequency at the full when the ions were the same, and at the new when were opposite. At the quarters the frequency is “average ; at the times of minimum the frequency t one-third, and at the maximum about five- of the average. ‘that it is continuously rec a: nisable through- record, shows that the variation is a real one, it is difficult to find any other cause than the ect of the stresses set up by the gravitational attrac- oF the sun and the moon.—A. F, Dufton: A new atus for drawing conic curves. x. nst ains a pen to trace the locus of the pole of a erved values of the partial and total correlations ooo samples of 30 each. The three attributes of sampled (artificial) population are uncorrelated, so at observed values of the correlations are departures m the true value, which is zero in.each case. The groups of 1000 total correlations observed are own to be nearly Gaussian in form, and to be in _ very close accord with the distributions predicted in 4 iggeey form by R. A. Fisher, and evaluated in detail in an important co-operative study described in _ Biometrika. The distribution of partial correla- tions is compared with the Gaussian, the Pearson Type II., and the theoretical distribution of total It is found to be _ closely fitted by the latter, and not to show signi- ficantly higher dispersion than is indicated. by the usual _ expression for the standard deviation of total correla- _ tions, viz. 1~p?/¥n—1. Some important practical _ bearings of the result are indicated. correlations referred to above. ? es Paris. __ Academy of Sciences, March 1.—M. Henri Deslandres in the chair.—G. Humbert: The number of classes of _ positive quadratic forms of Hermite, of given dis- _ ¢riminant, in an imaginary quadratic body.—Em. __ Bourquelot and M. Bridel: A new glucoside capable of ___ hydrolysis by emulsin, scabiosine. This glucoside was _ extracted from the root of Scabiosa succisa (devil’s _ bit scabious). Details of its isolation and hydrolysis __ by dilute sulphuric acid and by emulsin are given.— _ A. Ratean : flight altitude which corresponds to a minimum consumption of petrol per kilometre, and _ the calculation of the best propeller for a given aero- _ plane.—A. Righi: The experimental bases of the Eth of relativity—A. Mesnager was elected a _ member of the section of mechanics in succession to _ the late Marcel Deprez, and A. Fowler a correspondant _ for the section of astronomy in succession to the late _ Edmund Weiss.—N.. E. Nérlund: The convergence of certain series.—A. Rosenblatt: A theorem of A. ~ Liapounoff.—M. T. Huber: A rational theory. of _ pugging in reinforced concrete, considered as thin plates.—Ch. Fremont: The resistance of steels to cutting by tools. . It is well known that steels pos- sing the same resistance to fracture by tension ay differ greatly in the ease with which they can cut by tools. Instead of the usual calculation, imum load divided by initial cross-section, the ithor proposes the term “final resistance,’”’ obtained i dividing the maximum load by the actual cross- 1 Section of the broken test piece.—J. Guyot and L. J. NO. 2632, VOL. 105] The magnitude, no less than . “be without effect. Simon: The combustion of methyl esters. with a mixture of sulphuric and chromic acids. Analytical figures are given for the wet combustion of sixteen methyl compounds of different types, and the carbon dioxide produced is shown to be practically theoretical.— A. Mailhe and F. de Godon: The preparation of fatty acids by the catalytic oxidation of the primary alcohols. With reduced copper as catalyst, and at temperatures between 260° C. and 270° C., the primary alcohols with air give substantial yields of the corresponding acids. Aldehydes are always produced at the same time, and in some cases more aldehyde than acid is produced.—C. Schlumberger: Attempts at the electrical prospecting of the subsoil—Mme. Z. Gruzewska: Contribution to the study of laminarine from Laminaria flexicaulis. Laminarine cannot be con- sidered as belonging to the dextrin group, having regard to its lzvorotatory power and its resistance to the action of acids and alkalis. Its digestibility by the plant diastases shows it to be a reserve material in the marine algz.—A. Sartory: A new fungus of the genus Aspergillus isolated from a _ case, of onychomycosis.—H. Piéron: The variation of energy as a function of the time of stimulation for foveal vision.—A. Vernes and R. Douris: The action of certain precipitates on the solution of the red blood corpuscles.—R. Anthony: The exorchidia of Meso- plodon and the re-ascent of the testicles in the course of the phylogeny of the Cetaceans.—J. L. Lichten- | stein: The parasitism of Aphiochaeta (Phora) fasciata. —E. F. Galiano: Some histological details of the arterial heart of Sepia officinalis.—G. Riquoir: Col- loidal complexes and sera. A preliminary injection of a colloid, followed after an interval by an injection of a curative serum, may produce beneficial effects in cases where the serum injection alone has proved to Several examples are detailed.— A. Trillat: The influence of the variation of the barometric pressure on the microbial droplets in sus- pension in the atmosphere. Books Received. A Geographical Bibliography of British Ornithology. By W. H. Mullens, H. Kirke Swann, and Rey. F. C. R. Jourdain. Part iii. Pp. 193-288. (London: Witherby and Co.) 6s. net. Aristotle. By Dr. A. E. Taylor. Revised edition. Pp. 126. (London and Edinburgh: T. C. and E. C. Jack, Ltd.). 1s. 3d. net. Wireless Telegraphy and Telephony. By H. M. Dowsett. Pp xxxi+331. (London: The Wireless Press, Ltd.) gs. ; Wireless Transmission of Photographs. Martin. Second edition. Pp. xv+143. The Wireless Press, Ltd.) 5s. Selected Studies in Elementary Physics. By E. Blake. Pp. viiit+176. (London: The Wireless Press, Ltd.) 5s. Volumetric Analysis. By J. B. Coppock. Revised and enlarged edition. Pp. too. (London: Sir I. Pitman and Sons, Ltd.) 3s. 6d. net. A Map of the World (on Mercator’s Projection), having Special Reference to Forest Regions and the Geographical Distribution of Timber Trees. Prepared by J. H. Davies. (Edinburgh: W. and A. K. John- ston, Ltd.;. London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd.) 8s. net. A Foundation Course in Chemistry. By J. W. Dodgson and J. A. Murray. Second edition. Pp. xii+ 240+ Answers. (London: Hodder and Stoughton, Ltd.) 6s. 6d. net. By .M.. J. (London : 188 NATURE [ApriL 8, 1920 Diary of Societies. THURSDAY, Apriv 8. INSTITUTION oF AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERS (Graduates’ Section) (at. 28 Victoria Street), at 8.—W. D. Pile: ‘lhe Use of Benzol. RoyaL*Soctety or Mepicine (Obstetrics and Gynecology Section), at FRIDAY, Apri 9. Rovat ASTRONOMICAL Society, at 5.—E. E.’ Barnard: Naked-eye Ob- servations of Nova Aquile 111.—Col. E. H. Hills? The Suspended Zenith Telescope ‘of Durham Observatory; Part I.—Rev. A. L. Cortie: The Great Sun-spot Groups and the Magnetic Storm, 1920 March 22-23. ConcCrETE Institute, at 6.—T. J. Clark: The Uses of Concrete. Mavaco.LocicaL Socrery or Lonpon (at Linnean Society), at 6. AnsriTuTION OF MecHANICAL ENGINEERS (Informal Meeting), at 7.— | C. H. Woodfield and Others : Discussion on pepe Their Use and Abuse. Junior: Institution |\or \ ENGINEERS, at 7.30.—A. H. The Development and Manufacture of the T scodinede Valve. Rovat Society oF Mepicine (Anesthetics, Section), at 8,15.—(Annual owe: General Meeting), at 8.30.—Mrs. D. Berry and ‘Others: Discussion on - Anzsthésia in Operations on the Thyroid Gland. MONDAY, Apri. 12. a eh 8 InctTiTuTE (at the, Central Hall, Westminster), ‘at 4.30.—Rev- Dr. J, F. H. Thomson: The -Pentateuch of the Samaritans : When They _ Got It, end Wherice, Rovat Grocraruicar Society (at Lowther Lodge), at 5.—Col. Sir Sidney Burrard: ‘A Brief Review.of the Evidence upon which the Theory of ‘Isostasy is Based. Rovat INSTITUTION OF GREAT Britarn (General Meeting), ‘at 5. Soctery or Encrnegrs: (at-'Geological Society), at §.30.—Prof.' E. R. Matthews: (1) Flood Prevention Works at Troon, Ayrshire; (2) The _ Action of Sea Water on Concrete. Surveyors’ InstiruTIoNn\(Jtinior Meeting), at 7. Roya InsTITUTE OF BRITISH ARCHITECTS, at ‘8. ARISTOTELIAN Soctety (at 74 Grosvenor pee at 8. ~j.W agar Dr. . Moore, Prof. H. Wildon Garr, ‘and Prof. G. Dawes Hicks : Sym- posium on Is the ‘‘Concrete Univetsal” the True Type of Universality? Roya Socizay or Arts, at 8,—Dr. W. Rosenhain: Aluminium and. its Alloys (Cantor Lecture). Society or Cnemicat Inpdustry (at ‘Chemical Society), at 8.—Dr. Winifred E. Brenchley and:E. H: Richards: The Fertilising Value of ewage Sludges.—Dr. E. P. Perman: A New Test for Incorporation. — rof. T. M. Lowry and L. P. McHatton: Experiments on Decrepitation. ‘Institution ‘op Evecrricat '“EnGingers (Students’ Meeting) «(at Institution of Mechanical Engineers), at 8.—Joint Discussion with the ‘Graduates’ Association of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers on The “Sixthour shears Day and its Effect on Industry. - TUESDAY, Aprit 13 Rovai. Horticutturat Society, at 3.—Dr. A. B. Rendle: Plants of Interest in the Day’s Exhibition. Roya. INSTITUTION QF GREAT BRITAIN, at 3. _—Major G. W. C. Kaye: Recent Advances in X-ray Work. INSTITUTION oF CiviL ENGINEERS, at 5.30.—Lt.-Col, J. K. Robertson: Richborough Military Transportation Depét.—Major F. O. Stanford: The War Department Cross-Channel Train-Ferry. ZOOLOGICAL Society oF LONDON, at 5.30.—Arthur Willey: An Apodous Amia calva —H. A, Baylis and Dr. Clayton Lane: A Revision of the Nematode Family Gnathostomide.—Dr, . Dakin: The Onychophora of Western Australia.—A. M. Altson : ‘The Life-history and Habits of Two - Parasites of the Blowfly, “RovaL , PHOTOGRAPHIC. Sotliry OF Great Britatn (Scientific. and ‘Technical Group), at 7.—A. C. Banfield: Prisms.—A. unro: Machinéry used in the Manufacture of Photographic Plates. QuEKETT MicroscopicaL C1 us (at 20 Hanover, Square), at 7.30. Royat ANTHROPOLOGICAL INSTITUTE, at 8.15 O. ‘Neville: Western ‘Australian Aborigines: : Their Treatment t anil Care. WEDNESDAY, Apri I4. Royat Unirep Service Institution, at 3.—Lt.-Col. J. Shakespear : ‘Recent Events on the Assam Frontier. Roya. Sociery or ARTS, at 4.30.—J. Thorp: The Fundamental Basis of Good Printing. BritisH PsycHoLocicat Society (Education Section) (at London Day Training College), at 6.— C. A. Claremont : The Functioning of the Will: A Suggested Application of Herrington’s Work on Reflexes. RoyaL AERONAUTICAL SociETY (at Royal Society of Arts), at 8:—Capt. P. D. Acland: Trans-continental Flying. INSTITUTION OF AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERS (at Institution of Mechanical ’ Engineers), at 8—Dr. W. H. Hatfield: The Most Suitable Steels «3for Automobile Parts. ‘Society oF Pustic ANALYSTS AND OTHER ANaxyticat CueEmists (at Chemical Society), at 8.—A. E. Parkes: The Turbidity Temperature of Fats, Oils, and Fatty Acids, Part I.—Dr..G. W Monier-Williams: The Interpretation of Milk Records—Dr. A. F. Joseph and G. A. Freak: The Loxs of Free Ammonia from Drinking-Water Samples. +E. Sinkinson : A Decanting and Filter-W ashing Machine. t THURSDAY, Apri. 15. PR, INSTITUTION OF GREAT BRITAIN, at 3. —S. Skinner: and Evaporation. 'Royvat Society or Arts (Indian Section), at 4.30.—Sir George Buchanan: The Ports of India: Their Administration and Develo poche Linnean Society, at 5.—Capt. F. Kingdon Ward :.Natural History Exploration on the “North-east Frontier of Burma.—R. Paulson: Exhibition of Lantern-slides illustrating Definite Stages in the Sporulation and Gonidia within the Thallus of the Lichen Zvernia prunastri, Ach. Roya Society or MEDICINE (Dermatology Section), at 5. INSTITUTION OF MiIn1ING AND METALLURGY (Annual General Meeting) (at Geological Society), at, 5.30 .Cuitp-Stupy Socréry (at Royal Sanitary erperg: at 6.—Prof. W. Ripman « Spelling Reform. Y The Ebullition NO. 2632, VOL. 105 | INSTITUTION OF ELEcTrRICAL ENGINEERS (at Institution of Civil Engineers), at 6.—Dr. C. V. Drysdale: Modern Marine Problems (Kelvin Lecture). t I 1 College of Science and Tochnoiay)s ke Sorrel nen e Unaided Eye, Part II1.—K. R. Walls The Rock Crystal of Brazil. Cuemicart Socimry, at 8. Baveu ways" FRIDAY, Aprit 16. Concrete InsTITUTE, at 6.—E. Fiander Etchells : : Sabin oan to Local Authorities. InstrruTion or ELecrricaL ENGINEERs (Students' Meeting) ry ota House), at 7.—J. Scott-Taggart +, The Vacuum ‘Tube as tter ‘and Receiver of Continuous Waves. 5 Hh en or MeEcHANICAL ENGINEERS (Informal Meetig), at | E. Baty and Others: Discussion on Planing v. Milling. | : TECHNICAL INSPECTION AssocIATION (at Royal Society of Ants) at at 2 30. —F. R. Wade: Labour Unrest—Its Causes and ae ‘ Rovat Society or Mepicine (Electro-Therapeutics S: Sir Ernest Rutherford : Development of Radiology eckagtt oa i Memorial Lecture). Rovav InstituTION OF GREAT BRITAIN, at 9-~Ptoks J. a Bi Ions ahd Nuclei. siTee pa ee PRIL 17. Rovat InsTiTuTION OF GREAT Brirain, at st Ww. a. Dor The Thermionic Vacuum Tube as Detector, in tr and Gerierator of Electrical Oscillations. a aiae "CONTENTS. i ea The Universities and the Army . 157 Woods and Water Supply. i! Dr. Hugh Revert Mill Pa ee” er or de 6. The Wilds of ‘South America. whe ee. va % iis! te ESD Life and Temperature ; «ote Vereen A University Course in Botany Z oa, abe Recent Mathematical Text-books. By I. ‘M. rave Our Bookshelf .. . i oi 4 ta ee Letters to the Editor:— — Knowledge and Power.—* F.O,1. ”; Dr, John Wee: Evans, F.R ieee ee eS The Secondary Spectrum of "‘Hydrogen.—Prof. J. Ww. a Nicholson, F.R.S. . . 166 International Council for Fishery Investigations, — aan Prof, W. C. McIntosh, F.R.S. . i867 The Plumage Bill and Bird Protection, —Sir H ae Johnston, G.C:m.G., K.C.B. ; Lefroy ; Right Hon. Sir Herbert Be AN) Bart., F. R.S.; Prof. Arthur Dendy, F.R.S.. 168 The Magnetic Storm of March 22-23 and Associated — Phenomena.—Dr, A. Crichton Mitchell . 170 Science and the New Army.—Prof. A. R. Richard- a son. . 170 An Electronic Theory of Isomerism. __W.E. ‘Garner; S.C..Bradford .. gta laee relied 2 Percussion-Figutes.—Dr. BL G. ‘Escher . Aa eS hi A Peculiar Halo. (With Diagram,)—Capt. c,. J. PL ies Cave I Sea-birds: Their "Relation to the “Fisheries” and Agriculture. (With Diagram.) By Dr. Walter Bere Collinge . mas hy 1/423 The Imperial ‘College “of Sc'ence and Technology 173 Magnetic Disturbances and Geological Structure 175 British ren. Production. bid Dr. Edward J. Russell, F.R.S.. . ‘ era Gee eo Notes f ree ee Our Astronomical Column :- — vada ; Capel iis. ao . 183 Cape Observations of the ‘Sun, Mercury, and Venus . 183 Basic Slag and its Uses in Agriculture. ... 183 Verification of Screw Gauges for Munitions of War 184 The Composition of Salvarsan. . . . eee ees University and Educational Intelligence - ee ees Societies and Academies: ........4.++. + 186 Books Received |. i) ba v4d ss ee Diary of Societies - eee 88 Editorial and Publishing Offices: MACMILLAN AND. CO., Etp:;* ST. MARTIN’S STREET, LONDON, W.C.2. Advertisements and business letters to be add‘eanee to the . Publishers. - Editorial Communications to the Editor, Telegraphic Address: Puusis, LONDON. Télephone Number: GERRARD 88g0:.' ©: 14 5h _ THURSDAY, APRIL 15, 1920. ce of research workers are available from and much valuable work is being 0. '* ous | sources, ; or other substantial money grants could be a e for scientific discoveries of an epoch-making Ras aracter, somewhat in the manner of the award oO the Nobel prizes. We referred a few weeks oa » (March 4, p. 18) to a deputation which waited upon Mr. Balfour, Lord President of the _ Council, to urge that a sum of about 20,0001. _ should be set aside annually for this purpose; and 7 we trust that this modest provision for the en- _ couragement of genius will be forthcoming. The January number of the Journal of the > British Science Guild contains a_ carefully Re wtetiared report on the subject of awards of this nature, with particular reference to medi- eal discovery. The committee which presented the report consisted of eleven men of scientific -distinction—five representing the British Medical Association and six the British Science Guild; _and the members of it formed the deputation to ‘ q Mr. Balfour, with the addition of several members of the House of Commons. Two cardinal pro- - posals were made—first, that medical discoveries, _ even when made accidentally and not as a result _ of designed investigation, should be encouraged by” direct pecuniary reward; secondly, that for losses or outlays incurred by private investigators powee! in medical discovery the State should recognise the principle of compensation. _. These two proposals rest on the fundamental E ae that, owing to the peculiar nature of medical service and the necessity for carefully adjusted _ ethical sanctions, the individual medical investi- _ gator has often to sacrifice the welfare of himself and his family, although his investigation may i have the highest social value. The capacity for i ccotery, including invention, is very unevenly _ distributed, but in every field of science rewards, both Siaiiotel and honorary, act as _ powerful NO. 2633, VOL. 105] 4 “= i + = ii, . NATURE ‘evocatives of faculty. In any ache except edie cine, an invention or a discovery has at least a “business” chance of bringing a direct reward, ‘for the investigator can patent his invention or protect himself in some other way. In medicine he cannot patent a new microbe of a new method. The attempts to patent or protect serums or similar products are usually failures, and may end in the removal of a name from the register “for infamous conduct in a _ professional respect.’’ Probably in this matter the medical profession is too exacting, but there are obvious good reasons for maintaining on the highest ethical level the sanctions of a profession that touch so nearly the private life of the subject. These sanc- tions, therefore, must continue to be a serious handicap to the medical investigator, who cannot employ the ordinary business methods to secure for himself any profit from his invention, or dis- covery, or new method of treatment. If medical discovery is thus shut out from normal commercial reward, there is good ground ‘for the view that the State should establish a system of compensation: To a certain extent, medical research is itself a career, and in the future development of medicine research will offer more and more openings for talent. But mean- while it is certain that the medical inventor or discoverer has much less chance of making even a respectable living than the clinical medical prac- titioner. Of this it would be easy to give suffi- cient proof, but it is not seriously disputed. Within the medical schools there are many forms of award, such as honorary degrees, money prizes, and the like; but their distribution is largely accidental. Further, the inventor or discoverer has so to specialise his energies that he may positively disqualify himself for the more lucrative administrative or clinical posts. This is more or less true of every branch of applied ‘science, not to speak of pure science; it is over- whelmingly true of medical scientific investigation, The joint committee and the deputation. have uncovered an important scientific area where the State might well recognise a duty to compensate. How profoundly the economic motive operates to ‘increase the production of inventions the Courts for the war awards have abundantly shown. It would be to the ultimate advantage of the State to pay for medical and other scientific discoveries which bring no financial gain to the men who | made them: the method of payment is a detail ‘and need offer no more difficulty than that involved in making other awards. - The principle is so sound that it ought at once to be conceded. H 190. NATURE [APRIL 15, 1920 English Cytology. An Introduction to the Study of Cytology. By Prof. L. Doncaster. Pp. xiv+ 280+ xxiv plates. (Cambridge: At the University Press, 1920.) Price 21s. net. HE publication of this volume is to be regarded as an event in the progress of cytology. Prof. Doncaster’s new book is not intended to serve as a text-book on cytology, though it contains a wealth of facts; but its aim is to interest the senior student in the subject by pointing out the way in which cytology is related to the great fundamental problems at the root of all biological research. Quite recently Paul Buchner, of Munich, published a new “ Hand- buch” of cytology, and it is with pride that we compare the work before us with its German prototype. A great deal of the material in Prof. Doncaster’s book is new, and the work is as strictly up-to-date as is possible when one is deal- ing with a vast and changing subject such as cytology. . ; ' The author’s conception of the cell is very broad; he recognises the important part played by the nucleus, but pays due attention to the Golgi apparatus and mitochondria, which he considers may be of special importance in the life of the cell; useful discussions on the structure of proto- plasm, such as are illustrated by Hardy’s work, and on Hertwig’s conceptions of the ‘“karyo- plasmatic ratio,” are added to this part of the book. The question of the origin and relationships of the centrosome has been treated in a masterly way, and the author shows how J. W. Jenkinson’s work on the fertilisation of the Axolotl can pro- vide a middle way between the divergent views— that centrosomes arise from pre-existing centro- somes, and that they may be formed de novo in the cytoplasm. Prof. Doncaster steers a careful course through the troubled waters surrounding the various ques- tions with regard to astral rays, spindle fibres, and “mitokinetism.” He gives a fair and lucid exposé of the various ingenious hypotheses ‘brought for- ward to explain mitotic division, but concludes that, at present at least, no really satisfactory explana- tion of the phenomenon of mitosis has been given. Students of cytology are often turned away from entering into the various problems associated with the behaviour of the chromosomes in the germ- cell cycle by the fact that the whole question is obscured by a multitude of ill-digested descrip- tions, theories, and hypotheses. Prof. Doncaster has written an exceptionally clear and able ‘NO..2633, VOL. 105 | account of the typical behaviour of the chromo- somes. Never polemical, he gives a_ straight- forward account which includes on a broad basis all the most modern work on the chromosomes. His first description of maturation is written with an eye to his later accounts of the chromosomes im sex and Mendelism, but he is careful not to con- fuse his preliminary survey by bringing in debatable matter. Here the student will find a conveniently introduced résumé of the Chias- matypy hypothesis of Janssens, which has em such prominence among Mendelians. The modern work on the behaviour of the cyto- plasmic inclusions during spermatogenesis has been the subject of careful descriptions. Prof. Doncaster has treated the matter in an able manner, and the worker unacquainted with the Golgi apparatus and mitochondria will find in this book a readable and accurate account of the present state of our knowledge. The various questions surrounding the formation of egg yolk are not treated at length, and should be included ~ in a future edition; we refer especially to the work of Weigl, Hirschler, The author exhibits a commendable scepticism with regard to the specificity of the so-called ‘chromatin ” dyes, and points out in several parts of the book that cytoplasmic bodies unrelated to chromatin may stain basophil, and yet not be true chromatin. In his chapter on segmentation Prof. Doncaanee succeeds in bringing out the fact that we have really proceeded a very short distance in the elucidation of the great problems surrounding even the first stages of animal development. In a later part of the book the author discusses some of these problems. The subject of parthenogenesis is treated at length, and the author draws freely from his own researches on this fascinating subject. He recog- nises four main sections with regard to the behaviour of the chromosomes in naturally parthe- nogenetic animals. We are sorry to see that he has not adopted Sir Ray Lankester’s suggestions. as to the nomenclature of parthenogenesis. In his treatment of the subject of artificial partheno- genesis Prof. Doncaster points out that there are numbers of problems which are still unsolved with reference especially to the determination: of ‘sex. The question of the restitution of a diploid chromo- some number in some artificially parthenogenetic animals is also peculiar, and its mechanism ill- understood. A special chapter on the chromo- somes in sex-determination has been. added, somewhat on the lines of the author’s ‘ Deter— - atta SS A 2 en ene le tir ig eye FT Rio Hortega, etc. Apri 15, 1920| NATURE 191 ination of Sex.” The peculiar position of Lepi- yptera and Aves with regard to these matters phasised. welcome section on “Germ-cell Determin- gives clearly the main facts which have scertained. The author is commendably in his discussion of this interesting and recognises that “although these are evidently strictly correlated with the. cells, there is no absolute certainty that they ie cause of the differentiation of germ-cells body-cells.” ost cytologists will concur with Prof. Don- ‘in his view that the weight of evidence is our of the main theory of the individuality f the chromosomes; the author emphasises the ict that the chromosome itself is in all probability risible into smaller units, which may have an uality more fundamental than the chromo- ome as a whole, and he suggests that the adin Siping theory should be extended so as to a d these granules (microsomes) as the funda- units. aa ‘he chapter on the mechanism of hereditary ransmission introduces a discussion on the most recent work on Drosophila and Abraxas. Prof. Joncaster is here dealing with a subject which he as himself studied specially, and though he treats eg with impartiality, he comes to the usion that not only does. the behaviour of e chromosomes in the maturation divisions of © germ-eel provide the mechanism required for lelian segregation of characters, but also that “work of Morgan on Drosophila carries us a p farther and gives us some idea how the s of characters may be related to special romosomes. The author recognises the diffi- ties with regard to our full acceptance of the “aon and written as it is, this book is ‘logy. . By pointing out the perfections and defects of our present-day basic cytological theories and ypotheses, the author has succeeded in empha- -sising the lines along which fruitful research may al followed. We hope that this book will mark the beginning of greater activity among English _cytologists. Prof. Doncaster is to be congratu- lated warmly on this excellent work. J. B. G. NO. 2633, VOL. 105 | es of Morgan and his colleagues relating to’ certain to stir up interest in the subject of cyto-_ Matrices, University of Calcutta: Readership Lectures: Matrices and Determinoids, By Prof. C. E. Cullis. Vol. ii. Pp. xxiii+555. (Cambridge: At the University Press, 1918.) Price 42s, net. HE history of the mathematical term “matrix” is likely to be very interesting. Its original meaning was an array of. symbols (Qmn) forming a rectangle of m rows and n columns, out of which determinants were selected by picking out columns (or rows) of the array. A square matrix gives only one associated deter- minant, but a square matrix is not the same thing as a determinant. When we change from one set of variables to another by linear relations yey bres. 2 ({=1,2,... 3 J=1,2,... mM), we have an associated matrix (@mn), or A, which is square only when the number of variables is the same in each set. In practice this is the most usua! case, and it will be simpler to confine our- selves to this for the present. If we take a new set of variables 2; such that 35= VhiViy t we have a matrix B=(bn,), and by eliminating the symbols y; we deduce i SF WyXiy where the symbols ¢j are derived from A, B by a process of “composition,” and form a new matrix C. We write C=AB symbolically, and thus start the theory of the multiplication of matrices. There are many analogies with the theory of groups; for instance, BA must be dis- tinguished from AB, multiplication is associative, and so on. Cayley seéms to have been the first to develop the theory of square matrices from this point of view (Phil. Trans., vols. cxlviii., clvi., and else- where); other English mathematicians, such as Sylvester, Buchheim, and Tait, took up the subject later on. It may be specially noted that H. Smith’s memoir on linear indeterminate equations and con- gruences contains a great deal of the fundamental theory of matrices, both square and rectangular. In particular, there is a complete and, we believe, original statement of the existence and properties of the elementary factors of a determinant the elements of which are ordinary integers. Weier- strass, Kronecker, and Frobenius, especially the last-named, have made important contributions to the subject. It will be seen that a matrix is now not ere a '| scheme of symbols used to specify a set of deter- 192 NATURE {APRIL 15, 1920 —~ © minants, but a kind of entity of a very abstract and comprehensive type. A large part of group- theory and many complex linear algebras can be expressed in terms of matrices, and this absorp- tive property of matrix-theory will probably become more evident in course of time. Matrices ‘occupy a special section in the International ‘Schedule, and the Royal Society Index contains about sixty titles under that heading. Papers under other headings (especially determinants) have also more or less bearing on the subject. Prof. Baker’s works on Abelian functions show the importance of matrices in the general theory of theta functions. Some knowledge of the subject is becoming essential in connection with various branches of pure mathematics, Prof. Cullis’s second volume, if we understand the author aright, seems to be a continuation rather different from that which he originally planned. This is not to be regretted, because in this portion we have statements and proofs of well-known and_ important theorems in the author’s own notation, and a large number of illustrative examples. Among the subjects treated are ranks of matrix products and factors, equigradient transforma- tions, certain matrix equations of the second degree, and various properties of a pair of matrices (‘“paratomy,” “orthotomy,” and so on). Much of the argument is put into a quasi-geometrical form. The: outstanding feature of the work, which the author properly emphasises, is the detailed dis- cussion of rectangular, as distinguished from square, matrices. For this reason alone the work ought to give a great stimulus to the subject, and we hope that the publication of the whole treatise will not be long delayed. Until it is finished, it will be difficult, if not impossible, to give a proper appreciation of it, especially as the author intro- duces so many new symbols and technical terms. One thing, however, is certain: we now have the outlines of a calculus of matrices in which the operations of addition, subtraction, and multiplica- tion are definite. It may be conjectured that some of the most important. applications will be to problems connected with a compound modulus, arithmetical or algebraical as the case may be. As a matter of curiosity it may. be noted that one or. two of the very first problems in the theory ef rectangular. matrices occur in Gauss’s . “ Dis- quisitiones Arithmetice ” ; for instance, in connec- tion with the theory of composition of. quadratic | forms, we haye the problem, of finding .a matrix (ay,4) the six determinants of which are to be six volumes. Other students, after performing . necessary experiments on the properties of tter, would limit themselves to the groups bear- - directly upon their principal study. Thus the emist would do the work on indices of refrac- idle Pulfrich, ‘the Zeiss, the Abbe, the Féry,. or: the more recent instrument designed by Dawes. | ‘He would also make use of spectroscopes; and _ ‘spectrophotometers, and learn that “spectro-— _ colorimetry ”’—the estimation of the concentration -of solutions by. means of the intensity of the absorption bands of their spectra—is a method , NO. 2633, VOL. 105 | re ties.) ‘| (3) Tin Ores. e | (4) Manganese Ores. using various forms of refractometer, such || | which may be both more speedy and more precise than chemical analysis. The electrical engineer would do the work on damped vibration and har- monic analysis, in addition to the usual experi- ments on the determination of resistances, capa- cities, or inductances. The mechanical engineer will be interested in the methods for the deter- mination of the economy effected by steam-pipe coverings and of the thermal value of both coal and gas. The work as a whole is to be recom- mended as giving a thoroughly up-to-date account of most of the important physical instruments and experimental methods. (2) For the use of students in the engineering laboratory, Cambridge, Mr. Lamb has drawn up a convenient set of notes dealing with the essential parts of the subject of magnetism. Starting with fundamental facts and principles, such portions of magnetic theory are outlined as are required in order to read the ordinary technical text-books with intelligence. The work has been well done, and the latter part of the book, dealing with mag- netic hysteresis and alternating-current tests, will be of special service to both students and teachers, who will welcome the admirable diagrams and the lucid descriptions. H..S. A. Minerals and Metals. (1) Zinc and its Alloys. By Dr. T. E. Lones. (Pitman’s Common Commodities and Indus- tries. Pp. ix+127, (London: Sir Isaac Pitman. and Sons, Ltd., n.d.) Price 2s, 6d. net. (2) Asbestos and the Asbestos Industry: The World’s Most Wonderful Mineral and other Fireproof Materials. By A. Leonard Summers. (Pitman’s. Common Commodities and Indus- Pp. ix+ 107. (London: Sir Isaac Pitman and Sons, Ltd., n.d.) Price 2s. -6d. net. By G. M. Davies. Pp. x+111, | By A. H. Curtis. Pp. x+ 118. (Imperial Institute: Monographs on Mineral Resources, with Special Reference to the British Empire.) (London: John May 1919.) Price 3s. 6d. net each. HE first two of these little books are two of a the volumes in a series issued with the object of giving general readers an account, in language as untechnical as possible, of the origin, mode of production, and uses of a number of the essential: articles employed in industries. The object is an excellent one, for it is knowledge of a -kind'-that the user and even the merchant of ‘these materials rarely possess, though the advan- ; , } ; 194 NATURE [Aprit 15, 1920 ‘tage of having such information is sufficiently “obvious. (1) The volume on zinc is an excellent example of what such books ought to be; it gives, first, a brief history of the metal, then a description of the various ores from which it is extracted, and of the processes employed in dressing these ores or rendering them marketable, including, it may ‘be noted, a very fair summary of the modern flotation processes. The next chapters give a good and quite up-to-date account of the methods employed in smelting the metal or extracting it from the ores, and a final chapter is devoted to the alloys of which it forms an important con- stituent. It is a pity that the author did not keep clear altogether of chemical equations, which he might easily have done in a purely popular treatise, as he has been somewhat unfortunate in their use; it is difficult to understand how he ever came to write such an equation as 2ZnS + 20,= Zny+ 2SO,, for the context shows that he knows well enough that no such reaction ever takes place. Again, he would have done better to omit the equation 2ZnO + 2CO = Zn, + 2CO,, because although oxide of zinc can be reduced by carbonic oxide, the reaction can take place normally only in the presence of excess of carbon, which at once again reduces the carbonic anhydride to carbonic oxide. The author’s equation would suggest that carbonic anhydride is evolved in the process of zinc smelting, whereas, in fact, the evolved gases consist almost entirely of carbonic oxide. In a future edition the author might with advantage devote a little space to the galvanising of iron, ‘seeing that about half the world’s production of zinc is used for this process. (2) The volume on “ Asbestos” decidedly suffers by comparison with its companion volume, as the author does not take care to avoid a number of errors, which, though common enough in the trade, ought not to find their way into a book of this description. He does not by any means make it clear, as he should have done at the outset, that the trade name “asbestos” is applied to several different minerals; the name was appar- ently given originally to tremolite, actinolite, and other varieties of amphibole, but it is also applied to fibrous forms of pyroxene, to the very different mineral crocidolite, distinguished by the large proportion of ferrous iron that it contains, and, Jastly, to chrysolite, a fibrous variety of serpen- tine, which differs from all the foregoing in that it is a hydrated silicate, whereas all the others are anhydrous. Again, no serious work should con- tain such statements as: ‘‘ Next to coal, asbestos NO. 2633, VOL. 105 | is now undoubtedly the most important of the non- metallic mineral products of the world,” or “older than anything in the animal or vegetable king- dom”; surely the author cannot suppose that asbestos is of more importance than salt, for example, and surely he would not question the inclusion of, say, Silurian trilobites in the animal kingdom. His statement that the works of the United Asbestos Co., Ltd., at Harefield, Middle- sex, are alongside a coal-pit is unintelligible; there are certainly no collieries in that part of England. When he deals with the manufacture of asbestos into cloth, yarn, packing, boiler cover- ings, and the numerous patented materials of which it forms an essential constituent, he is on safer ground, and supplies much useful informa- tion in a convenient form. (3) and (4) The Imperial Institute is doing ex- cellent service in issuing the handy monographs on the mineral resources of the British Empire, two of which have recently appeared. There is, of course, nothing new in either of these works, they being careful compilations of well-known in- formation and statistics; this does not imply that the production of such compilations is at all an easy task, or that the compiler has not done good service in carrying it out. On the contrary, the collection of the large mass of material which has here been brought together requires a laborious and painstaking search through many and various sources of information, not all of which are readily accessible to the general reader, as a glance at the very useful bibliographies appended to both volumes will at once show. In one respect the two mineral substances discussed in the respective volumes show a marked contrast: workable tin ores occur in relatively few localities, whilst ores of manganese are very widely distributed, and to be found in most parts of the world, although it is true that large deposits of manganese ores are far from plentiful; but in other re- spects the tasks of the authors have been yery similar. The general scheme of both books is identical. The first chapter is devoted to the uses and appli- cations of the metal and its compounds, and to the nature and general characters of the ores; the second deals in some detail with the occur- rences of the ores within the British Empire; and the third reviews briefly the main sources of supply in other parts of the world. In both cases the work has been carefully and thoroughly done, and the handbooks may be looked upon as giving trustworthy information upon the subjects treated in a compact and con- venient form. NATURE 195 ‘ “ApRIL 15, 1920] Our Bookshelf. Engines of the Human Body: Being the ubstance of Christmas Lectures Given at the oyal Institution of Great Britain, Christmas, 16-1917. By Prof. Arthur Keith. Pp. i+284+ii plates. (London: Williams and Yorgate, 1919.) Price 12s. 6d. net. KS on physiology commonly appeal either to esa types of student, or else to those engaged ching or research work. The work before aims to appeal in the first place to the general er “who desires to know what modern medical md human machine.” The title of the book, with le foregoing quotation, indicates the spirit in lich the author has approached the subject. between the various functions of the organs m one hand, and divers mechanisms of human gn on the other, and he certainly never ns at a loss for them. In so far as*the general eader has no previous knowledge of the subject, > method of treatment by analogy alone seems salculated to give rise to an abundant harvest of fesque misconceptions, as all those who have ht elementary physiology are well aware; the book should be truly welcome to a teacher who, while having some acquaintance with the ‘Subject, is yet lacking in the knowledge or imag ination necessary to evolve. instructive analogies to help to fasten in the pupil’s mind v vhat he wishes to impart. _ Many of the mechanical analogies are quite néw and should be worth adopting, but others em superfluous or misleading; for example, ie comparison of muscular tissue with an ally recognised conception, up to a certain point; but to refer to tendons as “piston cords,” or to arteries and veins as supply and exhaust pipes, pushing a good analogy to the point of whim- sicality. For the first thirteen chapters, however, in spite of this, the reader should go along smoothly enough, but after this point, when _ analogies fall thick as autumn leaves, the general _ reader is likely to lose sight of the track. There _ are some inexactitudes in the book which do not _ fall in the category of bad analogies; for example, _ the statement that the velocity of the nerve impulse _ pulsating,” and that nerves are subject to fatigue te 263). The historical fragments which are fre- _ quently introduced are of considerable merit, 5 y on account of the relief experienced by the __ reader in meeting plain, unveiled fact, but chiefly _ because they are exceedingly well chosen. oe C.-L. E. 7. 4 Clast:book of Organic Chemistry. By Prof. _ «J. B. Cohen. Vol. ii. : For Second-Year Medical “Students and Others. Pp. vii+156. (London: __. .Maemillan and Co., Ltd., 1919.), Price 4s. 6d. = THE average medical student is inclined to regard NO. 2633, VOL. 105] ernal-combustion engine is a sound and gener- is four miles a second, that nerves are “living and chemistry as a subject which has to be studied in order to pass certain examinations, and having passed these, he dismisses the subject from his mind. This is in large measure due to the fact that the text-book he has come across has failed to stimulate his interest, and the probability is that he will get rid of the book at the earliest oppor- tunity. The little volume under review, however, is one that we venture to think the student will not be likely to part with, as it gives a very clear, concise, and readable account of the subject, which may stand him in good stead in his future studies; it is divided into ten chapters, as follows: Synthesis, The Oils and Fats, The Carbohydrates, Some Natural Organic Bases, The Pyrimidine and Purine Groups, The Proteins, Fermentation and Enzyme ° Action, The Essential Oils, The Alkaloids, and Syn- thetic Drugs. Each of the sections is thoroughly up-to-date, and we know of no book which, within so small a compass, deals with such varied subjects as, for example, the (Grignard reaction, ~ the synthesis of disac- charides, the origin of uric acid in the animal organism, and the theory of alcoholic fermenta- tion, besides giving the constitutional formule, so far as they are known, of yeast-nucleic acid, hemin, etiophyllin, and the more important alkaloids, such as strychnine and morphine, The last chapter, in addition to giving the constitution of many of the better-known synthetic drugs, contains a short account of the more recent anti- septics, such as chloramine-T, and the dyestuffs malachite green, acriflavine, etc., as well as a brief. sketch of the trypanocidal action of the organic arsenic compounds. The first volume, published in 1917, was meant to serve as an introduction to organic chemistry, and the two volumes together can be thoroughly recommended as a most excellent and handy little compendium, which should find great favour among students and teachers alike. Examples in Electrical Engineering. By J. F. - Gill and F..J. Teago. Pp. 173. (London: Edward Arnold, 1920.) Price 7s. 6d. net. A BooK of this kind, which consists of a collec- tion of model examination papers, followed by model replies, should be not without its uses to those who are obliged to study the art of passing” examinations, as. well as the principles of elec- trical engineering, ..as. a careful perusal of its contents will enable the student not only to practise his knowledge of the various parts’ of the subject, but also to form good habits in the way of presentation of the solution of the problems in a clean form and logical sequence. The drawing of good diagrams and the frequent use of graphical methods are very rightly insisted on, and admirable conciseness is observed:' The papers cover both “intermediate” - and “advanced” standards, and relate on the whole to practical applications rather than to theory, ! 196 NATURE [APRIL 15, 1920 Letters to the Editor. [The Editor does not hold himself responsible for Opinions expressed by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manuscripts intended for _ this or any other part of NaturE. No notice is taken of anonymous communications.] The Plumage Bill and Bird Protection. At the present time there is a measure before the House of Commons known as the Importation of Plumage (Prohibition) Bill, the object of which is ‘‘ to prohibit the importation of the plumage of birds and the sale or possession of plumage illegally imported,” excepting the plumage of ostriches and eider ducks, but ‘the prohibition or importation imposed by the Act shall not apply to any plumage imported in the baggage or as part of the wearing apparel of a pas- senger.’’ The Bill further provides for the granting of a licence, subject to certain conditions and regula- tions, authorising the importation of plumage for natural history museums, for the purpose of scientific research, or for any other special purpose. In connection with this measure numerous conflict- ing interests are threatened and grave misunder- standings exist, due very largely to lack of knowledge of the actual facts. Whilst yielding to no one in my love of wild birds and all the zsthetic interests asso- ciated with wild-bird life, I cannot shut my eyes to the fact that a considerable amount of sentimentalism, misrepresentation, and exaggeration has been put forth by supporters or well-wishers of this measure, and similarly by the opposers respecting trade losses, the extent of the employment the trade ensures, the absence of cruelty involved in the trade, etc. Neither of these views helps us to understand the situation or calmly and dispassionately to form an_ unbiassed opinion, for both of them are far from the actual truth. There is now ample evidence to show that a-con- siderable trade is done in the plumage and skins of wild birds which are largely utilised for the decoration of women’s hats, etc. In different centres, such as London, Manchester, Paris, Berlin, Vienna, and else- where, this trade affords employment to a number of workers. The ‘horrors and barbarities of the traffic’? have been luridly described by one set of writers and denied by another. Without accepting either of these sets of exaggerated ‘statements, information in my possession shows that gross cruelty is frequently committed. Prof. E. H. Forbush states that brutal savagery is characteristic of this phase of bird destruction, and points out that this “‘has been well illustrated in the extermination of the egrets of the United States.’ No unprejudiced mind can exonerate or satisfactorily explain away this highly objectionable side of the question. Of the species of birds sought after, we are con- stantly being assured that they are injurious, that they are ‘‘as common as rooks,’”’ or that we do not possess any exact information as to the effect this trade has had upon their numbers. The fact is that the majority of the species are beneficial so far as agriculture or horticulture is concerned, and only a very few injurious. There is exact and incontro- vertible evidence that where thirty-five or forty vears ago millions of birds existed, they are now practically extirpated. A single ‘‘rookery’’ of egrets was esti- mated by a well-known ornithologist to contain three million birds in 1878; in 1888 they were rare, and in ¥go8 almost extinct.. aie NO. 2633, VOL. 105]: It is pointed out by supporters of this Bill that prohibition laws exist in America, Australia, India, and elsewhere, but it is not mentioned that, in the - opinion of many competent judges, in consequence of such laws certain beneficial species of birds have suffered and injurious ones unduly increased. Again, it has been suggested that such birds as egrets might be cultivated in natural reserves, and their plumes or ‘‘aigrettes’’ collected as the birds moult. The most perfect of such feathers, so we are informed, fetch as much as 2l, apiece. That the farming of these birds is a practicable scheme is proved by the fact that the National Association of Audubon Societies in the United States has established such a colony on a small island in the Stono River, near Charleston, and in 1917 it was tenanted by more than four hundred birds. aoe on Avery Island, Louisiana, U.S.A., there is a ‘‘rookery’’ of snowy egrets which in 1916 was care- fully examined by Prof. J. S. Huxley, and reported to contain between eight and nine hundred nests. It may be well, perhaps, to remind the advocates of such schemes that, like all members of the family Ardeidz, herons and egrets subsist very largely upon fish, and there is little doubt that the establish- ment of a series of large rookeries would have a disastrous effect upon fresh-water fisheries. Whilst in no manner advocating opposition to this Bill, we must face the question: Supposing that it is placed upon the Statute-book, shall we have done anything to stop the trade in the skins and plumage of wild birds? Personally, I have graye doubts whether the object desired can be obtained by this measure. As an Act of Parliament its example and influence may be for good, but it will certainly not put a stop to the plumage trade. It must be realised that if we prohibit this trade in London, it will still flourish in Paris, Berlin, and elsewhere. simply move the venue of the market; it will not bring about a smaller demand. To put an end to this we must educate the public, not by giving cur- rency to wild and often inaccurate statements, but by teaching the rising generation ‘‘to view the question of the preservation of wild-bird life from a higher and much truer standpoint than heretofore. That wild birds have a utilitarian value no one can deny, but they also have an esthetic value far outweighing all others. . . . Surely the general public have some rights where beautiful natural objects are concerned. . . Posterity will undoubtedly regard us—and who shall say not rightly ?—as stupid people, dull of appre- hension and procrastinating in nature, in that we have permitted various species of wild birds, one after another, to disappear from our land; and our children’s children will rise up and ask why we did not secure to them the natural pleasures which their forefathers could have enjoyed had they had eyes to see with and minds tuned beyond the din and bustle of the highways and byways of commerce’? (National Review, 1920, p. 95). Whilst the decoration of the person with wings and feathers may be regarded as the vulgar and. depraved fancy of a day, the fact cannot escape us that there is a large section of-the general public who are willing to pay high prices for these goods; and so long as this demand continues, so long will a supply be forthcoming. ¥ By making the Plumage Bill a law of the land we can sav that in this country we will have nothing to. do with the trade and that it shall be prohibitory to carry on the trade in the United Kingdom. That it will have any effect on the destruction of wild-bird life, however, is certainly most unlikely. A plentiful supply r are SoRehtes 2 O get) Sg Ne bt. The Bill will | aisonnd fo! tere _ APRIL 15, 1920] NATURE 197 of the sees will be forthcoming so long as a demand) exists, but once it is regarded as offensive—or shall we| ay indicative of a lack of good taste?—to wear such’ gs as the wings, heads, feathers, or bodies of, ds, the demand will cease and the trade, so’ as this country is concerned, disappear. Herein,! ink, lies a remedy far more effective than any, ict of Parliament. Watter E. CoLtince. The University, St. Andrews, March 27. ; The Physiology of Migrations in the Sea. flat-fishes of Northumberland in the immature dition migrate more or less inshore in summer d offshore in winter. Flounders are relatively static, migrate offshore to the north-east and dabs to south-east. The migration is not, as a rule, con- cuous, and, so far as the young stages are con- erned, might be regarded as not taking place. With approaching maturity, however, ‘these three cies migrate far to the north. The flounders for he most part reach the coast of Fife, and the plaice per water off the Forth and the Scottish coast to e north. The dabs do not appear to migrate so far 9 the north as the plaice, but we have a record of that migrated so far as St. Andrews Bay. Fulton as shown that the Moray Firth plaice migrate to the north, and even to the Atlantic. _ The migrations may be said, therefore, to be a ee of seasonal inshore and offshore movements, ollowed by a marked contranatant journey for spawn- ing. After spawning the spent fish resume the seasonal em, and become then, more obviously, summer inshore migrants. . We have thus plainly two factors at work: one ernal, which may be associated with temperature, the other internal, which we at once conclude to be due to the action of an internal secretion. The seasonal migrations are obviously independent of the spawning migration, and may be said to be produced _hydrographical conditions and the contranatant lity of the fish. Under the influence of the spawn- ing impulse fish migrate usually to a great, and some- times to an immense, distance. The effect is strong enough to force the eel to descend from fresh water to the sea, and thence to mid-ocean, and to impel the salmon from the sea to the river, and, in Spite of difficulties, to the spawning-ground. _ The spawning migration is not always so plainly marked, but these considerations go to show that ail fish migrations are of a similar character, a general “seasonal series of movements affecting ‘all, and a yc ee aton under the dominating influence of _ an internal secretion or hormone, which, proceeding the developing gonad, is carried by the blood to _ the nervous system. With reference to the species referred to above, it can be said that the hormone be tome 1C 7 : to exert its influence about autumn or the later of the year, and continues its effect during the whole period of ripening. It is periodic in its _ manifestations, and the call, when it comes, is im- __-—perative. Only in special circumstances, as lack of _ Water, say, in the river, can the spawning migration be said to be modified by hydrographical or other aig conditions. The distinction between the two nds of migration must be clearly kept in view if we are to understand and appreciate the results of marking experiments. From, say, November to the spawning season mature plaice are contranatant migrants; after spawning they are denatant, or usually so, until the winter. The large number D: e ae of records which have been accumulated, resulting NO. 2633, VOL. 105] from the investigations of past years, should be re- considered with this in mind. It is interesting to observe that the only invertebrate of the migration of which we have direct proof behaves almost exactly like the plaice and the flounder. The common edible crab (Cancer pagurus) migrates inshore in summer and offshore in winter with the greatest regularity. Maturity impels the female to become a contranatant migrant. The females migrate from the Northumberland coast to the southern coast of the Firth of Forth, some of them still further to the north, even to the Moray Firth, the general results indicating a direct relationship between size and dis- tance.. The hormone is therefore secreted in the crab by the developing ovary, and it reacts in exactly the same way as that of the fish. The experiments have clearly proved that the migration does not occur until the winter before the season of spawning, and in this respect the crustacean and the fish are in agreement. . It takes place during the offshore winter migration and in deep water, but the effect is differential, the male not migrating. It is not necessary for the male to migrate, as the migration takes place after pairing, even a year or two years after. This appears to indicate that the internal secretion is under control or may be withheld in response to evolutionary necessity. Dr. Gurley, in the American Journal of Psychology (1902 and 1909), brought under review the indications of the intoxication of the central nervous system by internal secretions as explaining the spawning migra- tions of fresh-water fish in North America; so that the point is not new. We do not know very much about the internal secretions, but we know enough to be able to say that they act directly and quickly as an intercommunication between organs with or without reference to the nervous system. In the sea the effects are indicated by migration in the case of, such animals as are capable of making migrations, but it is obvious that in many cases the internal secretions derived from the gonad have somatogenetic as well as mental effects, as in the development of secondary sexual characters. The developing gonads of fish and the crab offer interesting material for the investigation of internal secretions by a biochemist. My main object, however, is to indicate that we already know the general facts and laws of migration, that marking must be done intelligently and the results read with due con- sideration of the laws, and more especially that the spawning migration is due to an intoxication of the central nervous system, and brings about a migratory result independent of temperature, salinity, and every other hydrographical condition. : ALEXANDER MEEK. Armstrong College, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, March 30. Muscular Efficiency. ~Wuen muscular force is exerted, power is expended and fatigue is produced, even when the muscle remains stationary. Again, when no external force opposes the contraction of the muscle, physiological causes set a limit to the speed at which contraction can take place. In both cases the whole power ex- pended is lost in so far as the production of useful work is concerned. When there is no. velocity the power is used in maintaining the stress, and when there is no resistance, in maintaining a constant velocity.’ _ In all ordinary muscular operations both these sources of power leakage act simultaneously but in 1 This loss is independent of any power lost in the aceeleration of the parts. 198 WATURE [APRIL 15. 1920 different degrees, and it becomes a definite problem to determine for any muscle or combination of muscles the relation between the speed of muscular contraction and the muscular force which will yield the greatest external power. The problem may be solved by means of the diagram in Fig. 1. It is assumed that the muscular machine has a con- stant output of power which is represented by the product xy (x pressure, y velocity) of the co-ordinates of the hyperbola AB. Also, that the pressure avail- able for producing exterior power is less than x by some quantity +0) depending on the velocity, and represented in the figure by the abscissa of the curve DD’, the effective velocity in the same way being less A Y Xx Fic. 1.—X,Y, co-ordinates of hyperbola AB. (x), ordinates of CC’. wy), abscissa of DD’. than y by some quantity (x) depending on the pres- sure, and represented by the ordinate of the curve CC’. The useful power is evidently (x-W(yv) )(v-(2)), and the loss of power is p(x) +yh(v) — h(x)W(y). If the co-ordinates for x+dx and y+dy are drawn as in the figure, it is plain that the loss is a minimum (and the useful power, therefore, a maximum) when (4— wv) able) +(v— (x) avy) = y) dy + b(x) dx. I know of no experiments which would determine the form of the functions @ and w—that is, what power is lost in sustaining a load or in keeping a uniform speed. Both these subjects are worthy of investigation, and, with the facilities offered by some Velocity [,| Resistance _ | Velocity B External Force >|A<—« —'|Bi<—<« y ¥ (y) _ ¥- PONS X-¥Y Leakage | P(x) y Fic. 2. of the modern laboratories, ought not to present any great difficulties. If (x) and w(y) were simply proportional to x and y, the most economical speed would make, if p(x)=ax and W(y)=dy. y/x=b/a; and if a=é, the most economical speed would be the mean between that where ¥(y)=* and g(x) =y. In reality, however, ¥(y) is, I believe, much less than (x), but this remains for experimental deter- mination. It may be noticed that as w(v)/o(x) de- creases, the most economical speed increases. NO. 2633, VOL. 105 | A close analogy to the conditions of the problem may be found in a fluid contained between two pistons - A and B (Fig. 2), between which there is a leak governed by the fluid pressure. A constant power urges A towards B, and A itself is subject to a fric- tional resistance depending on its speed. The useful work is represented by the velocity of B against an exterior force, while the leak stands for ole) and the frictional resistance of A for wWfy). A. MALLock. — A Dynamical Specification of the Motion of Mercury. Ir we assume that the modified Lagrangean func- tion for two mobile and massive particles is of the form L=dmj (x2 +y,2 +212) + hotter? + 792+ 25°) 4a + oi ((, — Xo)® + (I, —Yo)*®+(% -2°} | where the symbols have the usual meaning, C being the velocity of light and A a pure number, then the principle of least action 8/Ld¢=o leads to the following conclusions : (1) The motion of the centre of mass is constant. (2) The orbits of the two particles about their centre of mass are similar and. similarly described plane curves, and independent of the motion of the centre of mass. ote (3) For the orbital motion the modified Lagrangean function is: 11 MMe {5 4 200, +M)AY) 9, apg , YMs L ice rr ar [72+ 7°08) + - Hence the equations : {14 2d ea a4 apn) MEM once — _ Ym +ms) a ) : | and { t+ eet const. = Writing r=1/u, we have: du\? 2y( 2, + Mts I 2( #2, + ty) yu (B) +42= ¥( 3 nwa} {r+ Cnt Mye\ From this we may deduce au e { ae 4h ym, + mt ym +iy){ hy (my im) Cc oe Ee or the solution in the form u=- {1 +e cos (nO-+n)} Bs. where pesi— a a These equations are exact. In applying this argument to the observed apsidal progress of the planet Mercury, it is to be noted that the interpretation of a and h differs slightly from what it would be if A were zero; but to a sufficient degree of APRIL 15, 1920] NATURE 199 ximation we find that the apsidal progress per lution is - 4mdy? (m7, + Mg)" Ch? observed value requires that A should be nearly ad if 3/2 is taken, we get the result obtained by Einstein by his new specification and principles. may be observed that the above specification by Lagrangean function could be generalised for any iber of particles, and that it involves no departure | recognised dynamics or the normal views of space time. It does, however, involve the conclusion that interaction of bodies through the zther, vaguely ed “‘gravitation,’’ is to a very slight degree not in accordance with Newton’s specification. her such conclusion is really necessary seems still tter of doubt. have not seen any discussion of the problem of bodies on Prof. Einstein’s specification, but it pears to me that an exact determination of the ‘lative orbit when m, and m, are comparable quanti- »s is very desirable. Grorce W. WALKER. smouth, March 29. — Given Electric Current. CCORDING to Ampére’s theorem, the magnetic field to an electric current flowing in any circuit is ‘alent at external points to that due to a simple etic shell the bounding edge of which coincides to the strength of the current. ‘circuit as its boundary will serve as the surface an equivalent magnetic shell, and the fact that - is a restriction on the nature of the surface s not eee generally to be recognised. 12) we find the following :—‘‘Conceive any sur- bounded by the circuit and not passing through point P”; while further on he says: “It is nanifest that the action of the circuit is independent the form of the surface S, which was drawn in a fectly arbitrary manner so as to fill it up.” _T pre to show by means of a simple example that the surface is not drawn in a “perfectly rbitrary ’? manner. Consider a narrow, rectangular strip of paper the opposite edges of which we shall denote bv a and b, its opposite faces by A and B, and its two ends by and 2. We shall represent the ends of the edges by @,, b,, a., b., where the suffixes refer to the corre- wp ends of the strip. Now let one end of the _ paper be turned round through an angle « and joined on to the other end, so that.a, is joined to b, and _ Then, since a, is joined to b,, the edges a and b form one continuous line, and, since b, is joined to a,, ric, forms a closed circuit. _ Thus we may bend a wire into the form of the edge, and can imagine an electric current to flow in it. _ Although the electric circuit has the form of the edge, yet we could not have a simple magnetic shell _.the surface of which was that of the paper. _ This is easily seen, for since, in addition to the edges, the faces A and B have also become continuous one with the other, we can no longer distinguish one as positive and the other as negative. The same thing is seen if we try to imagine the surface divided up into elementary portions, in the manner conceived NO. 2633, VOL. 105] ~ ae ; the conductor, and the strength of which is — § generally understood that any surface having © of by Ampére, with a current equal in strength to the given current flowing round the boundary of each. It is easily seen that Ampére’s construction fails for such a surface, which is known to mathematicians as a Mdbius sheet. Although the surface we have described would not serve as the surface of a simple magnetic shell equiva- lent to an electric current flowing round its boundary, ‘yet it is possible to construct other surfaces having this boundary which would serve as surfaces of equivalent magnetic shells. If we have one suitable surface we can obtain any number of others from it by continuous deformation while the oc remains fixed. It is, therefore, desirable to give a general method of constructing a magnetic shell equivalent to a given electric circuit. The following appears to give a sur- face having the required property :— Let O be a fixed point exieraak to the circuit, and let P be a variable point. Let P travel once com- pletely round the circuit, so that the radius vector OP traces out some conical surface. The portion of. this conical surface containing O and bounded by the circuit might then be taken as the surface of the equivalent magnetic shell. In the particular case of the circuit we have con- sidered (as well as in many others) the surface will cut itself, but will, nevertheless, have two distinct faces, one of which may be taken as positive and the other as negative. It thus appears to satisfy the necessary conditions. A. A. Ross. . March 30. _ Volcanic Rocks in the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. In connection with Prof. J. W. Gregory’s reference in Nature of February 19, p. 667, to the discovery of the Bayuda volcanic field, and Mr. Campbell Smith’s record of a_riebeckite-rhyolite which con- : > stituted a number of stone implements found at example, in Maxwell’s treatise (vol. ii., — Jebel Katul, in Northern Kordofan (ibid., February 26, p. 693), some further notes may be of interest. The rock collected by Sir Herbert Jackson at Merowe is a basaltic scoria, and the specimens either float or just sink in water. A few crystals of olivine are visible to the eye, and, urder the microscope, a regular basaltic ground-mass, including felspar, iron ores, and probably glass, can be recognised in the powdered rock. The specimens have evidently been transported by a stream system which drains from the south-east ahd debouches on the river at the spot where they were found. Save for the neighbourhoods of the river and a few routes by which travellers avoid the long journey around the Abu Hamed bend of the Nile, the maps of the Bayuda Desert are almost blank. Near one of ‘the routes a surveyor has recorded ‘“‘Hosh Eddalam, crater,” and the name means a dark enclosure. Some of the older travellers mistook ironstone concretions for voleanic bombs, and as the surfaces of many rocks are darkened in the desert such a record of a crater ; did not call for particular note until evidence of ex- trusive rocks appeared. It is situated in latitude 18° 20’ N., longitude 32° 31’ E., and consequently lies to the west of the route taken by Dr. Chalmers Mitchell. ‘The volcanic field seen from the air probably does not lie on the established routes, as it would certainly have been referred to in reports, even if it were not described. Presumably there can be no doubt about the existence of craters seen by an observer such as Dr. Chalmers Mitchell, but the results of an examination on the ground will be of interest, even if onlv to know the tvpes of rocks involved. Mr. Stanley C. Dunn records the presence of rhyo- lites and felsites near Jakdul, and these are doubtless 200 NATURE [APRIL 15, 1920 similar. to those of the Sixth Cataract, about forty miles north of Khartum, where the volcanic rocks are certainly older than the Nubian Sandstone. In the northern parts of Dongola basalt intrusions occur in the Nubian Sandstone, and there -is a hot spring at Akasha, about eighty miles south-west of Halfa. Turning to more distant regions, one of the solitary landmarks on the White Nile is Jebel Ahmed Aga, in latitude 11° N., consisting of the remains. of a vol- canic cone formed of basaltic scoria and evidently of comparatively recent age. Towards the east there are the plateau basalts of Abyssinia, with outliers extend- ing into the Sudan. Along the Langeb Valley, north of Kassala, there is an interesting suite of acid and intermediate volcanic rocks, but we are still in doubt about their age. Similar rhyolites certainly occur farther north among the Red Sea hills. The western parts of Kordofan have been traversed geologically without revealing the existence of volcanic rocks on the continuation of the line referred to by Mr. Camp- bell Smith. Farther west Darfur appears to be full of recent volcanic rocks, principally of scoriaceous types. The N.E.-S.W. features seen by Dr. Chalmers Mitchell may have been to some extent due to erosion by sand driven from the N.N.E. by the prevalent wind. The direction of strike among the meta- morphic rocks is another factor to be borne in mind. It is not constant over these large areas, but it is very often N.E.-S.W., and would then account for some of the features seen from the air. In these circumstances caution appears desirable in basing wide structural theories on rather scanty data. G. W. GRaBHAM. Box 178, Khartum, March 2s. The FitzGerald-Lorentz Contraction Theory. In the discussion on relativity at the Royal Society on February 5 (Nature, February 12), Mr. Jeans stated that the FitzGerald-Lorentz contraction theory pre- sented grave difficulties in the case of a wheel rotating about a fixed axle, so that the circumference would contract while the radius would not. Surely these difficulties are not so grave as would appear at first sight? Let us adopt the point of view of the old- fashioned non-relativist ‘to whom space is rigid and Euclidean, even though his measuring instruments may change and so introduce errors in his measurements. A scale is not a rigid invariable unit of length. Its length, even if its orientation is unchanged, depends on its temperature and the tensile or compression stresses to which it is subjected. If we change its temperature, keeping the stresses constant, its length (as measured by a standard scale at fixed temperature) varies. But we may by suitable means prevent the variation of length, in which case the change of tem- perature will cause a change of stress. Similarly, on the FitzGerald-Lorentz theory, turning the scale to a different orientation relative to the supposed ether stream causes a change in the electric forces to which the cohesion of the molecules is ultimately due, ‘so that if the temperature and the external stresses remain constant, the length changes. In*this case, however, we cannot detect the change directly, as it would be necessary to turn our standard scale also, and it, too, would change. If for any reason the change of length is prevented, the FitzGerald-Lorentz effect causes a change of stress. me Now in the case of the rotating wheel the ratio of the. circumference to the radius must remain xon- stant, so that any. tendency of one to change its dimen- sions will affect the other, with the result that both NO. 2633, VOL. 105] circumferential and radial stresses will be set up, — and any changes of length caused must be compatible ~ with the constancy of x. These stresses would in any actual case be almost vanishingly small compared with those due to centrifugal force, so that the only effect of the FitzGerald-Lorentz contraction would be to alter the latter stresses to an utterly negligible extent. Horace H, Poore. Physical Laboratory, Trinity College, , Dublin, March 19. Moseley Memorial. Tue fund founded in the University of Manchester for the provision of a memorial to the late H. G. J. Moseley (killed in action at Gallipoli, 1915), and originally proposed as a private memorial from Moseley’s personal friends and fellow-workers in Manchester, has now been extended in order to give other scientific bodies, both ip England and abroad, an opportunity of participating. This extension has been made at the request of a number’ of scientific men interested in Moseley’s work, but not personally connected with him, and it is in order to reach this wider public that you are asked to publish this letter. The scheme of memorial proposed is (1) the provi- sion of a memorial tablet in the physical laboratory and (2) the foundation of a Moseley prize or medal for physics in the University of Manchester. The fund is administered by a committee consisting of Sir Henry A. Miers (chairman), Profs. W. L. Bragg and H. B. Dixon, Sir E. Rutherford, and Dr. E. J. Evans. Subscriptions, which should be made payable to the ‘*Moseley Memorial Fund,” and crossed ‘ Williams Deacon’s Bank, Ltd.,’? may be sent to either of the hon. secretaries, Mr. C. G. Darwin, Christ’s College, Cambridge, or Dr. H. Robinson, Physical Laboratory, University of Manchester. : About 17ol. has already been received, comprising donations from Great Britain, Canada, the United States, and France (including contributions from the Société Francaise de Physique and the Société de Chimie-Physique). It is desired to close the fund in July of this year. Henry A. Mirrs, Chairman. C. G. Darwin, H. Rostnson, Hon. Secretaries. The Aurora of March 22-23. I HAD a fine view of this superb display at Working- ton between midnight and 1 o’clock a.m., in a clear and bright starlit sky. The whole sky was filled with the light except a small area in the south-east. I could detect no colour except creamy-white, the general intensity being, to my mind, at times equal to full moonlight. Curtains of light surrounded a point just east of the zenith, which seemed to mark the “hub” of the display. The bright star (a) in Canes Venatici almost exactly marked this point, and filmy sheets of light seemed to dash upwards from the south-west and north-east horizons and merge together at this star. The only display I have ever seen to equal this was on 1907 February 14 at Motherwell, in the previous sun-spot maximum period. It was the fact that I could see the great sun-spot train on March 22 without telescopic aid that made me expect and look out for the aurora that night. be _. W.._B. Housman. Seaton Cottage, Workington, April 9. anal ee on oT APRIL 15, 1920] NATURE 201 » is surely high time that we, as a nation, were more fully alive to the necessity of a ste investigation of the recovery of by- ducts, and that not merely in connection with xen products. There is still too much of ng—one comes across it quite frequently so-called waste products form a recognised any process. The investigation of the eatment of any waste product is not looked pon as the work of the person engaged in the cific manufacture from which that waste pro- is obtained. Competition becomes keener years pass, and if our position is to be d by-products must be recovered in all where such recovery can’ be economically sd. A waste product may even become the x point of a new industry. The detailed gation of the position as regards nitrogen oducts manufacture comes as a_ very yme record and as a much-needed indicator > forward path. world’s. ammonia production, in terms of ulphate, advanced between the years 1903 and 13 from 540,200 long tons to 1,389,790, an ease of more than 150 per cent. The chief ducers were Germany, the United Kingdom, ‘the United States, who were respectively re- ble in 1913 for 39, 31, and 124 per cent. of total production. The essential sources are -works, coke-ovens, gas-producers, shale- ks, iron-works, and bone, etc., carbonising og ~ ‘the years 1911 and 1913 the coke-oven try was responsible for 84 and 86 per cent. tively of the German production, in 1913 78 per cent. of the United States production, jm 1911 and 1913 for 27 and 30 per cent. of United Kingdom production. The United _ Kingdom production rose from 233,664 long tons in 1903 to 432,618 in 1913, of which, in 1903, -works provided 149,489 long tons, or 64 per t. of the total, which steadily increased to _ 182,180, or 42 per cent. of the total. Coke-ovens in the United Kingdom provided in 1903 only 17,438 tons, or barely 74 per cent., but con- tinual increase brought up the amount by 1913 to 133,816 tons, practically 31 per cent. of the production of the country. Iron-works during this period retained a steady output of 19,000° to ,000 tons, shale-works production increased gradually from 37,353 to 63,061 tons, and that of producer-gas, bone, etc., carbonising works from _ 10,265 to 33,605 tons. ran _. These are illuminating figures which deserve _ of the by-product industry up to the commence- _ ment of the war period. _ In addition to supplying home demands for ammonia nitrogen, there was an average yearly _ Nitrogen Products Committee. Final Report.” Pp. vi+3<7. _ H.M Stationery Office, 1919.) Cmd. 482. Price 4s. ne’. Seg _ January 22 and 29. NO. 2633, VOL. 105 | 1 “ Ministry of Munitions of War. Munitions Inventions Rondon: ATURE, 3 consideration and show plainly the development | { The Nitrogen Problem: By-products.! _export of ammonia, ammonia salts, and products made therefrom during the years 1911 to 1913 equivalent to 82 per cent. of the total home pro- duction. This would have been more than suffi- cient to provide the nitrate and nitric nitrogen required for all purposes had the means of con- version been available, which they were not, so that we were dependent on imported nitrates for various purposes, including agriculture, the manu- facture of sulphuric acid, nitric acid, explosives, and other products. Passing on to the war period, estimates for the year 1917 indicate a by-product ammonia increase of 130 per cent. in the United States, 27 per cent. in Germany, and only 6 per cent. in the United Kingdom; but Japan has in the meantime taken a considerable step’ forward and increased her output more than sixfold—from 8000 tons in 1913 to 50,000 tons in 1917. The production of sulphate from _ coke-ovens in the United States had increased by 1916 to 83 per cent. of the total output, and in the United Kingdom to more than 36 per cent. of the total. Even during 1915 and 1916 con- siderably more than half our production of ammonia nitrogen was exported, and we were using large quantities of imported nitrate, all of which might be produced economically by ammonia oxidation or by synthetic processes, details of which are fully discussed in the report. We have now arrived at the stage where synthetic manufacture begins to complicate the ammonia problem and the economics of the various pro- cesses require the closest attention. With regard to post-war conditions, it is certain that agricultural demands will be much greater than formerly: many lessons were learnt during the war, not the least being that of the need for in- creased food production at home. The consump- tion of combined nitrogen practically doubled during the ten years preceding the war, and there is little doubt that the increase will continue, nitrogenous fertilisers being more and more in demand, especially now that much more land is under cultivation than in pre-war days; in fact, our own agricultural demand for fixed nitrogen in the form of sulphate of ammonia and nitrates was more than doubled during the war period only. Moreover, nitric nitrogen will be needed in increased quantities owing to the extension of chemical manufactures, such as dyes and drugs, which hitherto have been too much neglected; and with. this will be involved the oxidation of by-product ammonia. It would appear likely that the world’s produc- tive capacity should now be able to provide some 30 to 4o per cent. more combined nitrogen than in 1914, and this does not appear to be greater than would have been the case under normal con- ditions had the ordinary rate of growth in con- sumption in the pre-war period been maintained during the four years under consideration. Now, if food production in this country is to 202 NATURE [APRIL 15, 1920 be rendered independent of imported nitrogenous fertilisers, as is surely desirable—and recent con- ditions have shown that it may at any time become even absolutely necessary—and if this is to be coupled with a continued large export trade in nitrogen products, we must have a considerably increased production of ammonia nitrogen. So far, practically all the by-product nitrogen has come from the manufacture of coal-gas, pro- ducer-gas, coke, and. shale-oil; two _ possible sources have been practically untouched, viz. peat and sewage, though from the latter, owing to our position, perhaps little may be ex- pected—certainly so unless some simple method should be discovered for recovering the soluble nitrogen from very dilute material. At the same time, it may be pointed out that the estimated annual amount of nitrogen in the sewage of the United Kingdom is 234,900 metric tons, 86 per cent. of which is in urine. Power cost is, of course, the great factor in the question of by-product recovery versus syn- thetic manufacture, and this is affected by coal cost: the problem is fully discussed in the report. But questions of the first importance to the by- products industries, which must strive to increase production, are such questions as the efficiency of work on existing processes, the modification and further development of such processes, and the introduction of new methods. Reviewing the gas industry, it is seen that, with existing methods, an increase in the amount | t | _ sulphate. this point is strongly indicated in the report. In | dealing with concentrated ammonia liquor, the _ losses are apt to be particularly heavy. It is con- sidered that several thousand tons of sulphate might be added yearly to the gas industry ammonia _ recovery by attention to such matters as these. _ Moreover, it will be necessary to produce a some- _ what higher grade and at the same time a neutral But a question that demands perhaps even more attention is the introduction of new methods whereby the sulphur content of the gas itself would be made available, and so transport and use of sulphuric acid avoided. The Burk- heiser and Feld processes. still require to be worked out satisfactorily, and quite recently comes the proposal of Cobb to use sulphate of zinc as a_ starting material. These methods are perhaps all the more worthy of careful investi- gation owing to modern developments in the manufacture of coal-gas; the increase in the vertical retort method of carbonisation, coupled with steaming, has given rise to increased quan- tities of liquor of decreased strength. In the metallurgical coke industry many of the bee-hive plants have disappeared in recent years, and this has, of course, had its effect on the ammonia production. There is now no longer any question as to the relative merits of bee-hive and _ by-product oven coke, and proper treatment might _lead to an increase of 10 per cent. or more on _ the present total production of ammonia from all _ sources. of sulphate of ammonia recovered should certainly | be expected. Many small gas-works run to waste the ammonia liquor, chiefly owing to their isolated position; a proposal is made in the report to ‘work up liquors at small works in travelling sulphate plants, but this has been attempted in several instances and afterwards abandoned. One would remark, however, that some small works might well adopt the direct system of re- covery, which has in some cases served very well, and a local demand for the sulphate pro- duced would obviate cost of transport. A general consideration of the direct method of recovery demands more attention than has been given to it; much has been done and published in recent years by the Chief Alkali Inspector. Storage of ammoniacal liquor still needs attention; there are in use inefficient methods of running ammoniacal liquor into imperfectly covered wells and tanks: In the producer-gas industry, again, there is _ scope for investigation; scarcely sufficient stress appears to be laid on producer-gas practice as regards steaming and liming. Hydrated lime certainly has a quite appreciable effect on ammonia production, and it would seem, more- over, to admit of greater latitude in the choice of - the coal used. It is unfortunate that peat has not received more attention in this country; apart from nitro- _ genous by-products, some of the by-products from | and Toatece: | ever, peat gasification appear to have quite a special value, judging from results obtained in Scotland Moisture and transport are, how- difficulties, yet schemes for the utilisation of peat on the spot might well be considered’ from | a power point of view, even though the addition to the by-product nitrogen production would not be by any means of the first order. A Survey of National Physique.* NE of the more valuable after-results of the great wars in the last century was the increased interest aroused in regard to national physique, leading to various measures directed towards its improvement. After the Napoleonic wars there arose the great gymnastic clubs of ' Ministry of National Service 1or7-19. Report, vol. i., upon the Physical Examinat'on of Men of Military Age by National Service Medical Boards from November 1, 1917-October 3r, 1918 Pp. iv+159+charts. (London: H.M. S:ationery Office, 1920.) Price 6s. net. NO. 2633, VOL. 105 | | | Central Europe and Scandinavia, whieh laid the foundations of physical education on a wide scale. The Civil War in America led to the first great demographic survey, the data of which were ren- dered public in the report of the Surgeon-General _ of the Federal armies on the statistics of the _ recruiting bureaux. The War of 1870 was followed by surveys of the population in Germany, and on a smaller scale in France, which to a large extent Aprit 15, 1920] NATURE 203 d the basis of our ethnographic knowledge ‘the present time. The South African War ‘the Commission on Physical Deterioration land and Wales, and to a similar Com- mn on Physical Education in Scotland, from jours of which resulted the introduction of _ inspection and treatment of school en, and perhaps in part also the National th Insurance Act. » Report of the Ministry of National Service 1e - Physical Examination of Men of Military by National Service Boards contains a survey in extent, in wealth of demographic detail, n narration of the associations of inferiority ique surpasses all previous efforts in this ry, and is approached elsewhere, as yet, only > report of the American Surgeon-General’s ‘tment mentioned above. If similar data _bave been collected from all examina- complete survey would have been available 2 use of future social hygienists. It is prob- that the earlier figures are irrecoverable, my. mean that while we shall in the future ui with a knowledge of the nature and ss of physical failure, we shall have fewer as to the measure of physical fitness among better-endowed members of the community. anthropologist will thus derive rather less 1 the report than the social economist and > first volume of the report, which is all that as yet, issued, contains a brief introduction; ms on grading as a criterion of health, the arison of grading results, the relation of ation and health, the causes of low ' and rejection; and regional reports the district Commissioners. Under each there is a series of statistics chiefly n from special areas, but an analysis of all a ble observations on physique and disabilities for the second volume, which is stated t 2) in active preparation, and will present peemrlets survey of the conditions in Great ‘it The data available are taken from nearly : and a half million examinations, on a carefully standardised uniform system, the subjects being - classified into four grades. Owing to re-examina- - tions, the actual numbers of individuals would be | slightly smaller save in the case of those rejected _ as totally unfit for service. _ Grade 1 consists of those who attain to the _ full normal standard of health and strength, and are re age of enduring physical exertion suitable ie age. They have no progressive organic se or serious disability or deformity. These ; constituted 36 per cent. of the total. _ Grade 2.—Those who fall short of Grade 1 by Eas of partial disabilities amounted to between 22 and 23 per cent. _ _ Grade 3.—Those who. presented. such marked a physical Tisabilities or such evidence of past disease as to be deemed unfit to undergo the _ degree of physical exertion required for the NO. 2633, VOL. 105 | - former, but including those fit only for clerical or sedentary work, amounted to 31-32 per cent. Grade 4. —Those permanently and totally unfit for any form of military service numbered 10 per cent. & The proportions found in the different grades varied from-time to time and from place to place according to whether the numbers coming up for examination consisted largely of older categories and those who had been rejected previously, or of those just attaining military age and _ those just combed out from previously protected occupa- tions. In the main the distribution is in accord- ance with probabilities, with the average, how- ever, not, as might have been hoped, among the fit, but among those with partial disabilities. Prof. Keith submitted a comment on the earlier reports of the boards showing that on the basis of the average man being fit 70 per cent. ought to be in Grade 1, 20 per cent. in Grade 2, 74 per cent. in Grade 3, and 24 per cent. in Grade 4. In practice there is a grave deficit from this, though the results of examinations of certain groups, as of miners from the western part of the Welsh coalfield and of miners and agriculturists from Yorkshire during the period of the combing, showed that this theoretical standard was attained by the best of the community. Bearing in mind the physique of many who went to military service in the earlier years, and of many who remained to the end in protected occupations, the total deficit of the country is probably less than would appear from the figures in this report, yet enough is shown to indicate the need for ameliora- tive measures. Prof. Keith points out that from every area, or at least from numerous and representative sample districts, there should be not only the full return of grading, but also frequency tables of stature, weight, and chest dimensions, so that anomalies in grading may be manifest and the nature of the deterioration in physique detected. He suggests that indices of fitness should be determined and shown on maps, which could then be compared with maps of other physical and social data. The indices he suggests are an index of efficient fitness or the percentage of Grade 1 men, and an index of average fitness to be derived by assigning I unit to each Grade 1 man, unit to each Grade 2, 4 unit to each Grade 3, and } unit. to each Grade 4, the whole being then added and expressed as a percentage of the total number of men examined. Many such data are given for isolated areas, so it is to be hoped that the maps may appear in vol. ii., when they will carry more conviction than tables or diagrams. Graphs of the frequency of the different gradings are given month by month for the areas, with, in the re- gional reports, some commentary on the classes examined. The total results show a relative inferiority in the southern part of the country. The measurements recorded in this volume show an average for Grade 1 of 5 ft. 6 in. stature, 130 lb. weight, and 34 in, chest girth. The 204 NATURE [APRIL 15, 1920 general averages vary from area to area, but show, on the whole, a close similarity to those obtained by Roberts and by the Anthropometric Committee for the artisan classes some forty years back, though in this volume there are not enough data to enable the different areas to be- contrasted on an ethnographic basis. LONDON & SOUTH r Sotientekey WEST EASTERN| |W-MiDLaNp] | €-CENTRAL D4 Index a8 Funes 7 716 > 7A 1 % }----=--] L RN er i EAE phe? daca Re ecg es wal re, aad 1S clinela tra ednd het al” cetrtedeten'caghs + Oe pst Bo arp pe uy donee we : 32 =¥- 22 " aA FR ee ep Nie fa are s neal q iat pi 5 “Q- aRes yea zy fs 4. et £ ve 4 4 GY ct 2 Bray: pe 4 8Y-1t-18 8G > ary: +84 F reget PE HA Bit seer tle ese cle HH = 2 11Y-Bt-+-844 ~=-} 24764 kids vase S 4/4 ue = Se 8 4 -B- - ode gat ts — Wy a 3 a -Y-8-- 3 a+ £ rom 8 ia TR! F +e Yaw C UMBER F3 i $ iY Ay 3 i FY Fe esc i 3 3 3 3 & KR 5 213]4 1[2]314 2[3]4 i[2[3|4 2[3]|4 No.of Exams |43 2400 188.146 216012 231.835 [388475 SCOTLAND] | WALES | | GREAT 7a7 76°3 i ee eel eee ae be Ss 4 --420 Ble eecnc ft eeest as 1 ’ r ‘ it | aS Z 2 2.425.18-> 78 | 171931 Fic. 1.—Graphical representation of physical fitness in each region of Great Britain. The di percentage for each grade, as well as the index of fitness. They provide, th pom i means of comparing the relative physical condition of the respective populations. Physique and general fitness fall off with advancing years, and it is noted from several areas that after the age of fifty practically no recruits of military value are to be obtained. One Commissioner generalises the observations by pointing out that while the physical standard of early manhood was determined by inheritance modified by environment, above the age of forty, iagrams show for each region the actual numbers and . the determining factor was how a man had lived his earlier life. The variation in physique with different occu- pations is very marked, as can be seen from the respective indices of fitness of groups, though it would perhaps be well to defer detailed com- parison until full figures are available. The follow- ing may serve as illustrations :— Index of Per cent. Occupation fitness in Grader - Munition workers and colliers, St. Helens a we G28 818 Colliers, Wigan gl-7 774 Colliers, West Wales 90°5 760 Agriculturists, Yorks ... 89:9 74:8 Engineers, Yorks 85:9 60:9 Iron and steel workers 85-7 60:2 Lace workers ... j 77°4 45:0 Woollen trade 75°7 37°5 Tailors sa seb + 695 33°9 Cotton operatives, Stockport 57-9 19°6 This is also seen by comparison of towns— e.g. in March, 1918, Sheffield showed an index of 83-3 with 61 per cent. in Grade 1, and Leeds an index of 62 with 14-5 per cent. in Grader. It is evident that the men of good physique are found in the heavier occupations. Among the causes of low grading, heart disease and tuber- culosis’ take a high place, while in some areas there is a prevalence of infantile paralysis. Con- trary to expectations raised by the recent cam- paign on public morals, the incidence of venereal disease as a cause of low grading is nearly negligible. A special series of charts shows the full data obtained as to the relation between occupation grading and disease in the London area. Sedentary occupations show the worst results, and it is a question whether in part it is not as much that those of inferior physique gravi- tate to sedentary work as that this in itself is harmful. Heart and circulatory disease, and to a less extent congenital or acquired deformities, constitute the chief causes of deficiency. The information available in this volume is such as to require almost a separate description for each section, and the Ministry is to be congratulated on a volume which should be on the shelves of every social worker and reformer. The Doctor of Philosophy in England. Bed neglect on the part of the English uni- versities in not recognising a special faculty of philosophy has been remarkable, but this singu- lar circumstance is of rare interest to the student of the history of universities. It is a curious fact indeed that the title of doctor itself dates, though with some uncertainty, to the first half of the twelfth century at Bologna, and to the middle of that century at Paris. About a century later the doctorate in law and divinity came into use in England, and in the fourteenth century followed that of medicine. In the fifteenth the English uni- versities took the lead in conferring the degree of doctor of music. Yet doctorates in grammar, NO. 2633, VOL. 105 | that of doctor. logic, and philosophy were given in Germany so early as the thirteenth century. Until compara- tively recently the M.A. in England ranked above the Mus. Doc. To those acquainted with the history and the evolution of degrees, that of master of arts must carry the greatest respect, if not venera- tion, from the point of view of antiquity, for it conveys with it the first traditions of the spread of learning in Europe, being as it is by far the oldest of degrees. The earliest teachers bore the titles of lord, master, and judge (dominus, magis- ter, judex), which were in common use long before In fact, to this day the German «nace NATURE 205 APRIL 15, 1920] is primarily a master of arts, the degree properly Magister Artium et Doctor Philo- e, and is given for research, just as the idge research M.A. is to-day. Whether the bridge research student who has already taken .A. will be qualified before long to add Ph.D. is mame remains, however, to be seen. , in his “Europe in the Middle ” ridicules the practice now becoming nt in England of giving the master’s and or’s degrees in the same faculty; as, for nee, the LL.M. and LL.D. at Cambridge. 1e¢ in his. In fact; the terms master, pro- r, and doctor were in the Middle Ages almost eal; and until Cambridge introduced the tronism of the LL.M. in the nineteenth cen- the master had always been regarded as alent to the doctor in his own special faculty. the fusion of the two in Germany in the Ph.D. in strict accordance with tradition, and per- correct. | may be recalled that in England in the liddle Ages, as in Paris, teachers of law were yled doctors, and those of theology masters. doctor of divinity, on the other hand, was racteristic of Bologna, and the jealousy exist- ng between the universities tended for some time to keep these features distinct. | ‘In recent times, however, the doctorate has ned a higher rank than the masterate. The sity of Yale in 1860 first conferred the e of Ph.D. after the German style, and this ; followed by other universities in the United tes. The commercial aspect of the question of importance, there has been a strong cy in recent years to recognise the disad- ses imposed upon students of research in country, as compared with their rivals from ‘Germany and the United States. For some time past—in fact, since 1895—-Cambridge has given a Certificate for Research with the B.A. and M.A.—a distinction which is understood to rank with a first class in Part II. of the Tripos. This certificate testifies the candidate’s dissertation to be ‘“‘a work of importance and distinction as a record of original research.’’ It is about the same standard as the German Ph.D. But the general public, being little acquainted with these innovations, continued to regard the Ph.D. as the hall-mark of respectability for all research rkers, even in this country. ; During the last year or two, however, Oxford, ceiving the need, has instituted the degree of D.Phil. for the benefit of those (a) who have attained the status of advanced student in the university, by having been placed in the first or second class in the Final Honours School, or in the first class in an Honours School of the First Public Examination, and passed all. necessary exam- in ations for the degree of B.A.; (b) students from other ‘universities who have attained a similar ‘standard, and can produce evidence of fitness to | NO. 2633, VOL. 105] engage in research, having pursued a course of study at one or more universities extending over four years at least. After two years at Oxford, such students may, as a rule, apply for the D.Phil. by presenting a dissertation, which must constitute an original contribution to know- ledge, set forth in such a manner as to be fit for publication in extenso, being, in the opinion of the examiners, of sufficient merit to qualify for the degree. The example of Oxford has been followed by Cambridge. A new statute authorising the degree of doctor of philosophy for research has been approved by the Privy Council, and the regulations will be put before the Senate at the first Congregation in the Easter term. The statute will rescind the old regulations relating to research students. As in the case of Oxford, the status of an advanced student, known now at Cam- bridge as research student, must be attained, whether by graduates of Cambridge or by students from other universities. (a) A student, being a graduate of Cambridge, who has from the time of his admission as a research student pursued in the university, or in some other recognised place of study, a course of research for not less than three years, one year of which has been spent at Cambridge, and two either at Cambridge or at some other recognised place of study, may, not earlier than the ninth, and not later than the twelfth, term from his admission as a research student, submit a dissertation embodying the re- sults of his research. (b) A student who, not being a graduate of the university, has kept by residence not less than six terms in a course of research, and pursued research for not less than three years, two of which have been at Cambridge, and one either at Cambridge or elsewhere recognised by the authorities, may, not earlier than his ninth, and not later than his twelfth, term as a research student, submit a dissertation embodying the results of his research. It is not quite clear whether, and if so what, provisions are made for those research students who have already taken the research M.A. having worked for the pre- scribed period at Cambridge or elsewhere. At present a master of arts of five years’ stand- ing—that is, twelve years from matriculation— may apply for the Sc.D. The fee varies from twenty-five guineas to nearly sol., according to the college. But very few ever proceed to this, since by the time the necessary status is reached most men consider that they have had sufficient patronage and paid enough for their education to trouble about it. They are usually by that time tired of examinations and of submitting themselves to the criticism of examiners, some of whom, having remained at the university, holding small teaching appointments, may not have attained quite the same status in the outer world. ‘It is a matter of importance that examiners for such degrees should have the confidence of the candidates, as well as of the university authori- ties, as being at least their equals, if not superiors, 206 NATURE [APRIL 15, 1920 in the knowledge of the special subjects of the dissertations; for at some universities professors who have never published anything whatever are asked, as professors, to examine, for the doctorate, candidates with a European reputation! An in- stance of this nature has recently occurred in one of the universities in this country, the professors being almost unknown outside its walls. But no _ doubt Oxford and Cambridge may be trusted to stand above rendering such an injustice to those who seek their recognition and come from afar for the benefits they bestow. British Crop Production. J. Russge.., F.R.S. By Dr. Epwarp ROU and hay crops play a more important part than cereals in the economy of the farm, because they are the raw materials for a highly important part of the farmer’s business—the production of meat, milk, or butter. They are too bulky to transport in any quantity, and farmers use only as much as they themselves grow. The output of meat and dairy pro- duce is, therefore, limited by the quantities of these crops at the farmer’s disposal. The quantities pro- duced just before the war and in 1918 were :— Production of Fodder and Hay Crops. Yield per acre Acreage. 1908-17 Millions ot acres —_— rc # —~ Total England United England and United produce, and ing- ales Kingdom Millions of Wales dom ——, tons tons tons 1914 1918 1914 1918 914 19:8 Sw edes -- 1370 146 1°04 O'91 1°75 1°60 24'2 22°8 Mangolds 19°5 19'5 0°43 O41 O51 O'50 Q°5 1053 cwt. cwt. Hay (temporary) 29°1 32°2 1°55 1°45 2°90 2°80 4'2 4°4 Permanent grass 22°6 27:9 4°79 4°30 6°49 5°95 2 7°9 Like cereals and potatoes, these crops are greatly affected by artificial fertilisers, especially by phos- phates, which increase not only the yield, but also the feeding value per ton. This is strikingly shown in the case of swedes and turnips, which receive a large part of the superphosphate made in this country. Mangolds respond remarkably well to potassic fer- tilisers and to salt. There is much to be learned from a systematic study of the influence of artificial manures on the composition and feeding value of these crops under the varied conditions of this country. A further reason for the important part played by these crops in the economy of the farm is that they profoundly affect the fertility of the soil. They do not remove from the soil all the fertilising constituents which must be added to secure maximum growth; some of these constituents are left behind in the soil to benefit the next crop—a rare instance of double effectiveness for which the farmer ought to be pro- foundly thankful. In the second place, even the fer- tilising constituents which are absorbed by the crop are not entirely retained by the animal; considerable quantities are excreted and pass into the manure, and again are added to the soil. There is, therefore, the possibility of constant improvement of the soil; larger fodder crops enable more livestock to be kept, more livestock make more manure, and more manure gives still larger crops. It is sometimes argued that meat or milk production is in some way opposed to corn production, but on this method there is no antagonism; on the contrary, each helps the other. The production of more meat is consistent with, and indeed involves, the production of more corn. The simplest way of utilising animal excretions without loss is to allow the animals to consume the crop on the land where it grows, and this is frequently 1 Discourse de'ivered at the Royal Institution on Friday, February 20. Continued from p. 178. NO. 2633. VOL. 105] - become very unpleasant in wet weather. as to ep are done excepting where the soil is so stick i) the best animals for the penned in by light hurdles, each portion of the field is cleared; this folding is a common occurrence on the chalky and sandy soils of the Southern and Eastern Counties. Bullocks are less tractable, and cannot be enclosed by light hurdles; they are, therefore, generally kept in yards, roofed in if possible, but oftentimes open. Sufficient straw is added to provide them with bedding and to soak up the excretions. In this wav the fertilising constituents of the straw as well as of the food are returned to the soil. ; In the case of dairy cows the treatment is rather different; they have to be housed properly in quarters which are sometimes palatial, and for hygienic reasons purpose, as they are easily — these being moved as — they are allowed but little bedding. Their manure - is removed once daily—sometimes oftener—the primary object being to get it away without con- taminating the milk. The investigations already referred to for which Lord Elveden provides. the funds are now being extended to the dairy farm to see how far it is possible to save the manure without prejudice to the purity of the milk. ! In the old days, when farmyard manure was the ee ee oe ee ee es ae ee ee only manure and: the old type of implements alone — were available, farmers had to arrange their crops on a definite plan in order to get through their worl: and maintain permanently the productiveness of the land. There thus grew up a system known as the rotation of crops, which contributed very largely to the agricultural developments of the ‘sixties, and ultimately became a rigid rule of husbandry strictly enforced over large parts of the country. Modern cultivation implements and_ fertilisers justify much more latitude, however, and no ¢g farmer ought to be restricted in his cropping, provided, of course, — se that he maintains the fertility of his land. It is sometimes a convenience on the dairy farm to grow the same crop year after year on the same land, and the Rothamsted experiments show that this can be done, excepting only in the case of clover. With this exception there is no more need to have a rotation of crops than there is to have a rotation of tenants in a house. It is essential, however, that the land should be kept free from other competitors and from disease germs. Freedom from competition means the exclusion of weeds. periodical bare fallows. Nowadays a different course is possible; modern cultivation implements worked by a tractor allow great scope for the suppression of weeds. There is, however, one crop that must be grown periodically to ensure the best results—clover or a mixture of clover and grass. Clover affords valu- able food for cattle during winter, and it also en- riches the soil in highly valuable nitrogenous organic matter. Much of this is the work of the plant itself, and could equally well be done by grass; but the enrichment in nitrogen is the work of bacteria residing In the old davs this had to be effected by en NATURE 207 the nodules in the clover-roots, and is unique ong the phenomena of the farm. _ Unfortunately, clover, unlike other crops, cannot be grown frequently on the same land, and, consequently, farmer is unable to make as much use of it as ould like. Investigators have for many years ing to increase the effectiveness of the clover ism, but without result. Inoculation of the soil | virulent strains has been tried, but it. was un- ‘successful in this country, although results are claimed ‘in the United States. The problem has recently been taken up at Rothamsted, and one reason found for the ous failure. The organism has several stages its life-history, one of which is a period of rest; conditions favour a long rest, others a shorter ind Mr. H. G. Thornton is endeavouring to find how to increase the +o Oia : activity of the organism in ntion is being devoted also to the causes of failure The clover crop furnishes some of the nt problems in arable farming before us. most importa ean meantime, a working solution lies in growing an admixture of grasses with the clover. This reduces the risk of failure while considerably benefiting both soil and farmer. B) rygwery arable district is thus a busy region in which both farmers and workers are kept constantly t The crops claim attention all through the year, and particularly in summer, while in winter the animals need attention. Four or more men can be regularly employed per 100 acres. An organised village life has developed, having distinctive charac- istics of its own and presenting endless scope for the ligent social worker. : Grass farming, on the other hand, stands out in sharp contrast with all this. The grass farmer puts his animals into the fields, and Nature does the rest; nm they are fat he sells them to the butcher. It ally summer work; the winters are left _ As no man can long remain idle, there has an extensive development of hunting and its idant occupation, horse-breeding, in the English iss regions. While the grass farmer’s life is not Hic joy, worry and uncertainty of arable farming, and it ngs in sufficient money to ensure a modest com- tence. One can quite understand the reluctance of the farmer to quit this path of safety. __ If one could accept the doctrine that a man could ‘ eae Be liked with his land, the grass farmer could left alone and reckoned among Virgil’s too happy andmen. But this doctrine is now somewhat of court, and the needs of the community have > to be taken into account. From this point of A de husbandry, in spite of its safeness for the Indi farmer, is not so good for the community as arable farming, since it is less productive per acre ground. This was realised before the war, and was cut to “uy notice of farmers bv Sir Thomas eton, who drew up the followin Number of Persons who could be Supplied with Energy __ for One Year from the Promise or 100 Acres of es Poor pasture converted into meat a? STUDIEG it is, at any rate, free from much of , >. be Be _ Medium pasture ditto Bags Rich pasture ditto 25-50 Arable land producing corn and meat 100-110 _ The area of rich pasture is very restricted. An im- provement can often be made in poor and medium pasture by the use of basic slag, by drainage, and in ways, but the results could probably never sur- Da ose now obtained on rich pasture. None of _ them approach the results obtained on arable land. NO. 2623, VOL. 105] OTD o.4 soil and ensure that its work shall be done.’ During the war, therefore, the policy of the Food Production Department was to convert grassland into arable, and much was done; but now that the element of compulsion has disappeared some of the arable is going back to grass. It is not that the farmer is trying to avoid work; he is impressed by the greater risk of arable farming,’ and, above all, he desires to keep to the well-established principle that his system of husbandry must suit the local conditions. This is strikingly shown by the following returns from a large number of farms :— Collected by the Agricultural Costings Committee. Income per Expenditure Profit 3 Capital ‘ acre r acre per acre per acre England and Wales— 4 s. da. vo PW Bt eB hea de Mixed farms Oskar 00) Sashes Roos PEGS © Dairy farms 1a) 47) B23 128 Se Fe 19h 8 Com and.sheep, 7 7 1. 7° 410' 1.14.2 1210 9 Largesheepfarm 1 4 3 017 60-8 § 1 710 All scottish OO OR RE Ge A 9 Oe The profit per acre from the large sheep farm is small in itself, but it is large in proportion to the capital and the expenditure, and, given a sufficient acreage, the farm is more lucrative than the more risky mixed or dairy farms. The risk of corn pro- duction can, and probably will, have to be met by some system of insurance or guarantee; but the need to conform to local conditions will always remain. The problem therefore arises: Can a system of husbandry be devised which suits the natural condi- tions as well as grass, and is as productive of total wealth as arable crops? I believe this can be done. Grass is not the only crop adapted to moist conditions or heavy soils, and appropriate for the pro- duction of. meat and milk. Many other leaf or root crops serve as well, some of which yield much more food per acre than does grass. Vetches, rape, man- golds, kale, and marrow-stem kale can all be used direct, and there are various mixtures of oats with peas, tares, vetches, etc., that can be fed green and made into hay or silage as the farmer may wish. The use of these crops in the place of grass for the feeding of livestock is Cow as the soiling system. We are only just beginning to discover the com- binations of crops best suited to particular conditions. An interesting experiment is in progress at the Harper Adams Agricultural College, which, however, should be repeated elsewhere. Each crop is governed by the same general laws as hold for cereals. In each case the yield and feeding value can both be increased by the proper use of artificial fertilisers, and there is the further possibility of great improvement by the plant- breeder. It is in this direction that I think British agricul- ture will develop in the future. The system is strictly in accordance with the laws of science, and therefore it needs a minimum amount of artificial support. It gives the farmer abundant scope for the production of livestock, which he has always regarded as his sheet anchor, and the community an abundant pro- duction of food per acre. Most important of all, while 2 On our ordinary farm at Rothamsted (distinct from the experimental land) the expenditure on arable !and is continuously increasing, while that on the grassland is much less. The figures are :— 1913-14 1917-18 1918-19 4 Ss. Ss. a. Wheat ... ie he 5 7 10 14 ™4 0 Oats , ea “is 6 4 9 7 4 § Roots ... wee Pl 8990 20 18 36 0 Potatoes ite wires GSH ON ie 37 11 46 0 Grass (hay) . 3.12 4 16 60° 5 (grazing) 215 2 4 3 0 Direct wage payments account for about 40 per cent. of the expenditure on arable land, but for less than 15 per cent. of that on grassland. 3 Including change in valuation. 208 NATURE [APRIL 15, 1920 retaining the best features of our present arable and grass systems, it allows of considerable further development. I shall not venture any opinion as to how far we could go in feeding ourselves. The accompanying table shows what we did before the war, and what, on our present technical knowledge, we could do now, assum- ing that the insurance problem of covering the extra risks of arable farming were solved, and assuming also a reasonable increase in the efficiency of labour. In this country we can certainly hope to find the solution of the insurance problem, and I hope and believe of the labour problem also. Our output per acre of the arable crops is distinctly above that of many other countries, though we no longer lead as we did in the ’sixties, is not particularly good, and is open to considerable improvement. -Those who know the agricultural labourer best have the fullest faith that his sterling qualities will enable him to rise to the new levels of industrial capacity which the man of science and the engineer have opened out for British agriculture. There are anxious days ahead, but with wise and sympathetic treatment the difficulties can be solved and our future assured. Our output per man, however, . Consumption and Production of Human Food in the United Kingdom. Million Tons per Annum, i Home production Consumption — (1909-13) Pre- wi ar . 7979* attainable Wheat, barley, and oat 13°4 6°5 70 10°0 Other cereals ... ay 3°55 — — — Potatoes oy 5°55 4'8 63 70 Dairy produce ... 5°2 4°7 50 Meat S.: Ss 30°08 2°5 4 Mr. McCurdy gives the following details for 1919 (see Times, 1 February 18, 1920) :— f Consumption and Production of Food in the United Kingdom, 1919. Proportion of home-grown and Estimated total imported produce included consumption - — Commodity Home-grown Imported ~Tons Per cent. Percent. Wheat 75395;000 27 73 Barley 1,950,000 64 36 Oats ... et 4)297,000 92 8 Beef and veal i 995,000 66 34 Mutton and lamb ... 368,000 57 43 Bacon and hams .., 447,000 19. 8r Butter 180,000 58 42, Cheese 145,000 Jo Estimated _ Notes.—Cereals : The quantities are given after deduction for seed,and — Bacon : The quantities given are for in the cases of wheat for tailings also. bacon as smoked or dried. : Obituary. HE death of M. Lucien Poincarf, Vice-Rec- tor of the University of Paris, on.March 9, at fifty-eight years of age, will be felt as a great loss, not only to higher education in France, but also to the entente between the universities of that country and those of Great Britain. Only a fort- night before M. Poincaré came to England, accompanied by Mme. Poincaré, to open the British branch of the Office National des Uni- versités et Ecoles francaises, housed with our own Universities of the Empire Bureau in Russell Square. His speeches on February 23, at the Bureau, and on February 24, at the University of London, where he was given a special reception, and at the Lyceum Club, left on his hearers a deep impression of charm, of width of knowledge, of sound judgment, and of sympathy. M. Lucien Poincaré, like his brother. Raymond, former Presi- dent of the French Republic, and his cousin Henri, the great mathematician, came from Lorraine. He was a physicist by training, and took his doctor’s degree with a thesis on the resistance of fused electrolytes. Like most French physicists, he began his teaching career in secondary educa- tion, and was a master first at the Lycée of Mar- seilles, and then at the Lycée Louis-le-Grand in Paris. For a time he was chargé-de-cours at the Paris Faculty of Sciences; later he entered on an administrative career and held successively the posts of Rector of the Académie of Chambéry, of Inspector-General and then Director of Secondary Education, and of Director of Higher Education at the Ministry of Public Instruction. In October, 1917, M. Poincaré was appointed official head of the University of Paris (the most distinguished post in French university administration) in succes- sion to the veteran M. Liard. NO. 2633, VOL. 105 | ‘ THE death is announced, at sixty-four years of _age, of Pror. Hector TReEuB, the eminent pro- fessor of gynzcology in the University of Am- sterdam. —_— Tue death of Mr. H. S. B. BRINDLEY is re- corded in Engineering for April 9 as having occurred on March 28, only three days before his name appeared on the list of newly created Knights Commanders of the British Empire. Mr. Brindley was born in the Tokio Engineering College, where his father 1867, and educated at — was an instructor. He had wide experience with — several engineering firms, and will be remembered chiefly by his energetic development during the war of a disused artificial stone factory at Pon- ders End into a shell and gun factory employing more than five thousand hands, a task which could have been accomplished only by a very exceptional man, . By the death, lately announced, of Mr. ‘W. J. Rarnsow, the Australian Museum of Sydney, New South Wales, has lost the services of an entomologist who for twenty-four years laboured with assiduity and success to make the collection of insects and Arachnida in that institution worthy — of a great colony, and has thereby laid all students of those classes under a lasting obligation. Mr. Rainbow’s published works include treatises on — certain groups of Lepidoptera and Diptera; but his main attention was given to the study, and especi- ally the life-history, of spiders and scorpions. His papers on Arachnida are sixty-seven in number, one of the latest. being devoted to a description and classification of the Araneide brought from Macquarie Island by the expedition under Sir Douglas ‘Mawson. ei 3 ApRIL 18, 1920] NATURE 209 Notes. Pror. C. J. Martin, F.R.S., director of the Lister te of Preventive Medicine; Sir William Orpen, t.; and Sir J. E. Petavel, K.B.E., F.R.S., ' of the National Physical Laboratory, have elected members of the Atheneum Club under visions of the rule of the club which empowers nual election by the committee of a certain of persons ‘“‘of distinguished eminence in , literature, the arts, or for public service.”’ Royal Danish Society of Science has elected Ernest Rutherford and Sir Joseph Thomson as ‘s in the physical and mathematical class, and George Grierson and Prof. W. M. Lindsay fellows historical and philosophical class. _ A. McWirt1am, formerly assistant professor of rgy in the University of Sheffield, and now a tant metallurgist in that city, was invested by King with the Order of C.B.E. on March 20. s honour was conferred upon him for his general war work in India, principally in connection with the supply of steel for war purposes. \s already announced, the Geological Survey and » Museum of Practical Geology were transferred the Board of Education to the Department of ntific and Industrial Research on November 1 last. ford President has now appointed a Geological y Board for the management of the work of ul and museum, and to submit from time 6 recommendations on developments that appear necessary as the work progresses. The Board, present constituted, consists of Sir Francis G. chairman), Prof. W. S. Boulton, Prof. J. W. Dr. John Horne, Prof. J. E. Marr, Mr. Merricks, and Mr. W. Russell. Henry Howorrn has presented to the Geo- Department of the British Museum (Natural collection of mammalian and other r ns obtained by Mr. W. J. Lewis Abbott from a fissure. near Ightham, Kent. This collection is especic pereeent on account of the care with which The ordinary larger specimens belong to rhinoceros, mammoth, reindeer, stag, roe- horse, and hyena, and show that the greater of the fauna at least dates back to the latter Ag the Pleistocene period. All the circumstances the discovery were discussed by Messrs. Abbott and -T. Newton in the Geological Society’s Quarterly urnal in 1894. Dr. Cartos AMEGHINO, director of the Argentine disco the oldest known remains of man at Miramar, near Mar del Plata, on the coast of the rovince of Buenos Aires. Human remains were und in the same district several years ago in asso- ‘ with stone implements and with bones of the - the observations of Dr. AleS Hrdlitka and Dr. Willis (Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of NO. 2633, VOL. 105] sprays announces that he has recently | tinct Toxodon and ground-sloths; but aecording — American Ethnology, Bulletin 52, 1912), they are of no great’ antiquity, and probably represent a modern South American race. All. the supposed discoveries of early man in America have hitherto proved un- satisfactory, and Dr. Ameghino’s detailed report on the latest find will be awaited with interest. Cart. VAUGHAN-WILLIAMS, who is excavating the supposed site of Edward the Confessor’s palace in Windsor Great Park, has discovered what is believed to be the dedication-stone of a Saxon place of worship. Upon the stone:are the marks of a cross and what looks like Saxon lettering. Among other discoveries are the remains of a kitchen and banqueting-hall and the traces of what seem to be Roman baths. This confirms the statement of Mr. Forestier that the palace of the Saxon king was built upon the site of a Roman villa, which was provided, as usual, with a series of baths. The remains of the chapel indicate that it was 40 ft. long, and, according to Bishop Browne, who recently inspected it, it contained an altar for the worship of God, and one smaller for the worship of devils. NINETEEN years ago the splendid survivor of the Great Trilithon at Stonehenge was in a very dangerous condition, but it was set upright again, and now the Office of Works, in association with the Society of Antiquaries, is engaged in restoring to a position of safety other stones that are in danger. A question of interest has been raised during the work now in pro- gress. Just inside the Ditch a circle of holes has been discovered in the chalk, which mark the site of an outer circle of stones. In these holes have been found charred human bones, bits of burnt animals’ bones, or only a single tine of a stag’s horn. Aubrey’s map, made in 1666, showed in approximately the position of these newly found holes a series of depressions in the turf which have since then disappeared. In one was shown a_ stone which has since been removed. The detached stone, well known as the ‘‘Slaughtering Stone,’’ which lies in line with the ‘Hele Stone,” appears to fit almost exactly into place in this new circle. Whether it is the last survivor of an outer circle of stones, and whether this outer ring was coeval with Avebury and made before Stonehenge itself existed—these are questions which cannot now be answered until further excavations help to solve the. problem. Tue James Forrest lecture for the present year will be delivered at the Institution of Civil Engineers by Sir Dugald Clerk at 5.30 on Tuesday, April 20. The subject will be ‘‘Fuel Conservation in the United Kingdom.”’ Tue fourth Guthrie lecture of the Physical Society of London will be delivered on Friday, April 23, at 5 o’clock, by M. C. E. Guillaume, who will take as his subject ‘‘The Anomaly of the Nickel-Iron Alloys : Its Causes and its Applications.’’ Sir GzorGE NEwMan will deliver the Lady Priestley memorial lecture of the National Health Society on _ Thursday, April 22, at the Royal Society of Medicine. { . 210 NATURE [APRIL 15, 1920 His subject will be ‘Preventive Medicine: The Importance of an Educated Public Opinion.”’ Tue Wilbur Wright lecture of the Royal Aero- nautical Society for the present year will be delivered on Tuesday, June 22, at the Central Hall, West- minster, by Comdr. J. C. Hunsaker, U.S.N., who will take as his subject ‘‘ Naval Architecture in Aero- nautics.”’ UnperR the auspices of the National Union of Scientific Workers a public meeting, presided over by Mr. H. G. Wells, is to be held at 8 o’clock on Wednesday, April 28, in the lecture-theatre of Birk- beck College, Breams Buildings, E.C.4, addressed by Prof. F. Soddy on ‘‘The Public Support of Scientific Research.’ The address will be followed by a discussion. Tue Scottish Shale Oil Scientific and Industrial Research Association has been approved by the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research as complying with the conditions laid down in the Government scheme for the encouragement of indus- trial research. The association may be approached through Mr. W. Fraser, C.B.E., Scottish Oils, Ltd., 135 Buchanan Street, Glasgow. A COMMUNICATION has been received from the Decimal Association criticising the recent report of the Royal Commission on Decimal Coinage. The association maintains that the report cannot be accepted as final for the following reasons, among others :—The Commission ignores the fact that eleven of our Colonies or Dependencies have already adopted decimal coinage, and that our non-decimal Dominions have repeatedly advocated the establishment of the decimal principle in currency. Further, the report exaggerates the difficulties which would be caused by the abolition of the penny, and takes no account of the altered and daily decreasing purchasing power of that coin. The Decimal Association considers that the first minority report represents the actual opinion of the community, and that the decision given in the main report is short-sighted and unpopular. For these reasons the association intends to persist with its active propaganda in favour of the reform. In Ancient Egypt (part i., 1920) Prof. Flinders Petrie describes the hoard of personal ornaments found some ten years ago at Antinoe, in Upper Egypt. Unfor- tunately, the hoard was not preserved intact, and the valuables are now scattered in London, Berlin, Detroit, and the Pierpont Morgan collection, The greater part of the treasure, now described by Dr. Dennison, is dated by coins to the time between Justinian and Mauricius Tiberius, the latter half of the sixth century. The finest object is a great necklet with fourteen inserted coins from Theodosius to Justinian, and a barbaric imitation of a gold coin of Valentinian ITI. as a centre-piece, the taste for making imitations of coins for ornament being familiar in North Europe. Prof. Petrie attributes the dispersal of the collection to the present Egyptian law of treasure-trove. If the Govern- ment would pay, as dealers do, the local prices, collections could be purchased much below the value NO. 2633, VOL. 105} in Europe, and the profit would go to the State, not to the dealer. TuE probability of the Norse discovery of Spits- bergen before the voyage of Barents in 1596 is the subject of an article by Dr. F. Nansen in Naturen for January-February, 1920. It has long been a matter for discussion whether the Svalbard of the Icelandic annals was Spitsbergen, and the weight of evidence favours the belief that it was. Dr. Nansen reproduces an Icelandic map published in the sixteenth century, before Barents’s discovery, which certainly suggests that Svalbard was the coast of Spitsbergen. At the same time, it does not preclude the possibility of its identification with north-eastern Greenland; but. this explanation is improbable, in view of the courses. given for reaching Svalbard from Iceland. Dr. Nansen believes that the Norsemen found Svalbard by chance, some vessel having been driven out of its course by a gale. He thinks that the greater attraction of the fisheries on the coast of Norway, particularly the Lofoten Islands, diverted attention from Svalbard, which was eventually forgotten. There is no evidence whatever that Barents made any use of Norwegian” knowledge in his voyage in 1596. The article contains a good reproduction of the map known as Barents’s chart, published in 1599 by Cornelius Claesz. A WELL-KNOWN and much-advertised institute of mind-training has sent us particulars of a laboratory of applied psychology which it has organised and equipped, For a specified fee the laboratory, it is stated, ‘‘ will enable those who need vocational guid- ance to discover with scientific accuracy their strong and weak points, and to obtain expert advice on the. choice of a career. . . . Those living at a distance can have tests forwarded by post.’? Vocational psychology is the youngest branch of the youngest of the sciences; it is not ten years since the publication of the well-known books by Taylor and by Miinster- berg upon industrial psychology and so-called scientific management. Many, therefore, will doubt whether any laboratory can yet state the vocational qualifica- tions of a given individual “ with scientific accuracy” either by post or otherwise, much less whether an institute organised for profit is the proper place for such investigations. At the same time the new ven- ture is a striking testimony to the advance made by psychology, both during and since the war, into fields of practical application; and, clearly and ably written as they are, the two pamphlets issued. by the new laboratory, on ‘*Choosing a Vocation’” and on ‘*Choosing Employees,’”? may do useful ser- vice in acquainting both employers ‘and applicants for employment with the possibility of scientific method in vocational “guidance, and with the prob- ability that, when established by disinterested research, such methods will be as superior to the current methods of personal preference or of phrenological- advice as the prescriptions of a properly qualified medical’ specialist are superior to the pills of a wise grandmother or the potions of a local herbalist. WE have on several occasions referred to articles im the Cologne Post—a daily paper published by the bs ited a ys —- ~~ To ey ere ee oe ea ees ee eh a, — Nal 1 _ApRIL 15, 1920] ° NATURE 211 : Rreny, of the Rhine—on educational institutions and work connected with the Army of Occupation. The first number appeared on March 31, 1919, and a copy _of the anniversary issue reached us a few days ago. _ The journal has been most successful, and is exerting a very valuable influence in revealing British thought and spirit to Germany. It has a large circle of _ German readers, and is used in many schools for reading: lessons and the study of English. ‘*Here,”’ _ Says an editorial article in the anniversary number, “in this great German city we bide, facing a wonderful land torn with dissensions. after the _ mightiest conflict of all time; we of the Cologne __ Post—a little band of soldier scribes—and, never for- getting the ravaged west which lies behind us, we _ are facing east, where the sun rises.’’ To the staff _ which is thus promoting a better understanding _ between two peoples we offer our most cordial con- gratulations upon the success of their faithful and intelligent work. It is particularly appropriate that ___we should associate ourselves with other good wishers in this expression, because Capt. W. E. Rolston, the _ editor and manager of the Cologne Post, was, before i ‘the war, a constant contributor to our columns. He . was formerly an assistant to Sir Norman Lockyer in _ the Solar Physics Observatory at South Kensington, and when the observatory was transferred to Cam- bridge he went with it. For several years he wrote the whole of the notes in Our Astronomical Column, and also contributed numerous articles and reviews. x ‘Capt. Rolston provides another example of the value of a scientific training to business management and titerary balance, and his devoted attention to what df is really a unique newspaper merits the fullest official eee € In a study of the colour and markings of pedigree Wiveretord cattle (Journal of Genetics, vol. ix., No. 3) a ‘Miss F. Pitt finds that the breed arose by selection _ from the nondescript cattle of the county during the _ seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries. All sorts of colours and markings prevailed, but among them the red with white face, which is still characteristic _ of the breed, was most common. This pattern prob- ably originated through a mutation which appeared in a dark herd in 1750, and was kept and bred from as a curiosity. The white face is a dominant condition, while excessive white in modern Herefords is found to be recessive to the typical pigmentation. Variations from type which now occur in the breed are due to the outcrop of recessive characters inherited from the time before pattern selection was practised. r Powe r ‘CONSIDERABLE foliage injury is reported in Michigan q ‘owing to the substitution of calcium and magnesium arsenates for lead arsenate for spraying purposes. The Quarterly Bulletin of the Michigan Agricultural _ College Experiment Station (vol. ii., No. 2, November, 1919) reports interesting tests carried out to discover the reasons for this injury. Plants in respiring give t considerable quantities of carbon dioxide, with which the film of moisture on the leaves is presum- © l ably charged. The tests show that calcium and “Magnesium arsenates are very much more soluble NO. 2633, VOL. 105 | in carbonated water than in pure water, while for lead arsenate the reverse is true. It seems, therefore, that this solubility of calcium and magnesium “arsenates’ in carbon dioxide is the cause of the foliage injury occurring in fruit-trees sprayed with these materials. It is suggested that the addition of lime to the spray mixture may prevent the injury, but this suggestion awaits proof. As the result of comprehensive tests carried out by the New South Wales Department of Agriculture on two of their experimental farms, it is claimed that a more satisfactory method has been found of treating seed-wheat for bunt than by pickling in a bluestone solution. According to Science and Industry (Aus- tralia), carbonate of copper gives the best results, as has been shown after many years of experimenting with other substances. The method which the inves- tigators recommend. is to dust dry copper carbonate through the grain at the rate of 2 oz. of the fungicide to one bushel of wheat. Substantial increases in the yield per acre were obtained in comparison with pickled seed, while other advantages which the new process possesses over established practice are said to be that (1) no water is necessary; (2) no injurious effect is caused to either the grain or the young plant, as is the case with bluestone pickling ; (3) seed-wheat can be treated weeks before it is sown; (4) no damage is done to the grain if it should lie in a dry seed-bed for weeks without germinating; (5) better germination is obtained; and (6) the process is quicker and less laborious than wet pickling. An Official Guide has been issued: (143 pages, price 2s.) to the Museum of British Forestry (Museum No. 4) at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. This museum, which was opened in 1910, occupies Cam- bridge Cottage, formerly the residence of the Duke of Cambridge. The term ‘forestry ’’ is more cor- rectly used as synonymous with sylviculture—that is, for trees and shrubs that are grown for commercial purposes—the term ‘‘arboriculture’’ being used for trees and shrubs that are grown as specimen plants or for purely ornamental work. The objects in view in the production of the two types of trees are very different, and the mature specimens differ in appearance. The scope of the museum is at present limited to collections of timber, fruits and seeds of trees, dried specimens of a few types of hardy trees and shrubs, photographs of isolated trees and plantations, the fungus- and insect-diseases of trees, articles manufactured from British-grown timber, and tools and machinery used in sylvicultural and arbori- cultural operations. In most instances the specimens shown have been grown, manufactured, or collected in the British Isles. Room No. 3 contains a series of special interest to the student, and illustrates the trees and shrubs. native to or planted in Great Britain, with a brief account of their economic uses; the arrangement is according to the natural families. Injuries to trees caused by various agencies—animals, parasitic or climbing plants, fungi, and insects—are also illustrated in detail. Apart from its service as a guide to the museum, the booklet contains much 212 NATURE s {ApRIL 15, 1920 useful information on our British-grown trees and their economic value. ATTENTION tay be usefully directed to the high grade of Indian bauxites now under development, as repre- sented by analyses given by Dr. L. L. Fermor in his article on ‘‘The Mineral. Resources of the Central Provinces ’’ (Rec. Geol. Surv. India, vol. 1., p. 273, 1919). Dr. HoLrepaHL’s interesting maps and discussion of the distribution of land. and water in the North Atlantic region in Palaeozoic times (see NATURE, vol. ciii., p. 433) have been reproduced for readers of English in the American Journal of Science for January (vol. xlix., p. 1). Some corrections have been noted in the separate copies sent out by the author, the most important being the accidental exchange of the titles of Figs. 9 and 11, which should be rectified by those who may use them in their re- issued form. In a paper on “‘ Old Age and Extinction in Fossils’’ (Proc. Geol. Assoc., vol. xxx., p. 102, 1919) Dr. W. D. Lang directs attention to the reluctance—perhaps better called indifference—of the female to the recep- tion of the male animal, as exhibited, for instance, by mosquitoes, as a possible cause of extinction of a group. He applies this possibility to the ammonites ; but his main thesis is that extinction may result from exaggeration of a structure on the removal of an inhibiting influence. Environment may thus be effec- tive, but the tendency in the organism is, on the whole, superior to external influences in affecting evolution and decadence. The increase in deposition of calcium carbonate in the Cretaceous cheilostomata, and the ‘‘exhaustion of their ancestral potentialities ”’ in the case of the rugose corals, are utilised as examples in a discussion that would obviously bear expansion. ScIENTIFIc Paper No. 363 of the Bureau of Standards (Washington) just to hand deals with the manner of preparation and determination of the spectral reflective properties of certain alloys of aluminium with magnesium and with zinc by R. G. Waltenberg and W. W. Coblentz. The investigators found that _all these alloys tarnish in tinte, and hence are not suitable for mirrors where permanency is of the first importance. The compound of aluminium and magnesium, Al,Mg,, deteriorates less rapidly: than any of the other alloys examined, and could be used in apparatus where a highly reflecting mirror is desired: -for a short time. was obtained with A reflectivity of 92 per cent. at o-7u this compound. The a similar reflectivity minimum at o-Ip. In a paper on ‘‘ The Development of the Atomic’ Theory,” by A. N. Meldrum, of the Bombay Univer-, sity, . published by the Oxford University Press, a plea is put forward that historical questions should be made the subject of serious investigation and dis- NO. 2633, VOL. 105 | zinc-, aluminium alloy has a minimum reflectivity at o-gu., An examination of the reflectivity of pure zinc revealed’ cussion, and should be taught in the universities by those who have given special attention to them. The paper is devoted very largely to vindicating the view that the atomic theory was not originated as a pure novelty by Dalton, but was a legitimate develop- ment of Newton’s views. Attention is directed to the importance of Newton’s theory of the repulsion of gaseous particles in the theoretical views of Bryan Higgins, William Higgins, and Dalton. Thus Brvan Higgins suggested that am- monia and hydrogen chloride must unite particle with particle, and in no other way, since if two particles of ammonia attempted to combine with a single par- ticle of acid, one of them would be driven away from | the acid by the mutual repulsion of the two particies of ammonia. William Higgins, for the same reason, assumed that, since like atoms repel one another, the most stable combination of dissimilar atoms is in the ratio 1:1, then 2:1, and then 3:1. This view did not attract so much attention as it deserved, but was identical with the method used by Dalton in deducing the formule of compounds. It is suggested © that Dalton did not necessarily borrow his views from Higgins, but that both workers, starting from Newton’s doctrine of an elastic fluid composed of mutually repulsive particles, followed much the same train of thought and reached essentially the same conclusions. Pror. Arm& Wirz, professor of physics at Lille University, contributes a well-reasoned article on heat economy to the issue of the Revue générale des Sciences for March 15. He reviews in turn the merits of steam-engine and turbine plants, internal-combus- tion engines, and electric power distribution from the point of view of thermodynamic efficiency. As regards the reciprocating steam engine, he counsels caution in the replacement of this method of heat utilisation by turbo-electric plants in small works, and cites figures to show that the generic efficiency of the former may be extremely favourable under certain conditions. Much progress has been effected in recent years in the design of exhaust steam turbines, and in certain cases it may be very desirable to run a low-pressure turbine off the large cylinder of a multiple expansion steam engine of the reciprocating type, and thus effect a better yield per pound of steam expended. On the wider (national) question the author devotes considerable ‘space to the subject of the gasification of coal at the place of production and its direct utilisation for power purposes, with the recovery of by-products, the gas generated being used for running large gas-engines, and the heavy residual oils for internal-combustion engines of the Diesel type. In this connection he gives some figures show- ing the very satisfactory results obtained at certain mines in France from installations run from coke- oven gas, supplemented by steam units, for power purposes. Finally, he reviews the claims for a national electric network, comprising a number of single and self-governing units combined to meet all -the possible demands of industry. The paper is well worthy of study by. all who are interested in the better utilisation of our fuel resources. | Ta a ae “ApRit. 15, 1920] NATURE 213 ? ° ich other; the actual distance at 4 a.m. 55’, Jupiter being on the north side of Neptune. will set at 2.37 a.m. The motion of the two ects is so slow that in the earlier hours of the ht of April 19 their relative positions will be but htly different from that at the time of conjunction on 20 at4a.m. Neptune will be situated in Cancer 22° east-south-east of the star cluster called epe and 13° east of the star 8Cancri. Neptune be easily picked up in a good telescope, but is brighter than about eighth magnitude. To identify faint object if the small stars north of Jupiter unknown requires that the observer should make gram of the objects in the field of the telescope compare it with later observations in a few weeks’ me. At the period of conjunction Neptune will be Nova 1n a Sprrat Nesura.—Ast. Nach., 5038, ‘contains a note by Prof. Wolf on the discovery of a ova in the faint spiral nebula N.G.C. 2608 (position - 1860, R.A. 8h. 26-7m., N. decl. 28° 56’). The nebula is shaped like the letter S; the star is near left-hand point of the upper curve. There are two ei, of which the north preceding is the brighter. The va is 18-6” from this nucleus, in P.A. 280°. It was overed on a plate taken on February 8 last, and afterwards found to be registered faintly on plates n on January 25 (near edge of plate, bad image) d February 7. Plates taken in previous years were ined, and showed no trace of the star; a small r condensation was, however, visible in the nbourhood. The latest available plate was taken 1918 February 5. ort exposures were secured of the nebula on uary 11 and 12; the nova appeared brighter ly on the former date. magnitude was 10-7. A sketch-map of the given in Ast. Nach., with magnitudes of com- 1 stars. It is important to obtain good light- e : ; clue to the absolute magnitude of the star, and of the distance of the spiral. The region will i » for the next two months. _ Observations on March 10 gave the magnitude of a > nova as I1+5. Tue Maprip Opservatory.—The ‘“‘Anuario del yvatorio de Madrid para 1920,” in addition to the ‘almanac information, particulars of the sun- s and prominences in 1918, and meteorological bservations, contains a useful article by Sefior C 1ente on methods of determining time and latitude means of portable instruments in the field. Special sned by Nui and Frit, of Prague, which consists ~ small horizontal telescope which can be rotated azimuth. A silvered prism with vertical angle a mounted outside the object-glass; the upper face ts light from a star of: altitude 180°—a, .the face light from the same star after reflection _very small mercury trough. Coincidence of the images is observed in the telescope, and gives the tant when the star’s altitude is 180°—a. There are me advantages in making this angle equal to the ude, but this is not essential. Tables are given cilitating the construction of working catalogues. servations of several known stars make it possible deduce both time and latitude. The instrument is r to the almucantar, in theory, but far more ortable and easier to work with. The absence of all webs and screws is a decided advantage. . NO. 2633, VOL.. 105 | | » _t tg Our Astronomical Column, © NJUNCTION OF JUPITER AND NEPTUNE.—On. the On the latter its photo-— ; of these nove in spirals, as they sometimes” ion. is directed to the circumzenithal telescope - National Education. ap HE fiftieth annual meeting of the National Union of Teachers, founded in 1870, at which some 2000 delegates were present, representing a membership of 113,000 as compared with 400 on its formation, was held during Easter week at Margate. The proceedings were opened by a well-timed and thoughtful address on the part of the new president, Miss J. F. Wood, of the Fielden School, Manchester (herself a pioneer in the endeavour to bring oppor- tunities of advanced secondary education within the reach of children leaving school during their fourteenth or fifteenth year), in which she _ reviewed the history of popular education since the Act of 1870, recounting its onward progress and making clear the objects still to be achieved, to ensure which all the various classes of teachers should make a common effort and present a united front. The Act of 1918, with which the name of Mr. Fisher will be linked in honour for all time, provides for fuller opportunities of education for elder children in elementary schools, for their easier transfer to higher schools by means of maintenance grants, for closer attention to conditions of physical health and education, and especially for the continued part-time education up to eighteen years of age of adolescents entering industrial life at fourteen. The president pleaded for a more unified conception of education if these objects are to be attained and the full value of education to the nation is to be realised. Every child capable of profiting by advanced courses of education and training, whether given in higher or special schools or in the universities, should be afforded the fullest facilities. Wherever possible the elementary school should be enlarged in scope, with fréedom to develop its own ‘‘top,’’ and so obviate the necessity for the establishment of the central school with its futile two-year*course. The further education of adolescent workers should have careful considera- ‘tion, and, having regard to the mechanical nature of much of their work, also have in view the claims of leisure. With the purpose of fitting the primarv teacher for all branches of education service, includ- ing the administrative, he should in all cases, in addition to appropriate professional training, be also required to take a university degree. The claim of women to be afforded equal opportunities with men to aim at the highest in the career they enter and with the same reward was firmly stressed. The future pro- gress of education depends not onlv upon more suit- able buildings, adequate playgrounds and equipment, and smaller classes, but also upon the supply of able and well-educated teachers, who must be attracted first by the nature of the work, and then by adequate pay, status, and prospects. There should be ensured also the full co-operation of the Board of Education, the local education authorities, and the teachers with the view of securing full partnership in administration, and, above all, of winning for all children a free and liberal education. Among the many important topics discussed during the conference, reference may be made to that dealing with a national system of education, which received the full assent of the conference, and embodied pro- posals for (1) free education for all to the fullest extent of their capacity to profit by it; (2) the pro- vision of maintenance grants where necessary; (3) the due co-ordination of schools, so that graduation from one to another of higher type shall be easy; (4) uni- form regulations for all schools in respect of size of classes, adequacy of staff, floor- and air-space, playing grounds and fields, and swimming’ baths; (5) medical examinations, and treatment where neces- 214 ~NATURE : [APRIL 15, 1920 sary; (6) the right of any qualified teacher to teach in any capacity in any State-aided school; (7) no class in any type of school to exceed thirty on the roll, and each class to have its own qualified teacher; and (8) the curriculum of the primary school should be liberal and non-vocational, with the aim of pro- moting true citizenship and high personal character. It was also suggested that the attention of public opinion and of organisations representing parents of elementary-school children should be directed to the powers now possessed by persons interested in educa- tion to secure substantial improvements in the educa- tional facilities provided in their localities by means of representations on the schemes prepared by local education authorities under the Act of 1918, where such schemes fail to attain the standard set up in the foregoing proposals, and that county and local teachers’ associations should stimulate the demand for. the full benefits of the Act of 1918 in each locality. A further important topic discussed at the confer- ence was ‘‘The Supply and Training of Teachers.”’’ The scheme submitted was approved by the con- ference, and included the following main require- ments: (1) All intending candidates should have com- pleted a satisfactory course of higher education, and show by adequate tests their fitness for the profes- sion; (2) the admission to the graduate course should be the standard of matriculation ; (3) the course of study should include ‘‘Education’’ as a principal subject for the degree, and the course be followed in asso- ciation with other students entering for other pro- fessions; (4) a period of one year should, as a rule, be devoted to the acquisition of skill in teaching, the existing training colleges (which should be recog- nised as colleges of the universitv) being utilised for this purpose alone, whilst education research work should be a distinct feature of the college staff and students; (5) on the completion of the academic and professional training the teacher should be eligible for recognition by the Board of Education: for service in any anproved school; and (6) the teachers of special subjects should be required to take a course of higher education and of professional training. Aeronautics at the Imperial College. IR RICHARD GLAZEBROOK, the occupant of the Zaharoff chair of aeronautics at the Imperial College of Science and Technology, completed on ‘March 24 the series of five lectures which initiate the new course of study. It will be remembered that Sir Basil Zaharoff founded similar chairs in Paris and in Petrograd. The London chair has been chosen by the Government as the nucleus around which to organise a central school of aero- nautics—a scheme in which the new professor’s long experience as Director of the National Physical Laboratory, chairman of the Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, and, latterly, chairman of the Govern. _ ment Committee on Education and Research in Aero- nautics, will be of immense help. In the vears to come the courses of instruction so provided will doubt- less prove of service to officers of the Royal Air Force selected by the Air Ministry for higher technical train- ing, in addition to such numbers of other students as the then position of civil aviation may inspire to join this new and adventurous profession. The attendance at this initial course of lectures must have been encouraging to the lecturer, if only as an indication of a widespread general interest in the subject. In the circumstances, the lectures were, NO. 2633, VOL. 105] naturally .and rightly, of a simple character, only the last one, on air-screws, being at all technical. Sir Richard Glazebrook in his first lecture paid a tribute to the munificence of the founder of his chair, and proceeded to a description of the experi- mental wind-channels and of full-scale experiments on aircraft. He was able to show how, on Lord Rayleigh’s law of similarity, the measurements made by the one method could be compared with the other. The agreement in most cases was reasonably satis- factory, though enough anomalies had been found to provide an ample field for future research work. This was followed by a lecture on the principles of automatic and inherent stability. The former is achieved by the use of auxiliary apparatus, whether mechanical or aerodynamic, to operate the controls of the machine; and the latter by providing, in the original design, such -sizes and positions for the aerodynamic surfaces that any departure of the machine from its normal position brings into play forces which tend to restore it to that position, and create a ‘‘damping’’ couple sufficient to prevent the continuance of such oscillations. Inherent stability can, as experience has amply shown, be provided for by careful design, so that automatic apparatus for the purpose is quite unnecessary. Com- mercial machines should be decidedly stable, fighting machines only just stable. Sir Richard Glazebrook was able to show (with Mr. Nayler’s assistance) a number of mica models in flight, and so to illustrate the various forms and degrees of stability and in- stability. The third lecture was concerned with the instru- ments essential to flight, and included the air-speed indicator, the engine-revolution indicator, the alti- meter, the clinometer (to indicate side slip), the stato- scope (to show the rate of climb), and the turn indicator. The statoscope measures the rate of air leakage through a small hole in a vessel kept at a con- — stant temperature. Turn indicators are of two forms, the static head type and the precessional gyro tfpe; _ these are later inventions than the other instruments mentioned. Among the most important measurements made on an aeroplane are the determinations of oscillation in yaw, roll, and pitch; for such experiments use can conveniently be made of the sun as a fixed point, since the motion of a shadow of some part of an aero- plane on the rest of the machine can be employed to obtain a photographic trace of the oscillations. This work, however, is really only just beginning. In view of the enormous inertia forces which come on a machine when ‘stunting,’ it is essential to obtain a continuous record of their amount during all parts of the flight-path concerned. For this pur- pose a stiff fibre acted as an acceleration index, and some most valuable records were obtained. On occasion the force on the wings of the machine might be three, or even four, times the weight of the aero- plane. ‘This naturally led in the fourth lecture to a con- i sideration of the strength of the wing structure and to statements of the load factors necessary in design. The load factor is the ratio of the breaking load to the normal load corresponding to horizontal straight flight at the designed speed. Another important co- efficient is the factor of safety, and this is the ratio of the breaking load to the loading incurred during. some specified operation, e.g. a vertical nose-dive. The load factor needs to be fixed at a higher figure for machines which, like fighting machines, have to “ stunt.” Sir Richard Glazebrook’s fifth and last lecture was of special interest. The subject, ‘‘Air-Screws,” / ES _ ApRIL 15, 1920] NATURE 215 is intricate, and not one in which it is easy excite interest in a general audience. It is, erefore, much to the lecturer’s credit that he suc- din making the subject not only intelligible, but also interesting. He discussed first Froude’s theory of the screw, and then showed how the various factors in _ the resulting equations had been checked by experi- mental em J both’ in the wind-channel and on the “rotating arm ”’ apparatus. Incidentally, he referred to the flapping flight of birds, showed how difficult it would be to imitate this, and doubted whether true _ progress lay in this direction. Mankind had made - much use of the wheel in mechanism; evolution had _ led to the introduction of no such element in animal life, in spite of its proved efficiency in its many _ human applications. This afforded an argument _ that man had here beaten uninstructed Nature. The only flying animal which approached the aeroplane _ in design was perhaps the beetle, which possibly used _ its horny wing-covers as stationary planes and _ its “Wings as a means of propulsion. 4 The Parallaxes of Globular Clusters and g Spiral Nebule. ca: may be remembered that Dr. Charlier expressed 4 doubt as to the correctness of the enormous dis- tances for globular clusters announced by Dr. Harlow Shapley. Mr. Knut Lundmark, of Upsala Observa- tory, undertook a re-examination of the question, taking different lines of evidence from those used by : Shidpley. His work is published in Kungl, Svenska vetenskapsakademiens Handlingar, Band 60, No. 8. dis data are avowedly of a much less precise character ian those used by Dr. Shapley, but they lead to Its of the same order of magnitude :— (1) The discussion of the proper motion of those clusters for which data are available indicates a value “not exceeding 1” per century. Accepting this maxi- mum value, and combining it with the mean radial velocity of clusters found by Prof. Slipher, Mr. Lund- mark finds the distance 3000 parsecs, one-fifth of Dr. Shapley’s value. aS Use is made of Kapteyn’s luminosity law. Van Schouten has already applied this method to the clusters M3, 5, 11, and 13, obtaining distances that are, in the mean, twenty-eight times those of “Dr. Charlier and one-eighth of those of Dr. Shapley. His work is here revised, estimation being ‘made of the spectral type of the stars from Dr. ‘Shapley’s observed colour-indices. The mean of veral independent estimations gives 6000 parsecs for the distance of M3 and M13. (3) A rough estimate of distance is made from the ed mean absolute magnitudes of stars of different spectral types. Various assumptions are made as regards the mean spectral type of the stars x oyed. In the mean the distances found are about e times those of Dr. Charlier, or one-third of those of Dr. Shapley. (4) Holetschek has investigated the apparent magni- t of several clusters regarded as single objects. Mr. Lundmark shows that his values are about 43 magnitudes brighter than Dr. Shapley’s mean values of the twenty-five brightest stars in the respective clusters, this difference being. very nearly constant. It follows that the assumption that the absolute ‘magnitude of a cluster is constant will lead to relative distances of the different clusters proportional to those deduced by Dr. Shapley. ~ : _ The four lines of evidence outlined above, though NO. 2633, VOL. 105] i 5 { - | | individually weak, have cumulative force, and tend to mtg confidence in the accuracy of Dr. Shapley’s work. Mr. Lundmark uses Prof. Slipher’s radial velocities of clusters to determine the sun’s motion with regard to them. He finds that its velocity. is 381 km./sec. towards R.A. 320°, N. decl. 74°. He notes that both the R.A. and declination of the solar apex as deter- mined from stars tend to increase as fainter stars are _used. This is explained by a larger proportion of the stars being outside the local cluster. He suggests that his value is the limit to which the others are tending. Mr. Lundmark passes on to consider the parallaxes of the spiral nebule. (1) Beginning with the Andromeda nebula, he quotes all the directly observed measures of its parallax. They are discordant, but their mean is near zero. (2) The star density increases towards the middle of the Andromeda nebula, in spite of the nebulosity tending to veil them. It is concluded that the nebula is more distant than the non-nebular faint stars in the region. A combination of the results of many workers indicates a distance of 3000 parsecs for these faint stars. (3) A combination of measured angular rotation of spirals with the values of the linear rotational speed given by the spectroscope has led to estimates of distance somewhat greater than the last, say 4000 parsecs. It is further shown that the mass necessary to control the rotation is 10°xsun, of the same order as the estimated mass of the stellar system. (4) Making the rather doubtful assumption that the dark curves in various nebulz have the same absolute dimensions as the similar dark regions in the galaxy, Wolf finds distances for various spirals ranging from 10,000 tO 200,000 parsecs. (5) Comparisons of the light curves of nove in spirals with those in the galaxy, while they involve several rather doubtful assumptions, give very large distances for the spirals, 200,000 parsecs being found for the Andromeda nebula. Bullialdus noted that the Andromeda nebula was exceptionally bright in the year 1664. It is conjectured that a nova of magnitude 5 or 6 may have appeared in it at that time. From the above and other considerations Mr. Lund- mark locates the spiral nebulz far beyond the galactic limits, but inclines to the view that they are the star- producing mechanisms of Mr. Jeans’s theory rather than counterparts of the galaxy. Their linear dimen- sions appear to be much inferior to the latter, of which our ideas have lately been enlarged by Dr. Shapley’s and other researches. The Forestry Commission. E are informed that the Forestry Commissioners who were appointed on November 29 last at once proceeded with the planting programme for 1919-20. The shortage of forest-tree seed has been met to a great extent by purchases in Austria and elsewhere and by gifts from the United States and Canada. About 34,000 acres of afforestable land are in course of acquisition by purchase or on lease, in some cases below the market value and in others as free gifts from landowners. Rather more than 10,000 acres are in England, of which 3500 are in Suffolk, 2760 in Devon, 1150 in Cumberland, and 1800 in Northamptonshire and Bedfordshire. More than 5000 acres are in Ireland, of which 2000 are in Tyrone, 1500 in County Galway, 1500 in King’s County, and 216 NATURE [APRIL 153 1920 the remainder in County Cork. The remaining 18,000 acres under acquisition are in Scotland. Planting is proceeding at thirteen centres—six in England and Wales, six in Scotland, and one in Ireland. Statistical work is being carried out and preliminary surveys are being undertaken. The scheme for advances under the Forestry Act will be published “after the consultative committees which have just been set up have considered the proposals, Forest apprentices are receiving a two-year course in the Forest of Dean, the New Forest, and in Chop- well Woods, near Newcastle, and additional schools will be opened during the year. A special course for men with previous forestry experience is being con-_ ducted at Marischal College, Aberdeen. An Imperial Conference to consider the forest re- sources and policy of the Empire is being organised for July, when a number of persons interested in forestry are expected in this country for the British Empire Timber Exhibition. The conference is ex- pected to lead to the establishment of an Imperial Bureau of Forestry Information. The Commission has published Bulletin No. 1, “Collection of Data as to the Rate of Growth of Timber” (which can be obtained post free for 43d. on application at the headquarters of the Commission, 22 Grosvenor Gardens, London, S.W.1); also Leaflet No. 1, ‘Pine Weevils ”’ (free). Other publications will follow at an early date. The four consultative committees under the Forestry Act have been appointed, and consist of the following members :— England.—Lt.-Col. G. L. Courthope (chairman), Col. M. J. Wilson (vice-chairman), Sir J. Ball, Lord Henry C. Bentinck, E. Callaway, the Earl of Chichester, M. C. Duchesne, J. H. Green, W. A. Haviland, Sir Edward Holt, Bart., E. C. Horton, A. FF. Luttrell, W. Peacock, Major Harold Pearson, Col. B. J. Petre, Thomas Roberts, Sir William Schlich, W. R. Smith. Charles Stewart, Sir Lawrence Weaver, Col. J. W. Weston, and Leslie S. Wood. Wales.—The Lord Kenyon (chairman), Col. F. D. W. Drummond _ (vice-chairman), . B.. Bovill, Major David Davies, Alderman T. W. David, Col. J. R. Davidson, Capt. J. D. D. Evans, Col. W. Forrest, Vernon Hartshorn, G. A. Humphreys, C. Bryner Tones, J. Jones, Lt.-Col. W. N. Jones. Col. C. V. Llewellyn, F. J. Matthews, the Earl of Powis, L. R. Pym. D. C. Roberts, J. Roberts, Major-Gen. A. TE. Sandbach, J. I. Storrar, the Lord Tredegar, H. C. Vincent, P. Wilkinson, and Col. Sir H. L. Watkin- Williams-Wynn, Bart. Scotland.—Sir Hugh Shaw-Stewart, Bart. (chair- man), Gen. Stirling of Keir (vice-chairman), the Right Hon. William Adamson, Sir Isaac Bavley Balfour, F. R. S. Balfour, Wm. Black, Gilbert Brown, J. C. Calder, Sir Isaac Connell, J. A. Duthie, G. Fraser, R. Galloway, S. J. Gammell, Sir Robert Greig, J. H. Milne Home, G. Leven, Sir Robert Lorimer, H. L. Macdonald, Sir Kenneth J. Mackenzie, Bart., J. T. McLaren, J. Matson, D. Munro, Major W. Murray, J. Scott, and J. Wight. Ireland.—T. B. Ponsonby (chairman), H. De F. Montgomery (vice-chairman), E. M. Archdale, J. Bag- well, the Lord Osborne Beauclerk, R. Bell, R. Bradley, S. Brown, J. R. Campbell, St. Clair M. Dobbs. Sir Henry Doran, J. Everett, V. C. Le Fanu, Win. Field, A. C. Forbes. J. Calvin, the Earl of: Granard, Prof. Augustine Henry, Wm. Kirkpatrick, A. E. Moran. the Viscount Powerscourt, the Viscount de Vesci, A. Vincent, Capt. R. H. Prior Wandesforde, and the Right Hon. F. S. Wrench. NO. 2633, VOL. 105 | Recent Fishery Investigations." PRE years ago the pivot round which fishery inves- tigation turned was the question of the produc- — tivity of the North Sea grounds. It was agreed that the enormous development of catching power since the — last third of the nineteenth century had produced no ~ apparent change in the abundance of herring, had- — dock, whiting, and possibly some other species, but — that, on the other hand, plaice, sole, turbot, and some ~ other edible fishes had been affected. In January, 1913, the Plaice Committee of the International Fishery — Council stated that it then had evidence that large — plaice were becoming scarcer in the North Sea, and — that small plaice were becoming more abundant, and — this was taken to be proof that there was ‘‘impoverish- — ment,’’? or excessive exploitation of a natural resource. — The conclusion is not free from ambiguity, for, on the — whole, the total quantity of fish landed increased up to — 1913; what had happened, it appears, was a reduction ~ in the average expectation of life of a plaice living in the North Sea. Now if that change was a result of ‘intensive ’’ fishing up to 1914, what has been the result of the very great decrease in fishing during the years 1915-18? Drs. A. C. Johansen and Kirstine Smith seek to answer this question by discussing measurements of plaice landed from a Danish North ~~ . Sea area which was tolerably free from military restric- ticns during the period of war. They find that the pre-war tendency has been reversed; that large plaice are now relatively much more abundant than they were, but that their rate of growth has decreased—a . curious result. We were justified, they say, in conclud- ing that intensive fishing could reduce a natural stock of fish, and we are also justified in expecting that a slackening of this intensity of fishing, even for a rela- tively short period, will have the opposite effect. The method by which the latter conclusion is made is indirect, and one is scarcely convinced that it is” beyond doubt. It seems easy to show whether or not a natural fishery is stationary or declining. It would — be easy and the conclusions certain if the — systems of collecting statistics were uate and well planned and if there were good scientific investi- — gations that enabled one to interpret the statistical. data. But the statistics are not adequate, and the scientific investigations have been neither well planned nor properly supported, and therefore the methods are — roundabout ones and the conclusions do not carry absolute conviction. We do not know, for instance, that there is not a natural periodicity of abundance and that the results noticed do not simply repre- sent phases in a cyclic change. It is quite likely that they do. The last report of the Dove Marine Laboratory (at Cullercoats, Northumberland) contains an account (by Mrs. Dorothy Cowan and Mr. B. Storrow) of investi- gations into the local herring fishery. This and former reports contain a very rich series of data with regard to the biology of the herring on the North East coast, | and apparently not all the results obtained have been — published—the present report, for instance, deals only — with age-determinations (by means of “scale-read- ings”), while biometric measurements made as part of the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries scheme of racial investigations have also been accumulated. Prof. Meek, in editing the report, points out that extensive accumulations of data have not yet been analysed, and — that such treatment is advisable before further investi-' gations are planned. His discussion of some of Mr. Storrow’s results gives point to an expression of dis- 1 “ Meddelelser fra Kommissionen for Havunder sozelser ; Ser Fiskeri,” Bd. v., Nr. 9.. (Copenhagen, 1919. ee PY ; f eae RIL 15, 1920] NATURE 217 ntment that the numerous inquiries and confer- held during the past year have not yet had any Local investigation with regard to the move- of herring shoals is insufficient. In this case als leave Northumbrian waters and appear later i the Firth of Forth, where, apparently, they are or investigated. It is therefore regret- Prof. Meck suggests, that reconstruction should been a departmental rather than a national affair. Flora of the Hawaian Islands. E natural history of the Hawaian Islands has been well worked as regards both the flora and una. Generally speaking, there is an extraordinary of endemism in the plants and animals, asso- with a strong Southern Pacific or Australasian ndo-Malayan affinity and a weak Northern or American affinity. The islands are ex- ely isolated, being further removed from any con- tal area than is any other region of equal size pon the globe. The nearest continent is North _ America, two thousand miles away, and the nearest is of any importance, ‘the Marquesas, are 1860 miles distant. Within forty miles of the shores ocean exceeds 10,000 ft. in depth, and between islands and the American coast reaches in places than 20,000 ft. The most commonly accepted _of the origin of the archipelago is that the ds, which are entirely volcanic, were raised by nic activity, and that they have always been tely isolated. . paper entitled ‘‘The Derivation of the Flora waii’’ (Leland Stanford Junior University Pub- ns, University Series, 1919) Prof. D. H. Camp- 2s a résumé of the composition of the flora relations to American and Southern Pacific nerally, and criticises unfavourably Guppy’s its origin and distribution. Guppy accepts that the archipelago has always been com- solated, and that air-currents and birds have fe agents concerned in its population. The pre- < suggests, introduced largely by birds, especially ng pigeons, but Prof. Campbell finds a objection in the absence of such birds from can migratorv shore-birds, practically all demic. Prof. Campbell strongly sunports w taken by Mr. H. A. Pilsbry, based on the the molluscan fauna. The land-snails are all types the modern representatives of which are confined to. Polynesia, and they represent, it ntended, an ancient fauna which has survived a time when Hawaii was part of a continental connected to the south-west with that of Poly- _A study of the insects leads to a similar general clusion, namely, that while the ancestors of some species may have been introduced through the gen of wind- or ocean-currents or by migratorv irds, there are many more species of both plants and Is the presence of which can best be exnlained former more or less direct land-connection een Hawaii and the Indo-Malavan region. 1e. multitude of islands constituting Polvnesia. are, in this hypothesis; the remains of a once extensive ind-mass, either a single continent or several large ontinental islands like Australia. This great area has been subsiding since Early Tertiarv times. and the existing islands are the tons of mountain masses. often. volcanic, superimnosed upon this submerged continental area. A serious objection to this theory NO. 2633, VOL. 105] tly Australasian and Indo-Malayan element. fauna, as, apart from a number of is.the absence in Hawaii of certain types of vegetation characteristic of Southern Pacific regions, such as the conifers, aroids, and figs, and it is suggested that these forms became extinct after the isolation of the islands. Similar examples of such disappearance of plants are ‘afforded by Sequoia, Liriodendron, and other genera, which had once a wide distribution, but are beet represented in many regions only by Tertiary ossils. University and Educational Intelligence. Dr. J. B. CLeLanp, of the Health Department of New South Wales, has been appointed to fill the newly constituted chair of pathology in the Univer- sity of Adelaide, South Australia. APPLICATIONS for grants from the Dixon Fund, of the University of London, for assisting scientific investigations, are receivable by the Academic Registrar, University of London, South Kensington, S.W.7, until May 14-next. They must be accom- panied by the names and addresses of two referees. THE MarQuEss OF CREWE, chairman of the govern- ing body of the Imperial College of Science and Technology, and Sir Alfred Keogh, Rector of the college, will attend the annual dinner of the Old Students Association of the Royal College of Science, to be held at the Café Monico on Saturday, April 24. Other distinguished guests will be Prof. W. H. Bragg, Dr. W. Garnett, Sir Richard Glazebrook, Mr. W. McDermott, and Sir Ronald Ross. Tickets (price tos. 6d.) may be obtained from Mr. C. S. Garland, acting secretary, Old Students Association, Royal College of Science, South Kensington, London, S.W.7. At a general meeting of old students held recently at King’s College, Strand, it was decided to form a King’s College, London, Old Students’ Association for the purpose of promoting social intercourse and of keeping the members in touch with their old college. The association hopes to include students from all faculties, and the subscription of tos. 6d. per annum will include the King’s College Review, published once a term, and a list of members with their addresses (and possibly the work on which they are engaged). Further particulars and forms of applica- tion for membership may be obtained from Miss M. A. V. Fairlie, hon. secretary, 3 St. Julian’s Farm Road, West Norwood, S.E.27. Societies and Academies. Faraday Society, March 1.—Dr. T. Martin Lowry and F. C. Hemmings: The properties of powders. The caking of salts is, in general, dependent on the presence of a solvent, usually water. The following cases have been studied: Nitrates, other anhydrous compounds, hydrated salts, loss of sulphur dioxide during caking, and. contraction during caking of copper sulphate.—Dr. T. Martin Lowry and S. Wilding : The setting of dental cements. Phenomena of caking or setting may be divided into five classes :—(1) Re- crystallisation of anhydrous or hydrated salt without change of chemical composition. (2) Formation of hydrates. (3) The hydrolysis of complex salts by water. (4) The formation of new salts, such as the magnesium oxy-cements and the zinc oxy-phosphate cements used in dentistry, and ‘silicate ’’ cements. (5) Amalgams in which mercury takes the place of water. Zoological Society, March Bride, vice-president, in the chair.—R. I. 16.—Prof. E. W. : Mac- Pocock : 218 NATURE [APRIL 15, 1920 External characters of the South American monkeys. The paper showed the variations in the range of structure of the ears, nose, hands, feet, and external genitalia—Dr. C. fF. Sonntag: The comparative anatomy of the tongues of the mammalia. Having first outlined the plan which would be followed in his series of comparative studies, the author proceeded to describe the different divisions of the tongue and the physical characters of each. He demonstrated by diagrams and lantern-slides the different forms which the papilla and openings of Wharton’s ducts can assume among the mammalia, and exhibited speci- mens illustrating the shapes and colours of the tongue and the arrangements for cleaning the teeth. March 30.—Dr. A. Smith Woodward, vice-president, in the chair.—Dr. C. F. Sonntag: Abnormalities of the abdominal arteries of a young panda.—aA. Loveridge ; East African lizards collected in 1915-10, with description of a new genus and species of skink and a new sub-species of gecko. Royal Meteorological Society, March 17.—Mr. R. H. Hooker, president, in the chair.—Capt. C. K. M. Douglas ; Clouds as seen from an aeroplane. A large number of photographs of clouds taken from an aero- plane were shown, nearly all of which were taken by the lecturer while flying in co-operation with the Meteorological Section, R.E., in France in 1918-19. The primary object of the flights was to obtain the temperature in the upper air tor the artillery and for forecasting, and advantage was taken of the oppor- tunity to study cloud-structure and its relation to the upper-air temperature and humidity and to the general meteorological conditions. The observations were made at Berck, on the French coast, twenty miles south of Boulogne, which lies close to the most important aerial routes. The photographs showed a large variety of cloud-forms, and also some changes which took place in short periods. A number of the photographs showed’ thunderclouds. Thunderstorms are caused by powerful ascending currents, and the tops of the clouds grow up to a great height, fre- quently exceeding 20,000 ft. Often when the weather is overcast and gloomy there is brilliant sunshine within one or two miles of the ground, and the clouds viewed from above present a splendid spectacle. Paris. Academy of Sciences, March 8.—M. Henri Deslandres in the chair.—G. Humbert: An extension of the modular group in an imaginary quadratic body.— F. E, Fournier: Forms of hull of least resistance to ‘their translation in free air at all velocities.— C. Guichard: A characteristic property of congruences belonging to a linear complex.—P. Vuillemin ; Remarks on a fungus attributed by M. Loubiére to the genus Trichosporium.—Sir James Dewar was elected a cor- respondant for the section of general physics in suc- cession to the late Prof. Blaserna.—J. Villey: The adaptation of internal-combustion motors to high altitudes.—B. Gambier: Surfaces of translation ap- plicable to each other.—M. Fréchet : A complete family derived from the family of ensembles ‘‘ bien définis.”— P. Humbert: Functions of the parabolic hypercylinder. —M. Renaux: A problem of iteration.—J. K. de Feriet: An application of generalised differentials to the formation and integration of certain linear differential equations.—L. de Pesloiian: The extension of the rule of L’Hdnital to certain arithmetical quanti- ties.—J. Chazy: The impossible singularities of the problem of n bodies.—H. Blondel: Application of the method of Lagrange to the orbit of the planet dis- covered by M. Comas Sola, January 13, 1920.—E. Belot: A new form of the law of distances of planets and satellites resulting from the spiral formation of NO. 2633, VOL. 105 | the planetary system, and the cause of rotation of the planets.—J. Guillaume: Observations of the sun made at the Observatory of Lyons during the third quarter of 1919. Observations taken on eighty-nine days are summarised in three tables showing the number of spots, their distribution in latitude, and the distribution of the facule in latitude.—L. de Broglie: The calculation of the limiting frequencies of K and L absorption of the heavy elements. A com- parison of the numbers deduced from Bohr’s theory and from Végard’s formula with the average experi- mental data derived from the experiments of Végard, Siegbahn, and de Broglie. The results for the L bands for tungsten, platinum, gold, lead, bismuth, thorium, and uranium are clearly in favour- of Végard’s formula.—M,.Rennesson; The loss of energy — in the dielectric of commercial cables. Two sets of experiments are described: in the first the frequency and temperature were maintained constant, and the voltage varied; and in the second the temperature was the variable, voltage and frequency being con- stant. In the latter case the energy losses in the dielectric showed a minimum at 30° C.; the losses at 30° C. were about half those found at 12° C. or at 55° C.—A. Caillas: The search for inver- tin in pure honey. two analyses of a sample of honey made at different times may give different results for the sugars present. —J. Martinet and O. Dornier; The azo-compounds of indoxyl.—Ch. Boulin and L. J. Simon; The prepara- tion of methyl chloride and bromide starting from dimethyl sulphate. The interaction of concentrated hydrochloric acid and methyl sulvhate gives pure methyl chloride ; similar manner by substituting a solution of an alkaline bromide acidified with dilute sulphuric acid for the hydrochloric acid.—M. Zeil: The ascensional The presence of invertin in pure — honey was definitely proved, and this explains why ~ methyl bromide is obtained in a | movements of the earth’s crust and the anomalies of — gravitv.—G. Denizet: The lower peneplain of the Paris basin.—R. Abrard: A layer of eruptive rocks at Souk el Arbéa du R’Arb (Western Morocco).-— V. Bjerknes: The relation between the movements and temperatures of the upper layers of the atmo- sphere.—L. Besson : The primitive form of atmospheric ice.—C. E. Brazier: The variation of the indications of the Robinson and Richard anemometers as a func- tion of the inclination of the wind.—A. Guilliermond ; The figured elements of the cytonlasm.—J. D. d’Oliveira: The transmission of fasciation and dichotomy as a result of the grafting of two Portu- guese vines.—J. Magrou: The immunity of annual plants towards symbiotic fungi.—J. E. Abelous and L. C. Soula: The cholesterinogenic function of the spleen.—J. L. Dantan: Oyster beds: their develop- ment,. classification, and exploitation. ; March 15.—M. Henri Deslandres in the chair.—G. Humbert : The groups of M. Bianchi.—Em. Bourquelot and M. Bridel: The detection and characterisation of glucose in plants by a new biochemical method. The production of methyl glucoside by the action of emulsin forms the basis of the new method proposed. —MM. d’Arsonval, Bordas, and Touplain: The electrical purification of air.—G. Gouv: Gaseous currents in the interior of the sun.—Ch. Nvvolle, A. Cuénod, and G. Blanc: The experimental reproduction of trachoma (granular conjunctivitis) in the rabbit—-M. Léon Lindet was elected a member of the section of rural — economy in succession to the late Th. Schleesing, and Sir Joseph Larmor a correspondant for the section of geometry in succession to the late M. Tiapounoff.—_R. Gambier: . Apvlicable surfaces.— Ch. Rabut: The group of plane transformations in which all right lines remain right.—A. Chatelet: . Dy . _ApRIL 15, 1920] NATURE 219 lian bodies of the first degree.—H. Villat: The ible movement of an indefinite fluid with stream- in presence of a solid body.—R. Thiry: A roblem of hydrodynamics admitting an infinity of ions.—E. Belot: Dichotomic classification of all with the hypothesis of their formation by cosmic hock.—Ad. Braly: A new, simple, and rapid method collecting and characterising the sublimates pro- iced by metalloids and metals volatilised by the e. Two flames are used, alcohol and paraffin, re different temperatures of volatilisation, and ublimates are received on clear mica sheets.— relations with two Glacial periods.—H. Hubert : in these measurements; instrument corresponded to about 0-5 metre varia- in height. The greatest wave-heights were ed on January 28, 1910, and gave numerous es between 4 and 5 metres, fortv above metres, twenty above 7 metres, nine above 8 metres, above g metres, and one of 10-5 metres. Waves of a greater height than 10 metres are rare in the Atlantic and the southern seas.—P. Bugnon: _ The origin of the transverse liberoligneous bundles - forming a network at the nodes of the Graminez.— -F. Morvillez : The liberoligneous apparatus of the leaves por | Betulaceze, Corylacew, and Castaneaceze.—L. _ Blaringhem: The production by traumatism of a new _ form of maize, Zea Mays. var. polysperma.—J. Barlot : he determination of poisonous varieties of Amanita wy colour reactions. The colour reactions of numerous ungi with sulphuric acid and potash solution are led. Three very poisonous varieties give a posi- “hemo-reaction ’? with a mixture of fresh blood Epes me . potassium ferricyanide.—R. Cambier: The puri- on of sewage by activated sludge. Books Received. ‘Text-book of Inorganic Chemistry. Vol. ix. i. By Dr. T. Newton Friend. Pp. xvii+367. (London: C. Griffin and Co., Ltd.) 18s. Grundziige der systematischen Petrographie auf genetischer Grundlage. By Dr. W. Hommel. Erster 3and: Das System. Pp. xiit+174+5 Tafel. (Berlin: briider Borntraeger.) 22 marks. Mrs. Warren’s Daughter. By Sir Harry Johnston. . xi+402. (London: Chatto and Windus.) 4s. 6d. eric Recent Developments in Euronean Thought. Edited by F. S. Marvin. Pp. 306. (London: Oxford Uni- _ versity Press.) 12s. 6d. net. __ A Junior Course of Practical Zoology. Bvy the late _ Prof. A. M. Marshall and Dr. C. H. Hurst. Ninth edition. Revised by Prof. F. W. Gamble. Pp. -xxxvit+517. (London: J. Murray.) 12s. net. Lectures on the Theory of Plane Curves. . By §. Ganguli. Parti. Pp. x+138. Part ii. Pp. xiii+ - 139-350+-di@grams. (Calcutta: University of Cal- cutta.) _ Applied Aerodynamics, By G. P. Thomson. Pp. _ xx+292. (London: Hodder and Stoughton, Ltd.) 42s. net. _ On the Interpretation of Phenomena of Phyllotaxis. _ (Botanical Memoirs. No.6.) BvA.H.Church. Pp. 58. _ (London: Oxford University Press.) 3s. 6d. net. __ Half-oast Twelve: Dinner Hour Studies for the _ Odd Half-Hours. By G. W. Gough. Pp. vi+77. _ (London: Sells. Ltd.) 1s. Utilisation des Algues Marines. By Prof. C. NO. 2633, VOL. 105] Sauvageau. 3.50 francs. Results of Meridian Observations of Stars made at the Royal Observatory, Cape of Good Hope, in the Pp. vi+394. (Paris: O. Doin.) Years 1909-1911. Ppp.xx+206. (London: H.M.S.O.) 20s. net. Fundamental Catalogue of 1293 Stars for the Equinox 1900 from Observations made at the Royal Observatory, Cape of Good Hope, during the Years. 1905-1911, Pp. xlvi+27. (Edinburgh: H.M.S.O.) 5s. Cape Astrographic Zones. Vol. iii. Catalogue of Rectangular Co-ordinates and Diameters of Star- Images derived from Photographs taken at the Royal Observatory, Cave of Good Hope. Zone 43°. Pp. Xxxvii+443 (Edinburgh: H.M.S.O.) 15s. Annals of the Cape Observatory. Vol. viii. Part iv. Results of Meridian Observations of the Sun, Mer- cury, and Venus made at the Royal Observatory, Cape of Good Hope, in the Years 1907 to 1914. Pp. 93. (Edinburgh: H.M.S.O.) 3s. The Use of Low-Grade and Waste Fuels for Power Generation. By J. B. C. Kershaw. Pp. x+202. (London: Constable and Co., Ltd.) 17s. net. Colloids in Biology and Medicine. By Prof. H. Bechhold. Translated, with Notes and. Emendations, by Prof. J. G. M. Bullowa. Pp. xiv+464. (London: Constable and Co., Ltd.) 31s. 6d. net. Bygone Beliefs: Being a Series of Excursions in the Byways of Thought. By H. S. Redgrove. Pp. xvi+205+32 plates. (London: W. Rider and Son, Ltd.) 10s. 6d. net. Macmillan’s Graphic Geographies: The British Empire. By B. C. Wallis. Pp. 32. (London: Mac- millan and Co., Ltd.) 1s. 6d. The Nursery-Manual: A Complete Guide to the Multiplication of Plants. By L. H. Bailey. Pp. xi+ 456+xii plates. (New York: The Macmillan Co. ; London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd.) 13s. net. A Theory of the Mechanism of Survival: The Fourth Dimension and its Applications. By W. W. Smith. Pp. 196. (London: Kegan Paul and Co., Ltd.) 5s. net. Roses: Their History, Development, and Cultiva- tion. By Rev. JT. H. Pemberton. Second edition. Pp. xxiv+334. (London: Longmans and Co.) 15s. net. A Short Course in College Mathematics. By Prof. R. E. Moritz. Po. ix+226. (New York: The Mac- millan Co.; London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd.) tos. 6d, net. Diary of Societies. THURSDAY, Apri. 15. ty Rovat. Institution oF Great Brirain, at 3.—S. Skinner: Ebullition and Evaporation. Rovat Society or Arts (Indian Section), at 4.30.—Sir George C. Buchanan: The Ports of India: Their Administration and Development. Linnean Society, at 5.—Capt. F. Kingdon Ward: Natural History Exploration on the North-east Frontier of Burma.—R. Paulson: Exhibition of Lantern-slides illustrating Definite Stages in the Sporulation and Gonidia within the Thallus of the Lichen Zvern’a prunastri, Ach. Royvat Socirry or Mepicine (Dermatology Section), at 5. : InstituTION OF Mrixinc AND Meratcurcy (Annual General Meeting) (at Geological Society), at 5.30.—F. Merricks: The Mineral Production of the Fmpire (Presidential Address). Cuitp-Stupy Society (at Royal Sanitary Institute), at 6.—Prof. W. Ripman : Spelling Reform. nae Be InstiruTION oF ELEcrrRicat. ENGINEERS (at Institution of Civil Engineers), at €.—Dr. C. V. Drysdale: Modern Marine Problems (Kelvin Lecture). Optica, Society (at Imperial College of Science and Technology), at 7.30—J. Weir French: The Unaided Eye, Part III.—R. Walls: ‘The Rock Crystal of Brazil. Ee ee Cuemicar. Socirty, at 8.—I. Massonand R. McCall: The Viscosity o Nitrocellulose in Mixtures of Acetone and Water.—S. S. Bhatnagar : Studiesin Emulsion. Part I. A New Method for Determining Inversion. —W. H. Gibson and R. McCall: (1) The Influence of Nitroglycerine on the Viscosity of Solutions of Nitrocellulose in Ether-alcohol. (2) The Viscosity of Solutions of Nitrocellulose in Ether-alcohol.—W. K. Slater : Experiments on the Preparation of Isoni derivati S. Salmon: Direct Experimental Determination of the Concentration of Potassium and Sodium Ions in Soap Solutions and Gels. —W. C. McC. Lewis: Studies ves. 220 NATURE [APRIL 15, 1920. ‘in Catalysis.“ Part XIII. Contact Potentials and ‘Dielectric Capacities: of Metals, in relation to the Occlusion of Hydrogen, and Hydrogenation, —C. S. Garnett: Colouring Matters of Red and Blue Fluorspar.—Miss P..V;, “Mekie: Determination of Nitroform by Potassium Permanganate. —J. L. Simonsen : (1) The Constituents of Indian Turpentine from Pinus. longijolia, Part I. (2) Note on the Constituents of Morinda citrtfolia. (3) Syntheses with the aid of Monochlorométhyl t:ther. Part IV. The Condensation of Ethyl Benzyl Sodiomalonate and Monochloromethyl Ether. FRIDAY, Aprit 16. Roya Society oF MeptctneE (Clinical Section), at Concrete Institute, at 6.—E. Fiander Etchells: to Local Authorities. INSTITUTION OF EL&cCTRICAL ENGINEERS (Students’ Meeting) (at Faraday House), at 7.—J. Scott-laggart : The Vacuum Tube as a Transmitter and Receiver of Continuous Waves. InstiTuTION OF MEcHANICAL ENGINEERS (Informal Meeting), at 7.— J. E. Baty and Others: Discussion on Planing wv. Milling. TECHNICAL INSPECTION ASSOCIATION (at Royal ‘Society: of Arts), at 7.30. Wade: Labour Unrest—Its Causes and its Cure. Rovat Society OF Mepicine (Electro-Therapeutics Section), at 8.30.— Sir Ernest Rutherford : Development of Radiology (Mackenzie Davidson Memorial Lecture). Rovat INstiTUTION OF GREAT BRITAIN, at 9.—Prof. H. Maxwell Lefroy: The Menace of Man's Dispersal of Insect Pests, SATURDAY, Apriv 17. Roya. InstiruTiOon OF GREAT BRITAIN, at 3.—Prof. W. H. Eccles: The Thermionic Vacuum Tube as Letector, Amplifier, and Generator of ’ Electrical Oscillations. 30. a ientadion of Plans MONDAY, Aprit 19. INSTITUTION OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERS (Informal Meeting) (at Chartered , jnasitute of Patent Agents), at 7,—G. H. Ayres: Group versus Individual riving Roya Society or Arts, at 8.—Dr. W. Rosenhain: Aluminium and its Alloys (Cantor Lecture), Surveyors’ InstiruTion, at 8.—C. B. Fisher: with Agricultural Policy. Rovat GroGrapHicaL Society (at Molian Hall), at 8.30.—Flight-Com- mander G. M. Dyott: An Air-Route Reconnaissance from the Pacific to _ the Amazon. Some Problems connected TUESDAY, Apri 20. Roya InstTITUTION OF GREAT BRITAIN, at 3.—Major G. W. C. Kaye: Recent Advances in X-ray Work. Roya STaTIsTICAL SOCIETY, at 5.15.—Dr. T. H.C. Stevenson: The Fertility of various Social Classes in England and Wales from the Middle of the Nineteenth Century to rgrr. InsTiruTION’ oF Crvit ENGINEERS, at 5.30,—Sir Dugald Clerk: Fuel Conservation in the United Kingdom (James Forrest Lecture). INSriTUTION OF PRTROLEUM TECHNOLOGISTS (at Royal Society of Arts), eA 5 30.—G. F. Robertshaw: Methods of Examination of Lubricating ils. Roya. PuHoroGcrapuic Society OF GREAT Britain (Technical Meeting), ~ at 7.—Dr.C. E. K. Mees and A. H. Nietz: The Theory of Development. ILLUMINATING Nees ere Socigry (at Royal Society of Arts), at 8.— J. Darch and Others: Discusston on the Lighting of ee Roya, ANTHROPOLOGICAL, INSTITUTE, at 8.15.— . Brown? Races of the Chindwin, Upper Burma. Royat Sociery oF MEDICINE. (Pathology Section), at 8.30.—Annua General Meeting. > p WEDNESDAY, Aprit 21. Beaver Wiewat SERVICE INSTITUTION, at 3.—Rev. Father B. Vaughan Modern Patriotism. RoyaL Sociery or Arts, at 4.30.—Air-Commodore E. Maitland: The Commercial Future of Airships. RoyaL Society or Mepicine (History of Medicine Section), at 5.— Dr. A. Chaplin: The History of Medical Education at the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge.—Mme. Panayotatou: Baths and Bathing in Ancient Greece. Royat METEOROLOGICAL SoctrTy, at 5.—Royal Observatory, Green- wich: Polar Night-Sky Kecorder.—Lieut. N. L. Silvester: Local Weather Conditions at Mullion, Cornwall.—J. E. Clark: The Surrey Hailstorm.of July 16, 1918. G01 0GICAL Society oF Lonpon, at 5-30 —J. W. D. Robinson: The Devonian of Ferques (Bas-Boulonnais).—«. S. Cobbold: The Cambrian Horizons of Comley (Shropshire) and their Bra:hiopoda, Pteropoda, Gasteropoda, etc. Royat MicroscoricaAL Society, in conjunction with the OprTicaL Society and the Farapay Soctgry (at the Royal Microscopical Society), 7 to 1o.—General Discussion on The Mechanical Design and Optics of the Microscope.—Prof. J.. Eyre: Opening Remarks.—J. E, Barnard: A Genera! Survey. me The Mechanical Design of the Microscope. (a). General, Prof. F. J. Cheshire: The Mechanical Design of Micro- " scopes.x—C. Beck? The Standard Microscope.—F. W. Watson Baker: Progress in Microscopy from a Manufacturer's Point of View.—P. Swift : A New Microscope.—() Metallurgical. Dr. W. Rosenhain: The Metal- lurgical Microscope.—Prof. C. H. Desch: The Construction and Design of Metallurgical Microscopes.—E. F. Law : The Microscope in Metal- lurgical Research.—H. M. Sayers: Llumination in Micro-metallography. —(c Petrological. Dr. J. W. Evans: The Requirements of a Petrological Microscope.—B. The Optics of the Microsccpfe. Prof. A. E. Conrady: Microscopical Optics.—Dr. H. Hartridge: An Accurate Method of Objective Testing.—H. S. Ryland: The Manufacture and Testing of Microscope Objectives.—F. Twyman: Interferometric Methods. THURSDAY, Apri 22. Roya. InstTiTuTION oF GREAT BRITAIN, at 3.—S. Skinner: The Tensile Strength of Liquids. Roya. Society, at 4.30.—Probable Papers.—Prof. W.E. Dalby: Re- searches on the Elastic Properties and the Plastic Extension of Metals.— NO. 2633, VOL. 105 | The British Crop Production. H. W. Hilliar:. Experiments on the Pressure Wave thrown out by Submarine Explosions.—E. F, Armstrong and T, P. Hilditch: A Stady of the Catalytic Action at Solid Surfaces. IL{I. The Hydrogenation of Acetaldelivde and the Dehydrogenation of Ethyl Alcohol in the Presence of Finely Divided Metals. 1V. The Interaction of Carbon Monoxide and Steam as conditioned by Tron Oxide and. by Copper.—Dr. T. R. Merton: The Structure of the Balmer Series of Hydrogen Linge H. A. Wilson: Diamagnetism due to Free Electrons. : FRIDAY, Apri 23. ; PuysicaLt Socirty, at 5.—M.C.E. Guillaume: The Anomaly of the Nickel-Iron Alloys : Its Causes and its Applications (Guthrie Taceam ; INSTITUTION OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS, at 6.—The late W. J. n: (1) The Hardening of Screw-Gauges with the least Di in . tch (referring to Water, Hardening). (2) The Hardening of Screw-Gauges with the least Distortion in Pitch (referring to Oil Hardening). - Roya. InstiruTion, oF Great RRITAIN, at 9.—Sir Israel Gollance: Shakespeare’s Shvlock and Scott’s Isaac of York. SATURDAY, Aprit 24. Rovat InsriruTION oF GREAT BRITAIN, at 3.—Prof. W. H. Eccles: The Thermionic Vacuum Tube as Detector, Amplifier, and Generator of Electrical Oscillations. 4 CONTENTS. PAGE The Encouragement of Pn ae oly yee ea ea English bib 2% “fhe B.S: eg tk | Matrices, By G. B as.) The Chemistry of dca Products. By W. M. - 192 Physics: Theoretical and Practical. By H. S. 193 Minerals and Metals’... .’. .. 4/4) 0), Our Bookshelf . . me eo Letters to the Editor:— ee The Plumage Billand Bird Protection. —Dr, Walter E. % ‘Collinge:, ).2:..-. 196 The Physiology of Migrations in the Sea. Prof: +i; Alexander Meek 197 Muscular Efficiency. (W7th Diagrams. cde “Mallock, F.R.S. A ‘Dyiemica Specification of the Motion of Mercury. —veorge W. Walker, F.R.S. 198 The Construction of a Magnetic Shell Equivalent t to a : Given Electric Current.—Dr. A. A, Robb . . . bres i Rocks in the _— Egyptian Sudan.—Dr. . W: Grabham ‘ : _ 199 The FitzGerald-Lorentz " Contraction ” Theory.— Horace H. Poole . Moseley Memorial.—Sir Henry A. Miers, F.R. s., C. G. Darwin, and Dr. H. Robinson. . + 200 The Aurora of March 22-23.—_W. B. Housman . are The Nitrogen Problem: By-products ; 201 A Survey of National Physique. (W7th Diagram.) The Doctor of Philosophy in England. . (Continued. ) By Dr. Edward J. Russell, FE: RIS. 24 2 eve 206 Obituary ..... “31 oo Notes : a es Our Astronomical Column :- — Se Conjunction of Jupiter and Neptune. / . . .. . . 213 A-Nova ina Spirgl Nebulaj.<'.-.. <<. . 5S) (gee The Madrid Observatory. .°. 2... )s9s a National Education . . os) 5. aie eae, Oe Aeronautics at the Impebial College - «6 ean alee ie en The Parallaxes of Globular Clusters and Spiral Nebule .. q : Pia waiNaane yy «4 The Forestry Commission : Nenreaes ar PN Recent Fishery Investigations. "By J. * oe eae eee Flora of the Hawaian Islands . . Mee) 2 University and Educational Intelligence Ren st (ne og Societies and Academies 30-2.) a Books Received: 2.6. esi ie ee Diary of Societies ow eo aaa {INDEX) Editorial and Publishing Offices : MACMILLAN. AND CO., Ltp., . ST. MARTIN’S STREET, LONDON, W.C.z2. Advertisements and business letters to be addressed to the Publishers. Editovial] Communications to the Editor. Telegraphic Address :.Puusis, ‘Lonpon. Telephone Number: GERRARD 8830. bah » THURSDAY, APRIL» 22, 1920. th and watch with some apprehension the eas to bring original investigators within I system. . F raricis Bacon supposed that to the: ‘particular Besor sing to a prescribed of rules, and gave in his ‘‘ New Atlantis ’’ ‘‘a dell or description of a_ college, instituted for e interpreting of Nature, and the Sigg of on 's s method, and all other assumedly infallible ' systems for. creating knowledge, fail to furnish a formula for scientific discovery. New truths eau themselves in unexpected places, and the 1 to be the most. promising. Knowing that is $0, and cherishing the freedom of action 1 any ‘schemes for systematising research ch h may deprive them of. their birthright. They by Pike encouragement of genius; wherefore they e rarely considered when research systems are 1 by the Bacons of our day. / was pointed out by Prof. Soddy in NaTuRE of February 26. that the position is different in nedical science, because in this case the pro- its members, and to insist, therefore, upon inistrative and other cy oop ins which they y smmittee as the Medical Research Council is t very notable event in this connection. After its ‘years’ work under the: National Health nsurance ‘Départment, the Committee -has been nsferred to’ its new position ’as the Medical Research Council, under the direction of a small Committee Of the ‘Privy ‘Council’ consisting of the Lord President,’ the Minister*of Health (England | and Wales); the Secretary for Scotland, and the | Chief ‘Sectetary fdr'Ireland for the time being. ‘The : Council has’ been incorporated with a. perpetual | succession by Royal charter, with powers to hold ' NO. 2634, VOL. 105] subject of the organisation of scientific re- ay NATURE y | son was then Parliamentary Secretary. 225 and use not ae moneys. ‘and ‘land joni from Parliament, but also property or trusts vested in it by private persons or bodies, It is not merely an Advisory Council, but is in charge of its own executive. These main features sufficiently mark the interest and importance of the new step now taken towards solving that difficult problem in the art of government—the preservation of the freedom and self-government of scientific research work as to both initiative and execution, with due regard to a just responsibility to Parliament in respect of State endowment. The appointment of the Development Commis- sion in 1911 marked the first modern step towards a solution of this problem of the State endowment of research. For the first time an organisation independent of the administrative Departments was set up to initiate and direct scientific research work in particular directions. The constitutional position of the Commission was anomalous, ‘its functions were too various in kind, and the pér- sonnel selected for it suffered in quality, perhaps, because it depended too much upon the repre- sentative principle. But the work of the Commis- sion, especially in relation to agricultural research, was in charge from the first of scientific men, and in effect, if not in form, the Commission bibs executive as well as advisory powers. The next landmark in this development was the formation of the Medical Research Committee in 1913 in connection with the National Health In- surance Department. This was attached directly to an administrative Department, but it was given a singularly free constitution. The Committee was composed of scientific men appointed for their quality as counsellors without subservience to any representative principle ; it was empowered to appoint and dismiss its own servants, and it had full executive authority within the widest limits of research schemes of its own initiation when these had received general Ministerial approval. The outbreak of war brought home to the Government the grave rational need for a wider and more liberal State endowment of research. In 1915 a scheme for public expenditure upon scientific and industrial research was developed under the Board of Education, where Dr. Addi- ‘It was natural that this should be modelled in its early stages upon the system ‘of the Medical Research Committee, of the working of which «there had already been two years of useful experience; ‘but the :new organisation soon departed from that model -in some essential points. It was early and I 222. NATURE © | APRIL 22, 1920 rightly transferred to the Privy Council, where it had independence from any one administrative Department, and could serve all Departments alike. But the council of scientific men became a purely advisory body, as it now is, and the Committee of Privy Council under which the work was to be done was not purely Ministerial and formal, but received the addition of other personally ap- pointed lay members in a position constitutionally superior to that of the scientific members of the Advisory Council. A strong staff of lay officers was progressively appointed upon the executive side as a Department under the Privy Council Committee, not under the direct control of the scientific members of the Advisory Council, and neither appointed nor removable by them. When the Ministry of Health for England and Wales was constituted in 1919, with correspond- ing Boards of Health in Scotland and Ireland, the disbanding of the four National Health Insurance Commissions made a new _ con- stitution necessary for the Medical Research Com- mittee, the work of which in science has no national boundaries. It could not properly be attached to the Ministry of Health, because, alto- gether apart from the general arguments against placing a system of free research work under a strong administrative Departrment, a Committee serving the whole of the United Kingdom could not fittingly be attached to a Ministry responsible only for England and Wales. The obviously right course was to bring the medical research service under the Privy Council, the range of which not only covers the United Kingdom, but also allows easy constitutional relationship with systems of research work throughout the Empire. The problem was to bring the Medical Research Committee into close relationship with the scien- tific-and industrial research system already under Privy Council direction, and equally with other systems that may hereafter be placed there, so as to allow the greatest - possibility of co-operation along the innumerable boundary lines of scientific without sacrificing any of the freedom which the Committee had already enjoyed in its first con- stitution, or had worked out in experience and established in its traditions. The solution of this was given when the new | Committee of Privy Council for the work of the Committee—now the Medical Research Council— | was established by Order in Councilon March | 11 NO, 2634, VOL. 105] last. This Committee provides the. formal -Minis- terial responsibility, for moneys provided by_Par- liament, and at the same time it represents, and brings together the interests of all the four parts of the Kingdom. In the absence of the Lord President, the Minister of Health will act as Vice-President of the Committee. The Secretary appointed by the Medical Research Council for its own scientific and administrative purposes: is to be ipso facto Secretary of this Privy Council Com- mittee, so that the chief executive officer of the Research Council will have direct access to the Minister in charge, without the intervention of lay officials either now or in the future. . The Medical Research Council itself has been incorporated: by Royal charter in perpetual ‘suc- cession with legal powers to hold money or other personal property, whether voted by Parliament or derived from other sources, and to accept trusts for the furtherance of medical research. It has licence to purchase and hold land or to receive it by gift or bequest up to an annual value of 50,000l., determined at the time of acquisition. The personal constitution of the Medical Re- _ search Committee upon becoming the new Council is little changed. At least two of its members must always be Members of Parliament, one each in the House of Lords and the House of Commons. Lord Astor and Dr. Addison, holding office in the Ministry of Health, retired from’ the Committee before the change was effected, and one additional scientific member was appointed, -to bring the total number from nine to ten. The constitution of the final Medical Research Com- ‘mittee and of the new Medical Research Council is as follows:—The Viscount Goschen; Mr. William Graham, M.P.; the Hon. Edward Wood, M.P.; C. J. Bond, C.M.G., E.R:.CiS.5) 2 eee Bulloch, F.R.S.; Dr.. T. R. Elhott) fatie.; Dr. Henry Head, F.R.S.; Prof. F. Gowland - Hopkins, F.R.S.; Major-Gen. Sir William Leishman, K.C.M. G., F.R.S.; and Prof. D. ar “Paton, F.R.S. work; at the same time it’ was necessary to do this | It is laid down that three of these members shall retire on September 30, 1921, and thereafter three -at intervals of two years. Vacancies so caused or arising casually are to be filled by appointment by the Committee of Privy Council, but only after consultation with the President for the time being of the Royal Society and, with the Medical Re- search Council. This provision will bring into effective bearing upon the constitution of ithe. NATURE 223 i the channel of the Royal Society, which okey to ‘be all the more effective because it il Society Council among other business, and ives direct access by the President to the re- ansible Ministers. A further important pro- * is that the charter itself may receive mdment or addition, if’majority votes of the , Eee stated conditions be. pptained and t adomtific:’ men thembelyes’ should ‘decide upon \sceaatey -of funds for ao is done for. ree Raeheines: of Wibaiiied faekeGgition: Friction and misunderstanding always arise when these functions are performed by official adminis- _ trators unfamiliar with such.a sensitive plant as scientific genius and unable to judge the promise of incipient. inquiry. The remedy for such difficulties is always to ensure that the men odo the work are the masters of the adminis- ve machine and have confidence in the direc- n of it by specially qualified colleagues—to pro- 20te, in fact, the same spirit. of common interest ween director and. worker that is desired be- sen capital and labour. The Medical, Research uncil seems , to. fulfil these conditions in every pect, and its incorporation marks a noteworthy age in scientific development. The Council can determine its own policy, has complete control its funds, is in direct touch with progressive _ science by association. with the Royal Society, and, above all, its Secretary, Sir Walter Fletcher, as the full confidence of medical research workers. He knows well enough the truth of the adage Poeta nascitur, non fit as applied to scientific genius, and may therefore be trusted to ‘secure. the most favourable conditions for the de- velopment of this rare fruit when it appears. _ During its existence the Medical Research Com- mittee brought together a brotherhood of research workers whose scientific investigations have been of the. highest national value, and it did _ this without limiting the freedom ‘of. action which is their heritage. We confidently look to the new q Council to. encourage the independent investigator jae as well as to create a reserve of research workers, d and thus consolidate the organisation of scientific effort in the service of medicine so well begun by the Committee which it supersedes. ‘NO. 2634, VOL. 105] Rie A Study in Palzogeography. The Environment of Vertebrate Life in the Late Paleozoic in North America: A Paleogeographic Study. By Prof. E. C. Case. (Publication No. 283.) Pp. vi+273. (Washington: Car- negie Institution of Washington, 1919.) Price 3 dollars. HE following passage from Suess’s “Face of the Earth” might be taken as an appropriate text for the work under consideration :—“It is the organic remains, no doubt, which afford us our first and most important aid in the elucidation of the past. But the goal of investigation must still remain the recognition of those great physical changes in comparison with which the ‘changes in the organic world only appear as phenomena of the second order, as. simple consequences.”’ ., Prof. Case’s volume may be described as an attempt both to provide an up-to-date corpus of material, often presented in the form of lengthy quotations from the writings of American geologists, bearing upon the history of the later Paleozoic period, and to utilise the data as evidence in an inquiry into the physical and climatic conditions under’ which organisms lived, migrated, or became extinct’ in different regions of the North American con- tinent. _ The author has essayed a difficult but attractive task, and though: his own conclusions’ ‘and generalisations are to some extent: overwhelmed by the superabundance of citations from’ published sources, he has succeeded in making a waluable contribution to a neglected branch, of. geological history. -He takes a broad view of the conception of. environment; it represents ‘“‘the sum of all the contacts .which any organism or group . of organisms, establishes with the. forces and matter of its surroundings, either organic: or inorganic.” The difficulty is that we have comparatively little knowledge of the nature of the interaction of exist- ing organisms and their environment ; but it is none the less praiseworthy to extend ‘ecological inquiry to a remote era in the. hope that in this line of research, as in others, a knowledge of the past may help us to solve the problems of the present. ‘In the first chapter Prof. Case discusses the different: categories of facts which ‘it is’ essential to consider in connection with paleogeographical questions, the nature of the sedimentary deposits, the. source of the sediments, the history of the flora and fauna—whether they were evolyed;where they were preserved, or. had migrated, from another locality—the influence of, environment reflected in the morphological characters of animals and plants, and other factors. He empha- 224 “NATURE [APRIL 22, 1920 sises the importance of close_co-operation between paleontologists and geologists in all matters relating to past geographies, and deprecates the over-readiness of the former class of workers to assume the existence of land-barriers. -In illustra- tion he refers to the continent of Gondwanaland, the existence of which “depends more definitely upon biological evidence and awaits full confirma- tion.” Gondwanaland is, however, by no méans the creation of paleontologists alone; its founda- tions are also geological. Succeeding chapters are devoted to the description of different pro- vinces of North America in the latter part of the Paleozoic era, and the author summarises the results of an intensive study of Upper Pennsyl- vanian and Permo-Carboniferous rocks in certain areas. “It is difficult for a reader not conversant with American stratigraphy to interpret the forma- tions mentioned in terms‘of European classifica- tion, and-one feels the lack of more helpful correlation-tables than those provided. °» One of ‘the most valuable features of the book is the emphasis laid on the necessity for regarding ‘fdssils as once living things, and for considering ‘their ‘distribution in the strata in relatizn to the problems presented to them by their environment. The chapter on the climatology of the later ‘Paleozoic is a particularly useful mine of informa- 'tion. - In the concluding chapter the author dis- ‘cusses’ the development and fate of vertebrate life in the Permo-Carboniferous period in relation to physical conditions. During Early Pennsylvanian time the conditions were singularly uniform over ‘large’ areas, and the climate was equable and humid; a monotonous environment implies a limit ‘to the number of genera and species in a flora or fauna; older ‘and simpler types would persist because the variants, which were possibly being constantly produced, would not have a chance to develop. This idea is elaborated, though not so clearly as one could wish. It is suggested that the Upper Pennsylvanian fauna, though hampered in its further progress by the monotony of the envi- ronment, was accumulating force preparatory to a great radiation which would find expression when the limitations were removed. Prof. Case adds: “The fauna, long restrained from any expression of its evolutionary tendencies, full fed, and in the vigour of its youth, responded at once to the change, and new forms appeared so suddenly as to be unheralded in the preserved remains.” This and similar passages illustrate the more imagina- tive side of the author’s work. The palzobotanical data are largely taken from the ‘contributions of Mr. researches are well known. NO. 2634, VOL. 105] David White, whose | The American Coal . Measures have unfortunately yielded scarcely’ any petrified material comparable with that from England and.a few other European countries, and although there is a wealth of plant impressions, anatomical criteria. of climatic conditions are not available. A. C, SEWARD. Wheat and Wheat-growing. Y Essays on Wheat. By Prof. A. H. R. Buller. Pp. xv + 339. London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd., 2.50 dollars. ae ROF.: BULLER’S “ Essays - on Wheat ” yevare among the most interesting things we have seen for a. long time. . As professor of botany in the University of Manitoba, he has unrivalled opportunities of studying the ramifications of the wheat industry, for in no city in the world. is 1919.) Price wheat so important.as in Winnipeg. He is singu- — larly fortunate in his subject, and he tells his story remarkably well, giving the wealth of detail, the figures, and the references needed by the man of science, without sacrificing interest or BiSreRy form. The first essay deals with the early hiseee) ‘of wheat growing in Manitoba, It is a story in which Parkman would have revelled. The first attempt was made in 1812 by a little band of pioneers sent out from Scotland by Lord Selkirk — to colonise the 116,000 sq. miles of territory granted to him by the Hudson Bay Co.; they settled at the junction of the Red and Assiniboine rivers where Winnipeg now stands. crop failed, as also did the second. The failure is scarcely surprising. “‘ There was not a plow in the whole colony, ,the one harrow was incomplete and could not be used, and all the labour of break- ing up and working: over the tough sod had to be — done with. the hoe.’’ The Indians were amazed, and nicknamed the colonists “jardiniers.” For- tunately for the settlers, potatoes and turnips did well, or they must have had two very bitter winters. The. third crop succeeded. But the troubles were by no means at an end. Birds were a great nuisance, especially the now extinct pas- senger pigeon. In the fourth year the adherents of the North-West Company and their half-breeds made serious trouble and caused no little blood- shed, and, to crown all, in the sixth year, just as the settlers were about to reap their second good harvest, there came a great plague of locusts which stripped the fields and gardens bare. It was more than even these brave men could stand; the old record says: “The unfortunate emigrants, looking up to heaven, wept.” .It speaks volumes for their good Scottish upbringing if they did no (New York: The Macmillan Co. 5 Pe a ee ee ee ae The first — —————— errs meee “NATURE it’ damage, and not ‘until 1830 did prosperity ‘come; from that time on, however, the tale is one steady and increasing progress. Space doés not allow of quotations from Prof. iller’s description of modern wheat growing in Canada, but this-is less necessary since is more generally known than the earlier . While it has less human interest, the e is still a fascinating record of what can be hieved by intelligent organisation. ‘Another essay is devoted to the Red Fife and M is wheats. Red Fife’ was introduced into iMesnade some sixty years ago, and by reason of its rling merit and great suitability to Canadian “4 - conditions it spread far and wide, doing. much _ to make Canada’s reputation as a wheat-producing country. The farmer is rarely a writer, and David _ Fife, who raised the first crop about the year 1842, _ has himself left no record of how he did it. But, _ though written contemporary records are lacking, oral traditions are abundant; some of them are __ reproduced by Prof. Buller, and they can almost _ be graded in point of time by their respective wealth of picturesque detail. The earliest written record is in the Canadian Agriculturist for March, 1861. ‘It is there related that David. Fife, of in Glasgow a quantity of wheat drawn from a argo coming direct from Danzig. The wheat with ; it failed to ripen, excepting only three heads, hic! oy sprang from a single grain. : ‘The Csitinental origin of Red Fife was 4 definitely _ established’ by Dr. Charles Saunders in 1904, when he proved its complete identity with a _ ‘Galician spring wheat. Dr. William Saunders, the revered first organ- iser of the experimental stations in Canada, whose courtly bearing and distinguished kindliness will hte be remembered by those who knew him, _ began soon after 1886 to make crosses between ‘Red Fife and other varieties with a view to im- x Pavoveinent: One of the crosses actually made by . he son Arthur in 1892 was between Red Fife as ‘male and an early ripening Indian wheat, ‘Hard Red Calcutta, as female. Unfortunately, the Indian wheat is a mixture, and the precise ‘variety Riise’ cannot now be determined. When Dr. ‘Saunders’s second son Charles: became Dominion NO. 2634, VOL. 105 | progeny. of. this cross, and selected from the mass of material one ‘strain of outstanding excellence, which he called “Marquis,” and which, from a single head in 1903, has spread over Canada and the United States, until in 1918 it was sown on 20,000,000 acres of land and yielded some 300,000,000 bushels of grain. So wonderful a rate of growth can scarcely have occurred before in the whole history of the world. It is not often that-a reviewer wishes a book had been longer, but that is decidedly one’s feeling in closing this volume. One can only hope that Prof. Buller will find time to give us more of these delightful essays. E. J. Russe... The Fertilisation of the Ovum. Problems of Fertilization. By Prof. Frank Rattray Lillie. (The University of Chicago Science Series.) Pp. xii+278. (Chicago, Til. : The University of Chicago Press; London : The Cambridge University Press, hi a Price 1.75 dollars net. Bi problem of fertilisation, of what Weitly happens when the spermatozoon meets the ovum, and of how the latter is incited to begin the long series of rhythmical cleavages that finally result in a new organism, is one of the most interesting and at the same time one of the most complex in biologital science. From the time of Aristotle, who held that “the female always supplies the matter, the male the power of crea- tion,” the problem has engaged the attention of biological philosophers, and no doubt it will con- ’ | tinue to do so for generations to come, for the ‘more it is investigated the more ‘becomes, and each new theory, evolved under the intricate — it influence of new experimental methods, is dis- carded in turn as our knowledge of facts increases. Not the least interesting part of Prof. Lillie’s book is the historical survey with which it opens. The discovery of the spermatozoon by Leeuwen- hoek and Hamm in 1677 was epoch-making’ for biological science, and, of course, was rendered possible only by the duvet of the compound microscope. Like all other great discoveries, it was Cevpoeginnoraped followed by sensational nonsense, and we find “a certain Dr. Dalen Patius” claim- ing that the human body is actually visible in perfect miniature within the spermatozoon! This grotesque view, however, was but an’ extreme form of that held by the spermatist school. in general, which maintained that the ovum plays no other part in the production of the young animal than that of furnishing the germ contained in the spermatozoon with nourishment. / " , 226 ‘NATURE [APRIL 22, 1920 “The elaboration of microscopicaltechnique in the nineteenth century, leading to the discovery of the’ cell,’ with its nucleus and chromosomes, afforded conclusive -evidence that ovum . and spermatozoon contribute more or less equally to the organisation of the new individual, and placed upon a_ secure foundation the fundamental generalisation that both -are cell-units. . Exactly how ‘they co-operate in initiating development: is the problem discussed by Prof. Lillie, in the light both ‘of: his own observations and of those of a small army of fellow-workers in the same field, pre-eminent amongst’ whom stand out the names of Hertwig, ho) Boveri, pelser, Loeb, and E. B. Wilson. ‘There’ is one fact of fundamental importance about which all observers seem now to be agreed, and:that:is the twofold character of the process of normal.fertilisation ; not only does it stimulate the egg: to develop, it-also results in the combination of maternal and paternal chromosomes in the zygote nucleus: -This combination .is of the most far- reaching significance for the theory of heredity, but'it appears.to have. little or nothing to do with the«:/‘activation”” of the ovum which leads to development, and is. only incidentally referred to in the'voluime before us. » KS to how the activation is effected, there seem tobe /almost as many views as there are observers. It:is well-known, however, that activation.can take place without the aid of a spermatozoon, and that artificial; parthenogenesis may be brought about by,.a great variety. of methods, involving .the application of chemical or physical stimuli. The problem -is one of. physiological chemistry, and apparently. many factors may be.concerned in the process. ;The-secretion of a substance by the egg. which causes the spermatozoa ,to agglutinate and adhere. .to the. surface, appears to be. one of the -most;important,. The formation of the so-called “fertilisation-membrane” as a result of the. im- pact,.of: the spermatozoon and the consequent cortical. changes that take place in the ovum are fully. discussed, and. the hypothesis is put forward that a.substance (“fertilizin ”) exists in the cortex which exerts.a ferment-like action as it penetrates into,the egg, or is carried in by the spermatozoon, and-it-is suggested that the spermatozoon itself requires to be “fertilised ” by passing through the cortex , before it can play, its proper part in the eyents | which . take viAce internally and lead..to development. t; _,_The. book, contains, a vast amount of information as. to, _recent,, discoveries and theories, and will Serve asa very, useful guide to those who wish to follow up this most, intricate subject, as D. NO. 2634, VOL, 105] ‘Wisdom of Life and Existence. A Gentle, Cynic: Being a Translation of the Book of Koheleth, commonly known as Ecclesiastes, stripped of Later Additions; also its. Origin, Growth, and Interpretation.. By Prof. Morris Jastrow, jun. Pp. 255. (Philadelphia and London: J. B. Lippincott Co., rot9 Ii Price gs. net. ROF. MORRIS JASTROW, _jun., = hee University of Pennsylvania, is. well:.known among: scholars. as ‘one of the best . equipped analysts and interpreters, of Biblical lore... In this: volume ‘he has, taken the: Book of Koheleth in its. origin, growth, and’ interpretation, and thrown a: good deal of fresh ici on the subject. ce aa Cae Pee In a foreword of twenty pages: i is given: a very able sketch of. the. main _ principles ,of Biblical criticism and of the enormous gain which-accrues from a knowledge and acceptation.of them. . By such means only are we able: to :pass. from the realm of confusion .to that. of clearness. In, our generation alone has the religious portion-of man- kind come to realise this necessity, and even to-day the realisation is but a portion of a small minority. Yet only by.the adoption of scientific methods can the past be illumined in the realm of religion, as it has been illumined in every. other field. The author passes on to examine the origin and ‘structure of the Book of Kohéleth. Heére he arrives at the conclusion that: the«book, as we possess it to-day, - rendering of an earlier version, which, when: it is viewed without the accretions, presents ‘a: gentle criticism of human life and. existence.. .The version knows nothing of what: lies. behind or before us. It really deals with man’s passage through life, and emphasises the present infinitely more than: either the past or the future. Man is. asked to make the most’ of the good things that Nature brings to him; ‘he is warned not to worry about speculative things, such as his own final goal or the destiny of the universe. In spite of much that: is hidden; life ‘has a meaning here and now; it has enjoyments which seine it worth while to live. Now, itis evident: that. such: an cmplied Epicurean view..of life. would never do as a religious interpretation of the universe or of life itself. As it, stood originally, the Book of: Koheleth had no chance of entering into the sacred books. It is therefore edited, added to, and polished so as to furnish here . and there pious. injunctions of rewards and punishments in. order. that the. life is an expanded and -edited — oe eee is APRIL ‘22, 1920] NATURE 227 @. of the. present may, be lived in accordance with < ideal ends.” ° God and the future are : q brouglit in as the norms to which life has’ to conform. s This portion of the book is a brilliant piece of 4 ‘work,’ ‘and the author has brought to bear upon it not only great learning, but also a lightness : a of touch which really borders.on something like In the hands of men such as Prof. originality. | 4 4 ccow, the. Bible can again become a work of ‘ = Bienerise: significance. _ The next part of the book presents us with the Be words of Koheleth in their original form, stripped of later’ interpolations, sayings, and comments. The translation of Koheleth is excellent, and in & reading it we seem to be brought face to face i with a book published yesterday, because it looks upon the world of Nature and of life from a point of view which cannot be neglected. Of course, _ such aspects do not exclude: others, but it is always well to make the best use of each point of view, and not to try to form a composite so e that no meaning can be extracted from it. No doubt Prof. Jastrow had something like this - in mind when he undertook the preparation of _ this volume, and we sincerely hope he will deal __with other composite books of the Old Testament as he has done so splendidly with the Pom of _ Koheleth. New Books on Industrial Chemistry. i (2) Applied Chemistry: A Practical Handbook for _ Students of Household Science and Public Health. By Dr. C. Kenneth Tinkler and Helen Masters. Vol. i., Water, Detergents, Textiles, _ Fuels, etc. ‘Pp. xii+292. (London: Crosby Lockwood and Son, 1920.) Price 125, = met. (2) Chemistry from the Industrial Standpoint. By _ P. C. L. Thorne. (New Teaching Series.) Pp. xvi+244. (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1919.) Price 4s. 6d. net. _ (3) Fuel, Water, and Gas Analysis for Steam Users. By John B. C, Kershaw. Second _ edition, revised and enlarged. Pp. xii+ 201. (London: Constable and Co., Ltd., 1919.) Price 12s. 6d. net. (4). Popular Chemical Dictionary. By C. T. Kingzett. Pp. vi+368. (London: Bailliére, Tindall, and Cox, 1920.) Price 15s. net. (rt) IS work is mainly intended for students in their third year who are Preparing for Sistocras 1 in household and social science, and for diplomas and degrees in public. health: of the various universities. There is no work known NO. 2634, VOL. 105] =e _ business man. to the .reviewer that covers the ground im’ the same manner as this. The book is clearly,.and attractively written, and forms a most, useful addition, not only to, the academic. student, but also to the. works chemist,..who must,.often adjudicate upon matters such as are dealt with in this work. The book does not deal with manufacturing operations, but gives a clear and. practical. exposi- tion (with the necessary theoretical explanations) of the methods employed in analysing and apprais- ing the value of water, water softening pro- cesses, soap, textile fibres, bleaching agents, . dry cleaning, air analysis, gaseous fuels, liquid. and solid fuels, materials used in the protection of wood, metallic and other surfaces, etc. Although the authors themselves make no claim to origin- ality, many of the subjects are treated in a manner very different from. that. prevailing in most of the existing works on. the ‘sub- ject. Every. technical chemist should . possess a copy of this work for reference, as there: is collected together here in one volume a large . mass of material which is usually scattered piece- meal throughout a number of expensive treatises. Altogether this is a book to be thoroughly recom- mended, and it should command a. wide.sale.. '’ (2) Mr. Thorne has written an interesting little book on a very large subject, which is clearly and attractively explained, and the volume marks a considerable departure from the older style of text-book. Not very long ago a book. of this type would have enjoyed no sale, but: would have been coldly received in scientific circles, and the advent of such a work shows what.a revolu- tion has been wrought in the chemical-“world within the last few years. The reviewer cannot help thinking, however, that Dr. Briscoe’s excel- lent introduction is somewhat hard upon ‘the His own experience is’ that’ the business world is very much alive to scientific possibilities, whereas the purely professional university-trained chemist of the past was not only largely unpractical, but also held himself aloof from the problems: of the business man, ‘and the latter’s caution. was founded in many cases upon heavy losses. attained by contact with the semi- scientific “‘expert,”” who regards the business’ man as his natural prey. -For the earnest technical student or the trained works chemist the book naturally is not of great use, as it cannot go into exact detail. For a young chemist, however, entering works for ‘the first time, it gives an excellent summary of the main operations involved: im. chemical ‘industry, and is well up-to-date as regards modern develop 2.28 NATURE | [APRIL 22,1920. ments, as witness the references to rotary filters, catalytic action, hydrogenation of fats, etc. The ordinary business man engaged in dealing with the products of chemical industry will undoubtedly derive ‘considerable benefit from the perusal of this volume. The style is clear enough to be intelligible even to the non-technical reader. - (3) Fuel and water are such important subjects industrially that any book dealing -with them is bound fo receive serious attention from every works chemist and steam user. The présent work (now in ‘its second edition) meets a ‘well-defined want in that it gives trustworthy and up-to-date technical’ methods of sa Sey fuel, water, and gas. Part 1. idedié with fuel; fuel sampling, analysis of fuel, thermal’ values of fuel, etc., and is excel- lent. Part ii. ‘deals with “water ais applied to technical purposes; miethods’ of sampling and analysing: it, of softening, and of calculating: the amount of softening materials to be added, are given in full. Here, in: a’concise form, are the materials upon which ‘a ‘practical opinion can be formed. as to the best méthods of dealing: with any given type of water. The subject of part iii. is waste gases, their sampling, analysis, ‘and valua- tion. : tre esha “The work ‘is written'by an-authority: wiht is in _ practical touch with the *numerous ‘and difficult problems'relating to fuel and water which’ every works) chemist has to handle.’ It can be recom- mnended * ‘to! every: industrial chemist. (4), The author has achieved his aim of produc- : ay a* popular 3 dictionary ‘of chemistry, and the work; so far as it goes, is Very complete, almost évery well-known chemical’or piece of chemical apparatus ‘being “briefly ' mentioned. It is very difficult ‘to see, however, for what class of reader sucha work’is intended. For: purposes of strict reference the volume is’ far ‘too ‘ Sse mre For example, on looking up the word “ pyridine,” We' are informed that’ it is’ ‘a nitrogenous base present in bone oil, and in tar obtained from Shale’ and.coal.” No méntion’ is ‘made of its boil- ing point, specific gravity, constitutional formula, solubilities, etc., which’ the average: reader would féquire.'” This is typical of ‘the work. ‘ In the reviewer’s experience, no one: looks up chemical terms": for ~ amusethent.' ‘Definite. quantitative information: is what the user of a dictionary requires in ninety-nine casés ‘ot’ of ‘a hundred, afid itis these quantitative: data'‘which are ‘so con- Spituously Jacking in the present volume. ' The egastants Of most’ of the’ materials should have | » usés;" vibe Peg names, ‘ete! - ’ There: ate: ‘also ‘papers been giveti'in a work ‘of'this'kind. -“* G.'M. > NO. 2634, VOL. 105 | Our Bookshelf. se The Theory of Heat. By Prof. Thomas Preston. Third edition. Edited by J. Rogerson Cotter. Pp. xix +840. (Macmillan and Co., Ltd., 1919.) Price 25s. net. Ir is pleasant to ‘meet an old friend still ‘oing strong in spite of years and changing fashions. In these days of rapid progress a quarter of a century is a long: period in the life of a book dealing with a living science. The secret of the continued popularity of Preston’s’ work is no doubt ‘to be found in the fact that the book was written as a labour of love in the interests of true scientific education, instead of .being merely com- piled to suit an arbitrary standard or syllabus, adapted to a particular type of Student? ‘or a special limit of mathematical attainment. The object has been to give a comprehensive survey of the development of the theory of heat from an | historical point of view, which possesses many, advantages in the exposition of a_ scientific subject. The historical order of evolution, theory and in experiment, generally follows the natural processes of reasoning of the human mind/ and introduces fresh ideas in a regular sequence in. which they are: readily assimilated. - The -de- ductive method, starting with a general law or formula, may frequently provide a. more direct means of arriving at any particular _ result. or practical application, but it tends to obscure the essential foundation on experiment, and to rob the subject of human interest. From the point of view of the general reader, as distinguished from. -the” ‘special student, there can be no com- parison ;between the two. methods. . There is an illusion of. finality. in the deductive method. which ‘both — in appeals to the mathematical mind, but the his- torical methdd, when illustrated, as in Preston, by a critical discussion of typical experiments, is the. more suggestive, inspiring the student to think. for himself and.to make further advances. The book is so well known that it only. remains to add that Mr. Cotter has. shown=himself to be a most sympathetic and capable editor in both pruning and grafting. .The important, additions, 6n recent advances in the theory of radiation and specific heat, and on the kinetic theory gases, are admirable summaries, Conbentea ‘and carried out in the-spirit of the original. ee ee ‘C. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew: “Bulletin of Mis- cellaneous Information, IQIQ. Pp. iv + 459+ 39. (London: H.M.S.O., 1919.)° Price 4s. 6d. net. Tus volume coatee the ten numbers -of. the Kew Bulletin - which were © ‘ published © at in- tervals from “April to December, 1919.:: The thirty- three articles include .papers and. miscellaneous, notes of .both economic and: , Strictly, - - botanical interest. _ Mr. Fe H. Holland contributes. a useful pcr c e ? ta * B i ea Prat - a ee ee es a eee ke a a — APRIL 22, 1920] NATURE . 2229 on “ The Drie Mahoganies,”* by Mr. R. A. Rolfe, and ‘‘ The Jerusalem Artichoke,’’ by Mr..C. C. Lacaita ; the latter is an exhaustive discussion on introduction of this vegetable to the Old orld and the origin of its popular name. An account is given of Lord Ventry’s experiments on gtowing New Zealand flax in Ireland; the evi- goes far to show that the possibility of “growing it in South-West Ireland as a commercial undertaking is an established fact. ‘ Silver-leaf Disease” and * ‘The Skin-spot Disease of Potato- tubers ’’ are the titles of two important con- tributions on plant-diseases by Messrs J. Bintner and M. Nest Owen respectively. Results of botanical exploration are embodied in Dr. Hems- Tey’s account of the flora. of Aldabra and adjacent ands and in Mr. Turrill’s résumé of the botani- cal results of Swedish South American and Ant- “arctic expeditions. ‘The more purely botanical ‘papers include a Burkill, of the identity of the plant, or plants, ‘known under the name Dioscorea sativa; and a revision by Mr. W. B. Grove of the species of the fungus genus Phoma. There is also an historical _ account of the botanic garden of Pamplemousses, Mauritius; and the new flagstaff at Kew and its erection are described in detail. The obituary “notices include those of Prof. J. W. H. Trail of Aberdeen and Prof. W. G. Farlow of Harvard. ‘The Story. of Milk. By di. D. Frederiksen. _ Pp. xx+ 188. (New York: The Macmillan ; London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd., 1919.) ’ Price Qs. net. author tells his story in a clear and interest- manner, and the general reader, as well as » student of domestic science or dairying, will w the contents of the book with pleasure and ofit. The subject-matter is sound, and the concise, practical directions will be valuable to -anybody who is acquainted with the general methods of butter-making and cheese-making. There are sections dealing with the composition pis properties of milk, the testing of milk, the part played by enzymes and bacteria, and the methods BY. which organisms are utilised or controlled. — Milk supply and butter-making and the manu- facture of ice cream are the chief subjects of Br scotice section. As the book is written for ‘American readers, the sixteen pages devoted to recipes for ice cream are perhaps not excessive, and: they will not fail to raise in the English mind a feeling of envy that such delectable things as ‘parfaits and mousses are not more general. '. Cheese-making is well dealt with, and working details are supplied, whilst the methods adopted in the manufacture of condensed milk, ‘milk powder, and casein are briefly sketched: — Z ‘Very rightly the food value of milk is given a prominent. place, and the recipes for dishes in _ which milk or cheese forms an important part are re attractive, and should be found very useley to NO. 2634, VOL. 105 | careful examination, by Sir David Prain and Mr. many. A certain. amount.of. historical informa- tion is given, and the names and labours of notable workers in the various branches of dairying are also to be found in the book. A First Year Physics for Junior Technical Schools. By G. W. Farmer. With an Introduction by S. C. Laws. Pp. x+183. (London: Long- mans, Green, and Co., i920.) Price 4s. 6d, Tuts book is intended for: use by. boys: of be- tween twelve and fourteen-years of age who have just completed the elementary-school course and are passing to a more advanced curriculum such as is provided in the junior technical, central, or continuation school. It may suit the courses in ‘some of these institutions, but if this is to be the only kind of instruction in physics during the first year of study, the diet cannot be said to be too stimulating. The work is concerned almost entirely with the use of simple measuring instruments. The description of three methods of verifying “ Py- thagoras,’’ of four ways of. measuring the weight: of a cubic centimetre of water, and of no fewer than eleven experiments to show that air exerts. pres- sure indicates too much devotion to completeness of detail at the expense of time which could. be ‘spent more profitably in giving the pupils glimpses ‘at the marvels of Nature by which they are sur- rounded. The Struggle in the Air, 1914-18. By. Major Charles C. Turner. Pp. viii + 288., (Lonsian:: Edward Arnold, 1919.) Price 15s. net. Major TurNER gives an extremely instructive and readable account of the development of aircraft from 1914 to 1918. With the work of ‘a’ genera- tion compressed into. four years of war, itis not ‘surprising that the developments and events -nar- rated crowd upon each other in bewildering’. suc- cession. The psychology of flying and. the official requirements as regards details of machines for war purposes form exceptionally valuable chapters of the book. Calculation of Electric.Conductors. By William T. Taylor. Pp. 34. (London: Constable and. Co., Ltd., 1919.)- Price 1os. 6d. net. A CHART supplied with the book enables the elec- trical engineer to determine the size of a con- ductor required to convey a current of a given value when the voltage drop and length of cable ‘are given, or to find any of these quantities when the three others are given. With the help of the explanatory text all the ordinary cables and systems can be thus dealt with. Revision Arithmetic, Logarithms, Slide Rule, Men- suration,. Specific .Gravity, and Density. By ‘Terry Thomas. Second edition, — revised. Pp. 62: (London: Crosby Lockwood ‘and Son, ‘1920.) Price 2s. 6d. NUMERICAL examples and answers are given, The standard is that of the Army and Navy Entrance Examinations. 230 NATURE [APRIL 22, 1920 Letters to the Editor. [The Editor does not hold himself responsible for Opinions expressed by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manuscripts intended for this or any other part of Nature. No notice is taken of anonymous communications.] The Separation of the Element Ghlorine into Normal Chlorine and Meta-Chlorine, and the Positive Electron. THE very important letter of Dr. Aston in NaturE of December 18, 1919, gives much evidence in favour of a theory of the structure and composition of the nuclei of complex atoms as published by me five years ago and in a number of more recent papers. This theory led me to the idea, as published at that time (Journal of the American Chemical Society, XXXvii., pp. 1367-96, especially pp. 1390, 1391, and 1387), that among the light elements magnesium, silicon, and chlorine, in addition to neon (as found by Thom. son), are mixtures of isotopes. The atomic weights of the normal isotopes were given as 24 for magnesium, 28 for silicon, and 35 for chlorine. It was also stated that nickel, copper, zinc, and practically all the other elements between atomic numbers 28 and 80, the latter being mercury, are mixtures of isotopes; while radio-active evidence shows that elements 81 (thallium) to 92 (uranium) exist in isotopic forms. This theory was recently summarised in. a paper sent to the Physical Review in May and November, 1919. This paper, as well as the others, should be consulted for the details of'the theory. In February, 1916, I announced that we were work- ing in this laboratory upon the separation of chlorine into isotopes by diffusion (ibid., xxxviii., p. 221, 1916). Early in 1917 Mr. W. D. Turner, my research assistant, found slight differences in density between the heavy and light fractions obtained by diffusing chlorine, but, since small amounts of impurities were very difficult to exclude, this did not seem at all con- clusive. Since if there are two isotopes of chlorine there are three molecular forms of the substance, a separation may be made more easily by: the use of ‘hydrogen chloride gas, and this has been used in nearly all our work for the last three years, though practically nothing was done during the period of the war. ~ The diffusion of this gas, as carried out on a moderately large scale by Mr. C Broeker and myself, seems now, judging by our preliminary analyses, to be resulting:in a definite separation of the gas into a heavier and a lighter fraction. The separation, while extremely slow, seems from our preliminary results on the heavy fraction to be of about the order to be expected by the Rayleigh diffusion theory, provided the atomic weights of the isotopes are 35 and 37; so the work is in good agreement with that of Dr. Aston. These results may be modified somewhat when our precise atomic weight determinations are made, since at the present time all our determinations are made by rapid methods. Our results suggest, but are not of a sufficient pre- cision really to indicate, the possibility that a third isotope of higher atomic weight may exist, but since the separation is extremely slow, and the positive ray method as worked out by Dr. Aston gives results very quickly, he should be able to test this suggestion much more rapidly than ourselves. _ Since 1916 we have diffused about 19,000 litres of hydrogen chloride gas as measured under standard conditions. The apparatus now in use will diffuse NO. 2634, VOL. 105 | about 400 litres per day, and we hope soon to raise the capacity to 1000 litres. These numbers refer to the fresh or ordinary gas introduced into the apparatus, and not to that which is rediffused in smaller units. The total number of units now in operation is five, and the method may be described as a_ fractional diffusion. While the idea that the hydrogen nucleus may be the positive electron is a very general one, the only evidence I have found in print which gives real support to this idea, and explains the facts which seem opposed to the idea, is to be found in papers by my associates and myself as cited above, and in my other papers listed at the end of this letter. The hydrogen nucleus or the positive electron has, according to these papers, a weight, and presumably a mass, of 1-000, on the basis of oxygen as 16-000, whenever the positive electron is combined in a com- plex atom. The atomic weight of ordinary hydrogen is 1-0077. The difference between 1-0077 and 1-000 is due either to the existence of meta-hydrogen of atomic weight 300 and composition (4,8,)+e- in ordinary hydrogen, or else to an_ electromagnetic packing (possibly to both), the latter as assumed by Sir Ernest Rutherford and by myself, but the details of which are to be found in my papers. In these formula 7+ is the positive electron, B- the negative electron when it is contained in the nucleus, and e- when it is a non-nuclear or planetary electron. The nuclei of atoms are built almost entirely from® the following particles * :— is Alpha particle or helium nucleus — (a+ +)=(tB>)+* 4°00 Nu particle or meta-hydrogen nucleus (vt) =(n$B>)*+ 3°00 Mu particle (#) =(nt8;) et ad Of these the a particle forms the greater part of all complex atoms; one v particle is found in most atoms of odd atomic number, at least among the light atoms; and the » particle, which has no net charge, is responsible for the existence of one of the two known classes of isotopes. The other class of isotopes is due to the presence of the group 7t;, which consists of an a particle, together with two cementing electrons. It is these cementing electrons which are shot off in f disintegrations of radio- atoms, and they always escape in pairs—that is, one directly after the other, or one just before and one just after the escape of an a particle. The number of negative electrons in the nucleus of an atom is almost always even, whether the nuclear charge is odd or even, but the number of positive electrons is nearly always odd in a nucleus of odd charge. How- ever, the nuclei which contain an even number of positive electrons, and are therefore built up either of a particles alone or of @ particles and negative electrons, are, on the whole, much more stable than those with an odd number; so the even-numbered elements are much the more abundant, and make up 98-7 per cent. of the meteorites and the greater part of the material of the earth. Furthermore, all the seven most abundant elements in the meteorites have an even atomic number, as is indicated in Fig. 1. In the exceptional case of nitrogen the group 7,8 is present, and in beryllium the group 78. A suggested structure for the @ particle is given in Fig. 2, where the large circles represent negative, and the small ones positive, electrons. The v group probably has a similar structure, but with three positive electrons at the corners of a triangle; while the lithium nucleus 1 The negative electrons in these particles may be called 4inding electrons, while t’ ose which attach extra a particles are called cementing electrons. ee ee Apri 22, 1920] NATURE 23! is assumed to consist of one a and one v group, with a symmetrical arrangement of the seven positive ‘electrons. Two a particles do not seem to combine, ‘but from three to eight, and also ten, a particles combine without the inclusion of any cementing electrons; but when more than ten unite, two or a : 0 % | ABUNDANCE OF THE ELEMENTS 50 Sy Mc FE 10 m | “| : : Mr < > NM > Cc oe Ty CR e 8 721416 al \.. 2 multiple of two negative electrons are used in cement- _ ing on extra a particles—that is, a particles which do ot contribute to the positive charge on the nucleus. Argon and calcium have isomeric atoms, the formula ae Fic. 2. F of the former being a,.8.e’,, and that of the latter Gie’rs@2, SO both have the general formula a,,¢y9- _ The formule given below represent a few charac- teristic atoms :— Even Nuclear Charge » Nucla A? 10°6 Fe aj ,foe'sg¢s Odd Nuclear Charge N agnoBe'oes ave" oe Cl AgVe’ 967 and gy me’ yoy Co a 4rBye 189 Thorium Series Uranium Series a Th 05 gBo¢¢' so’ U A594 Boge’ gate TAX ag Baye’ ge¢e Ra Ogu Bose’ 66 .. PH(Th) a598o9¢"n9¢4 Pb(Ra). a5,4Bao?"79¢4 Here e represents a valency electron, e’ a non-nuclear _ électron in one of the inner shells, and 8 a cementing _ electron in the nucleus. The evidence for. these _ formulz is good, but cannot be presented here. ~~ NO. 2634, VOL. 105 | in my letter in Narure of March 4. It will be seen that this hydrogen-helium-meta- hydrogen theory of atom-building is based upon the atomic weight and atomic number relations; the Rutherford atom; the rule of Soddy, Fajans, and Russell .for radio-active changes ; and the atomic weight relations discovered by Rydberg about thirty years ago; and is dependent for its validity upon the existence of chlorine, magnesium, silicon, and_ the heavy atoms in isotopic forms. It is a resurrection and an extension of the hypothesis of Prout. References.—J. Am. Chem. Soc., xxxvii., pp. 1367- 96 (1915); Xxxix., pp. 856-79 (1917); Phil. Mag., XXX., Pp. 723-34 (1915); Science, N.S., xlvi., pp. 419- 27, 443-48 (1917); Proc. Nat. Acad. Sciences, i., p. 276 (1915); ii, pp. 216-24 (1916); Physical Review, February, 1920, in press. WitutiaM D. Harkins. Department of Chemistry, University of Chicago, March 8. I wave read Prof. Harkins’s letter with great interest. If Prof. Harkins has succeeded in separating the isotopic hydrochloric acids he is certainly to be congratulated. The yery meagye positive results from my work with neon described at the British Associa- tion meeting in 1913 convinced me of the ‘extreme_ difficulty and labour of such diffusion experiments. In the case of neon I had only to grapple with a twentieth root in the diffusion equation, whereas with HCI it is the thirty-sixth root which is involved. In connection with the possibility of a third isotope of chlorine in the full account of my recent analysis of this element, now in the press, I have described a faint line at 39 which may be this. - SE PEE ave More experimental results will be required befote the time is ripe for the formulation of a comprehensive theory of atomic structure.- I do not propose, there- fore, to discuss the one put forward by Prof. Harkins, but would like to point out that his basal assumptiqn that the positive electron has a weight 1000 “is definitely contradicted by experimental_results quoted F. W. Aston.” Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge, April 20. ; On Atomic and Molecular Structure. Tue statement of Mr. S. C. Bradford in.the second paragraph of his letter to Nature of April 8, that J, suppose the electrons to revolve in small circles with- out any constraining force, is erroneous. The fact that I reserved an opinion as to the nature of the con- straining force does not imply, as he suggests, that I deny its existence. Thus (cf. Science Progress, April, 1920, and Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc., vol. ccxx,, p. 247, 1920) an electron moving with — speed v perpendicular to a magnetic field of intensity H (which may originate in the nucleus) describes a circular orbit of radius p=mv/He, and the frequency of the electron is v=He/2mm, which (and this is an advantage in the case of a radiating orbit) is inde- pendent of the speed with which the electron describes the orbit. At present we know little about the actual value of v. If H is of the order 10’ gauss, the value ascribed to the molecular field from magnetic con- siderations, the frequency is that of infra-red radia- tion, and the ‘correlation of the elastic properties of the medium (which are determined by this molecular field) with the infra-red vibrations, as_ originally pointed out by Debye, is apparent. Within an atom the controlling field may be of the order 10* gauss, which gives rise to vibrations of optical frequency. Closer to the nucleus a field of 10° gauss gives rise to frequencies comparable with those of a K series. Finally. it should be nointed out that the ring electron theory, which Mr. Bradford attributes to 232 NATURE [APRIL 22, 1920 Dr. H. S. Allen, was originally expounded by Mr. A. L.- Parson (Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, vol. Ixv., p. 1, 1915). The advantages: of: sucha theory were ably expressed recently by Dr. Allen in an opening address before the Physical Society of London. . A. E. OXLEy. The British Cotton Industry Research Association, 108 Deansgate, Man- chester. Aquarium Cultures for Biological Teaching. THE increase in the number of students in biology during the last few years has created a demand for large quantities of such animal types as Ameba, Actinospherium, brown Hydra, and Daphnia. It is often very difficult to obtain to time vast numbers of these types; for in. Nature the supply is exceedingly precarious, depending as it does on conditions which are constantly fluctuating. In endeavouring to secure a continuous and plentiful supply of Amoeba proteus, I have accumulated a certain amount of experience in aquarium-keeping on a large scale, the results of which will be useful to others who, like myself, have to deal with large numbers of students. Information with regard to Amoeba culture has already been given in ‘Notes on the Collection and Culture of Amoeba proteus for Class Purposes ’’ (Proc. Roy. Phys. Soc. Edin., vol. xx., part 4, p. 179). Since the publication of that note, however, I have tried, as an alternative plan for procuring the material necessary to inoculate a culture, a modification . of the respective methods described by J. B. Parker (‘A Method of Obtaining a Supply of Protozoa,’ Science, N.S., vol. xlii., No. 1og0, p. 727, 1915), Libbie Hyman (Journ. Exp. Zool., vol. xxiv., No. 1), and Asa A. Shaeffer (ibid., vol. xx., No. 4), and with success. Water from such places as the drainage-cuttings in birch, alder, and willow woods, or from the margins of ordinary pools and ponds, together with the fila- mentous alge and the brown scum and_ included diatoms overlying the. dead leaves. and the other decaying organic matter forming the floor of such places, is gathered in autumn or in early spring. This is allowed to stand in tap-water for some time, until a rich brown scum appears on the top. The top water with the scum is poured off into another ‘glass vessel, and wheat is added (1 gram to a litre of water). In February minute Amoebe begin to thake their appearance; these become fully grown in May and June, and will then divide rapidly, forming a luxuriant culture until the late autumn, when encyst- ment of most individuals again takes place. Once started, Amoeba cultures require no further attention than a supply of water to compensate for evaporation, and the addition of wheat from time to time. I am indebted to Prof. Bourne, of Oxford, for information that boiled rain-water can be used in those districts, e.g. Oxford, where the tap-water con- tains much mineral matter. Actinosphaerium.—My principal difficulty in the culture of Actinosphwria has been in main- taining for them a sufficient food-supply. Stentors and vorticelloids, their favourite food, appear to require running water, and therefore quickly die off when introduced into the laboratory (except the green stentor, which thrives well when once established, and a small. vorticelloid which appears in infusions of certain pond-weeds).. The common rotifer is an excellent food, and this can be ob- tained from rubbish left over from pond-gatherings by means of wheat or hay infusion. Members of the familv Cathypnadze (especially Monostyla, which is of NO. 2634, VOL. 105 | frequent occurrence in Amoeba cultures, and there- _ fore easily grown in wheat-water) are the most useful _of the above-mentioned foods. Since Actinosphzria disappear very quickly when their food is exhausted, and since, on the other hand, they grow and multiply very rapidly when the food- supply is good, and very quickly exhaust this food- supply, it is necessary to give the Rotifer culture a good start before irtroducing the Actinospheria into it. In practice I have several Monostyla cultures in readiness, and then, about three months before requir- ing large numbers of Actinosphzria, I inoculate one or more of the Monostyla cultures with a few Actino- spheria and set the jar aside. These latter soon multiply and appear in myriads. -Hydra.—Large brown Hydra showing buds and reproductive organs can be obtained in considerable ‘numbers and very quickly in laboratory cultures (especially in rooms with a fairly uniform temperature of 60° F.) if they are systematically fed on a generous diet of Crustaceans, which latter can be obtained by the culture gf Daphnia. The Daphnia should be strained off by means of a small net, and a concen- trated mass of them in a small quantity of water should be added periodically to the jar containing the Hydra. Several hundreds of Hydra by this means can be obtained from one or two individuals in a few weeks. Interesting colour-changes, varying from dingy brown to a bright pink, can easily be effected in brown Hydra by varying the Crustacean diet. Daphnia.—I am indebted to Mr. P. Jamieson for the discovery of the value of small pieces of earth- worm for the cultivation of Daphnia. If an infusion of dead earthworms in water be allowed to stand in a ‘warm place (i.e. near the radiators in the laboratory) it is quickly converted into a rich food, which can be added to the Daphnia cultures. as required. A few Daphnia introduced into a large wide-mouthed glass bottle or beaker of water, to which the worm-water © Several is regularly added, very quickly. multiply. of these cultures should be kept going if the cultiva- tion of Hydra is very intensive, as they must be allowed to recuperate after they have been depleted by use. A variety of other Protozoa, Crustaceans, Oligo-— cheetes, etc., make their appearance in the above- mentioned cultures, commonly sufficient to supply abundant material for demonstration purposes. Monica Taytor, S.N.D. Convent of Notre Dame, Glasgow. lonisation in the Solar Chromosphere. Ir is well known that the spectrum of the upper layers of the solar chromosphere is chiefly composed of those lines which are relatively more strengthened in the spark than in the arc, and which Sir Norman Lockyer originally styled enhanced lines. The best- known examples are the calcium H and K and the strontium pair (4216, 4077). According to modern theories of spectral emission, these lines are due to an atom which has lost one electron. The principal line due to the normal atom of calcium is the g-line 4227, and the corresponding Sr line is 4607, both of which occur at much lower levels. According to modern theories, therefore, Ca, Sr, and Ba atoms are more and more ionised as we approach the upper layers of | the solar atmosphere, while in the lower layers both normal and ionised atoms occur. If we assume that ionisation is a sort of reversible — chemical process taking place according to the scheme Ca—Cat+e-U, where e is the electron, Ca* is a positively charged Ca atom, and U is the energy of — 4 ee ee NATURE 233 sation, we can apply Nernst’s theorem of the iction-isobar ’’ to calculate the amount of ionisa- under any given thermal stimulus. The. method upon a remark of Nernst in his book, ‘‘ Der _ Warmesatz...” (p. 154), that the electron _be regarded as a monatomic gas of molecular tsyg, and that its chemical. constant can be ited according to the Tetrode-Sackur relation C= log emi recently been applied by Eggert (Ver. d. D. Gesell., December 15, 1919) for the calculation he degree of ionic dissociation in the interior of a ‘, aS supposed es Eddington in his theory of stellar ures. But Eggert calculates U in a_ rather al manner for iron from assumed atomic msions and structures of the iron atom. e can, however, calculate U directly from the = of the ionisation potential as experimentally ined by Franck and Hertz, MacLennan, and , or from the quantum relation es a é the value of U determined in this way for um, barium, strontium, hydrogen, and helium, : following remarkable results appear : ; i) About 30-40 per cent. of the Ca atoms are ionised over the photosphere; in the chromosphere, when pressure falls to 10-* atms., almost all the Ca are ionised. The same conclusion holds to a g degree for Ba and Sr. Hydrogen and helium are not ionised anywhere olar atmosphere. (This is due to their high n potential. V is 13-6 for H and 20-5 for He, Ca, Sr, and Ba the figures are 6-12, 5-7, and Helium can become ionised only in stars of e temperature exceeds 16,000 K. ssure has a great influence on ionisation, a in pressure causing great enhancement of = ore appears that the ionisation in the upper of the solar atmosphere, as revealed by the ced lines of Ca, Sr, and Ba, and probably also of 1 Sc, is due to reduced pressure and the yn potentials of these elements, and not _temperature. ts | theory has been worked out in a paper ated to the Phil. Mag. M. N. Sana. sity College of Science, Calcutta, March 8. ee! r —— —--—— ational Deflection of High-speed Particles. letter published in Nature of March 11 Prof. ton has shown that the statement made by me earlier letter to the effect that Einstein’s law al particle moving with the velocity of light is ot accord with the exact equation of the orbit itained in his report to the Physical Society, and ggests that my approximations were not sufficiently ose to warrant my conclusion. The line element m which Prof. Eddington derives the equation of orbit is expressed in co-ordinates which make the ocity of light different in different directions at any le point, whereas the one used by me requires that 2 velocity of light should be a function of position and not of direction. In terms of my co- ites the equation of the orbit of a particle ng with the velocity of light is mn 1 mM ie um 2het a (1-22) cos 6, NO. 2634, VOL. 105] tion seems to lead to a zero deflection for a Ww which leads to the same deflection 45 for a material particle moving with the velocity of light as for a light-ray. Hence it is clear that my previous con- clusion was based on an insufficiently close approxima- ‘tion, and therefore erroneous. I am glad to see that Prof. Eddington has verified the other principal conclusion of my letter. Leicu Pace, Sloane Laboratory, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, March 29. Science and the New Army. Ir requires some courage to offer any opposition to the chorus of approval which has greeted the sug- gestion that a proportion of officers endowed with the scientific spirit should be included in the General Staff, but I venture to think that it is by no means so easy to give effect to this proposal as some correspondents in NaTURE seem to suppose. No doubt it would be delightful if we could have Staff officers who knew all about everything, but in actual practice the man who does useful work in the world is a specialist in one particular subject or in one particular branch of work. A good regimental officer requires a particular kind of training and possesses a certain set of qualifica- tions. Similarly, a good Staff officer requires a different training and possesses a different set of qualifications. A man of science, again, is different from either of the other two. The proportion of officers in the Army as a whole. who possess any _ scientific training is comparatively small: .There are a certain number of specialists whose ordinary duties are of a technical nature, and there are a few officers who take up some branch of science as a hobby, but the work of the average officer is not such as to bring him into touch with scientific thought and scientific methods. Men are to be found who are good Staff or regimental officers and also scientific workers, but they: are exceptions, and it seems to me that a system which demands a regular supply of exceptional men ‘is not one which is likely to work in practice. There is also a further difficulty. Granting, for the sake of argument, that there are sufficient officers in the Army who possess both the scientific spirit and the- qualities necessary for potential Staff officers, it is still necessary to devise a méthdd ‘of selecting them from their more ordinary fellows. Two methods are in common use, namely, examina- tion and nomination. - ; - An examination-is a good method of testing that form of knowledge which is acauired by study, but it will be generally agreed that it is not a sood method for detecting the scientific spirit. The difficulty in the case of nomination is that the candidates must be selected by ordinary regimental officers who can alone be acquainted with the qualifications of the individual candidates. The average regimental officer, however, is not himself a man of science, and I cannot see that he can ever become a judge of another officer’s scientific attainments. _ Without arguing, therefore, against the desirability of a General Staff containing an appreciable propor- tion of scientific officers, I suggest that the ideal is _unattainable excépt in so far as specialists are attached ‘to the Staff for their own particular work, and I think the object in view must be attained by some other means. It might be done by raising the general ‘| standard of education in scientific matters throughout ‘the country, but this is a very large question, and not a very easy one. 234 NATURE [APRIL 22, 1920 Probably the best hope of. an. immediate improve- ment in the relations between science and the Army lies in the’direction suggested by Prof. Filon ‘in his letter in Nature of April 1, in which he says :—‘‘I would suggest... that what is most urgently needed for General Staff officers is a course of scientific classification and organisation, where they would be taught the real meaning of scientific quali- fications and the names of living authorities in various subjects.” The position of the Signal Service is a case in point. I think I am correct in saying that a few years before the war there was scarcely an officer outside the Signal Service itself who knew what that Service was. It was generally recognised among the officers of the Signal Service that one of their chief duties would be to advise and instruct the staff in the possibilities and limitations of the Service, and that this duty would not be less important than the supervision of the technical duties of the Service itself. This prin- ciple was applied both in manceuvres and during the war, and I think that the correctness of the views held was fully borne out by experience. The ordinary Staff officer eventually learnt that battles could not be fought without signals, and that it was necessary to take the senior signal officer into his confidence if the best results were to be obtained. | I suggest that men of science in general might well follow this example. They should realise that the Staff officer is a specialist in his own particular busi- ness and that he cannot know everything, and they should themselves advise him how science can be used and what are its limitations. Technical and scientific societies might themselves select small committees which would be prepared to advise the War Office or other Government Depart- ments on technical matters. The committees might also be prepared.to nominate gentlemen who could visit the Staff College and other military centres and give lectures on their own special subjects. The lectures would not deal with technical matters to any great extent, but their purpose would be to show what had been done by the particular science or industry during the war, and to indicate in what directions assistance might be expected in future. One further suggestion I should like to make. Certain sums are allotted from time to time in con- nection with experiments on the design of militarv equipment, and these funds are devoted to work which is carried out almost entirely by. military officers acting under the instructions of War Office Com- mittees. The funds now allotted. are small, but J suggest that additional sums might be given for research work on military subjects which might be allotted by the War Office Committees to technical or scientific institutions outside the Army. Periodical discussions between the War Office Committees and the technical institutions with regard to these re- searches would tend to keep the War Office Staff in touch with leading scientific and technical workers outside, and it would. permit of those personal exchanges of oninion which are worth all the official letters which were ever written. ; K. E. EpGEwortn. Crowborough, April 1r. The Universities and the Army. — THE proposals contained in the.leading article in Nature of April 8, that the raw material for the com- missioned ranks should be university graduates rather than. public-school boys, may be ideal, -but it would have been more. practicable in-1914. than it is at the NO. 2634, VOL. 105 | present day. Under the existing pressure on the uni- versities there is rather a risk of the Army. candidate being squeezed out; there is not accommodation for all candidates for commissions to enter freely. For the moment we shall have to be content with a- measure by which selected officers can be accepted at universities for specialised training not readily avail- able elsewhere. contact with living science which is so essential for them, and has been so often lacking in the past. This will require supplementing by courses within the fighting Services if proper preparation is to be, made for the scientific aspects of the next war. -At least at the various Staff colleges trained scientific workers must lecture, while selected officers should be sent to work in university laboratories. The present state of friendly co-operation must not be allowed to disappear. The practice of farming out research problems to scientific institutions may have favourable results if pursued in a long-sighted manner and supported by adequate grants oe where necessary, by field or marine trials). Given close co-operation, it should lead to many problems of defence and offence being foreseen and solved in advance. The man of science should have his chance of pointing out to those who must listen (and who have the power of decisive action) what key industries are vital to the country’s safety, and cannot be allowed to pass entirely to other lands. The necessary mobilisation of science at the next emergency should be quicker and more practical, and the man of science should have a better sense of the nature of the problems that are likely to be sprung upon him to solve. One word by way of conclusion. The fighting Ser- vices are not the only national Services that would gain by a wide infusion of scientific knowledge and method. . J. M. Stratton. F. Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. Early Hawthorn Blossom. THE first sound of the cuckoo and the first flowers of the hawthorn have come this year about the same time, which is surely a remarkable occurrence. It is not unusual for hawthorn blossom to appear well after the beginning of May, and it has been suggested that the discontinuance of May Day festivi- ties was due in part to the change in the calendar introduced into this country in 1752, The change made May Day eleven days earlier by the sun, and so reduced the chance of obtaining whitethorn blossom, which was the proper ornament for the top of the maypole and for the crown of the May Queen. Gilbert White’s ‘‘Naturalist’s Calendar”’ gives April 20 as the earliest date for the unfolding of the hawthorn blossom, but the Rev. C. A. Johns in his book, ‘‘The Forest Trees of Britain,’ states that hawthorn blossom was gathered in Cornwall on April 18, 1846. This year it was seen on April 16 at Northwood, Middlesex. JENNY Rose. The Doctor of Philosophy in England.’ REFERRING to the article in Nature of April 15 on this subject, I may perhaps recall to the recollection of the writer that in the University of Aberdeen the degree which is primarily that of. Master of Arts confers specifically Magister Artium et Doctor Philo- sophiae, ive ly Henry O. Fores. 5 Ilchester Gardens, Bayswater. Thus the Services can obtain that APRIL 22, 1920] NATURE 2355 aa > Egle association between the Royal Navy and 4 the Institute of Metals has always been ‘close. The first president was the late Sir William White, for many years the chief naval constructor, while the fourth to hold office was Vice-Admiral Sir Henry Oram, late Engineer-in- Chief of the Navy. The institute has now elected Vice-Admiral Sir George Goodwin as its new presi- Engineer-in-Chief of the Fleet as its chief executive officer. _ The valuable address delivered by Sir George Goodwin on assuming office dealt very appropri- ately with progress in naval engineering, and the ther aided by metallurgical research. As he pointed in the world of the principal non-ferrous metals, such as copper, zinc, lead, aluminium, nickel, tin, have always been high, and to be on the Admiralty _ been regarded by manufacturers as a_ valuable asset. : _ _-Sir George Goodwin remarked that the standing problem for naval designing engineers for the last _ thirty years or more has been the reduction of machinery weight and fuel consumption with _ inereased durability and trustworthiness. There were days, however, when speed was not con- _ sidered in the Navy to be of great importance, and when steam power was used chiefly for auxiliary _ purposes in getting in or out of harbour and in calms. . In those days the machinery of warships was of very much the same type as that fitted _ in contemporary merchant ships. Pressure for advancement began when speed was recognised as an essential condition of naval warfare, and the _ never-ceasing demand since then for higher speeds has resulted not only in the enormously increased _ power of machinery for the swift war vessels of _ to-day, but also in a greatly reduced weight of _ machinery and an increased degree of trustworthi- me Mess. - ; __ The present-day problem, as outlined by Sir _ George Goodwin, deserves to be stated in his own _ language, and is as follows :— . _._In_warship seeign offensive and defensive powers, __ speed, and radius of action are all tactical factors which _ must be taken into account. Their relative importance _ varies accordingly with the type of vessel and her _ intended service, but in all designs, once the separate values are allocated to these features, it is essential _ that the weight and space required for the propelling _ machine _ with maintaining the desired power and degree of _ reliability and durability. Anything that can be saved in this direction will react on the design of the vessel | a as a whole, and lead to a smaller displacement and a ___ higher speed, or, alternatively, to reduced engine power and lower fuel consumption for the same speed; or, should be as small as possible consistent | “eres io ar h terials hi 1 | : Stata yt ee Meterials: has always _ we passed through a stage of intense reduction in | again, on the same displacement greater offensive or | defensive powers or a larger radius of action will be | NO. 2634, VOL. 105 | | | dent, and thus for the second time chosen the — way in which this has been, and may be, still fur- — out, the British Navy is the largest individual user — and their numerous alloys. The standards set by © the Admiralty for most of the metals required by it | Progress in Naval Engineering. rendered possible. The machinery weight is, more- over, closely allied with the steam consumption of the engines at full power, and. any reduction in this respect is reflected in the weight of the boiler and condenser installation with their auxiliaries. The position reached as a result of cumulative endeavour along these lines is that in the latest British battle-cruiser it is hoped to obtain 144,000 shaft-horse-power on a total machinery weight (including water) of 4750 tons—i.e. at the rate of 74 lb. per shaft-horse-power; while our most recent destroyers have frequently developed more than 28,000 shaft-horse-power on a weight of 32 lb. per shaft-horse-power. The new president then briefly reviewed the successive steps which have led to this position. He first directed attention to the application of forced draft to naval boilers, which led by suc- cessive stages to the water-tube boiler, and pointed out that this was a time of trial with worries and troubles which have rarely had an equal. Event- ually, however, the difficulties were overcome. Simultaneously with this development in boilers, engine weight by increasing the speed of revolu- tion of the reciprocating engine. Following upon this came the splendid realisation of Sir Charles Parsons’s endeavours for many years in the pro- duction of the steam turbine, which marked an epoch in naval engineering. It was quickly turned to account, and gave us a lead which has ever - since been maintained. Another direction of pro- gress was in respect of the fuel used for power development. For many years naval engineers had directed their attention to the utilisation of oil, but only as an auxiliary to coal. The experience obtained, however, and particularly the progress made in burning appliances, were such that it was demonstrated that oil could be used as the sole fuel when security of supply could be ensured. This done, the combination of oil fuel, water-tube boiler, and turbine became the definite policy for the Navy, and finally determined the superiority which we obtained. The British Navy was the first in the field, and its designs have been adopted in principle by other navies. The most conspicu- ous instance of the successful performance of the above combination was afforded by the expedition of the Invincible and the Inflexible to the Falk- lands in the late war and its satisfactory result. | In the second half of his address Sir George Goodwin dealt with the ways in which the work of the institute could be made to serve. the advance of naval engineering, and considered briefly. the problems and difficulties which centre round the use of condenser tubes, turbine blading, propeller-blade materials, bearing metals, and fast-running heavy oil engines. Condenser tubes constitute the most important instance of the use of non-ferrous materials in the Navy. Anyone who desires to become acquainted with the perplexities of Lord Jellicoe during the late war caused by the corrosion of condenser 236 NATURE ¢ [APRIL 22, 1920. tubes has only to study his book’entitled ‘The * Grand Fleet.’’ The alloy used is a tin-brass con- taining 1 per cent. of tin, 70 per cent. of copper, and 29 per cent. of zinc. Nearly ten years ago the institute took up this very problem with the view of solving it, and has been assisted since its inception by Sir Henry Oram and Sir George Goodwin at the Admiralty. As a result, tests are ‘now being carried out, in one of his Majesty’s vessels, of a process devised by the committee’s investigators, which, it is hoped, will go a long way towards solving this particular difficulty. In its work the committee has had no better friend than Sir George Goodwin, and there is a singular appropriateness about his choice as president of the Institute of Metals. H. Co Hae The Investigation a a : By Dr. A. EW lines of biological research at the present time are of greater moment than those which are likely to contribute towards the maintenance of our food supply. Information comes from trustworthy sources that there is a considerable reduction in the available wheat of the world, and it is therefore more than ever incumbent upon us to reduce any preventable losses to a minimum. The damage sustained by stored grain through the inroads of insect. pests is heavy, and we welcome a further series of the Royal Society reports! which are directly concerned with problems connected therewith. Prof. Dendy and, his colleague, Mr. Elkington, have carried out much-needed observations of a more exact nature than has hitherto been attempted. Embodied in their reports is a good deal of both biologically and,.economically valuable information relating to some .of our most destructive grain pests. In dealing with the phenomenon known to the trade as “webbing,” they point out that it is due to the wandering of great numbers of larve of the moth Ephestia elutella over the surface of heaped grain in warehouses. Each larva trails behind itself a silken thread and, when very abundant, the whole surface of the grain may become infested with a reticulum of these threads. The superficial 12 in. of the grain are affected, and become fouled by fecal and other larval débris. Actual injury to the grain itself does not appear to be serious, and it is probable that much of the contamination would be effectually removed during the cleaning processes to which the grain is subjected. It is, however, scarcely likely that any advantage can be derived from allowing these webs to remain, on the strength of a suggestion that weevils are destroyed through getting en- tangled therein. |The safest and surest method is to eliminate the pest as the authors advocate, and it is noteworthy that a wide range of other food products is susceptible to the attacks of this species. In the same report (No. 4) Prof. Dendy also deals. with the occurrence of live insects in pre- 1 Royal Society. Reports of the Grain Pests (War) Committee. No.4: **On the Phenomenon known as ‘ Webbing’ in Stored Grain.” By Arthur Derdy and H. D. Elkington. ‘‘ Note on the Occurrence of Live Insects in Tins spposed to be Hermetically Sealed.” By Arthur Dendy. No. s, 1919: ‘On the Prevention of ''eading in Wheat by means of Air-tight Storage.” ‘By Arthur Dendy and H D. Elkington. No. 6, 1920: ‘‘ Xeport on the Effect. of Air-tight Storage upon Grain Insects,” Partiii, By Arthur Dendy and H. D. Elkington. No. 7, 1920: ‘‘ Report on the Vitality and Rate of Multiplicati n of certain Grain Pests under Various Conditions of ‘Temper.ture and Moisture.” By Arthur Dendy and H. D. Elkington. NO. 2634, VOL. 105 | of Grain Pests. D. Inns. sumably sealed tins. His observations show that it is an evident fallacy to conclude that they can survive indefinitely when once the original oxygen is completely used up. The main point is to ensure that the sealing of the tins has been really efficiently carried out before the latter are rele- gated to the store. Directly connected with air- tight storage is the question of “heating.” Two experiments conducted by Prof. Dendy indicate that this process, which is due to fermentation, is prevented when the grain is stored in hermetic- ally sealed vessels. Whether anaerobic fermenta- tion is a factor likely to occur does not appear to have been studied. In connection with the investigations, it was noted that when a vessel is only half filled with grain attacked by Calandra oryzae, all the insects may become perfectly motionless in twenty-four hours. When 273'5 c.c. of air are present to 100 grains of wheat, only three insects remained alive out. of thirty-nine (including all stages) at the end of fourteen days — at 30°=31° At room temperature. nineteen — insects out of forty-three remained alive after thirty-two days. In both experiments the per- centage of carbon dioxide had gone up to between. — 18 and 19, and the oxygen diminished to less than 2; and the authors express themselves as being quite certain that the insects would have suc- cumbed soon afterwards. Cea It is evident from these experiments that further research under varied conditions and de- grees of infestation is still desirable. If airtight storage provides ready sterilisation, without pre- vious application of heat, we have a fact of first- rate economic significance. An important factor is the moisture content of the wheat. Above a certain point the production of carbon dioxide by wheat increases very greatly. This critical point varies with the temperature, and in the cases in- vestigated it lies between 13-25 and 16'95 per cent. Above this critical point of moisture content wheat in airtight storage speedily renders itself immune to insect attack ; below it a longer time elapses. It is noteworthy that pure (moist) carbon dioxide acts almost instantaneously as a narcotic to Calandra, but is less fatal in its effects than when mixed with a small quantity of oxygen. Ao The seventh report deals with points in the bio- nomics of Calandra oryzae and granaria, and also of Rhizopertha dominica, which are three of the most serious grain pests. It was found that the . APRIL 22, 1920] NATURE 237 - optimum temperature for the breeding of Calandra ‘is about 82° F., but somewhat higher for Rhizo- _ pertha. C. oryzae may increase 7oo-fold in _ sixteen weeks, which makes it a more dangerous pest than granaria, which has a slower rate of multiplication. On the other hand, adults of the latter species were found to survive the winter in this country at ordinary room temperature, whereas nearly all those of oryzae were killed off. Rhizopertha succumbs after three minutes’ exposure at about 146° F., while 120°-130°F. the lethal temperature for both species of Calandra. As the consequence of information accumulated the laboratory, tests along commercial lines need to be carried out in order to ascertain the practicability or otherwise of the knowledge thus obtained. We strongly urge that large-scale tests should be inaugurated with as little delay as possible. If such tests confirm the conclusion that the most satisfactory method for the storage of grain in bulk, over lengthy periods, is in air- tight silos or granaries, the Grain Pests Com- mittee is to be congratulated upon a_ notable achievement. The construction of such receptacles would involve a high initial cost, but probably not excessive when the annual loss from weeviling is recounted. As the authors point out, by such ‘a method of storage we should be provided with a means of maintaining a reserve of cereals in the event of war or crop failure, and, we may add, of economic or financial difficulties. rf I, an address to the Physics Section of the American Association for the Advancement of _ Science, delivered at the St. Louis meeting in December last and published in Science for March 5, Prof. Gordon F. Hull describes the work _ done by a number of American mathematicians and physicists in elucidating the various problems that arose during the war in connection with. long- range and anti-aircraft gunnery. It may be of interest, number. of British men of science, made at a much earlier date during the war, on which (and on the work of the French) the developments of American scientific gunnery as described by Prof. Hull were largely based. ___ Up to the spring of 1916 the developments of _ British ballistic science had come largely through _ the Ordnance Committee at Woolwich, which dur- ing the war was fortunate in having an officer of _ considerable mathematical attainments as head of _ the ballistic office. The mass of work, however, _ and the extraordinary variety and difficulty of the a problems that arose, especially in connection with ; new science of anti-aircraft gunnery, made it necessary for the Ordnance Committee to seek help from outside; and from 1916 onwards the investi- _ gation of problems in ‘‘ external ballistics ’’ de- _ volved largely on the Anti-aircraft Experimental _ Section of the Munitions Inventions Department. _ The A.A.E.S., as it was called, consisted of a number of mathematicians and other men of science, mainly fellows and scholars of Cambridge _ colleges, some from the Patent Office, one from _ Oxford, and three fellows of the Royal Society— some in military, some in naval, and some in civilian clothes. _ The work of this group was undertaken at _ H.M.S. Excellent, Portsmouth, at Rochford Aero- _ drome, at the National Physical Laboratory, at University College, London, and at a variety of other places. It consisted largely of trials with anti-aircraft guns, shells, and fuses, recording the NO. 2634, VOL. 105 | therefore, to record the efforts of a_ Some Applications of Physics to War Problems. positions of shell-bursts at heights up to 33,000 ft., observing and calculating the effects of winds and of pressure and temperature abnormalities, develop- ing the mathematical theory of ballistic calcula- tions, and investigating the behaviour or the causes of failure and irregularity of fuses. In addition to this, work of considerable mathematical and physi- cal interest was done, some of which will be pub- lished, on the general dynamics. of shell flight (such problems as the stability of shells, the effects of rotation of the earth, ‘‘ drift,’? the “twisted trajectory of the shot, Pt Otte, ), and on the pressure distribution on the head of a_ shell in flight. The solution of some of these problems, undertaken originally in connection with anti-aircraft gunnery, had, in the end, a considerable bearing upon the theory of gunnery in general. The A.A.E.S., in addition to its main work in investigating the problems of gunnery, did a large amount of routine computing of range tables in conjunction with the staff of the Galton Labora- tory, and performed a number of interesting and important trials on time-fuses in co-operation with the Engineering Department of University College, London. It carried out far-reaching experiments on the use of sound-locators for the detection of air- craft, and in conjunction with the R.E. and the Air Force on the co-operation between such sound- locators and searchlights; the military equipment and methods finally adopted were based directly on these experiments. It tested both the theory and the use of a number of instruments required for anti-aircraft work, such, for example, as range- finders, height-finders, and ‘ ‘predictors ”” (instru- ments for predicting the “future position ’’ of the target at the moment the shell bursts) ; and finally it had what was known familiarly as a “travelling circus,’’ which moved about in Great Britain. and France recording the results of practice anti-air- craft shoots, and investigating the performance of guns and instruments. 2.38 NATURE [APRIL 22, 1920 The. work terminated in April, 1919, and an interesting body of scientific workers was. disem- bodied, disbanded, or demobilised. The more important practical results of their work are being recorded for the use of the military authorities : the methods adopted, however, and many of the observations, calculations, and speculations, the personalities of the men themselves, their various — homes and adventures, the help (and the hindrance) they received from various people and officials, would provide material for a fascinating history of some “applications of pl:ysics to war problems ”’ —a history, however, which will probably never be written. Obituary. Pror. J. A. McCLeiianp, F.R.S. . OHN ALEXANDER McCLELLAND was born | of Faraday. Although, unlike Faraday, he had a at Coleraine in 1870, Leaving the High School, | he studied in University (then Queen’s) College, Galway, and after a distinguished course he obtained a junior fellowship of the Royal Univer- sity. Proceeding to Trinity College, Cambridge, he worked under Sir J. J. Thomson, and was one of the brilliant band of investigators who made history in those days in the Cavendish Laboratory, being:.contemporary with Sir Ernest Rutherford,. Prof. Townsend, and others. In succession to the late Prof. Preston he became professor of experi- mental physics in University College, Dublin, and quickly began his famous researches on secondary radio-activity. ‘Shortly after becoming a fellow of the Royal Society, the National University was founded, and McClelland was appointed a member of the senate and of the governing body of University College, _ Dublin, positions which he held until his death. He at. once devoted himself to the planning of the physical laboratory of the college. His efforts were highly successful, and a _ very efficient research department, quickly sprang up, which accomplished wonders, considering the resources at its disposal. The number of students in the college in the beginning was 550, and at the present moment it is 1350, and the task of keeping pace with such rapid growth might easily have absorbed all the time of a lesser man; but McClelland had many other spheres of activity— secretary to the Royal Irish Academy, member of the Board of National Education, member of the council of the Royal Dublin Society, and governor of St. Andrew’s College—yet he undertook a still more onerous task. He became a member of the Privy Council Committee on Scientific and Indus- trial Research, which necessitated frequent journeys from Dublin to London, and this during the war, when, apart from the great discomforts of travelling in those times, every crossing of the Irish Sea was a gamble with death. The constant strain was too much for him, and oftentimes his friends urged him to take a long rest. His sense of duty, however, prevented him from paying attention to his bodily weakness, and when at last the college authorities persuaded him to take a six months’ rest, it was too late. As a man of science the outlook of McClelland and his method of exposition had all the clarity NO. 2634, VOL. 105 | impossible to fill. sound mathematical training, his mind worked in the direction of a “common-sense ’’ explanation of the most complicated phenomena. This made him especially valuable as a teacher, whether for advanced or elementary work. It has been the privilege of the writer to sit with him on many boards, and this same faculty of cutting away the unessentials of a question, and presenting it in its reality, rendered him a valued colleague in many matters far removed from the world of science. A Presbyterian in religion, he was fol- lowed to his grave by men of every shade of thought. It is a commonplace almost devoid of meaning to speak of a loss as irreparable, but in his college and in the wider public life of Ireland everyone who knew him feels that a man has gone from amongst us whose place it will be een W. C. Dr. J. G. BARTHOLOMEW. GEOGRAPHERS throughout the world will recog- nise that scientific geography has sustained a grave loss through the death suddenly at Cintra about midnight on April 13 of Dr. Bartholomew, the head of the cartographical firm which has been known since 1889 as the Edinburgh Geo- graphical Institute. Dr. Bartholomew was a native of Edinburgh, where he was born on March 22, 1860, and where he was educated at the High School and the University. As a young man he entered the busi- ness founded by his grandfather. From the age of twenty-two he took an active part in its management, and at twenty-nine he succeeded his father in the supreme control. By this time he had devised the method of representing topo- graphical features by the system known as layer- ing, which has made the Edinburgh Geographical Institute celebrated throughout the world, and is now copied in all other cartographical establish- ments. Like many other novel ideas, it may seem very obvious once it has been introduced. It merely consists in the spreading of distinctive colours, tints, or shades between successive con- tours on a contoured map. It accordingly gives no information as to the physical features addi- _ tional to that furnished by the contours; but it a a a ae APRIL 22, 1920] NATURE 239 _ makes that information available at a glance, and hence, simple as the device is, its introduction had _ a revolutionary effect in cartography, all the more _ So because it is found capable, like contouring generally, of being combined with other methods of representing physical features. _ The first important work issued by the institute illustrating this new system was “The Survey tlas of Scotland,” first published in 1895, which _ was followed in 1903 by a similar atlas of England and Wales. Previously to that Dr. Bartholomew had published (1899) “‘ The Atlas of Meteorology,” a work of immense labour with several original tures, which shows even more strikingly his zeal for scientific geography, and amply justifies the _ motto he had adopted, “ Amore et labore.” It came - out as vol. iii. of a great atlas of physical geo- rraphy which he had designed, but of which only other volume appeared during his life, “The Atlas of Zoogeography,” published in 1og1t. _ Much of the most devoted work of his latter years _ was given to the preparation of the atlas (reviewed _ in these columns a few weeks ago) now being _ published under the title of “The Times Survey _ Atlas of the World,” by which he hoped to out- _ rival the best works of the kind published in other countries. _ But the Geographical Institute was far from engrossing all Dr. Bartholomew’s interests. He _ was a member of council of the Royal Society a Edinburgh from 1909 to 1912, but in Edin- _ burgh he was, above all, known through his inti- mate association with the Royal Scottish Geo- _ graphical Society, of which he might with little exaggeration be called the founder. From him, _ at any rate, came the first suggestion of such a _ society, and he was among the most eager of _ that small body of men who in 1884 spent without stint time, energy, and enthusiasm in getting it established. He was an honorary secretary of _ the society from the first, and remained so until s death. By the council of that society he was _ generally regarded as its mainstay and chief _ directing spirit, and nowhere outside his family ae. ts loss-be more keenly felt than on that a Dr. Bartholomew was an honorary member of many foreign geographical societies. The Vic- _ toria Research Medal, a medal not awarded regu- larly every year, but only when there is a fit recipient, was conferred upon him by the Royal _ Geographical Society in 1905 “for his successful _ efforts to raise the standard of cartography ” ; and _ in 1918 the Helen Culver gold medal was awarded _ to him on like grounds by the Geographic Society _ of Chicago. In 1909 he received from his own _ university the honorary degree of LL.D. In "private life he was held by all who knew him in _ the highest esteem, and as revealing his nature _ nothing, perhaps, could be mentioned more char- \ acteristic than that, in spite of the fact that he _ lost a son in the war, he was able to speak even _ of enemy countries with rare magnanimity. 3 Gro. G, CHISHOLM. NO. 2634, VOL. 105 | WE much regret to announce the death on April 18, in his seventy-third year, of Dr. Rupotpu MeEssgeL, F.R.S., president of the Society of Chemical Industry and past vice-president of the Chemical Society. WE notice with regret the announcement of the death, very suddenly, on April 17, of PRor. A. K. Huntincton, emeritus professor of metal- lurgy at King’s College, London. WE regret to record the death on April 18 of Pror. L. T. O’Suea, professor of applied chemis- try in the University of Sheffield and honorary secretary of the Institution of Mining Engineers. Mr. James GayLey, whose death was recently announced, was the first vice-president of the » United States Steel Corporation and made many important contributions to the progress of metal- lurgical industry. He was president in 1904-6 of the American Institute of Mining and Metal- lurgy and had been a member of the Iron and Steel Institute since 1888. The honorary degree of B.Sc. was conferred on him in 1912 by the- University of Pennsylvania and Lehigh University ; in 1906 he was awarded the Elliott Cresson medal, and in 1913 the Perkin medal, by the Franklin Institute. 7 Mr. Witson Worspett, whose death on April 14 is recorded in the Engineer, was born at Crewe in 1850, was educated at Ackworth, and served a pupilage in the Altoona Locomotive Works of the Pennsylvania Railroad. On return- ing to this country Mr. Worsdell took up an ap- pointment with the London and North-Western Railway, and in 1883 became assistant locomotive superintendent to the North-Eastern Railway 5 in 1890 he was appointed chief mechanical engineer of the same railway. Up to the time of his re- tirement in 1910 he supervised the construction of more than 1000 engines for the North-Eastern Railway. Tue death of Sir Cuartes ALLEN on April 13 is recorded in Engineering. Sir Charles was born in 1851 and educated at Halifax and at a technical college in Germany. In 1872 he entered the Bessemer works at Sheffield, of which his father, who was a brother-in-law of Sir Henry Bessemer, became chairman in 1889. He succeeded to the chairmanship on the death of his father in 1899, and the remarkable success of the company, especially in later years, 1s due largely to his ability. Sir Charles recognised fully the value. of metallurgical research, and gave every encouragement in the developments of this branch; he was closely identified with the founda- tion of the Bessemer laboratory at the Imperial | College of Science and Technology. 240 . NATURE [APRIL 22, 1920 Notes. ....Ngws, of Capt. Roald Amundsen’s Arctic Expedition has...unexpectedly been received from Siberia via Alaska. The Maud left Norway in June, 1918, and , was. last heard of some months later from Dickson Island, at the mouth of the Yenisei. According to the telegram published in the Times, two men left the Ship in October, 1918, in the vicinity of Cape Chelyuskin. Nothing has been heard of these men, although they presumably made for the fishing settle- ments of the Lower Yenisei, a distance of some six or seven hundred miles across the barren tundra. ‘There seems to be little hope that the two men are alive. The Maud appears to have spent jast winter in the neighbourhood of Aion Island, at the mouth of Chaun Bay, in north-eastern Siberia, within six hundred miles of Bering Strait. Aion Island is noted for its reindeer pasture. The coast in the vicinity is visited by native and occasional American traders in summer. The distance to the nearest wireless station at the mouth of the Anadir is about 450 miles across rough country. Until further news arrives it would be rash to suppose that Amundsen has abandoned his trans-polar drift. It is quite possible that he intends to push into the Arctic basin north of Bering Strait in order to ensure the drift taking him to a high latitude. ‘On the other hand, the loss of two men, even sup- ‘posing his messengers to the Anadir return, will Seriously weaken his expedition. Capt. Amundsen always maintained that his aims were scientific, and that he had no desire merely to reach the North Pole. It is not, therefore, probable that he will return this year, since the coast of Siberia along which the Maud has sailed has been explored in recent years by Rus- sian expeditions. The Maud is provisioned for another three vears. ; : . THE United States National Research Council has appointed a committee on eugenics, under the Division of Biology and Agriculture, consisting of the following members :—L. F. Barker, A. G. Bell, E. A. Hooton, Daniel W. LaRue, Stewart Paton, Raymond Pearl, R. M. Yerkes, H. S. Jennings, and C. B. Davenport (chairman). The committee met on Saturday, March 20, and decided to hold the second International Eugenics Congress in New York City on .Septem- ber 22-28, 1921, inclusive. Dr. Alexander Graham Bell was elected honorary president, Dr. Henry F. ‘Osborn president, Mr. Madison Grant treasurer, and Mrs.’ Sybil Gotto, secretary of the Eugenics Education Society, in view of her activity in organis- ing the first Eugenics Congress, was nominated honorary secretary of the second Eugenics Congress. The national consultative eugenics bodies in the various countries will be informed of the action of the seugenics committee of the National Research Council and invited to send representatives. A general invitation will be sent to universities in different American countries and in the countries of Europe. -TuHE president, vice-president, and council of the Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland have elected Prof. G. Elliot Smith to the Mary- Louisa Prentice Montgomery lectureship in ophthalmology. The sub- NO. 2634, VOL. 105 | -various periods. ject of Prof. Smith’s first lecture will be “The if Influence of Stereoscopic Vision on the Evolution of — Man.” The: lecture will be delivered in October next. AN extraordinary general meeting of the fellows of the Chemical Society will be held at Burlington House on Thursday, April 29, at 5 p.m., to consider the alterations in the by-laws proposed by the council. THE reorganisation and co-operation of research departments contemplated at the Middlesex Hospital promise to be of great value. In particular the co- operation of such distinguished investigators as Profs. Swale Vincent and McIntosh with Prof. Russ and ‘Dr. Lazarus-Barlow may be expected to direct the investigations of cancer on the broad and general lines so necessary at the present time in this subject. We wish the new arrangements every success. Tue Report of the Salisbury Public Library for Ig1g-20 describes the arrangements for advancing adult education by means of a series of public lectures. A course of eight lectures was delivered by Mr. F. Stevens on the history of the neighbourhood at The lectures fell into two groups of __ four each, prehistoric and early historic, and were illustrated from the collections in the city museum by an inspection of the actual objects and by some five hundred photographs. The course, of which a syllabus that a ‘substantial balance financially successful remains, which is being expended in strengthening the existing collection in the library of books on Wilt- shire. The committee may be congratulated on this result, and other public libraries throughout’ the country may use the report as a. suggestion for similar arrangements. Dr. Feuix Oswatp and Mr. T. D. Price announce for publication at an early date a book entitled “An ‘Introduction to the Study of Terra Sigillata, Treated from a Chronological Standpoint.’? During their excavations at the Roman station of Margidunum, in . Nottinghamshire, the authors were impressed by the difficulties inherent in the study of Terra Sigillata, the so-called Samian ware, and especially by the necessity for collecting the many scattered references to the sub- ‘ject in many languages besides English. The import- ance of the study lies in ‘the historical evidence fur- nished by this ware, for, apart from inscriptions, no relic of the Imperial age is more important for chronological’ purposes. Ample materials -for the investigation are provided at sités such as Haltern, Hofheim, Newstead, and Niederbieber, which can be dated by historical evidence and from the names of the potters inscribed on their work. As the Gaulish Sigillata is a development of the Italian or Arretine fabric, a short account of this is supplied. The book promises to be valuable for the study of the Roman period in Western Europe. SES Sis = In an account of the Apalaii Indians of the Amazon (Museum Journal, vol. x., No. 3, September, 1919) Mr. W..C. Farabee describes a remarkable form: of puberty ordeal... A frame in the shape of a jaguar, possibly an indication of totemism, is made of wicker- is appended, attracted good audiences, and was so ; oT uta ee BE ae ee ee a, ea ye ’ Apri 22, 1920] NATURE 241 Deak: and about a hundred wasps or ants are passed the interstices. The youths, exhausted by a dance which is kept up all day, present themselves before the medicine-man, who applies the wasp-frame to their chests, backs, arms, and legs. Those who _ scréam or show signs of suffering when they are stung are not ‘allowed to continue the ordeal. Those who the test are invested with a headdress and flute, deemed fit for marriage. But more than this Ppecquired: The youth must give proof that he ‘is _ able to support a family by passing the target test of throwing cassava pellets at a circle drawn on a piece of wood, and of shooting arrows from a rapidly moving boat. Girls undergo the ordeal of fasting in seclusion, and their bodies are scarified with the sharp teeth ofan. animal or fish. They are then dressed in aprons, and use charms to stimulate affection in ‘= aerehip, in which they take the initiative. Dr. A M. Bracxman discusses in the Journal ‘of a ‘Manchester’ Egyptian and Oriental Society for 1918-19, recently issued, ‘‘The House of the Morn. ” in Egyptian ritual. The Heliopolitan sun-god Re-Atum, Was represented by his priests as re-born —, morning as the result of his undergoing lustra- tion, which was supposed to be performed by the sun- himself, assisted by other divinities. The king "Heliopolis, high priest of the sun-god, was 52 as his son and embodiment. The lustral ing of the king-priest took place before he - officiated in the'sun temple, and as a result of it he _ was .thought to be. re-born like his divine prototype. om His purification. was completed by fumigating him vith incense and .presenting him with balls of natron chew. “By being washed or sprinkled with ly water and fumigated with incense, and by the ‘ing of natron, the king was mysteriously re- _ born,. brought into contact with divinities, and imbued with their unearthly qualities, and his mouth made it ‘to. -chant the sun-god’s praises and recite the formule which accompanied the enactment of the arious episodes popresice the foams ery service in the sun temple.” Tr is well cians that in ancient tt India, as described in the Institutions of Manu, the law-giver, marriage _ Was permitted between members of different castes—a system which was forbidden by later Brahmanical _ legislation. | -Mr. Patel, one of the advanced Indian q members of the Viceroy’s Council, recently introduced a Bill providing that marriages between Hindus of _ different: castes shall be valid. More conservative Eemeaibore opposed the Bill on the grounds that it would _ undérmine the present social system, and that it was “opposed to Hindu. custom, the potent force which sontrols Hindu society. It was also pointed out that F ee! ‘enactment of ‘such a law raised the wide’ questions connected with succession, adoption, and legitimacy, which -no, legislation was provided in the Bill. ae Government representative, Sir W. ‘Vincent, di Ic ted a neutral attitude, admitting that the ques- tion should be decided by . public. opinion | carefully - devoted. ‘to .its consideration.. If the Bill is finally passed | it will be a serious blow to caste, but it: is NO. 2634, VOL. 105] a significant of the general feeling that the Moham- medan members refused to sit on the Special Committee appointed to consider it on the grounds that the question was one for Hindus, and that the latter had: been: obstructive on the grant of communal representation for Dacca University. Tue history of science is rapidly acquiring its own periodical literature. Dr. Sarton in a recent issue of Isis set forth a bibliography of reviews and collec- tions on this subject, of which he recognised sixty- two. Most of these deal with special sciences, among which mathematics and medicine take first place. Several journals are, however, devoted to.the history of science as a whole. The earliest was the Archiv fiir Geschichte der Naturwissenschaften, which has appeared since 1908. Next came Isis, the publication of which was interrupted by the war; it has now re- commenced, and will in future be in English and under the joint editorship of Dr. Sarton and. Dr. Singer. The Italians have now also. started a quarterly, Archivio di. Storia della Scienza. It is édited by Prof, Aldo Mieli, who has long devoted himself exclusively to the history of science, and has printed the first volume of a monumental work on the subject. It is encouraging to historians of. science that his enthusiasm has overcome the economic and social difficulties that prevail in his country, and that the publication of the Archivio, begun in March, 1919, is now being continued. In addition to original articles on every aspect of the history of science, it will contain reviews, a bibliography of Italian works on the subject, and notices on activities in connection with’ it, which are very pronounced in Italian uni- versities. The annual subscription to the Archivio is 35 lire, and it should be sent to Attilio Nardecchia, Via dell’ Umilta 14, Roma 19. Information concern- ing Isis can be had from Dr. George Sarton, Carnegie Institution, Washington, D.C., U.S.A., or from Dr. Charles Singer, Westbury Lodge, Norham Road, Oxford. Misses BrackLock and Carter contribute: to the’ Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology (vol. xiii., No. 4, March, 1920) papers on a mosquito, Anopheles plumbeus. The bionomics of this species are probably less known than those of any European Anopheline mosquito. The species is widely distributed, being met with in the British Isles, in nearly ‘all European countries, and in the Western Himalayas, and is essentially a tree-hole breeder. Experimental evidence is produced for the first time that A. plumbeus is capable of becoming infected with a malaria parasite, and may therefore transmit malaria: A suacEsTIVE review of the pathology and symp- fomatology of beri-beri is contributed by Dr. F. M. R. Walshe to Medical Science: Abstracts and Reviews (vol. ii., No. 1, April, 1920). The current hypothesis of the nature. of beri-beri (a disease particularly of the East characterised by the development of neuritis) is that it is a ‘deficiency disease,’’ due ‘to the lack of certain elements or ‘“ vitamines ” from ‘the food. Dr, Walshe points out that the neuritis of’ beri-beri is similar to that produced by Certain poisons, ‘such as } 242 “om A Ee ANA RS I CoO at homens Smee meena emetny athe WATURE [Apri 22, 1920 alcohol’ and the ‘diphtheria poison, and that neuro- ‘logically we are dealing with ‘no negative or defect disease, but with a definite, positive reaction of the nervous system to some unknown poison. ‘‘We know nothing of what happens in the body from the -eating of a vitamine-free diet to the moment when the symptoms of beri-beri appear, and we cannot exclude the possibility that such a poison has been produced in the body.’? Dr. Walshe seems to agree with Eijkman that the ultimate. cause of beri-beri may yet prove to be a nerve poison produced by a disordered metabolism arising out of vitamine deprivation. . A‘ Fora of the District of Columbia and Vicinity,” by A.S. Hitchcock and P.C. Standley, with the assist- ance of other Washington botanists, has been issued -as vol. xxi. of Contributions from the United States National Herbarium (329 pp., 42 plates). It will replace Lester Ward’s ‘Guide to the Flora of Washington and Vicinity,’? published in 1881, to which there have been six supplements. The area included “is approximately a circle of fifteen miles radius; with the Capitol: as the centre. The list includes: all indigenous plants and all introduced ones that have become established; chance introductions are mentioned in notes appended to an allied species or genus. It is interesting to note that parts of this area are still almost wholly unexplored botanically, and the publication of the flora will afford an excel- lent opportunity for local botanists to supply the gaps. The arrangement is in the form of keys to the families, genera, and species, which have been care- fully worked out, and also tested in the field during one collecting season; and the text is clear. An effort has been made to use common words so far as possible as substitutes for technical terms, and so- called popular names are provided for most species in the manner familiar to British botanists in Bentham’s ‘“Handbook,’”? The Old World botanist will find some familiar plants hidden under strange names, as, for instance, Dicentra and Negundo (box-elder),. which appear as Bikukulla and Rulac. The plates are a series of good photographic reproductions of aspects of the vegetation and of some of the commoner species. Unfortunately, the size of the book, large octavo, militates against its use as a pocket companion for the field botanist. Mr: J. 'F. N. GREEN (Proc. Geol. Assoc., vol. xxx., p. 153, 1919) has treated in his presidential address to the Geologists’ Association the vulcanicity of the Lake: District from ‘a natural history point of view. He illustrates: the use of petrographic details as a means of realising the conditions of intrusion and eruption, as when he pictures the scoria-cones of Borrowdale age rising above the sea and contributing their materials to the sediments by ordinary processes of erosion. He urges that the chemical analysis of an igneous rock is by itself of little value, since it cannot take into account the evanescent constituents of the magma. FORAMINIFERA as a group always have their feasion. tion owing’ to their irresolvable simplicity of organic structure and. ‘their: apparent: powers of selection in the up-building of their coverings. NO. 2634, VOL. 105] -man (Proc. -marine climatic conditions. Mr. Mr. J. A: Cush-'} U.S.) Nat. Museum, -vol. Ivi.,: p.. 593+ 1919) describes ‘‘Recent Foraminifera’ from off New: ' Zealand,’’! including..a new: species of Technitella; a genus’ that forms its test of neatly arranged acicular sponge-spicules. logical Survey the same author describes Pliocene and Miocene species from the coastal plain of the United States, and shows how they help to indicate former. Cushman’s wi knowledge of recent Atlantic forms renders even-brief notes of this kind suggestive to the geologist. REFERENCE has been made in Nature (vol. x¢v., p- 216) to the replacement of quartz by pyrite. A very remarkable case is now put forward by Mr. W. H. Collins in the Summary Report of the Canadian Geological Survey for 1918 (part E, p: 20, 1919) from the Michipicoten district of Ontario. The basement beds of stratified sands and gravels belong- ing to the- Pleistocene drift, and resting on the Keewatin iron-bearing series, have apparently been replaced by ‘‘snow-white granular silica” (presum- ably quartz) with a devosit of loose pyrite grains below resembling ordinary sand, and sometimes 5 ft. thick. Mr. Carus-Wilson, it may be remembered, has cited a case of the replacement by pyrite of the carbonaceous cement of an Eocene sandstone (NATURE, vol. Ixviii., p. 436); but in the Canadian instance the sand-grains themselves have disappeared under the influence of solutions.draining along the unconform- able junction from the adjacent iron range. THE Summary Report of the Mines Branch of the Department of Mines of Canada for the year 1918 has | just been issued, and contains an. interesting record. The fuel-testing station has of the year’s activities. been engaged, in addition to its regular routine work, upon an wick oil shale in a novel type of retort—the Wallace retort. The methods adopted in Canada may be studied with advantage by those engaged in the study _of carbonisation problems in this country. Good work is also being done in the ore-dressing divi- sion; until the middle of the year this had been en- gaged on the production of molybdenite concentrates on a working scale in view of the Empire’s require- ments of ferro-molybdenum for war purposes; after- wards, however, the normal working of the division was resumed and a variety of ores was tested and reported upon, the methods used being not only the. ordinary ‘wet-dressing methods, but also: flotation (in a Callow cell), magnetic separation, electrostatic: separation, and cyanidation. The Mines Branch may fairly be congratulated upon an.excellent year’s work, | which must form a powerful factor in the develop- ment of the mineral resources of the Dominion. In the March issue of the Decimal Educator, a quarterly publication of the Decimal Association, there is an interesting. historical account of the Inter- -national Bureau of Weights and Measures at Sévres, the establishment at which the international proto- types of the metre and the kilogram are preserved. In Bulletin: 676 of the U.S. Geo= investigation on the carbonisation and briquetting of lignite, which promises to yield im- portant results, as also does a test of New Bruns- OIE Cl TR EN PO: rane Apri. 22, 1920] NATURE 243 P. ‘It is pointed out that the investigations at the Bureau | of not very experienced observers the monocular have led: to.a vast improvement in the constancy and | requires to have a magnification of 6.27 in order to trustworthiness of thermometers and in the measure- | give the same results as a binocular of the usual i ‘ment of atmospheric pressure, and it is proposed to magnification of 60. As regards rapidity of produc- describe in future issues the instrumental equip- | tion and adjustment, cost, weight, portability, and ‘ment of the Bureau and the metrological work undertaken there: A good portrait is given of Dr. _ Guillaume, the director of the Bureau, who is to deliver the Guthrie lecture to the Physical Society _ to-morrow, April 23. In an article on the metric system it.is urged that, in addition to teaching the : Sian in schools, the Government. should set a lead adopting it in Departments such as the ‘Post fice, the Ministry of Health, and the Royal Air 4 gong thus familiarising the public | with metric _ measures ‘and preparing the way for a change which is inevitable. Another feature ‘of the number is an explanation of the advantages of decimal coinage: rt 5 Sees a a Ni fe: vA SUMMARY of the weather for. the year 1919 has ig recently been issued by the Meteorological Office. It deals very fully with the annual results of the several elements. for numerous representative stations for the several districts of the British Isles. The year was generally dry, and was noteworthy for the heavy ‘snowstorm on April 27-28, and for the ap ea ‘cold March and November. - October, which - normally the wettest month ,of the year, was in -many .places the driest. -The mean temperature for _ the. year was. below the normal in all districts, the 1 deficiency ranging from 1-6° F. in East Scotland to 0-4° F. in the south of Ireland. The earth tempera- tures were also below the normal, both at 1 ft. and 4 ft. below the surface. Rainfall was in excess in the eastern districts and deficient in the western districts. _ Sunshine was: mostly in excess of the normal except in ‘some:of the eastern districts. Data are given _ showing the warmest day and warmest night, also the coldest day and coldest night, for the several stations of the different districts, and there are similar details for the several. months: . Monthly _ frequencies of sunshine for selected stations -are ‘ Steers Days in the year with rainfall-between: fixed limits are given for selected stations, and ‘the number of days in the year with certain maximum and minimum temperatures. Many and _ various particulars of anemograph observations: are. given, with the frequency of hours with average wind ; speed, also with a maximum hourly speed. A table _ shows the frequency of winds of? various strengths from different directions for several stations in different . _ Parts of the British Isles. Much of the data is in a form which .will be available for aviation require- os 3 Tue February and “March issues of the Seva of the Franklin Institute contain the report’ of the com- _mittee—consisting of Messrs. E. P. Hyde, P. W. , ‘Cobb, H. M. Johnson, and W. Weniger—of the Nela Research, Laboratory which undertook the: investiga- -field-glasses under Service conditions. ‘The tests are _ not yet completed, but already afford a large amount . of y. valuable information. The. principal conclusions of ‘NO. 2634, VOL. 105] tion of the relative merits of monocular and bingcular. the eighty pages of the report are that in the hands. ease in use, the monocular is far ahead, of | the binocular. The report deserves careful eonsideration by optical-instrument makers in this country. In an article in the April. issue of Science Progress Major A. E. Oxley summarises his work on‘ the magnetic properties of about forty organic compounds between —180° and 200° C., and shows that atomic theories of the Rutherford-Bohr type, which neglect magnetic forces, are incapable of. accounting «for many of the magnetic’ properties of matter.’ How these theories are to be modified he is: not yet: in a position to say, but his diagram of two atoms held together by electromagnetic forces. shows these ‘forces to. be due to a pair of oppositely directed: .cireular currents in each atom outside the positive nucleus: and rotating electrons. This idea is on the same fines as those. put forward recently by Parsons:: (1915) and Langmuir (1919):*. The author points ‘out finally. that an adequate theory must account for the molecular structure. of crystals, and, the relations . between: that structure and their behaviour in the- magnetic field must agree with stereochemistry, give '.the :additive property of diamagnetics, and» show | no: dielectric hysteresis. It is to- be hoped ‘that ‘the: fortheoming discussion on the subject of atomic':structure vat thé Royal Society will throw some: light on: diegish or ties of present theories. et MICE His AN important paper on the magnetic. characieristits of the iron core of a transformer or of an induction él by the late Prof. B. Osgood Peirce is published’ i in ‘the’ Proceedings of the American Academy of ig and Sciences .(vol. 1., No. 7, p. 149). Sixty _y 489. Helmholtz verified the predictions of the ‘mathematial theory of a transformer. The verification, howeve was limited to’ the case when the indiictances” OF the two coils were constant. With an’ iron cbre—thie case considered by the author—this' assumption’ ‘is not justified. He first tried the ‘loading’ Coils which are used’ in long-distance telephony. ‘The. cores of these coils’ are made of iron wire oily orie-tenth df a millimetre in diameter. The eddy currerits induced in the core are therefore negligibly: small. “Assuming merely the.connection between the ampere-turns,; and. the magnetisation and Faraday’s law for-the'electro-' motive force induced. by a change in the: magnetic! induction, Prof. Peirce found that the experimental results agreed with those deduced from. theory to within. about the tenth part of 1 per cent.; i.e, to within: the: limits of experimental error. Even with the: ordinary closed iron circuit commercial transformer: he::found that the predictions of theory were verified:te: high accuracy when the eddy currents in the-core: could be neglected... It was concluded that a good approxima. tion to the shape of the current curves,sto::the:rate of growth of the excitation, and to, the, flux, of,.the magnetic induction in the core of .a transformer. can ibe obtained when, an accurate statical., hysteresis ‘diagram of the core over the given range is, ayailable,, 1244 NATURE [APRIL 22, 1920 Our Astronomical Column. OCCULTATION OF A STAR BY SATURN.—Bad weather prevailed generally in Europe on March 14, when Saturn occulted-the star Leipzig I 4091, mag. 7-6. A’ few observations were, however, secured, some of ‘them being published in Astr. Nach., 5042. Prof. .Plassmann+ observed the disappearance at. Miinster, noting that at 7h. 30m. G.M.T. the star was still separated from the limb, at 7h. 5-1m. it was in con- tact with it, while at 7h. 5.9m. the star had dis- appeared. Messrs. K. Novak and V.- Rolcik, observing at Smichow, long. oh. 57m. 38s. E. Gr., lat. 50° 4’ 42” N., noted the reappearance at 8h. 39m. gos. G.M.T.. Dr. Bernewitz, at Berlin‘Babelsberg Observatory, first saw the star at 8h. 39m. 34s. G.M.T. He noted that at 8h. 39m. 51s..)it. appeared of full brightness, and at: 8h. 40m. 5s: the. centre of its disc was. dis- tinctly separated from the limb... He states that the marked red colour of the star made it easy to dis- tinguish its light from that ‘of the planet. He made the only observation so'far to'hand of the appulse of Titan’ to the star, which occurred’ some four hours | after emersion from the planet. He states that Titan did not:occult it, but passed 1”. or 2”,tq.the north of it. | The extreme accuracy of Mr, Burnet’s prediction is noteworthy. He gave 7h. 5m. for the, disappearance, and 8h. 4om. for the reappearance. Owing to the slowness of Saturn’s motion, hé thought it likely that these times would be in error by séveral minutes. - Tue Ernstern DispLacEMENT OF SpEcTRAL: LINEs.— The Observatory for April contains communications on _ this subject: by’ Messrs. J. Evershed and .C. E. St. -John.,. The. former gives reasons for thinking that the _pressure.in the, photosphere is extremely low, so that pressure may be eliminated as a disturbing factor. Using forty-two.iron lines, selected as not subject to pole effect, he obtains a shift equivalent to a recession of 0:643 km./sec. at the sun’s centre and 1-000 at the ’ limb. . But observations of Venus at various elonga- tions support the idea that this is not an Einstein effect, but a shift of all regions of the sun away from the earth. It is remarked that it is difficult to accept this as a physical reality, but no other explanation has yet been found. He notes that some of the carbon lines give an-effect similar to the iron ones, but somewhat smaller. The effect seems to vary for different substances, and even for different lines of the same substance, so that some modifying influence is at work. Mr. St. John recapitulates his well-known investiga- tion. in which he used certain lines of the cyanogen band; he then describes his recent work on mag- nesium and iron lines.. He finds from their weighted mean a displacement of the same sign as the Einstein prediction, but of only one-third or one-fourth of its ‘amount. Mr. St. Tohn notes, however, that the dis- placement varies with the intensity of the lines, beins greatest for lines either of verv great or very small intensity. As the majority of the lines measured are of medium intensity, the weighted mean is reduced. He also notes that no lines have been used which seemed unsuitable for the purpose, owing either to their proximity to others or to their instability in the arc spectrum, ' STELLAR SPECTROSCOPY AT THE DETROIT ORSERVA- ToRY.—Vol. ii. of the Publications of this observatory, belonging to the University. of Michigan, has lately been distributed, and contains a sreat. number of ‘interesting studies of stellar spectra. Two may be instanced in particular: the study of variable. stars; of Class Md, by Mr. Paul ‘W. ‘Merrill, traces the | changes of spectra that-accompany the change of NO. 2634, VOL. 105 | ‘variation, light, and discusses various suggestions. of. the: cause of. variability. The one favoured by the: author; is somewhat analogous to the “geyser” theory, but, instead of imagining a solid or viscous crust imprison- ing the gases within, he substitutes a smoke-veil com- posed of condensing gases (calcium is especially sug- -gested) in the upper regions of the stellar atmosphere. This would act as a screen confining the heat of the photosphere, until the accumulation of heat sufficed to vaporise the screen. When the solid-crust. was propounded these stars were thought to be near the end of their careers as suns, but from the small- ness of their proper motions it now appears that they are mostly giants. rs aber ' The other paper, by Mr. Laurence Hadley, deals with the elements. of ( Ursz Majoris, the» first spectroscopic binary discovered. The orbit is fully discussed from several series of observations. period is 20:53644 days, the eccentricity is 0518, and the masses of the componentsxsin*i are respectively 1:83 and 1-79 in terms of the sun. It is noted, that Prof.. Joel Stebbins finds no evidence of light Meteorology at Hong - Kong. sa Z M ONTHLY Meteorological Bulletins for the Royal - Observatory at Hong-Kong for a considerable period to August, 1919, have recently been received. They contain detailed results of observations made at the observatory and the daily weather reports from various stations in the Far East, prepared under the direction of Mr. F. Claxton. For Hong-Kong hourly values are given of- barometric pressure, tem- perature of the air and evaporation, . direction .and velocity of wind, amount of rainfall, and duration of sunshine. All. the hourly observations are measured from the self-registering records. Three-hourly ob- servations are made of the character and direction of motion of the clouds. Daily values are also given of the several meteorological elements. The normals used for comparison with the means are for the years. 1884 to 1918, a period of thirty-five years. From 1916. the daily and mean hourly values of the principal meteoro- logical records have been published in both C.G.S. and British units, and with the January Bulletins tables are given for the conversion of the several elements to the respective units. Information is also supplied for the reduction and correction of the instrumental ob- servations. The December Bulletins give tracks of typhoons and depressions in the Far East for the year, and the divergence in the several months is well shown. With the Daily Weather Reports, which contain observations from forty-five stations in the Far East, notices are given of the warning to coast ports, which commonly state the position of typhoons when such are in progress, and forecasts are given daily for the twenty-four hours ending at noon. oa des The annual report for.1917 contains, a comparison of the Beckley anemograph with the Dines instrument, extending over eight years; the differences are remark- ably consistent until the summer of 1917; when for some unexplained reason, although noticed, the -differ- ences vary. A Richard dry- and wet-bulb thermo- ‘graph has been set up to replace the Kew phe en. thermograph. In section ix. reference is: made sympiesometer observations, and hourly observations are said to have been made for upwards of a year to test the popular belief in the sympiesometer as a weather forecaster. The remarks scarcely seem to refer to a sympiesometer, which was essentially. a sailor’s barometer in the first half’ of the nineteen ‘century. It seems rather that ‘the instrument test ' ’ AAS { . rt es ‘APRIL. 22,1920] MATORE 245 _ jis a camphor glass or chemical weather: glass, long _ acknowledged to be of-no real scientific value. The _ report for 1918 deals with the corrections to be applied _ to the readings of an unaspirated wet-bulb thermo- _ meter in an “‘ Indian”’ shelter to reduce them to those _ of an aspirated thermometer at definite wind velocities _ and for different depressions of the wet bulb. With _ the lighter wind velocities, of 1-5 m.p.h., and for the ger depressions of the wet bulb, say amounting to _ ‘wet bulb amounts to 1° or slightly more. on nd three hundred. and seventy-five observations _ have been dealt with, but as yet no definite scheme has been decided upon. The matter has been con- o in correspondence with the British Meteoro- a : Milk Production of Ayrshire Cattle. a 8 Made critical genetic study of a character such as rs Bitly at of milk production in cattle, which is be needy out effectively until a fairly comprehensive knowledge of the normal variation of the character has been acquired. To this end Prof. Raymond Pearl and Mr. J. R. Miner have carried out a biometrical _ analysis of the normal individual variation in the milk flow and the fat content of the milk of Ayrshire _ eattle, the results of which are summarised in a con- tribution to the Journal of Agricultural Research (vol. xvii., No. 6). Their study is based on the records of Ayrshire cattle for the years 1908 and 1909 pub- _ lished in the reports of the Ayrshire Cattle Milk _ Records Committee of Scotland, more than three _ thousand records in each year being used for the i . Amongst the many important conclusions ‘ arrived at mention may be made of the indications _ that about one-half of the observed variation in milk- _ production results from the varying genotypic indi- _ viduality of the animals with respect to this character, _ the remainder resulting from varying environmental _ influences. The udder as a secreting organ is com- _ pared with the oviduct of a hen, and it is shown that _ the latter operates with somewhat less variability than _ the former, having regard to the absolute weight of the product in the two cases. The change in mean weekly yield of milk with _ advancing age is found to be represented by a _ logarithmic curve, the absolute amount of milk pro- _ duced per unit of time increasing, though at a decreas- ing rate, with the age of the cow to a maximum, _ found to decline with advancing age until the tenth ey The Ignition Points of Liquid Fuels. N a paper read before the Institution of Petroleum 2 Technologists on January 20, Mr. Harold Moore described a number of determinations of the ignition point of commercial fuels which are, or _ might be, used in internal-combustion engines. His signe meter, somewhat similar in principle to that _ from below, in the upper surface of which a hollow eats. The air or oxygen suppl _ is given by a resistance thermometer placed in a hole _ drilled in the block near the crucible. A NO. 2624. VOL. 10] _ 6°=-10°, the subtractive correction to the unaspirated , Three subject to environmental influences, cannot be . _ which was found to be when the cow is ten to eleven | : mans old. The mean fat percentage of the milk was oh ot the cow’s life, after which it remains about © constant. : _ designed by Holm, consists of a steel block, heated is made to take a crucible of platinum, nickel, or | passes through a_ _ hole in the block before entering the crucible, so as to. goa it to the temperature of the crucible, which | cover to- protect the crucible from draughts is screwed on to the block, and a. drop of the liquid fuel is introduced through a-hole in :this cover and falls on to’ the bottom of the crucible. After an interval, more or less prolonged, an explosion is heard and a flame seen if the temperature is above the ignition point. This interval may be as long as thirty seconds or more, ard there is no doubt that quiet combustion takes place during this period, and such combustion is’. very marked in the case of ether. On the other hand,-the evaporation of the drops of liquid must produce local cooling, and, unless the fuel is quite homogeneous, ‘the ignition point found must in many cases be ‘that of the last portion to evaporate. 3 But, in spite of certain inherent defects, the method gives-a valuable comparative test of different fuels—a tést which is quick and easy to apply. Mr. Moore recommends the use of ordinary: com- pressed oxygen instead of air as giving more con- cordant results and as having a concentration: at atmospheric pressures more nearly like that used: in motor engines. Most hydrocarbon liquids tested: invair gave ignition points from 100° C: to 200° C. higher than in oxygen; but, curiously’ enough, Mr.: Moore found that in an atmosphere containing 70 per cent. of carbon dioxide and 30 per cent. of oxygen the igni- tion point of kerosene was almost the same as in pure oxygen. A few ignition points from Mr. Moore’s lists may be quoted: ny Ignition Point. Fuel In oxygen ip aie Taxibus spirit (Anglo-American Oil Co.) %.. ee ny ey o 396 Anglo-Persian oil ... 254 408 Anglo-Mexican oil 259 417 Normal hexane 287 — Benzene is ote 620 = Ethyl alcohol us 395 518 Ether (methylated) 190 347. : In silica crucible Hydrogen» e630 0 — .. 678 In the case of mixtures of two liquids of. very different ignition points the addition of about 20 per cent. of the more easily inflammable liquid. suffices to reduce the temperature substantially to that‘ of the lower constituent; for instance, the addition of 20 per cent. of ether (ignition point 206°) to xylol (ignition point §55°) reduced the ignition point of the: mixture to 2 ; Naval Research and Experiment, . oe ensure that the full benefits of science shall be secured to the Naval Service, a Department of Scientific Research and Experiment has been set up under the Third Sea Lord and Controller. As the Scientific Adviser of the Admiralty, and in charge of this Department, Mr. F. E. Smith, F.R.S., has been appointed with the title of Director of Scientific Research. It is the duty of the Department to keep the Navy in touch with outside scientific establish- ments and to ensure that the work at the vatious naval experimental establishments proceeds with full cognisance of scientific progress and methods. The Director of Scientific Research will work in close association with the Naval Staff, thus ensuring that naval policy is framed with due consideration of the possible practical applications of scientific progress in relation to naval needs, and enabling requirements as to types and weapons to be formulated ‘with ‘a knowledge of the latest scientific possibilities. 246 NATURE [ApRIL* 22, 1920 Consultations with outside scientific institutions will be resorted to, both to ensure against overlapping and with the view of utilising such of their researches and experiments as appear likely to prove of value to the Naval Service. At present there exists under the Department a naval research laboratory at Shandon. This estab- lishment was set up during the war with the primary object of investigating methods of counteracting the enemy’s submarine menace. It has performed, and is performing, good service; but Shandon is a great distance from the experimental schools, the various scientific institutions, and the Admiralty, and it has therefore been decided that, so soon as_ suitable accommodation can be provided elsewhere, such of the work as requires sea environment, together with the. scientific personnel associated with . it, will be removed to a suitable existing naval establishment, and the remainder, which does not in its early stages require a sea environment, will be transferred to a naval research institute. This institute, under the Director of Scientific Research. will adjoin the National Physical Laboratory at Teddington. It will be, entirely controlled. by the Admiralty, but its close association with the National Physical Laboratory will offer, exceptional facilities for co-operation, and the staff of the research institute will have the advantage of personal acquaintance with the work being carried out at the laboratory. The Department of Scientific and Industrial Research will be consulted in all cases when, the results of investigations are likely to be of use to the general community. To ensure effective co-operation and contact with naval thought, naval officers will frequently visit the research institute, and the scientific staff will work for lengthy periods at naval establishments, and at times .go to sea itt $ Education and Science in the. Civil Service na Estimates for 1920-21. . PHE Estimates for Civil Services for the year “ending March 31, 1921 (Class IV.: Education, Science, and Art), have now been published. Among the increased grants compared with ‘those of last -year aré’:-Board of Education,’ 12,983,094l.; British Museum, 74,519l.; Scientific Investigation, etc., 81,4421. ; Scientific and Industrial Research, 246,845]. ; Public Education (Scotland), 2,200, oool. ; Public Education (Ireland), 185,735l.; and Science and Art (freland), 20,9171. As the Geological Museum and Geological Survey are now under the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, their grants of 7560l.: and 30,0431. respectively represent part of the increase of 246,845]. to that Department. The grant for scholarships, exhibitions, and other allowances to students in technical schools and colleges is increased from 17,460l. to. 34,3501. In addition, there are new grants of 15,000l. for scholarships tenable at universi- ties, and expenses incidental to them, and 250,o00l. to local education authorities for maintenance allow- ances at places of higher education. The_ total amount of the grants in aid of universities, colleges, medical schools, and like institutions in the United Kingdom is, about 1,000,000. ; there is also a special grant -o 196, oool.. for extraordinary expenditure. . The grant’ for assistance ‘towards the higher education : of ex-officers and men of, like. standing is. 3,000,0001., compared. with: 2,000,000. for. 1919-20.,.. The grant undér the Royal Society shows | an. increase of: gogol., and includes 2000l. for subscriptions to international NO. 2634, VOL. 105 | research associations. details are extracted from the Estimates :— SyNopsIs. United Kingdom and England. Board of Education ... scan British Museum odie ie oe 204,233 National Gallery Keb von eet 29,95 National Portrait Gallery “9,824 Wallace Collection 15,953 London Museum . 5412 Imperial War Museum 50,000 Scientific Investigation, etc. : 208,416 Scientific and Industrial Research — 518,208 Universities and Colleges, United Ring. ba Desd dom, and Intermediate spe ee! “Wales a 7 +s" "" 945,'700 Universities, etc. 4 Special Grants .: | | 196,000 Serbian Relief Fund (maintenance and ° education of Lineal Serbians in this : ‘ country) ‘ 25,000 Scotland, ag, Public Education ... Wee National Galleries 000 2. 1. aS ete Ireland. Public Education 8,371 Intermediate Education af 3398.97 Endowed Schools Commissioners | : 1,042 National Gallery Bs V a as 4,650 Science and Art ee : ; | 211415 Universities and Colleges “86,000 3 Bison DETAILs. Scientific Investigation, etc. Royal Society : : Faerie eee: Fe ay s%.- (i) ‘Grant in’ aid of :— ? yee Scientific investigations under- ig taken with the sanction of a Committee appointed for the purpose (including non- recurrent grant of 5o000l.) ...11,000 Scientific publications +++ 1,000 Subscriptions to international research associations . 2,000 14,6 (ii) Grant in aid of salaries and other expenses of the erie Oye mr ne at Eskdalemuir 1,000 Total for Royal Soctuty | na 15,000 Royal Geographical Society eh 1,250 Marine Biological Association ‘of the seen United Kingdom ... fe oy 1,000 Royal Society of Edinburgh - Wee ee Hho G00 Scottish Meteorological Society... Peace. - 100 Royal Irish Academy cen anes 1,600 Royal Irish Academy of Music i. se 300 Royal Zoological Society of Ireland ~... 500 Royal Hibernian Academy ys 300 British School’ at Athens .... ... A uate 500 British School at Rome. Wenig 500 Royal Scottish Geographical. Society. sk 200. National. Library of Wales Bip 12,000 National- Museum of Wales). ss. .+y. 253500 Solar: pie Observatory, +. soc. cgcjeane feet *GaOO9 North Séa ‘Fisheries. Investigation vee“ © 1,250 Imperial Mineral Resources Bureau , ... ., - 104750 The subjoined summary _ 08 APRIL. 22, 1920] QWATURE 247 a it & demy of Music... - «.. cada 500 ¥ oan Nady (AG Sits ar ARES AL eee a 506 _ Medical Research Council . bee 125,000 - British Institute of Industrial Art : 5,500 Edinburgh Observatory... Mice) Sed 2,506 f ries, wages, and allowances 29,235 _ Travelling and incidental expenses 1,950 _ Grants for Investigation and Research : ) Investigations carried out by learned | and scientific societies, etc. ... 13,800 emeeerieations: directly controlled by _ the Department of Scientific and In- dustrial Research 40,928 (3) Students and other persons ¢ engaged in research 38,300 (4), Expenses of Research Boards for co- ordination of Government research . 200,000 "3 Total 293,028 _ Fuel Research Station 40,882 _ Geological Museum ... 7,5 _ Geological Survey of Great Britain. 30,043 ; wscmnaed Physical pewwreais! 203,000 jations in Aid :— tions of co-operating bodies ... 1,550 erat of unexpended balance of grants = ——-300 i Testing fees at Fuel Research Station .. 1,000 | gs of x oxmmaed at Fuel Research 7 _ Station 2,500 ay | Testing fees at the National Physical ___ Laboratory, charges for special inves- 4 tions, and yments by the Road a rd, India Office, etc., for services rendered by the National ws t Laboratory 55,000 e- Balance of accrued interest at March 31, _ ‘1g21, on the Fund of the Imperial ‘Trust for the encouragement of scientific and industrial research, for» which 1,000, was voted’ ins 1917-18 aS ae Ng 27,050 Total for Appropriations in Aid 87,400 Universities and Colleges, United Kingdom. “Birmin BUMEMIEY. axe, ded es aes 35,000 re Gg rene bes sad yee 17,000 Bristol Merchant Venturers’ Technical . ° © 2,000 : “Cambridge University, Medical Depart. ment ... +500 Durham University -. NUE et ae 2,000 Durham, Armstron College sie eRe as COS Durham College of Medicine... «1. - 3,800 = University | sya Wageieas 33,000 1 01 University beeen ¢ 40,000 Lon niversi Sade ae 8,000 in, Bedford College aie 13,000 Be, aig East London College... 11,000 es Imperial College of Science and echnology 52,000 5 King’s College, Household and : Bo, Science Department... 4,000 x King’s College, including King’ s College for Women _... ir 25,000 1 Services rendered without payment for other Government on ( estimated as follows Admiralty, 7,5007. ; a Baw ail :Z alpen, 7,0002, ; War Office, 2,150. ; ;H.M tee of Works: 1. s00/. ; -of Trade, 1, cool. ; Works undertaken at te - edeel of the | ae 8,000/. | % NO. 2634, VOL. 105 | London, School’ of Economics ‘ robes * School of Oriental Studies 4,000 Fe University College : ae 39,000 “y, | Westfield College ... 3,000 ea Charing Cross Hospital “Medical ’ ~ School é ; 1,000 oe King’s College Hospital Medical - School 3 700 re London Hospital Medical College 6,000 MB Middlesex Hospital Medical +3 School .. 2,000 4 Royal Dental Hospital, School of Dental Surgery ... 1,000 oF (Royal Free Hospital), School of Medicine for Women ... 4,000 Pe St. Bartholomew’s Hospital Medical School ... 5,000 Pe St. George’s Hospital “Medical Schoo: ="... 700 4 St. Mary’s Hospital “Medical School rep T,900° i St. Thomas’s Hospital “Medical School __... at ‘4,500 43 School of Tropical "Medicine beac EOS “ University ~ College akg sa b fet Medical School ... 4,000 a Westminster Tear “Medical School as ; aa ‘300 Manchester University 40,000 Manchester College of Technology. 7,000 Nottin a a University College I1¥,000 Oxford University Engineering Depart ment ... = ; ‘500 Reading University College 12,000 Sheffield University ... 21,000 Southampton University College 5,000 Total England 461,000 University of Wales ... Oe Be 6,500 Aberystwyth University College 14,000 Bangor University College 14,000 Cardiff University College ... 18,000 Total Wales 52,500 Edinburgh University 53,000 Glasgow University .. ave 48,000 Glasgow Royal Technical College 3,000 Aberdeen University .. 32,000 St. Andrews University, including Dundee ee University College .. eS div poe 29,000 Total Scotland? 165,000 Belfast, Queen’s University 8,000 Cork University College 6,000 Dublin University College 10,000 Galway University College 3,000 Total Ireland * jae me 27,000 Universities and Colleges; United King- dom, unallocated grant i hs 210,500 Total for Universities and ~ Colleges, United Bit, Grant in Aid * ; 916,000 2 This sum includes 42,000/. payable to Scottish Universities under Section 25 of the Universities (Scotland) Act, 1889. and is in addition to an annual sum of 30,000/. payable to these Universities from the Local Taxation (Scotland) Account under Section 2(2) of the Education and Local Taxation Account (Scotland) Act, 1892. 3 In addition to 84.000/. provided in’ Class IV., 18 4 This sum, together with 84,000/ provided in Class IV., 18, is intended to raise to 1,000,000/. the total eg of the grants paid out of. the Exchequer during the year 1920-21 for ses maintenance red University: Anstitutions in the United’ Kingdom, s 548 [APRIL 22, 1920 The Native Tribes of Western Australia. A? a meeting of the Royal Anthropological Institute on April 13, Sir Everard im ‘Churn, president, in the chair, Mr. G. O. Neville read a paper on ‘‘ The Aborigines of Western Australia: Their Treatment and Care.’’ In introducing the speaker, the president laid stress upon the importance of papers dealing with the practical side of native questions. It was often said that the Government did not assist scientific societies enough, but he was sometimes in doubt whether scientific societies on their side gave sufficient assistance to the Government. ; Mr. Neville said that the aborigines of Western Australia were most numerous in the north, diminish- ing as they came nearer civilisation, until almost extinct where the’ white man has lived since the early days of occupation. By nature a nomadic race, they live by hunting alone and cultivate nothing. . They com- municate with each other by means of a cipher, intel- ligible only to themselves, cut upon message sticks, or Bambarro, the bearer of which is granted a safe passage through hostile tribes. Numbers of crude figures, representations of beasts, birds, or reptiles, are to be found drawn in coloured pigments upon’ flat rocks or inside caves in the far north. The gradual disappearance of the natives continues unceasingly, in spite of constant effort. This is due to change of - food, their hunting-grounds being occupied by the squatter, and the necessity: for their having to clothe themselves and live more or less under shelter. The aborigines do not believe that any person dies a natural death, but suopose the deceased to have been boulyaed (bewitched) by some member. of another tribe,, and it becomes the duty of -a near relative, generally a brother of the dead person, selected by the Bulyas or medicine-men, to avenge his death by killing. the supposed murderer-or. another one of the tribe to which the murderer is supposed to belong. One of the-most remarkable means of disposing of the ‘dead, known as the stone system, occurs in the north: There the body of the dead person is elevated to'a platform of sticks built in a tree, a layer of large stones’ being placed immediately beneath the body. ‘The* stones. represent individuals who might have caused the death of the victim;. and if the fat from the body, evaporating in the heat of the sun, falls upon any stone, the individual represented by that ‘stone is the one unon whom vengeance will sooner or later fall at the hands of the near relatives of the ‘deceased person. If no fat falls, a near relative will, -after the removal of the body to an adjacent ant-heap, where only the bones are soon remaining, sleep upon ‘the pile, and it will be revealed to him in a dream ‘which is the selected stone. ‘No. native can be employed except under a permit issued by a Protector. Generally speaking, the treat- ment of Western Australian natives at the hands of their employers leaves little to he desired. The Aborigines Act provides the necessary machinerv for bringing offenders to book. The Chief Protector being constituted by law the. legal guardian: of every aboriginal and half-casté child until the age of sixteen, it is possible to remove any child from undesirable surroundings. Some eighty Protectors, . Chief Protector, are resident in various parts of the ‘State where there are. natives.. Seventy Government relief “stations provide assistance’ for indigent and ‘destitute natives. .The Devartment owns cattle settle- ‘ments in Kimberley, and two farming and industrial ‘settlements have been established recently in the south ‘for the reception of indigent.and aged people, with ‘$nécial provision for’ the care: and training«of orphan — ‘children. The reserves uvon which these settlemerits NO. 2634, VOL. 105] under the. are established are for the natives only, and whites, — other than the staff employed, are rigidly excluded by law. The provision of medical attendance has been the special care of the State; all natives receive free advice, medicine, and hospital treatment in ‘case of sickness. The nine mission stations’ in Western Aus- tralia, nearly all subsidised by the State, have done useful work, especially in the care and rescue of children. Though the people are dwindling away, the work of the Department must go on, in the hope that the last days of a dying race can be made the easier. and happier. i ema In declaring the subject open for discussion, the president said that the cause of the decrease in a native population when it came into contact with civilisation was its failure to adapt its psychological constitution to changed circumstances. \ Dr. Corney said that as a result of his experience in dealing with immigrant labour—male only—in Fiji, he had arrived at the conclusion that the type of soil had an important effect on certain groups; for instance, an alluvial soil was fatal to Gilbert Islanders and Solomon Islanders, although the former throve on sandy soil, such as that of the islands on which coconuts were grown, and the latter made excellent, sailors. It was also evident that all were peculiarly. susceptible to. the attacks of micro-organisms from which the European population was to some extent immune, as shown by the virulence of the epidemics of measles and influenza. . Mr. N. W. Thomas pointed out that Pater Schmidt has shown that in the north mode of burial and lan- guage coincide in distribution, and asked whether the distribution of drawings also coincided with platform burial and language. hs Be Prof. Arthur Keith said that if we were placed in the Australian desert and asked to live the life of the aborigines, he doubted whether we would survive. Would we not rather die as they die in our environ- ment? When they were brought into contact with our civilisation we asked them to make a jump of perhaps two thousand generations within a lifetime; to change at once from the life of a prince to that of civilisation, the life of a horse in a mill. The govern- ing factor in deciding the fate of native populations lav in the domain of psychology. Here the man of science came into touch with the. practical problem, for he was trying to understand the back of the black man’s mind. ea teeae _ Miss Freire-Marreco compared the measures adopted in Western Australia with those which had been fol- lowed in the United States of America, especially in relation to the dying out of the native races. Until about ten vears ago the native races there had diminished ranidly. Since then, however, the Indian population had been on the uv-grade, owing largely to the attention paid by the Central Government to the food-supply and the checking of tuberculosis and other diseases by isolation and the inculcation of sanitary and hygienic rules: area : t - University and Educational Intelligence. _ Mr. F. A. Heron has given to Queen’s University, Belfast, the sum of soool. to provide the necessary equipment for teaching physical chemistry, and toool. towards the provision ‘of accommodation for the — department. £° Came ee: ee, 7. ' In: connection: with the: faculty of .medicine. of the University of Birmingham, a’ course of ten weekly lectures. (free, to. medical .men). on ..‘ Principles © of Psychotherapy”? is to be given =by *Dr. Imms Some Applications of Physics to War Problems. Obituary: Prof. J. A. McClelland, F/R.S, By ~ A. W. C.—Dr. J. G. Bartholomew. ee stn As: Chisholm. .. : oak ole pda tae Notes. . sya ella hieeeaiamas Our Astronomical Column :— ' ‘ Occultation of a Star by Saturn. . Haare The Einstein Displacement of Specteal ‘Lines - : Stellar Spectroscopy at the Detroit Observatory. . . Meteorology at Hong-Kong . Ape ast ares 760" Milk Production of Ayrshire Cattle 7... .. . 245 Pi aay The Ignition Points of Liquid Fuels... ... . 245 Naval Research and Experiment... / 245 Education ‘and Science in the Civil Service Esti- Ree mates for 1920-21 Bs Ry 246 | The Native Tribes of Western “Australia Lee one University and Educational intelligence gavage 15248 Societies and Academies RPO rr er oS Books Received .:. gece e's is donhitisea ee lait: meciwanea it Diary of Societies > ¢(.... us) a) os emerge es eee nel .. . Editorial.and Publishing Offices: . ...°| MACMILLAN AND CO., Ltp., : ; ST» MARTIN’S ‘STREET, LONDON, W.C.2. Advertisements dnd business letters to be. alee to the : ’ Publishers. ae oe iat os \ Editorial Communications to' the Rastor. 5 he apie Address: Prusts,” Loxvox, wer Id as ““ Telephone Number: Gprrarp 8830. y oe - MS, ye 336, OO ——, i & —_s i ‘a y ~ eine ce NATURE 733 1920. ei THURSDAY, APRIL 20, Chemical Industries of German & Bhiae Rhineland. 9 16, as a result of war conditions, British ical manufacturers formed an association view of strengthening and consolidating ion by mutual help and co-operation. e declaration of the armistice the associa- atched a Mission to Germany, under the of the Department of Overseas Trade, y y the present position of German chemical ‘The Mission consisted of twenty mem- of ‘the association, representing various es of chemical manufacture, and it was yanied by a military representative and by of the Department of Overseas Trade, 1 of Trade, the Local Government Board, nadian interests. Thirty-nine works were ed, all of them in German Rhineland and in eet by the Allies from north of Cologne ———— a y , of the ES of the following sections of hemical industry, as developed in Germany, viz. 0 ie chemicals ; : coal-tar products, inter- with | here. We are concerned rather with ral purport and with the lessons and warn- conveys. These are given in the summary report which the association has caused to nted and published.! We trust it will be ' circulated and read. The moral it incul- is summed up in this one brief sentence : ‘Germar chemical industry has been one stu- endo organisation for effecting and promoting he @ application of science to industry ”—a_ state- ent which, we agree with the writer of the sum- , “should be displayed, not only in every ffice, but in every educational institution in the 4 xd om,” as well as “in all Government Departments.” oe % ¢ : a pronouncement. It has been the burthen 9 innumerable articles and public addressés during e last half-century ; and we see their effect in the actories in the- pied Area of Germany. tish Chemical Manufacturers, 166 Piccadilly, W.1.) NO. 2635, VOL. 105 | (As,ociation of ois, however, too technical to be. the same time, there’ is nothing very new A Sunmary, of the -Report of the British Chemical Mission on multiplication a our ss aibaciol universities and the creation of our various technical colleges and schools. Anyone at all familiar with the history of these institutions knows that their creation has been entirely due to the action of a few public- spirited: men who have laboured, in season and out of season, and often under sore discouragement, to effect their éstablishment. In no single instance have they been due to the spon- taneous impulse of a whole community,. prompt to recognise and to appreciate the value of science to industry. Even when established, there was, as a rule, no very widespread desire, at all events at the outset, to take advantage of the oppor- tunities they afforded. In most of them their day of small things was a fairly long period. But the coming of the war brought a great awakening. The national importance of science was recognised as never before. We then realised we were confronted with a nation that had sedu- lously cultivated science in its application to prac- tically every att and every industry of peace, as well as of war, and we. were amazed’ and dis- quieted at our own shortcomings and our supine neglect. The new Education Act is a measure of the degree to which the country has been roused. The ease and practical unanimity with which it was passed are the»clearest proofs of- the: public conviction of its necessity. The document before us, emanating frog a body of experts eminently qualified to express an authoritative opinion, will serve to strengthen that conviction. It deals, of course, mainly with only one branch of applied science; but, as it happens, it has been a branch which has rendered extra- ordinary service to the country at one of the most critical periods of its history. It was not so much our knowledge of chemistry that helped us, or the facilities we possessed of applying it. In these respects we were lamentably behind our chief enemy, and that enemy knew it. But she reckoned without the national characteristics which ultimately saved the situation, and, luckily for us and the world, her lightning stroke missed its aim, and she was compelled by circumstances . to give us time to develop and apply them. But ‘it is safe to say that, had we been capable of taking up the position before the war that we were in at its close, its duration would: have been greatly curtailed, and it is conceivable, indeed, that it would never have been begun. . © . The summary of the report, concise as it is, covers more ground than can be dealt with in a single article. We must therefore confine our- K 254 NATURE [APRIL 29, 1920 selves toa brief statement of the general impres- sions which the members of the Mission gained concerning the present development of chemical industry in Germany, and its potential future as affected by the war. To begin with, the Mission was_ strongly impressed with the evidence of scientific method which appertained to everything relating to the industry, not only to the laboratory and the factory, but also to accountancy, buying and_ selling, and the management of labour—in fact, to every side of business activity. This result had been achieved by an efficient combination of experts. “The Germans, in fact, have learnt how to use their leaders with utmost effect.” It has been the fashion to disparage the originality of the Germans and to point to their lack of inventive power. Whatever may be their failings in these respects, there is no question that it is through their willingness to co-ordinate their efforts that much of their striking success is to be attributed. Moreover, as is pointed out, the chemical industry occupies a high position in Germany, and it can command the services of the best brains in the country. The status of the chemist is such that it is now, at least in the higher positions, one of the best paid of the professions in Germany—far more so than the Law and the Church. How this has been brought about is clearly stated : _“During generations past, unlimited facilities have existed for providing those who wish to become chemists with an education which is nowhere excelled, so that not only is the status of the chemist high, but the man himself, in virtue of his thorough training, is fitted to main- tain the high position in which he is placed. Everywhere the chemist is to the fore, and not only are chemists found in the chief administra- tive positions of the large chemical undertakings, but they frequently control the great organisations characteristic of German industry generally.” The author of the summary has a very definite opinion as to the influence of the German educa- tional system in the universities and the poly- technics in reaching this result, and he contrasts it with our own system of scholarships and bur-- saries, which he evidently disparages : “As German education has been carried on without money bribes in the form of scholarships and fellowships, and without competitive examina- tions, the system has been one of almost complete Lernfreiheit. Although it has often been adversely criticised by those unacquainted with its workings, the results belie all such criticism. At least, the student has always worked with a forward out- look; his effort has been to solve a problem, not NO. 2635, VOL. 105 | merely to acquire knowledge. The system has been as far removed as possible from that pursued in this country, especially at Oxford; there can be little doubt that it has been a factor of great importance in the development of industry on a scientific basis in Germany.” Now, while there is much that is unguenene ably true in this statement, in his desire to decry our own educational system the writer has shown either that he himself is not wholly acquainted with the later development of the German system, ‘so far as it is concerned with chemistry and its industrial application, or that he is guilty of a suppressio veri. The German leaders of chemical industry some time ago determined to attract promising chemical students by that very system of “money bribes” which he deprecates, and to endow what are practically fellowships to be held in connection with German university laboratories. In principle there was nothing in this essentially | different from our own procedure—except that the aims of the German manufacturers were not quite so altruistic as those of the “pious founders of our own universities. The writer of the summary pays a well- deserved compliment to the enterprise, skill, and courage of the men who controlled these vast industrial concerns—their breadth of view and keenness of outlook; their tireless efforts and unfailing perseverance in attacking problems need- ing years for solution, and for which no early return for the large expenditure involved could be anticipated. Nothing, we are told, appeared to have struck the Mission more than the lavish monetary outlay on laboratories, libraries, and technical staffs. As an example, an account is given of the leading features of the great Bayer works at Leverkusen, one of the most highly organised of the Rhineland factories. We have also a brief statement describing the rapid development of power stations in the Rhine district, especially during the war; and some account of the working of the Interessen Gemein- schaft (I.G.), by which the leading chemical firms co-operate so as to secure community of interests. But limits of space preclude any detailed account of the several matters of interest covered by the report. Enough, however, has been written to indicate its importance. Whilst we cannot wholly subscribe to every statement of the writer of the ‘summary, who has been allowed, possibly, too free a hand in interpreting the findings of the report, we can at least testify that he has the courage of his convictions and little hesitation in giving utterance to them. Poe “APRIL 29, 1920] NATURE 255 Man: Past and Present. east and Present. By A. H. Keane. Re- vised and largely re-written, by A. Hings- ton Quiggin and A. C. Haddon. Pp. xi+ +xvi plates. (Cambridge: At the Univer- » Press, 1920.) Price 36s. net. is scarcely necessary to extol the virtues of . of data a ras the races of mankind and r customs (see NaTuRE, June 8, 1899, p. 121), it has been the vade mecum of almost every king ethnologist for more than twenty years. the authors of the new edition had a task of sptional difficulty in practically re-writing a ork of so encyclopedic a nature they also had great opportunity. Moreover, Mrs. Hingston uiggin and Dr. Haddon had exceptional, if not unique, qualifications for making the most of their chance. But they have contented themselves with pouring their new wine into Keane’s old bottles. _ Even so glaring an anachronism as Keane’s classi- fication of the races of mankind and the use of the unpardonable term ‘‘ Caucasian,’’ with many its unfortunate implications, have been retained. sy have made a digest of the modern litera- 2 of ethnology that will be extremely useful to th ee who knows what to select and what to reject, but utterly bewildering to the student and general reader, who expect some sort of con- cy and some leading idea to bind together vast masses of data as are presented to n in this book. Instead of this they will find excellent series of extracts from a host of rs without any serious attempt to create a tent story or to explain the wide discrep- s in their interpretations of the facts. € eh the authors direct attention (pp. 351- ; to the fact that fatal objections have been m: ide to the fashionable speculation of the in- dependent origin of cultures, throughout the rest 0 “the book they ignore this warning and adopt in extreme attitude in flagrant opposition to the rine of diffusion. Take, for example, the dog- statement on p. 23:—‘‘In fact, we know certain that such an independent Copper Age developed not only in the region of the Great s of North America, but also amongst the tu peoples of Katanga and other parts of Cen- I Africa’’: the researches of one of Dr. ddon’s own pupils, Mr. W. J. Perry, have ywn this claim to be totally unfounded. Copper s not used in either of these places until im- zrants who had already become acquainted with the economic value of the metal elsewhere had _ made their way into these territories and dis- covered the new sources of supply. NO. 2635, VOL. 105 | 4th e This sort of fallacy runs through the whole book, and will be a repeated source of confusion to the thoughtful student. What, for example, will he think of the statement on p. 465: “The idea of an independent evolution of Western [European] culture is steadily gaining ground,”’ after reading a hundred pages earlier that the opposite tendency is now strongly asserting itself? The late Prof. Keane was a strong supporter of the speculation of the independent origin of cul- ture, and at times became almost fanatical in giv- ing expression to his devotion to the fashionable craze. But the authors of the present edition, in spite of their pretence of impartiality, go further than the original author. The latter was not always consistent. While he poured scorn upon the whole theory of the diffusion of culture and quoted with child-like gusto the worst extrava- gances of Brinton’s and J. W. Powell’s denials of the possibility of such a spread of civilisation as everyone knows to be happening at the present time, he frankly and fully adopted it as the explanation of the ancient Rhodesian monuments at Zimbabwe. But the authors of the present edition: reject Keane’s solution of the Zimbabwe problem, and adopt Dr. Randall-Maclver’s dis- credited speculations. Thus we are told that “exploration in 1905 dispelled the romance hitherto connected with the ‘temples’ and pro- duced evidence to show that they were not earlier in date than the fourteenth or fifteenth centuries [sic], and were of native construction ’’ (p. 89). Dr. Haddon does not enlighten his readers as to how the discovery of a piece of medieval Chinese pot- tery in one of the altogether subsidiary buildings at Zimbabwe can prove that the great buildings were built by negroes not earlier than the four- teenth century. The discovery of a piece of willow-pattern plate in the foundation of a house at, say, Bristol would not prove that the Roman buildings at Bath were erected by Englishmen in the nineteenth century! Yet this is the sort of argument which is naively borrowed by Dr. Haddon, who is well aware of the multitude of data entirely fatal to it. The authors, in fact, seem to have accepted - without discrimination anything that has recently appeared in print, and not tested it in the light of their own knowledge. Thus they have repro- duced without comment or criticism some of the least excusable fallacies of current ethnological literature. For example, in their discussion of the origin of Chinese civilisation (p; 207) they confuse race and culture. They are giving the reasons for not deriving the people of China from south-western Asia, when they are really discuss- ing the origin of Chinese civilisation. Writers 256 NATURE [APRIL 29, 1920 who had compiled the vast mass of data in this book should have had no hesitation in dismissing once for all any suggestion that ‘‘ the present inhabitants of China are late intruders of south- western Asia” (p. 207). At the same time, they should not have been blind to the fact that there ‘is ample evidence to demonstrate how most of the Chinese customs and beliefs were inspired by events that were occurring in Elam, Sumer, and Turkestan early in the third millennium, the influ- ence of which was gradually transmitted to Shensi by prospectors searching for gold, fresh- water pearls, and jade in the heart of Asia. But the writers have not understood the mean- ing of these facts. Nowhere in the book is there so much confusion as in the sections relating to Turkestan. On p. 257 they qualify their accept- ance of Prof. Ellsworth Huntington’s views by quoting Dr. Peisker’s _ wise warning that “(change of] climate was not the sole or even the main factor” in causing the desolation of Turkestan and Central Asia; yet on p. 263 they seem to forget the need for caution, and attempt to explain the origin of Sumerian civilisation as one of the results of a period of drought in Central Asia. To those who are acquainted with the scien- tific results of M. de Morgan’s “Mission en Perse ” it will come as a surprise to be told that “recent archeological discoveries [by which the writers refer to Huntington’s desiccation hypo- thesis] make Sumerian origins a little clearer” ! On the contrary, M. Edmond Pottier’s report on the earliest painted pottery found by M. de Morgan in Susa proves conclusively that the earliest ceramic ware from Turkestan was directly inspired by Elam. So far from the origin of Sumerian civilisation being explained by dis- coveries in Turkestan, we now know that the culture of the latter area was derived from the neighbourhood of the Persian Gulf. These examples serve to illustrate the weakness of the book. While making an encyclopedic com- pilation of extracts from the most recent writers, the authors have made little attempt to assimilate and co-ordinate the collection of facts. Nor has any attempt been made to link together the data by means of any general idea or principle. The book has been compiled at a time when the facts of ethnology. are being illuminated by the brilliant light of a new theory which explains how and why the elements of our common civilisation were spread abroad in ancient times by prospectors searching for pearls and the precious metals. This revolutionary idea in ethnology was propounded by one of Dr. Haddon’s pupils, Mr. W. J. Perry. But it is clear from this book that Dr. Haddon mas ! NO. 2635, VOL. 105 | utterly failed to appreciate the new vision im ethnology which his own school has effected, There is no reference to the Talgai skull, and Sir Baldwin Spencer’s assumption that ‘the Tas- manians must have crossed Bass Strait on dry land is accepted without comment. Why people whose ancestors ‘had already crossed Wallace’s. line by ‘boat could not also have ferried across. ‘Bass Strait is not apparent! The lack of maps and diagrams is a serious defect, and many of ‘the illustrations at the end of the book are far from satisfactory. I think it unfortunate that a book of this character should have been issued at the present moment, for it will give the world outside Cambridge an alto- gether misleading idea of the nature and quality of the excellent training which the Cambridge School of Anthropology is now providing. _ G. — SMITH. ' Critical Mathematics, Les Principes de l’Analyse Mathématique : "apoke Historique et Critique. By Prof. Pierre Bou- troux. Tome second. _ Pp. iv+512. (Paris: Librairie Scientifique A. Hermann - et Fils, 1919.) Price 20 francs. HIS second volume of Prof. Boutroux’s ‘work contains the outlines of analytical plane and solid geometry, projective geometry, the theory — of ordinary complex quantities, infinite series and — products, infinitesimal calculus, analytical func- tions. There are also very brief notices of deter- minants, groups, aggregates, vectors, elliptic, abelian and fuchsian functions. On the whole, the volume may be descrited as a varied and stimulating course likely to interest a competent university student and induce him to follow up one or more of the numerous branches of mathematics to which his attention is directed. Owing to the variety of topics intro- duced, much of the didactic part of the course is very fragmentary; at the same time, it is elegant and suggestive. To the teacher, the most interesting part of the volume is the critical and historical matter. The historical sections seem to be admirable in every way—judicious, impartial, and in proper perspec- tive and proportion. Among other things, atten- tion is directed to Fermat’s contributions to analytical geometry, some of which, in a. measure, anticipated Descartes. At the same time, it is pointed out that, whereas Descartes had in view the ousting of pure geometry by analysis, Fermat, like Newton, remained faithful to the old methods, regarding analysis mainly as an auxiliary. Prof. Apri 29, 1920] NATURE 257 outroux properly directs attention to the fact that of Apollonius’s ‘“Conics” is essentially alytical, though, of course, there is no algebra, rictly so called. In the sections on function- .) h due reference is made to Méray, who shares at measure with Weierstrass the credit of = the foundations of. a sound theory of tical functions. It is fortunate that the great larity of the work of these two mathematicians Phas give rise to bitter polemic; there was at st as much material for it as in the famous wton-Leibniz controversy.. The author’s critical remarks, we fancy, will ee t meet with such unqualified acceptance. To ike one example, he says of Peano’s symbolism : Disfortunately, it is not everyone who can read _ with facility these combinations of signs, which are often grotesque and repulsive, and unaccom- Te anied by a single word of the vulgar tongue. Moreover, M. Peano’s symbolism cannot claim to have made any contribution to the progress of mathematics ; it remains a remarkable method of scientific shorthand.” As a criticism of the work ___ of Peano and his school, this is distinctly unfair. __ Anyone who has the patience to become moder- ately familiar with the notation is bound, we believe, to admit that the alternative is either to produce a text full of ambiguities and_ tacit sumptions, or else one of intolerable prolixity. present reviewer has come to this conclusion with very great reluctance; even the Cambridge ress has not succeeded in making the “ Principia fathematica” attractive to the eye; and it is to be feared that the first impression it is likely to produce i is that it is the work of a drunken com- positor. Probably its use will be mainly, if not wholly, confined to the logical foundations of mathematics ; for this purpose we think its value is indisputable. There are other controversial _ statements scattered about the text; they all deserve careful attention, even if the reader is Peon to disagree with them. _ ‘There is one point, of frequent occurrence, against which we feel bound to protest. Prof. _ Boutroux repeatedly says that such an equation _ as x*+y?=o represents a point. This is abso- __ lutely- untrue; it may be said to represent a point- circle (circle of zero radius), or a pair of isotropic lines, according as we exclude or include complex elements. But no single equation in point- co-ordinates can represent a point; moreover, it is fatal to ignore the degree of the equation. Oddly enough, Halphen makes the same mistake in his memoir on characteristics; he repeatedly gives the name of “a single line” to what is, as a degenerate quadratic locus, a double line with two special points (or, exceptionally, one special NO. 2635, VOL. 105] to native proteins. double point) upon it. Fortunately, this does not affect Halphen’s conclusions, the reason (appar- ently) being that he discusses point-equations and line-equations simultaneously, We hope that this work will have a good circulation in England; its virtues are precisely: those in which our text-books still leave some- thing to be desired: elegance, breadth of view, choice of topics, and regard to historical perspec- tive. G. B. M. The eras, The Physical Chemistry of the Proteins. Prof. T. Brailsford Robertson. Pp. xv+483- (London: Longmans, Green, and Co., 1918.) Price 25s. net. HIS is not a new book. It first appeared in the form of an edition in German published at Dresden in 1912. The second edition, in English, has, however, been so completely re- written as to make it practically a new account of the subject. There are four parts, of which the fe deals with the mode of preparation and estimation and the chemical constitution of proteins; the second with their electro-chemistry; the third with the physical properties of their :solutions,, such as viscosity, refractive indices, etc.; and: the last with what the author calls the chemical dynamics of protein systems, by which, broadly, he means their reactions with catalysts. It will be seen that a complete survey of the subject has been attempted, and it may be said at once that, as an introduction to the literature, already extensive, the book can be commended. It is now agreed that the proteins are chemically a homogeneous group the molecules of .which are built up by the synthesis of amino-acids. The size of the molecules so formed is still open to doubt. Emil Fischer, than whom no one could speak with more authority, refused to accept the molecular weights of 15,000 to 20,000 commonly ascribed The molecular weight, indeed, varies widely from the 16,000 of hemoglobin, or the 17,000 of edestin, to the values reckoned in hundreds of the polypeptides. It certainly lies in the thousands for native proteins, and is large enough to upset the simpler siaintiomestical relations, Consider, for example, the reaction with acids and alkalis. Proteins, like amino-acids, are amphoteric—that is to say, they will form salts with either an acid or a base—but, according to the author, when their combining equivalents are determined by known methods, their combining capacity is found to be much in excess of the By 258 NATURE | APRIL 29, 1920 possible number of terminal peer or —COOH groups. For example, casein, according to the author, behaves as a 16-base acid. To provide sixteen terminal carboxyl groups, the molecule would have to be either a branched chain, or chains radiating from a centre where carbon atoms are directly linked one to another. Such a _ mole- cular structure, however, would render the de- composition of the casein molecule on hydrolysis into its constituent amino-acids unintelligible. Moreover, the form of the molecule of the poly- peptides which have been prepared synthetically is not open to doubt, and it is not radial, but a chain, the constituent amino-acids being joined end to end. The amino-acids of the chain are united by a CONH linkage, which may have a keto- or enol- form, and it is here the author supposes that the reaction with acids or bases takes place. _ Consider the simplest case—that of a dipeptide. If ‘combination with an acid or a base takes place at the middle of the chain where the CONH link- age is situated, and the salt ionises in solution, the dipeptide molecule will form two protein ions. Salts of proteins, therefore, should yield, not a protein ion and a simple ion such as Na’ or Cl’, but two oppositely charged protein ions. This hypothesis is the central feature of the book, which, indeed, is devoted to following out its consequences. Its validity has been challenged, but, whether true or false, no worker or student will be the worse for learning what it leads to. Obviously, one consequence is that when a solu- tion of the salt of a protein is electrolysed, the protein should migrate to both cathode and anode. But, as a matter of fact, as Hardy’s observations show, the protein migrates only in one direction and in quite a normal way. The author recognises this difficulty and attempts to meet it, but, owing to a slip in the reasoning, his argument would appear to upset his own theory. Science and Engineering, Engineering Education: Essays for English. Selected and edited by Prof. Ray Palmer Baker. Pp. ix+185. (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc. ; London: Chapman and Hall, Ltd., 1919.) Price 6s. net. HIS is an interesting small book containing addresses or portions of addresses by dis- tinguished professors and consulting engineers bearing on the importance of a knowledge of science to engineers. Dr. Steinmetz, of the General Electric Co., urges the need of a broad culture, and especially of the study of Greek and NO. 2635, VOL. 105 | Latin classics, for engineers. of Princeton University, advocates a three- or four-year course of literary and scientific studies, followed by a two-year technical course. Mr. J. L. Harrington, a well-known engineer and bridge designer, points out the necessity for a thorough knowledge of English. “Tt is notorious that a technist is sede a good business man. This is partly because of the ‘exaggerated importance he gives to technical matters, but very largely because his thought is clumsily expressed and awkwardly ordered.” Mr. Harrington remarks on the frequent obscurity of specifications, and tells of a con- tractor who never completed a contract without a lawsuit to determine the meaning of a speci- fication, and who had never lost a lawsuit. Sir W. H. White and Prof. Ranum, of Cornell Uni- versity, write on the value of mathematics. There are addresses on chemistry and physics, and a distinguished consulting engineer, the inventor of the obelisk dam at Niagara, built on-end on the shore and then toppled into the river, writes on the importance of imagination. It strikes a reader that these addresses, each advocating the claim of some one branch of science, interesting as they are, would have been more useful if there had been a recognition of the © distinction between what should be included in the school course preceding the technical course, in the technical course itself necessarily restricted, and what extra academic self-education should be. expected to accompany and follow it. It may be surmised that engineering students in the United States do not enter on the technical course as well prepared as they should be, and this is cer- tainly to some extent the case here. But preachers on education might remember what Stevenson says of Sainte-Beyve, that he regarded all experi- ence as a single great book in which to study for a few years before we go hence; and it seemed all one to him whether you read in chap. xx., which is the differential calculus, or in chap. xxxix., which is hearing the band play in the gardens. There is also an admirable address by Sir J. J. Thomson, delivered before the Junior Institution of Engineers, on the relation of pure science to engineering. Sir Joseph remarks that the scientific spirit has not diffused through and influenced the bulk of our industries to the extent it has done in one or two other countries. He traces the evil to the fault of the secondary school, the inefficiency of which causes the technical course to be overloaded. “The curriculum is founded on the truly British idea that our boys are not expected to learn any- Prof. McClenahan, — \ \) RE en a a i i APRIL 29, 1920] NATURE 259 ‘beg a school. Most of the work in the courses _ for students in their first year, and some of that the second, in all the’engineering schools with which I am acquainted, is of a kind that a boy xht well be expected to do at school. There _ calibre which would justify his becoming an ; , should not have a good working know- of the calculus and the elementary parts of ial equations, and have read a consider- able gongs of dynamics. , be done without undue specialisation, and Back: depriving the boy of the literary training which is essential, if he is to keep his sympathies de and his mind receptive.” Baia. W. C. U. Health and the Teacher. A Text-book of Hygiene for Training Colleges. By Margaret Avery. Pp. xv+324. (London: _ Methuen andCo., Ltd., 1919.) Price 7s. 6d. net. HIS book is intended to cover the subject- -matter of the Board of Education Certificate Examination for Training Colleges in England. It includes the usual anatomico-physiological “properties ” long familiar in books of this order since the days of MHuxley’s “Physiology”: _ elementary ideas about structure of tissues, the ; skeleton, the muscular system, the circulatory System, the digestive system, etc. But the exposi- tion is kept well within the technicalities suited . : | BS the students concerned. There are chapters on food, clothing, cleanliness, mental dullness and ¥ ~ Ueficiency, fatigue, infectious diseases, temper- e cance, school building, medical inspection and _ treatment, special schools, welfare of infants and young children, legislation affecting school _ children, and eugenics. _ This is a very large programme for so small a _ book, but the expositions, which, incidentally, retain a good deal of the somewhat loose notes- _ for-lecture style, are, on the whole, relevant and practical. The author has kept close touch with Official memoranda, reports, and standard books. qi The result is that the volume, all through, con- __ tains good informational material which has obvi- 4 2 ously stood the test of experience in the class- It is difficult to say how much medical informa- __ tion proper should be included in a book like this, _ but to untrained lay persons it is of no value to state that, in anemia, “a little iron often has excellent results” (p. 42). Again, as to the cause of rickets, something more is wanted than that “the cause is wrong food, chiefly lack of fat, a lack existing in all patent foods” (p. 88). This kind of information may fulfil the terms of a NO. 2635, VOL. 105] #) is no reason why a boy of eighteen, of the mental | This could, I am con-. syllabus, but it is of no value whatever to the student, though, usually, in a practical curriculum, there are many opportunities of supplementing these generalities by demonstrations of cases. The chapter on “First Aid” relies on accepted instrictions, but Schafer’s method for recovery from drowning should. have a place. The chapters on legislation affecting children and on eugenics are judiciously proportioned, but the remarks on the causes of pauperism as implying “a want of grit and independence ” (p. 305), and on feeble-mindedness and heredity, show that the author has accepted somewhat too uncritically the theoretical deductions of “experts.” The book will, however, serve as a good text-book for the practical teacher. Our Bookshelf. The Mineralogy of the Rarer Metals :.A Handbook for Prospectors. By Edward Cahen and William Ord Wootton. With a foreword by F. W. Harbord. Second edition, revised by Edward Cahen. Pp. xxxii+246. (London: Charles Griffin and Co., Ltd., 1920.) Price 10s. 6d. Tuts book is neatly bound, and is of handy size for the pocket. The mineral descriptions are con- veniently treated in a general way in the alpha- betical order of the metals. The alkali metals come first; then follow beryllium, cerium, and so on to zirconium. Under each metal the properties, preparation, industrial application, and ores are first considered; following this an account of the chemical methods for its detection, and a list of the minerals containing the metal, are given. Much care appears to have been taken in describ- ing the chemical and: physical character of the minerals and the tests available for purposes of identification. Separate sections at the end of the book deal with the geographical distribution of rare metals and methods of analysis. To the critical reader of the book many of its features suggest questions and scope for i improve- ment. Is it permissible to regard titanium as a rare metal? Ilmenite is certainly not a rare mineral, and it is incorrect to refer to this mineral as “a chief constituent of monazite from Travan- core and Ceylon” (p. 130). It would be more correct to say that the chief producer of rutile is Virginia, U.S.A., than to imply, as the author does, that the chief producer is Norway (p. 131). Under tungsten no mention is made of the wolf- ramite deposits in China, which has recently been the leading producer (p. 141). Zircon is men- tioned as occurring in “Scotland and Ireland,” but no mention is made of its universal distribu- tion in sands and gravels such as those of Hamp- stead Heath (pp. 182, 189). The section dealing with geographical distribu- tion has been revised, but it might with advantage be amplified to include such countries as Spain, 260 NATURE [APRIL 29, 1920 Portugal, and France, where there are’ many occurrences of greater importance than some that receive mention in this book. TiC. A Text-book on Machine Drawing for Electrical ‘Engineers. By E, Blythe. (The Cambridge Technical Series.) Pp. vii+81. (Cambridge : At the University Press, 1920.) Price 20s. net. ALL teachers of electrical engineering are aware of the need for a text-book on the drawing and construction of electrical apparatus. This attempt, however, to supply the need is disap- pointing. Apparently the author intends the book to serve for a complete course of machine drawing for electrical students, for he commences with the laws of projection and gives several very simple examples in illustration of them. He proceeds then to. fastenings, cable sockets, junction-boxes, switches, and dynamos. The subject-matter is confined entirely to such apparatus as is found in small continuous-current power stations (but instruments are not included); consequently the alternator, induction motor, oil-switch, and other important pieces of electrical apparatus are notably absent. Several complete plates are devoted to non-dimensioned sketches showing types of ap- paratus, é@.g. one on brush-holders; a few such examples are undoubtedly useful for practice in sketching, but here too much space is occupied in this way. The drawings are clear and very well arranged, but the descriptive matter is un- necessarily prolix. The examples given do not always represent good practice; for instance, in several places a single-piece armature disc is shown with a dove-tailed key, while a bearing is shown on p.°73 which would be destroyed by a little end-thrust. The book is well got up and has been prepared carefully; but the ground covered is insufhicient—at the price. Mathematics for Engineers. Part i. By W. N. Rose. (The Directly Useful Technical Series.) Pp. xiv+419. (London: Chapman and Hall, Ltd., 1920.) Price 13s. 6d. net. ParT ii. of this book is devoted principally to the differential and integral calculus, and includes chapters on spherical trigonometry and mathemati- cal. probability. The book is intended for en- gineers, most of whom are not called upon in their -profession to show capacity for high mathematical flights, but are expected to com- prehend clearly such fundamental principles as enter into their work, and to be ready successfully to. apply. them to practical problems. . Examining the book from this point of view, we believe that it will find favour with most engineers and students of engineering. If we include also the matter com- prised in Part i. the volumes contain practically everything in the way of mathematical principles which the engineer is likely to require. The treat- ment is clear and of a kind which appeals to engineers,’ and a very large number of practical applications are given. Many of these are fully worked’ out to the arithmetical result, and there are very féw which can. be,said to; be of, an NO? 26355 VOELTOS Pe! veal to amisio S74 oueitot academical nature only. These examples cover a’ wide field, having been drawn from all branches of engineeering, and represent a large amount of © labour for which engineers will be grateful. We can heartily recommend this volume, as well as its predecessor, to all students of engineering. The Manufacture of Intermediate Products for Dyes. By Dr. J. C. Cain. Second edition. Pp. xi+273. (London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd.; 1919.) Price ros. net. PROBABLY no one in this country is more com- petent to write on intermediate products than Dr. Cain, and the fact that a new edition of this’ book has been called for within a year is the best testimony to its success. The opportunity has been taken to improve certain sections and to_ incorporate new work, most of which, it is of interest to note, originates now in America. It is gradually being realised that intermediates are the crux of the dye situation, and the wisdom of the policy adopted in this direction by British Dyes, Ltd., in building their new factory at Hud- dersfield is becoming apparent. Given the inter= mediates, the manufacture of the several dyes is usually a fairly straightforward problem, but there is still much leeway to make up in connection with. intermediates, which will require the most ample. resources, alike in capital, plant, and technical experience. This will take considerable time to” fructify, and some form of closer co-operation with the heavy chemical trade would appear most — desirable. katy j ie oes The British colour industry is receiving some ~ adverse criticism from the users of the rarer, colours for which the demand, at the most, is but. small, but it has a more important task at the ~ moment than to fritter away its energies in making these colours. The colour. industry is’ based on intermediates; it is the manufacture of: these by the best methods, with the largest yields, and of satisfactory purity which must be studied in the laboratory and in the works. This is being done, and Dr. Cain, through his book, in which. the available information is clearly presented, is helping to do it. Ri ay ee @ Solutions of the Examples in a Treatise on Differ- ential Equations. By Prof. A. R. Forsyth. Pp. 249. (London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd., 1918.) Price 1os. net. ne nde: EveEN from the point of view of an undergraduate, the subject of differential equations is very differ- ent from what it was fifty years ago. But in a large and miscellaneous collection of examples like this there are a number of survivals which remind us of De Morgan’s application of the proverb: “Those that hide know where to find.” Teachers and solitary. students (if such there be» nowadays) will be grateful to Prof. Forsyth for providing them with a key. It is one more example of the author’s untiring’ industry’ and, _ so far as. we have tested it, of: his acu in, cet f details of, analysis.. ‘ * 3 : ee CO 2 th: Waris ey Fikes y Ty She rey ae NATURE 261 Letters to the Editor. Editor does not hold himself responsible for inions expressed by his correspondents. Neither undertake to return, or to correspond with riters of, rejected manuscripts intended for any other part of Nature. No notice is n of anonymous communications.) Theories of Atomic Structure. a letter to- Nature (March 11, p. 41) S. C. Brad- stated: ‘‘The great objection to Langmuir’s and the Molecule ’’ (Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc., «, Pp. 762, April, 1916), so it is scarcely fair to s to refer to the theory as ‘‘ Langmuir’s theory.”’ though Lewis frankly implied that the electrons ns are stationary, his theory of valency did not pon such an assumption. The chemical data nation in regard to the geometry of atoms, particular, tell us of the kinds of symmetry ey possess. From the chemical point of view present a matter of comparative indifference motions of the electrons may so long as 4m to the required conditions.of symmetry. son I was careful to state in my first . Franklin Inst., clxxxvii., p. 359, March, Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc., xli., p. 932, 1919) electrons in atoms are either stationary or yolve, or oscillate about definite positions in ” It was, perhaps, not sufficiently em- ms may be regarded as the centres of their sometimes thought that the success of Bohr’s furnishes reason for believing that all the in atoms are rotating in coplanar orbits nucleus. There is little justification for this The remarkable results yielded by Bohr’s ticularly in the hands of Sommerfeld, for the hydrogen atom and the helium ion to prove beyond question that in an atom con- 1g only one electron this electron actually revolves circular or elliptical orbit about the nucleus. 9ugh Bohr’s theory has had some applications to atoms, these are, for the most part, of a very nature, such as those which relate to the com- principle. The theory does not give a satis- mode! even for such simple structures as the en molecule or helium atom (see, for example, erfeld’s recent book, ‘“‘Atombau und Spectral- _ the chemical point of view Bohr’s theory is ly unsatisfactory when applied to atoms contain- nore than one electron. Thus, according to Bohr’s lculations (Phil. Mag., xxvi., p. 492, 1913), a lithium nucleus surrounded by three equidistant electrons ter stability) than one in which one electron is ther from the nucleus than the other two. Bohr’s theory thus gives no reason for the contrast between 1€ properties of lithium and helium. The two theories are not mutually incompatible if we consider that, in general, the electrons do not revolve about the nucleus, but about definite positions symmetrically distributed in three dimensions with respect to the nucleus. It is interesting to note that Born and Landé (Verh. deut. physik. Ges., xx., Pp- 210, 230, 1918), starting out from Bohr’s theory nd without knowledge of Lewis’s work, were led to theory of the cubical atom by a study of the com- Ssibilities of the alkali halides. They conclude that 1 electron orbits do not lie in a plane, but are arranged in space with cubic symmetry. Sommerfeld a MO, 2635, VOL. 105 | at the positions of the electrons shown in. _ should have less potential energy (and, therefore, in his book suggests that this conception-may~hélp-to solve some of the outstanding difficulties, and evidently does not consider it inconsistent with Bohr’s theory. in the case of atoms which do not share electrons with other atoms, it is logical to assume that each electron in the outer shell has its own orbit. Thus the atoms Ne, Na+, Mg++, F-, and: the S atom: if? SF, should have cubic symmetry, the eight’ outer elec: trons revolving about positions located at the corners of a cube. But where a pair of electrons is. held. in: common between two atoms, the chemical evidence’ indicates that the pair acts as a unit. When an ‘atom shares four pairs of electrons with its neighbours, ’ it: thus has tetrahedral rather than cubic symmetry. : So far as the chemical evidence is concerned, it would be satisfactory to adopt Bohr’s model for the hydrogen molecule to represent the pair of electrons which con- stitutes the chemical bond. We may thus picture the chemical bond asa pair of electrons revolving ina single orbit about the line connecting the centres of the two atoms. . al Bohr in his 1913 paper (Phil. Mag,, xxvi., p. 874) states: ‘‘ The configuration suggested by the theory for a molecule of CH, is of the ordinary tetrahedron type; the carbon nucleus surrounded by a very small ring of two electrons being sityated in the centre, and a hydrogen nucleus in every corner. The chemical bonds are represented by four rings of two electrons each rotating round the lines connecting the centre and the corners.’’? This structure is quite consistent. with the octet theory. Bohr did not, in general, identify a pair of electrons with a valency bond. ! hen we consider; however, that Bohr’s theory in its present form does not furnish an explanation of the stability of the pair of electrons in the helium atom and in the bond between atoms, it is evident that the model -described: above can scarcely be regarded as satisfactory. It seems as though some factor of vital importance is still missing in Bohr’s theory. . The chemical data suggest that the ultimate theory will be extremely simple, but perhaps more radical than any- thing yet proposed. I am in full agreement with the views put forward by Dr. H. S. Allen in Nature for March 18, p. 71. IRVING LANGMUIR... Research Laboratory, General Electric Co., ' Schenectady, New York, April 12. Decimal Coinage. In Nature of April 1, p. 145, reference is made to the unfavourable report of the Royal Commission appointed to inquire into the above subject. It would appear from a close study of the findings of the Commission that the failure to solve this century-old problem was due more to differences between the advocates than to opposition to the principle. Although fifteen of the twenty Commissioners would prefer to decimalise the existing £ sterling rather than to create a new monetary unit equal to roo half- pence, it is significant that only four of them could agree that the advantages to be secured by the decimalisation of the £ would outweigh the incon- venience arising from the change. This is tantamount to an admission that the method of dealing with the penny difficulty as proposed in Lord Southwark’s Bill (4—1mil) was unduly complicated. (No exact equiva- lent of the penny was provided, the choice of a 4-mil and 5-mil piece being alternatively offered.) _ Retaining the £ as the unit, there are three possible values for the penny, viz. : 4. mils=the present penny less 4 per cent. 5 mils=the present penny plus 20 per cent. ‘ak mils=the present penny exactly. The claims of these denominations may be.summed up as follows: NAFURE The.,.4-mil , Penny.—As. the. denomination: ..4.. repre+, sents, neither..a decimal multiple of .1: nor .a ‘binary - division. of. 10, a 4-mil_ coin could have no permanent 262 re) im \ | APRIL 29,1920) would be taken: by: the established “‘ penny’ interests, ©» such ‘as ‘insurance and tramway authorities, eter, to — A ai bring themselves into line with the new mil system, ' it place in any decimal coinage system. As a transitional | whereas many of these interests are already agitating value, it, would: also..be unattractive,.because it would | for legislative authority ‘to abandon the penny ‘basis, “ae still further, reduce the purchasing power of the penny: |: which has proved inadequate to cover ‘operating costs..' at a time, when: .an increase is needed, and its tem- | Many of the old fixed penny charges, such as the — porary adoption. would involve two adjustments of | penny stamp, penny-a-mile, etc., have. already dis- -- existing, pennyworths,, thus doubling, instead of remov- | appeared, and the retention of the coin itself is noc ing, the, difficulty, For these and. other reasons a 4-mil penny may be safely dismissed.from our consideration. reasons. in its favour, viz: » (1). In.a decimal. coinage system prices are normally arranged in steps, of 5, e.g. 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, etc., and the value, of < mils.would.fall conveniently between that of the unduly high.5 American cents and the un- necessarily low 5 centimes of the Latin Union. (2) The reduction of. the present high prices would be hastened by the provision of a penny of this value. The price of a pre-war pennyworth, now sold at three- halfpence, could obviously be reduced to 5 mils long before it could be restored, if ever, to the original penny, ..;. (3) The’ prevailing shortage of copper coins would be relieved by thus increasing the token values of all the .penny and halfpenny coins now -in circulation. Two. copper coins are now employed in countless - transactions where formerly one sufficed, and this fact alone, quite apart from decimalisation, demands a penny: of higher value. (4) The simple relationship of 10 pence to the shilling would be readily grasped by the uneducated, and the deservedly popular single-coin payments would be restored. Retail shopkeepets could, if so desired, continue to keep their accounts in £ s. d. instead of f. m., the 23, 5, 10, and 25 mil coins being in that case entered as 4, 1, 2, and 5 pence, all the higher value coins retaining their present descriptions as I, 2, 5, and to shillings respectively. Note.—The majority Commissioners apparently feared that 5 mils would always be charged in place of the present penny. If they had said in place of the present three-halfpence, they would have been just as near the truth, which possibly lies between these two views. Probably everyone would now be very glad to pay 5 mils for a pre-war pennyworth of any- thing—the trouble is we are charged three-halfpence or more. When introducing this year’s Budget the Chancellor of the Exchequer (referring to his pro- posal to raise the receipt duties from 1d. to 2d.) said: “This change is no more than reflecting the altered value of the penny.’’ The 4%-mil Penny.—lf there are insuperable difficul- ties in the way of raising the values of the existing penny and halfpenny coins to make them serve as tokens for 5. mils and 2} mils respectively, they could remain in circulation at their present values side by side with new 5-mil nickel coins, in which event their values in mils could be expressed as 4-2 and 2-1 respectively, the latter figure representing twelfths of a mil. (These expressions would be no worse than our present use of 4/2 to represent four shillings and two-twelfths. ) The present penny could thus be preserved in- definitely. for the continued exact payment of all statutory -pennyworths, but the competition of. the smaller, lighter, and cleaner 5-mil nickel coin, repre- senting. a. value in closer harmony with present-day needs, would rapidly drive the bronze penny out of popular favour. for the countless single-coin payments of daily life. In. concluding that this method might involve the dual circulation of. pence and, mils -‘‘ for seventy-five years or more,’’ ‘the majority Commis- sioners have unwarrantably assumed that no steps NO. 2635, VOL. 105] The. 5-mil Penny.—There are: at least four good: longer a matter of vital importance. eis The £ sterling could thus be decimalised either without altering the penny or by raising its value to’ 5 mils‘ (either instantaneously or praduele and so’ securing substantial benefits over and above those normally arising from decimalisation. Pee ee Having very truly said: ‘‘It is necessary to distin-- guish between the coins in circulation and the reckon-- ‘ing of money of account,’’ and having properly. referred to the human habit of halving quantities, the:: Commissioners failed to realise that it is quite prac- ticable to combine the advantages of decimal accounts and binary coins. Such a composite scheme would: — provide decimal multiples and binary divisions thus : i‘ Goins In accounts Equivalent > Gold or Note: 4 fom | fie Pound ... ok Pe ssa 1 0 00 tiie Half-pound Ass ey 5 00.) ieee Quarter-pound (crown) ... 2 50 Bs : Szlver : Florin... “ee ae re I 00 0 aS 5 Half-florin (shilling)... ee 50 O55) Quarter-florin... vnc a 25 6 Nickel: Hoe Dime (10-mil piece)... ae fe) Filed bs Bronze: eit . Half-dime (penny) NS see 5 1'2 Quarter-dime (halfpenny) ay 24 aR a Mil Ss Sy dig os Don 0°24 ~ The above sroposal achieves the complete decimalisa- tion of the é by means of a smaller number of coins and in a simpler manner than by the method described in Lord Southwark’s Bill. No decimal point would be needed, the number of figures would be reduced, and no new coins would be immediately required. Harry ALLCOCK. Trafford Park, Manchester, April 21. International Council for Fishery Investigations. As the writer of the article on the above subject in Nature of March 18, I should be disposed to allow Prof. McIntosh’s letter in the issue of April 8 based on it to pass without comment if that letter had not been quoted extensively elsewhere. I merely remark that the professor’s claim to maintain the same posi- tion as he tools up in his published criticisms in 1902 and 1903 is fully substantiated. I seenoreference in my article to the Moray Firth, which, indeed, had nothing. to do with the International Council, and which must leave Prof. McIntosh to settle with his fishery colleagues in Scotland. His criticism of the repre- sentatives of France is out of place, in that repre- sentatives of all countries are appointed: by their Governments. gly Prof. McIntosh confuses the programme. adopted — with the general discussion which took place first: Commodore Drechsel and others, spoke of. “‘the. — closure of. the greater patt of the North.Sea as the — most gigantic scientific experiment. ever. made. [will NALURE\. , scientific man contest’ this’ view ?] in. respect to closure of -areas.’’ This is stated. by Prof. McIntosh to be the first item in the scheme of stigations, whereas no such general scientific ve tion ‘is recommended. Whether or not the the clesure consequent on the war no’ one knows, certainly trawlers have been experiencing the ate benefit of the closure since the armistice. to which the North Sea is covered by the tions of trawlers is evidently not understood. ‘he work of Masterman, Heincke, and others results | the estimate that 1500 million plaice of more than 2 cm. live in the North Sea, of which one-third are ht annually, 200 million being put on the market 1 300 million being destroyed in the process of n, Prof. McIntosh refers to one part only of the osal for the protection of plaice, viz. that by a ze limit, whereas the permanent closure of certain areas “‘to provide a reserve from which the young aice mi spread so as to restock the open unds*’ is definitely mentioned in my article. Prof. [ntosh arently does not realise that the repre- tives of at least three of the four countries that are larly interested in the plaice stock of the North are convinced that the evidence shows that the e stock is, under normal conditions, being so iously depleted by man that international legisla- action is essential. In view of such action, the osed year’s intensive plaice investigation is fully d. We wonder whether Prof. McIntosh has ned the statistics that have been published in to the plaice and other flat-fishes year by year? McIntosh scoffs at the basal researches on he hemical conditions of sea-water in respect the life in the sea as likely to be of any import- _He selects in particular ‘‘vitamines.’’ His animal unless that animal has the requisite to build up that food into its own living matter. understanding of this at every age of the animals question—and of animal life in general—is the +t of these researches. There seems to be no 74 z : =e t __ Prof. may not be generally known that an almost ial committee appointed by the Development ymmission is at present sitting on the question of hery research. There is no member of that com- ‘mittee employed in fishery research, and, equally, ‘there is no member of the committee who is in- capable, by training or otherwise, of understanding any parts of the problems to be investigated. The port of that committee should shortly be issued. will doubtless be an authoritative pronouncement on the whole question as to the utility or non- y of fishery investigations as proposed by the ternational Council and as undertaken by the herv Departments of England, Sr oene, and _-'The Plumage Bill and Bird Protection. Nature is doing a service to science, as well as to art, in having opened its pages to the discussion of e Plumage (Prohibition) Bill. For in the end the il should be drafted in harmony with the scientific facts concerning the bird-life it is designed to protect, spews also with due regard for the zsthetic and decora- needs of mankind. There is’ one aspect of the * . ; . No. 2635, vor: tos} vestig: domestication -of other plumage birds. sheries of the North Sea will be permanently altered | thing as ‘‘ pure sea-water ”’ without “‘vitamines.” - subject which has hitherto been only lightly touched upon, but which, if unfettered, is sure to become of | great-importanee inthe future,-namely, the domestica- tion of plumage’ birds. Impressed’ with the ‘success! of its ostrich, industry,’ South Africa has for some’ ”™ time turned. its attention to’ the possibility of the ~ Experiments” ’’ have already demonstrated that the marabou ‘stork’ can be controlled in captivity and, in all probability, induced to breed. Attention has also been directed to the gregarious weaver-birds and other brightly coloured species; but the advent of war turned men’s thoughts: away from the arts ‘of peace. In all the considerations no~ biological difficulty presented itself which a thorough study of the nature and habits of the bird could not be expected to over: come; the chief problems were economic, namely, ' how profitably to produce the plumage in sufficient quantity to comply with trade requirements, so admir- ably met in the case of the ostrich. On the authority — of Prof. Lefroy we learn that there are many egret. farms in India, and the plumes are procured without cruelty ; domestication of the same bird has also been considered in parts of Africa. With the encourage- ment which ornithologists could give, there is every likelihood that in the future great developments will take place in the production of domesticated plumage, procured in harmony with the highest humane senti-* ments and to the exclusion of plumage from the wild bird—a realisation which would be peculiarly accept- able to the trade as well as to zoologists. Now if the Plumage Bill were passed in its present form it would close the door on all efforts of this kind, at any’ rate so far as importation into England is concerned. Sir Harry Johnston indicates that, as a compensation, plumage might be procured from a dozen or more kinds of our domestic birds; but surely, in these days of Empire considerations, he would not | wish us to isolate ourselves in prejudice from’ the Dominions overseas, as well as from the products of other countries?—a result which would follow from the carrying out of his suggestion. ; Nor is this necessary. A study of the situation reveals that all the reasonable requirements of the supporters of the Bill can be met, and at the same time the avenue be left open for the development within the Empire of a trade in domesticated plumage. Instead of asking for a prohibition of import of every kind of. plumage (except ostrich and eider-down), let the prohibitionists and others interested in the pre- servation of bird-life agree upon a list of birds the pro- tection of which is desirable from any point of view, and then have the list appended to the Bill as a schedule of prohibitions. The carrying out of the intent of the Bill on these lines would be a simple matter, and additions to, and removals from, the schedule could be made as circumstances demanded. Passed in this form, the Bill would become a real stimulus to the activities of the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds and an effective measure for the inculcation of humane principles and regard for bird-life generally. As Prof. Lefroy has shown, the trade has no con- cern in avian rarities, but is prepared to work with bird-lovers in the direction of their preservation and in the discouragement of every kind of cruelty. Before the war a list of prgqhibited plumage had been agreed upon by the trade representatives in the lead- ing European capitals. When the matter of bird- protection is discussed in) a calm manner, with full knowledge of the facts involved, it is seen that the interests of the bird-lover and of the plumage trade are alike, and the simple modification of the Bill sug- gested above would méect’ the needs of all. ' es i J.-E. DUurRDEN: * Roval Colonial Institute, Northumberland Avenue. 264 ANWATURE _ [APRIL 29), 1920 The Standard of Atomic Weights. “Ir is with considerable surprise, as a chemist, that I see in Nature of April 22, p. 230, arguments as to thé structure of atoms based on the deviations of the atomic weights of elements from whole numbers on the, standard O=16-.00 The reasons for the use of this. arbitraty. and inconvenient standard are now matters of ancient history, and the values of Stas, which were regarded as fundamental at the time when the ‘Standard was adopted, have now been shown by many independent lines of experiment to be inexact. At'is almost pathetic to observe modern experimenters ‘who have determined equivalents by: the accurate analysis of hydrogen compounds, such as hydrogen chloride, methane, hydrogen bromide, ammonia, etc., . all. of which are more easily obtained in a state of purity, and analysed, than oxygen compounds, com- pelled: to multiply their results by 1-008 in order to bring them into line with the standard of O=16-00. A glance at the International Table of Atomic Weights will show that very few of the elements form oxygen compounds suitable for analysis, and the state- ment to the contrary, found in most elementary text- books, is clearly inaccurate. A great number of equivalents,.on the contrary, have been referred to ‘Ag=107:88.. This number can be brought into ratio with oxygen only through the intermediate link of nitrogen, the atomic weight of which has been most aecurately determined by’ the analysis of ammonia. The latter involves the ratio 1-008 to get the ratio to O= 16-00. But the atomic weight of chlorine has been most, accurately determined directly to H=1-00, and the ratio Ag: Cl is also very accurately known. From hydrogen to chlorine, from chlorine to silver, and from silver to a large number of other elements seems to be the most natural proceeding. Oxygen then comes in from the ratio H :O found. by Morley, Scott, and Burt and Edgar. This is now probably one of the most accurately known atomic weights. The above is one instance only. of the extraordinary branch-chain methods now necessary in order to get the experi- mental numbers referred to oxygen. -.On the. theoretical side the advantages of the hydrogen standard are self-evident. No one has ever pretender that the adoption of oxygen as the unit as any theoretical significance; the retention of the number O=16-00 alone is sufficient to prove this. The accumulating evidence on the physical side, such as atomic numbers, the structure of atomic nuclei, the periodic law, and the like, all points unmistakably to the mass of the hydrogen atom as the natural standard. It is no longer correct to say, as is still done in elementary books, and even in other quarters, that the standard of atomic weights is a matter of indifference, and that, apart from experimental reasons, one element is as good as another. We have almost certain evidence that the hydrogen nucleus is a fundamental constituent of all atoms. Prout’s hypothesis being thus reinstated, there can be no doubt as to the suitable standard of atomic weights, -and Dalton’s choice has had a most remarkable vin- ‘dication. When, therefore, arguments are advanced based on ‘the standard O=16-00, it seems time to suggest that some steps should be taken to put an end to the pre- vailing confusion. Physicists have never taken kindly to the oxygen standard, and there is no longer any reason why chemists should be given need- less trouble. JI have, in my elementary lectures, made a practice of using the hydrogen standard, and thus avoiding all the confusion in connection with vapour densities, etc., which comes in with the other system, eee There is one, other point, which. seems. tome. of NO. 2635, VOL. 105] importance. On the oxygen scale.the atomic wees d unit of a number of elements differ by, about half from whole numbers. It has been conjectured that these elements are mixtures of isotopes, with atomic © weights which are whole numbers. But if there: is anything in the theory of isotopes to justify this, it can only rest on. the hydrogen nucleus, and the atomic weight of hydrogen should be taken as unity. If this 4 is-done, it is found that the suspected elements are replaced by those not at present under any clouds of suspicion, The following table will illustrate this Re Atomic Weight Atomic We'ght : Element =16'co H=1'00 nk Chlorine :. 35-45 3518 - Magnesium 24-32 ay ig *: Silicon 28-3 Bghe Zinc 65°37 64:88 Copper 63°57 63:10 It may be that there is some real pea for taking O=16-00, and then supposing that, if some elements deviate from the whole number on this basis, they must be mixtures of isotopes, bu reason has so far escaped my attention. " = _ There seems to me to be a good case for the Com- mittee on Atomic Weights to consider whether the t this unit O=16-00, adopted largely on account of the oom sistence of Ostwald, is any longer necessary. At best it was a temporary decision, and all the reasons which were advanced in its favour. have now lost their force. — I am convinced that the arguments in favour of a return to Dalton’s unit are so cogent that, once they — are clearly realised, they will be- admitted. “ : _ J. R. PartTINGTON. East London College (University of London), April 23. 1 epee Mortlakes | as a Gause of River-windings. MortLakE on the Thames has a place-name which not only accords with the natural history of the place, ~ cen tra adnate tame tase ire eld eens and but. also supplies a word which might conveniently Re be brought into common use to signify a process which plays an important part in the development at of every river system, just as the River Meander sup- plies a word to signify the windings of any river. The area between Barnes and_ the MORTLAKE Fic. 1. division of the stream into a northern and a southern arm reunited at the down-stream ends. The southern arm is now incomplete; the part of it remaining is included in the line of the Beverley Brook, which, having come from the south, turns to the east round a bold curve and joins the Thames. This leaves a gap between the convexity of the curve and the river at the point where it previously divided. This ga now forms the isthmus of a peninsula into whic the island has been converted by the partial efface- ment of the southern arm of the divided river. Here Mortlake stands. It is on or near to the former line of the stream which has been in part effaced. This part has become a dead stream—a mortlake, the word “lake” having been used in'the Middle English sense bobeke p andi¥ CG ae ere: Re ew ee pdOF IOV .AEOS OF Thames was — formerly an island in the river (Fig. 1), formed by a_ RIL 29, 1920] NATURE 7 a ifying a stream. Leland the Chronicler wrote there runneth a praty lake out of Sudeley , ola the Castle and runneth into Esse- Brook at the south syde of Winchcombe.” : “I passed over 2. or 3. small lakes Chiltinham and Gloucester and they resort .”’ The word is still used in some places s a stream; children on the Severn banks of the moon as claiming to guide the ship ce. t Lord Avebury, in writing of meanders f England’’), mentions, as one of the results, 9op often remains as a dead river-channel or ’ Such loop-lakes are known in America as _ There is, however, a great difference. In an “oxbow ”’ the loop, formed by a lateral of the river, has been entirely cut off from ‘stream. A mortlake may be defined as the -a closed part of one of the two sections of a (previously divided so as to surround an island stream), the other channel remaining open and a single channel for the river. he two sections of a river enclosing an island, them at least must have a curved line. Two lines cannot enclose a space. If, then, the part of the stream in one of the sections the remaining section, now forming the 2 river, must have a more or less curved t be a river-winding. The form and the will, of course, depend on the shape and of the former island. Thus a result of tion of a mortlake may be one of those or river-windings which are a familiar and feature in the landscape. The explanation has been a puzzle from classic times until sent. The subject was discussed at length by ributors to NaTuRE in November and December, come to the conclusion that the conversion : ds into areas bounded by single streams, r less curved, is part of the ordinary course of elopment. This, in my view, may be briefly thus: A newly exposed part of the earth’s sur- ves the rainfall on every square inch of it, ‘water will not flow away in the form of a inute runnels form, and these will not be in it lines parallel to each other. I cannot imagine _ “primary consequent streams’ as they are s depicted. Even slight obstructions would 1 aside so that they would meet and coalesce, forming a miniature network of streams, each of meshes enclosing an islet. Then the water on the sam side of every islet will have alternative ; before it. These routes may, for a time, be easy, but they will not continue to be so; them wiil be preferred, and this may not be most direct. The stream which continues may the one which meets with the least obstruction, or it may be the one most necessary for continuance as having to receive longer or more numerous tributaries. channel no longer needed will cease to be used; it | silt up. Then the islet will become continuous an adjoining islet. This process being many speated, islands of increasing size—which may darge and, possibly, of very great extent—will result. Ultimately, they will all cease to be islands, in the absence. of need’ for two channels. The development, . x = do, not, wish, :to smurigest..fhat the q format seven years ago I pointed out (in a paper read before a local society, and printed at the time) the influence of tributaries as one cause; and I recognise others. But the same laws govern the development of all rivers. Although Herodotus found the rivers of Egypt to be different from other rivers, I, in imagination, see the life-history of the Nile as very strikingly depicted in its present course. I have elsewhere shown (‘* The Lower Severn,’’ Proceedings of the Cotteswold Naturalists’ Field Club, xvi., 1909) an outline picture of a thousand miles of the Nile below Khartum com- pared with one of ten miles of the Severn below Gloucester. The resemblance is so close as to lead to the remark that it almost seemed as if the one figure had been drawn in ink on the second page of a sheet of paper and the other by pressing the ink before it was dry against the opposite page. The size of the two rivers and the character of the rock formations being so very different, it is at least remarkable that the course of the two should be so very much alike. In the Times of a recent date (March 15) is a report from Dr. Chalmers Mitchell of his view from an aeroplane in passing above the railway between Wady Halfa and Abu Hamed. He saw ‘huge cliff-lines submerged at intervals by desert,’? which suggested the ‘‘proper bed” of the Nile. It is really a relic of the time when the area, now partly enclosed by the great sickle-shaped curve of the Nile, was a huge river-island two hundred miles wide and five hundred miles long. That which Dr. Chalmers Mitchell saw was the line of the eastern arm of the Nile; it is now the line of a long mort- lake. Pes EALLIS. 59 Park Road, Gloucester. Eiffel Tower Wireless Time-Signals. . _ It may interest a number of readers of NATURE’ to know that the Eiffel Tower is at present sending ‘out two additional sets of ‘‘scientific’’’ time-signals. The scientific signals are arranged as a_ time-vernier, gaining about one beat in fifty. They have’ hitherto been sent at 11.30 p.m. G.M.T., followed at rr4s, after the ordinary time-signal is concluded, ah numbers which give the moment of the first and ‘the last signal of the set, according to the standard clock of the Observatory of Paris. A comparison can thus be made with the introduction of.a véry small error, often not exceeding one-fiftieth of a second. .. These valuable signals have suffered from two awkward features: In summer time they are inconveniently late, and the purring or snoring note (ronflée) “on which they are sent is much obscured by atmos pei when the latter are bad, so that sometimes one failéd to pick up the identification bréaks which occur atthe end of every sixty beats. REN In addition to the old series, which remain. un- changed, two new series are now being sent; _these are on wave-length 2600 metres and a. high musical note that cannot be confused with. atmo- spherics. Otherwise they are the same as the orien! —300 dots, the 6oth, 120th, 180th, and 240th being suppressed. Thev are sent: (1) at: 19.30 a.m. G.M.T., the comparison numbers giving Paris time following’ after completion of the 10.45' ordinary signal; and (2) at 11 p.m. G.M.T., the’ com- parison numbers being sent after the 11.45 ordinar signal, along with those which refer to the old’ f1.: sienal, the two references being distinguished. wy’ the - letters’ ML (musicale) and RF {ronflée) respectively. The. new series are beaitifully clear, and’ ought fo be’ of great service to those who require acetate ye: SAMPSON. © Royal Observatory, Bathbiitgh, Aprit 3 ipo) Oy .2f08 oF “Stari OS Ese LAS IL ES: AS SON the 60-in., are now being systematically photo- | | graphed by Dr. Merrill with the Hooker telescope. One of these stars has been found to show the peculiar interest because of the fact that these lines have previously been observed only in nebule and. in temporary stars. With, low dispersion, » the spectra of stars of the fourteenth magnitude have. _ been photographed by Dr. Shapley with moderate exposures at the centre of globular clusters. ‘chief nebular lines in its spectrum, a matter of The preliminary results of the photography of | nebule have also been very satisfactory, both at the principal (Newtonian) focus of the 100-in. mirror and at the 134-ft. Cassegrain focus. The photographs indicate an important advance over the 60-in. telescope, and leave no doubt that the desired increase in the precision of measurement, rendered possible by the larger scale of the images, will aid materially in the study of the internal. and proper motions of spiral nebula. A striking feature of these negatives, as compared with those taken with the 60-in., is the increased contrast of the minute nuclei in spiral nebule, which are brought into greater: prominence by the larger aperture. This will render available for measure- ment a large number of sharply defined symmetri- cal points. The character of the images may be judged from the aceompany reproduction of a photograph of the moon (Fig. 1), taken by Mr. Francis G. Pease at the 134-ft. Cassegrain focus on September 15, 1919. This negative, like others obtained by Mr. _ Pease with the Hooket telescope, shows smaller resolving © details of structure than we have previously been able to photograph. a eee ee en we OT > \ {TUR a, A APRIL 29, 1920] Observatory Wilson voker telescope of the Mount =: about oo miles. Scale: r in. Pease, . ¥ Photographed with the H September 15, 1919, by Mr. F. C€ 1.—North central portion of the moon at last quarter. Fic. 5] I0§5 NO. 2635, VOL. 268 NATURE [APRIL 29; 4920 * dye boi Perhaps the most interesting application of the 100-in, telescope hitherto made is that rendered possible by the utilisation of Michelson’s inter- ference method for the measurement of the spec-. troscopic binary star Capella. The method con- sists in completely covering the 100-in. mirror by a screen in which are two slits, which can be placed at any desired distance apart. Light coming from a point source, such as a single star at a very great distance from the earth, passes through the two slits and is brought to focus by the large mirror. A system of interference fringes may then be seen under a telescopic power of about 5000 diameters, which are sharply defined even on a night of poor seeing. If the star is single, the fringes remain visible even when the slits are separated by the full diameter of the 100-in. mirror. But if the star is a very close double, the fringes will disappear (assuming the members of the pair to be nearly equal in bright- ness) when the slits, set by observation at the proper position angle, are moved apart to a distance that depends upon se angular distance between the star’s components.! _ The following measures of Capella, made by Dr. Anderson, indicate the possibilities of the method : Sa Position angle Distance --,, 1919, December 30 148'0 00418 1920, February 13 50 00458 ees 14 10 o°0451 , ” 15 3564 0°0443 ‘yy March 15 2428 0°0505 , giving the same result with 11n p° actice, a. somewhat d higher precision, is employed ; Dr. Fe watt When plotted, an ellipse. The method, which has’ been” experimentally in the laboratory, not only allows binaries that cannot be resolved by other ‘means to be measured with very high precision, but— permits twice the theoretical resolving power of the Hooker telescope to be. attained in practice, even when the seeing is poor. This application of the nef aa ae gested by Prof. Michelson many year used by him in the measurement of the. iameter ¢ of | Jupiter’s satellites at the Lick Observatory | in 1891. The possibility of seeing the fringes under ordinary atmospheric conditions with the full aperture of the Hooker telescope was demon- strated by Prof. Michelson during a visit to Mount Wilson last September. The method will have many applications, and should be utilised by observers with instruments of moderate aper- ture who wish to resolve close doubles and to increase greatly the precision of their measures.2 ~ From this record of the preliminary tests of the Hooker telescope it will be seen that in light- collecting power, in the increased scale and im- proved photographic definition, and in the added possibilities of optical resolution attained through | the application of Michelson’s method, the new instrument has not disappointed our hopes. We. must now endeavour to utilise these advantages _ ‘in the extension and development of our re- these points, fall accurately on ay searches on stellar evolution and the struigene 4 of the universe. rates lerengs Methods to Astronomical! Measurenients,” P/7/, 1090 2 For an account of this method, see Michelson, ‘‘ On the stron . oy . Artillery By Sir GEORGE HE religious attachment of the officer of artillery to the practice of his predeces- ’?' “was described by Benjamin Robins about 1740, and: his attachment persisted with un- impaired devotion right up to the war. There he found, himself outclassed at the outset, out-gunned and. out-gunnered; the little artillery ‘he took out was. small and puny, and not of the right sort re- quired—“ pas de celle qu’il faut.” Our Artillery ebony cannot be said to have understood what It, the word “‘ artillery.” ee the assumption of our politicians that this country. was -never going to war again, an interdict: had been laid on England of seven lean Years ;, and when they were up, the lean years got an extension leading right up into the war. A; well-disciplined Army. Council had _ been formed, sobsequious to the Minister, with instruc- tions. to; resist all suggestions of military progress —housed i in.a magnificent new palace in hitehall, “ qT" sors the. barracks, of an army of War Office clerks, pro-, vided. out, of, a, reduction of the Regular s Idiers, Temple of Victory it cannot be called. The stone slab over the portal is still blank, ready to | NO. 2635, VOL. 105 | GREENHILL, F.R.S. Boe Science. Beer eae receive the appropriate motto, with no derange- ment in the epitaph : Lees oN PACEM PARA BELLUM SI aoe Petey, igus & Ss So The mentality of the Army Council can oe glimpsed in its attitude to Flight in warfare. The Wright brothers framed on their wall the. egregious answer of the Secretary in the official jargon: to you. “T have nothing to add to my last letter The War Office is not disposed to enter into relations with any manufacturers of airs planes.” This was in March, year we were running the risk of our whole Army 1913, and only the next. being completely surrounded, with no airmen to scout for us. The evil name “ Maubeuge ” would have been written on our history as indelibly as “Jena” and “Sedan” were on others. No wonder the German squadrons could fly all over England and London with impunity, in the face of all our air defence. The. belated arrival, in the, ‘war of the Beale is another similar story. ilitary prejudice pre- ferred to muddle along in a’ stalemate of ‘trench WATURE 269 _ APRIL, 29, 1920] waste and slaughter, before it could. be per- to take up this: new revolutionary. idea. rman advance walked over our trench war- system in the spring of 1918, and took all inically bold as a lion, our military soul ellectually a very timid bird, and shuddered - suggestion of novelty and progress. ver 1 asked an artillery officer: ‘‘ What learn as a cadet at the Royal Military ny?” the answer came in the invariable + “I learnt nothing when I was at the ‘ca’ canny ’’ slogan would carry. And yet we this nickname, full of meaning and con- uous, is countenanced by authority, from vernor downward, as a surrender of all It should be made a crime of a military er to use such a derisory, contemptu- too descriptive of the obsolete, decadent of the place. | 1y List gives a whole page to the cata- the staff of the Royal Military Academy, h, full of official Army titles. Low down ‘Sc a line is to be seen, and under it a a dozen names, the civilian instructors 0 should carry out the real work of the thing was ever so Prussian, not even in But the line has a more sinister mean- it emphasises one of. the important f the Cardwell scheme, and excludes all ‘appearing under it from retiring allowance, ile every Civil Service clerk is pukka, subsidised covenanted, on the strength of a Civil Service examination, medical or otherwise. A sailor would compare the Academy to a boat trimming too auch by the stern, with too many cocked hats in ern sheets. s the only source of supply of our artillery not run clear; it commissions him with id of second class, with all the mental 90k implied of indolence and apathy. _ | Officers among them deplore the ent, and are beginning to confess to their deficiency of all artillery science in the war; but, with military docility, they are afraid to say much, and formerly, before the war, would bring yn themselves the scowl of the senior officer, d the disparaging epithet of “scientific.” he old school aimed at being as close an imita- of cavalry as possible, and a stable boy was the noblest gunner of them all, prepared to carry out a gallop of a few seconds over Woolwich Common, with a little gun on wheels behind. The idea was deprecated of firing off his gun, 1 imitation of the practice exacted in real war- are, as likely to wear the gun out, and so pro- ided a good excuse. Cir _ But here is a Disadvantage of Durability, espe- cially in artillery, and most of all in its traditions. 2, at a cost of two years’ delay, of intoler-° to afford. Wags BO- 2635, VOL. 105]... Satin: O* ope it Our guns, were always obsolete when they , were most. wanted. So this gunner preferred to seek the: seclusion of his stable before the guns. began to.shoot;. he was encouraged to be gun-shy,.and to.despise any sort of artillery that could. not go. at a. gallop behind horses. His favourite arm was this corps d élite, the plaything of the. I.R.C...(Idle. Rich Class), very expensive to maintain in. peace, and of little proved utility in war. commensurate with the cost. But motor artillery has come to stay as the real artillery, unless “bilked ” by the old school... This was the sort required. in the war, and in peace, it is not eating its head off, like horses in.a. stable, and is never tired on the march. De Wet was run to earth very soon by a squadron of .motor-cars never giving his horses any rest: what..our old cavalry tactics never could effect. be sali The civilian has grasped the paramount;.im- portance in modern warfare of heavy long-range artillery; and he must be careful that.the lesson has not been lost on the regular gunner, or. allow. him to return to his ancient, worn-out traditions,, Such long-range fire was declared officially of no military value, until our poor fellows came under the accurate fire of the long-range German, howitzer, with no protection from our own side. German science could always astonish’ ‘our sleepy regular gunner, in providing a gun that could bombard Paris, and London too, when it could be brought up as near as Calais. How much longer would the war have lasted then? although the fire was declared of no military im- portance by those who did not suffer under it. This advanced German artillery science, as well as of the chemical and aeronautical science, was the outcome and product of the Military Technical Academy in Berlin, a magnificent institution such as our Ministers thought England was too poor Sixty officers were under instruction there in a three years’ course more thorough than exacted to-day for honours in the university. No wonder our feeble amateur military science went down before such superior training. «+ . I was once privileged to visit the Berlin Academy, under the guidance of Prof. Cranz, and to inspect the instruction in all branches—ballistics, aero- nautics, and electricity. There, for one thing, I remember seeing the electrical class occupied in making the antenne of wireless telegraphy. This was ten years ago, when aeronautical science and flight were derided by our War Office authority, and opposed on the score of economy. We shall not feel safe in England until we set up a rival institution, but it must be as far apart as pos- sible from the Woolwich tradition. South Ken- sington would be an ideal site, say in the building of the old School of Mines and Naval Architecture and alongside the Imperial College of Science, as the Berlin Academy is a neighbour of the Char- lottenburg Technical High School, with the same a OFA r -f* 270: ws NASHEED | «[ApRn, 29,,1926. , advaceesie pe ‘sae. hae’ use. vy poksioniew and. Our, artillery will special. professorial- lectures. then. be able to thraw off the badge of second class and .claim,to take the rank of first class again. A cadet military college can only carry on the initial stage of the education of the artillery officer, and for;that it is better for him not to be isolated too ‘early,,from the other military branches. Many a scheme,for the amalgamation of the military colleges will be found pigeon-holed in the War Office, awaiting the pressure required to be exerted, onthe opportunist. The artillery could then. make.its selection from the whole list of Army-candidates, and with proper prestige secure the pick of the bunch, It would not then have to submit,,.as at present, to put up with the leavings of the: Royal Engineers, and to be branded as second class. . The. pick of the officers, service, would be selected for a further course at our, equivalent of the Berlin Military Technical Academy, where neither indolerice nor apathy was tolerated, but stigmatised as bad form, so I was informed. Here they would find a standard of uni- after some military — versity, rank, in a centre. of keen intellectual activity. But the atmosphere of all Woolwich is dose and ill-ventilated. Throw open the window, and let in-air and. light ! The Royal Military — Academy there is ° unhealthy, well as mentally, seated on the safety-valve of the main drainage of all South London. The buildings are antiquated and worn-out, fit only to be mined and blown .up at the — moon, and then a more healthy atmosphere, physical and intellectual, might be formed. With the solidarity of any other trade union, Woolwich strongly opposed dilution. But Dilution proved the best material, and carried the war to a suc- cessful conclusion, and so the insidious efforts at his elimination in peace must be watched care- fully, and countered by a plentiful entry of university candidates from the outside. | ; The country will never cease to shiver at ithe recollection of our narrow escape from defeat and utter ruin, and will listen to no specious political views of opportunist economy likely to place | ‘M8 again in a state of military inferiority. yg Obituary, Dr. RupoLtpeH MeEsseEL, F.R.S. R. R. MESSEL died on Sunday, April 18, in his seventy-third year. Death came to him as a happy release but to a large circle of friends familiar with his social qualities and many acts of unostentatious generosity the loss is severe and will be deeply mourned. He had long been one of the most notable of our chemical manufacturers as pioneer founder of a most important industry, for he was the first to produce sulphuric anhydride from its elements on a large scale. _ Messel was born in Darmstadt and came to this country, at the conclusion of his university career, shortly before the Franco-Prussian War; when this broke out he returned to Germany and volun- teered for service but owing to a physical dis- ability, I believe, he was drafted into the Army Service Corps and was wounded while on ambulance duty. He lost no time in return- ing to England and became assistant to the late, Dr. Squire, a mah _ of _ considerable ability and originality. Messel had qualified at Tiibingen as a chemist under Strecker, who natur- ally took an interest in the then infant alizarin industry, as he had worked with alizarin. Strecker foresaw the important part that fuming sulphuric acid was to play in the industry and directed Messel’s attention to the fact, suggesting that he might well seek to supply the want. Messel, therefore, was fully conversant with what had been done and when Squire, possessed of the same idea as Strecker, suggested to his assistant that he. should set to wine on the subject, he was soon. ready with a process, having at.once resorted NO. 2635, VOL. 105 | to the use of platinum as a casa in ordae to bring about the interaction of sulphur dioxide with atmospheric oxygen. A patent. was taken out by Squire in ‘P75 bed’. he and Messel described their process in a paper read to the Chemical Society early in 1876; but this was not published. Their works were erected at Silvertown, on the Thames; the manufactur- ing process was_ rapidly developed through | Messel’s skill and intense devotion to his task. Not alone were English wants soon met but a considerable quantity of the acid was supplied to the German colour-makers. The Badische Anilin- & Soda-Fabrik was led largely to develop the manufacture of the acid in connection with the production of synthetic indigotin; but the splash” this firm made in 1g00, when it pub- lished the results of its experiments in consider- able detail, was unwarranted. Practically every- — thing essential then put forward had long been a matter of everyday practice with Messel. Had not commercial considerations prevailed, he might well have upset the patents; but he was ever a man of peace, as well as a modest man, so he made no attempt to claim the credit that was kis due. He acquired the German patents at a peppercorn price but his former countrymen never had the honesty to do him public justice. The writer was a frequent visitor at Silvertown in early days and was always impressed by the remarkably systematic manner in which the works were operated. Messel was ever on the look-out for improvements and ever ready to. make ‘them. | His chief trial in later years was the’ difficulty. he experienced in persuading his. ‘conservative, Benes ‘i fe i physically — as i 7 a NATURES 27% ’ He long lived on the works in the most st quarters and his all-seeing eyes were here. In Germany the success of the great works has been mainly due to the effec- operation of a variety of workers, repre- ng the different sides of the business, sup- ted by a small army of highly disciplined, d scientific assistants; but Messel did hing himself: his versatility was astound- was not only chemist but also engineer, ee man; he had no staff but only an assistant or two. ‘Though a German but a German fited with sd English methods. Aided only by the most ddest resources, he long held his place success- against his rivals in Germany. Probably much early success was due to his sympathetic fitude towards his workmen, by whom he was merally beloved; but Messel was not only a orker, he also played hard. In great social quest, he knew everyone: Gilbert was one of Ss great friends. Of late years Messel had been ne of os a familiar and popular figures at the ssel’s eminent scientific services to industry — in 1912 by his election into the Society. No other compliment could have him greater satisfaction. Though a manu- turer, he lived for science and in the atmo- phere of science and not the least of his merits 5 the example he has thus set. PE. Ae =) "> Pror. A. K. Huntincton. _ By the regretted death, on April 17, at sixty-four fears of age, of Prof. Alfred Kirby Huntington 30 shortly after relinquishing the chair of metal- lurgy at King’s College, University of London, which he had occupied since 1879, British tech- al science loses one of its old guard, and both netallurgy and aviation are the poorer by the loss 9 an indefatigable worker and an outstanding sonality. i _ Though it be admitted that Prof. Huntington's name is linked with no spectacular discovery, his work, beyond: its professional duties, was con- uous, scholarly, and of marked originality. In both respects he therefore exercised a determinative moulding influence upon the two generations of men he trained in this rapidly widening field of Pee on LLL) ong we ‘May justly regard as the Renaissance of non- ferrous metallurgy. For nearly forty years he _ was invariably abreast, more usually in the fore- front, of the many new departures which have marked it. A physicist as well as a chemist, his researches on the micro-structure of metals and on “corrosion” have added essentially to our NO. 2635, VOL. 105 | imagination, Messel appreciated and prac- “Science. His career, indeed, coincided with what. metallographic knowledge; his paper on “The ‘Concentration of Metalliferous Sulphides by Plot") ” tion,” read before'the Faraday Society’ in 196590" broke ground which has been gratefully cultivated >" by others, and provided the starting-point -‘for>” fresh researches; whilst in the disclission of such ‘diverse technics as those of’ copper‘smelting, |) cyanidation, nickel metallurgy, etc., matiy have»: owed essential enlightenment to his'suggestions and» criticisms, imparted with a kindly, if somewhat gruff, sententiousness. © 393 - Prof. Huntington rendered yeoman service .in'''\' the earlier development of several of our now ’ important technical associations; thus one recalls his two papers (upon “The Mexican Amalgama- ''’ tion Process” and ‘The Metallurgy of Nickel’and © Cobalt ”) which were read at the first annual meet= ing of the Society of Chemical Industry in’ 1882. Later he was actively interested in the formation of the Institution of Mining and Metallurgy,’ becoming its second president’ in 1894, and’ remaining an honoured member of ‘council until his death. The mere enumeration of his con- tributions to its Transactions occupies a whole’ page of index. In 1913 he succeeded to the presi+ ~ dential chair of the Institute of Metals, and to that society he gave of his energy and experience with equal freedom. .During the war his special- ised knowledge of high explosives was placed at the disposal of, and fully utilised by, the Admiralty. Sea A marked characteristic of Prof. Huntington’s metallurgical outlook was its practicality and its constant insistence upon the economic aspect of the problem under consideration. His motto might seem to have been: “First write your equa- tion in economics, and the remaining 20 per cent, of technics will be easily and better supplied thereafter ”"—though it must be admitted that he could be unsparing if that balance appeared faulty ! Prof. Huntington’s intense practical interest in aeronautics, which advancing years were power- less to quench (since, in addition to his exploits in ballooning, he was until quite recently his own pilot and flew his own ’plane), made him famous to a wide circle; but it is to his services to modern metallurgy that special tribute is due. ; Dr. A. J. CHALMERS. Tue death of Dr. A. J. Chalmers in Calcutta on April 5 causes a gap in the ranks of British workers in tropical medicine, and: will also be deeply regretted’ by his many friends in this country, as well as in the various Colonies in which he held important posts. The son of a Wesleyan minister, Dr. Chalmers was born in London in 1870, but began his career at University College, Liverpool, which at that time formed part of Victoria University. His career in the Medical School during his student days was brilliant, and it was soon apparent that he had a bright future before him. He gained the Holt fellowship of’ his college in 1890 and r1891,. and. obtained honours on taking his degree as M.D. Soon afte: ’ 272 NATURE [APRIL 29, 1920 taking his F.R.C.S. (England), he had a great desire to travel, the tropics especially having an attraction for him, and he joined the ‘West -Afri- can Medical Service in 1897. He served as-a ‘medical officer with the: Ashanti Field Force in 1900, and was with the British troops that were besieged in Kumasi, who, after some time, gal- lantly broke through the native hordes and re- gained the coast. Dr: Chalmers attended to the sick.and wounded with great energy and devotion and was mentioned in despatches by the com- manding, officer, and received the medal with a clasp. In 1901 he accepted a post under the Ceylon Government as registrar of the Ceylon Medical College. Here his capabilities as adminis- trator and organiser: were brought into full play. He soon - developed. this institution into an ex- gellent medical school,..the licence of which is now recognised by the General Medical Council. While in Ceylon Dr. Chalmers first turned his attention to the tropical diseases that came under his notice, and never spared himself in working among the resident Europeans and natives who came to him. Resigning his position in Ceylon in 1902, so that he might devote more time to the study of tropical diseases and parasitology, he returned fo England. It was then that he con- ceived the idea of writing a much-needed manual on tropical medicine; and in collaboration with. his colleague, Dr. Castellani, in Ceylon, he began the work which will remain a monument to his memory. The preparation of ‘‘The Manual of Tropical Medicine,’’ which has now reached its third edition, cost him a great amount of time and labour. . He was an ardent worker in many fields, and carried on research not only in pathology and bacteriology, but also in parasitology, especially in connection with diseases of the tropics. His work on the Mycetoma will always be connected with his name. From 1912 Dr. Chalmers devoted more than a year to the study of the cause of pellagra, and in company with Dr. Sambon visited Italy and Rumania. On his return he carried on researches in this country, with the result that cases of pel- lagra, a disease unknown to be endemic in Great Britain, were found in Hertfordshire and Scot- land. Later he visited Egypt and travelled up the Nile with the same object, and accumulated. | much valuable data in connection with the study of pellagra and other diseases such as endemic - hematuria. hea ges ; . On his return to England Dr. Chalmers gave some time to the study of the history of medicine, and became an_ enthusiastic lover of ancient literature—especially that dealing with the medical art. After some time he felt again the call. of the East, and often expressed a wish to return there. In 1913 he accepted a post as director of the Wellcome Research Laboratories at Khartum, which he filled with conspicuous success. He became a - member of the Central Sanitary Board, and also of the Sleeping Sickness Commission of the Sudan. NO. 2635, VOL. 105] Dr. Chalmers continued there until a short time — ago, when he left the Sudan, accompanied by his wife, with the object of returning home via India, — _Japany-and America, and when in Calcutta was | unfortunately seized with his fatal illness. — Pror. L. T. O’SHea. Lucius Trant O’SHEA, professor of applied — chemistry in the University of Sheffield, who died suddenly from cerebral hzemor- rhage on April 18 at sixty-two years of age, was. educated at the Grammar School and at Owens College, Manchester, ard. went to Sheffield in 1880 as assistant lecturer and, demonstrator in chemistry at Firth College. In, 1890 he became lecturer in mining chemistry, and in 1905 professor of applied chemistry, in the university. For the past twenty years he had. specialised in the study of explosives as applied to mining operations, and of the coking of coal in © retort ovens. of ‘coal dust. on explosions in mines. He was a fellow of the Chemical Society, a member of the Society of Chemical Industry, and hon, secretary of the Institute of Mining Engineers. . Prof, O’Shea published ‘‘A Contribution to the History of the Constitution of Bleaching Powder,” He also did much work on the safety of coal mines, particularly with regard to — the effect of the gases given off by the coal and — | and “The Retention of Lead by Filter Paper,” — about the time of the lead-poisoning epidemic in Sheffield more than thirty years ago, and some years later, with Dr. W. M. Hicks, he produced — electro-iron of almost perfect purity, which the present writer had the privilege of using for experi- — ments when helping to lay the foundations of — theoretical steel metallurgy, for which pure iron was required as a basis for study. He also pub- — lished “A Note on the Woolwich Testing Station,” “A Testing Station for Mining Explosives,” and “The Safety of High Explosives, with Special — Reference to Methods of Testing.” In 1901 Prof. O’Shea went out to the South African War in command of a detachment of the 1st West Yorks Royal Engineer Volunteers, remained until the declaration of peace, and was given the Queen’s medal with five clasps. In 1914 he was made O.C. of the O.T.C., Sheffield University, with the rank of captain in the unat-— tached Territorial Force, and he was an energetic and inspiring leader. Prof. O’Shea was not able to devote a large — proportion of his time to research, but. he will be | greatly missed for the painstaking work he did in __ the training of students in chemistry as applied to mining and-to the coking of coal, and in the general preparation of fuel for industry. A. McW. A man who had great influence in the applica- tions of science to the use and convenience of man has passed away in Mr. THEopore N. VAIL, well known to many in England, as wellas in \rit:29, 1920] | NATURE 273 is homeland across the Atlantic. Mr. Vail’s life- otk was the development of the “Bell” tele- » system in the United States, and it ‘is to ersonal initiative that the enormous growth American Telephone and Telegraph Co., of | he was for many years the president, is y due. He was a rare combination of the S man, quick to see opportunities and far- rl his policy, and the patient, scientific It is not too much to say that the of the American telephone system, cul- in the achievement of speech from New to. San Francisco, is mainly due to the mitting attention that he gave to the organ- on and prosecution of research, and the tech- laboratories that he initiated are the finest industrial undertaking. It is pleasant to ] k that, unlike many workers on parallel lines, Vail lived to behold the fruit of his labours. = death is announced, at the age of eighty rs, sot Dr. Joun A. BRASHEAR, the founder of eeerown American firm of makers of astro- nical and physical instruments. In his youth, hile. working as a machinist, Dr. Brashear votec himself to the study of astronomy, and e his first telescope while pursuing this hobby sr his working hours: . With this instrument e many observations, as a result of which tributed articles to the daily Press on , etc. These attracted the attention of Malo: Shaw, whose offer to build and for, him a good shop for the production of al instruments was accepted. This mately developed into the works of the John A. ashear Co. at Pittsburgh, which turns out truments that are used in observatories all over e world. Dr. Brashear received the honorary c from. Pittsburgh and other universities, F tecen gor to 1904 was acting chancellor of e Western University of Pennsylvania, now the n’ ma, of Pittsburgh. He was a member of ican and foreign scientific. societies, jas a recognised authority on solar: pheno- unar erasers, and other See Mr. James Metcatre, who died on. Aepeil: £2, as born in 1847, and was locomotive supet- ndent of the Manchester and Milford Railway ‘om 1867 to I He was afterwards managing. ir tor of the Patent Exhaust Steam Injector Co., cs gh de are extensively used in locomo- re Metcalfe was elected a member of the stitution of Mechanical Engineers in 1906. ~ est was born in 1860, and was chiefly interested etwas, waterworks, and road and sewerage vork ks. He took a great interest in aeronautics, nd at. -the time of his death he was chairman of : ) } cE . ST as having taken place on. April 14. . Mr. ; Me ca 2635, VOL. 105 | A HE death is announced of Mr. FRANK Epwarp, tested’ adequately by direct chemical means. -members of the Committee are:—Sir Mackenzie. srs. A. V. Roe aiid Co,, Ltd. He was elected | nine of: the Mistitution. of ‘Civil Engineers in| Notes, - FURTHER news from Capt. Roald Amundsen fails to explain his movements.. According to the Times of April 23, a message has been received in Norway from the wireless station on the Anadir to the effect that the expedition will arrive at Nome,. Alaska, at the end of July. Nome is the port. Amundsen reached on his accoinplishment .of the North-West Passage in the Gjoa in 1905. Possibly -his ambitions include the North-West Passage before starting on his North Polar journey. These two difficult journeys, in addi- tion to the discovery of the South Pole and the not improbable attainment of the North Pole, would be a remarkable record for one man. A start on the polar drift from Bering Strait or Point Barrow entails a longer route than Amundsen had originally intended, so that he may be calling at Nome for extra stores. News of the arrival of Amundsen himself at Anadir needs confirmation. Now that political and social conditions are more favourable in the Near East, a certain recrudescence of archzological activity is evident. The recent dis- coveries of M. Hatzidakis at Mallia, in Crete, have been. followed by a further discovery west of Candia. M. Xanthoudides has excavated a Cretan palace, which appears to date for the most part from the end of the Middle Minoan period to the end of the first Late ‘Minoan period. The most important discovery. made in the palace was-a series of colossal bronze double-axes, measuring several feet in length in some cases. No such axes of this size have yet been found on Cretan. sites, and their purpose is. for the present obscure. Another excavation by M. + Xanthoudides near Candia brought to light some pottery of Early Minoan date of a peculiar type. Similar pottery has ~ been found only at. one other site in Crete, and it. does not appear to be typically Cretan. In shape the vases found resemble the so-called Minyan ware. In~ technique they have. no parallel in Cretan wares. The detailed publication of both these excavations \ will be awaited. with: the greatest. interest. Apprications for grants in aid of scientific investiga-. . tions bearing on agriculture are receivable by the Ministry of Agriculture’ and Fisheries not later than May 15. They must be made upon Form A. 230/1, ; copies of which are obtainable upon application to the: General Secretary, Ministry of Agriculture Fisheries, 72 Victoria Street, S.W.1. and . THE Minister of Health has sopnlited a Cotte? to consider and advise on the legislative and adminis- trative measures to be taken for the effective control of the quality and authenticity of such therapeutic sub- stances. offered for: sale to the public as eannot be “The - Chalmers (chairman), Dr. H. H. Dale, Dr. G. F. McCleary, Mr. A. B. -Maclachlan, ‘and’ Dr. af . Martin.’ The secretary is Dr. E. W.. Adams, of the. Ministry ‘of ‘Health. Tue. following, have besa, anced nfinehs and couitxtils:t / | of the Society of Antiquaries, of London pr ftresigent : ‘ ye cereeny - 274 NATURE LAPEIL- 29) ee Sir C. Hercules Read. Treasurer: Mr. W. Minet. Director :: Sir Edward W. Brabrook. Secretary: Mr. C. R. Peers. Council: Sir W. Martin Conway, Mr. V. B,. Crowther-Beynon, Mr. H. R. H. Hall, Mr. W. J: Hemp, Mr, A. F. Hill, Mr. C. H. Jenkinson, . Sir Matthew I. Joyce, Mr. C. L. Kingsford, Lt.-Col. G. B. Croft Lyons, Prof. J. L. Myres, Lord North- bourne, Prof. E. Prior, Mr. J. E. Pritchard, Mr. H. W. Sandars, Major G. T. Harley Thomas, Mr. R. Camp- bell Thompson, and Mr. W. H. Aymer Vallance. THREE important scientific appointments will shortly be made by the British Cotton Industry Research Association, and the council of the association invites applications from qualified candidates. The posts tobe filled are those of the heads of the departments of colloid chemistry and physics, organic chemistry, and botany. The minimum salary offered in each case is 1oool. per annum. Applications, accompanied by the names of two referees, must be received not later than Saturday, May 22. Forms of application and any further information may be obtained from the Director, British Cotton Industry Research Associa- tion, 108 Deansgate, Manchester. INFLUENZA is abating somewhat in its severity, _ according to the latest weekly returns of the Registrar- General. The deaths from the disease for the week ending April 17 numbered only 306 for the ninety-six great towns of England and Wales, whilst for the three preceding weeks the deaths were 392, 379, and 332. A similar decrease is shown in the deaths for London, which for the week ending April 17 numbered 1o1, and for the three preceding weeks the deaths were 131, 124, and 105. The returns also show a decrease in the deaths from pneumonia and bronchitis. The age incidence of the present influenza epidemic resembles somewhat the character of the attacks in 1918 and 1919, which were entirely different, so far as age incidence goes, from previous attacks since 1890. ‘There seems, however, now a tendency to revert somewhat to the former age inci- dence. In the present epidemic the deaths in London during the last twenty-six weeks numbered 1056, and of these 16 per cent. occurred between the ages of o and 20, 36 per cent. between 20 and 45, and 48 per cent. at ages above 45 years. In the virulent attacks of 1918 and 1919 the deaths were about 24 per cent. between the ages of o and 20, 46 per cent. from 20 to 45, and 30 per cent. above 45 years, the able-bodied being attacked most severely. The maximum number of deaths in any week in London during the present epidemic was 131, whilst in the summer epidemic of 1918 the deaths in one week numbered 287, and in the autumn of 1918 the deaths from influenza for two successive weeks, November 2 and 9, amounted to 2458 and 2433. For the ninety-six great towns the deaths for the same two weeks in November were respectively 7412 and 7557, against 392 in the week ending March 27 in the present epidemic. In Man for April Sir W. Ridgeway describes two wooden Maori daggers, part of a collection brought home by the late Col. Honner after the first Maori war in 1840-41. It was at first suggested that these implements were Potuki, or “ flax-beaters,’? and it NO. 2635, VOL. 105] was doubted whether the Maori did use daggers. But Mr. Henry Balfour has described a bone dagger from tthe Chatham Islands, and some cultural simi- larities indicate a link between those islands and New Zealand, especially the Otago district. It is now certain that the Maori did use daggers made of wood and bone. As regards the Potuki, there is a class of beautifully carved examples which can never have been put to any practical use. Their exact function has not been recorded, but they were, perhaps, signs of dignity in the tribe. Sir W. Ridgeway remarks that the paper mulberry, from which tapa cloth was made, was brought to New Zealand by Maori immi- grants. But it did-not thrive, and the tapa-beater, so important in the social life of Polynesia, would thus fall out of practical use. ‘My suggestion is that it retained only a ceremonial significance, and that its parallel straight grooves conditioned the type of decoration which the Maoris subsequently applied to it.” In the Journal of the Manchester Egyptian and Oriental Society for 1918-19, recently published, Mr. W. J. Perry discusses the significance of the search for amber in antiquity in connection with the mega- lithic problem. He supposes that the amber uséd for decorative purposes in the Mycenzan age may have been found in the Adriatic. It is not easy, however, to see why it should have been so readily adopted as. a form of wealth, as it does not possess the attractive- ness of gold and pearls. Mr. Perry suggests as an explanation of its value that amber, a solidified resin, may have been associated with the productions of cer- tain trees venerated in Egypt as the source of resinous substances used in mummification and other death- ee ee rites. As a further explanation he refers to the Chinese use of jade and gold, supposed to convey vitality to those who consumed them. “In the case of the Chinese, whose civilisation can be accounted for on the hypothesis of a cultural movement across Asia from goldfield to goldfield, the desire for life, health, and immortality has played an important part in the | production of philosophical systems, and thus it is _ possible that their civilisation itself owes its existence _ to that instinctive process.’? The theory is certainly ingenious, but the evidence in its support is still scanty, and the analogy of Chinese or Egyptian beliefs with the search for amber in Europe must be accepted with some caution. ; ats THE trade routes of the British Empire in Africa is the subject of a paper by Mr. G. F. Scott Elliott in the Journal of the Royal Society of Arts for April 2 (vol. Ixviii., No. 3515). Mr. Scott Elliott approaches the problem of future rail and steamer routes from ) a geographical point of view. He emphasises the location of the plateau regions in Central Africa, each of which above 5000 ft. is a possible centre for European settlement, civilisation, and trade. The problem as he sees it is to link these interior regions with British seaports by lines through British terri- tory. He discusses at length the possible routes for railways linking Lakes Nyassa, Tanganyika, Victoria, Edward, and Albert. These lines, with the construc- tion of a railway from Kashitu, on the Bulawayo- a = 29, 1920] NATURE 275 nga. line, would complete a Cape-to-Cairo route British territory. annual report on the Nile gauges and ‘rainfall Nile Valley ceased publication during the war, last number being that for 1912, published in The work has now been transferred from the Department to the Ministry of Public Works, publishes the records of the gauges for 1913 to | Physical Department Paper No. 1. In order ice the number of data, five-day means are for twenty representative gauges between the barrage and Entebbe, on Lake Victoria. Tables e also given of monthly means for each of the six ars, and the actual discharges on certain days at il stations on the main Nile and Blue Nile. ese discharges were measured by the current meter, | Mr. H. E. Hurst, the author of the report, iiculates has a probable error of not more than about Two papers published recently by, the Ministry of riculture and Fisheries (Series II., Sea Fisheries, piv... ‘Nos. 1 and 2) deal with the method of deter- ning the age of fishes by inspection of the scales. ‘well known that the material of the latter ures is laid down in more or less regular layers, d that there are differences between the substance ited in the warmer, and that laid down in the e of the age of the fish can be made. The is ‘not applicable to all scale-bearing fishes, there has been much discussion as to its trust- sss. In the first of the papers to which refer- is here made Mr. R. E. Savage describes the ire of various scales as elucidated by special s and studied under polarised light. In the Miss R. M. Lee has made a critical " ‘most - of the important memoirs dealing 1 scale-markings, and subjected selected series Se cisebents to mathematical tests. Her general onclusions are that, with certain precautions, the nethod is trustworthy. Tue climate and weather of the Falkland Islands id South Georgia is the subject of a memoir com- iled by Mr. C. E. P. Brooks, and published by the ‘eteorological Office as Geophysical Memoir No. 15. he Falkland Islands observations are all from Cape nbroke lighthouse with the exception of a few iscon ntinuous series from Port Stanley. The Cape embroke records date from the visit of the Scotia in 035 when Dr. W. S. Bruce and Mr. R. C. Mossman arted observations there in connection with their cor ds in the Weddell Sea. The scanty South eorgia records are the result partly of various > pry expeditions, but are mainly due to the enter- 2 of the Argentine Fishery Co. in Cumberland Bay. Se ies of all available data, including those sly published, are given in the memoir.. — ‘TH 4Z Danish Meteorological Institute has published e for 1919 on the state of the ice in Arctic hs usual, the publication is in both Danish English and is well ‘illustrated - with charts. rmation was scarce from the Beaufort and Bering , Baffin Bay, and the western part of Davis NO. 2635, VOL. 105] ‘J. Hewitt’s , months. By counting these rings, then, an. Strait. In Spitsbergen seas the state of ice was about normal; the pack-ice off the west coast in April and May disappeared in June, and did not return through- out the summer. The ice in the fjords did not break up until May, which is later than usual and two months later than this year. The coasts of Iceland were singularly free from ice throughout the year except for a few days on the north-east in spring, and again in summer. Icebergs on the Newfoundland banks were normal in number and distribution. The Kara Sea, as usual, was navigable in the south and east in September, but there is no information for earlier summer months. THE attention of Arachnida may systematic students of the advantageously be directed to “Survey of the Solifuge of South Africa’? (Ann. Transvaal Mus., vol. vii., part 1, 1919), in which clear generic and specific diagnoses are illustrated by structural drawings and by a series of excellently reproduced photographs. E. A. McGregor’s paper on the ‘‘red spiders’ (Tetranychi) of America (Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., vol. lvi., 1919) is another recent arachnological publication of import- ance. A CONTRIBUTION of importance to Cetacean embryo- logy has been made by Dr. F. E. Beddard, who describes (Ann. Durban Mus., vol. ii., part 4, 1919) two embryos of the sperm whale of an earlier stage than has hitherto been observed. The smaller, measuring only 114 mm, in length, has the relatively short head flexed ventralwards, so that its long axis is almost at right angles to that of the body, while the lower jaw projects beyond the upper; the tail-fin is narrow and ovate in form. In a memoir on ‘The Theoretical Determination of the Longitudinal Seiches of Lake Geneva ’’ (Edin. Roy. Soc. Trans., vol. lii., 1920, pp. 629-42), Messrs. Doodson, Carey, and Baldwin have applied Proud- man’s general solution (Lond. Math. Soc. Proc., vol. xiv., p. 240) to the particular case of Lake Geneva. The dimensions of the lake along thirty- one sections being obtained from Hornlimann and Delebecque’s map, the durations of the first three periods were found to be 74-45, 35:1, and 28 minutes. According to Forel’s observations (with a slightly different zero-plane), the period of the uninodal oscillation is 73-5 minutes, and of the binodal oscilla- tions 35:5 minutes. The positions of the nodes of the uninodal and binodal oscillations are also deter- mined theoretically, and agree approximately with those found experimentally, although, as the authors remark, the exact determination of nodes by observa- tion is very difficult. Would it not be possible to test the latter by observing the reflections of the setting sun from the east end of the lake? Three definite reflections were once seen from such a posi- tion by the writer of this note. Tue Journal of the Queckett Microscopical Club (vol. xiv., November, 1919) contains an interesting contribution by Dr. Hamilton Hartridge on micro- scopic illumination, in which the question of the supposed advantages of so-called critical illumination (which consists in accurately focussing an image of 276 NATURE [APRIL 29, 1920 the actual source of light upon the object under : i examination). is carefully - eomined, The well- Our, Astronbpyical Congas “ee, arranged and conclusive experiments. described. by the Eclipse OF THE Moon.—There will be a total author lead to an unconditionally negative answer | Clipse of the moon on the night of May 2-3. The which will not surprise those who are familiar with following: ,are’, thi Greenwich ome we te eating! : oat sey # stages :— . the theory of microscopic image-formation, but the ges ; ay Moon enters penumbra | ae May 2 isan m. - result m m ’ . p.m. : sults, being experimental, may put an end to the Moon enters shadow ... : as 12.0 mid. barren discussions on this. subject by practical micro- Beginning of total eclipse a 1-39. hee scopists. A very neat and compact arrangement for { End of total eclipse ... wee 459 2.27 - the efficient and perfectly controlled illumination of | Moon leaves shadow see 3-41 objects in accordance with the results of the inves- | Moon leaves penumbra coe yg) | eee tigation is described. Some of the theoretical views At Greenwich the moon rises on May 2 at 7.5 p.m. in the first part of the paper are not acceptable. | and sets on May 3 at 4.34 a.m. The whole of the Whilst it is true that the usual methods of illumina- Poe ~ Pignctan si ripe a Pres satellite f ea do si strictly Tealise the ‘assumptions under- has remained fairly bright while at chien has 4 ying Abbe’s theory, it is surely not open to question | heen scarcely visible. If atmospheric conditions are _ that: the theoretical work and the rare theoretical | favourable, observations of ‘the character of the ‘calculations of images have always been carried out | shadow on this occasion might be made and, possibly, — in accordance with the theory. The statement that | photographs taken. During the lunar eclipse of if the ideals of critical illumination were realised, then | July 4, 1917, observations made at the Bordeaux- rresclation cael | he destroyed, is quite untenable, Floriac Observatory showed that throughout totality for as that ideal is to make the object behave as if ns oo edge of the moon seemed brighter than ; it were self-luminous, the statement amounts to "a; ; jee | le ~claiming that a self-luminous object—say a white-hot |, Mars anp WireLEss SicNats.—It is regrettable that — one—could not give a distinct image, which is absurd. | 19 these days, when results of great interest concern- - ae ing solar and stellar physics are continually being WE have received the fourth report (for 1916) of the | reached, the public should have its attention concen-~ ‘seismological observations at De Bilt, Holland trated upon sensational assertions, such as the Porta r (Konink. Nederl: Meteor. Inst., No. ‘108, 1918, planetary scare last December and the suggestion of © pp. 1-102), in which are given full details of the wireless signals to or from Mars which is mow andes § bak sed: Schon duaetoctekal Chinas” ested umlictie discussion in the daily Press, Leaving aside the | records ol gasseoiie Sein aad Hon seismographs | physical difficulties of such communication—which, — of Galitzin and Wiechert and a pair of Bosch hori- | though considerable, are perhaps not insuperable—a zontal pendulums, as well as a summary of the | very little consideration suffices to show the utter im- results from other observatories of the more important | probability, closely approaching to impossibility, that earthquakes. From’ this report we learn that the | the idea of signalling should be mooted simultaneously munitions explosion at*Faversham on April 2, 1916 | 07 the pes ena On any view as to the develop- (see Naturz, vol. xcix., 1917, p. 250), was registered | Ment of the planetary system, the periods when Mars rer et Ah ee make and the earth pass through corresponding stages .by the Wiechert and Galitzin pendulums at De Bae ||’ anid be likely to be separated by millions of years. The effects of the air-waves of this explosion were |.The suggestion that the Martians have kept up the widely manifested in Holland, especially in the | practice of signalling at every opposition through © western districts, by the shaking of doors, windows, | such a period as this, in the patient hope that they — and pictures, as if by a slight earthquake. might one day be answered, makes too strong a ; demand upon our credulity. One of the strongest earthquakes felt in Porto Rico | . ‘ ey e since the European occupation occurred on October 11, THe Aprit Mrrror SHower.—The weather was 1918, the official Report of the Earthquake Investiga- | Moderately fine at the time the Lyrids were expected, : so Hage os and a fair number of them were visible. The best tion Commission (Washington, 1919), by Prof. H. F. night seems to have been that of April 21, when the Reid and Mr. S. Taber, having recently been pub- | sky was generally clear and the maximum abundance | lished. The approximate position of the epicentre is | occurred near midnight. The phenomenon was ob- given as 18° 30’ N. lat., 67° 20’ W. long., in the | served by Miss A. Grace Cook at Stowmarket, Mr. north-east portion of Mona Passage, and the time | S. B. Mattey at Plumstead, S.E., Mr. C. P. Adamson of occurrence, within a very few seconds, at | 2t Wimborne, Mr. W. F. Denning at Bristol, and h. 14m. 38s. p.m. (Greenwich mean time). The others. The.Lyrid meteors formed about ‘one-half of | % 4 3 P j the total number visible on the nights of April 19, 20, earthquake was followed after a few minutes by a | and 21, and nearly all of them left streaks. They sea-wave which reached a height of about 43 metres | moved with moderate velocity, being decidedly slower above mean sea-level along the north-west coast of Porto | than either the Leonids or the Perseids. As regards Rico, the first movement of the water, wherever seen, | brightness they were much above the average, and being one of withdrawal. The epicentre lies along a | SOME fine ones were recorded on the dates mentioned. ‘deep submarine valley, the slopes of which are so THE WASTING OF STELLAR SuBsTaNnce.—This is. the steep that they must’ be regarded as the result of | title of a paper by Prof. F. W. Very in Scientia for : : il. i membered that Prof. Eddington faulting. During the last half-century the north-west April. It will be remem uC coast of the island has been noticeably subsiding, and rats the suggestion in the Observatory last Septem- ; er that the immense duration of the radiation from the authors attribute the earthquake and sea-wave | the stars might be explained by the annihilation of to a vertical displacement near the head or on one | some of their component atoms through collision, and side of the submarine valley. the consequent liberation of their stores of energy. NO. 2635, VOL. 105 | yi a Apri 29, 1920] Be NATURE 277 ' Prof. Very states that he made a similar suggestion any years ago. He conjectures that great gaseous ula, such as that in Orion, are the synthetic tories where matter is being built up; he applies idea to the Russell sequence of giant and dwarf supposing that the loss of mass (contrary to Eddington’s suggestion) is a large fraction of whole initial mass, so that the dwarfs, on his view, ‘stars not merely of smaller diameter and greater densation, but also of small mass. The increase velocity with advance of spectral type would thus an explanation. © ; baw : - Map-making in India. “HE Report for the year 1915-16 (vol. x.) of the _ Records of the Survey of India (printed at the ce of the Trigonometrical Survey, Dehra Dun, 4), which has lately come to hand, is somewhat ted. price of it alone would indicate this, . “four rupees or 5s. 4d.’’?; which does no justice the present value of the rupee. It is in other ects a new departure. There is no preface, and ok in vain. for the usual summing-up of the tific results of the year’s work by the Surveyor- eral, Sir Sidney Burrard, who, for that matter, ‘ceased to direct the Department and retired _ well-earned rest. On the whole, it is a dry € useful progress in the work of map-making, upplemented by long tables of the results of scientific observation, which surely, if they are of any use at should be published in such an up-to-date form ; to compare readily with the work of other observers elsewhere whose researches may lead them into the ame ‘scientific fields. There is no narrative or explanation showing how the results recorded been -attained; no excursions into the realms of 9graphy to lend a flavour of romance to the volume; no new ies or startling discoveries to save it from the familiar atmosphere of dry official dull- ness. It is, of course, not meant to be amusing, but it might easily be made more interesting. One unusual -and redeem feature it does indeed contain. There are seven most excellent photogravure portraits of _ those gallant officers of the Department who fell in the service of their country. They are so good that one cannot but hope that they exist otherwise than in this Official environment, and have already become a per- manent and honourable feature in’ the ‘headquarters’ offices of the Indian Survey. +The actual progress of mapping for military pur- poses under the difficult conditions of the war period, _ when so many men were absent on duty in the fields of France, Mesopotamia, and elsewhere, appears to _ have been most satisfactory during that busy time. _ .The Punjab surveys extended into Kashmir, and included a great deal of revision on the one-inch _ seale as well as certain areas on four inches to the _ mile. This feature of variety in the scale of mapping is common to all the topographical parties, and is a _ most encouraging sign that the scale is now adapted _ to the quality of the district surveyed far more freely _ than used to be the case. Formerly, there is no _ “doubt, much money was wasted over unnecessarily ‘large scale work in districts which had no possible military significance and not much geographical im- _ portance in any sense. Practically the topographical _ surveys are scattered all over India, from the Punjab _ to Madras and Burma: An examination of cost rates _ is interesting, for it does not indicate that the cost _ has ‘greatly altered during the last twenty vears. _ Here again evervthing depends on the physical charac. NO. 2635, VOL. 105 | “« a t. ‘3 ve ‘an earthquake shock. teristics of the district. From 7-6 rupees per square mile in the Punjab (almost entirely revision) to 50-7 rupees in Burma is certainly a most reasonable outlay for the work of the one-inch class, especially when compared with the enormous costs of European mapping on the same scale. The two-inch-per-mile surveys were a trifle more costly (when compared with previous years) than usual, but the surveyors had to face special difficulties in the shape of large areas of dense forest growth. There is no record of any extension of first-class triangulation, and the scientific branch of the Survey Department seems to have been directed towards the completion of ‘fore and back double levelling of precision” in the Punjab and the United Provinces, together. with the usual programme of tidal and mag- netic observations. It is interesting to note the generally increasing accuracy of tidal predictions, although certain errors seem to require explanation. _For instance, there were five predictions at Moulmein which were more than thirty minutes wrong. Why? The tabulated magnetic results show that great dis- turbances occurred in 1915, particularly in the month of June; and on August 29, 1916, the seismograph was dislocated by the violence of its action in recording The report, however, says nothing as to: the ‘probable location of that shocic. It would be interesting to know: more about it. An ingenious instrument for calculating attractions, which the designer, Mr. J. de Graaff Hunter} ¢alls an “integrator,” is illustrated by photogravure in the report, and this is indeed the one new feature in it which will probably attract most attention from ‘men of science. : j ‘The final record of publications by the’ Survey of -India can be -best studied by an examination of the index charts which form the appendix. Progress with the 1/M-(one-millionth) Maps of the World Series is very Satisfactory. It is this class of geographical mapping which has formed the basis for the Peace Conference boundary delimitations, ‘and in their pre- paration India is working hand-in-hand with the Royal Geographical Society and the Geographical ‘Section of the War Office. * Vol. xiii. of the Survey of India Records, which is issued a§ supplementary to the general: report of 1917-18, brings the topogtaphical records of the Department to a later date than the above. | It deals with the same distribution of parties working on original, revision, or supplementary surveys in much the same fields, and denotes good progress at reason- able rates, but for purposes of comparison a more detailed summary is wanted of the amount’ of survey completed in each class and a few notes on its character and cost by the Officiating Surveyor-General, Col. Ryder, R.E. The geodesic and scientific opera- tions are summarised in part ii., and in the appen- dices will be found useful reprints from the Journal of the Royal Geographical Society (March ‘and October, 1918) on the problem of the Himalayan and Gangetic troughs, containing the views of such scientific experts as Sir Sidney Burrard and Mr. R. D. Oldham on this most interesting subject. A feature in the report which attracts attention is the distribution of Survey detachments (with the con- .sequent weakening of field parties) amongst ‘artillery practice camps, presumably for the same purpose of range determination as that which absorbed ‘such a large and expensive staff of surveyors under R.E. direction during the later vears of the war. ‘This leads one to ask whether the gunners could not be trained to carry out such special surveys for them- THOR: selves. 278 NATURE [APRIL 29, 1920 Melanism in British Lepidoptera. MEELANISM has long been a subject of special interest to British entomologists owing to the rise and spread of melanic varieties in many British species of moths and butterflies, such groups as the Geometride showing many examples. Records of melanism go back at least to 1850, when the dark variety Doubledayaria of Amphidasys betularia ap- peared near Manchester. It afterwards spread until it became the prevalent or exclusive form in Lanca- shire and the Midland Counties, extending also to the Continent in later years. The earlier naturalists’ point of view (as represented by the writings of Tutt and of Porritt) concerning its causation, related it to the progressive darkening of the background in the neighbourhood of cities as a result of industrialisation. When this explanation was found to be inadequate, moisture was added as a cause of melanism; and Tutt concluded that moisture would darken the sur- faces of rocks in rural districts just as smoke darkens surfaces in urban areas, natural selection progressively favouring darker forms which habitually rested on such darkened backgrounds. In a recent consideration (Journal of Genetics, vol. ix., No. of melanism, based on extended observations and breeding experiments in Yorkshire, Mr. J. W. H. Harrison discards the older hypothesis and proposes a new one. This is based on a modifica- tion of the insect’s metabolism by its feeding upon substances more or less impregnated with chemicals derived from the smoke. It is pointed out that certain melanic areas, such as the vicinity of Middlesbrough, Neweastle-upon-Tyne, and Moray Firth, are meet? the driest in the country, having a rainfall of 25-28 in. Also, in such species as Boarmia repandata and Oporabia dilutata the melanic varieties are confined to the towns, while the type occurs in the surrounding country. The melanic forms of different districts, moreover, differ from each other, showing that they have originated locally and irrespective of each other. Observations showed that an increase in melanism was accompanied by a striking decadence of crypto- gamic_ plants, especially mosses, liverworts, and lichens, many species having quite disappeared from affected areas owing to smoke contamination. This effect.on vegetation, and also the degree of melanism, is found to diminish as one leaves the town. Mr.: Harrison compares melanism to such a condi- tion as alkaptonuria in man. ‘The latter condition is known to be inherited, and may be considered a chemical mutation in which the alkapton is not de- composed owing to the absence of a certain enzyme. He ‘suggests that the taking in with the food of small quantities of such salts as KCl, NaCl, and MnSO, present on the foliage in urban areas would lead to an increase in the amount of tyrosinase present, and so to an increased deposition of melanin, since the activity of various enzymes is increased by the ‘presence of small quantities of these salts. The same interpretation is extended to melanic forms on coasts and islands, where the vegetation is impregnated with similar salts from the sea spray. ’ It is known that in many ‘cases melanic varieties behave in inheritance as simple Mendelian dominants to the type (e.g. Onslow, Journal of Genetics, vol. ix., No. 1, on the melanic variety of Boarmia (Tephrosia) consonaria). In crosses with species of Oporabia, however, the author obtained a blend which remained true for two generations, and is interpreted as a -gametié blend, the melanism being’ of a perfectly continuous type. Also, when the hybrids between O. autumnata and O. filigrammaria were crossed back with the parent forms, a blend resulted. In the NO. 2635, VOL. 105 | } : F, of the cross, however, a ‘ pseudo-segregation ” was observed, which is likened to the behaviour in Oenothera Lamarckiana. Many writers have sug- gested such a relation between hybridisation and mutation. set In this interesting’ and manifold study the author has discarded an original anti-Lamarckian bias, and concludes that various cases, such as the food instincts of O. filigrammaria and the period of emergence in a pinewood race of O. autumnata, are only explicable as true Lamarckian effects. Natural selection is believed to lead to the genesis of local races, “limiting the range of variation by the elimination of genetical strains less protected in any given habitat.” The haploid chromosome numbers are determined for O. dilutata, autumnata, and filigrammaria as 30, 38, and 37 respectively, and the behaviour of the chromosomes in meiosis furnishes a basis for a further interpretation of the hereditary phenomena. . University Developments at Manchester. the comparatively small sum of 500,000l. in order to enable it to maintain its present activities effectively and to develop new features. em- brace not only additional buildings and equipment urgently required for the extension of the School of Medicine, especially in the departments of pharmaco- logy and pathology, and for advanced scientific study and research in other important spheres of the University’s many-sided work, but also a large increase in the professorial. staff, including new pro- fessorships in social and political science, physiological chemistry, law, mathematical physics, and French. The present Department of Commerce, established in 1904, is stated to be hopelessly inadequate to the needs of a great commercial centre such as that of south- east Lancashire, and demands, if it is to serve its purpose worthily, a considerable strengthening of its teaching staff. The University has recently estab- lished a new degree, namely, the doctorate in philo- -sophy (the Ph.D. degree), granted upon a course of advanced study and research, which will necessarily involve a large expenditure in staff and equipment. The University is committed to an expenditure of a sum of 171,000l. in respect, among other items, of the building and equipment of the new arts build- ing, where it is intended to house the subjects of languages, literature, history, and philosophy, the endowment of new chairs, the reconstruction and equipment of scientific departments, and the provision of women’s hostels. It is further contemplated to set up a wide extension of extra-mural teaching so as in touch throughout its wide area with the needs and aspirations of working people by means of exten- sion lectures and systematic three-year evening courses of tutorial classes. Already in response to the appeal of the University a ‘sum of about’ 160,o00l. has been raised, and it ought not, having regard to the population ‘and wealth of the area the University serves, to be difficult to secure the desired sum, and éven more. With the view of inducing a large number of people of small means to participate in the effort to raise the money required, a novel’ scheme Has been launched in the form of a prospectus, such as that issued on behalf of limited liability’ companies, ‘entitled ‘* Lancashire Development, “Unlimited, ‘The University of Man- ‘chester,’’? inviting subscriptions for new capital to the extent of 500,0001., divided into 425,000° cumulative participating bonds of rl. each and 1,500,000 people’s THE University of Manchester is appealing for es! ry to bring the influence of the University more closely APRIL 29, 1920] NATURE 279 bonds of-1s. each, the interest upon which will be found in the enrichment of the whole life of the “people served by the work of the University. .The faculty. of technology carried on in the Municipal 1 of Technology is also issuing an appeal for ,oool., more than half of which has already been ibed, for the extension of its building and for y equipment. The great and lasting benefit of the work of the University ought to rouse the active sym- pathy of the numerous municipalities and district wuncils, together with that of the County Council fteelf, and to induce these bodies to levy a rate which, as low as 3d. in the pound, would annually produce sum equal to the interest upon the half-million it to raise. - Courses on the History of Science. *ERMAN and American universities long ago recog- nised the importance of the history of science a subject of academic study. In British universi- _ ties the subject is only just beginning to receive atten- tion. In the University of London last year the Faculty of Arts passed a resolution in favour of in- _ cluding the history of science among the subjects for _ the B.A. degree, and, although the Senate has not _ yet dealt with the question, the inclusion of the sub- ject in the curriculum for the new diploma in journalism has helped to advance matters. Univer- sity Saat, undertook to provide the necessary _ courses. During the first and second terms of the session 1919-20 Dr. Wolf delivered a course of _ elementary lectures on the general history and develop- ment of science until the end of the eighteenth cen- _ tury. During the present (summer) term Sir W. H. _ Bragg and others will deal with the history of physical science during the nineteenth century, and Dr. Singer _ will lecture on the history of medicine. A more _ elaborate programme will be provided next session. Sir W. H. Bragg and Dr. Wolf will repeat their courses, Prof. J. P. Hill. and Dr. Singer will deal with the history of the biological and medical sciences, Prof.. Filon will lecture on the history of astronomy, and Mr. Wren on the history of mathematics. The history of other sciences will also be dealt with as op oka d offers. primary aim of the elementary courses on the _ the history of culture. The modern treatment of _ history is marked by the attention paid to the daily life and habits of the people, as well as to the romance of Court life and the adventures of warriors. The kind of houses which our forefathers inhabited, the _ kind of dress they wore, and similar matters are receiving due attention in order to fill in the historic _ picture. All this is as it should be, but the picture can scarcely be complete without the realisation m the mental make-up of the ages, especially so in view of the important réle played by scientific ideas in carrying forward the torch of civilisation. Over and above its value as an essential part of human history, a course on the history of science _ should also have the moral and disciplinary value of inculeating a scientific frame of mind—the kind of attitude on which the future of mankind will depend more than ever now that the age of faith seems to _ be a thing of the long ago. Such are some of the benefits that may be expected even by those who are not, and do not intend to be, scientific workers, to say nothing of the scientific — ' knowledge which even such students are bound to acquire in following an elementary course on the © No. 2635, vot. 105] history of science is to provide an essential part of. history of science. .More advanced courses. for . scientific. students can scarcely fail to confer the addi- tional advantage of illuminating the methods and results of the makers of science, and so stimulating the latent originality of the student of science. Marine Biological Structures and Functions. Y OL. XIII. of Papers from the Department of Marine Biology of the Carnegie Institution of Washing. ton, which has lately reached us, contains some’ con- tributions of considerable interest. Dealing with gland-cells of internal secretion in the spinal cord of the skates, C. C. Speidel describes large irregular cells of peculiar structure present to the number of some hundreds in the anterior horn. The nucleus is lobular and branched, and the cytoplasm of. the resting cell is homogeneous, but in active stages granules of a protein substance are formed in it and discharged into the tissues of the spinal cord, where they persist for some time. These cells develop from neuroblast tissue, and cells homologous with them have been found in various other fishes. The author discusses their function, and concludes that they are gland-cells of internal secretion. He is unable to find that they are necessary to the life of the skate, or to show what their function may be. In a paper on the spermatophores of Octopus americana, G. A. Drew shows that these structures, while they are built on a similar plan to those of the squid, are adapted to act quite differently, being less com- plicated, under less tension, and suited for less rapid service, in correspondence with the less active life of the species. H. L. Clark finds in the distribution of littoral Echinoderms of the West Indies evidence of a much closer relationship between that region’ and the western coast of tropical America than between it and the Mediterranean, while the fauna of Tobago contains an e'tement derived from the Brazilian coast. Studies on the chemistry of light production in luminous ce aecoar by E. N. Harvey reveal that the substance formerly called photophelein by that author includes two bodies, one—luciferin—oxidisable by luciferase with production of light and formation of oxyluciferin, which can again be reduced to luci- ferin, the other—protophelein proper—assisting in the promotion of the luciferin-luciferase reaction. E. W. Gudger describes the ovary of Felichthys felis, the gaff-topsail catfish, the male of which carries the eggs and larvz in his mouth. The Propagation of Flame in Gaseous Mixtures. At HOUGH the large-scale experiments for which the Home Office Experimental Station at Eskmeals was designed have been discontinued since the outbreak of the war, the laboratories have con- tinued to do good work under the direction of Dr. R. V. Wheeler, the chief chemist. In addition to Dr. Wheeler’s own researches on the initiation of flame and its propagation through gaseous mixtures, Mr. W. Payman, a member of his staff, has recently published in the Journal of the Chemical Society a series of papers on the propagation of flame in com- plex gaseous mixtures (vols, cxv, and cxvii.). Mr, Payman has determined the upper and lower “limits ”? of methane that will just propagate a flame along a horizontal glass tube 2-5 cm. in diameter when mixed with an atmosphere containing oxygen and nitrogen in which the oxygen varies from 13-7 to too per cent. He finds the speed of such flames 280 NATURE [APRIL 29, 1920 | almost identical, on the’ average 20 cm. per: sec., the. highest speed being measured when the oxygen was 21 per cent. as in air. The same speed was found for the ‘‘lower-limit’’ mixture of all the other paraffin vapours up to pentane when mixed with air. ‘The ‘‘lower-limit’’ speed of carbon monoxide is also the same, but with hydrogen and air the speed at the lower limit is much slower (10 cm. per sec.), probably on account of the small size of the flame, which does not nearly fill the tube, though it travels to the-end. ~Mr. Payman next measured the speed of the uniform rate of the hydrocarbons from methane to pentane (when added in different proportions to air) along the same horizontal glass tube. The fastest uniform rate for methane was given by the mixture containing 952 per cent. of methane, viz. 66:6 cm./sec. For propane, butane, and pentane the fastest rate was in each case ‘between 82 cm. and 83 cm. per sec. Then, by mixing together mixtures of the several paraffins which had the same speed, it was shown that all the mixtures had the same speed except just near the maximum or the extinction point, and this: gives us a simple means of calculating the values for any combination of paraffins in air. In a third paper the speeds of the uniform move- ment in mixtures of carbon monoxide and air are recorded. The rate increased as the amount of water- vapour rose, @.g. when a mixture in equal volumes was -Saturated with steam at 10° C. The rate was 60 cm./sec., and when saturated at 17° C. 79 ‘cm./sec. The mixture in equal volumes also gave the quickest speed at constant temperature, although the percentage for complete combustion is only 29-5 per cent. The uniform speeds for different mixtures of carbon monoxide with hydrogen and with methane were also determined and compared with the calculated speeds. | In the concluding paper Mr. Payman describes his experiments on the uniform rate of flame in mixtures of methane and of hydrogen with atmospheres richer in oxygen than ordinary air. When methane is mixed with puré oxygen the mixture which gives the fastest initial rate is the theoretical mixture for complete combustion with 33 per cent. of methane to 66 per cent. of oxygen; whereas in the propagation of the explosion-wave the fastest mixture is that in which the gases are in eaual volumes. Although the uniform movement of flame in the mixture containing 33 per cent. of methane is faster than that in a mixture con- taining more methane, the author’s photographs show that the explosion-wave is more quickly set up in the latter. The abrupt physical change in the mode of propagation seems to be accompanied by an abrupt change in the chemical reaction. These papers form an interesting contribution to our knowledge of the propagation of flame by ‘“con- duction.’’ . : : University and Educational Intelligence. EpDINBURGH.—His Majesty the King has graciously consénted to lay the foundation-stone of the University buildings on the new’ site of 115 acres at Craigmillar on the oécasion of the Royal visit to Edinburgh in July next. Acting on the recommendation of a special com- mittee gecently appointed to consider: the question of the German chair, the University Court has resolved that no person be appointed professor of German who is not of British nationality and British parentage, and that, in view of the special circumstances of the case, no appcintment to the chair be made at présent, but that the present lecturer be retained. ; Dr. G. L. Malcolm: Smith thas been appointed as NO. 2635, VOL. 105] “women. whole-time assistant: in clinical. medicine, and Mr. John Anderson as lecturer in logic and metaphysics. . Dr. Robert Kidston. has presented to the gcclog ‘he department a collection of Mesozoic fossil plants. — forestry department has received from the Director of. the Royal Scottish Museum, on loan, a collection of forestry exhibits, Officer of the Federated Malay States and the Chief Conservator of Forests, Dominion of Canada, prepared samples of commiercial woods peculiar to these countries, as Pror. H. College of South Wales, Cardiff, has been appointed to the principalship of Exeter University College in succession to Mr. A. W. Clayden, resigned. — : Novrice is given by the Royal College of Physicians of London that the next examination for the Charles Murchison scholarship in clinical medicine will be held. on Monday, June 14, and following days. The scholar- ship is of the value of twenty guineas, and tenable for one year.’ Intending candidates must send their names and other specified particulars by June 1 to the Registrar of the College, Pall Mall East, S.W.1. Wane At the request of the Ministry of Labour, and. with. the co-operation of the Rubber Growers’ Association, _ a six months’ course of training in the appropriate sciences has been arranged at Birkbeck College to enable ex-Service men to obtain the requisite know- ledge to fit them for positions on the great rubber and tea plantations. chemistry, botany, geology, entomology, and simple mechanics, with’ some knowledge of the care of machinery and book-keeping. eel Tue League of Nations Union is organising a summer school, to be held at Kempsey School, near Worcester, from Saturday, July 31, to Saturday, August. 7. The school is open. to both men and ingham Gate, S.W.1, by June 15. of the summer school is to train those likely to make efficient leaders of study circles. Pie Tue London County Council will shortly the appointment of. the principals of its first group of twenty-two compulsory day continuation schools to be established under the Education Act, 1918. These appointments will be the first of their kind in London, | and will be of more than ordinary interest. The type, of pupil to be dealt with is one that hitherto has, for the most part, failed to’ take advantage of educational ‘facilities after leaving the elementary schools. ~ The. Act makes great demands on the commercial and industrial world, and it will devolve on the principals. of these schools to cultivate close relations with busi- ness then ‘and: émployers, and to secure their cordial ‘co-opération. The success of this great new. experi- ment in national education depends in considerable “measure on the sympathy.and. assistance: of the busi- ness world: The’ position of-principal will require of its holder administrative ability, good scholastic attain: ments, and marked personality.’ that, of the individuals, but also of the’ community. The work should make a strong: appeal to’ those interested .- in the social welfare side of education. -Advertise- ments inviting applications for these positions are: now | appearing in the public Press, and forms of: applica-. and from the Forest Research - J. W. HETHERINGTON, of the University The course includes training in- Applications for admission, which will be considered in the order in ‘which they are. received, must reach the League of Nations Union, 22 Buck. The main object’ oceed to The outside-school activities will have to be fostered in every way, So. with ‘shorter hours’: of labour,- the increased. leisure may be utilised to the fullest. profit, not only: ts 7a) ee Se a Apri 29, 1920] NATURE 231 n can be obtained from the Education Officer (1/3), 2.C. Education Offices, Victoria .Embankment, ARQUESS OF CREWE, ‘chairman of 'the govern- of the Imperial College of Science and » Was. the ninth annual dinner of old students Royal ‘College of Science on Saturday last, 24. Sir Richard Gregory, president of the Old s’ Association, who occupied the chair, in osing the toast of the governing body, said that time had come for a national survey of the condi- s and requirements of university and higher cal education in’ this country, so that a com- msive view could be taken of the problem whole, existing deficiencies discovered, and e educational facilities provided in all areas. nperial College would take an important place national scheme which might result from such ‘vey. Lord Crewe, in responding to the toast, that the college’ was not content to be merely ol of any university, however distinguished. . there was in this country no precedent for a al university, there was, on the other hand, for a_ lation of eight millions, which was ation of Greater London, with but one uni- to serve all purposes. The problem of the ation of the University of London was quite in itself, without involving .the infinitely difficult task of trying to combine in some way activities of the University and of the Imperial lege in one entirely unprecedented unit. At any te, the governors of the Imperial College had made ‘up their minds that the problem had to be’ solved ‘in “ag igs assured their practical independence. Sir .. H. Bragg spoke of the increased interest, due le war, now taken in scientific studies, ting in oyerfilled laboratories in university institu- } and insufficient instructors: Mr: Herbért Wright 2 instances of purely scientific investigations at college which had proved of: great practical value, Prof. J. C. Philip referred to the steps being . i to old 2 ODU ents. H. E, Armstrong, proposing the t of ‘The Guests,’’ paid a tribute to the men of ience whose work contributed so largely to success _in the war; and Sir Richard Glazebrook; in’ respond- ing, referred particularly to the work of Mr. Bairstow, Dr. G. W. C. Kaye, and Mr. F. E. Smith, af students of the college, at the National Physical rete Bist ORE ‘ ak _ Societies and Academies. Ae Siig'¢ -* .- LONDON. - Bs} _. Linnean Society, April 15.—Dr, A. Smith Woodward, % hairy in the chair—Capt. F: Kingdon Ward: _ Natural history exploration on the north-east frontier of Burma.—R. Paulson: Stages in the sporulation of idia within the. thallus of the lichen, Evernia t og Ach. a ra ag ate raints time been generally accepted that the bright-green. spherical _ gonidium which is common to many Echense sean is _ referred to in the literature of the subject as Cysto- _ . eoceus, Protococcus, or Pleurococcus, multiplies vegeta- tively only, while it remains the algal constituent of the lichen thallus. Famintzin (1868), Baranetzkki Woronin - (1872), Bornet (1873), and Chodat 1913) state that the gonidia (Cystococcus?) of certain hens produce zoospores after being isolated from the gonidial layer and afterwards cultivated in, or on, different media. The author has not. been able to find that the gonidia of Evernia prunastri, and of twenty- NO. 2635, VOL. 105 | present, with other distinguished | ie ~- ‘and Kadus. _ become mutually » unintelligible. now almost extinct in this area, was once: the three other .species of lichens, representing. eleven genera, divide vegetatively within the thallus, but in all these ,cases the reproduction of gonidia was found to be the result of the successive bipartition of the original protoplast of the cell into four, eight, or six- teen separate masses, each of which rapidly develops a cell-wall of its own while within the casted gall These daughter gonidia (suppressed zoospores?) ulti- mately escape as the mother cell-wall becomes diffluent. They exhibit all the characteristics of the parent cell . before they .are set free. Royal Anthropological Institute, April 20.—Sir Everard im Thurn, president, in the chair.—R. Grant Browne : The races of the Chindwin, Upper Burma. The basin of the Chindwin, in the north-west: of Burma, is of exceptional interest to ethnologists on account of the medley of peoples inhabiting it—peoples distinguished from each other by their language and customs ‘rather than by their physical characteristics. They include Burmans, Shans, ‘TTamans, Chins, Nagas, Kachins, These..terms denote communities rather than races, for the inhabitants may change from. one group to another in the course.of a few years, The people of Maukkalauk, for instance, are now regarded _as Kachirs, ‘but have learnt Shan, and will, no doubt, ‘become "’ Shans like their neighbours, and eventually ‘ Burmans; but their -head-man says they left Assam, -where they wore white clothes: and spoke some lan- guage, of which they, have forgotten.even. the: name, when ‘his father -was..a boy. .In.,contrast to this ‘process. of assimilation’ there’ are »mountain_,tribes living -a’ few. miles apart from -each other . whose dialects have been differentiated: until. they have The more. civilised communities owe their language and-customs. toa succession of dominant races. ‘The . Burmese. came last.. Before them were the Shans, and before, these probably the Kadus. There are signs. that, Kadu, prevail- ing language of the riverine tracts. : “y _. Royal Meteorological Society, April -21.—Mr. R. H. Hooker, president, in the chair.—Royal . Observatory, Greenwich; A. night sky recorder.. The object of the instrument is to supplement the daily sunshine record in so far as it- gives an indication of the, amount. of cloud.. The instrument consists of a small.camera in a fixed position -pointing to the pole of the. heavens. The lens is.a single component of.a doublet of 8-in. focal. length and o:4-in. aperture, working at f/20. It is found that the aperture,. in conjunction with plates of ‘‘ordinary’’.speed, will give a oe record even at. full moon. Measurements are made by means of a .photographic .scale.—Lieut. N. L, Silvester : Local weather conditions at. Mullion, Cornwall.. The auilior gave a. detailed analysis. of, the local meteoro- logical elements in the order of their impartance rela- tive to airship navigation, but remarked, that the period under review (approximately one, year) was too short to deduce much information of climatological | value, though during most of this period the observa- tions were as full and as frequent as the changes of the Service in war-time would permit. . Ratios of gradient to surface wind had. been .computed and analysed, from the results of .more than 400, pilot- balloon ascents by the one-theodolite method, There was evidence of the marked friction and turbulence affecting the wind near the surface in the vicinity of large buildings, such as airship-sheds, Much useful information relating to the local occurrence of fogs and of unusual visibility had been tabulated; whilst another feature was the collection in tabular form of local signs of approaching bad weather, which should prove of value to the local forecaster.—J. E. Clark : The Surrey hailstorm of July 16, 1018. This. storm differed from other similar British visitations by the 282 NATURE [Apri 29, 1920 fortunate absence of much wind and by coming after midnight. The track of serious damage rarely ex- ceeded 3 mile in width and was 16} miles long, the hail beginning at 1.55 a.m. west of Holmwood Station and ending near North Bromley Station, twenty-two miles to the north-east, at about 2.30 a.m. (true time). EDINBURGH. Royal Society, March 15.—Prof. F. O. Bower, ' president, in. the chair.—Capt. T. Bedford Franklin ; The effect of weather changes on soil temperatures. In comparison with the variations of surface tem- ‘perature, the regular pulsations of temperature in the soil follow well-known laws for amplitude and retardation according to depth, but in these regular pulsations there are fluctuations which occur according to the weather and the state ‘of the soil. If the ratio of the ranges of tem- ‘perature at the 4-in. depth and the surface be taken as the standard for measuring the heat transfer “in the soil, it is found that in a light loam soil this range-ratio varies between o-19 and 0-42 when active percolation is not taking place in the soil, and between 0-42 and o-85 when rain is actually falling or during ‘ those long-period weather changes associated with the passage of depressions north of these islands, whether rain falls or not. Heat transfer in soil is thus carried out by. both conduction and percolation, and a sandy - soil that allows free percolation, with consequent high values of the range-ratio, will heat up quicker in spring than a clay soil which takes up and parts with water only sluggishly. Apart from percolation, the , high values of the range-ratio in the south-westerly cyclonic. type of weather are particularly valuable in causing rapid rises of soil temperature in spring. A surface layer of frozen soil protects the lower depths ‘from rapid changes of temperature; an average sur- ‘face temperature of —10° C.: would be necessary to freeze ordinary soil to a depth of 4 in. in one night. Snow is an even more efficient protection; in Novem- ber, 1919, the air temperature above 4 in. of snow fell to —15° C. without freezing the soil surface or caus- ing any appreciable fluctuation in the temperature 4 in, beneath the surface of the soil_—D. Ferguson : Geological observations in the South Shetlands, the Palmer Archipelago, and the Danco coast, Graham- ‘land.—G. W. Tyrrell: A contribution to the petro- graphy of the South Shetlands, the Palmer Archi- pelago, and the Danco coast, Grahamland.—H. H. Thomas: Petrographical notes on rocks from Decep- tion Island and Roberts Island (South Shetlands), the Danco coast, and adjacent islands, Grahamland. These papers contained a great many new facts re- garding the geology and petrography of the rocks in the islands named lying tothe south of South America. In a broad sense, the geological arrangement might be described as a mirror reflection of the arrangement -on the South American coast, and it was probable that the two sets of strata were connected by an arc passing east, and then bending round to the south and to the west, but there was no evidence in support of Suess’s theory that this arc extended far to the east so as to include the South Georgian group.—Miss C. W. N. Sherriff: A class of graduation formule.— Prof. L, Becker: The daily temperature curve. In this paper the author. developed a new mathematical method of treating the variation of temperature, and illustrated it by a discussion of a forty years’ photo- graphic record of temperature in Glasgow. DUBLIN. Royal Dublin Society, March 23.—Dr. F. E. Hackett in the chair.—Prof. James Wilson: The application of the food-unit system to the fattening of sheep. A NO. 2635, VOL. 105 | six food units. summary of experiments in fattening sheep was pub- lished by Mr. Herbert Ingle in the Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland for Ig10 and 1911. From this it is evident that the sheep differs from the bullock by being better able to con- sume roots, and, therefore, less dependent upon hay and straw. The sheep is also considerably more econo- mical as a producer of human food; for, while the well-fed bullock of average size—say 9 cwt.—needs from six to seven food units to produce a pound of beef—a food unit is the quantity of any other food which would have the same producing capacity as a pound of barley—a well-fed sheep of average size— say 120 lb.—produces a pound of mutton on five to Royal Irish Academy, April 12,—Mr. W. G, Strick- land, vice-president, in the chair.—E, Heron-Allen and A. Earland; An experimental study of the Foramini- feral species Verneuilina polystropha, Reuss, and some others, being a contribution to a discussion on “ The Origin, Evolution, and Transmission of Biological Characters.’’ In this paper the authors describe normal and monstrous forms of Verneuilina poly- stropha. The species exhibits characteristic di- morphism in a long, tapering test which is megalo- spheric, and a short test which is microspheric, but in the dwarf variety, pusilla, the tapering test is microspheric. Observations on the selection by Ver- neuilina of fragments of heavy minerals, by mixin crushed gemis with the sand in the experimenta tanks with which the authors worked, are described. Variation in the shells of Massilina secans is also described ity detail, one of the most remarkable ‘“monsters’’ being a perfectly twinned specimen which had added a curved tube at the junction of the shells to form a common aperture; the whole of this abnormal shell was chitinous. In another case a shell was entirely chitinous except the terminal chamber, c~ "TARO oe which was perfectly arid normally calcareous. Further instances of shells combining the characters of two distinct genera—such as have been recorded in former — apers by these authors—are given, and the opinion is expressed that the accepted systems of classification of the Foraminifera, founded as they are on the shape and material of the test, must be regarded as largely artificial and unscientific. oat Paris. e - Academy of Sciences, March 29.—M. Henri Deslandres in the chair.—G. Bigourdan: The observatory of J. S. Bailly at the Louvre.—Prince Albert de Monaco: Stray mines in the North Atlantic. A chart is given showing the positions of sixty-eight mines located between November 7, 1918, and February 9, 1920. The predictions by the author in two earlier com- munications have been fully confirmed.—A, Rateau : Some considerations on flight at very high altitudes and on the use of a turbo-compressor. An adverse criticism of a recent communication on the same sub-. ject by M. Villey.—P. Vuillemin: The growth of fungi discovered in the human nail by Louis Jannin.— G. Julia: Families of functions of several variables.— H. Mineur: Discontinuous solutions of a class of functional equations.—B. de Fontviolant ; The strength of circular arches.—F. Kromm: A star with a large proper motion. The star B.D.+9-2636°, 9:1 magni- tude, has an annual proper motion of nearly a second of arc.—G. Sagnac: Newtonian light radiation and the zones of silence in damped wireless telegraphy signals.—M. Pauthenier: The ratio of the absolute retardations in Kerr’s phenomenon.—M. Lemarchands ; Study of the reactions of the metallurgy of zine. APRIL 29, 1920] NATURE 283 ane oxide is reduced by carbon in absence of oxygen atmosphere of nitrogen) ‘at temperatures between 9” C. and 1100° C. The amounts of carbon used in reduction of zinc oxide in ordinary metallurgical ce are excessive.—P, Nicolardot, A. Réglade, and : The volumetric estimation of manganese. of the errors of Knorr’s method.—F. Gros : ements relating to the commercial production es of nitrogen in arc furnaces. The improve- described are the use of dried gases, increasing ount of oxygen to 50 per cent., and the replace- the alkaline absorption towers by a physical , the — of the nitrogen peroxide by The latter can be readily converted into > acid of any strength.—A. Mailhe: A new method nation of nitriles by catalysis. Methyl benzoate ethylamine, passed over alumina heated to 480° i a gave benzonitrile. Paratoluic nitrile, isoamyl _and isobutyonitrile were prepared in a similar er.—L,. Joleaud: The presence of a Tomistoma = fresh-water Pliocene of Ethiopia.—F. Baldet : diurnal variation of the atmospheric, potential at giers Observatory. A discussion of five years’ ations. The diurnal variation is represented by ble oscillation having a constant minimum about and a maximum variable with the season. bservations confirm the law of M. Chauveau.— », Girard and V. Morax: Liquid exchanges by. elec- cal osmosis through living tissues.—J. Chaine: The n of the paramastoid apophysis and of the tem- ‘al in mammals.—A, Krempf: The oro-aboral meta- risation of the larva of Pocillopora cespitosa and Seri ra subulata. ril -6.—M. mores Lemoine © i the Py ord undos: Increasing functions and entire functions. P. Humbert: A new application of the function kum (x, y)—L. E. Z. Brouwer: Enumeration of classes of transformations of the projective plane. \ : Extension of conservative systems and alisation of a theorem of M. Painlevé.—Ch. femont: Cause of the undulatory wear of rails.— |. Lecornu: Observations on the preceding com- _ munication.—J. Villey and A, Volmerange: Hovering (a fee by a horizontal wind of invariable direction and velocity.—M. Girousse: The distribution in the soil of _ currents from electric traction lines.—P. Job and G. _ Urbain: The detection of masked sulphuric ions in _ complex compounds. The benzidine method of esti- _™mating sulphate ions is shown experimentally to iy } eins vantages over the barium method. _ Examples are given of analyses of cobaltammine sul- _ phates.—Ch. Boulin and L. J. Simon: The action of _ water on dichloroethyl sulphide. Using an excess of _ water at its boiling point, dichloroethyl sulphide can _ be completely decomposed, giving hydrochloric acid __and thiodiglycol; the reaction is reversible.—P, Fallot : _ An extension of the phenomena of drift in the Sierra _ of Majorca.—G. Dubois: The Quaternary fauna of ‘the base of the Ergeron at _actinometers of Arago and Bellani. Details of the _ precautions necessary in the accurate use of these _ two instruments.—A. Piutti: The action of chloro- _ picrin on the parasites of wheat and on rats. Large- _ scale experiments have proved the efficacy of chloro- 4 pers in destroying wheat parasites, and it has also _ been demonstrated that the treated wheat is inoffensive _ and preserves its nutritive power. Chloropicrin has also successfully employed in the destruction of rats in ships.—V. Galippe: Researches on the resist- ance of the microzymas to the action of time and their _ survival in amber.—G. Bertrand: The action of chloro- vicrin upon the higher plants. Under suitable condi- ons it is possible to use chloropicrin to free a plant om all its leaf parasites without killing the plant. NO. 2635, VOL. 105 | Cambrai.—L. Besson: The — RoME. Accademia dei Lincei, February 1.—A, Roiti, vice. president, in the chair.—G. Fubini: Affine differential invariants of a surface.—Q. Majorana: Gravitation. This is the seventh note on the author’s experimental attempts to detect the screening off of gravitation by massive sheets of matter (see Nature for April 22, P- 251). The whole note is devoted to the search after, and the discussion of, “causes of error” or disturbing effects. These troublesome effects are now all estimated numerically, but, notwithstanding this, the author closes the present note, postponing the com- putation of the corrected value of the effect sought for to the next (viii.) note-—V. Amato: Kronecker’s method for the decomposition of an integral rational function in an amplifield field of rationality.—P. Scatizzi: Abelian differential equations reducible to uadratures.—L, Tonelli: Primitive functions (ii.).— lara di Capua: Investigations on alloys of Au and Si.—C. Gorini: A microbiological investigation of the behaviour of Bacterium coli in mitk. L. SILBERSTEIN. Books Received. Life of Lord Kitchener. By Sir George Arthur. 3 vols. Vol. i., pp. xxvi+326; vol..ii., pp. xi+346; vol. iii., pp. xit+413. (London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd.) 21. 12s. 6d. net ' Grain and Chaff from an English Manor. | A. Ae Savory. Pp. viiit+311. (Oxford: B. Blackwell.) 21s. net. The Works of Aristotle. Translated into English. Economica. By E. S. Forster. Atheniensium Res- publica. By Sir Frederic G. Kenyon. Unpaged. (Oxford: At the Clarendon Press.) ‘5s. net. The Geography of Plants. By Dr. M. E, Hardy. Pp. xii+327. (Oxford: At the Clarendon Press.) 7s..6d. net. © ; The Ways of Life: A Study in Ethics. By S. Ward. (London: Oxford University Press.) 6s. 6d. net. Tungsten Ores. By R. H. Rastall and W..H. Wilcockson. Pp. ix+81. (London: John Murray.) 3s. 6d. net. Microscopy : of the Microscope. By E. J. Spitta. Pp. xxvilit+537+xxviii plates. (London : Murray.) 25s. net. College Text-book of Chemistry. By W. A. Noyes. Pp. viiit+370. (New York: H. Holt and Co.) The Construction, Theory, and Use Third edition. John Diary of Societies. THURSDAY, APRIL 20. OPHTHALMOL1GICAL SOCIETY OF THE UNITED KinGpom (at Royal Society of Medicine), at 10 a.m.—J. B. Story: Presidential Address.—C. H. Usher: Enlarged Cornez in Goldfish.—E, Treacher Collins: Megalo- cornea and Micro-cornea,—J. Rowan: Are not some Cases of Glaucoma Better Treated without Operation, and, if so, what are the Indications ?— A. Zorab: Later Notes on Aqueoplasty.—T. Harrison Butler: Notes on Infection after Operations for Cataract.—G. H. Pooley: Abnormalities of the Lacrymal Apparatus and their Treatment.—G. Harvey. Goldsmith : A Case of Double-Traumatic Dislocation of the Lens.—G. F. Alexander : (rt) A Position of the Head Favourable to the Operation for Cataract ; a An Operation for Advancement in Strabismus. Royar Institution oF Great Britatn, at 3.—R. Campbell Thompson : The Origins of the Dwellers in Mesopotamia. rie Rovat. Sociery, at 4.30.—Prof. J.’ W. Gregory: The Irish’ Eskers,—' Miss K. M. Curtis: The Life-History and Cytology of Synchytrium endoboticum (Schilb ) Perc., the Cause of Wart Disease in Potato.— B. Sahni: The Structure and Affinities of Acmofpyle pancheri, Pilger. ZooLocicat Society or Lonvon, at 4.30.—Annual General Meeting. CuemicaL Society, at 5.—Extraordinary General Meeting to consider the Alterations in the By-laws proposed by the Council. } Cuit.p-Stuby Society (at Royal Sanitary Institute), at 6.—Sir A. E. Shipley : Biting Insects and Children. ees iG ‘ INSTITUTION OF ELecTRICAL ENGINEERS (at Institution of Civil Engineers), at 6.—A E. McColl: Automatic Protective Devices for Alternating Current Systems. i } Opricat Society (at Imperial College of Science and Tec hnology), at 7.30 —Dr. C. E. Kenneth Mees: ‘The Reaction of the Eye to Light. 284 NATURE FRIDAY, Apri 30. OPHTHALMOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF THE UNITED KinGnom (at Royal Society of Medicine), at 1oa.m:—Sir Archibald Garrod, R. Foster Moore, and Others: Discussion on Diabetes in Relation to Diseases of the Eye.—At 8.— H. M. Traquair: Anatomically Separate Anterior Commissure at the Chiasma in a Case of Pituitary Tumour with Acromegaly.—Dr. er Holmes: Tumours Involving the Optic Nerves and Chiasma.—M. Hine: Primary Epithelioma of the Ciliary Body.—E. Clarke: A Parise Note on the Accommodation of the Eye.—H. Neame: Cysts of the Retina.—W. Wallace: A Glyptic Method for Representing Certain Con- ditions of the Fundus in Disease. —A. W. Stirling: A Case of Melanoma of the Iris. ‘WirELtSs Society oF LonpDon. ‘(at Institution of Civil Engineers), at 6. — Major B. Binyon: A Wireless ‘‘ Call ” Device. INSTITUTION OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERS (Students Meeting) (at Faraday House), at 7.—J. E. Holmstrom: Tidal P, INSTITUTION OF MECHANICAL Eilchvenes Carona Meeting), at 7.— Bale and Others: Discussion on Suggested Means of Improving and Increasing the Services of the Institution to Members. Rovat -InstiruTION OF Great Briain, at 9.—Prof. F. O. Bower: The Earliest-known Land Flora. SATURDAY, May «. OPuTHALMOLOGICAL ‘SOCIETY OF THE UNITED KriNnGpoo (at St. Margaret’ s ‘Hospital, Leighton Road, Kentish Town), at 10 a.m.—Dr. G. Fitzgibbon, ‘ ayou, and Others: Discussion on the Prevention and Treatment of Ophthalmia Neonatorum. RovAL InstiruUTIon oF GREAT BRITAIN, at 3.—Dr. F. Chamberlin: The Private Character of Queen Elizabeth.—At 5.—Annual Meeting. MONDAY, May 3. Rovyat InstTi1tuTION oF GREAT Britain (General Meeting), at 5. SURVEYORS’ INSTITUTION (Junior Meeting) (Annual General Meeting), at 7. ova. INsTITUTE OF BriTisH ARCHITECTS (Annual General Meeting), at.8,) Rovat SocieTy oF Arts, at 8.—A. T. Bolton: The Decoration and Architecture-of Robert. Adam and Sir John Sloane, 1758-1837 (Cantor Lecture). Society or CHEMICAL InpusTRY (at Chemical Society) (Annual Meeting). at .8. Roevat. GkoGrapHicat Society (at Aolian Hall), at 8.30. < ne Philby 3 Across Arabia : from the Persian Gulf to the RARE TUESDAY, May 4. Rovyav Instirution or Great Britain, at 3.—Prof. A. Keith: British Ethnology: The Invaders of England. Rovat Socigty or MeEp cINE (Orthopedics: -Annital Gerleral Meeting. Roya. PHotocrapuic Society oF -GRRatT Brivatn (Technical . Meeting), at-7.—Dr. C. E. ‘Kenneth | Mees and L. A. Jones: The Theory of Tone Reproduction. R6NTGEN Society (at Medical Society of L. ondon), at 8.15.—Prof. S: Russ : Some Problems in the Action of Radiation upon Tissues.—Prof. A, O. Rankine;, The Transmission of Speech. by Light.—Dr. H. A. _ Eecles : : New Portable Viewing Lantern (Demonstrations). WEDNESDAY, May 5s. Roya. Socigry or ArTSat 4.30.— Dr. C. E. Kenneth Mees : ‘Research Laboratory. GrotocicaL Society or Lonpon, at 5.30.—S. Hazz'edine Warren: A Natural ‘‘ Eolith’’ Factory beneath the Thanet >and. ° KRoyat Sociery or MeEpicingE (Surgery Section), ‘at 5.30.—Annual General Meeting. Society oF Pusptic ANALYSTS AND OTHER ANALYTICAL CHEMISTS (at Chemic:1 Society), at 8.—C. A. Mitchell: Estimation of the Ageof Ink in Writing.—E. R. Dovey: The Estimation of Chinese Crude Camphor.— H. D. Richmond and L..R. Ellison: Studies in- Steam. Distillation, Part VIL.: The Volatility of Isomers. InstiruTION OF AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERS (at Institution of Mechanical Engineers), at 8.—Major B. H. Thomas: The Electro-Deposition of Iron ,as applied to Motor Vehicle Repair Work. THURSDAY, May 6. iron AND STEEL INsTITUTE (at Institution of Civil Engineers) (General Meeting), at ro am.—Dr J. E. Stead: Inaugural Address.— Lewis: Iron Portland Cement.—At 2.30.—F, Clements: British Blast- Furnace Practice. —H. E. Wright: Chemical and Thermal Cond tions in Blast-Furnace Practice.—C. H. Ridsdale : Iron-making Material.—J; A. Heskett: Jron Ore in New Zealand. . Roya. Society:or MeEpicine (Obstetrics and Gynaecology Section, con- jointly with the North of England and Micland Obstetrical and Gyne- cological Societies), at 10.30 a.m.— Dr. H. Tweedy and Others: Discussion on The Treatment of Antepartum Hemorrhage. —At 2.—Dr, E. Holland and Others: Discu-sion on Rupture of Czesarean Section Scarin Subse- quent Pregnancy or Labour. Rova Institution OF GREAT BRITAIN, at 3.—R. Campbell Thompson : The Legends of the Babylonians. RovaL Society, at 4.30:—Probable Papers: R. H. Fowler, F. C. Gallop, €.N. Hi Lock, ani H. W. Richmond: The Aerodynamics of a Spinning Shell.—Prof. W..-E. Dalby: Researches on the Elastic Properties and the Plastic Extension of Metals.—C.. T. ilson : Investigations on ‘Lightning Discharges and on the Electric. Field of Thunderstorms, — L. F. Richardson: ‘lhe Supply of Energy to Atmospheric Eddies. LinNEAN Socrtety OF Lonpon, at 5.—Dr. G. P. Bidder: Notes on the Physiology of Sponges. Pandorina soongiarum, a New Species of Alga found in a Sponge.—E. J. Bedford : The British Marsh Orchids and their Varieties, Illustrated by Coloured Drawings and Lantern Slides. Cuemicat. Society, at 8.—G. M. Bennett: The Mustard Gas Problem.— C. K. Ingold: (A New Methol of Preparing Muconic Acid.—J. W. Cook and O. L. Brady: The Dinitration of 2-Acetotoluidide.—yY. Venkataramayya and M. V. Narasimhaswamy: A ew Ozoniser.— G. T. Morgah and H. D. K. Drew: Orthochlorodinitrotoluenes. Part I. NO. 2635, VOL. 105 | Sub-Section), at 5.— A Photographic The Valuation of Ores and The Utilisation of Titaniferous en [APRIL 29, 1920 FRIDAY, May 7. «he IRON AND STEEL alge (at Institution of Civil’Engineers) (General Three — Meeting), at ro a.m.— Ablett :. Direct Current Nar iy wes with Phase Current for Driving: Steel Works Plant.—J. F. Wilson: Notes Slag Conditions i in Open-hearth Basic S'eelmaking Practice.—B. and G. A. Wood: The Reduction of Silicon from the Slag in the Acid Open-hearth Crave —At 2.30. a E. Hughes: Some Defects in Electro- deposited Iron.—T. Baker and I. R. Russell: Note on the Ball Test.— ~ J. H.Whiteley: The Distribution ‘of Phosphorus in Steel between Points: Act and Ac3.—G. F. Preston: Practical Notes on the Desiga and - Treatment of Steel Castings. Royvart Society or Mepicine (Laryngology Section), at 4-~Annual General Meeting. Roya: AsrronomicaL Soctgety. (Geophysical Discussion), at 5-—Prof. R, A. Sampson and Others :.The Use of Wireless Telegraphy i in the Deter- mi mination of Longitude, Royat INstTiTuTION oF GREAT BRITAIN, at 9. —Lord a Rayleigh The { Blue Sky and the Optical Properties,of Air. SATUR DAY, May 8. See Roya InsriruTion.oF GREAT.BRITAIN, at 3.—Dr. KF Chambesins The Private Character of Queen Elizabeth. —Dr. E. W. : Conditions. — BritisH PsycwoLoGicaL SOCIETY (at Bedford College), at 3. Scripture: Speech Inscriptions in Normal and Abnor. . Klein : Camouflage in Land weer ’ ; re Se CONTENTS. PAGE | The ‘Chemical Industries of German Rhineland =y 41253. Man; Past and Present... By Prof. G. Elliot Smith, | F.R.S. ereeir er ae Critical Mathematics. By G. BL ‘M. pear The Proteins. . : Science and Engineering. By w: c. U. Health and the Teacher ; ; 2x, ea Our Bookshelf .. . ry) a Ta eves Letters to the’ Editor:— , Theories of Atomic” Structure. 2; lege Langmuir “261. Decimal Coinage. —Harry Allcotk-» \...:4/.5m genes be: International Council for Feb Lovestigalionienn yo . The Plumage ‘Bill ‘aud Bird Protection. Prof, RS tee . Duerden .. ey . The Standard of Atomic. Weights. Prof, ve ® Partington (264. Mortlakes as a Cause of River-windings. ‘(With Dizyrim.)—T. 8. Ellis" “DEA 264 - Eiffel Tower Wireless _Time- signals, Prof. RL tAans Sampson, F.R.S. . . 2 on R65 Some Tests of the 100-in. Hooker Pelcaomout (LMlus+* trated.) By Dr. George E, Hale, For.Mem.R.S;, a Artillery Science. By Sir George Greenhill, F. RS, 26 Obituary :— Dr. Rudolph Messel, F.R.S.. By H. ae Prof, A. K. Huntington... . via Dr, A, J. Chalmers . Prof. L. T. O’Shea. By A. Mew. Notes ‘ : Our Astronomical Column :— aa Eclipse of the Moon Sg oak er Mars and Wireless Signals . . . 2. se. The April Meteor Shower ¥ Heee van Nee The Wasting of Stellar Substance.» wisltiodee a Map-making in India, By T. H, H. .. . : wafer Melanism in British Lepidoptera... : University, Developments at Manchester . Courses on the History of Science. Marine Biological Structures and Functions . 279. The Propagation of Flame in Gaseous Mixtures 279 University and Educational pany. . Se eae Societies and Academies. .... | BN a a ee 8 Books Recéived 3..°. Gi vei 44) Oa Diary of Societies .... 2 ee een Editorial and Publishing Offices: i MACMILLAN AND CO., Ltp., ST. MARTIN’S STREET, LOnROM W.C.2. Advertisements and business letters to -be addecssed od the. Publishers. Editorial Cantentumaries: to the Edttor. ; Telegraphic Address: Puusis, LONDON. ioe 133 Telephone Number: GERRARD 8839. ae ee * peer, Abad WF eiaty NATURE 285 THURSDAY, MAY 6, 1920. _ The Cost of Scientific Publications. YE have had before us recently the annual ¥ reports of the councils of a number of scien- > societies, and it is evident from all of them the burden of the cost of publications of se societies has become so heavy that it cannot borne any longer without additional support. great increase in printers’ charges, and the igh cost of paper, make the expenses of publica- so considerable that the slender funds at the posal of most scientific societies, particularly st > devoted to subjects having no direct asso- yn with profitable industry, will often not mit the substantial expenditure now required the printing and distribution of papers pre- ented at meetings. Few scientific societies have ty other source of income than that provided cier tly harassed by the problem of their private otis with salaries little above the pre-war and ‘telatively far below it on account of the tise i in prices, that increased subscriptions ‘ethical level than that occupied by members 7 profession. The first object of their 3] y Eset her secrets. Nothing must be cag from the narrative of the discoverer, out into the same fields to secure like riches for ota Rieesting: the results ef his labour to the > al race without receiving any personal pay- | = ‘ment for it, the science worker occupies a unique position. Genius in art, or literature, or music _ may sometimes be neglected, but usually it secures generous reward, and its products have always a marketable Gale bint or low—whereas Scientific discovery rarely brings direct gain to the _ ~ genius who makes it. Plutocrats will pay high prices for the pictures they want, and popular : NO. 2626. VoL. 105] call ie gih, may enjoy them and be able to go | authors and Piel composers may amass. riches from royalties on their works; but the science worker is deprived of any such rewards for his discoveries, though all the world may benefit by them. Not only does he bring his rich argosies into port, but he also describes his. cargoes fully, and himself pays for the publication of the cata- logue of gifts which he is prepared to bestow freely upon all who care to receive them. Such pure altruism is almost inconceivable to the ordinary business mind, yet it represents the common standard of scientific endeavour and achievement. Altered circumstances, however, make it necessary to reconsider this position, and we urge that it is time the community, through its rich citizens or the Government, provided reasonable contributions towards the expenses of publications which bring honour to them as well as add to the sum of human knowledge. There is, indeed, no more difficult problem before our learned societies at the present time than that of the maintenance of their scientific publications. With a limited circulation which cannot be increased by the ordinary methods of enterprising journalism, the additional cost of production can be met only by a higher subscrip- tion. The societies which provide a library of their special subject already find most of their normal income absorbed by the increased estab- lishment charges. As we have said, a very large proportion of the members of these societies are professional men whose incomes have not risen in proportion to the prices of the ordinary com- modities.of life. Any additional subscription to provide for an adequate record of thé societies’ activities under present conditions thus proves to be a hardship, sometimes an impossibility. It may perhaps be admitted that, in the past, scientific publications have sometimes been pro- duced in a rather extravagant style. Some societies have never completely emancipated them- selves from this idea, and although a large format may sometimes be needed both for drawings of natural history and engineering, and for extensive mathematical formule, there has been less strict regard to such necessities than should have been exercised. Moreoyer, during the years before the war, with cheap printing, there was an increasing tendency in some departments of science to pour forth the undigested contents of notebooks rather than carefully considered results. _ After all reasonable reform and economy, how- ever, it still remains impossible to continue the s@sial publications of science with the means that Ti 286 NATURE [May 6, 1920 have hitherto been at its disposal. arises, therefore, whether help from some public source may not reasonably be expected. There is doubtless a very general popular feeling that ordinary scientific research is as much a recreative amusement to its devotees as are games and sport to the majority, and that those who indulge their whims should bear the additional cost like any other section of the community. But it must not be forgotten that there are various degrees of games and sports suited to the several means of those who pursue them, whereas ability and inclination to make and record scientific dis- coveries are in no way proportional to the resources of those who possess them. It must also be emphatically maintained that there is no basis for such a comparison. Science is undoubt- edly an absorbing source of gratification to those who study its problems; but even the most abstract research, however far removed from the . affairs of everyday life, is an asset of which no man can estimate the value. In some directions the public has already become accustomed to the scientific spirit. It has begun, for example, to understand the value of pre- ventive medicine. It no longer reserves its grati- tude for those who discover remedies for disease; it realises the still greater importance of the work of those who try to learn the origin of disease and the influence of the environment upon the exciting cause. It should now be led to understand its debt to those who make advances in this and other branches of purely scientific work. The germs of all material progress and comfort are contained in our scientific serials and the publica- tions of our scientific societies, and to allow a limitation of their scope is a hindrance to the public welfare. The Government has already aided a few of the older and more important societies with a partial or complete grant of premises, and it entrusts an annual sum of money, given in the Estimates of 1920-21 as 11,000l., to the Royal Society, to be distributed for scientific investigations by a committee appointed for that purpose, as well as roool, annually towards the cost of scientific pub- lications. It has also established the important Department of Scientific and Industrial Research. We would now urge that a further step should be taken, and some direct endowment provided for those purely scientific publications which have for sO many years been maintained by voluntary effort, both to the honour of the country and to the welfare of mankind. NO. 2626. vot. toc] The question Useful Physiology: Physiology and National Needs. Edited by Prof. W. D. Halliburton. Pp. vii+ 162. Constable and Co., Ltd., 1919.) Price 8s. 6d. net. ROF. HALLIBURTON and his fellow-lec- turers have made out a good case for physiology having done its bit in the great war. The editor leads off with an account of the activi- ties of the Royal Society and other committees in food control in general, and gives more particular details of the inquiries made in his own laboratory on the value of margarines and fatty acids. Vita- mines occupy the whole of Prof. Hopkins’ s dis- course, and Prof. Harden returns to them again with a summary of the work done on scurvy at the Lister Institute. But Prof. Harden is surely in error in saying that Lind held that scurvy was caused by abstinence from fresh vegetable food. That astute observer knew 150 years ago that scurvy could be cured by fresh vegetables, but he thought it, was caused by living in confined, damp quarters, arguing that no one would say that ague was caused by abstinence from bark because it could be cured by giving bark. Prof. Paton’s essay on physiology in the study of disease is much less satisfactory. He is under a complete misapprehension of the aim and objects of medicine—a mistake shared in part by Prof. Halliburton—and medical men who read his solemn castigation of their empirical methods may not unreasonably retort that his discovery. that tetany is due to the liberation of guanidin, controlled ‘‘‘somehow ”’ by the parathyroids, has left medicine just about where it was. Prof. Paton seems to think that the object and business of medicine is to study disease. medicine in reality is to prevent people feeling ill, and to make those who do feel ill feel better, and its success is to be measured by the product of the degree of betterment and its duration. ‘* What the physician has to find out in every ‘case,’’ he says, ‘‘ is simply what has gone wrong, and why it has gone wrong, before he attempts to put it right.’’ So that if I have a headache and send for my physician, he is to engage with the hitherto insoluble problem of the nature and cause of the common megrinous headache (which is one of the great causes of human inefficiency, and no trivial matter) and solve it before he cures me by exhibiting 10 grains of aspirin: it might be good physiology, but it would be thoroughly bad medicine. The ‘‘ practical man’’ is of course very wicked from our point of view, but. he has ~ been belaboured pretty freely these last few years; and, after all, he does a lot of practical good in (London : The object of a — eos a ae ane ae mee May 6, 1920] ‘NATURE 287 his blundering way. Gerris, as Mr. Belloc says, ould sink if he stopped to meditate about the sur- ce film, and he might get no nearer the truth n Prof. Paton does when he affirms that phos- ne yields chlorine in the lungs. Knowledge 9s practice truly enough, but to ask that prac- shall stand still while a particular sort of itolerant knowledge gropes to a rationale will neet no national need whatever. of. Dendy’s interesting account of the ravages eevils in stored grain and the means of pre- ‘ing them tells, on the other hand, an excellent it up in air-tight receptacles in which the meta- of the seeds soon replaced most of the < is ty of experiments that air-tight storage is the practical method which is wanted: which appears to have been known from time immemorial and - is expressed in the habit of Indians, Maltese, and _ others in storing their harvested grain closely in _ covered underground pits in face of the opinion at it was ‘‘ absurd to hold that weevils require free play of air or that free access of air is urable to their existence,’ given by the ento- sgical expert—doubtless a mere morpho- _ Natural man, indeed, as Dr. Pembrey argues s breezy plea for the wild life, is apt to go t: “A sturdy growth of children is not to be ined by the intelligent selection of the quality quantity of their diet, but by the natural pro- of muscular activity in the open air, the tite with its likes and dislikes acting as the : in questions of food ’’ (p. 158), which is not 2 what the editor seems to say (p. 23). But le discrepancy is only on the surface: Sussex is Ze Marylebone Road, and it is when civilisa- 1 interferes that trouble comes. Western re- én =a ents in rice polishing gave the East beri- . ” be a world trade in wheat gave the weevils chance; mean and restricted lives brought ib physical exercises instead of games. The truly iological procedure, says Dr. Pembrey, is to t people where they can live a natural life by mulated experience and to let them live it. Bread and cheese ’’ off the hedges is an older ‘remedy than orange juice, and even scientific nion has been taught by Prof. Leonard Hill t there is something to be said for our primi- ive open fires. | _ The book as a whole is extraordinarily interest- ing from many different aspects, as much perhaps _ for the questions it asks as for those it answers. - = ~ NO. 2636, VoL. 105] > ** Physiology ’’ is conceived in no narrow spirit; it is hygiene, pathology, bacteriology, and phar- macology, as well as itself. And in this generous field everyone will find a good many things worth thinking about. A. EF. B. Service Chemistry. Service Chemistry: Being a Short Manual of Chemistry and Metallurgy and their Applica- tion in the Naval and Military Services. By the late Prof. Vivian B. Lewes and Prof. J. S. S. Brame. Fifth edition. Pp. xvi+576+ vii plates. (London: Edward Arnold, 1920.) Price 21s. net. HE late Prof. Vivian Lewes, of the Royal Naval College, Greenwich, an _ excellent teacher and an admirable lecturer, conferred a great benefit on the Service of which he was a member by the compilation of this manual. In the early days of the history of the college, the relation and importance of physical science to the business of the naval officer were but dimly appre- ciated by the authorities at Whitehall, and the scheme of instruction at Greenwich went but little beyond the standard of a public school which sought to develop its modern side. Prof. Debus, the first professor of chemistry, although a sound and remarkably well-informed chemist, carried with him to the college merely the traditions and methods of Clifton. The scope of his instruction of the naval lieutenant was practically that which had served him for years past in the several public schools to which he had been attached. He con- tinued to teach chemistry simply as a branch of a liberal education, with no very direct reference to the life-work of those whom he addressed. It may be that at the outset of the career of the college no other course was open to him. The preliminary education of a naval officer at that period afforded no opportunity for him to acquire even the most elementary knowledge of science, and hence his teacher had of necessity to restrict himself to the kind of instruction which a well- ordered school system ought to have supplied. Prof. Debus exercised a very salutary influence at the Royal Naval College. He was personally popular, and, in spite of certain little mannerisms, his quiet dignity and personal bearing enabled him to keep an effective control over a class of young men whose sense of humour is proverbially always acute and occasionally irrepressible. But to the budding Nelson, keen on his job, there must have been much in the professor’s teaching that made no appeal. It probably seemed to him to have no possible relevance to the work of his pro- 288 NATURE: [May 6, 1920 fession. Prof. Lewes, who acted as chief assistant to Prof. Debus for some years and eventually succeeded to his chair, was no doubt fully conscious of this‘fact. At all events, his intimate association with the young officers in the labora- tory must have afforded him abundant opportuni- ties of learning it. When his turn came he entirely remodelled the course of chemical teaching. During the years of his assistantship he had been brought into frequent contact with Service and dockyard problems, in which his chemical know- ledge and practical aptitudes could be turned to account. Prof. Debus was essentially the philo- sophic student; Prof. Lewes, with no pretensions to the academic attainments of his predecessor, was more a man of affairs, with a keen apprecia- tion of the value of science to practice, and he could bring his experience to bear upon the char- acter and style of his teaching. The book before us was written ‘to aid and supplement Prof. Lewes’s instruction. It was unique of its kind. It bore directly upon what he conceived to be the true function of his chair. In one sense it is more restricted in scope than the ordinary text-book of pure chemistry, which seeks to cover more or less fully every department of the science, with no special reference to its prac- tical application; in another sense it is wider, inasmuch as its subject-matter is intended to lead up to the far-reaching problems with which modern Service conditions deal. A book based upon such principles can con- tinue to be of value only so long as it has regard to the constant changes and increasing complexity of these conditions. Each successive edition bears witness that such regard has been held. The four previous editions of the work were issued under the direction of the original author, the fourth having appeared in the year before the outbreak of the war. The present edition—the fifth—is due to Prof. Brame, Prof. Lewes’s successor at the Royal Naval College. The plan of the work has not been altered in any essential particular. But the text has been carefully revised, and certain new features have been introduced. Greater attention has been paid to the applications of organic chemistry, especially in relation to fuels, ex- plosives, and oils, mineral and vegetable. Also, the sections on boiler waters, corrosion, pigments, etc., have undergone considerable alteration. It has become a truism to say that the great war through which Europe has recently passed was a chemist’s war. Whether that is wholly true is a matter of opinion. But it is at least uni- versally acknowledged that chemistry entered more largely into it than into any previous war. That NO. 2636, VOL. 105] fact alone adds interest and value to a book of — this kind. Both arms of the Service now recog- nise that the operations of modern warfare are largely dependent upon chemical principles. dependence is bound to increase in the future, and should therefore lead to a wider recognition of the importance of chemical instruction to all who may be concerned in the conduct of war, whether afloat or ashore. The book before us makes mention of many chemical applications and adaptations which the war originated; but the complete story has yet to be told, and in the present unsettled state of the world some time must elapse before it can be published. When, however, it is made generally known, it will con- stitute a triumph for the knowledge, skill, and resourcefulness of British chemists. That fact is already appreciated in the Naval Service, and by no section more warmly than by those who owe their chemical knowledge to the instruction they have reccived at the Royal Naval College. Tee seis Euclid’s Elements. Euclid in Greek. Book I. With Introduction and Notes. By Sir Thomas L. Heath. Pp. ix+239. (Cambridge: At the Coe Press, 1920.) Price ios. net. HE editor of this text expresses the hope that it may be read by boys in the higher forms of schools. We hope so too, although the price of the book is rather prohibitive. At any rate, a copy should be obtained for the school library. — The text is accompanied by an introduction and © a set of explanatory and critical notes; each of these is a model of its kind. In the introduction we have a summary of the contents of the elements, all the facts known about Euclid’s life and works, and a full account of the principal translations and editions of the elements. The notes ‘are extremely valuable in various ways. In the first place, the author is both a competent Greek scholar, and also a student imbued with the unadulterated spirit of Greek geometry. This makes his translations of technical terms emin- ently apt and trustworthy. As an example of his critical ability, we may take his discussion of the very -difficult phrase in Euclid’s defini- tion of a straight line. é€ icov to express that if any point on the (indefinite) line be taken, what we may call the aspect of the line therefrom is an have an attempt at expressing in abstract terms the Platonic test—that a straight viewed “end That | He shows, we think con-_ clusively, that the intention of the definition is | “indifferent ” one, with — no bending one way or the other; in fact, we May 6, 1920] NATURE 289 The editor keeps the time- ied rendering “evenly ”—we should prefer ib! r “indifferently”; but this is of little mportance, because, whatever term is used, it ill have to be carefully explained. In any case, 1son’s definition is a gross misrepresentation of who evidently, however obscurely, states ty of a straight line in relation to all the is a point. butions made to geometry by Euclid’s s. Naturally, we should like to know and how far they were arithmetical or trical respectively. A still greater satis- would be to know how far the Greek ) a crowning triumph of Greek mathe- 3 it is So near absolute perfection that no part introducing what is known as the axiom Archimedes. The question is, How far, if in -* are interested in Greek henuaca! nt swould be grateful for a similar edition 1c id’s arithmetical books, especially the an exhaustive discussion of a particular f irrationals. Another boon would be an like this of some of the books of Apol- 's ““Conics,” especially those which virtu- ve the equations of conics referred to a il diameter and the tangent at a vertex. is one point on which we venture, with deference, to disagree with the editor. On 175 and elsewhere he translates woAA@ peilov much greater.” The Greek idiom is peculiar, unless we are to make it absurd we must t mod\AG by “all the more,” or some such remark in conclusion. Forty or fifty years when a blind idolatry of Simson’s “Euclid” still the vogue, Euclid’s fifth book was never and its theorems were assumed on the basis odhunter’s “Algebra.” In other words, the test achievement of Greek mathematics was absolutely*ignored. It is a great mistake to assume that all who are in favour of modern thods of teaching are wholly out of sympathy “ith the classic exponents of their subject. On NO. 2636, VOL. 105] the contrary, those of them who are sane psycho- logists will always bear in mind that the progress of the individual is, in a way, a condensed image of the progress of ‘the race, and they will be the last to ignore the historical development of theit subject, whether it be mathematics, or philosophy, or chemistry, or anything else. G, B, M. The Earliest Flint Implements. Pre-Palaeolithic Man. By J. Reid Moir. 67+29 plates. (Ipswich: W. E. Harrison; London: Simpkin, Marshall, Hamilton, Kent, and Co., Ltd., n.d.) Price 7s. 6d. N this little volume Mr. Reid Moir treats of the various forms of flaked flints found in Pp. . | deposits older than those in which ordinary palzolithic implements occur. He also describes the experiments in flint-fracture which have con- vinced him that the specimens in question are examples of human workmanship. Most of the matter has already appeared in various papers by the author, and many of the illustrations are from these papers, but the whole is a useful summary which the general reader will be glad to have in so convenient a form. Among flints like the so-called eoliths, which are very little shaped by chipping, it must natur- ally be difficult to decide which have been flaked by man for his own use, but Mr. Reid Moir con- siders that they can be distinguished by the shape and appearance of the flake-scars. Accord- ing to his experiments, the scar left by fortuitous percussion is comparatively wide and truncated, and often marked by concentric lines, while that made by human flaking is longer than it is wide, tapering at the far end, and not marked by con- centric lines. If this criterion be trustworthy, it is evident that man’s earliest handiwork can be recognised, for when he first began to use stone he must have selected pieces which were already of the needed shape, and he merely trimmed certain edges for greater effectiveness. Man’s first efforts to shape a real implement are supposed to have resulted in the rostro- carinate type, and this by further chipping gradu- ally passed into the familiar paleolith. Mr. Reid Moir describes the process of change, as further discussed in his memoir in the Philosophical Transactions which was noticed in Nature for April 1, p. 146. He also, as in the memoir just mentioned, expresses the opinion that the Acheu- lean and the Mousterian forms of palzoliths have been derived from the rostro-carinates in some- what different ways. The speculation is interest- 290 NATURE i [May 6, 192 ing, and the argument is easily followed with the aid of the many accompanying illustrations. Mr. Reid Moir’s final chapter on “ Pre-Palzo- lithic Man in England” is more discursive, and suggests that we should turn to England rather than to Asia for the earliest traces of man. The detritus-bed at the base of the Pliocene Red Crag near Ipswich is described as yielding rostro- carinate and other worked flints. The age of the Piltdown skull is also discussed, and it is regarded as Pliocene. The conclusion is that English “pre-paleolithic’ deposits should be more. care- fully studied than they have been hitherto, and the little book before us cannot fail to stimulate such study. The Heat Treatment of Cast Iron, Malleable Cast Iron. By S. Jones Parsons. Second edition, revised. Pp. xi+175. (London: Constable and Co., Ltd., 1919.) Price 14s. net. HE first edition of Mr. Parsons’s book on malleable-iron founding was published in 1908. A second edition has now been issued. It differs principally from the first in that it contains two new chapters, one dealing with mixing by analysis, the other with the measurement of tem- perature. There is also a brief addendum on what is called “malleable cast steel.’’ _ The high percentage of ‘“waster’’ castings formerly produced in malleable-iron foundries has undoubtedly been reduced in the interval which has elapsed between the appearance of the two editions by adopting a more scientific method of making up mixtures according to chemical standards; but this alone is not sufficient to en- sure a continuous output of good malleable cast- ings. There has always been an undue amount of wastage in the annealing process, chiefly owing to irregularities in the temperature of the ovens. This is inevitable when there is no means provided for measuring the temperature. In the best foundries the hopelessness of relying on the purely human element has long been recognised, and it has now been proved by the use of suitable pyro- meters that a considerable saving in fuel may be effected and the percentage of waster castings due to imperfect annealing almost entirely elimin- ated. The chapter on temperature measurement gives a brief account of optical and thermo-couple pyrometers and the methods of using them in this industry. It is somewhat surprising that in a book which is evidently designed to assist the malleable-iron industry to more scientific methods of production there is no mention of the light thrown by the NO. 2636, VOL. 105 | microscope on the structural changes which occur in the malleablising process; nor is there any re- ference to the mechanical properties of the various types of iron produced. It is the microscope which has shown what the essential difference is between European malleable iron, which dates back to the time of Réaumur, and the modern“ Black Heart ”’ variety, which is an American product. This instrument affords a valuable means of controlling the extent of the malleablising action of the an- nealing process. A valuable account of these two aspects of the scientific control of malleable iron is to be found in Dr. Hatfield’s book “ Cast Iron in the Light of Recent Research.’’ If a third edition of Mr. Parsons’s book is called for he would be well advised to include a reference to these additional methods of control. Our Bookshelf. The Running and Maintenance of the Marine Diesel Engine. By John Lamb. Pp. xii+231+ 4 plates. (London: Charles Griffin and Co., Ltd., 1920.) Price 8s. 6d. TuIs book opens with’ brief descriptions of the properties of oil fuels, combustion, the modes of working of four-cycle and two-cycle engines, and the general arrangement of the marine Diesel engine on board ship. The remainder of the book is taken up with descriptions of details and the manner in which these operate; sections are in- cluded dealing with high-speed Diesel engines for driving dynamos and fans, steering-gears, running troubles, and lists of stores which should be carried. The book is profusely illustrated with diagrams showing the construction of details; as the author’s object has been merely to explain the mode of working, many of these diagrams have not been drawn to scale; detailed descriptions of parts which are common to all classes of engines, e.g. connecting-rods and crank-shafts, are not in- cluded. The book will appeal to and be found useful by a large class of engineers whose experience has been confined to the steam engine, both by reason of the clearness of the matter included and by the many useful hints which the author’s four years’ sea-going experience in motor ships has enabled him to give. For example: ‘‘ In the same vessel the scavenging valves would intermittently fail to close, frequently to such an extent that the escape valves on the scavenging air pipe would lift. The scavenging pumps drew the air through a ventilator passing up through the deck. It was afterwards found that scale from the inside of the ventilator was the cause of the valves failing to close. The air was then taken from the engine- room, when no further trouble was experienced.’’ Obviously hints of this kind are of service not only to the engineer on board ship, but also to the So i May 6, 1920] NATURE 291 _ designer. We can recommend the book to all engineers desirous of obtaining information on the ning of Diesel engines. Course of Practical Chemistry for Agricultural “Students. Vol. i. By L. F. Newman and Prof. H. A. D. Neville. Pp. 235. (Cambridge: the University Press, 1920.) Price ros. 6d. . NEwman AnD Pror. NEVILLE have brought > three volumes details of a practical course of cultural chemistry designed for students tak- degrees in agricultural science; the present : e deals with the chemistry and physics of 1e soil. Much of the book is concerned with pure mistry and pure physics (physical properties gases, density, specific heat, etc.), and has ‘special connection with agriculture as distinct m any other branch of science; only about hird is devoted to soils and manures. _ The exercises appear to be well chosen, but one cannot help wishing that the authors had used one of the many books already published on pure _ chemistry, and given more space to agricultural problems. The exercises on soils and manures are mainly analytical; they are on the usual lines, and intended obviously for elementary students, for whom the instructions should be found sufficient. Had there been more space available, some more inspiring exercises might well have been given, Reepecially in the direction of pot and plot experi- ents. Many of the properties of soil are more y demonstrated out of doors than indoors, in any case the principles of soil fertility not be elucidated entirely by purely laboratory ‘k. Numerous experiments have been devised, they are scattered about over a number of -books and have never been collected. Within the limits they have set themselves, the uthors have produced a useful book which will be helpful to teachers, especially in these busy es, when classes are large and demonstrators very hard-worked. e Mason-Wasps. By J. Henri Fabre. Trans- lated by Alexander Teixeira de Mattos. Pp. _ vi+318. (London: Hodder and Stoughton, n.d.) Price 7s. 6d. net. Tue writings of few open-air naturalists have equalled, or even approached, in ease and attrac- iveness of style the “Souvenirs entomologiques ”’ J. H. Fabre, the veteran observer of Sérignan. Much of the charm of these essays has been | abs in the skilful translations by A. T. de attos, of which the present work is an example in no way inferior, either in interest or in wealth of _ accurate observation, to the other volumes of the series. In it are recorded the results of a minute and careful study of the life-history of wasps belonging to the genera Eumenes, Odynerus, Pelopceus, Agenia, and Vespa, related with the utmost simplicity and vividness, and illuminated by the lively and charming personality of the _ author. a No. 2636, VoL. 105 | Leaving the domain of pure observation and experiment, and entering on that of bionomic speculation, we find Fabre a less satisfactory guide. It is well known that no theories of evo- lution appealed to him in the least degree, and the naiveté with which he touches and dismisses the problems of mimicry and protective resemblance in the volume before us gives a key to the reasons of his failure to appreciate the greatest advances in biological science of his time. On the other hand, his views on the subject of instinct, forti- fied by ingenious experiments on the mud-building and spider-storing habit of Pelopceus and on the cocoon-weaving procedure of Saturnia, are sound enough. But it is difficult to follow him in the distinction that he draws between “instinct ’’ and “discernment ’’; nor can one take seriously his playful remarks on the mental processes involved in insect activities. BP. AscD, The Handbook of Cyprus. Eighth issue. Edited by Harry Charles Luke and Douglas James Jardine. Pp. xii+300. (London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd., 1920.) Price 12s. net. To every Englishman—and by that we mean every English-speaking citizen of our Commonwealth— Cyprus suggests, not the succession of love-cults, but that one great lovers’ meeting when Othello came to land. ‘Once more well met in Cyprus.” This new issue of the official handbook assures us that the island is now a Crown colony of Britain. Let us trust that its authors, who are both administrators of empire, in reviewing their work among its mixed inhabitants, may record that they “have found great love amongst them.” It is rare to find a publication that in its essence is economic and statistical allowing also for the taste of visitors in archeology and natural history. Enough is here given in a small compass to lead the reader on to the works enumerated on Pp. 93-95 and in the sections on geology and zoology. It would have been well if the treatment of the geology had been connected with the brief geographical section which occurs some two hundred pages earlier. The comparatively recent origin of the islands of the Levant, consequent on the breaking up of the A%gean land, is the real basis for the history of merchant fleets. The dwarf elephant and hippopotamus, so well included under Natural History on p. 246, are effective links in the romance. We find so much in this invitation to the isle that we should like to arrange it more in sequence, so as to produce the true geographical effect. Perhaps - each reader will do this for himself as he journeys eastward, sure of welcome. Gy A. FC, An Introduction to Social Psychology. By Dr. W. McDougall. Fourteenth edition. Pp. xxiv+ 459. (London: Methuen and Co., Ltd., 1919.) Price 7s, 6d. net. In this edition, among other changes, the prin- ciple is elaborated that all emotion is the affective aspect of instinctive process. 292 NATURE [May 6, 1920 Letters to the Editor. [The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manuscripts intended for this or any other part of Nature. No notice is taken of anonymous communications.) Organisation of Scientific Work. I HAVE only recently seen the article in Nature of February 19 and the correspondence so unanimously supporting the view that the present decentralised system of team work by experts in different branches of science in agricultural, forestry, and medical re- search institutes is greatly superior to the proposed centralisation in-distant Simla of each separate science —chemistry, botany, etc.—under directors of research with autocratic powers to decide what each original worker in his branch throughout India shall investi- gate and publish; for it is clearly impossible in these days for one man to be sufficiently conversant with each special division of his science adequately to fulfil such a stupendous task. I desire to associate myself with that view, which may be illustrated by my experience in organising the Calcutta School of Tropical Medicine, shortly to be opened, for which I have just obtained endowments from two successful European and Parsi business men for a whole-time biochemist, in addition to two other chemists for the analysis of indigenous drugs and of food and water respectively, all three of whom will aid nine medical research investigators in team work at important medical problems under a medical director. Could anyone contend that these very specialised chemists would be better controlled by a purely chemical director a thousand miles away in Simla, who could know nothing of the medical problems they will investigate ? On the other hand, if the Government of India is to provide the large sums urgently required for the further development of scientific research in India, it will require some organisation to co-ordinate and report on the work it will be financing. May it not learn a lesson from the Medical Research Com- mittee of eminent medical men of science, which is wisely utilising the large sums supplied by the British Government in assisting the investigations of univer- sity and medical-school workers with established reputations and with a minimum amount of inter- ference? A very similar and successful organisation was set up in India when the late Sir Pardey Lukis persuaded the Government of India to hand over five lakhs (some 50,000l.) a year to the Indian Research Association, administered by a governing body on which the medical members, through their special knowledge of the subject, exercise a preponderating influence; while I have recently obtained a purely medical governing body to administer the endowments of the Calcutta School of Tropical Medicine with an income of some 11,0001. a year, which I have been fortunate enough to raise to provide both men and apparatus without the long delays, usually of several years’ duration, involved in obtaining the sanction of the Government of India and of the Secretary of State for new posts. This plan has thus already proved its value and is capable of extension, while boards composed of a number of men of science of high standing will com- mand much greater confidence than an autocratic director of research. The nucleus of such a body already exists in the Board of Scientific Control, which meets twice a year in Delhi and Simla, and might with greater advantage holJ its principal meeting NO. 2636, VOL. 105 | Delhi in December, 1918, 1 advocated, in place of an autocratic director of medical research, that an in- spector of research might be appointed, who would not attempt the invidious task of laying down what each research worker should investigate and publish, but would visit different research laboratories and consult with their respective directors or councils regarding the financial and other needs of the insti- tutes, and help to co-ordinate the work in different parts of India to prevent waste through over The recent correspondence in NATURE confirms me ii that solution of the difficulty, and I venture to think that in some such ways as I have suggested the established advantages of the present decentralised system may be retained and strengthened by greater and more elastic financial aid, and be better co- ordinated, without introducing the highly able autocratic and distant centralised control of proposals now before the Indian Government to w you have directed such timely attention. ; LEONARD South Devon, April 29. The Small Islands of Almost-Atolls. = sive - 3 Aare elt a ree Tue familiar inductive series of fringing reefs, barrier reefs, and atolls may be further subdivi as to contain six members: so. Normal fringing reefs, offshore fringing reefs, narrow-lagoon barrier reefs, broad-lagoon barrier reefs, almost-atolls, and atolls. Almost-atolls, or atoll-like reefs encircling lagoons in which one or several small islands rise, are of interest as affording a critical test of certain competing coral- of out-. growing reefs around still standing islands explains a completed atoll by supposing that the original volcanic island is slowly worn down as the encircling reef — reef theories, as follows: Murray’s theory grows outward and the lagoon is excavated behind — the growing reef by solution, the degraded central © island eventually disappearing in a way not clearly explained, perhaps by outwash of its detritus from the lagoon by currents which are fed by the influx of surf ~ over the windward reef and discharged by outflow through passes in the leeward reef. Under this oe theory thé small island of an almost-atoll would be a nearly worn-down central island, which would exhibit rolling hills of low relief surrounded by delta flats; — or in a later stage, after the delta deposits had been — swept away, the low hills of the vanishing island would be encroached upon by the lagoon waves and cut back in low bluffs fronted by low-tide rock plat- forms that gradually deepen into the lagoon. ; According to Daly’s Glacial-control theory, atoll reefs are built up from the margin of platforms abraded by the waves of the lowered Glacial ocean across still standing islands that had been previously worn down to low relief by long-continued normal erosion, the reefs being built up as the ocean rises in post-Glacial time. Under this theory an almost destroyed central island would have a surface of - rolling hills, cut back by cliffs which would now— except for fringing reefs that may border them— plunge -into the lagoon waters to a depth of twenty or more fathoms. This inference is well supported by the occurrence of strongly clift islands surmounting submarine banks of moderate depth in the extra- — tropical seas. According to Darwin’s theory of up- growing reefs on intermittently subsiding foundations — than | —submergence by subsidence being faster erosional degradation—atolls are produced when the © central island of an up-growing barrier reef has sunk out of sight. Under this theory the lagoon of an | coincidently with the Indian Science Congress in one of the large centres of research. At a meeting in- apes CPST I Tee eT ale 2 ie ae in ee x 6, 1920] NATURE 293 lands of mountainous or mountain-top form. aracteristics of the small islands of hypo- Imost-atolls, as thus deduced from several of coral reefs, may be confronted with the te facts as represented in five actual almost- he Hermit Islands, in the Admiralty group ew Guinea; Truk or Hogoleu, in the slands; Budd Reef, in north-eastern Fiji; t Astrolabe Reef, in south-western Fiji; and eva or the Gambier Islands, south of the The Hermit Islands are enclosed by a t 12 miles in diameter; the largest of the 3 miles long and more than 3000 ft. in The encircling reef of Truk is about 30 miles meter, and encloses some twenty small islands; st measures 6 by 3 miles, and several of the nes are from rooo ft. to 1300 ft. high; the ‘ones rise from 20 ft. to 300 ft. Budd Reef $ 12 miles in its longest diameter; three small ds, each less than a mile across, rise from 280 ft. . near the lagoon centre; a small horseshoe ind, a mile in diameter and 590 ft. high, north-eastern angle of the enclosing reef, . be of much more recent origin than its s, and does not bear on the problem here . The Great Astrolabe Reef makes an oval iles wide by 10 miles long, around a lagoon ining nine smail islands; it is not properly an atoll reef, for on the south it continues a long around the four-mile island of Ono and the ile island of Kandavu. However, the small ar space defined by three of the islands, a of from 17 to 20 fathoms that prevails between the nds and the barrier reef; and this is beyond planation by the Glacial-control theory. Gambier is from 12 to 15 miles across; the enclosed ; are eight in number, and the largest of them 4 by 2 miles and has a height of 1300 ft. ate of the larger of these islands: ‘‘ The res of the coast—the deep indentations—are vidence of subsidence to one who has e character of the Pacific islands; for these ions correspond to valleys or gorges formed ation during a long period while the island ove the sea”’ (‘On Coral Reefs and Islands,” s). Within the polygon defined by several of ands two soundings give depths of 38 fathoms, e lagoon outside the polygon has no depths ese almost-atoll islands are of mountainous tain-top form; they appear to be residuals of y larger islands, much reduced by sub-aerial and now isolated by* submergence. The - Ones are mere summits, too small to show yed valleys; the larger ones have somewhat em- shore-lines, which would, according to the best ts that I can gather, be more strongly embayed deltas that now partly occupy the bavs were joved. None of the islands are described as frongly clift, like those of the extra-tropical seas, hough some headlands are a little cut back in 1 bluffs fronted by low-tide rock platforms, evi- tly the work of the lagoon waves at present sea- - It thus appears. that the small islands of actual st-atolls are excellent counterparts of the moun- ous or mountain-top islands of hypothetical almost- NO. 2636, VoL. 105] Ons oll would contain one or several nearly sub- | atolls deduced as the necessary consequences of Darwin’s theory, but such islands cannot be accounted for by either Murray’s or Daly’s theory. The attention of European men of science has been so largely withdrawn from the study of coral reefs during the last thirty years that the coral-reef problem now has scarcely a hearing among them. It is to be hoped that, with the acquisition of the numerous islands and reefs of northern and eastern New Guinea with the neighbouring reef-encircled islands by Aus- tralia, the old problem may be taken up again by the explorers and investigators of that remarkable region. The Louisiade group in particular deserves attention. The present communication suggests some of the newer aspects of coral-reef study, which, along with the embayments of: reef-encircled islands and the uncon- formable contacts of fringing and elevated reefs with their foundations (see ‘‘The Geological Aspects of the Coral-reef Problem,” Science Progress, xiii., 1919, pp. 420-44), must be taken into account for the future. All considered together, these newer aspects go far towards restoring confidence in Darwin’s theory, which between 1880 and 1910 was so un- reasonably discarded by many writers. The theory needs subordinate modification by the addition of changes of ocean-level during the Glacial period, to which Daly has so justly directed attention; but those changes acting alone would, whenever they occurred, produce emergences or submergences everywhere alike in their moderate amount, their slow rate, and their Pleistocene date; while all the reef-encircled islands that have yet been studied—as, for example, in Foye’s ‘Geological Observations in Fiji” (Proc. Amer. Acad. of Arts and Sci., liv., 1918, pp. 1-145)— testify to submergences and emergences at dates that are frequently unlike from place to place, and of amounts that are frequently much in excess of the most liberal estimates of Glacial changes in ocean- level. Such submergences and emergences are, there- fore, to be explained by local movements of subsidence or upheaval in the islands concerned. As reef-growth has been associated chiefly with the various move- ments of .subsidence, reinforced recently by rise of ocean-level, Darwin’s theory ee a modified is thereby supported. . M. Davis. ‘Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass., March. Scientific Apparatus from Abroad. THERE is one aspect of the proposed “‘ anti-dumping "” legislation to which I should like to direct attention. While there is much scientific apparatus made in the British Isles of a quality at least as good as that imported, it is, unfortunately, very costly. But there are also many articles which our manufacturers have not yet learned to produce in anything like a satisfac- tory quality. The result of restricting the import of good articles by a heavy duty would be to compel scientific workers to use home-made goods. There would be no hardship if these goods were satisfactory. But such is by no means always the case, and we are then penalised by waste of time and frequent loss of experimental results. Moreover, if inferior goods obtain a sale by methods of this kind, no inducement is given to the makers to improve the quality. I am aware that I may be called a doctrinaire Free Trader, but it seems to me to be a far more reason- able procedure to allow free import of such apparatus until equally good material is to be had nig. eA at home. In the meantime, our manufacturers should, 294 NATURE if necessary, receive State aid to enable them to perfect their processes. When they can show that they have attained success, an import duty might be imposed temporarily on the foreign substitute to ensure the sale of the British article and to introduce it to the market. If the product is satisfactory, there would be no need to retain the duty for any great length of time. Owing to the present poor rate of pay of free scientific workers, it is only just to give them generous grants if they are compelled to buy the costly home- made goods of the first category referred to above. It will surely be admitted that the desirable state of affairs is that each country should produce what it is best fitted to do, and that there should be no necessity for protective duties. But if the League of Nations is believed to be ineffective, and if we must be pre- pared to be self-supporting in case of another great war, it behoves those who advocate measures to bring this about to see that the nation does not lose more than it is likely to gain. I have confined my remarks to the case of scientific appliances, bur similar considerations apply to many industrial processes. Inferior material and machinery would have to be put up with for the sake of sup- porting some other industry. If the foreign goods are superior they should be freely imported, and the British makers subventioned until they can produce equally good material, if it is thought essential that they should do so. W. M. Baytiss. University College, London. The Gost of Laboratory Fittings. In all directions we have at the present time evi- dence of a growing enthusiasm for education in the field of natural science. Students are being turned away from our schools and universities for lack of accommodation, and the new Education Act has given great encouragement to science teaching. Our war experiences seem to have aroused the nation to the necessity for vastly extending the facilities for these studies, and at the same time the need for financial economy is pressing in all directions. The material requirements of science teaching are expensive, and, though heavy outlay is in the main inevitable, it seems probable that if costs cannot be reduced the very necessary expansion of science in our schools may in many cases have to be deferred or abandoned, and, possibly, curtailed in our higher: institutions. The character of the fixed fittings in our laboratories has altered but little for many years, and it seems pertinent to inquire whether something could not be done by the use of alternative materials or by standardisation to reduce their cost. I recently brought this matter to the notice of one of our learned societies, and received a very cordial reply from its council, which has referred the question to the Department of Scientific and Industrial Re- search ;. and I have reason to believe that this Depart- ment is proposing to take some action, in which event I have arranged that the Science Standing Committee of one of our Royal institutes shall be represented at any deliberations. Tnings, however, move slowly and time is passing, which must be my excuse for troubling you with this letter in the hope that the subject may raise some interest, and possibly lead to some con- structive suggestions. There are several obvious directions in which re- search on this subject, which should be neither par- ticularly lengthy nor expensive, seem likely to be _ fruitful, but I must not encroach further by elabora- tion. Avan E. Mounpsy. 9g Old Square, Lincoln’s Inn, W.C.z2. NO. 2636, VOL. 105 | | May 6, 1920 The Standard of Atomic Weights. In reply to the letter of Prof. J. R. Partington appearing in Nature of April 29, it has already been announced in your columns that Dr. Aston has shown neon and chlorine to be each mixtures of two isot with atomic weights which are whole numbers, and I have suggested that the atomic weights of all the elements with low atomic weights are very approxi- mately of the form 2x+a, where x is ¢he atomic number and a a small integer, and there are indica- tions tending to show that a is independent of the chemical properties of the element (see NaTuRE, February 26, p. 704). For the lower atomic weights the calculation is not greatly affected whether the atomic weight of hydrogen or of oxygen is taken as the .Standard. With the exception of hydrogen, no atomic weight is less than 2x, if the atomic weight of oxygen is taken as the standard. There is, accordingly, some justification for treating the atomic weights of helium, boron, carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and fluorine as normal and that of hydrogen as abnormal. If, as appears to be the case, the atomic weights are not only variable, e.g. lead, neon, etc., but also contain a quantity independent of the chemical properties of the element, the determination of the relative atomic weights of two elements to a high degree of accuracy - others : will in many cases be impossible, and in some futile. oA In some respects it might be convenient to take helium as the standard for atomic weights, this ele- ment certainly assisting in a few instances to build up the atomic weight, and as helium can now be prepared in large quantity the accurate determination of its density will not be so difficult as heretofore. STEPHEN MIALL. 28 Belsize Grove, N.W.3. et The Mole Gricket. On ty one British species of mole cricket is known, Gryllotalpa vulgaris. It is now becoming very rare in England. It is largely carnivorous, and by bur- rowing underground with its powerful fore-legs, which by a shear-like action cut through roots, it causes a certain amount of damage. It is by the peculiar Fic. 1.—Mole Cricket. structure of these fore-legs that the mole cricket is readily recognised and distinguished from all other insects. These legs are thicker, but shorter, than the hind-legs, each of the very short tibiz ending below in four claws spread out like the fingers of a hand. The specimen represented in the illustration was caught at Send, near Woking, in Surrey, on: March 15 last. Sales iki VD =e S eee 3 laa : \ - May 6, 1920] NATURE 295 : HE type-reading optophone, an_ instrument designed to enable blind people to read ! print, was described in NATURE in 1914 . xCiv., p. 4). At the British Scientific Pro- _ Exhibition of 1918 some public reading nstrations were given with a somewhat d apparatus exhibited by the writer and . W. Forster Brown (see Nature, vol. cii., y Reabtember 5, 1918). These demonstrations sd to show that all the essential problems BP thes cx had been solved, but the instru- then exhibited had certain defects which ated against its prolonged and convenient use y bl nd persons. Thus, the displacement along » line of type was effected by turning a handle, fhich no blind person would care to use by the ' The construction of the apparatus generally ; not sufficiently solid and substantial, in view the fact that it had to be put into the ‘hands of necessarily somewhat clumsy operator. After the close of the exhibition the construc- of the instrument was undertaken by Messrs. r and Stroud, Ltd., of Glasgow, the well- wn makers of range-finders and fire-control yparatus for the British and foreign navies. A A‘ Breat deal of thought and care has been bestowed upon the instrument by Dr. Archibald Barr, and 0 inesult has been a thoroughly sound, compact, nd practical instrument, such as was shown by arr in his lecture to the Royal Philosophical of Glasgow on March 24 last. } “The rae principle of the apparatus is shown by Fig. A siren disc, D, is run at about 30 gieeiutions a second by means of the small magneto-electric motor shown. It contains five circles of square perforations, the innermost circle having twenty-four perforations, the outermost forty-two, the other circles being intermediate and corresponding to the relative frequencies of ; certain notes of the diatonic scale. A line of _ light in a radial direction is provided by the Biome lamp L, and the image of the filament of _ this lamp is thrown upon the print by a system of three lenses on the other side of the selenium F tablet S. The.axis of the concavo-convex lens C a is” slightly tilted out of the axis of the other lenses for a purpose which is specified below. The - general result of the optical system is to give a line of luminous dots on the print, each dot having a different musical frequency. The light con- ‘Stituting these dots is diffusely reflected back on to the selenium, which is put in circuit with a battery and a high-resistance telephone receiver. Those dots which fall on white paper produce a ‘note of their own musical frequency in the tele- _ phone, while those which fall on black are extin- By, guished. We thus: get what may be called a _ _“white-sounding ” optophone, in which the black letters are read by the notes omitted from “he NO. 2636, VOL. 105 | _ are all mounted in the swinging “ . The Optophone: An Instrument for Reading by Ear. i By Dr. E. E. Fournier D’ALBE. scale rather than by the notes which remain sound- ing. All the reading demonstrations hitherto undertaken have been given with a “ white-sound- ing” optophone. A modification of this principle, introduced by Messrs. Barr and Stroud in consultation with the writer, is the provision of a second selenium preparation in the form of a cylindrical rod, the top of which can be seen at B (Fig. 1). This rod receives the light reflected by the concave surface of the lens C, which produces a real image of the line of dots on a generator of the cylindrical rod, and by turning this rod about its axis the image can be made more or less effective as desired. By balancing the effect on B against the effect on S, when white paper alone is exposed, a silence can be produced in the telephone, and the effect of the passage of a black letter is to make a sound which varies in accordance with the formation of the letter. This is the principle of what may be called a ‘“black-sounding” optophone, and Fic, 1.—Skeleton apparatus showing the principle of the optophone. although its advantage over the white-sounding . type has yet to be proved, there is little doubt that the learning of the alphabet sounded on the new principle will be easier, though in the writer's opinion the ultimate speed acquired by either black- sounding or white-sounding will be approximately the same. It is interesting in this connection to note that Miss Mary Jameson, the blind girl who gave the demonstrations at the 1918 Exhibition, now reads habitually at a speed of about twenty- five words a minute with a “white-sounding ” optophone made by Messrs. Barr and Stroud, and finds, indeed, that when the instrument is adjusted for a lesser speed reading becomes more difficult. The present construction adopted by Messrs. Barr and Stroud is shown in Fig. 2. The disc, lamp, lenses, and selenium, as well as the motor, tracer,” which 296 NATURE [May 6, 1920 can be brought over to the right by means cf the reading-handle H. It then returns to the lett with a slow, silent, and steady motion regulated by the worm gearing W, which drives a small paddle inserted in a viscous liquid. This paddle can be inserted more or less deeply into the liquid by the regulating nut R, and such is the range Fic. 2.—The optophone with book-rest removed. of adjustment possible that a line can be read in anything from five seconds to five minutes, accord- ing to the proficiency of the reader. When the line is read, the next line is brought into focus by the change-bar C, which works a friction grip inside the bar on which the “tracer” is pivoted, and can be adjusted for any desired line space Fic. 3.—The optophone complete with book-rest. by means of the screw attached to the change-bar. A lever attached to the “tracer” enables the operator to reverse this motion or to release the whole “tracer” from the friction gear, so that it may be quickly brought to the top of a page. NO. 2636, VOL. 105 | The festoon lamp is inserted at L, where it is” held by a spring clip, and whence it can easily be removed for renewal even by a blind operator. The balancer is inserted at B, and can be adjusted for silence by means of the small handle shown. Fig. 3 shows’ the apparatus from the top page end and with telephone and flex connections attached, as well as the book-rest R- holding a book. The adapters of these flex connections are all of different sizes, and fit into different-sized holes in such a manner that they cannot be wrongly inserted—an important consideration ‘with blind operators. The various connections with their witli are for the motor, the lamp, and the two selenium circuits respectively. When the adapters are removed, a cover can be placed over the whole instrument, which clips on to the aluminium base, and the. optophone ‘can thereupon be carried about like a typewriter. Fig. 4 shows the manner in which the instru- ment is manipulated by a blind person. Fic. 4.—Line-changing with the optophone. Special mention ought to be made of a con- trivance for adjusting for various sizes of type. The middle lens of the three shown in Fig. 1 is mounted in a nut which can be screwed up and down within the “tracer” by means of two gaps cut in the upper cylindrical portion at T (Fig. 2). The nut is provided with six nicks across the rim, which enable a blind operator to count the number of turns of the nut, and thus to adjust for any definite size of type. This ingenious contrivance is, I believe, due to Dr. Stroud. In practice it is found that, with the new apparatus, the various adjustments for size of type, length of line, and line interval are quite easily made by blind persons, and that the instru- ment, with all its delicate adjustments, can remain in use for a long time without anything getting out of order. It is therefore safe to say that the problem of opening the world’s literature to the blind is now definitely solved. * Se Se oe ee et 4 NATURE 29/ The Kalahari By Pror. E. Setebe and Ovamboland belong physio- yh y to one and the same province ; the a region of red sand and the latter of ad. The whole area, some 350,000 square s blocked by an encircling ring of hard ached on the east by the Victoria Falls, e south by the Aughrabies Falls on the nge River, and on the west by the great * es ft. high) on the Cunene River. The tence of this peculiarity is that the whole and Ovamboland. H, L. ScuHwarz. 300 miles long by 100 miles broad; part of the breadth in the northern half is occupied by sand dunes, so that the effective area is now less than that of Victoria Nyanza; but before it was tapped by the Zambezi it must have been a little larger. The Zambezi enters the depression at the Mam- bove Falls, follows the northern boundary, and leaves the old lake at Kasungula. It is not certain when the Zambezi first breached the wall and let out the waters of the lake; the Portuguese maps TvNvisO yev? a | yaw > = Dy y~ -e : ‘ ‘ : ‘ . ; ‘ . ‘ * Xx § % . ‘ , Li 7 i ‘ 4 . ~ i ; | ‘ sf : . . ‘ é ; gic . ene 5 Z red i : ‘ ‘ \ : tae } H Lee : ; ‘ Hy zy , ‘ ge ; , ‘ - t a of Boa ale ‘ ‘ > - 7 ae fey Se ‘ ’ * . ‘a : ‘ ’ AY f “ eV: ‘ , o Fa ” # ; v ° awe , a - - eo c: oa . 2 . 3 x > CLAIMED By ii te) EAMeawenn am Ya Sy AMARONE yy “ny, £ *OKAUKWEYO = se OvamBoLand ror LAKE es —_ pwecrtrppel ings Bere < : A fe © © 2 30 50 60 i ot* MS OF THE UGAB re Ea » - i Cat he - a ale Stat “at : { midis "6 ’ > dé iz ¢ a ee % MED ORTUC DUANGARYS” , in J*OrIM POLO FoNTEIK ts : KURING KURY 4 ion is flat and the rivers have scarcely any fall, ; floods seeping rather than flowing along the jy river-beds and blocking up the channels 1 Bats made of branches, reeds, and other bbish, so that there has been a constant chang- x in the distribution of the water. On the west there are two great depressions, Makarikari and the greater Ngami. Living- ong obtained the impression that the two formed the bed of one enormous lake, but the map of fassarge shows the two very clearly defined. The greet Ngami is a depression elongated in a uth-westerly direction, with parallel sides, and NO. 2636, Vor. 105] Fic. bat before Pivineticne’s s time showed the river begin- ning not so very far above Zumbo, and we know that the Portuguese had a very good idea of the country so far back as the sixteenth century. The Falls cannot be of very great age, because the gradient below them is more than 15 ft. to the mile, and a great river like the Zambezi would have flattened out the gradient if it had been of any considerable age. The recent earthquake at New Langenburg, at the head of the Loangwa River, shows that the area is one of great seismic activity, so that the original idea of Livingstone and Murchison, that the crack was formed by 298 NATURE [May 6, 1920 such agency, is worth reconsidering. | Certainly the idea that the river has worked back along joints requires some modification, because the depth of the crack, reckoning from the top of the Falls to the bottom of the gorge, is more than 1100 ft., and joints do not penetrate so deep. Two rivers fan out on the floor of the depréssion of the greater Ngami, in the same way that the Rusisi does on the plain on the north of Tangan- yika, which has been exposed since the Lukuga tapped the lake and drew off the water; this last case, according to Arab accounts, has occurred within the last 500 years or less. The Ngami feeders are the Okavango and Chobe rivers. The Chobe flowed south in Chapman’s time (1852), but the channel became blocked with reeds and rubbish below the Mababe swamp, and it now goes straight into the Zambezi. The Okavango until quite recently also flowed south into the Ngami of Livingstone, but a_ branch, Kalahari is to the S.S.W., so that there was nothing to prevent the original river taking the course indicated; when the water was diverted to the Zambezi the area became a waste of sand. The French in the western Sahara have _ similarly shown that the ergs or sand deserts oc- cupy the basins of former river systems. » Ovamboland is just a great level river plain, the ideal peneplain. Every part of it is covered _ with shallow depressions, sometimes connected; forming rivers; at others they are in parallel series of disconnected hollows, elongated in the direction of the nearest river. In between are sandy tracts covered with forest. In this there are a number of wide, open tracts, which form the main habitable areas, and each of these open- ings is occupied by a separate tribe of Ovambos. On the north there are the Cunene and Okavango rivers, which have built themselves above the the Selinda, has developed which takes the water into the Chobe and so into the Zam- bezi, and Ngami is now dry. When the Chobe and Oka- vango rivers flowed south to Lake Ngami the water over- flowed from that lake into the Botletle, which breached the eastern wall of the depression, and so made its way to the Makarikari. This depression has an area of 15,000 square miles and two “floors”; the Soa:and Ntwetwe Pans form the lowest levels, while around are immense grass flats. We know fairly definitely that this dried up about 1820, thirty years before Chapman was there, and the Bushmen de- scribed to him how the whole expanse owas then covered with dead hippopotamus and fish. Now the Botletle very seldom reaches the Makarikari, though the floors may ' fill for a few weeks from drainage from the east. When the waters of the upper Zambezi were impounded in the Ngami depression, the water flowed south from the Makarikari into the Letwayo or Okwa, and found its way into the Molopo and so to the Orange River. According to traders who have crossed this part many times, the old channel can still be traced; certainly the lower Molopo has a bed far greater than would have been cut had it only carried the waters from the tributaries now shown to connect with it. The region between the Makarikari and the bend of the Molopo is the ‘‘ Great Thirst’’; the main routes through the Kalahari are now fairly safe and the Government has put down bore-holes for the accommodation of travellers; but it is still exceedingly difficult to explore away from the main tracks. The natural slope of the plain of the NO. 2636, VOL. 105 | Fic, 2.—Rucana Cleft, Cunene River. plain, and in flood-time they overflow their banks and send the water down spillways which, in former years, filled up all the depressions and converted the country into a swamp; something like a third of the plain was then submerged. As the flood subsides, the crops, which are planted on series of little sand-hillocks, rapidly come to maturity in the damp, steaming atmosphere, the palms and morula-trees yield wine, and the lot of the Ovambo was then a pleasant one. The spillways from the Okavango still carry water out from the river southwards, but not in sufficient quantity to reach any distance; and those from the Cunene are quickly diminishing. The rapid lowering of the beds of the main rivers by erosion has resulted in the desiccation of the country, and at no very distant date Ovamboland will become a land of the “Great Thirst ’’ like the Kalahari. The conversion of an area of ee a ae “May 6, 1920] NATURE 269 70,000 square miles from the condition of a tropical swamp, similar t6 the Bahr-el-Ghazal, into ‘a wilderness of dead trees and withered grass has ‘had a very bad effect on the climate of South ‘Africa, and the consequences are noticeable north as well’as south of the Zambezi; the completion of the process is a matter of a Yi years only. What has happened in Ovamboland occurred in ‘the Makarikari a hundred years ago, and in the central Kalahari not so very long before that; so, “section by section, this great area has lost its " water-supply, and between 300,000 and 400,000 square miles of country have become desert within _ comparatively recent times. | The spillways from the Cunene on one side, and ” those from the Okavango on the other, connect in ithe great depression to the south, the Etosha. Pan. _ This is a “floor,’’ like the Soa and Ntwetwe Pans, . oa 3. 3-—-Cambele Ca aract, Cunene River. covered with a dark green film due to microscopic ' plants which turn a yellowish-green when moist- ) ened with water from a thunderstorm. Very little ) water finds its way into the pan down the river “channels nowadays. The grass flats round the "pan are some 5 ft. above the level of the floor, ‘and are often black with zebras, wildebeests, gemsbok, koodoos, and springbok, with the at- tendant lions. The late Mr. J. W. F. Breijer was "game ranger at the time of my visit, and it is due to his tireless efforts to suppress poaching that the game has returned to the district; to him » also I owe the tracing of the Lion River, a spill- ‘way from the Okavango to the Etosha, thus completing the through connection of the Cunene » and Okavango rivers. » the restoration of the Kalahari and Ovambo- land plains by weiring up the outlets on the north _ and turning the waters of the Cunene on one hand, ‘and of the Okavango and Chobe rivers on the NO. 2636, VOL. 105 | only here there is no trace of brak, the level pan being | other, would convert these countries into habitable regions once more. Both rivers are necessary, for the one reinforces the other. Ovamboland would be converted into a swamp, a condition of affairs which the natives are accustomed to and thrive on; as it is, they are always on the verge of starvation, and in 1915-16 thousands did die of starvation, and their bones are strewn for 200 miles along the road from Ondongua to Tsumeb, the terminus of the railway, where they had expected to get food and work. Ovamboland is not suitable for white settlement, but from the evaporation from this vast swamp the rivers, like the Zambezi and Oka- vango, would be reinforced at their sources, and their diminishing volume converted into an in- creasing one. The Kalahari, on the other hand, is eminently suited for white settlement; with water anything will grow; cotton is indigenous and would form the summer crop as in Egypt; wheat grows as a winter crop, and mealies (maize) as an autumn one. Away from the actual irri- gation furrows the ranching pos- sibilities are enormous. ‘The country is now nominally under Beehuana chiefs ; but, while every consideration can be paid to their wants, a meagre population of 150,000 natives cannot indefin- itely hold up a country of 300,000 square miles. White settlement could proceed without interfering in any way with the natives, as there is room enough for all. The effect on the climate of South Africa is another matter. We know that hippopotamus swarmed all over the Karroo in not very distant times, for ‘their bones are dug up. all over it in the dry river-beds. Before the Makarikari went dry in 1820, Barrow, Lichten- stein, and Le Vaillant described finding hippopotamus in enormous quantities in typical Karroo country like Cookhouse, and the banks of the rivers were clothed with sub- tropical forest, in which roamed rhinoceros, ele- phant, eland, etc. The Karroo within the last 120 years, in the eastern portion, was a country similar in flora and fauna to British East Africa. Would the restoration of the Kalahari affect the Karroo? The lost lakes formed the end of the series of great lakes in Central Africa, and the function of these latter is to provide moisture for the inland regions. The central areas of Africa lie so high that moisture blown in from the sea is dropped on the edge by the diminution of pressure, and very little is left for the centre from these sources. With the Kalahari lakes restored and the vegetation once more established, it seems reason- able to suppose that the effect will be the same as that produced by the great northern lakes on their neighbouring regions. 300 NATURE [May 6, 1920 The Royal VERY critic of the Royal Academy finds material for praise or for condemnation from whatever point of view he regards the works exhibited, and the scientific visitor is no exception to this rule. Indeed, it is impossible that among so large a number of works all should be of the same high order of merit as are the few produced by master hands. From the scientific point of view it is not difficult to divide the sheep from the goats—the true representations of Nature from the grotesquely unreal. It may be presumed that the perpetrators of the latter type of work visit. the Academy and there study the pictures of their fellow-artists. If this be so, it is astonishing that they should continue from year to year to produce unreal caricatures of natural objects, when often in close contiguity to their pictures are to be seen beautiful representations of the same type of scenes, truthful to life in every particular, and gaining immeasurably thereby. The fact that both obtain admittance to Burlington House must be taken to demonstrate that both are of artistic merit, but there the similarity ends. An example of this contrast in methods of dealing with a subject may be found in this year’s exhibition by comparing “Off the Land” (38) with “Sunset at Sea” (347). Both show sea and sky scenes. The former gives a perfectly natural representation of light from the sky reflected in the sea, while in the latter an intensely red sunset sky meets at the horizon an intensely blue sea, a condition unlikely to obtain while water pos- sesses its normal powers of reflection. The effect is so entirely unnatural that it is difficult to believe, without reference to the title, that the lower part of the picture is meant to represent water at all. In Gallery No. III., on either side of the chief centre piece, with which the scientific critic 1s not concerned, are two pictures of yacht Academy. racing which form an interesting contrast. When looked at from near-by the one is wholly delight- ful, while the other is spoilt by its crude sky. able distance, the two pictures appear of more equal merit. The contrast between the two methods of treatment is brought out strikingly by the juxtaposition of the pictures, be it accidental or otherwise. fie A feature of the present exhibition which will strike the visitor is the extraordinary sea-colour- ing in several of the works, though examination of the catalogue shows that for this a single artist — is largely responsible. One case has already been — cited. To mention one other from among several examples, it would be very surprising to meet in ' When, however, a view is taken from a consider- — Nature with the contrasts in colouring depicted — in “The Sunken Reef ” (177). had any opportunity of studying dazzle-painted ships in their natural surroundings, but if in the work “In the Narrow Seas” (200) Mr. Norman Wilkinson has given a correct representa-_ tion of the effect produced—and there seems no reason to doubt that this is the case—it is well brought home to the landsman how baffling the effect must have been to the commanders of enemy submarines. ‘In “The Leonardo da Vinci is seen showing a model of his and his Court, amused, and for this the modern airman will find little difficulty in forgiving them. Several of Leader’s beautiful scenes are exhibited. In study- Forerunner ” "flying machine to Ludovico Sforza, Duke of Milan, — Some of the spectators look — The writer has not | a 5 5 Oe a Se ener Cs PE ing “An Autumn Evening” (139) one wonders — what object outside the picture casts a shadow — over the lower part of the trees, while the upper — part is illuminated with an evening glow; but there is no temptation to doubt the truthfulness of the portrayal. Bees: be) D. s Obituary. Capt. E. W. Crea, C.B., F.R.S. Put ETTRICK WILLIAM CREAK, who died in his sleep on April 3, was the | son of the late Commander William Creak, of Norfolk, lock, of Lucknow fame. He joined the Navy in the navigating branch of that Service about the year 1849, and served in various ships afloat until he was selected in 1868 to serve as an assistant in the compass department of the Admir- alty. His service afloat was distinguished not only by his nautical acquirements and the remarks he sent from time to time to the Hydrographer, for which he was specially thanked in 1866, but also by his knowledge of French and music, rather rare acquirements in those days. He was able to add to our knowledge of some unsurveyed NO. 2636, VOL. 105 | and a nephew of Sir H. Have- | localities by his study of surveying operations, particularly by a plan of Ngaloa Bay, in the Fiji Islands, when serving in H.M.S. Esk about 1866. About this time Capt. Creak turned his attention — to the errors of the compass on board certain © ships which had traversed a great range of mag- netic latitude, which inquiry was embodied in a — report to the Admiralty and published by the. This marked him out as a suit- — able officer to be employed in the investigation of — Board of Trade. compass errors in H.M. ships, which were being increasingly constructed of iron and steel, For his services in the compass department and Paar oe) pas. ee Cd his magnetic reports he was made a fellow of the — Royal Society in 1885, and he became superintend- — ent of the Admiralty compass department in 1887. — Capt. Creak took an active part in the deter- mination and control of the constants required for a ee Cn eS May 6, 1920] NATURE 301 reduction of the magnetic observations made y the Challenger expedition, 1872~76, during ich €xpedition it was discovered that the coral ands of Bermuda lay. over a magnetic field in the variation of the compass differed as ; 6°, viz. from 4° W. to nearly 10° W., Variation of the needle being 7° W.; this rtained by swinging the Challenger on bint in deep water close to the islands, $ process was. continued on board that in many other parts of the world, where le variation was affected by local attraction re, so that the results of the shore observa- were not trustworthy; but the Challenger a wooden vessel, although not entirely free ym iron in her construction, better results were tained by swinging her in deep water near the _ The results of the Challenger observations published in vol. ii. of the official narration > voyage, and in vol. ii. of the reports on 1ysics and chemistry of the expedition, where lans, constructed by Creak, are given of the magnetism observed at the Bermuda Islands, and also charts of the variation, inclination, horizontal ree, and vertical force for the epoch 1880, con- ted mainly from the Challenger observations, ined with all other observations available to date of publication. — ‘ “ , a . Ji} tions that at certain 2 sane in the world netic shoals exist which affect the compasses vessels sailing over those shoals. One such near Cossack, in North Australia, was ie he H.M. surveying vessel Meda, in a i of 8 fathoms, with two shore objects sit, and the compass needle was deflected 30° At it one mile. unafuti, another coral atoll in the Pacific, in 8° 30! S., long. 179° 12/ E., another magnetic id exists, where the variation changes nearly and the dip 1°, in different localities, as shown _ the magnetic survey of the atoll made by Admiral Sir A. Mostyn Field in H.M.S, Penguin n 1896, the results being investigated by Capt. Sreak, and published by the Royal Society in go4. Capt. Creak also instructed the officers engaged in the Arctic expedition of 1875~-76 under _ Capt. G. S. Nares, R.N., and prepared the direc- _ tions and magnetic charts for the “ Arctic Manual,” _ 1875. He also prepared the magnetic instruc- tions for the Antarctic expedition of 1901. When, _ owing to his having reached the age of fifty-five, he had to retire from active service afloat in 1890, and to his not having served the number of years afloat to entitle him to be retired with the rank of captain, a special Order in Council was issued giving him that rank, so that his important services in the compass department should not ‘deprive him of the honour he would have received had he served the requisite number of years at sea. During Capt. Creak’s service in the compass _ department the late Lord Kelvin invented a com- pass superior to that then in use in H.M. NO. 2636, VOL. 105 | pt. Creak pointed out in his magnetic .con- .their specific affinities. ships, which was adopted by the Admiralty; but, owing to the increase in the size of the gtins in H.M. ships, this compass was eventually dis- carded for a liquid compass brought out by Capt. Creak, which is now the standard instrument afloat, and is furnished with a special azimuth circle for use in torpedo-boats, destroyers, etc., all other compasses having failed to stand the vibra- tion and motion and the gunfire in these vessels. He also brought out a simple form of instrument for correcting by magnets the heeling errors, and invented the Lloyd-Creak dip and intensity appara- tus, originally meant for observations afloat, but which has been found very useful also on shore. This instrument was fully described in Terrestrial Magnetism for October, 1901. In 1903 Capt. Creak was president of the geo- graphical section of the British Association, and in his presidential address at Southport in that year gave an interesting account of the progress of our knowledge of magnetism both afloat and ashore up to that time, which was published in the Proceedings of the British Association, and also in the Geographical Journal, vol. xxii., 1903. He was made a C.B. in tgo1, in which year he was retired from the compass department at the age of sixty-six. Capt. Creak also assisted the late Sir Frederick Evans and Mr. Archibald Smith in preparing and publishing the “ Elementary Manual for the Deviations of the Compass in Iron Ships ” in 1870, and after the death of Sir F. Evans later editions of that manual were entirely prepared and published by Capt. Creak. In the ninth edition prepared by him in 1895 the question of heeling error and its correction was specially discussed, and tables were given to assist in the correction of quadrantal deviation and the application of the Flinders bar, etc. gee» He. sf Sir Epmunp Gites Loper, Bart. Tue death of Sir Edmund Loder at the age of seventy removes from the ranks of English country gentlemen one of the cultivated members of that class. Possessed of ample means and abundant leisure, Sir Edmund devoted his youth and middle age to field sport and travel in many lands. In the pursuit of big game in four continents his fine marksmanship enabled him to make the very large collection of horned and other trophies now preserved at Leonardslee. He was among the last of British sportsmen to take toll of the dwindling herds of bison in North-west America, and the first European to obtain a specimen of the little desert antelope, named after him, Gazella Loderi, which inhabits the Sahara contentedly without access to water. Were that all, it would scarcely serve to raise Sir Edmund Loder above the common ruck of big- game shooter and globe-trotter; but he possessed and exercised the gift of accurate observation, enabling him to acquire much sound knowledge of the habits of wild animals, and to distinguish Unfortunately, he had 302 NATURE not the knack of recording his experience. Not only was he destitute of all turn for literature, but the mere act of putting pen to paper was intolerably irksome to him. This is the more to be regretted, because the few. papers on zoology and. botany which he contributed to scientific journals contained sound, and sometimes import- ant, information. bens Sir Edmund’s: indolence in this respect had no counterpart in his botanical work, for he took infinite personal pains in the delicate operation of hybridising ~~ rhododendrons. His crowning achievement in that line has been the magnificent cross between R. Griffithianum and R. Fortunei which appropriately bears the name R. Loderi, and is generally admitted to be the grandest hardy hybrid hitherto raised in that genus. The collection of conifers:-which he formed and grew at Leonardslee contained more species than. any other in the United Kingdom. Only a few weeks before Sir Edmund’s death the present writer spent an afternoon with him in the wonderful landscape he had created at Leonardslee.:. The early Asiatic rhododendross were already ablaze; there was no warning in that fair scene; but now comes Horace’s dirge irresistibly to mind :— Linquenda tellus et domus et placens Uxor,- neque harum quas colis arborum Te, praeter invisas cupressus, - Ulla brevem dominum sequetur. HERBERT MAXWELL. - Pror. WILHELM PFEFFER, For.MEm.R.S. W. PFEFFER, who died on January 31 last at Leipzig, was born in 1845 near Cassel, the son of an Apotheker; he studied at a number of German universities, his Ph.D. being taken. at Géttingen. He was first a Privatdozent at Marburg, then assistant-professor at Bonn, and later full professor at Basel; in Switzerland. In 1878 he went to the University of Tibingen, and in 1887 to the University of Leipzig, where he remained for the rest of his life. He was elected a foreign member of the Royal Society in 1897. Pfeffer may be associated with Sachs as the founder of modern plant physiology. He and the late Prof. Strasburger, of Bonn, were for a long time the | two best-known German botanists, and for many years they drew to their respective laboratories numerous foreign workers, particularly from the United States. Pfeffer was the author of many scientific papers, but he is perhaps best known for his “Pflanzenphysiologie,’? of which the first edition appeared in 1880, and the last part of the second edition in 1904; the second edition was translated into English. This handbook was a truly monumental work, in which a wealth of material was dealt with with great critical insight ; hence it was for many years the standard and invaluable reference book on the subject. Pfeffer’s work in 1877 on osmotic pressure, which laid the , foundation of our more exact knowledge of that phenomenon, must also be referred to. With his NO. 2636, VOL. 105] [May 6, 1920. death the three outstanding figures of the older } German botany—Sachs, Strasburger, and Pfeffer _ | —-have all passed away. — . B. ~_—_—— rR Tt It is with much regret we leatn of the death, on February 20, of Mr. Maxwe.t Hatt, Govern- ment ‘Meteorologist of Jamaica. Mr. Maxwell Hall was a barrister-at-law and resident magis- trate for the district of Hanover. His interest in meteorology has placed the knowledge of the weather of Jamaica on a_ better. basis than that of any other West Indian island. He succeeded in establishing a weather service in Jamaica in 1880, the objects being to encourage the recording of rainfall and to foretell the approach of hurricanes. In 1911 rainfall records were available from 194 stations, with observa- tions at each for at least ten years. It is hoped that this fine record of work will not be inter- rupted by the death of its originator. For upwards of thirty years Mr. Maxwell Hall was a fellow of the Royal Meteorological Society. Oh Tue death is announced of Lorp GuTurig, one of the senators of the College of Justice in Scot- land, at seventy-one years of age. Guthrie was admitted to the Faculty of Advocates in 1875, and, after a successful career at the Bar, was appointed a Judge in the Court of Session in 1907. Lord Guthrie was for a time president of the Royal Scottish Geographical Society and chairman of the Early Scottish Text Society. His interest in antiquities led to his election as member of the councils of the Antiquarian and Scottish History Societies. He was joint author of the memoirs of his father, the Rev. T. Guthrie, D.D., founder of the Ragged Schools and editor of the Sunday Magazine. ture he will be best.remembered as a friend in youth of Robert Louis Stevenson, of whose nurse, “Cummy,” he published-an appreciation in 1914.” Memsers of the British Association who have attended any meeting for many years past will learn with regret of the death of Mr. H. C. STEWARDSON, the chief clerk and. assistant treasurer. Mr. Stewardson’s record of devoted work was particularly notable. He entered the service of the association in 1873, being en- couraged to do so by William Spottiswoode, president of the association in 1878, to whom he was apprenticed. in the printing business. The annual reports of the association owe much to his careful reading and indexing, and he was also specially concerned with the work of the Corresponding Societies Committee, and compiled its valuable annual catalogue of communications to local scientific societies. Mr. Stewardson was a member of the Stationers’ Company. y Tue Ricut Hon. Sir Tuomas W. RussgLt, Vice-President of the Department of Agriculture and Technical Instruction for Ireland from 1907 to 1918, died on May 2 in his eightieth year. Charles John In the world of litera- : NATURE Ne re) ! be held in the rooms of the society at Bur- one on Wednesday evening next, May 12. R meeting of the Institution of Naval will be held in Liverpool on July 6-8. for the reading of papers will beheld, and its will be made to visit some of the ai and other works in Liverpool Ry A. Miers, Vice-Chancellor of the Vic- srsity of Manchester, has been re-elected ent of the Manchester Literary and Philo- ical Society for the session 1920-21. Dr. H. F. id and Prof. C. A. Edwards have been elected } secretaries. meeting, arranged by the National Union Workers, will be held on Tuesday next, at 8.30 p.m., at the Imperial College Union, nsort Road, South Kensington, for the dis. of “The Economic Position of Scientific ” The chairman will be Dr. H. M. Atkin- the subject will be introduced es Prof, J. B. d:Dr. J. W. Evans. NRY -BircHEnoucH has been appointed chair- ¢ British Dyes Corporation in succession to Moulton, whose resignation is announced. Sir yas ‘chairman of the Royal Commission on ; of the’ Committee on Cotton-growing i in 97s and of the Advisory Council to’ ‘the struction, 1918. : of fellows of the. _ Royal Sousty and of the University of Cambridge has been - the purpose of collecting funds for a to be erected in Westminster Abbey to the . Rayleigh in recognition of his eminent ser- to- science. Lord Rayleigh was both president yal Society and Chancellor of the University, appeal has been issued by the society and the . It is thought, however, that there may be who may wish to show their appreciation of of the fund, Sir Richard Glazebrook Arthur Schuster, at 63 Grange Road, uncil of the Institution of Civil Engineers le the following awards for papers read and 1 during the session 1919-20 :—Telford gold and Telford premiums to Mr. David Lyell, Robertson, and Major-Gen. Sir Gerard M. a George Stephenson gold medal and a ‘d premium to Mr. Maurice F. Wilson; a Watt medal and a Telford premium to Mr. P. M. waite; and Telford premiums to Major E. O. rici, Sir Francis J. E.- Spring, Mr. F. O. Stan- ; Mr. J. Mitchell, Mr. J W. — and A. R. eau a 4 Cot. SIR Tsonaab Rocers, I.M. S., ies rect ently. returned from India on a year’s leave on. | No. 2636, VoL. 105] en of science unconnected with either of these h’s work. Donations may be sent to the | | medical certificate, on the expiry of ‘which: he will have only a short period of Indian. service remaining before being ‘retired under the age rules. As he has completed the organisation of the Calcutta School of Tropical Medicine for opening next autumn with a full staff, he does not propose to return to’India, but to devote himself to continuing his researches on the treatment of tuberculosis, which have already yielded some promising results in India, and have arisen out of his successful method of treating leprosy by injec- tions of soluble preparations of the unsaturated fatty acids of various oils. AT ‘the annual general meeting of the Marine Bio- logical Association, held in London on April 28, Sir E. Ray Lankester was re-elected president of the association, and Sir Arthur Shipley chairman of council." The Rt. Hon. Sir Arthur Griffith-Boscawen was added to the list of vice-presidents, and Messrs. T. H. Riches and Julian S. Huxley became members of. council for the first time. The council re- ported that donations amounting to 1770]. had. been promised towards the erection of new laboratories and the equipment .of a department of. general physiology. Scientific work at Plymouth during the year had been. specially directed to. a comparison of the condition of the trawling grounds with that which. had been observed before the war, to the continued study of the distribution of post-larval and young adult stages of fishes and the food eaten by fishes when in these stages, and to observations | on the invertebrate fauna, particularly on the ” rate of growth of various organisms. _Tuat the Plumage Bill. was “talked out” in the House. of Commons last Friday is probably due to the fact. that it did not come before the House until the day was far spent. As a private members’ Bill, its chances of. success, should the debate be resumed on some future Friday, are not great. The Hon. E. S. ‘Montagu spoke briefly, and to the point, in its favour, remarking that the Government was extremely anxious to-see the Bill passed into law. He did not believe, he said, that the passing of the measure would destroy any legitimate trade. Lord Aberdeen’s Bill, which is on its way to the Commons, affords yet another chance, though a slender one, for necessary legislative action.. It does not seem to be realised, even by zoologists, that the matter is one of real urgency, not merely for ornithologists, or for those who desire. to protect birds for their own sake, but for all who are concerned with problems of economic zoology and pure science. It is therefore devoutly to be hoped that this matter will at once be taken up by men of science in all seriousness. ‘[heir considered opinion is necessary if any Bill restricting the import of plumage of wild birds is to become law before extermination has set its seal upon a number of species which are well within the * danger-zone.”’ Tue need has long been felt for a corporate body analogous to the Institute of Chemistry which would represent the profession and strengthen the position of -workers engaged in physics, and would also form a bond between the various societies interested. The 304 NATURE [May 6, 1920 Institute of Physics has beén founded for this pur- pose by the co-operation in the first instance of the Faraday Society, the Optical Society, and the Physical Society of London; and the first board is constituted from representatives appointed by the councils of these societies. It is hoped that in the course of time other societies will associate themselves with the institute. There will be three classes of members: Ordinary members, associates (A.Inst.P.), and fellows (F.Inst.P.). Only the two latter classes, membership of which will require full professional qualifications, will be corporate members. The institute has already ' received promises of support from leading physicists, and the initial expenses are covered by a guarantee fund amounting to more than 1200l. dent of the institute is Sir Richard Glazebrook, Sir Robert Hadfield is treasurer, and Prof. A. W. Porter honorary secretary.. The other members of. the board are :—Dr. H. S. Allen, Inst.-Commander T. Y. Baker, R.N., Prof. F. J. Cheshire, Dr. R. S. Clay, Mr. W. R. Cooper, Prof. W. H. Eccles, Major E. O. Henrici, Dr. C. H. Lees, Mr. C. C. Paterson, Major C. E. S. Phillips, Dr. E. H. Rayner, Mr. T. Smith, and Mr. R. S. Whipple. Mr. F. S. Spiers has been ‘appointed secretary to the institute, and further par- ticulars and forms of application for membership may be obtained from him at to Essex Street, Strand, W.C.2. DurING the last ten years important research work on the corrosion of metals, and particularly on con- denser tubes, has been carried on by the Corrosion Research Committee, which was founded under the auspices.of the Institute of Metals. Very considerable progress in the study of this difficult subject has been made by the investigators acting under the direction of the committee, and the five reports which have been issued contain most valuable information, both as to the factors which influence corrosion and as to the methods of preventing corrosion, especially in the case of marine condenser tubes. The financial support of the investigations has been provided partly by the Institute of Metals and partly by the makers of tubes and of condensers. More recently a grant has been received from the Department of Scientific and Indus- trial Research. The cost of the investigations is, how- ever, considerable, and the committee now makes an appeal for further funds from the users of tubes and condensers, who are equally interested in the question with the manufacturers. The continuance of a Government grant is contingent on a sufficient sum being provided by persons interested in the research. The persons affected by the work include shipbuilders and shipowners and also the insurers of ships, and it is hoped that a sum of something like t1oool. per annum can be raised from this source. Particulars of the work may be obtained from the secretary of the Institute of Metals, 36 Victoria Street, Westminster, London. Ar the annual general meeting of the Institution of Civil Engineers held on Tuesday, April 27, the result of the ballot for the election of officers for the year 1920-21 was. declared as follows :—President : ‘NO. 2636, VOL. 105 | The first presi- ~ Mr. J. A. Brodie. Vice-Presidents: Mr. W. B. Worthington, Dr. W.°H. Maw, Mr. C. L. Morgan, and Mr. Basil Mott. Other Members of Couneil- Mr. E. A. S. Bell, Dr. C. C. Carpenter, Col. R. E. Be Crompton, Mr. M. Deacon, Sir Archibald Denny, Bart., Sir William H. Ellis, Mr. A. Gordon, Mr. W. W. Grierson, Sir Robert A.. Hadfield, Bart., Sir Brodie H. Henderson, Mr. E. P. Hill, Mr. G. W. Humphreys, Mr. Summers Hunter, Mr. H. G. Kelley,.Mr. C. R. S. Kirkpatrick, Mr. J. March- banks, Mr. H. H. G. Mitchell, Sir Henry J. Oram, Mr. F. Palmer, Capt. H. Riall Sankey, Sir John F, C. Snell, Mr. W. A. P. Tait, Mr. A. M. Tippett, Mr. E. F. C. Trench, Prof. W. H. Warren, and Sir Alfred F. Yarrow, Bart. on the first Tuesday in November next. THE annual meeting of the members of the Royal Institution was held on May 1, Sir James Crichton Browne, treasurer and vice-president, in the chair. The annual report of the Committees of Visitors for the year 1919, testifying to the continued prosperity and efficient management of the institution, was read and adopted, and the report of the Davy Faraday | This council will tales Office | Research Laboratory Committee was dlso read. — Sixty-four new members were elected during the year, — and sixty-two lectures. and nineteen evening dis- courses were delivered. The following “gentlemen were unanimously elected as officers. for the ensuing year :—President: The Duke of Northumberland. Treasurer: Sir James Crichton Browne. Secretary: es E, H. Hills. Managers; Dr. Horace T. Brown, — J..H. Balfour Browne, Mr. J. Y. Buchanan, Me Burdett-Coutts, Sir James J. Dobbie, Dr. J. Dundas Grant, Dr. Donald W. C. Hood, the Right Hon. Earl Iveagh, Mr. Moon, the Hon. Sir Charles Parsons, Sir James Reid, Bart., Sir Ernest Rutherford,. the Right Hon. C. Scott-Dickson, and Sir Henry Wood. Visitors: Sir Hugh Bell, Bart., Sir William H. Bennett, Mr. W. R. Bousfield, Mr. J. G. Bristow, Dr. Frank Clowes, Mr. Montague Ellis, Mr. W. E. Lawson Johnston, Mr. J. R. Leeson, Mr. T. B. Lightfoot, Mr. F. K. McClean, Mr. W. S. Norman, Mr. H. M. Ross, Mr. J. Shaw, Mr: T. H. Sewerage Sir Almroth Wright. — a Ae Ar the anniversary dinner of the Royal Acidansy ‘of Arts, held on May 1, the president, Sir Aston Webb, in proposing the toast of ‘‘ Science,” remarked that to science and scientific research in medicine and surgery they were indebted for the marvellous record of free- dom from disease and saving of life which was one of the most wonderful and gratifying chapters in the war. To the physicist and engineer were due much of the work done in connection with aircraft, tanks, submarines, and guns, the wonderful work done in sound-ranging for submarines, the location of aircraft and guns by sound; but it was impossible to give any list of all that was done, and still less the names of the men of science who thus helped their country in its time of urgent need. The president coupled the toast with the name of Sir Joseph Thom-. son, who, in replying, said that the qualities of mind — > Se -H. R. Kemps, Sir Ernest 5, 1920] NATURE 305 scalded into play by the artist were in many identical: with those used by. the man of _ Imagination and observation were vital to discovery. The artist and the man of science rned with the same subject—the study of various aspects. While it was vital for ygzress of this country that the application of to. -industry should receive every encourage- id assistance, yet they ought not to neglect 0, forsaking the trade routes of the great _ steered their little ships to uncharted seas g pack to us the golden fleece. pis Bosr gave a very interesting lecture University of London Club on Thursday even- ril 29, on his well-known experiments on its in plants. He has applied the methods nental physics to the study of tropic plant s, and, beginning with methods which | the growth one hundred times, has finally, is high magnification crescograph, reached ations of more than ten million. This in- t uses the principle of a fine magnetised lever $ a magnetic needle and so demonstrating the movement of an attached mirror. By method very delicate growth responses of the could be shown, and its relative sensitivity yeeoet conditions compared. . One of the most general conclusions was that indirect ; causes | ‘an increase of growth, while direct lus of a plant organ causes a decrease of growth ontraction. In this way positive, negative, and responses to gravitation or light on the part organ were explained as the result of various s of response to direct and indirect Sir Jagadis Bose’s crescograph is so re- ‘sensitive that doubt was recently expressed reality of its indications as regards plant ‘and the suggestion was made that the effects it were due to physical changes. A demon- it University College, London, on April 23, rer, led Lord Rayleigh and Profs. Bayliss, Blackman, A. J. Clark, W. C. Clinton, and Donnan to state, in the Times of May 4: ‘We ed that the growth of plant tissues is ; recorded by this instrument and at a imag 1 of from one to ten million times.” Sir . Bragg and Prof. F. W. Oliver, who have aettler demonstrations elsewhere, give like testi- that the crescograph shows actual response of plant tissues to stimulus. ‘Furrner news from Capt. Roald PRONE con- s the belief expressed in Nature of April 22 and that he had not abandoned his North Polar ew, and to receive mails. A long despatch pub- hed in the Times of May 1 gives some details of » fortunes of the expedition and explains the change plans. The Maud left her winter quarters in the ; late as September 12, 1919. It was necessary to NO. 2636, VOL. 105] mey. His object in calling at Nome, Alaska, in ta ‘evidently to secure more supplies, add to his ordenskjéld archipelago west of Cape Chelyuskin blast a channel through about one and a half miles - of solid floe six to nine feet thick; . Until the Taimir peninsula was cleared pack offered some obstruction, but to the eastward the sea proved to, be fairly open, The lateness of the season was in Amundsen’s favour in this part of his journey, and he was no doubt trusting to former accounts of-open water in Sep- tember. The Maud sailed east through Laptev Strait between the New Siberia Islands and the mainland and then turned north-east for Jeannette Island, but was stopped by tight pack in lat. 73°.N. Amundsen made fast to the floes, intending to begin his drift, | but on finding that the pack was nearing south he had to abandon his attempt. He decided. to winter on the coast of Siberia, and after a passage rendered dan- gerous by ice and. darkness. reached Aion Island, Chaun Bay. One member of the expedition spent the winter with the Chukchee, who inhabit the in- terior of this part of north-eastern Siberia, in order to study their customs. Two men sent overland to the small trading village of Nizhne-Kolimsk with despatches for home turned back at Sukharnoe, a village at the mouth of the Kolima, with news that all communications with Europe were cut off. Amundsen hopes to reach Nome in July or August, and, if not too late in the season, to return north and enter the ice about gl adie Island for his five years’ drift. WirH reference to the note in Nature of April 15, p- 210, upon the laboratory of applied psychology connected with a well-known institute of mind-train- ing, the director informs us that the fees charged are very considerably less than the cost of the tests performed or the scientific advice given, and that the laboratory is projecting the publication of research papers giving details of the work done, so that the world of science in general will be able to examine the methods adopted and the results obtained. WirTH the return to peace the increased cost of production has made it necessary to devise a new scheme for the publication of the ‘‘ Victoria History of the Counties of England.’’? Hitherto no order for fewer than ten volumes relating to a single county has © been accepted, but it has been found by experience that there is a considerable demand for separate articles on special subjects. It has therefore been decided to issue the -History, both that portion which has already been published and the remainder which is in preparation, in separate parts. Each part will include a single hundred, wapentake, or borough, and persons interested in the history, archzeology, or economics of a special area will be able to procure what they require within a single cover. The new arrangements seem well adapted to popularise a work which has already taken the rank of a standard authority on the subjects with which it deals. Sir THomas Murr, the well-known mathematician, and until lately Superintendent-General of Education in Cape Colony, has recently made a splendid gift to the South African Public Library, Cape Town. It con- sists of about 2500 books and pamphlets, collected by the donor in the course of many years, and it includes a number of serials, sets of which are now almost un- 306 NATURE [May 6, 1920 procurable. As might be expected, there is an un- usually complete group of works on determinants and allied topics. The gift is of special interest because it is made to a public library. Several of our college and university libraries have been enriched by similar donations (e.g. there is the Graves collection at Uni- versity College, London). The time has come when we may hope that the reference departments of our rate-supported town libraries will be strengthened in a similar. way. Of course, mathematics is not the only subject deserving attention; natural science, history, archeology, economics, etc., all have a claim to be considered. Anyone who cares to examine the present record of public research libraries will be con- ° vinced that such gifts as that of Sir Thomas Muir are not likely to be wasted. he : . THE meeting of the Physical Society of London on March 26 took the form of a discussion on Einstein’s theory of relativity. Prof. A. S, Eddington opened with an explanatory lecture. Prof. A. O. Rankine described experiments undertaken in collaboration with Dr. Silberstein on the influence of a gravita- tional field on the velocity of light polarised in a plane parallel to the field; the results of the experi- ment were in accord with the theory. Sir Joseph Larmor contributed a paper in the course of which he remarked that ‘‘the unresolvable essence of rela- tivity appears to be that we cannot get on without some foundation to which phenomena are referred, and with respect to which they are ordered to the degree that is necessary for our reasonings.’’ Refer- ence was made also to the close relation between the theory and the fundamental principle of least action. That principle furnishes the most concise and elegant means of comprehending Einstein’s theory. Here Helmholtz was a pioneer, not only in his grasp of physical principles, but also in his appreciation of the true nature of geometry. The searching question was asked: ‘‘ How is it that astronomers since Newton’s time have persisted in one special and very precise illusion about the distribution of gravitation, whereas really an unlimited choice is open?’ Several speakers raised questions about the interpretation of the Michelson-Morley experiment, indicating that the explanations offered both by Lorentz and by Einstein still remain unconvincing to many physicists. THERE are many chemists, and doubtless other scientific workers, who, busy with their everyday duties, have not been able to follow closely the pro- gress made during the last few years in the study of atomic structure, and would welcome a _ con- nected survey of recent experiments and present . views. Hence attention may be directed to an address by Prof. A. Berthoud on ‘The Structure of Atoms,” a translation of which appears in the Chemical News of April 9 and 16. This gives, in simple language, a very readable account of the matter. It shows the connections which have been traced between the phenomena of radio-activity, isotopy, atomic numbers, Moseley’s law, Bohr’s theory, and the spectra of the elements; and it indicates to what extent the funda- mental characters of atomic structure may now be NO. 2636, VOL. 105 | regarded as known, however much of detail may still be waiting for the sagacity of the investigator to fill in. Messrs. ILForD, Ltp., in issuing a second edition of their well-known booklet on ‘‘ Panchromatism,’’ have taken the opportunity of revising it and making some important additions. sections explains the nature of three-colour photo- graphy, in which is demonstrated the fact that in three-colour half-tone’ prints, granting the use of satis- factory inks, the result is the same whether the dots are side by side or superposed. The variability of so- called ‘“‘white light”. is treated of, the table of the multiplying. factors of colour-filters is greatly | extended, and a considerable number of new filters are described. The most novel and interesting of these last are the ‘‘photographic-vision” filters, which have transmissions that correspond with the — sensitiveness of an orthochromatic or panchromatic plate, and therefore, when looked through, give the object or landscape the appearance that it will have when photographed on the plate that it matches, | The effect of any colour-filter on the photograph is. seen at once by putting the filter together with the ‘‘photographic-vision ”’ filter in front of the eye. The pricé of the booklet is 6d., or post free od. Messrs. A. GALLENKAMP AND Co., Lrp., have for- warded us a copy of their list (No. 72) of graduated ~ instruments for volumetric analysis. These include burettes, pipettes, graduated cylinders, and various kinds of measuring flasks for use in the chemical and physical laboratory; we do not, however, notice pyknometers in the list. The instruments are made in three qualities, depending upon the degree of accuracy required. Those intended for research and The largest of the new as. LT ae ee special work (Grade A) are graduated according to the regulations laid down by the International Con- gress of 1909. Apparatus of the next quality (Grade B) is intended for specially accurate com- mercial analysis; and that in Grade C is suitable for ordinary technical determinations and general school- work. It is satisfactory to know that our makers of scientific glassware are endeavouring to meet the requirements of all users, including those of research workers. Whilst writing on this subject we may note that, from a report appearing in the Journal of the Society of Glass Technologists (December, 1919), there is a movement in Germany to restrict and standardise the shapes and sizes of glass vessels such as beakers, flasks, retorts, cylinders, and crystal- — lising dishes in order to eliminate unnecessary diver- _ sity and facilitate replacement. The proposed standard dimensions are quoted at length. Messrs. H. K. Lewis anp Co., Lrp., 136 Gower Street, W.C.1, have just issued a list (dated April) of new books and new editions added to their medical and scientific circulating library during January, February, and March of the present year. Being very comprehensive and carefully classified, it should be useful to all who wish to keep abreast of current scientific literature. Copies can be obtained free of charge upon application to the publishers. _ re eer ee: ey ad ———————— “May 6, 1920] NATURE 307 Our Astronomical Column. Tue Lunar Ecuirse.—On the whole this eclipse seen under favourable weather conditions, though a time there was drifting cloud. The eclipsed rtion was easily visible, being at first of a greenish and later assuming the familiar coppery hue. _ Burnet had prepared a list of stars occulted ¢ totality; they were few, and faint, and only | these phenomena was observed at Greenwich. will not be another total lunar eclipse visible mdon with the moon at a considerable altitude November 7, 1938, which is a much longer al than usual. © NaTuRE OF PHoroGrRapHic ImaGEs.—Dr. Ken- director of the Research Institute of the nan Kodak Co., New York, gave an address at meeting of the British Astronomical Association April 28 on the nature of photographic images. Ous points were raised that are of importance in application of photography to astrophysics. Thus the extra-focal determination of stellar magnitudes demonstrated that stars of different colours it have their magnitudes arranged in a different *, according to the exposures given and the per employed. ified sections of films were thrown on the luminous object caused an elevation of the film, but other developers a depression. In either case the in the neighbourhood suffers strain (sometimes the point of cracking), so that images of faint stars ar a bright one are subject to displacement. Prof. imner noted some time ago an apparent displace- ent of a star near a réseau line which was prob- ably due to this cause. It is possible to minimise the effect by a judicious choice of developer. ‘The address contained many other hints of a practical nature; it will be publis in the B.A.A. Journal for April. The Astronomer-Royal, proposing a vote of thanks, said that photography was the only way of obtaining ‘information about the fainter stars in bulk. While some of the phenomena described by the lecturer were a little disquieting, the careful analysis of their origin and effects could not fail to be of great value. _ Tue Binary Krurcer 60.—This system is of par- - ticular intérest as being one of our nearest neigh- Fy found for any star. Astronomical Journal, No. 767, contains researches on the parallax, proper motion, and orbit made at the Leander McCormick Observa- tory by S. A. Mitchell and C. P. Olivier. They find for the relative parallax 0-266"+0-009". Combining this with the determinations of Barnard, Schlesinger, and Russell, and adding 0-005" as the estimated value _ for the comparison stars, the absolute value 0-261” + 0-006" results. ____ Their orbit makes the period nearly fifty years, a being 2:68", or 10 astronomical units. Hence the combined ‘mass is 0-42 in terms of the sun. The ratio of masses of the two components is still uncertain; three esti- mates are 0:35, 0°53, and 0:83. Taking it as o5, the faint component is 1/7th of the sun in mass, while it is only 1/2500th of it in luminosity. Prof. Eddington considered that the minimum mass necessary for the attainment of a stellar state may not be much below _1/7th of the sun. ; It is pointed out that the photographs of the close _ pair give as good results as visual measures, while for the distant optical component, observed for the purpose of deducing the relative masses, they are more accurate. Comparisons continued for another twenty- _ five years should give a satisfactory determination both of the orbit and the mass-ratio. ae NO. 2636, VOL. 105] a en, showing that with some developers the image _ bours, and since the comes has the smallest mass yet. Leonardo da Vinci.! By Epwarp McCurpy. AMONG the greater names in the history of Italian art some are found to be pivotal by reason of the influence of their work upon that of other artists. Giotto and Masaccio are the most conspicuous instances. among the earlier masters. Giotto created the scientific basis of the naturalism of the art of the Renaissance by contrast with the decorative symbolism of the earlier art of Byzantium. Masaccio reinforced these tenets with noteworthy access of realism in the frescoes in the Church of the Carmine in Florence. The names of Antonio Pollaiuolo and Andrea Verrocchio serve to indicate how in Florentine art of the Quattrocento the study of structure gained new scientific precision from anatomical research. Piero de’ Franceschi reveals a deeper knowledge of the various problems of perspective, arrangement, and light and shade in his works at Arezzo than was pos- sessed by any of his contemporaries, but the influence which his work would naturally exert was restricted by reason of its remoteness from the greater centres of art training. ; The divergent aims of this small band, who may be termed the upholders of the scientific tradition in’ Italian art, are realised with singular completeness in the work of Leonardo da Vinci. Born in the year 1452, the illegitimate son of a Florentine notary, descended from a long line of Florentine notaries, having shown, according to Vasari, marvellous talent as a boy in the art of design, he was placed by his father in the studio of Andrea Verrocchio, who is described by the same writer as at once goldsmith, master of perspective, sculptor, inlayer of woods, painter, and musician. It was apparently a sort of clearing-house for ideas for the art world of Florence, and there Leonardo became acquainted with Botti- celli and Perugino. His apprenticeship had ceased in 1472, for in that year his name occurs in the Red Book of the Guild of Painters of Florence. In the year 1483 Leonardo, being then in his thirty- second year, left Florence and went to Milan, where he entered the service of Ludovic Sforza. Making all possible allowance for what may have been lost, the sum total of his work in art up to this time is astonishingly small as covering the period from his apprenticeship to his thirty-second year. Already in his few pictures the detailed treatment of the herbage, the gradation of the light, the presentment of muscle and tendon, all reveal the scientific study of the laws which. defined their structure. The inference is irre- sistible that while still at Florence he had com- menced those studies of natural and applied science the rumour of which, superimposed upon the fame of his artistic work, caused his name to be endowed among his contemporaries with a half-legendary uni- versality. Some of the forms of this nascent activity are enumerated by Vasari. I quote from the transla- tion by Mr. Herbert Horne :— “In architecture he made many drawings, both of plans as of other projections of buildings; and he was the first, although a mere youth, that put forward the project of reducing the River Arno to a navigable channel from Pisa to Florence. He. made designs for flour-mills, fulling-mills, and machines which might be driven by the force of water... . “And he was for ever making models and designs to enable men to remove mountains with facilitv, and to bore them in order to pass from one level to another; and by means of levers, and cranes, and screws he showed how great weights could be lifted and drawn; together with methods of emptying 1 From a discourse delivered at the Royal Institution on Friday, March 19- 308 NATURE: harbours and pumps for drawing up water from low places, all which his brain never ceased from inventing.’”’ In the famous draft of a letter to Ludovic Sforza, in the Codice Atlantico, written presumably imme- diately on his arrival in Milan, Leonardo offers his services in the capacity of military or naval engineer, detailing the various inventions of which he possesses the secret, and offering to make trial of any, either in the ducal park or in whatsoever place might please his Excellency, in case any of the said inventions should seem to be _ impossible. If natural in- credulity, which the writer of the letter apparently expected to meet with, by reason of the scope and variety of the inventions, which comprise pontoons, scaling-ladders, cannon or bombards, mines, covered chariots, catapults, mengonels, and smoke-powders, should dispose any to look on the list merely as a piece of rodomontade, it may be observed that the contents of Leonardo’s manuscripts at Paris and Milan fully substantiate every claim contained in the letter. The position which Leonardo desired to occupy under Ludovic Sforza was not very unlike that of military engineer and inspector of fortresses which he occupied at a later period in the service of Ceasar Borgia. The concluding paragraphs of the letter to Ludovic Sforza refer to Leonardo’s readiness to be employed in the arts of peace—in architecture as a designer of both public and private buildings, in the construc- tion of watercourses, in painting, and in sculpture, whether of marble, bronze, or clay, and especially in the execution of the equestrian statue of Francesco Sforza, upon which he laboured intermittently for sixteen years. The extent and fervency of the re- searches that he considered necessary, which com- prised studies of various antique equestrian statues, and numerous notes on the proportions of particular horses, as well as a treatise on the anatomy of the horse, were such that the very desire of perfection prevented the execution of the work. As Vasari says, quoting Petrarch’s line: ‘‘L’opera fosse ritardata dal desio.’”? The monk, Sabba da Castiglione, who was present when the French entered Milan in 1499, records the fact of the destruction of the clay model under the arrows of the Gascon _bow- men. The statue ranked with Donatello’s Gatta- melata at Padua and Verrocchio’s Bartolommeo Col- leone at Venice as one of the three great examples: of equestrian statues of the Italian Renaissance. So far as it is possible to form an opinion from the very numerous studies in the Royal Collection at Windsor, it would seem to have been in advance of both the others in freedom and vigour of movement. The sequence of studies shows a change of purpose from the attitude of the horse galloping to that of it walking. Leonardo says in a note in one of his manuscripts, ‘‘The trot is almost the nature of the free horse.” : f Few paintings are now in existence the execution of which can be connected with Leonardo’s first period of residence in Milan. The most im- portant of these is the haunting ruin of the Last Supper.. The paucity of the list, even allowing for the inevitable mischances of time, confirms the testi- mony of Sabba da Castiglione, who says that, besides the Last Supper, few other works in painting by Leonardo were to be seen at Milan in the middle of. the sixteenth century, ‘‘ because when he ought to have attended to painting, in which without doubt he would have proved a new Apelles, he gave himself entirely to geometry, architecture, and anatomy.” The external history of ‘his life is sharply divided by circumstances into three periods. First the early years at Florence. Then: his life at Milan under NO. 2636, VOL. 105 | [May 6, 1920 Ludovic Sforza. The third period was that of the Odyssey of wanderings commenced on his leavin, Milan with Fra Luca Paciolo two months after the flight of Ludovic Sforza, and extended for the remaining twenty years of his life. 1 AG aa ie At Venice, as Leonardo’s manuscripts* show, he | studied the tides of the Adriatic, and apparently pre- ch pared a scheme for flooding part of the Veneto in — order to stem the Turkish invasion, and also an apparatus by which it would be possible to approach — the Turkish galleys under water. A note in the Codice Atlantico tells of his hurried departure from Florence to travel in the Romagna as architect and military engineer in the service of Czsar Borgia. His manuscripts refer to works planned at Urbino, Cesena, and Porto Cesenatico. But the office ended with the rebellion of the Duchy, and in March, 1503, _ Leonardo was once more back in Florence. There he was employed to divert the channel of the Arno, — in connection with the war with Pisa. He painted at this time the portrait of Madonna Lisa del Giocondo, the world-famous Mona Lisa, and also the cartoon for the Battle of Anghiari. His work on this com- position was interrupted by an invitation to Milan, — and this led to his entering the service of French. Louis XII. refers to him in a letter to the Signoria as ‘‘our painter and engineer in ordinary.’’ He consulted him as to the conduit in the ga the Chateau of Blois, and employed him on hydr: ; work in Lombardy. It was probably in May, 1509, — when Louis XII. made a triumphal entry into Milan after the victory of Agnadello, that Leonardo con- structed as part of the pageant an automatic lion which walked a few paces and then, opening its breast, revealed it full of lilies. There was much study of anatomy with Marc Antonio della Torre at this period, and his intercourse with French artists is shown by a note to inquire from Jean de Paris the method of painting in tempera, but he did not engage in any great artistic work. By aot Fane | In the year 1512 the French lost Milan, and after the re-entry of the Sforzas, in the person of the young Maximilian, there is no record of Leonardo’s further ° | > - ~ =F ic c 2 Seg employment. On September 24 in the following year — he set out from Milan to Rome with his assistants, — and was there lodged in the Belvedere of the Vatican. According to Vasari, the Pope gave him a commis- sion, and then was indignant because he began by experimenting with the varnish. The practice of painting, however, had no more than a secondary interest for him. His manuscripts reveal him as engaged in studies in optics, acoustics, and geometry, studying geology in the Campagna, improving the method of coining at the Mint at Rome, busy with engineering work at Civita Vecchia, and in studying ~ anatomy at the hospital, for which last-named pursuit he was denounced to the Pope by one of his appren- tices. He seems to have gone with the Papal army ~ to Bologna, where in December, 1515, the Concordat was held between the Pope and Francis I., and a month later he accompanied the king on his return to France with the office of “his painter and | engineer,’ being given as a residence the Chateau of A Cloux, near Amboise, where he died on May 2, 1519. A record of a visit paid to him at Cloux by the — Cardinal of Aragon on October 10, 1517, makes special mention of the anatomical drawings, and the — diarist states that Leonardo told the visitors that in — preparation for these he had dissected more than thirty bodies. They saw also his treatise on the nature of water, and others on various machines, there, being, as it appeared, ‘‘an endless number of volumes, all in the vulgar tongue, which if they. be published will be profitable and very delectable.”’ pai ¥ The activities of Leonardo’s mind. fall naturally into 4 4 NATURE 399 found expression, either mainly or in part, in| work and ¢hose revealed only in his. The first category comprises painting, architecture, and engineering. In painting to instance the fresco of the Last Supper > trait of Mona Lisa, each of its type. s all works of the Renaissance, and ver to appraise in its union of technical the inevitability of supreme art. In forza statue, the master-work of his) , lives only in the drawings which faint index of its power. is no outstanding memorial. ore Cook, in his elaborate study of spiral *The Curves of Life,’’? has collected a ray of evidence in favour of attributing the design for the open spiral staircase in | of Blois. The documentary evidence is t the date of construction is known to between the years 1516 and 1519, and was then living a few miles distant in the 2 of Cloux, near Amboise. A spiral stair- ‘-s in one of Leonardo’s drawings for a ver, and he made many studies of spiral urring in Nature, in shells, in smoke, The staircase at Blois is ntly modelled on Voluta vespertilio, a shell m on the coast of northern Italy. The theory s attractions. It supplies an example of a architecture emanating from the brain of and this a work of supreme distinction. of his api & as an engineer are con- schemes of canalisation in Florence, | with the diversion of the Arno a war measure; and in Friuli, in ances, he devised movable sluices nt the advance of the Turks across Je made canals in Lombardy for pur- , and also aqueducts to improve the Milan; and the canal of Romorantin, hh he made plans when in France, was © connect the waters of the Loire and the al list of Leonardo’s activities in the con- | struments of warfare figures in the letter forza. He says there: “I can make as safe and immune from attack which ssage through the enemy with their owever great the multitude of the they will be able to break through. the infantry will be able to follow and without hindrance.” d wagon is seen ready for action in the British Museum. It is moved on a sketch of the lower half shows the y, but it is not possible to discern the motive power. The use of the ym in order to open up a passage enemy, as described above, is identical ‘of the tank in the late war. The manu- ‘a strangely prophetic insight in regard developments of recent warfare, namely, nd submarining. do contemplated the use of poisonous gas ers in naval warfare for the purpose of ng the enemy, and told how to make a simple e mask. He also contemplated the con- —as happened on occasions in Flanders—of verse wind causing the poison to recoil upon sers. The passage, which occurs in MS. B Paris manuscripts, is entitled “How to throw in the form of powder upon ships.” “By means of catapults,’’ he says, “a mixture of dered quicklime, arsenic, and verdigris may be ! No. 2636, VOL. 105] 2 thrown upon the ships of the enemy, and all who inhale the powder will die. “But take care that the wind is favourable, lest it blow the powder back upon you, and be sure you have a fine piece of damp cloth to cover the nose and mouth in order that the powder may not enter.”’ In the Leicester manuscript (folio 22b) he foretells the horrors of submarine warfare, and refuses to impart any information as to the machine which he has constructed lest it should serve to bring them _ about : In architec- . ‘How by means of a certain machine many people may stay some time under water. How and why I do not describe my method of remaining under water, or how long I can remain without eating; and I do not publish or divulge this because of the evil nature of men. who would use them as means of destruction at the bottom of the sea by smashing the ships in the keel and sinking them together with the men in them. | But I will impart others which are not dangerous, because the mouth of the tube by which you breathe appears above the water supported on leather bottles or corks.’’ In connection with this passage reference may be made to one in MS. B of the Paris manuscripts entitled ‘‘A Way of Escaping in a Tempest or Ship- wreck at Sea,’’ in which Leonardo tells how to con- struct a coat of leather of double thickness which will be capable of being inflated when necessary, and thus of serving as a life-saving jacket in case of emergency. Senatore Luca Beltrami associates the former of these passages with the Turkish war. Leonardo, as a reference to his manuscript shows, had been em- ployed in the construction of a movable dam which should enable the line of the Isonzo to be flooded in the defence of the Veneto against the Turkish in- vasion. The reference is to the construction of sub- marine boats in order to sink the Turkish galleys in , the Gulf of Venice ‘‘by smashing the ships in the keel and sinking them together with the men in them.’”? Leonardo considers this to be justifiable, because it is an act of defence ‘for the safety of our Italian lands" (‘‘delli nostre parti italiche’’); but he will not give any details of the construction of his submarine craft in which it would be possible to remain under water for four hours, because he is fearful of the evil use to which it might be put in future times. (To be continued.) Public Support of Scientific Research. cy! Wednesday, April 28, a public meeting was held at Birkbeck College to hear an address from Prof. F. Soddy on ‘“‘The Public Support of Scientific Research.” Mr. H. G. Wells, who took the chair, claimed that everything in which the world of to-day differed from that of years ago was due to science and the scientific worker. Prof. Soddy ex- pressed his regret that the greater encouragement of scientific research during the war had not resulted in any appreciable improvement in the position of pure science, which was the tree of which applied— industrial and trade—science were the fruits. He deprecated the exploitation of science by financiers and commercial men and its employment to increase the indebtedness to them of those who had done the creative work of the world. The scheme framed by the Govérnment to foster scientific research en- ‘deavoured to place the man of science who was to do the work under the same type of men—often the same men—as had thwarted progress in the past. The change from gross inefficiency in- the medical 310 NATURE | May 6, i920 * services in the Boer War to singular efficiency in. the late war was due to change in the status of the Army medical officers and to their liberation from the misdirection of unqualified superiors. This was possible only because of the great strength of the professional union of medical men. A similar strong professional union comprising every qualified man_ of science was necessary before science ceased to be misdirected and used to the hurt rather than to the good of the community. Not a single chemist was included in the direc- torate of the national scheme for the manufacture of British dyes when it was announced, although the taxpayer contributed 2,000,000/., a portion of which was to be expended in research. The cause of the success of the German industry was that it was under scientific direction from end to end. Prof. Soddy complained that the benefaction of Mr. Carnegie to foster scientific study and research at the Scottish universities had been diverted to the general main- tenance of the universities. At one time none of the trustees were men of science, and the secretary was now the administrative chairman of the Government Department of Scientific and Industrial Research. That Department allocated a million to industrial research associations in the form of a capital grant, over which Parliament was powerless, whereas researches in the fields of pure science, from which directly flowed all the useful applications, were put on the yearly Parliamentary Estimates. The research associations were becoming water-tight concerns to eliminate competitors, and the interests neither of the public nor of the scientific worker were protected. Representatives both of trained scientific workers and of organised labour should be included in the coun- cils and executive committees of the research associa- tions. At the same time, Prof. Soddy urged that representatives of democratically constituted associa- tions of scientific workers should be placed on the Council of the Department, of which it should be the governing body. He declared his belief that co-operation would replace ‘competition; but this co- operation depended upon a dominance of individuals of intellect and knowledge—not over men, but over Nature; for the struggle of man against Nature was, in the first instance, a duel fought by lonely men in the furthest outposts of knowledge, finding a path where all before had turned back beaten and befogged. In the discussion which followed Sir William Bragg urged that as science slowly established its position and men of science reached a condition of greater equity, responsibility came with it, and they must work and learn to handle greater and greater things, so that they might take their part in everything that was done in the State. He expressed his apprecia- tion of the assistance he had received from the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research. | American Agricultural Research. RECENT numbers of the Journal of Agricultural Research (vol. xviii., Nos. and 8) contain several articles dealing with plant physiology and with insect pests. Plants grown in water-culture are not ' able to withstand such high concentrations of nutrient salts without showing toxic effects as are plants grown in. sand or soil. In the latter case the presence of solid particles, which cause a considerable amount of absorption, has much to do with this reduction of toxicity, but J. A. Le Clerc and J. F. Breazeale have shown that the effect is also partly due to certain soluble substances which are sometimes present NO. 2636, VOL, 105 | ¢ in very small quantities. Traces of calcium oxide and calcium sulphate do much to overcome the toxicity of sodium chloride and sédium sulphate, but the various other salts tested had no ameliorating action. — The lime, however, does not seem to prevent the entrance of the sodium chloride or sulphate into the plant-cells, and therefore its antagonistic action would appear to be due to some undetermined cause rather than to its effect upon the permeability of the cells. The question of the physiological balance of the salts necessary for plant nutrition is many-sided, and J. W. Shive approaches it from the point of view of the relation of the moisture in solid substrata to the physiological salt-balance and to the relative plant-— producing value of various salt proportions. nder his experimental conditions the physiological value of salt solutions was not affected by the degree of mois-_ ture present, and that which was best with the lowest moisture-content was also the best with the medium and the highest degrees of moisture... Nevertheless, — an optimum moisture-content is necessary to produce maximum growth, and the actual plant-producing value of any fertiliser treatment is largely determined — by the moisture conditions of the substratum. ~ It is customary to subject cereal seeds to treatment by hot water or various chemicals in order to control plant diseases when their presence on the seed is known or suspected. Such treatments are not effec- tive in every case, as measures that are sufficiently drastic to cut out the disease often result in destroying the viability of the seed. D. Atanasoff and A. G. Johnson find that these difficulties may be largely overcome by the use of dry heat for disinfection, as such cereals as barley, wheat, rye, and oats are able to withstand protracted exposures to dry heat at com-— paratively high temperatures, especially if the seed is of good quality and well dried. The method has proved successful in the elimination of seed infection from bacterial blight of barley pai en translucens) and bacterial blight of oats (Pseudonomas avenae), and a number of seed-borne fungus diseases, such as wheat-scab, spot-blotch of barley, stripe disease, and smut, are either practically eliminated or much — reduced. The dry heat treatment seems to offer possibilities which should be followed up. Natural enemies must be regarded as a great asset : in the control of insect pests, but the value of fungal — parasites in this respect is often overlooked. A. Speare describes experiments on Sorosporella. uvella, an entomogenous fungus which attacks Noctuid larvae, — aI and is recorded for the first time in America. The practical interest of the investigation lies in the fact — that quite a number of Noctuid larve, including such pests as cutworms, have proved to be susceptible to the disease, and other Lepidopterous larve can also be infected by special methods. The disease caused by the organism is readily transmitted to healthy insects, and in laboratory experiments a mortality of from 60 to go per cent. may be obtained. Control by means of parasitism has proved of great value in reducing the Mediterranean fruit-fly in Hawaii. developing in fruits about Honolulu (H. F. Willard). The ravages of the broad-bean weevil (Bruchus rufimanus, Boh) in California have led to the abandon- ment of a considerable acreage, especiallv since weevil- infested beans have been classed as adulterated food. _ R E. Campbell (Bull. 807, Professional Paper, U.S.A. Dept. Agric.) gives an account of the dis- ) tribution and life-history of the pest and discusses various measures of control. The only practicable means is to plant seed which contains no live weevils, Four — larval parasites of this pest have been introduced and — established since 1913, and their value as destrovers | increased until in 1918 they caused the destruction of ~ considerably more than half of all -the friuit-flies — . ied ] \ AY 6, 1920] ° NATURE 311 re] 3 the application of poisons or deterrents in the { is useless. Dry heat is unsatisfactory, as tem- uf is unsuccessful, but fumigation of well- ed and sa § seeds with carbon bisulphide gives results. amp seeds should not be treated. y to expectation, it was found that fumigating the insects were in the larval stage was less ive than if done in the adult stage, as the gas penetrate into the interior of the bean to the grown larvz as easily as it can reach the full- wn larvae, pupz, or adults directly under the d-coat. W. E. B. _ Canadian Water-Power Development. A*® interesting article in the Engineer of April 9 *% by Mr. Leo. G. Dennis, Hydro-electric Engineer ‘of the Canadian Commission of Conservation, reviews the situation in regard to Canadian water-power _ development. From it we have gathered the fol- _ lowing particulars indicating the remarkable growth ice the commencement of the century. n 1900 less than 200,000 h.p. was utilised, as com- sg with 2,383,240 h.p. now available, according to e most recent returns, subdivided as follows :— 2 Province. Horse-power. Ontario if 1,000,000 ‘ ting mae fats 900,000 F British Columbia 310,000 4 Manitoba tes 78,600 ff Alberta... 32,500 4 Nova Scotia it 30,000 : New Brunswick 17,000 j Yukon __... at age 13,400 4 _ Prince Edward Island 1,700 : Saskatchewan ... : 40 Of the total electric central station installation of _ 2,107,743 h.p., no less than 1,806,618 h.p., or more than 85 per cent., is in hydro-electric stations, and these are remarkable for their large size. Forty per cent. is in plants of 100,000 h.p. and more, and another ¥ per cent. in plants between 10,000 and 100,000 h.p. _ Particularly worthy of note are two large hydro- electric systems in Eastern Canada. The Niagara system is supplied mainly from plant of 211,300 h.p., and transmits to some 150 municipal distribution centres. The Shawinigan system is fed from plants with a total capacity of 270,000 h.p., and, directly or indirectly, supplies some 85 distributing systems. __Water-power is an important factor in many _ Canadian industries, but in none so essentially as in _ the case of ue and paper manufacture. Of a total of 525,000 h.p. installed for this purpose, at least _ 475,000 h.p. is derived from hydraulic sources. From an economic point of view it is probable that if water- power had not been available, pulp in many cases could not be manufactured at all. Canada’s potential water-power resources are placed recent estimates at 18,832,000 h.p., subdivided _ provincially as follows : : - Province. Horse-power. «Quebec 6,000,000 Berth Ontario ... ies 5,800,000 . British Columbia «++ 3,000,000 . Manitoba a) «+s. 2,797,000 ie Alberta ee 462,000 be New Brunswick 300,000 ‘. Saskatchewan 220,000. ® Nova Scotia 100,000 ieee. Yukon... sate zak 100,000 +». North-West Territories 50,000 Prince Edward Island _ 3,000 NO. 2636, VOL. 105] es that destroy the weevils kill the seeds also; . In Ontario, the Niagara and St. Lawrence powers are the outstanding features, although the figures’ in regard to the former have been at times exaggerated. Bearing in mind that it is an international source, the theoretical total available for Canada is about 2,300,000 h.p. But only about one-third of that quantity is at present available for exploitation. The large power plants installed below the Falls have not so far utilised the descent in the river below the cataract, but this mistake is not being repeated by the Chippawa-Queenston project, which will add 200,000 h.p. to the total installation. It will embrace the maximum possible head of 316 ft. The St. Lawrence powers are also partly international, and are estimated as follows: Available low-water horse- power. Province or tate. Ontario 387,500 New York 387,500 Quebec 1,375,000 2,150,000 Besides its share of the St. Lawrence and Ottawa River powers, Quebec has other important possibili- ties, notably on the St. Maurice River and in the Sagaway basin. The present capacity of plants ‘at Shawinigan and Grand’mére in the Upper St. Maurice is 330,000 h.p., and there is expectation of this figure being doubled at no distant date. The Solar Eclipse of May, 1919. * PSOE . L. A. BAUER contributes an article on this eclipse to a recent issue of Science. He notes the new interest which eclipses have recently acquired, first from their effect on terrestrial magnetism, and secondly from the gravitational deflection of light. The Carnegie Institution of Washington sent two parties to stations inside the zone of totality; Prof. Bauer himself occupied Cape Palmas, Liberia, while Messrs. Wise and Thomson went to Sobral, Brazil. There were three other stations outside the zone, and most of the magnetic observatories co-operated in a scheme of observations. The detailed results are not yet available. Cape Palmas has a bad weather record, but this was of little importance for the magnetic work. The sun was very high, and the duration of. totality, 6m. 33s., was probably the longest that a scientific party has ever enjoyed. As it turned out, the sky was clear, and small-scale photographs of the corona were secured. These were, however, subsidia to the ‘main work, of which Prof. Bauer says: ‘‘ There were clear indications of a magnetic effect. ... As the station was nearly on the magnetic equator, the effect was specially noticeable . . . upon the magnetic dip.’’ He notes that the darkness was not nearly so great as at the much shorter eclipse of 1918, perhaps owing to the greater brightness of the corona. The fall of tem- perature was nearly 3° F., the minimum being some twenty-four minutes after totality; the maximum of humidity synchronised with this minimum. Shadow bands were not seen here, but they were observed at Sobral by Mr. Thomson. Dr. Abbot and Mr. Moore observed the eclipse from La Paz, Bolivia, where the sun’s altitude was only 5°, but their altitude of 14,000 ft. compensated for this. ‘‘Taking into account the great length and beauty of the coronal streamers, the splendid crimson prominence . .. the snow-covered mountains as a background, it seemed to the observers the grandest eclipse that thev had seen.” Besides photographing the corona, their special work was the measurement 312 NATURE [May 6, 1920 of sky and solar radiation at different stages of the eclipse. Curves of these are given, which indicate that the sky radiation varies proportionally to the amount of sunlight. Prof. Bauer then discusses the British expeditions and the observed deflection of light. As these have already been dealt with in Nature (November 13, 1919, and elsewhere), it will suffice to mention one point. After noting that the Sobral results indicated larger deflection than those deduced from Einstein’s _law, and that the excess was greater in R.A, than in declination, Prof. Bauer made the suggestion that the excess might arise from the passage of the light through a rare outer atmosphere of the sun, which, like the corona, might be more extended in the equatorial regions. The residuals are too small to lay very much stress on this, unless future eclipses should indicate the same effect. The Manufacture of Synthetic Ammonia and Production of Nitrates. Tk Ministry of Munitions announces. that Lord Inverforth has arranged for the sale of H.M. Nitrate, Factory at Billingham-on-Tees to Messrs. Brunner, Mond, and Co., Ltd. The purchasers will form a company to take over the factory, and will be responsible for all outstanding § liabilities of the Ministry in connection with the project. This factory, the erection of which was commenced early in 1918 by the Department of Explosives Supply, was designed for the manufacture of synthetic ammonia and for the production of 60,000 to 70,000 tons of ammonium nitrate annually. Soon after the appointment of the Nitrogen Products Committee, the monumental report of which was pub- lished in January last, the Government decided to install one or other of the processes for the fixation of nitrogen. The Committee, after thorough investiga- tion of the problem, recommended the cyanamide pro- cess as the one best suited for this purpose in the circumstances, since the working details were well understood. This advice was at first adopted, and a contract was on the point of being negotiated, but, for reasons which are not stated, the recommendation was not acted upon. During 1916 the Nitrogen Products Committee had established a laboratory in premises placed at its dis- posal in the new Ramsay building of University College, London, and the Committee’s research staff, under the direction of Dr. J. A. Harker, was engaged ‘in an experimental investigation of a number of problems relating to nitrogen fixation. Although it was not anticipated that there would be any shortage of supplies of ammonia, yet it was deemed desirable, in view of the special suitability of the synthetic ammonia process for the needs of this country, that an experimental study of it should be made forthwith, so that the required information should be available if necessary. After a year’s experimental work, the progress made was considered so encouraging that the Committee decided to establish. a moderate-sized technical trial unit, and funds for the purpose were allocated by the Treasury. It was hoped, by means of this plant, that a study of. the chemical engineering problems could follow. upon that already made of the pure chemistry of the reactions invalved, but the Committee did not suggest .the establishment of the process as a war measure .upon an industrial scale. _In 1917, however, the Explosives Supply Department considered that the position reached. in the experiments justified it in recommending the erection of .a large works, in sub- stitution for the Committee’s cyanamide project, and NO. 2636, VOL. 105] popular edition has contours in orange at a site at Billingham, some 260 acres in extent, was | ultimately chosen for this purpose. But a number of difliculties supervened, and construction was slow, and at the time of the Armistice only a few permanent buildings and a number of temporary structures had been erected, though a large amount of plant had been ordered. . The purchasers of the factory now undertake to com- plete the scheme by providing the additional buildings and plant required for the synthesis of ammonia and its oxidation to nitric acid and nitrates suitable for the manufacture of explosives and fertilisers. It is understood that the company has acquired a large amount ot additional land and that it intends to develop the project on a very large scale. The factory has been re-designed on a peace as distinet from its former war basis, and in many particulars the new — plant will represent a substantial advance, both in the ammonia and nitric acid sections, on anything pre- viously used in Germany. New Ordnance Survey Maps. HE new edition of the one-inch and -inch Ordnance Survey maps is descri with specimen sheets, by Lt.-Col. W. J. Johnston in the Geographical Journal for March (vol. lv., No. 3: fre Prof. E. H. L. Schwarz: os > 297 The Royal Academy. By J. S. A RRR take the trouble to read it. 3 In the first chapter he deals with the a ll a as it was before the war, when we had a con- siderable balance of money due from abroad which we could take either in food or in other com- modities. The general result is shone in- ane ronemnne. table :— Weigh in metric tons used in the : nited Kingdom per annum.t pate Imported. Total. Cereals 1,010,000 | 3,855,000 | 4,865,000 Meat 1,615,000 | 1,070,C00 | 2,685,000 Poultry, eggs, game and rabbits... : 170,000 161,000 331,000 Fish . 715,500 | 132,900 | 848,400 Dairy " produce (including lard and margarine) 4,704,000 | 527,800 | 5,231,800 Fruit ; 341,000 | 930,000 oc Potatoes and other vege- tables 4,788,000 | 694,000 5,482, 000 Sugar (including cocoa and chocolate) wu be — 1,657,000 | I 657,000 1 A certain amount of cottage and farm produce is not included in the above fable. ; About one-fifth of the cereals, more than half the meat, and nine-tenths of the dairy produce — and of the potatoes were home-grown. The total amount of foodstuffs, home-grown and imported, was considerable, and the nation was amply sup- plied with food. In 1913 the main sources of supply outside the United Kingdom were, in order of value of shipments, the United States, Argen- tina, Denmark, Canada, India, Australia, Russia, the Netherlands, Germany, New Zealand, Austria- Hungary, France, Spain, and Ceylon. ‘The second section of the book deals with ik time conditions. The outbreak of the war came, no doubt deliberately, at the time when the harvest of Central Europe was practically all gathered in, and when, therefore, there were ample stocks of food for a year. wheat crop in the United States was good, and although in Canada it was short, the total North — American supply was well above the average. The year 1915 opened -badly, as the Russian supplies were cut off in February. The situation was saved, we ee On our side the | if bP _ May 33, 1920] NATURE 321 er, by the heavy crops in India and Argen- . Australia considerably increased her wheat as did also the United States and Canada; , during the first year of the war the wheat ea of the world was extended by more than ,00 9,000 acres. In the later years of the war the aly ; a great effort was therefore made after the ot 1916 to increase food production in the ted Kingdom. The methods 2nd results have 1 discussed from time to time in these columns : eke result was a steady increase in pro- right up to 1918, the figures for the ted seetom being in thousands :-— Poche manures were scarce and implements difficult to repair, and when most of the skilled men were gone, their places being taken by old people, ey women, and children. But these substitutes worked with a will, and amply made up in en- ; m what they lacked in skill. Even the hi; zh Saigon of 1918 was not the maximum ossible, and had the conditions persisted, even sher results could have been obtained. e last section of the book deals with post- ‘ ‘conditions. Serious fears had been enter- tained as to the food supplies of the world; tunately, these have not been realised, and alt pongh food is undoubtedly scarce and will re- “main so there is no reason to fear famine, and in the main the people of Europe, thourh still suffering privation, are better fed than they were in 1918. It is difficult to say what the position is likely to be in the near future, but the redeem- 3 ‘ing feature is the rapidity with which agriculture has been restarted in the devastated areas of France and Belgium. Of the 4,000,000 acres. damaged _by the war, nearly a quarter were handed back to the cultivators before a year had elapsed. On the other hand, agriculturists in our own coun- try are not producing so much as they did. The ~ withdrawal of the women from the land and their ~ replacement by men coincided with a considerable fall in production, which is distinctly unfortunate. A further fall is anticipated as a result of the "shortened hours of labour. Other countries, however, are in a worse pre- ‘ NO. 2637, VOL. 105 | y was one of transport rather than of total dicament. Russia, formerly one of the chief wheat-producing countries of the world, is unlikely to have any exportable surplus, and the position in Central Europe is still very obscure. Sir Henry Rew is not greatly perturbed, but thinks that if the social and political conditions of Europe became settled, its food production would rise to pre-war level in the course of two or three years. He is also quite hopeful about the position in this country. No student of British agriculture can ever give up hope of the future, and Sir Henry Rew is one of the leaders of the helpful band of optimists. E. J. RusseELL. Differential Geometry. The Elementary Differential Geometry of Plane Curves. By R. H. Fowler. (Cambridge Tracts in Mathematics and Mathematical Physics. No. 20.) Pp. vii+105. (Cambridge: At the University Press, 1920.) Price 6s. net. IFFERENTIAL geometry is a fascinating D subject, because it gives us vivid and pic- turesque embodiments of theorems obtained by the combination of several branches of pure analysis, such as algebra, function-theory, and the infinitesimal calculus. It presents us with prob- lems of all degrees of difficulty, from the compara- tively simple theory of curvature and torsion to the provokingly difficult question of geodesics. The present tract is just what its title indicates, except that there are a few digressions on twisted curves and on surfaces. The work has two con- spicuous merits; in applying the differential cal- culus, the assumptions made are explicitly pointed out, and proper attention is paid to the deter- mination of sign. The latter point is particularly important, not only because an error in sign is the one most frequently committed in computation, but also because, if a consistent determination of sign is not. strictly adhered to, the formule of analytical and even of pure geometry cease to have general validity. Even now our text-books, especially in analytical geometry, pay so little attention to this matter that a university teacher has to spend much valuable time on this topic with intermediate students, and too frequently finds, to his disgust, that even an honours student is not so careful as he should be in the matter of sign. Mr. Fowler’s chapters on tangents and normals, curvature, contact and envelopes, leave little, if anything, to be desired. The chapter on envelopes is the most thorough-going, and suggests a couple of remarks. The elimination of a from the equa- tions f(x,y,a)=0,0//®a=0 leads to a definite locus 322 NATURE [May 13, 1920 which may break up into a number of. distinct, irreducible curves. How far any one of these curves should be considered to form a part of the envelope proper depends upon our definition of “envelope.” For instance, in the author’s example (p. 61)— (y—a)?—x8—o0, the a-eliminant is x80, which is a cusp-locus: Mr. Fowler refuses to regard this as an envelope, but if we regard the cusps as limiting forms of nodes, we may fairly regard x=o as the limit of an envelope. However, this is a matter of slight importance, because each case that occurs can be treated independently. On p. 60 we have the example— a*f + (2a+1)h=o, where the a-eliminant is h(h—f)=o, and neither h=o nor h—f=o is an envelope. If we put (2a+1)/a2—=8, the family of curves is f+Bh=o, and the f-eliminant is h=o. It seems worth while to direct attention to this apparent dis- crepancy, because similar cases occur in problems of maxima and minima, etc. If, starting with f+Bh=o, we replace B by (2a+1)/a2, we obtain, by variation of a, the same pencil of curves; but, generally speaking, each curve occurs twice, and, as a rule, for different values of a. If B= —1, (a+1)?=0, and the curve f—h=o counts twice for the double value a= —r1, and hence f-h=o occurs in the a-eliminant, though it does not appear in the B-eliminant. Similar results, of a more complicated kind, occur if in f+ Bho we put B= ¢(a)/Y(a), where ¢(a), Y(a) are any poly- nomials in a. In his last two chapters we think Mr. Fowler has rather lost his sense of proportion. In the eight pages devoted to the singular points of plane curves, scarcely anything more is attempted than a discussion of ordinary nodes and cusps; on the other hand, fourteen pages are filled with the theory of rectilinear and curvilinear asymptotes, and many of the results may fairly be said to be more interesting in function-theory than in geometry proper. The author has conscientiously given references to the text-books which he has more or less fol- lowed in his exposition; but there is no biblio- graphy of original papers, such as add greatly to the value of other tracts in this series. We hope that in future editions this want will be supplied; reference should at least be made to Puiseux, Weierstrass, Smith, and Halphen in con- nection with singular points. .G. B. M. NO. 2637, VOL. 105] A Garden in the Dunes. Arcachon, Ville de Santé: Monographie Scien- tifique et Médicale. By Dr. F. Lalesque. Pp. vilit+ 798. (Paris: Masson et Cie, 1919.) Price 25 francs net. lina handsome volume is mainly a justification of Arcachon as a health-resort, and it should appeal to those who feel the attractions of a life in France, and yet shrink from the crowd and cosmopolitan gaiety of the Mediterranean Riviera. The author is not content, however, with giving climatic temperature-charts, records of rainfall, and views of exercises on the shore and of yach on the broad sea-basin. He has made a “regional survey” of his district, and the details of the natural history will provide matter of much interest to those who sojourn in the town. The modern “town” is a veritable garden city, especially developed in the last twenty years in accordance with Dr. Lalesque’s scheme for la cure libre, and the separate villas provided in the ville d’hiver among the woods offer the patient the cheerful encouragements of family life in place of the more formal control of the sanatorium. The sand-dunes have been captured, as it were, and converted into shelters, while the fishing village on the open northern strand has been enlarged as a place for summer bathing. Arcachon, indeed, began its career of usefulness when Francois Legallais, a retired sea-captain, imported from India to its desolate sand-hills the idea of the bungalow in 1823. Dr. Lalesque gives us, in a few brief lines, a sketch of this rather captivating incident in human settlement and geography. His range of vision is wide. He interests us equally in the wind-worn grains of magnetite brought northward from the great fan- deltas of the Adour system; in the “alios,” a ferruginous conglomerate formed as an iron-pan in the subsoil, the permeability of which has now been triumphantly established; in the health of the oyster, an inoffensive creature, infected with typhoid germs entirely by the carelessness of man; and in the diatoms that flourish in the Lac de Cazeaux, to the actual benefit, it appears, of the water-supply of Arcachon. Dr, Lalesque in 1890 made an independent investigation of the irritating power on the human skin of the processionary caterpillar, the larva of Bombyx pityocampa, which inhabits the pine-trees of the coast, and he — concludes that the hairs which cause urticaria are scattered from the nests of the insect by the wind. Even this affection seems trivial at Arcachon; we can imagine a visitor, temporarily inclined to irritation, being calmed by Dr. Lalesque’s a May 13, 1920] NATURE 323 € a husiasm and by his introduction to the fascinat- ing work of Fabre. _ The: author shows us Arcachon, not as a _ modern creation on a promontory in a featureless _ lagoon, but as the product of great natural forces, conspiring for the health of man. The winds _ blow over it fraught with warmth from tropic “waters; the sands are kept from wandering by 3 growth of aromatic pines; and the subsoils E that can be traced southward across the vast ‘Pliocene estuary of the Landes represent for the aturalist the spoils of the Central Plateau and 1 ~Pyrenees. Like Prof. Tornquist in East Prussia (Nature, vol. Ixxxv., p. 468), but with a — little more professional formality, Dr. Lalesque __ has conquered in a field that offered little promise to the unobservant eye. G.'A. J. C. Our Bookshelf. q Iron Bacteria. By Dr, David Ellis. Pp. xix+ - -179+v plates. (London: Methuen and Co., _ _ Ltd., 1919.) Price ros. 6d. net. _ In this book Dr. David Ellis has compiled a monograph on a subject which he has largely made his own, and on which he can speak with first-hand knowledge. The group of micro- _ organisms discussed is important, and one _ of the makers of geological history, for many of the bog iron ores owe their formation largely to the activities of iron bacteria, and other iron _ ores may be due to the same cause. In modern _ life these organisms are of importance to the _ ‘water engineer in relation to water reservoirs, _ the corrosion of conduit pipes, and the general appearance and clarity of water supplies. _ The iron bacteria are a heterogeneous group __ of organisms, scarcely bacteria in the’strict sense, _ belonging to several genera—Leptothrix, Clado- _ thrix, Crenothrix, and others. The iron is col- lected from the water in which they live, and _ stored in a concentrated state as ferric hydroxide _ in the mucilaginous sheaths which surround their bodies. The ferruginous deposit in the membrane is often so great that it exceeds the volume of organism itself, and the iron-impregnated membrane may persist for long after the dissolu- tion of the organism. Some of these organisms may occasionally multiply in a very short time to such an extent as in the course of a few weeks to change entirely the character of the water in which they are eg as was the case at Cheltenham in 1896. ey may also cause encrustations in the pipes, and the group is therefore of considerable economic importance. Six species are fully described, and methods of treatment to retard their activities in water supplies are detailed. The book is well produced and illustrated, and forms a standard work on the subject. ie A 2 NO. 2637, VOL. 105 | Meteorology for All: ‘hitless some Weather Prob- lems Explained. By Donald W. Horner. With an Introduction by M. de Carle S. Salter. Pp. xvit+184+ vii plates. (London: Witherby and Co., 1919.) Price 6s. net. THE science of the weather may well make a wider appeal than any other branch of science, and the opening for a book which is not only scientifically accurate, but also simple and easily comprehended, is therefore very great. The author of the present work has realised that the opening exists, and has endeavoured to fill it, but his attempt can scarcely be considered successful. A few quotations will illustrate the nature of the book. In estimating cloud amounts on the scale o-10 we are told that “if there is one cloud upon the horizon or in any part of the sky we put: ee? For obtaining’ true bearings from a compass, “the magnetic variation in the British Isles is now 14° W.’”’ Again: ‘‘ There is no more sure pre- cursor of a gale than the ‘ wind-dog,’ or coloured parhelion ’’ (p. 2), which may possess some degree of truth, but scarcely seems compatible with: “When these halos are coloured and accompanied by parhelia or mock suns, they generally precede very dry weather” (p. 110). Even in such a simple matter as giving the equivalent velocities of the Beaufort numbers, the author falls into error. Some chapters are better than others, but the book can certainly not be recommended as a safe guide to put into the hands of the non-techni- cal reader without previous knowledge of meteor- ology. Fess) ae The Psychology of the Future. (“L’Avenir des - Sciences Psychiques.”) By Emile Boirac. Translated and edited with an introduction by W. de Kerlor. Pp. xiii+322. (London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner, and Co., Ltd., n.d.) Price 1os. 6d. net. THE author deals with the more debatable classes of psychical phenomena discussed at the Paris Congresses of Experimental Psychology of 1911 and 1913, and defined as “the phenomena which, produced in animate beingss or as an effect of their action, do not seem to be entirely explicable by the laws and forces of nature already known.” They are classified as: Hypnoidal, including dis- sociation of personality and “cryptopsychism” (subconscious action) ; magnetoidal, which are sup- posed to comprise mesmerism, telepathy, and “‘hyloscopic ” phenomena (unexplained actions of inanimate objects on animate beings); and spirit- oidal, which imply agents of a_ psychological nature more or less analogous to human intelli- gence. The author proposes the term “bi- actinism ” (bio-actinism?) for any phenomena in which a radiating influence is apparently exerted at a distance over other animate beings. For “clairvoyance,” or knowledge obtained by certain individuals apparently independently of the normal , Senses, he prefers the term “meta- gnomy.” On the question of the spiritistic hypo- thesis the author maintains a non-committal atti- tude. 324 NATURE [May 13, 1920 Letters to the Editor. [The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions ex- pressed by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manu- scripts intended for this or any other part of NATURE. No notice is taken of anonymous communications.] The Indian Ghemical Service. Ir would, perhaps, have been better if the writer of the leading article entitled ‘‘The Organisation of Scientific Work in India,’’ published in Nature of February 19, had held his hand until he had obtained further in- formation concerning the proposed organisation. The report of the Indian Industrial Commission dealt only with the general question, and left the elaboration of any scheme, if such were considered desirable, to special committees which were to be appointed at a later date. The special committees were to be given a free hand, and were left to approach the problem from an unbiassed point of view. I was not a member of the Indian Industrial Com- mission, but there is nothing in the report which indicates that the Commission was in favour of a centralised system of scientific services under Govern- ment control such as that which is condemned in the article, and still more emphatically condemned by those who have contributed to the ensuing correspond- ence. As a matter of fact, if the Industrial Commis- sion had recommended such a course, it would not have been supported for one moment by the Chemical Services Committee, over which I had the honour to preside. Indeed, my colleagues and I, as old inves- tigators, would have been fully alive to the absurdity of any such proposal. I should like to make my position clear by referring to the conditions we found to prevail in India and to the remedies which we considered necessary in order that the great natural resources of the country might be developed, but I should preface my remarks by saying that I speak for chemistry alone. Other sciences must formulate their own schemes in a manner best suited to their particular requirements. The problem presented was twofold: First, the position of the chemists in India, and, secondly, the position of the Indian chemical industry. The posi- tion of chemists we found to be exceedingly unsatis- factory. There are in all about fifty chemists in India, and most of them are attached to established Govern- ment Services, such as forestry, agriculture, medicine, geology, ordnance, and education. In the main, the chemists, although working in the Services, were not attached to them—that is to say, they were in the position of hirelings without any claim to the advantages attaching to Service membership and with- out the possession of the esprit de corps which charac- terises such membership. They were, moreover, for the most part working in isolated positions in the different provinces, and were without any means by which they could press their claims on the official lay mind. In consequence, they were in many cases receiving totally inadequate salaries, and were, in fact, often regarded as some kind of freak druggist— a point of view which is even more prevalent in India than in England. It was clear that the only way by which the chemist in India could be brought to occupy a financial and social position which his education and training demanded was to place him on an equality with members of other Government Services. The problem of the chemist was therefore a straight- forward one, and was, in our opinion, open to one answer only. The other point, that of the Indian chemical industry, is perhaps rather more complex. NO. 2637, VOL. 105 | _ In the first place, there can be no question, I think, that research in chemistry must be divided into pure research and industrial research. It is true that there is no sharp line of division, but in their extreme forms pure research is carried out entirely for the advance- ment of knowledge, and is without obvious practical bearing, whereas industrial research is done for the advancement and development of industry. The Chemical Services Committee has recomme that pure chemical research should be left to the universi- ties and university institutions, the obvious duty of which is to carry it out. chemists attached to university institutions should be normally members of the Service, but it is asked that the universities and university colleges should under- ‘take to train men for recruitment into the Service in the manner recommended by the Committee. _ The Committee considers that recruits should have the following training :— ae (1) An honours degree in chemistry in the first or second class or its equivalent. gh (2) Training in engineering (machine drawing and workshop practice) where such training has not formed part of the course under (1). (3) One or two years’ training in the methods of chemical research under someone competent to train in research. It is not proposed to institute any system of training within the Service, excepting, of course, such practical training as will normally accrue during the working of the Service, and it is asked that the universities and university institutions should give the necessary train- ing under (3) above. For this purpose it is recom- mended that maintenance and: equipment grants should be given to promising students to enable them to undergo this training subsequent to graduation. The Committee considered that, provided the trainer were a man of recognised ability, the question of the subject in which the student should be trained could be safely left to him. It agreed that instruction in the methods of chemical research, received after a course such as that given above, was the best train- _ ing a man could have to develop any initiative and enthusiasm which he might possess,. and that a man ‘so trained ought to be able to turn his hand to any- thing chemical. In the case of industrial research it must be remem- bered that chemistry in one form or another under- lies most industries, and that in India the following conditions are present: (a) Great natural resources; (b) lack of scientific chemical help to develop these resources; and (c) a public very shy to risk capital without some real assurance of the value of the process it is proposed to finance. Obviously, the best means for advancing chemical industry is for the firms or combination of firms engaged in the industry to establish research labora- tories and to work out their own problems by the aid of their own chemists. This is an ideal which the Indian Chemical Service will be formed to foster. It will, for example, help any member of the Service who wishes to pass out into the industry, and it will second members of the Service for temporary employ- ment to firms who wish to investigate any particular problem. But at the present time there are few manu- — facturers who employ chemists, and it is evident that some steps are necessary not only to demonstrate to the manufacturer the value of research in connection with his manufacture, but also to demonstrate the possibilities of any particular process to anyone wish- ing to invest capital and start a new industry. Who is to do this? There is, we think, only one answer, namely, that, as it is to the interest of the State as well as of the manufacturer to develop It is not proposed that the ,. voip pees { aeemmteet I tei eke Bl Veo, Sh Sot Ne aL a a May 13, 1920] NATURE 375. ustry, it is the duty of the State to convince the rer of the value and necessity of research in mection with his work. e Indian Chemical Service will have research itutes in the centres of industry of every province. ® will be in close touch with the works and with S conditions, and deal with questions of diate agian importance submitted by manu- turers. hey will also carry out research work in nection with the establishment of new industries, | develop a process as far as the unit factory e. In some cases it will be necessary, in order to strate the value of a process, to erect pioneer ss and work them on the complete commercial Each institute will be under a director of central Imperial institute will be located at Dehra _ It will be under the Director-General of the vical Service, and contain laboratories for nic and physical chemistry, organic chemistry, eal chemistry, and metallurgical chemistry, ‘controlled by a deputy-director. Questions in- ag fundamental research arising out of the work provincial institutes will be dealt with here, as as the initial work in connection with the estab- ent of new industries. Research work of an All- ia character, such as investigations on the utilisa- of forest products, will also be done. “h , Which should reach England during the rse of the next fortnight, should be consulted for ther details. It may be added, however, that there no Official control; the Service will be worked by chemists for chemists. Chemists seconded for service with other Departments will retain their lien on the Chemical Service, but be under the control of the a artment to which they have been seconded. hi vincial institutes will not be under the con- of the central institute, which will act towards them in an advi capacity only. Et aaiticion, 1 ehonkd id that I have discussed ' pre scheme with eminent Indian men of ence and prominent business men in different parts the Empire, and they have told me that thev are pared to give it their whole-hearted support. More- , Sir P. C. Ray, the distinguished professor of mistry in the College of Science, Calcutta, who was a member of the Committee and attended all its meetings, while stating at the outset that he was o pposed in principle to Government Services generally, evertheless agreed to each paragraph of the report it was passed in its final form. He signed the ort subject to a separate note in which he expresses is general approval of the scheme in the following ots : ‘In conclusion, I desire to state that, although consider that the days of Government Services are ‘over and that the development of industries by the agency of a Government Service is not the most suitable way of dealing with the problem, vet I agree _ that, if a Government Service is constituted, the pro- posals of the Committee represent the best method . constituting and carrying on such a service. It is or this reason that I have attached my signature to with the major portion of which I am in bstantial agreement.” Jocetyn THORPE. I wave followed with keen interest the leading article on ‘‘The Organisation of. Scientific Work in India” in Nature of February 19, and the correspond- ___ ence thereon by Profs. Soddy and Bateson, Sir Ronald Ross, and others. The note of warning has been sounded “not a moment too soon. To me it appears that the Industrial Commission has not been able to make out NO. 2627, VOL. 105] a very convincing case for the creation of a highly expensive All-India Chemical Service—an elaborate and ordered hierarchy under the almost absolute con- trol of a number of highly paid bureaucrats. The Ser- vices degenerate in India, the land of caste, into so many rigid and watertight compartments unamenable to healthy external influence. The manner in which the work of the Service is to be carried on appears to me to be extremely objec- tionable. There is to be a Director-General of Research at the Imperial Chemical Institute, with five or six directors at different provincial centres. These officers are to have almost absolute power over the rank and file—the real workers; for not only are the directors to dictate what particular piece of re- search a worker is to take up, but even the publica- tion of the work is to be subject to the consent of the Board of Control. For the scheme to be successful the directors must be men who are conversant with almost all the different branches of chemistry, and keep in touch with the most up-to-date advances in their science. Moreover, their minds are to be occupied with swarms of problems awaiting their day to be delivered to the care of the researchers. Lastly, they are to do justice, with the impartiality of a Privy Council Judge, to each individual worker according to his work and accomplishments. Even the greatest chemists of the age would hesitate to acknowledge that they are supermen of this description. I am afraid that the proposed Service will simply be an asylum for a few officials in favour with the Government who find administrative work much more suited to the taste than bottle-washing and other humdrum work of the laboratory, and want to legalise the exploitation of the brain and labour of the young men just coming out of the universities full of new ideas and enthusiasm for work. . We shall have a number of chemists working under a_peri- patetic director whose claims to the post will be his seniority, which in India often goes hand in hand with incompetence. I am afraid that the so-called research work will lapse into dull, mechanical, routine out- turn, and will kill all enthusiasm and initiative on the part of the actual workers. They are even, as Prof. Soddy remarks, ‘‘ to be deprived of what little satisfac- tion and independence genuine scientific work for its own sake affords,’? and in many cases will have to renounce their own work for the propitiation of the directors. It seems to be supposed that since there is a Viceroy over governors, a governor over a number of magistrates, and a magistrate over a number of petty officials, so there must be an Imperial chemist over a number of provincial directors, directors over deputy-directors, deputy-directors over sub- deputy-directors, and so on. But in the republic of science the idea of such ordered gradation is absurd. Each branch of science, notably chemistry, has now grown so vast that a particular worker, however highly gifted, can honestly tackle and follow intel- ligently the developments of only a minute fraction of his subject. In the quest after truth and in the exploration of new paths of knowledge every worker has to find out his own wav, and it not infrequently happens that a young and unknown worker -may achieve much more brilliant results than men who have grown grey in the service of science. What is wanted is co-operation, provision for more ample facilities, and the opening up of better prospects for the earnest-minded and enthusiastic workers. In India at the present state of her scientific development, the institution of the Chemical Service on the proposed lines will be not simply a blunder, but 326 NATURE [May 13, 1920 a crime. There is not a single technical teaching institute in the whole of India. In the universities and Government colleges there is very meagre pro- vision for research work. The universities are. just trying to emerge from mere examining bodies into centres of education, and the demand for State aid for founding chairs in experimental and industrial subjects is very great. In Bengal, the most advanced province in India, there are, technically speaking, no- endowed chairs at all (except one or two founded by the generosity of patriotic citizens). Altogether we have five or six high posts in the Government col- leges, but the occupiers of these posts are required only to teach, and not to do any research work. The number of research scholarships is only three or four. But the man who has done good original work, and has the good fortune to be taken into the Service, has no better prospects before him than the man who has nothing to his credit except his original degree in the university; for under the Service system pro- motion is by favour and seniority, not by work and efficiency. It appears to me that the most pressing needs for India at the present moment are: f) The foundation by the Government of a number of chairs in various branches of pure and applied chemistry in the uni- versities, and also a large number of readerships, assistant professorships, and research scholarships. (2) The establishment of a number of technical insti- tutes and the strengthening of the laboratories and scientific libraries. (3) The organisation of the posts so created and of the posts already existent on a professional rather than on a Service basis. (4) The replacement of the director by boards of recrujtment composed chiefly of university professors, one official, and one or two non-official representatives of the public. (5) The encouragement of the foundation of scientific societies. There should be no watertight separation between those who are engaged in special tvpes of work in Government research institutes and those working in the university laboratories. The officials in the re- search institutes should be asked to maintain a life- long connection with the university in some shape or other; and the researchers in the universities mav be invited, when an occasion arises, to avail themselves of the opportunities afforded in the research institutes. PraFULLA CHANDRA RaAy. University College of Science, 92 Upper Circular Road, Calcutta. The Cost of Scientific Publications. In the timely leading article in Nature of May 6 on the cost of scientific publications a note is struck which goes deep to the heart of many scientific workers—editors, secretaries, and members of councils on one hand, struggling to make inadequate funds meet the greatly increased expenses, and on the other the young investigators whose papers on the results of research are being held up by the impossibility of paying for publication. It is difficult to see the remedy at the moment. agree with you that increased subscriptions to the publishing societies, on any adequate scale, would be a hardship to many,. and probably defeat the end in view by choking off members. My experience as an officer of the British Association and of several scientific societies has shown me that it is. difficult enough for our younger scientific workers, such as the demonstrator class at the -universities, to afford the necessary expense of joining such societies and attend- ing the meetings. Recognising the great pleasure and advantage that one enjoyed in seeing-and hearing the NO. 2637, VOL. 105] — Most of us will, I think,. senior men in the subject at the first scientific meet-— ings. one attended (British Association and Linnean Society), it would be deplorable that anything should be done to render it still more difficult than it is. for the younger men of to-day to attend and take part in such gatherings. You suggest that we may have been unduly extrava- gant in the past in the production of our scientific publications. This may have been so to some slight extent in a few cases, but I am by no means ¢on- vinced that it is general, or material, and I would deprecate any drastic change. A judicious and kindly editor, secretary, referee, or communicator of a paper may usefully do something to moderate the exuberance of a youthful author and to keep note-book details within reasonable bounds; but the scientific value of a paper may be spoilt by ruthless excision. It is not enough, in many cases, to give end-results unless con- clusions are to be accepted uncritically like text-box statements. To be of value to workers on the subje in the future, the details of experiments and the statistics of observations are essential. I see there- fore no remedy except the provision of considerably increased funds for publication, not from the members of the publishing societies, but from outside sources— either private benefactors or the State. -We already have certain endowments and certain annual grants for the promotion of scientific research, but I would urge the emphatic opinion that adequate publication is an essential part—the necessary com- pletion—of any important and successful research. Some administrators of scientific funds—for example, the trustees of the Percy Sladen Memorial Fund— have acted on that view, and so far as their limited resources allow they try to see through to complete publication the researches which they have supported ; but, of course, this limits to some extent their activi- ties in subsidising further research. = The provision of a considerable endowment from which grants might be given in aid of the publication of worthy papers by the principal scientific societies would be a noble benefaction which would doubtless have an effect upon the advancement of knowledge second only to the endowment of the research itself. W. A. HERDMAN. — The University, Liverpool, May 9.. I HEARTILY agree with the opinion expressed in the leading article in Nature of May — that a Government subsidy is necessary at the present time to lessen the sudden shock ‘of war. conditions to our scientific societies, especially. in the matter of printing. The case was well put by Sir Joseph Larmor in a letter to the Times. some months ago: the blow strikes at the very roots of scientific advance, and the risk of vital damage is thus the greater because roots are apt to be buried out of sight. If the mischief be not remedied in time, it will become clearly manifest only when the fruits begin to fail. In societies with which I am connected, and py ally in the British Association, anxious study has made of all possible economies in printing, and any- thing which could be regarded as a luxury is being rigidly excluded; but the printing bill will still be heavv—much heavier than before—and the excess will — inevitably be subtracted from funds formerly devoted to research. Moreover, we cannot be quite easy about the omission of the items regarded as luxuries. It is. a common experience that life-long influences ma hang on trifles,. and the natural accretions whic gather round an old-established association like the British Association are peculiarly liable to contain just. LER NATURE 327 » trifles which may decide events. The scientific _can scarcely be cast too wide. H. H. Turner. University Observatory, Oxford, May 8. ‘ ’ appearance of the leading article in Nature of y 6 is extremely opportune. The question is one in ch the scientific world is seriously concerned, and bility of the high cost of production stifling gress of science must lead us to consider, what can be found to obviate so disastrous a ty. It is unnecessary to quote evidence of the bus increase in the cost of printing and publica- it the present time—that is well known—but the ion is accentuated by many indications that the will go higher in the near future. 2 ogyd undesirable that such increased charge the funds of scientific societies should be met ; raising subscriptions. No deterrent to join vocie- ties should be advocated, for science is advanced more y individuals than by the extent of their published 2 question turns upon the limitations which the ent state of affairs must exercise upon publica- It is quite certain that some curtailment is ssary to avoid insolvency. It is patent to all that papers are characterised by diffuseness and ndancy, as if the value of a paper was to be by its length. No one who wishes to keep fait with current work has time to read such— ment of scientific papers are the desiderata. _ During the war we were rationed in our food _ for the body, with good rather than harm to ourselves. It is now necessary that the food for our minds should be rationed. The only possible way to carry on until things are easier is to limit publication to condensa- tion or abstracts of papers, except in special cases. ‘It is not an easy task to make abstracts of papers so as to retain all that is essential, and with some writers it is extremely difficult to condense their diffuse pig ne The ys ae ape be met by putting the responsibility upon authors and limiting them fo a definite number of pages, according to the character of the paper. lication has resulted in great economy without loss. __ A few years ago the volume of Greenwich Observa- _ tions extended to as many as 1400 pages. The Board of Visitors decided that it was not necessary to pub- - ‘lish a considerable mass of observations, as these could always be supplied from the Royal Observatory to anyone who wanted them, and by this means the volume was at once cut down to less than 600 pages. Be ideo E. B. Knose. _ 32 Tavistock Square, W.C.1, May 8. _ Tue leading article in Nature of May 6 comes home to those of us who are concerned in carrying on the work of scientific societies. We are making socliass efforts to prune down diffuse contributions, and also endeavouring to increase our income by attracting new _ members. Many of us regard an increase in sub- scription rates as a device only to be contemplated as a last resort, and are in complete agreement with your article. a The Royal Meteorological Society is directly con- cerned with the question of accommodation, as well __as of increasing costs of publication, and we should we any possibility of joining the privileged ___—s societies that are housed by Government. _ cash subvention for the one purpose, is it possible to NO. 2637, VOL. 105] ss and economy of expression in the treat- Let me give an instance where curtailment in pub-- ailing a urge the Government to’ do something for us in .the other direction? I should like to press for the removal of the Civil Service Commission from Bur- lington Gardens. Examinations might well be ‘held in university rooms at South Kensington or else- where. I do not know how many societies could find adequate room in the building if it were thus set free; but it seems to me that assistance of this kind would be, at any rate for those of us who secured it, better than a subvention towards printing expenses, and possibly easier to obtain from the Government. * WaLTER W. BryAnrtT, Hon. Sec., Royal Meteorological Society. Royal Observatory, Greenwich, S.E., May 8. Atomic and Molecular Forces and Crystal Structure. One of the most difficult problems in the theory of chemical valency is to form a clear picture of the attractive forces between similar atoms. Lewis and Langmuir, in their theory of the cubical atom, have each attributed the single valency bond to the mutual action between a pair of electrons, and Langmuir has recently pointed out (NaTuRE, April 29, p. 261) that, as regards chemical considerations, such a pair of elec- trons may be regarded as revolving in the same orbit. This idea is closely allied to Bohr’s construction for the hydrogen molecule. It should, however, be pointed out that such a construction leads to a strong paramagnetic property for molecular hydrogen, unless. the electron motions are compensated by rotation of the nuclear charges. Such compensation is scarcely likely, since the magnetic moment depends on the area of the orbit described, and evidence up to date points to a nuclear radius of small order compared with that of the electron orbit, even though the latter be small compared with the conventional radius of the atom. PES Ty Be A Slt A s iB“ Z x “ aes “ ~*~ / V \ / ; ‘ A a B ° H eo ‘1 \ x ‘ \ / \ A 4 \ “en / N Peat. a: . 4 ag - bak vid ones. Pes oa o” Model of hydrogen molecule. Suppose X and Y are two exactly similar hydrogen atoms. Their nuclei are shown at A and B, and the negative electron orbits at a and b. The nucleus A may control the orbit a electrostatically and mag- netically, while B controls b. As shown, there will be magnetic attraction between a and b, and possibly also a certain amount of electrostatic repulsion if each electron is not completely bound to its own nucleus. Equilibrium may be established for some such dis- position. of the charges as that indicated. We thus get a sort of fusion of the two hydrogen atoms which corresponds to the fusion of the electron orbits in Bohr’s theory of the hydrogen molecule. In the ent case, however, the fusion is controlled mag- netically, whereas in Bohr’s theory it is purely electro- static. The system depicted above gives a diamagnetic. Bak yn molecule as required. With more complicated systems, we can see, in a general way, how the small circular orbits will dis- pose themselves in pairs (Lewis and Langmuir) primarily under their mutual magnetic influences.-_ , 328 NATURE [May 13, 1920 We might further expect that the crystallographic symmetry would be determined in a similar way by the. magnetic forces due to the electrons in each atomic kernel. These electrons are drawn by mutual mag- netic forces into a space-pattern, characteristic for each molecule, and the symmetry of this pattern is reflected in the crystalline symmetry. Thus the rigidity of the crystalline medium in different directions and the orientations of the planes of cleavage are defined in terms of the local magnetic forces (cf. Science Progress, No. 56, March, 1920, p. 588; Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc., vol. ccxx., A, p. 247, 1920, par- ticularly conclusion xii., p. 289; vol. ccxv., A, p. 79, 1915; vol. ccxiv., A, p. 109, 1914). The close con- nection between the deportment of crystals in a mag- netic field and the disposition of the planes of cleavage, as observed by Tyndall, may then be explained. Possibly each of the electron orbits shown in the above diagram may be identified with the ring-elec- tron of A. L. Parson (Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, vol. Ixv., p. 1, 1915). The con- ception of the hydrogen molecule and the line of argument leading up to it, as indicated by the above papers, are, however, quite distinct from those described by Parson. A, E. Oxiey. The British Cotton Industry Research Asso- ciation, 108 Deansgate, Manchester, May I. Wasps. If glory be known to insects; if solid glory be measured among then, as among us, by the difficulties surmounted, the female wasp is a heroine to whom the queen bee is in no way comparable.—REAUMUR. HavING spent some time in observing wasps during the past eight years, a few notes descriptive of the results may possibly have an interest at this season when the queen wasps are searching for suitable positions in which to found new colonies. The queens usually appear in the third or fourth week of April, and about a fortnight later than the humble bees. They spend a few days in feeding, and then fly about grassy banks and hedgerows, looking for a mouse’s hole or some fissure or opening in the ground likely to prove desirable habitations. They are _ very fastidious in making a selection. constructed. places for them, but hundreds of queens have declined the invitation. In twenty-seven cases, however, the queens took up residence, and the average date was May 6. The young wasps begin to show themselves in twenty-nine or thirty days, and then a few days later the queen remains at home. During the month elapsing before the small working wasps appear the queen works hard, and performs about 1136 completed journeys to procure material for constructing cells and obtaining food for herself and young. The number given is the mean derived from eight nests. When a queen finds herself a proper site in which to build, it by no means follows that she will succeed in rearing a colony. Only one in three have overcome the difficulties (i.e. nine out of twenty-seven) in my garden, for trouble was occasioned by marauding intruders such as ants, earwigs, beetles, woodlice, etc. Besides, every man’s hand is turned against the wasp, and numbers of queens are destroyed every spring before the embryo nests have developed. As to the number of wasps composing a nest, this varies greatly. The strength is pretty fairly indicated by the number flying to and fro, and I have generally kept a record of the horary rate. In regard to three strong nests, the following were the figures on different dates, a wasp flying out being counted .as one, and one going in as one, so that completed journeys would be half the figures given : . NO. 2637, VOL, 105] I have specially © Two nests One strong Date in rgr5. nest in 1918, per hour per hour June 25 oat knee) Re 742 July 5 dopa? vas 350 1,750 15 aoe. nase ae 4,800 25 on. iene 75230 Aug. 4 ina ie ;.| nasa 3,400 14 609 aon), SOO 11,150 24 Serie eS 12,060 Sept. 3 See? bas 15,780 : 13 yas: 5 Sy ie e 6,360 23 2,150 3,030 Oct. 3 1,250 1,620 13 650 2 23 250 very few In September, 1918, I recorded an abnormal rainfall of 10-47 in., and this occasioned the virtual swamping of the nest I kept under observation in that yeats iii. With regard to young queens, they begin to leave the nests at different times. In 1913 I noticed them first on August 21, in 1916 on August 19, and in 1918 on September 22. Two nests not at all abundant yielded in one case ggo queens and drones, and in the other 1400. A strong nest in 1915 yielded in all 1118 queens and 995 drones. There were ten tiers of cells in another nest, and six of the largest measured 1oX8 in. These included 12,900 cells at least, and if each cell produced three generations this means an aggregate of nearly 40,000 wasps. ,__ The most prevalent species of wasp in this locality is Vespa germanica, in the proportion of 3 to 1 of other varieties, Of twenty-seven nests, I had 1 V. rufa, 7 V. vulgaris, and 19 V. germanica. The latest colony I have seen November 5. Wasps kill an enormous number of flies of all kinds I found that the members of a moderately small nest of V. germanica in 1913 brought home at least two thousand flies per day. A very strong nest would account for twelve times as many. Man often mis- apprehends the benefits derived from certain forms of animate Nature. Birds are destroyed and noxious insects enabled to multiply. made to exterminate the wasp, and _ hordes pestiferous flies naturally become the bane of our summers. In spite of the popular belief, wasps are not nearly so bad-tempered and dangerous as they are sup- posed to be. quiet and harmless enough, and may be watched with entertainment. They are most industrious. Sir John Lubbock (later the first Lord Avebury) said : ‘‘T have been much struck by the industry of wasps "’; and ‘‘On the whole, wasps seem to be more clever in finding their way than bees.” Mr. T. A. Preston in the Phenological Report for 1887 (Royal Met. Soc. Journal, vol. xiv., p. 56), speaking of the wasp, stated: ‘‘It seems far superior in intelligence to the bee.” : W. F. DENNING. | Dr. J. G. Bartholomew and the Layer System of Contour Colouring. To prevent misapprehension, it would have been better if, in the sixteenth line of the obituary notice which appears on p. 238 of Nature for April 22, the word “‘introduced,’? used by Dr. Bartholomew him- self in ‘‘Who’s Who,” had been employed instead of ‘‘devised.’? Dr, Bartholomew made no claim to be the originator of the idea of indicating differences of altitude by differences of colour, but he was the first to apply this method to topographical maps. Gro. G. CuIsHoOLM. Mf * ih METS in great activity was on Efforts are ever ss If not obstructed or attacked they are May 13, 1920] NATURE = - apN the process of measuring the places of stars + on the celestial sphere, or in the converse process of using these measured places to fix the position of the observer upon the earth’s surface, the astronomer has at his disposal two systems of reference lines or circles upon which _ to base his measurements. These are respectively the vertical great circles through his zenith and he small circles parallel to his horizon, the circles of equal altitude or equal zenith distance. Using the first system, his method is to time the transit of a star across a vertical circle, almost invariably the meridian circle passing through the north and south points. If, in addition to timing the transit, he measures the altitude, he gets a complete determination of the position of the star observed, and uses both sets of reference circles, the vertical circle for fixing’ the time of transit, and hence the right ascension of the star, and the horizontal circle for fixing the altitude of transit, and hence _ the star’s declination. This is the ordinary __ observation carried out in the observatory with ___ the transit circle or by the surveyor in the field with the theodolite. Another method of observation which ‘gives the same quantities, though not in the same direct form, is by the use of an instru- ment adapted for the recording of transits across a horizontal circle of constant altitude. An instru- ment of this class is the almucantar, in which horizontality is secured by the device of floating the whole in a mercury bath, it being easily seen that if either the instrument or the bath is moved round, the telescope will maintain a constant angle with the horizontal, and the line of vision will therefore always intersect an almucantar or circle of equal altitude. Another instrument of the same fundamental type, but of an entirely different form, is the prismatic astrolabe devised about twelve years ago MM. Claude and Driencourt. This appears to possess great merits for survey work in the field, and has ‘earned quite enthusiastic praise from those who have used it. The one objection to its more extensive employment, the arduous labour involved in preparing observing lists of stars, has now been removed by the pub- - lication of Messrs. Ball and Knox Shaw’s ‘ Hand- book ’’ and “Diagram.’’ We will revert to this point later, but we must first give a short descrip- tion of the principles of this interesting instrument. It consists essentially of a telescope with a 60° prism in front of the object glass, and a mercury trough placed so as to reflect the star on to the lower face of the prism. _ The prism can be placed in either of the two positions shown in Fig. 1, from which it will be 1 “Description et Usage de l’Astrolabe a Prisme.” (Paris : Gauthier-Villars, 1910.) “ Bestimmung fundamentaler Sternédrter aus Héhendurchgangsbeobach- tungen.” By R. Triimpler. Nachrichten der K. G. der Wissenschaften. © GBitingen, for) : ee andbook of the Prismatic Astrolabe.” By John Ball and H. Knox Shaw. (Cairo : Government Press, 1919 - “Astrolabe Diagram.” By John Ball. 1919.) By Claude et Drien- (Cairo: Government Press, NO. 2637, VOL. 105 | The Prismatic Astrolabe. obvious that in both cases, on looking through the telescope at a star which is approaching and near to the altitude of 60°, two images of the star will be seen moving towards each other, and that these images will coalesce into one when the apparent altitude of the star is equal to the angle of the prism. In arrangement A the reflection is from the two outside surfaces of the prism, which must therefore be silvered; in B we get a total reflection from the two inside surfaces. It is further obvious that with outside reflection the angle of the prism can be given any value; the two star images will always coincide when the ar Oe ae ae \ Fic. r.—Principle of construction of the prismatic astrolabe. altitude is equal to this angle, whereas if the rays traverse the glass they must enter and leave normal to the faces; the prism must therefore be equilateral, and stars can be observed only at the fixed altitude of 60°. The observation consists in the timing of the moment of coincidence of the two images. To allow them actually to coincide would, however, render accurate timing difficult, and far greater precision is obtained by giving the telescope a very small lateral displacement, so that the images pass close to, but not exactly over, 36” NATURE [May 13, 1920 each other; what is observed is, then, the transit | of the two images over the same line of a horizontal graticule. ues There is no appreciable difference in precision between the two prism arrangements. B has the apparent disadvantage that a closer adjustment of the telescope is required, the line of collimation must be perpendicular to the prism base, and the latter must be truly vertical, whereas with A the horizontality of the telescope and the symmetrical inclination of the prism faces are immaterial. On the other hand, from the practical surveyor’s point of view, the use of the easily damaged silvered faces is inexpedient, and the method of internal reflection preferable. The disadvantages attach- ing to the necessity of more careful adjustment of telescope and prism are, moreover, more apparent than real. It must be remembered that while the actual observation involves no reading of gradu- ated circle or micrometer, a horizontal circle is required for the purpose of directing the line of sight, so that the desired star will cross the field. The telescope and circle must therefore be levelled and adjusted as with a theodolite, and the extra labour involved in the setting of the prism is a very small matter. As already stated, the preparation of an observ- ing programme involves somewhat lengthy com- putations. These have now been made, and are available for the use of observers within a wide range of latitude. The “ Handbook of the Pris- matic Astrolabe ’’ gives a succinct description of the smaller survey form of the instrument, its construction and method of use, and contains tables of all the Nautical Almanac stars down to the fourth magnitude which cross the altitude circle at azimuths suitable for observation for each degree of latitude between 55° S. and 55°N. This list gives sufficient stars for all field work except geodetic survey of the first. order, for which more and fainter stars would be wanted. For these, reference must be made to the “ Astro- labe Diagram,” giving, for the same limits of latitude, a series of graphs from which the azimuth and time of any star crossing the altitude circle can be plotted. A comparison of the relative accuracy of the astrolabe and other survey instru- ments seems to indicate that it is theodolite. of similar telescopic power; and there is no doubt that in it we have a valuable addition to the resources of the surveyor. It ‘cannot, how- ever, take the place of the theodolite, being cap- able of determining only latitude and time, not azimuths or angles. It has therefore been urged as an objection to its more extended use that as a survey party must in any case carry theodolites the astrolabe could be taken only when the added labour of transport is unimportant. Apart from the fact that the addition of thirty pounds to the baggage of a survey expedition would be found burdensome only in quite exceptional cases, this objection does not appear to have any validity. A theodolite is capable of conversion into an astro- labe by the addition of the prism and mercury trough, and it would be easy to design these so that they could be clamped on to the front of the telescope, and:the prism levelled in a minute or two. The extra weight would then not exceed a few ounces. anh . An attempt.has been made, not, however, yet carried very far, to develop the use of this instru- ment for the astronomical problem of the deter- mination of star places of high-order precision. It is very doubtful if it presents any real advan- tages for this work. The difficulty of making true plane surfaces is well known, and in an instru- ment of large aperture and high magnification the inclusion of flat reflectors in the optical system is undesirable. Furthermore, the two star images are not symmetrical, each being formed by only half the object glass, and the results show a magnitude equation, or variation with the bright- ness of the stars observed. This has not been specially studied in the portable survey patterns, ‘ but would probably be found even with them. Trimpler (loc. cit.), using an aperture of only 4°7 cm. and a focal length of 50 cm., found it conspicuously. _ It would increase rapidly with increase of aperture. capable in his hands of useful service, and leave any possible application to observatory work for further investigation. ea f The Heart of a Continent.! By DouGLas CARRUTHERS. “(*ENTRAL ASIA” used to conjure up in the imagination thoughts of lonely and mys- terious ' frontiers between three great Asiatic Empires, .of ‘strange doings in unheard-of valleys on the Pamirs, of long-dead conquerors, and of strange capitals at:the back of the world. Even now, in 1920, the heart of Asia is a storm centre, for it forms the meeting-place of the civilisations of the remote past—China; of the present—Great Britain; and of the future ?—Bolshevism. ee ‘Great happenings have been in middle. Asia— 1 ‘Through Deserts and Oases of Central Asia:”. By Miss Ella Sykes and Brig.-Gen, Sir Percy Sykes. .Pp. xii+340. (London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd, 2920.) Price ars: net, Riss A Tees NO. 2637, VOL, 105 | unheard-of movements, unimagined miseries— during the past six years, when all men’s thoughts have been concentrated on Europe and the Middle East. The remote highlands and deserts of Asia did not escape the turmoil. The most secluded and most apathetic native races felt the ripples of the storm in Europe. The confines of China, India, Russia, and Afghanistan have returned, by a strange coincidence, to their former place as, what may well be, the centre of a prolonged struggle, not between East and West, but between right and wrong. Chinese Turkestan, probably capable of somewhat greater precision than a ef FAP ERE samneanament | For the present we must regard the astrolabe as a surveyor’s instrument, or Kashgaria, is that: May 13, 1920] NATURE 331 part of middle Asia which forms the most westerly province of the Chinese Empire, under the title of Hsin-Chiang, or the New Province, for it is of comparatively recent occupation (since Keen-Lung, 1758). Although an integral part of the Celestial Empire, it is actually Central Asian in physical features, character, and inhabitants. This desert plain is girt on three sides by great " mountain walls, yet these barriers seem to be ae A ler ia SE S a! a a Sis SENET ee a Ngee nae ar ae a less of a hindrance to man than is the endless desert zone which cuts it off from China proper. The Chinese rule, but the natives look to Mecca, not to Pekin, and trade with Moscow and Peshawar rather than with the cities of China. The oases belong to the group which extends from Kho- tan, in the east, to Bokhara, in Sa the west. Chinese Turkestan, then, is a colony where mild and unwarlike farmers, probably the most phlegmatic of all peoples in the world, are ruled by a handful of Chinese officials. On the north and west was a great and virile Russian Empire ever ready to overflow still further eastwards and southwards, while on the south great mountain walls arose behind which ruled the Emperor of India. Kashgar, the capital, was the only place in Central Asia where Great Britain maintained a representative. From the Cau- casus to Siberia, and from Siberia to China proper, we had no official residents. It was to this far-off city that the authors went in 1915, Sir Percy Sykes to act for Sir George Macartney, the Consul-General, on leave. We have a general account of the journey out, by way of Nor- way, Sweden, and_ Finland, Petrograd, Moscow, Tashkent, and Osh, followed by chapters on life at the British Consulate, around Kashgar, and trips to the Russian Pamirs and to the great oases of Yarkand and Khotan. These chapters, by Miss Ella Sykes, are ably supplemented by her brother’s (Sir Percy Sykes) section, which deals with the geography, govern- ment, and commerce of the district, and also gives us an historical sketch which is admirable in its brevity and conciseness, for it covers in three short chapters a period from some- where about the third century B.c. up to 1915! It should be realised that Turkestan his- tory was shaped by Hun, Chinese, Turk, Arab, and Mongol, while the romantic names of Kutayba, Jenghiz, Tamerlane, Amursana, and Yakub Beg NO. 2637, VOL. 105 | | 3 ¥ P ng, ; ¥. ; = Fic. 1.—A hunting eagle. figure largely. Sir Percy Sykes traces the story right up to the year of his visit, and by no means the least interesting part. is that which deals with the modern period. His final sentence contains much of import: “The future of Chinese Turkes- tan is not finally settled, but the World War, which has temporarily broken up the Russian Empire, will undoubtedly stimulate China to move along the path of progress. If so, there is hope that the condition of this outlying province of her Empire may benefit, more especially by improved bs, 1, > | . i ¢ 4 . od a co From ‘‘ Lhrcugh Deserts and Oases of Central Asia.” communications. At the same time, there are many parts of Asia which have reason to envy the peace and plenty enjoyed by the inhabitants of Chinese Turkestan.” The chapter on “The Kashgar Farmer’’ is noteworthy; it shows the difference between this desert land and others. Whereas other arid regions are dependent on scanty and uncertain rainfalls, the great oases | of the low, hot plains of Turkestan live by a sure and abundant water supply brought down from 33? NATURE | May 13, 1920 the giant glaciers and snowfields which wall them in on north, south, and west. A certain liveli- hood, an ample and cheap food supply, and com- plete safety have produced a contented race, devoid of ambition and easily ruled. The towns- folk are much the same. Kashgar and Yarkand are still great trade centres. Since Marco Polo’s day, “from this country many merchants go forth about the world on trading journeys.” The old Pamiis, while Sir Aurel Stein crossed the plateau from east to west, and penetrated to the amaz- ingly interesting regions of Roshan and Darwaz. The chief interest of this book lies in the fact that it recounts the impressions of a resident in a country which has so far been described only — by the passer-by. Even a glimpse of life in the only city of Central Asia where the British Empire retains a representative should commend it to the Fic, 2.—Cart used in the Osh district. From ‘‘ Through Deserts and Oases of Central Asia.’ silk route ran the length of the country. All trade between China and Western Asia passed through Kashgar. The volume ends with an account of a visit to the Russian Pamirs. For a long time the “ Roof of the World” has been a forbidden land to the | English hunter, but the war proved that Russian designs on India were a bogey. The author was permitted to travel and shoot in the heart of the reader. For years the post has been held by Sir — George Macartney. Far removed from the nearest Englishman, cut off from India, isolated and alone, he’ has upheld the honour of the Empire, using prestige instead of Cossacks, and relying’ on his unrivalled knowledge of the East. Sir Percy’ Sykes had his work cut out to fill the gap satis- | factorily,. but his life experience in Asia served him — well, and he has allowed us to see something of it. The United States National Research Council. By Pror. VERNON KELLOGG. HE National Research Council is a co-opera- tive organisation of men of science in America for the special purpose of promoting fundamental research in the physical and natural sciences, the application of scientific knowledge in the industries, and the training of research workers, all for the sake of the general advance- ment of science and the’ increase of the national strength and well-being. It was organised in 1916, under the auspices of the National Academy of NO. 2637, VOL. 105 | ) problems involving scientific investigation. Sciences, especially to help make the scientific — resources of the country available to the Govern-— ment in the solution of pressing war-time As now reorganised on a permanent peace-time foot- ing, its membership of about 250 is largely com- posed of duly appointed representatives of about forty major scientific and technical societies of America, with a group of administrative officers * . . ROE R ions and necessary office staffs, resident in Washing- - YA saad BLK May 13, 1920] NATURE 333 a. These officers are appointed for but one year a time, and it is expected that most of the ces (chairmen of divisions, etc.) will be filled ——* by men drawn from the. scientific of the universities, the staffs of large intz ‘ined by the industries. Although during the war the Council was largely ted by the Government, it is now entirely ted by private funds. A gift of 5,000,000 s has recently been made to it by the Car- Corporation. Part of this money, perhaps ion dollars, will be used to erect a building GasKineton for the offices, conference rooms, te., of the.Council and the National Academy of iences, and the remainder will constitute a per- nent endowment for the Council. This endow- nt will provide for the administrative expenses the organisation, leaving the funds necessary aid in the support of the large co-operative atific projects of research, which the Council es to stimulate or establish, to be found, as -needs require, from wealthy men or philan- foundations interested in the promotion of investigation of the fundamentals of science | from the industries interested in promoting - extension of scientific applications. iad Council as at present organised includes een divisions, seven representing the various jor lines of science and technology, and six _ representing general relations. The first seven are “divisions of the physical sciences, engineering, ee nistry and chemical technology, geology and raphy, the medical sciences, biology and iculture, and anthropology and_ psychology. general relations group includes a division of eign relations, a Government division (including sentatives of each of the major scientific reaux included in the Government Departments ‘of War, Navy, Commerce, Labour, Agriculture, _ State, and Treasury), a division of States rela- tions, one of educational relations interested espe- cially in the-research conditions and activities in the colleges and universities of the country, a division of research extension especially devoted to the extension of research to the industries, and a research information service intended to act as _ a general national clearing-house for information ~ concerning the scientific personnel and scattered Peas work of the country. Affiliated with these various divisions are many special committees and sub-committees which con- cern themselves with various special phases and. specific projects of scientific investigation. The Phy number of these committees approximates There is also a special Research Fellowship period from May 1, 1919, to June 30, 1925, the sum of 500,000 dollars, appropriated by the Rocke. feller Foundation for the Maintenance of National Research Fellowships in Physics and Chemistry. Thirteen of these fellowships have so far been instituted. The National Research Council is thus neither a great operating scientific laboratory nor an organisation possessing large funds from which to make direct gifts to individual scientific investigators or scientific laboratories, but an in- Stitution for the purposes of stimulating and organising scientific research in America, and of promoting international scientific relations in all possible ways. It is specially interested in organ- ising scientific effort along co-ordinated co-opera- tive lines. “It hopes to encourage vigorous attack on major problems too large and many-sided for the individual investigator working alone, and often requiring the co-operation of numerous in- vestigators and laboratories representing several different but allied lines of science. _ In the applica- tions of science it is especially interested in such problems as bear directly on the promotion of the national strength and well-being. Among the many projects now in course of organisation or actual development are an exten- sive study of food and nutrition in charge of a committee including many of the leading American physiological chemists and experts in human and animal nutrition; a study of high explosives, begun during the war; the preparation of critical compendia of physical and chemical constants; a study of the fundamental scientific problems of baking, of ceramics, of steel alloys, of synthetic drugs, of the chemistry of colloids, of sewage dis- posal, of forestry, of fertilisers, etc. An extensive investigation of tropical biology, including espe- cially tropical medicine, is in course of organisa- tion. A detailed survey of the research conditions in all the colleges. and universities of the country, in which research work is now being done or probably can be done in the near future, is in active progress. A committee on mental measure- ments has recently completed an elaborate series of trials of group tests on several thousand chil- dren, and has prepared, and is about to publish, a set of recommended tests for use for classifica- tion and grading in the common schools of the country. These tests are adapted from the sets developed: by the Council’s special psychological committee on Army tests during the war. Alto- gether, the Council is getting under way a good deal of important research work, and promises to be an organisation of much influence in. the promotion of American activity in the advance- | Board, which has at its disposal. through the | ment of science. a ; ais eer | a Obituary. MARLBOROUGH R. Pryor. SoM fifty years ago Marlborough Robert ; Pryor, who died at Weston Park, Stevenage, on April 3, was well known in scientific circles at _ Cambridge, and seemed likely to rise to a high a, NO. 2637, VOL. 105] position in those studies. He was a man of many interests and great adaptability of mind, who, though he was rather early diverted to executive business, never lost his interest in those parts of it which were connected with science. Educated 334 NATURE [May 13, 1920 at Eton, he entered Trinity College, Cambridge, taking his degree as B.A. in 1870, and that of M.A. three years later. It is rather remarkable that he.did not “go in for honours,” for he was then so conspicuous a student of natural science as to obtain successively a scholarship and a fel- lowship by examination in those subjects, being in each case the first elected to these distinctions in Trinity College. In Pryor’s days natural science was beginning to look up in Cambridge, though it did not yet lead directly to a degree, for its first Tripos exam- ination, when the list was headed by Prof. Liveing, was in 1858, four men being in the first class, and two in the second. Until 1869 the total number in all the classes rarely exceeded ten, and sometimes sank down to four, and on three occasions no one was in the first class. Things have changed since then, for in the days immediately before the war there would be some 120 or more in the three classes, as there doubt- less will be again. But from 1870, when Pryor’s name would have appeared had he gone in for the examination, the names of men who have since won distinction are more often found in the lists—such as H. Darwin (now Sir Horace); W. M. Hicks, of Sidney, who turned from science to theology and became Bishop of Bloemfontein ; Garrod and Lydekker, Teall, . Martin, Frank Balfour, M. Hartog, and Sollas, now professor of geology at Oxford, not to mention others. Pryor, however, so far as I know, wrote no papers of importance on strictly scientific matters. I do not find his name in the earlier volumes of NaTuRE, which began to appear in November, 1869, nor is it in my catalogue of collected papers on scientific matters, which goes back to a still earlier date. Yet he won distinction at Cambridge, not only by his academic successes at Trinity, but also from all who met him there in scientific society. One could not be long with him without getting the impression that one was talking with a clear-headed man of strong intellect, who looked at things all round before he spoke of them, and expressed his views quietly and deliberately. He had a large store of knowledge and was a keen critic, yet never anything but kindly. He took a special interest in ornithology, and was a frequent member of that circle of young men of science which the late Prof. Alfred Newton delighted to gather round him on Sunday evenings after dinner in his rooms at Magdalene, where much tobacco was consumed and any amount of natural history was talked. These gatherings indirectly extended the interest felt in that subject in Cambridge, and perhaps were an even greater incentive to its study than any formal teaching by the professor. Soon after taking his degree Pryor: left Cam- bridge and entered on a business career in London, settling down near Stevenage, where he inherited from an uncle ‘an estate called Weston Park. At first he joined a firm of*South American mer- chants, and became a director of some important joint-stock companies. The two with which he NO. 2637, VOL. 105 | was most closely and permanently connected— and they were businesses requiring especially a clear head and a sound judgment—were the Sun Insurance Office and the Sun Life Assurance Society, to each of which he became chairman, holding those offices until 1918. The prosperity of these institutions was the chief work of his later life, and he carefully studied the problems of insurance in all its branches. It is said that his views were strong and his business ideals high, and that nothing short of the strictest practice would ever satisfy him. But he was ‘regarded with real affection by the other members of the boards, and to the younger of them his great store of knowledge on all sorts of subjects Still, he kept | up his connection with his college and his uni- — was a constant cause of wonder. versity, for he frequently came up to be present at special social gatherings in the former, and in later years took an active part in the endeavour — to collect funds to advance teaching in the latter, which was gratefully acknowledged in a resolu- neh tion passed the other day. Besides all this, he was a good Spanish scholar, and had paid much ~ attention to church architecture, especially in Hertfordshire. He married Miss Alice Solly, of Serge Hill, in that county, and has left six daughters and one son, Col. Pryor, D.S.O., who served in France and Italy. So, to the regret of many friends, Marlborough Pryor is gone. in the scientific annals of his generation, as once seemed probable, but no one can say that his life was wasted, because, while some men can serve science the better by taking a prominent lead in this or that branch of it, others can do it by the catholicity of their knowledge and interests. Marl- borough Pryor was among the latter, and each has his work to do; each is helpful to his genera- tion; for the one raises the towers; the other, as he did, builds the walls. T. G. BONNEY. ~ Mr. J. A. Port, who died recently at the age of fifty-five, was a scholar whose importance as a moving force in his generation cannot be esti- — mated by the popularity of his work during his lifetime. As an archeologist he contributed to the Antiquary for 1904 two articles on Neolithic and other remains found near Harlyn Bay, Cornwall. He made the first translation into English of two important treatises of Thomas a Kempis, entitled “The Founders of the New Devotion,” and the “Chronicle of the Canons Regular of Mount St. Agnes.” graceful renderings of poems from the Greek Anthology. Just before his premature death, due to overwork in recruiting during the war, he had completed a verse and prose translation of the Epigrams of Martial, which will shortly be pub- — A fine scholar and man of letters, Mr. lished. Pott exercised an inspiring influence over a large group of friends drawn from circles largely differ- He has left no conspicuous record | These were followed by two series of a ae a ee ee ee ee oe AY 13, 1920] NATURE 335 ng both socially and intellectually. The charm his personality depended on the fact that, happy s he was himself in living, he was still happier x his life a blessing to others. En w _H. Hiorns, who died on April 17, was years head of the metallurgical depart- the Birmingham Municipal Technical He commenced teaching metallurgy about branch evening classes under the auspices Birmingham and Midland Institute. Later transferred to the central school, and was sful as a teacher that he was granted absence in 1882 and 1883 to study at Kensington under Sir W. Roberts-Austen. return to Birmingham he organised a new : department at the Birmingham and ‘Institute. As the work expanded, it was ansferred to the Birmingham Municipal Tech- al School, where the enthusiasm and geniality . Hiorns gathered an_ ever-increasing of students. Mr. Hiorns contributed on metallurgical subjects to various scien- societies, but was best known as the author of umber -of students’ text-books, which have a wide circulation, and include “Practical etallurgy and Assaying,” ‘Metallography,” “Metal Colouring,” “Iron and Steel,” Mixed fletals,” etc. He retired from teaching some t years ago, and the latter part of his life was it chiefly in rural pursuits. — Par ess: fe -T. W. Bacxnouse, of West Hendon Observatory, Sunderland, who died on n 13 in his seventy-eighth year, devoted a 4 Bight his life to scientific pursuits, and rried on for more than sixty years a series of eteorological and astronomical observations. He as a frequent contributor to our correspondence lumns, and a most successful student of those ite differences in the appearance of the sky of the atmosphere that escape, untrained servers, who prefer to consult the barometer ther than natural phenomena. Four volumes of iblications were issued by him from _ his bservatory, and the last, in 1915, summed up the ulated records, extending over fifty years, of his skill and vigilance as an observer. In 1912 Mr. Backhouse published a valuable new cata- logue of 9842 stars, containing all stars conspicu- ous to the naked eye. The catalogue was designed specially to afford assistance in the observation of meteors, to which Mr. Backhouse himself gave much attention; but it has been found useful by many other astronomers. His last communica- tion was on the subject of the January meteors _ (Quadrantids) of 1917 (Nature, vol. c., p. 313). _ Mr. Backhouse became a fellow of the Royal _ Astronomical Society in 1873, arid of the Royal _ Meteorological Society in 1892. i | ‘NO. 26327, VOL. 105] oF a CCUIT Notes. THE Prince or WaLEs having graciously consented to be nominated as an honorary fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, the nomination was made at the last ordinary meeting on May 3, and the election will be carried out, according to regulation, at the ordinary meeting to be held on June 7. Tue Croonian lecture of the Royal Society will be delivered by Prof. W. Bateson on June 17 upon the subject of “Genetic Segregation.” Mr. J. H. Lester has been elected chairman of the chemical section of the Manchester Literary and Philo- sophical Society for the session 1920-21. Notice is given by the Chemical Society that applications for grants from the society’s research fund must be made, on forms supplied, to the assistant secretary, Chemical Society, Burlington House, W.1, on or before June 1. Mr. WILFRED H. Parker has been appointed direc- tor of the National Institute of Agricultural Botany. The institute, including the Official Seed-testing Station for England and Wales (the director of which is Mr. Saunders), will be housed at Cambridge in a large building which will be completed by next summer. Meanwhile the temporary office of the in- stitute is at 72 Victoria Street, London, S.W.1. Tue Salters’ Institute of Industrial Chemistry in- vites applications for fellowships of the annual value of 250l. from those who in October next will have completed three years’ training in chemistry and desire ultimately to enter upon an industrial career. The applications, including particulars of the candi- dates’ training and war service, must be sent to the director of the institute, Salters’ Hall, St. Swithin’s Lane, E.C.4, by, at latest, July 1. A report by Dr. A. Mearns Fraser, Medical Officer of Health for Portsmouth, upon the prevention of venereal diseases was noticed in Nature of March 25 (p. 114). The Society for the Prevention of Venereal Disease now informs us that the Portsmouth Borough Council has decided that steps shall be taken to educate the male inhabitants of the borough in the facts put forward by Dr. Fraser as to methods of prevention by immediate self-disinfection. ScIENTIFIC visitors to the Royal Academy’s exhibi- tion this year will be much interested in the fine presentation portrait of Sir Clifford Allbutt painted by Sir William Orpen. The picture hangs in the first gallery and bears the inscription: “Sir Clifford All- butt, K.C.B., M.D., F.R.S., Regius Professor of Physic in the University of Cambridge; President of the British Medical Association. Presented to him by his Profession, 1920." A proof of the mezzotint en- graving of the portrait is exhibited in the room devoted to engravings, drawings, and etchings. Tue Department of Scientific and ~ Industrial Research announces that the third Conference of Research Organisations will be held to-morrow, 336 NATURE | May 13, 1920 May 14, at 3 p.m. in the lecture theatre of the Institution of Civil Engineers, Great George Street, Westminster. An introductory address will be given by the Marquess of Crewe, who will be chairman of the conference, and it will be followed by papers on “The Relation of Research Associations to Existing Institutions for Research,’”’ by Dr. A. W. Crossley, and on “The Staffing of Research Associations : Salaries and Superannuation,’ by Mr. J. W. Williamson. In an article in the Times for May 3 Mrs. Ayrton | presents what must appear to be a formidable indict- ment of the War Office for neglect in regard to the. use of the anti-gas fan. It is stated not only that there was great difficulty in getting the device con- sidered, but also that, after its efficacy had been demonstrated, its adoption was delayed. Further, it is alleged that the supply of fans was never adequate, that the method of using them was never properly taught, and that to the last less efficacious measures were adopted in preference to the fan. It is suggested that this neglect on the partof the War Office entailed death to numbers and untold suffering to countless others.. Many charges of grave neglect have been levelled against the War Office. The present one, however, is peculiar in being a charge, not against the military _ element, but rather against the experts who were associated with the Gas Service. It is well known that the Anti-Gas Service of the Army was, in the field, in the research laboratory, and on the instruc- tional side, in most of the chief appointments, staffed by well-accredited men of science, and that both at the central laboratory in France and in London com- petent men were keenly on the alert to test and improve defensive measures. In view of this, it appears scarcely likely that Mrs. Ayrton’s allegations will be accepted without question, and it is much to be desired that some plain statement of the facts should come from the men of science whose intel- ligence and humanity are implicity assailed in her article. On the occasion of a luncheon given by the Times last week to'celebrate the first attempt to fly from Cairo to the Cape, Dr. P. Chalmers Mitchell, who accompanied Capts. S. Cockerell and F. C. Broome as scientific observer, made some interesting remarks on the value of aviation in scientific exploration. The aviator has an opportunity denied to the explorer on land of seeing the general lie of the country and the broad features of its topography. The view of a large tract of country makes it possible to appreciate and explain features which would be puzzling when seen piecemeal or partially by the surface traveller. This applies particularly in a country such as Africa, where much detailed exploration has been done in places before the broader: features are understood. Dr. Chalmers Mitchell believes that geographical and geological exploration will benefit widely by the use of aeroplanes. Another interesting point he empha- sised was the unexpected number of natural aero- dromes which the flight revealed. Several times when the machine was forced to make unexpected descents, suitable places were found. Dr. Chalmers Mitchell NO. 2637, VOL. 105] pointed out that a re-survey of the Cairo-Cape route from the air made in order to locate these natural aerodromes would save the cost of many intermediate stations that are being planned. Tue trustees of the British Museum have arranged 7 to purchase the whole of the collection of Lower Paleozoic fossils made in the Girvan district by Mrs. — Robert Gray, of Edinburgh. The number of specimens — Fossils from these rocks are — scarcely represented at all in the British Museum, and — is more than 38,000. very meagrely even in the Scottish museums. Apart from the specimens collected some fifty years ago by Mr. Robert. Gray and now in the Hunterian Museum, Glasgow, there is little worth considering outside the present Gray collection. Mrs. Gray has diligently con- tinued the work begun by her late husband, so that the whole series is admirably represented in her collec- tion. of memoirs. Noteworthy among these are the well- known work by Nicholson and Etheridge on “The Silurian Fossils of the Girvan District” (1878-80), the Palzontographical Society’s monographs by Cowper — Reed, W. K. Spencer, and Ida Slater, and the large memoirs in the Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh by Reed and by Bather. In spite of these She has also taken pains to get her material — E described, and it forms the foundation of a long series © we publications, the collection is known to contain un- — described material scarcely less in extent and import- ance. The situation of the rocks near the northern limit of the Ordovician and Silurian sea, and the rich- ~ ness of certain beds of a facies different from their representatives elsewhere, have led to the inclusion of a number of rare forms in the fauna. Among these are a new and strange cystid, Cothurnocystis; star- fishes carrying back to the Ordovician plans of struc- ture previously regarded as Devonian; echinoids among the oldest known and of a type hitherto unrecognised _ before the Upper Silurian; a remarkable edrioasteroid, Pyrgocystis; beautiful examples of the supposed cirri- pede, Turrilepas; and two new species of the very rare Helminthochiton, Tue thirty-first annual Conference of the Museums Association will be held in Winchester on July 5-8, under the presidency of Sir Martin Conway, Director- General of the Imperial War Museum, The meeting this year is a joint conference with the French ~ Museums Association, and among those who have signified their eee of attending are M. Hughes Leroux (senator), M. le Prof. Louis Roule (Paris Museum), French Museums Association), M. Fernand Guey (treasurer of the French Museums Association and director of the Museum of Fine Arts at Quimper), M. le Prof. Vayssiére (president of the © Dr. A. Loir (secretary of the French Museums Asso- | ciation), and a delegate from the French Association for the Advancement of Science. and discussion of papers, and the afternoons to visits to places of special interest to museum workers. The subjects for discussion at the conference are: (1) The Public Libraries Act of 1919, and its effect on the future policy of museums; (2) the status and re- muneration of museum curators and their staffs; and The mornings during the conference will be devoted to the reading — ee ee ee [ay 13, 1920] NATURE 337 e desirability of.a diploma for museum curators the necessary course of training. In addition, the ¢ papers have been promised: (1) “The ting of Picture Galleries and Museums,” by Mr. Seager, vice-president of the New Zealand ite of Architects; (2) ‘‘The Selection of Pic- ; me E. Galleries,” by Dr. F. A. Bather. Mr. R. W. , Earlescroft, St. Giles’s Hill, Winchester, has 2n the duties of local secretary, and a small ee under the chairmanship of the Rev. S. A. Il, Winchester College, has been formed to e the programme of local visits. E next informal meeting of the Chemical Society be held at Burlington House on Thursday, 20, after the conclusion of the formal business ordinary scientific meeting. An exhibit demon- g the methods of controlling soil organisms now $ investigated at the Rothamsted Experimental on will be shown by Mr. and Mrs. D. J. Matthews. This exhibit will include specimens of the | eieacpamagiad and the cultivation of these on artificial The effect of toxic substances on organisms of the relationship of chemical composition to ‘y, with specimens illustrating effective doses of ain typical substances with a given quantity of soil, : also be shown. Dr. Marie Stopes will exhibit and microscopic slides of fusain, durain, Uiseiaisisous coal. Mr. E. R. Thomas will show 1¢ experiments illustrating the influence of tem- ture, concentration, solvent, constitution, and yst on the rate of chemical change. HORT article in our issue of March 11, p. 56, cribing a magnetic disturbance which occurred on irch 4-5, mentioned that aurora had been observed ; i: Aberdear on March 4, but considerably earlier than * commencement of the disturbance, and so pre- “sumably not directly connected with it. This seems have been the only observation of aurora in this country on either March 4 or 5. A letter, however, which we have received from Prof. A. S. Eve, of Montreal, mentions a brilliant aurora as having been ‘observed there between 1 a.m. and 2 a.m. G.M.T. on pares 5, and so synchronous with the magnetic storm. Commencing with isolated patches, the aurora appeared for a short time in the form of an arc, and ended in a curtain display. This incident leads Prof. ‘Eve ‘to inquire whether there is in existence ‘‘an for recording, with accurate timing, ‘aurore in both northern and southern hemispheres, _ and, if so, where can the records be obtained?” So _ far as we are aware, no such records exist. The question seems to merit the consideration of the ently instituted Section of Terrestrial Magnetism sical Union. Shoe Marlborough College Natural History Society, which has been in existence for fifty-six years, is a otable example of the good work which an associa- tion of schoolboys can perform under competent guid- = NO. 2637, VOL. 105] oe vitrain, the four main constituents of. eeerticity of the International Geodetic and Geo-: ance. The report of the society for 1919 announces the retirement from the post of president of Mr. J. C,. Alsop, who carried on the work with success during the period of the war. In botany 205 species, in ornithology 85, and in entomology 223 have been recorded. Lichenology shows a good record, though the subject has been little worked in this country, but the monograph on British species recently pub- lished by the British Museum and edited by Miss A. L. Smith may stimulate interest. A good course of lectures delivered by eminent specialists and numerous papers read by members during the year form an interesting feature of the report, which is carefully prepared, and furnishes a good example for the authorities of other schools in Great Britain. Dr. CHARLES SINGER has reprinted an address delivered before the British Academy (Proceedings, vol. ix.) on ‘Early English Magic and. Medicine.” the history of medicine is sharply divided into the Dark Age period and that which followed the arrival of the Arabian learning, the remnant of Greek science which survived in the Moslem world. Dr. Singer deals only with the pre-Arabian material. In England the latter has survived from two channels, manu- scripts and folk-lore. Greek medicine reached the barbarian peoples of the West at a time when the scientific system of Greece was in complete decay, and it came through Latin channels. In dealing with magic Dr. Singer remarks that ecclesiastical elements are found throughout the whole corpus of Anglo-Saxon medicine and magic. Native Teutonic magic and medicine may be distinguished from imported elements of classical, ecclesiastical, or Salernitan origin by the presence of four characteristic elements: the doctrine of specific venoms, the doctrine of the Nines, the doc- trine of the worm as a cause of disease, and, lastly, the doctrine of the elf-shot—all of which are fully described. ‘‘The Celtic influence in the Anglo-Saxon material is elusive and yet pervasive, but the difficulty of tracing it may be a result of the common heritage of the two cultures and the common external influences to which they were both subjected.” Messrs. SuTTON AND Sons, Reading, have pub- lished, an interesting contribution to the literature on seed electrification. This bulletin (No. 11) presents the results of a number of germination and field tests carried out in 1919 with seeds of carrot, swede, cab- bage, and mangold. The best-known process of seed electrification, viz. the Wolfryn process, consists in immersing the seeds in a solution either of common salt and water or of calcium chloride and water, through which an electric current is then passed.’ After this treatment the seeds are dried at a tem- perature of 100° F., and they are then ready for sowing. Obviously two processes are here involved, seed immersion and seed electrification, and the Reading experiments were designed primarily to test the value of the Wolfryn process, and secondarily, if there are advantages, to decide whether they are due to the immersion, to the electrification, or to both agents combined. Tests were made with untreated seeds, with seeds electrified by the Wolfryn process, with seeds soaked in a solution of sulphate of am- 338 NATURE [May 13, 1920 monia, and with seeds soaked in a solution of salt and water, the strength of the solution being the same as that used in the Wolfryn process. After immersion the seeds were dried at 100° F . and then sown. Regarding the tests as a whole, they do not reveal any advantage from seed electrification, the only possible exception occurring in the case of man- golds, where the germination of the electrified seed was 94 per cent., compared: with 82 per cent. for the untreated seed and 86 per cent. for the seed soaked in the salt solution, while in the field tests the elec- trified mangold seed yielded 62 Ib. per pole more than the untreated seed. trified seed gave a lower yield than the seeds treated in other ways, or the increase following electrification was so small as to be negligible. Tue Government of India is now considering the principles under which the census of I92I is to be undertaken synchronously with those of the nations of civilised Europe. Hitherto the reports have in- cluded much valuable anthropological material, but this is found to be in practice of little value to the bureaucracy. The time, it is said, has come for a scientific demographic census, one which collects such Statistical details as will throw light on all the problems of population, such as the causes which increase or decrease peoples or sections of peoples in . numbers, by sexes, in efficiency and capacity for progress. More, we want to know the real causes why the Moslem population increases at a faster rate than the Hindu, and the causes of the excess of male births, of the variability of sex mortality, and of poly- gyny and polyandry. To carry out such a scheme it will be necessary to work in close collaboration with European experts. In former census reports the mass of anthropological material made them a happy hunting- ground for European workers. If future reports are to be confined to inquiries of a sociological kind, we trust that efforts will at once be made to continue the ethnological survey on wider lines. The scheme initiated by Lord Curzon has led to little result; and while Madras, the Central Provinces, Burma, and the Punjab have issued some important publications, practically nothing seems to have been done after twenty years’ incubation in Bombay, Bengal, and the United Provinces. TueE Meteorological Magazine for April contains an article on ‘‘Climates of the British Empire Suitable for the Cultivation of Cotton,” by Mr. C. E. P. Brooks. Details with respect to rainfall and tem- perature of a cotton-growing climate are given for various British Possessions and Colonies. It is stated that the essential features are: (1) The mean annual temperature should not be below 60° F. (2) The mean temperature of the warmest month should exceed 80° F., or the mean of the three warmest months should exceed 77° F. to get the best results; this condition, however, is not so important as the first. (3) The interval between killing frosts (or droughts) should be at least 200 days. (4) The annual rainfall should not exceed about 60 in. for good crops, though cotton of a poorer quality can be grown in much wetter climates; unless irrigation is possible, the annual fall should not be less than 23 in. NO. 2637, VOL, 105] In all other cases either the elec... : ; { (5) There must be plenty of bright sunshine. A dulf and humid atmosphere is particularly unfavourable to the cotton plant. . Mr. G. W. Lampiucu’s address as president of the Geological Society of London appears in the Quarterly | Journal of that Society, vol. Ixxy.,. part 1, published in January, 1920, Its theme is that studies of the thicknesses of English sedimentary series show that | an anticlinal uplift is*the sequel to deposition in a ~ gradually deepening trough. Hence the ‘greatest thicknesses of strata are now found near the escarp-_ ments, from which the beds thin away towards the margins of the former trough. The Weald, the | Jurassic uplands, the Trias, and most of our Car- boniferous rocks are cited as examples. The Jurassic beds beneath the Weald still retain the synclinal structure; but the ‘partial recovery” of the trough is marked as we pass upwards through the Wealden i series to the Chalk. The sections material for thought. Tue latest addition to the series of Special Reports given provide much on the Mineral Resources of Great Britain, issued by the Geological Survey, is vol. xv. on “Arsenic and Antimony Ores,’ by Henry Dewey. As neither of these substances is produced in any very important quantities in this country, the report is necessarily a brief one, though the subjects are treated quite thoroughly. In the case of each metal there is given a general account of the mode of occurrence and of the distribution of its ores, followed by a detailed description of all the mines that have produced any noteworthy quantity. There is prac- tically no antimony at all produced in Great Britain, but Cornwall and Devon still rank as relatively im- portant contributors to the world’s output of arsenic, — much of this being obtained as a by-product from Cornish tin-mines. As has been pointed out by Sir Aubrey Strahan, the main value of this report lies in the fact that it has brought together in a con- venient and readily accessible form a quantity of — information previously scattered through a number — of publications, which is thus rendered readily avail- able to those interested in the various industries which make use of the metals here discussed or of their compounds. ' Tue April issue of the Journal of the Institution of Electrical Engineers contains the paper read by Mr. R. S. Whipple at the joint meeting of the institu- tion and the electro-therapeutics section of the Royal Society of Medicine on electrical methods of measur- ing body temperatures. After describing the modern resistance thermometer and the thermo-electric couple methods of measuring temperature, he comes to the conclusion that for ordinary work records of body temperature and its variation can best be obtained by means of a resistance thermometer placed in the rectum. For more accurate work a thermo-electric couple with a photographic recorder must be used, especially if rapid or minute variations of tempera- ture are to be detected. The resistance thermometer may be made of platinum wire of about 1/20 mm. — diameter, have a resistance of about 140 ohms, and be: used with a moving-coil galvanometer in a resistance’ [ay 13, 1920] NATURE 339 idge with arms ‘of about the same resistance. A litable thermo-electric couple is provided by copper id constantan,.an alloy of about 60 per cent. copper d 40 per cent. nickel. A moving-coil galvanometer coil pommranice 10 ohms or less is suitable, with a cing resistance placed in series to give a con- ited deflection. a sign of the spirit which we have so long to encourage, to find on opening last month’s of Beama, the excellently produced journal of itish Electrical and Allied Manufacturers’ Asso- n, an. article by Mr. E. B. Wedmore urging the im- nee of co-operative scientific research. Mr. Wed- points out how the war has taught us the value ry in view of the present shortage of scien- y trained technical men. Among articles which , indicating some of the enormous industrial tructure: already raised on foundations of scientific adeavour, is one by Mr. W. E. Hughes sketching the nany uses to which the electro-deposition of metals has been put. An interesting example is the building up worn engine parts, such as crankshafts, by de- osits of iron—a practice developed by the Royal Air > in face of some difficulty during the war. The thor, however, points out how the serious lack of lucational facilities has hampered British progress these branches of electro-metallurgy. Another esting article by Mr. A. B. Searle deals with ‘preparation of tungsten and its important uses in the filaments of modern incandescent lamps and of the three-electrode ionic valves upon which many of the recent developments in wireless telegraphy are based. Notwithstanding the large amount of research ‘that has led up to the present processes, the author characterises them as ‘making the best of a bad job.” If means could be found for melting the purified ‘tungsten economically, the quality of the filaments would be greatly improved. Unfortunately, however, ‘this cannot be done at present, he concludes, owing _to the extraordinarily high melting point of the metal (more than 3000° C.) and the difficulty of heating it Es this temperature out of contact with carbon. _ Tuar “small things often very considerably affect the destinies of great ones’’ is the appropriate motto chosen to introduce a paper on lubricants read by Mr. G. F. Robertshaw at a meeting of the Institu- tion of Petroleum Technologists on April 19. One object of the paper was to urge a plea for uniformity in the methods of examining lubricating oils. At Present there is a diversity of practice which is liable to produce confusion and uncertainty in judging Reon from the physical and chemical data _ obtained in testing them. For instance, there are half a dozen kinds of instruments used for deter- mining the viscosity of oils, and the results. are erred | in different terms, depending upon the par- ticular | viscometer employed. Hence an appeal is - made that the. absolute viscosity, or some convenient EY _ multiple or sub-multiple of it, should uniformly be used as the standard method of expression. The _ paper also, it may be noted, affords a convenient NO. 2637, VOL. 105] sources of reference to the somewhat extensive literature upon lubrication.’ Without compiling a complete biblio- graphy, the author directs attention to many useful information, historical, scientific, and practical. On the question of “oiliness’’—a property possessed by good lubricants which at present cannot be specified in definite terms—it is remarked that this property is not necessarily proportional to viscosity. Whilst the late Sir Boverton Redwood’s dictum is still true, that viscosity is our most valuable test of lubricating quality, there yet remains the fact that for the same viscosity the fixed vegetable and animal oils have usually a greater ‘‘oiliness’’ than mineral oils, A NEW view of the nascent state is put forward by C. Zenghelis in the Comptes rendus of the Paris Academy of Sciences for April 12. Experiments are described which show that the chemical activity of such gases as hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, or carbon monoxide is increased by bringing them in contact with solutions in very minute bubbles. This fine state of division is obtained by forcing the gas through cartridges of paper, the pressure inside the cartridge being so adjusted that the gas does not bubble through, but reacts with the dissolved body in the pores of the paper. Before each experiment a blank was made with each cartridge alone to prove that the paper had no action on the solution. Under these conditions hydrogen was proved to reduce mer- curic chloride to calomel, potassium nitrate to nitrite, carbon dioxide to formaldehyde, and substances giving a sugar reaction. With oxygen gas ammonia was oxidised to nitrous acid, and methyl alcohol to formaldehyde. With nitrogen and hydrogen sufficient ammonia was produced in half an hour to give a reaction with Nessler solution. Carbon monoxide reduced iodic acid and sodium molybdate. All these reactions took place at ordinary temperatures. Fuller details of the experiments will be published later. Pror. A. N. WHITEHEAD is publishing almost imme. diately through the Cambridge University Press the Tarner lectures delivered by him in November last. The volume will be entitled ‘‘ The Concept of Nature,’’ and form a companion to the same author’s “‘ Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Natural Knowledge.”’ It will, however, be less mathematical than the earlier work, Tue Cambridge University Press announces the pub- lication in June of ‘‘ The Influence of Man on Animal Life in Scotland: A Study in Faunal Evolution,’’ by J. Ritchie.. As the title implies, the book will deal with the bearing of man upon the character and composition of the fauna of Scotland. It will be fully illustrated and contain eight maps. Tue latest catalogue (No. 401) of Mr. Francis Edwards, 83 High Street, Marylebone, W.1, gives particulars of 757 books on the Far East—China, Japan, and the Malay Archipelago; also of the Far North-East of Asia, including Siberia and Kam- tchatka. Many of the works are scarce, but the majority are listed at. greatly reduced prices. The - catalogue will be sent free upon request. 340 NATURE [May 13, 1920 Our Astronomical Column. CONJUNCTION OF Mars witH Spica.—lInteresting, though not extremely close, approaches of Mars to the bright star Spica Virginis will occur on May 22, when Mars will be situated 2} degrees north of the star. On that night the planet will pass the meridian at 9.21 G.M.T. at an altitude of about 30 degrees. On succeeding nights Mars will be observed to the N.N.W. of the star, but on June 2 will become stationary, and thereafter move slowly eastwards. On June 12 he will again be in conjunction with Spica Virginis, and about 1°37’ N. of the star. Mars will cross the S. meridian 10 minutes before sunset on the latter night, and a good view will not be obtain- able of the planet and star until 9 p.m. G.M.T. and - afterwards. Mars will be much the brighter of the pair, and visible at an earlier time than the star. The two conjunctions will form attractive’ and striking configurations. Tue Dup.icity or v GEMINORUM.—There is an article on this star by Dr. Bernewitz in Astr. Nach., 5041. The orbit as a spectroscopic binary was investigated in the Publications of Ottawa Observatory (vol. iv., No. 19). . The period is 96 years, and the value of asini is 1,400,000,000 km. This large value suggested that it might not be impossible to detect the duplicity visually. It has been examined with the 65-cm. refractor at Berlin-Babelsberg Observatory by Dr. Bernewitz, Dr. Bottlinger, Prof. Guthnick, and Mr. F. Pavel. All agree that the image is distinctly elongated. Neighbouring stars of similar magnitude appeared perfectly round, so that it is concluded that the effect is not instrumental. On examining vGeminorum through increasing thicknesses of a dark wedge it was found that before it disappeared it became round; they conclude from this that the com- panion is about 1 magnitude fainter than the primary. This difference removes uncertainty as to the quadrant. Dr. Bernewitz and Mr. Pavel each measured the pair on five nights, and their respective results are : Date P.A. Distance. 1920-208 116-2 O-14 1920-205 124°3 0-16 They state that the spectroscopic results indicate that the star is now near elongation. If measures can be obtained over a sufficient arc of the orbit, it will be possible to deduce the parallax and mass. The spec- tral type is Bs5, so that a mass-determination would be of particular interest. KopaIKANAL OBSERVATIONS OF PROMINENCES.—V ol. i., part 2, of the Memoirs of Kodaikanal Observatory has lately been distributed. It contains a full descrip- tion, with numerous photographs, of the prominence observations made by Mr. and Mrs. Evershed, and a discussion of their distribution and motion. Their preponderance at the sun’s eastern limb, which many observers have noticed, is difficult to explain except as an earth effect. It will be remembered that Mr. Evershed has recently noticed another sign of an earth effect in the distribution of line-of-sight velocities in the photosphere. It is pointed out: that besides the principal promin- ence zones, which coincide with those of sunspots, there are also high-latitude zones. The prominences in these are less active than the equatorial ones; they frequently appear as pyramids, or rows of round patches. Their wave of activity begins in latitude 50°, soon after sunspot maximum; it travels poleward, reaching the pole about the next maximum and dying out there. It is suggested that the change in the corona round the poles, which takes place in the NO. 2637, VOL. 105 | sunspot cycle, may be connected with this prominence — fluctuation. : The rotation of the prominences has been studied at Kodaikanal; it is found to be more rapid than that of the photosphere. Line-of-sight velocities and dise observations of long-lived prominences agree in sup-— porting this. It is concluded that the prominences are so tenuous that the free path of the atoms is infinite. Their luminosity ‘“‘is due to the internal energy of the atoms, perhaps derived mainly from absorption of the intense solar radiation.” ‘ Leonardo da Vinci.* By Epwarp McCurpy. W "th the list of war inventions may be numbered _ He pursued — Leonardo’s researches in aviation. this subject for many years. His studies range from the consideration of the primary causes of flight in birds and other winged creatures to the invention of a screw propeller and the consideration of its applicability to aerial navigation. He also made an actual attempt. Jerome Cardan, the physician who made a horoscope for Edward VI., in his work ‘‘De Subtilitate ’’ refers to an unsuccessful attempt at flight made by Leonardo da Vinci, and adds somewhat dryly, “‘He was a great painter.’? A sentence on the cover of Leonard manuscript, ‘‘Sul Volo degli Uccelli,”’ written in 1505, has been interpreted as referring to this attempt. “The great bird,’ it runs, “will take its first flight upon the back of the great swan, filling the whole world with amazement, and filling all records with its fame; and it will bring eternal glory to the nest where it was born.”’’ This enigmatic utterance may be somewhat more comprehensible if it is remembered that cecero is the Italian word for swan, and ‘“‘the back of the great swan ’’ may therefore be interpreted as a reference to Monte Ceceri, a hill to the south-west of Fiesole, from which it is believed the flight took place. From the meagre records of the attempt we pass to researches in theory and construction. . The material falls naturally. into two groups, the first being a series of investigations of the laws which govern the power of flight as manifested in Nature by birds and other winged creatures, the second consisting of deductions from these principles in the construction of a mechanism which should be capable of sustaining and being worked by man. The interdependence of the two parts of the inquiry is stated with great succinctness in a passage in the Codice Atlantico: ‘‘A bird is an instrument working according to mathematical law, which instrument it is within the capacity of man to reproduce with all its movements, but not with a corresponding degree of strength, though it is deficient only in the power of maintaining equilibrium. We may therefore say that such an instrument constructed by man is lacking in nothing except the life of the bird, and this life must needs be supplied from that of man. “The life which resides in the bird’s members will, without doubt, better conform to their needs than will that of man, which is separated from them, and especially in the almost imperceptible movements which preserve equilibrium. : ‘But since we see that the bird is equipped for many obvious varieties of movements. we are able from this experience to deduce that the most rudi-. mentarv of these movements will be capable of being comprehended by man’s understanding; and that. he will to a great extent be able to provide against the 1 From a discourse delivered at the Royal Institution on Friday, March 19. Continued from p. 309. : o's °f Ee ee, ee ee an May 13, 1920] NATURE 341 truction of that instrument of which he has him- ‘become the living principle and the propeller.’’ 1 the analogy thus drawn from Nature to the blem before him, Leonardo has anticipated the of modern research. his construction of the instrument he finally npted to combine the type of the lark soaring wings open with that of the bat as it s. He does this by the introduction of sportelli -doors or shutters) in the surface of the wings, ereby, as he says, ‘‘the wing is full of holes as it and closes up when it falls.’’ The shutters ould have rims of cane and be covered with starched to render them airtight. Perhaps it was after Monte Ceceri attempt that he wrote on a page of . B of the Paris manuscripts, ‘“‘Try the actual instrument in the water, so that if you fall you will not do yourself any harm.’’ It may also have been failure of this attempt that caused him to search w a fresh source of motive power to take the place of that exerted by the muscles of a man. On 83 verso, id aris manuscripts, there is a drawing of large screw constructed to revolve round a vertical , and a note explains its intended use: ‘‘If this strument made with a screw is well made—that is to ‘say, made of linen of which the pores are stopped up with starch—and is turned swiftly, the said screw will make its spiral in the air, and it will rise high.” Leonardo adds that a small model may be made of _eardboard, with the axis formed of fine steel wire bent by force, and that this when released will turn the screw. To his drawing of this instrument the architect Luca nasa hase me, as it seems, _ justly—applied the word ‘aeroplane. hatter page in the Codice Atlantico (311 v. 4.) _ of unique interest contains three studies of artificial pie S, a name, and a note that the machine is to be made, not with sportelli—that is, shutters—but united. The natural interpretation is that the note refers to a - commission for the construction of a machine for flight, - with regard to which the patron, Gian Antonio de Mariolo, has expressed a desire that the wings should be such that no wind would be able to pass through them as it would if they had shutters, i.e. should be like the wings of the bat. - _Leonardo’s researches in natural and applied science cover so wide a field, and specialisation in these days has so divided knowledge into watertight compart- ments, that properly to gauge the value of his con- tributions to scientific research would require a com- bination of many trained intelligences. But it is not possible to devote a number of years to the close study of all that concerns Leonardo without becoming - imbued with the conviction of the complete oneness of his work and method. The dominant purpose which animates him, whatever the nature of the problem, is to investigate, to examine, and to define primary causes. His pen reinforces his practice. “Nature,” he says, ‘“‘is constrained by the order of her own law, which lives and works within her.’’ Again, “‘There is no result in Nature without a cause; understand the cause, and you will have no need of the experiment’’; and ‘Nature is full of infinite causes which were never set forth in 7 ”? ee. ; 3 : ith Leonardo the latter end of this search forgot the beginning. His intellectual curiosity into the origins and causes of all created things is revealed. in - infinite variety in the thousands of pages of his manu- scripts, compact, as has been said, ‘of observation, _ of prophecy, of achievement,” and in his triple legacy _ forming a record probably unequalled, certainly un- _ surpassed, by that of any other man in the history of the world. For consider what he was! Painter, NO. 2637, VOL. 105 | LUGE sculptor, engineer, architect—all these to the wonder of his contemporaries. His manuscripts reveal that he was no less distinguished as physicist, biologist, and philosopher. But in the field of science he was essentially a forerunner. The results that he achieved must be reckoned as small compared with his grasp of basic principles, with the vistas that he opened up, and with the unerring instinct which he displayed in choosing the true method of investigation. ‘ All Leonardo’s writings connected with science seem, as it were, fragments of a larger purpose, charted, defined, explored, but never fulfilled, of which his researches in anatomy, zoology, physiology, embryo- logy, and biology are the allied and component parts. Discerning the essential unity of man and the animals —‘‘because,’”? as he says, “all land animals have similar members—that is to say, muscles, nerves, and bones—and these members do not vary at all except in length and thickness ’’ (MS. G, 5 verso)—he may be said to have founded comparative anatomy. Draw- ings now at Windsor show the gradations of the human type merging into that of various animals. Leonardo tracks the mystery of life from the concep- tion and the foetus through growth to maturity, and so to the gradual wasting of the tendons and all the physical phenomena of death. **I have dissected,’’ he says, ‘more than ten human bodies, destroying all the various members, and remov- ing even the very smallest particles of the flesh which surrounded these veins without causing any effusion of blood other than the imperceptible bleeding of the capillary veins. And, as one single body did not suffice for so long a time, it was necessary to proceed by stages with so many bodies as would render my know- ledge complete; and this I repeated twice over in order to discover the differences.’’ The drawings made in the course of these investiga- tions, now in the Royal Collection at Windsor, were examined in the time of George III. by the famous surgeon William Hunter, who, approaching them with natural professional distrust, thus made the amende honorable :— “IT expected,’’ he says, “to see little more than such designs in anatomy as might be useful to a painter in his own profession. But I saw, and indeed with astonishment, that Leonardo had been a general and deep student. When I consider what pains he has taken upon every part of the body, the superiority of his universal genius, his particular excellence in mechanics and hydraulics, and the attention with which such a man would examine and see objects which he has to draw, I am fully persuaded that Leonardo was the best anatomist at that time in the world.’”’ Although he does not fully explain its mechanism, he evidently knew of the circulation of the blood a hundred years before Harvey gave the knowledge to the world. ‘‘ The heart,’ he wrote, “is a muscle of great strength; the blood which returns when the heart opens again is not the same as that which closes the valve.’’ The depth and variety of his researches in other branches of natural science may be inferred from the citation of a few instances in which he anticipated the results of investigations associated with other names. Either before, or at latest during such time as Copernicus was laying the foundations of his helio- centric theory by study at Bologna and Padua—a theory afterwards brought to completion and published in his work, “* De Revolutionibus Orbium Ccelestium,” in 4543—Leonardo had enunciated the ruling principle of it in a line in the manuscripts now at Windsor, “Tl sole non si muove”’ (‘‘ The sun does not move’). A hundred years before Maestlin, who is credited with the discovery, he had defined the obscure light of 342: NATURE [May 13, 1920 the unilluminated part of the moon as due to reflection from the earth’s surface. In the search for hidden laws and causes the scientific problem followed hard upon the artistic problem. ‘The study of perspective led to that of light and shade, and so of optics—the study of the structure and functions of the eye, as being the instrument by which a and shade are perceived. He made a model of its parts, and showed how an image is formed on the retina, thus refuting the currently accepted belief of the eye throwing out rays which touch the object it desires to examine. He described also the principle of the camera obscura ninety years before Porta developed the idea in practice. In mechanics he enunciated the theory of inertia, afterwards demonstrated by Galileo, and relegated the theory of perpetual motion then current to the same category as astrology and necromancy. He refound the wisdom of Archimedes, and demonstrated his theory of oblique forces applied to the arm of the . lever, afterwards associated with the name of Galileo. Following on Archimedes’s conception of the pressure of fluids, he showed—a century and a half before Pascal—that liquids stand at the same level in com- municating vessels, while if the two arms are filled by different liquids the heights will vary inversely as their densities. Leonardo is at once artist and man of science in his treatment of, and interest in, water. He studies its properties and power of movement under condi- tions varying from the action of the tides of the ocean to the laws which regulate the movement of water in siphons—a subject on which he notes his intention of writing a treatise. He follows its trans- formation into vapour, rain, dew, snow, and ice. It winds mysteriously in wonder-working coils through the landscape backgrounds of his pictures. He traces the infinite shapes it assumes, falling in violence of movement in spirals and eddies, circling like the loop of a swallow’s flight, something of the artist’s sheer delight in the creation of ‘beauty of form mingling with the purpose of the man of science to wrest from this variety its underlying principle. Or again, as engineer he harnesses its power, studying to divert its channels either in menace of war or for purposes of commerce or irrigation. ; In considering a geological problem his method is entirely deductive. “ Since,’’ as he says, ‘‘things are far more ancient than letters,’’ he turns from authority to the testimony of things themselves. ‘“Why,”’ he asks, ‘‘do we find the bones of great fishes and oysters and corals and various other shells and sea-shells on the high summits of mountains by the sea just as we find them in low seas?” The fact that the cockles were living at the time when they became embedded in the strata—this being evident from the shells being found in a row in pairs, while in other places the dead are found separated from their shells and all cast up together by the waves—is cited as proof that water formerly covered parts of the earth which are now far above the level of the sea, and that this condition continued for a period of more than the forty days of the Deluge, because, as the cockle travels along a furrow at the rate of three or four braccia daily, it could. not in forty days have proceeded from the Adriatic to Monferrato in Lombardy, a distance of 250 miles. By an investigation of the cuttings formed by the Arno in the successive strata of which the shells are found, he shows the gradual changes in the crust of the earth, and, following on the track of this knowledge, he essays the construction of the map of Italy in days remote beyond record, but of which the earth remains a living witness. His special interest in botanical study may be traced NO. 2637, VOL. 105 | back to the earliest period of his artistic work. Vasari tells of a cartoon, intended for tapestry, of the sin of Adam and Eve in Paradise, where was a meadow with innumerable plants and’ animals, ‘of which in truth one could say that for diligence and truth to Nature divine wit’ could not make the like.” He mentions a fig-tree as of special excellence for the foreshortening of the leaves and the disposition of the branches, and also a palm in which the round- ness of the fan-like leaves was shown with marvellous art. His description suggests minute attention to detail on the part of the artist based upon a profound study of Nature, and these are the characteristics which find expression in Leonardo’s many exquisite studies of plants and flowers, and in the treatment of the herbage in the Virgin of the Rocks in the Louvre. His study of botany was in inception an integral part — of his treatise on painting, botany being as necessary as anatomy, in order that the painter might have the requisite knowledge of form and structure. But here also the artist’s power of observation of the varied beauty of earth’s raiment of plants and flowers is merged imperceptibly in the mood of the man of science who saw in Nature not only form and colour, but, above all, light, which St. Augustine called ‘the queen of colours,’’ and uses Nature’s profusion as a background whereon to’ study the incidence of light and shade.. Leonardo’s researches in structure are so exact and so scientific in method as to anticipate the results of subsequent inquiry, as, for instance, in the knowledge his writings reveal of phyllotaxis—the law of quin- cuncial arrangement of the leaves on the stem—pro- mulgated in 1658 by Sir Thomas Browne in his ‘Garden of Cyrus.’’ In like manner the discovery that the age of a tree may be told from the number of concentric rings visible in a section of its trunk, with which more than a century later the names of Nathaniel Grew and Marcello Malpighi are associated, is contained in a passage in Leonardo’s “Treatise on Painting ’’ (Ludvig, 829). Leonardo also states in the same passage that these rings vary in thickness according to the greater or less amount of humidity of each year. . on I have attempted here to summarise a few of the results attained in the course of this investigation. The breadth and variety of their scope may serve to recall the remark of Francis I., who is recorded by Benvenuto Cellini to have said that “he did not believe that any other man had come into the world who had attained so great knowledge as Leonardo.” Aeronautical Research. : THE announcement by the Air Ministry of the future arrangements for aeronautical research — and education marks an important stage in the his- tory of the subject. in a White Paper, noticed in Nature of March 4, p- 14, containing the report of a Committee on Education and Research in Aeronautics. The chair- man of that Committee, Sir Richard Glazebrook, is now. head of the new Aeronautical Research Com- mittee and Zaharoff professor at London University. He was for twelve years chairman of the late Advisory Committee for Aeronautics under the. presidency of. the late Lord Rayleigh, and it may fairly be claimed that the new advance in the direction of the co- ordination of research in a large subject is a conse- quence of the success of the work of the earlier body. The Advisory Committee for Aeronautics had the assistance of such eminent men of science as Sir Horace Darwin, Sir Joseph Petavel, Sir Dugald Clerk, The course followed was indicated . ee | On ne ee ol May 13, 1920] NATURE 343 ‘Sir Napier Shaw, Mr. F. W. Lanchester, and Sir orge Greenhill. The new Committee differs con- bly from the older one in its personnel, and jicates an apparent break in continuity. This is : wholly the case, for many of the new. members of ‘4 rch Committee have for some time been mbers of sub-committees of the Advisory Com- ttee. It was inevitable that the end of a strenuous i, such as that which brought the war to a close, uld be taken as a suitable time for the withdrawal the older members from some of their activities, id this has happened to a great degree in the case the members of the Advisory Committee for Aero- nautics. The place of such members is taken by cialists in aeronautics together with one or two of science of wide experience. was recommended, in the report referred to, that nds should be provided for a school of aeronautics the Imperial College of Science, South Kensington, which a the Zaharoff chair of aviation was attached. T reasury has approved of the neces- = funds being provided, and steps have now been for the formation of the necessary educational aff. The Committee’s scheme recommended that staff should include, in addition to the Zaharoff professor, whole-time professors of aerodynamics and airship construction, together with part-time teachers on design, materials, aero-engines, meteorology, navi- tion, and airships, and a whole-time junior staff. Mr. L. Bairstow, a former student of the college, has _ been appointed to the chair of aerodynamics. His _ work at the National Physical Laboratory on the _ stability of aircraft is well known and constitutes an _ important advance in aeronautical engineering. Mr. _ Bairstow is a member of the new Aeronautical Research Committee, and this dual position—like that of Sir Richard Glazebrook—should afford ample facility to enable the Research Committee to supervise the ational work of the new school. ____In general the scheme proposed attempts to provide a common meeting-ground for everybody connected _ with aeronautics. As a central body responsible for advice and criticism and for the broad lines of policy in research, the Advisory Committee for Aeronautics proved to be of the greatest value. It had no direct executive powers, although the National Physical solely for carrying out the wishes of the Com- . mittee. The experience gained is apparently considered by the Air Ministry to have justified an extension of powers, and, in particular, the contact with full-scale research at Farnborough and elsewhere is made of the same character as that previously holding for the model work at the National Physical Laboratory. In addition, the Committee has intimate relations with the Imperial College for educational needs. The terms of reference to the Committee and the delimita- tions of the respective responsibilities of the Air _ Ministry and the Devartment of Scientific and’ Indus- trial Research give some indication of the very com- plex arrangements contemplated. Control in all directions is divided, and it is some consolation in these troubled times to find the whole of the essential elements of aeronautics combining to give a fair and generous trial to a scheme without definite rules, i.e. to a scheme which assumes helpful co-operation as the basis of success. Whatever difficulties may __ appear in this direction can only be known later, but it may be hoped that ‘the new Committee will be a __ worthy successor to the Advisory Committee for Aero- nautics and so help to confirm a healthy precedent in the relations of industry and research to the Depart- ments of State. NO. 2637, VOL. 105 | Laboratory had devartments in aeronautics provided Conjoint Board of Scientific Societies. ‘F HE report for the year 1919 gives evidence that the Board continues to discharge useful work. During the year there was a danger that supplies of casein and glue would fall short, and that aeroplane manufacture would suffer thereby. The Board came to an arrangement with the Air Group of the Ministry of Munitions, and carried out a research into the nature, functions, and manufacture of adhesives. This resulted in the discovery of two new adhesives, one possessing very remarkable properties, and the other prepared from a waste product of which there was a large supply in the country throughout the war. In addition to this, Dr. Schryver and his colleagues devised improvements in the manufacture of casein which effect a considerable saving in material and an improvement in its quality. ; The Committee on the Water-power of the Empire, with Sir Dugald Clerk as chairman and Prof. A. H. Gibson as secretary, drew up a second report, in which it is able to claim that it has stimulated in- terest in water-power investigations in many parts of the Empire. In India, Ceylon, British Guiana, Aus- tralia, the Union of Scuth Africa, and the East Africa Protectorate steps are being taken by the appointment of commissions or committees, or by preliminary in- vestigation and survey, to estimate the water-power supplies which will be available, and in several instances the committee has been asked to give guid- ance and assistance. Much new development is taking place in New Zealand. A proposal has been put forward to hold an Imperial Water-power Conference in London. Attention is directed to the general lack of facilities in universities and technical institutes for the. specialised training of young men in hydro-electric engineering. The committee of which Sir Robert Hadfield is chairman has sent deputations to interview Sir Alfred Mond and Mr. Stanley Baldwin (on behalf of the Chancellor of the Exchequer) in order to put forward its opinion that there is a great need for better and more centralised accommodation for the technological and scientific societies. The Patent Laws Committee drew up a series of recommendations, which were adopted by the Board and transmitted to the Federation of British Industries for use in its endeavour to introduce modifications into the new Patent Laws. An elaborate report on the advisability or otherwise of the compulsory adoption of the metric system, drawn up by a committee with Mr. Wilson-Fox as chairman and Mr. A. R. Hinks as secretary, was dis- cussed at a special meeting of the Board called for the purpose. The report, which envisages boldly the actual practical difficulties which would confront com- pulsory adoption, especially during the war, is shortly to be published on the authority of the committee, accompanied by a series of criticisms on the part of the scientific and technical societies to which it has been submitted. Other pieces of work summarised in the report relate to such subjects as the supply of timber for aeroplanes, the establishment of geophysical and petro- physical institutes, and the place of science in warfare. The Board has also taken its share in the discus- sion of the formation of national and international research councils, and in advocating the publication of a work devoted to the mineral resources of the Empire. The Bulletin, which is printed and issued to the conjoint societies and the members of the Board, gives in a comprehensive form a forecast of the meet- ings of the societies and an early announcement of the papers to be read thereat. 344 NATURE [ May 13, 1920 Agricultural ‘Development in the West Indies. HOSE interested in tropical agriculture will find much worthy of attention in a _ paper on “Tropical Departments of Agriculture, with Special Reference to the West Indies,’’ written by Sir Francis Watts, Imperial Commissioner of Agriculture for the West Indies, and _ published in the Journal of the Royal Society of Arts (February 20). The paper contains a very interesting account of the evolution of tropical Departments of Agriculture, pointing out that these Departments had their origin in the botanical gardens which were started in the larger islands in the eighteenth century, and also in the mission gardens which the early mis- sionaries cultivated around their stations. The author traces the decline of the British West Indian sugar industry, and the efforts to revive it and to stimulate agriculture by the formation of botanical departments in the smaller islands. Economic conditions, however, became worse, and in 1896 the West Indian Royal Commission was appointed, and its report marks a period in West Indian history. As an outcome of this report the Imperial Department of Agriculture Was constituted, the expense of which was met by Imperial funds. The policy of the Department was to revive, extend, and improve the already existing botanic gardens. This action so fostered agricultural development that, at the end of ten years, the Colonial finances had so improved that it was decided to diminish progressively the Imperial grants to the various stations, until in 1912-13 these grants ceased. Sugar production is still a highly important industry; it has been very much improved; the pests and diseases of the sugar-cane are understood, and, what is more im- portant, the growers know how to control the pests; also, the sugar produced by the factories is now a much more valuable product than the old muscovado sugar. The cacao and lime industries have been studied and improved; some minor industries, e.g. onion-growing, have also been studied to the advan- tage of the growers; while encouragement has been given to the production of such crops as maize for home consumption. The latter activity is especially important at the present time, when a wheat shortage is threatened, A Simple Viscometer. PARTICULARS of a remarkably simple viscometer devised by Mr. A. G. M. Michell, of Melbourne, are. given in Engineering for April 16. The instru- ment is intended for workshop use, and gives rapid determinations of viscosity in absolute measure with- out requiring extraordinary care or skill. It consists of a cup fitted with a handle and a ball of the same curvature as the cup. Contact of these surfaces is prevented by three symmetrically disposed projections in the cup, raised a mil or two above its surface. The cup is held by its handle, and a few drops of the oil to be tested are placed in it. The ball is then placed in the cup and pressed firmly into it for five or ten seconds. This drives some of the oil out, which collects in a channel; enough oil must be provided in the first instance to ensure that the channel is filled. The instrument is then inverted, and the time taken for the ball to drop clear noted. This time in seconds divided by the constant of the instrument is equal to the absolute viscosity of the oil. The action depends upon the rate at which the oil-film between the cup and the ball thickens under the force of gravity exerted by the ball. This flow of oil is NO. 2637, VOL. 105 | is suspended from the arm of a balance. resisted by its viscosity, and the time taken for the ball to fall clear is accordingly directly proportional to the viscosity. The above method is sufficiently accurate for workshop use. To obtain accurate results, the ball is placed at the bottom of a vessel containing a considerable quantity of the liquid. The cup is then lowered over the ball, taking care to exclude air. After pressing the two together as before, they are lifted until the ball clears the bottom of the vessel, and the time it takes to drop clear is noted as before. Mr. W. Ramsay, of Messrs. Cammell and Laird, has made as many as 120 most concordant readings in two hours, and the results plotted quite regularly. With liquids of very low viscosity, the ball By adjust- ing the weights, the force tending to separate the ball from the cup can be diminished to, say, one- twentieth of the normal. This increases twentyfold the time needed to effect the separation. manu- facture in this country has been undertaken by Messrs: atts Bearings, Ltd., 3 Central Buildings, London, .W.1. The Chemical Society and its New By-laws. Tt is not surprising in these days, when the gld political order has been. challenged in so man quarters, that even the scientific societies should be, moved to recast their constitution and government in a democratic sense. The Chemical Society is the latest to complete this process of revision, and a record of the chief points in which changes have been made is of public interest. As a preliminary to any fundamental alterations, a supplemental charter was found to be necessary. The original charter of 1848 included many hampering restrictions, prescribing, for example, the maximum size of the council and the manner of its election. Such provisions, devised for the conduct of a small society associated mainly with London and the imme- diate districts, are quite unsuitable now that the society. numbers more than 3500 fellows, and when probably about two-thirds of these reside beyond the metro- politan area. There has been some doubt also whether, under the original charter, it was permissible to elect women as fellows of the society. Uncertainty on this point has now been removed by the supplemental charter, which provides that fellows may be of either sex. Another important feature of the new by-laws based on the supplemental charter is the attempt to secure for provincial fellows a greater share in the conduct of the society. Hitherto every important matter affecting the society, including the election of officers and council, has been determined at a general meeting by a majority of the fellows present and voting... Under the supplemental charter the society has power to elect the officers and council by a postal vote, and further, in certain cases, to take a poll of all fellows resident in the United Kingdom. These powers have been incorporated in the new by-laws. — Another important aspect of these is that there has been kept in view the contingency of combined action with kindred societies concerned in the development of chemical science, as, for example, in the possible acquisition of common premises, or in the publication of joint abstracts. Under the new provisions there will be greater liberty to deal with such a situation if and when it arises, and it may be that, these par- ticular modifications of the by-laws will prove to be amongst the most important that have been made. AP ie Pe ee FOF ea we ae | NATURE 345 _ May 13, 1920] niversity and Educational Intelligence. _CamBrIDGE.—The syndicate appointed to consider ae relation of women students to the University has nted a double report. One-half of its members é in favour of admitting women to full membership the University with a few limitations affecting al posts. They specifically exclude in their pro- Statute the recognition by the University of zen students at the men’s colleges, but. they throw a University lectures, examinations, degrees, offices, emoluments to women on the same terms as to _ The legislation they propose will give degrees past: students of Girton and Newnham. he report of the second half of the syndicate con- 3 a long discussion of the question. “Their actual posal boils down, however, to a recommendation that the Senate should express itself in favour of a W university being formed from Girton and Newn- h Be oeges, the intention being to preserve for their Students the facilities at present extended to. them _the University of Cambridge. The advantages ing to women students under this proposal would the awarding of degrees and official consultations between the men’s and the women’s universities on examination schedules. There is ‘a controversy ahead ending in a contest to which the outside voter will mubtless be summoned by both parties. Sir Geoffrey Butler, Corpus Christi College, has been appointed secretary of the Board of Research _ Studies; correspondence in connection with students _ desiring to come to Cambridge to work for the Ph.D. ee should be addressed to him. _ Mr. H. F. Gadow has been appointed reader in the _ morphology of vertebrates; Dr. H. Scott curator in _ entomology; Mr. G 4 _€ngineering workshops; and Mr. L. P. 4 Bee) ePetintendent of the engineering drawing j rer s . 2 - Mr. T. Harrison Hucues has made the generous gift of 50,0001. to the University of Liverpool as a contribution to the appeal for funds. _A pwustic lecture on ‘The Life-movements of Plants” will be delivered at University College, London, by Sir Jagadis C. Bose on Monday, May 17, _ A HOLIDay course in geology will be held at the School of Metalliferous Mining, Camborne, Corn- _ wall, from July 12 to August 23. The course will consist of lectures, laboratory work, and field work, and occupy five days. a week. lectures will deal with the geology of West Cornwall, with special __ reference to the economic side. 4 A LIMITED number of free places, tenable at the _ Imperial College of Science and Technology, South Kensington, are being offered by the London County Council to candidates who can show that they are qualified to enter on the fourth, or post-graduate, year of the course of studv selected. Applications must be made upon Form T2/255 A., obtainable from the _ Education Officer, L.C.C., Victoria Embankment, _ W.C., and sent in by, at latest, June 5. i THE council of the London (Royal Free Hospital) _ School of Medicine for Women will award,.in June - mext, the Dr. Edith Pechey Phipson post-graduate __ scholarship of the annual value of rool. and tenable _ for three years. The scholarship is open to all _ medical women, preferably coming from India or a : going to work there, for assistance in post-graduate NO. 2637, VOL. 105] F. C. Gordon superintendent of. work. Applications are receivable by the warden and secretary of the school, 8 Hunter Street, Brunswick Square, until May 31. Durinc the period immediately following the Armis- tice it was necessary to adopt temporary measures to fill vacancies in Civil Departments otherwise than by open competitive written examination. The scheme, authorised by Order in Council and under regulations of the Civil Service Commission, has been known as the Reconstruction Scheme. Under that scheme, men who have served in his Majesty’s Forces have been chosen to fill positions in the Civil Service by inter- view before a selection board, following a qualifying examination. The scheme, which has been applied to the Home Civil Service (Class I.), the Indian Civil Service, the Colonial Civil Service, junior or inter- mediate appointments, and officerships of Customs and Excise, is now coming to an end; and the Civil Service Commissioners announce that the last day for the receipt of applications under it (which must be on the prescribed form) is June 30, 1920, and that no application received after that date can be considered. This announcement does not apply to appointments in the Foreign Office and Diplomatic Service or in the Consular Service, which it is intended to make on the Reconstruction Scheme until the end of the year 1921. THE various associations of teachers in Lancashire and Cheshire engaged in different ‘spheres and branches of education, ranging from the Private Schools Association to the Universities of Liverpool and Manchester, and including all grades and phases of education, have formed themselves into a federal council comprised of two or more representatives from each association or branch with the purpose of con- sidering the further co-ordination of education in Lancashire and Cheshire, and of bringing into closet association teachers who are engaged in different branches of educational work. The council comprises thirty-two representatives, with Principal J. C. M. Garnett as chairman, from fourteen different teachers’ associations, and the federal council thus constituted met in Manchester on October 26, 1918. At a later meeting the council appointed special committees to investigate the following matters:—(a) The inter- relation of the various types of schools and the age of transfer, together with a national scholarship system; {b) the curricula of the several types of schools; (c) the training and supply of teachers; and (d) the means and methods whereby teachers may secure a more effective voice in the administrative control of education. The recommendations of these committees are set forth in a statement of some seventy pages, ~ published at 1s. by the Manchester University Press, entitled ‘‘A National System of Education: Some Recommendations for Establishing it in England during the Decade Ending Ten Years Hence.”? The statement includes an introduction, being a lecture delivered by Principal Garnett in January last, which is accompanied by an elaborate coloured diagram setting forth the various grades of educa- tion for different classes of children according to their opportunities and capacities and their probable future in life. The pamphlet describes nine types of educa- tional institutions and sixteen different types of educa- tion, but whether these could not with much advan- tage be seriously reduced in number is a matter for the grave consideration of educators. It is suggested that there should be established upon the lines of this federal council a provincial joint committee for each of some eight or ten provinces into which England and’ Wales ‘should be divided for the purposes of education. 346 NATURE | May 13, 1920 Societies and Academies. LONDON. Royal Society, April 29.—Sir J. J. Thomson, presi- dent, in the chair.—Prof. J. W. Gregory: The Irish eskers. Eskers are banks of sand and gravel, typically occurring as ridges on the central plain of Ireland, where they were deposited during the recession of the ice at the close of the Glacial period, They have been generally attributed to deposition along glacial rivers, like Swedish osar. Their structure and composition indicate that the most important Irish eskers were formed along the margin of the receding ice-sheets by floods of water, due to the melting of the ice. Irish eskers formed along glacial rivers are relatively small and exceptional. The accumulation of the materials into ridges, and their restriction between about 150 ft. and 300 ft. above sea-level, are attributed to the formation of the eskers where the ice entered into a sheet of water, which was probably the sea, since marine fossils are widely distributed in the adjacent drifts, and there are no embankments to maintain glacial lakes at the required level. It is proposed that the term ‘‘esker ’’ should be continued for Irish ridges and mounds of sand and gravel, but that in glacial geology the term “osar” should be used for ridges formed along the course of glacial rivers, and “kame” for ridges deposited by water along the margin of an ice-sheet.—Miss K. M. Curtis :The life- history and cytology of Synchytrium endobioticum (Schilb.), Perc., the cause of wart disease in potato. The life-history and cytology of the organism have been followed through all’ their Stages. In the course of the investigation the following important points have been determined: (1) A sexual process has been dis- covered and followed in all its details; (2) the nature of the difference between the resting (or winter) sporangia and the sori (or summer sporangia) has been established ; (3) the infection of the host-tissue by the zoospores and zygotes has been traced; and (4) the peculiarities in the behaviour of the nucleus of the parasite have been investigated.—_B. Sahni: The Structure and affinities of Acmopyle pancheri, Pilger. Acmopyle, a monotypic New Caledonian Podocarp, is the most specialised member of the Podocarpinee, and closely allied to the genus Podocarpus, which it resembles in the vegetative anatomy, drupaceous seed, megaspore membrane, -young embryo, structure of male cone, microsporophyll, pollen-grain, and probably male gametophyte. It differs from Podocarpus in (1) the nearly erect seed; (2) the complete fusion of the epimatium to the integument, even in the region of the micropyle, in the formation of which it takes part; and’ (3) the much ‘greater development of the vascular system of the seed, which forms a ‘nearly continuous cup-like tracheal investment covering the basal two- thirds of the stone. (a) The Taxinez are structurally so distinct from the remaining conifers as to justify their ‘being placed in a separate phylum, Taxales, equivalent in rank, and related to, the Ginkgoales and the Coniferales as here defined. The Cordaitalean affinities of the Taxales are emphasised. (b) Con- cerning the ovuliferous scale of the conifers, the con- clusion is in favour of the brachyblast theory, support for this view being derived from the structure of the megastrobilus of Acmopyle.’ (c) No definite opinion is expressed on the question whether the conifers arose ultimately from microphyllous or megaphyllous :an- cestors, for the origin of the Cordaitales themselves is still regarded as sub judice. us Zoological Society, April 27.—Dr. A. Smith Wood- ward, vice-president, in the chair.—F. F, Laidlaw: Contributions to a study of the dragon-fly fauna of | NO. 2637, VOL. 105] ‘line ring.—Prof. A. - successive single ones. Borneo. Part iv.: A. list of the species known to occur in the island.—Dr. R. Broom; Some new Thero. cephalian reptiles from the Karroo beds of South Atrica. ' MANCHESTER, Literary and Philosophical Society, March 16.—Mr. William Thomson, vice-president, in the chair.—Prof. R, Robinson: Note on the mechanism of the produc- tion of kynurenic acid in the dog. The formation of kynurenic acid from tryptophane is susceptible of a very simple representation involving normal reactions. The process appears to be primarily one of oxidation followed by decomposition of a carbamic acid deriva- tive, and a probably spontaneous closing of the quino- Lapworth: Latent polarities of atoms and mechanism of reaction, with special refer- ence to carbonyl compounds. A consideration of the properties of carbonyl compounds shows that divalent oxygen and tervalent nitrogen tend to cause a latent polarisation in the molecules of carbon compounds. When this occurs in a molecule, the other atoms in the neighbourhood show induced latent polarities which the writer indicates by attaching — and + signs to the atoms in alternating order, beginning with the “‘key atoms,’’ arriving at schemes like those adopted by Fry and others. The induced polarity of an atom or group is not interpreted as necessarily signifying an electric charge, but only as an en- hanced or diminished tendency to attract or repel other atoms (or electrons) with definite polar character, and that only at the moment of chemical change (or ionisation, when this occurs). A condition which appears necessary for the full extension of the induc- tive effect is the occurrence of double bonds (conjuga- tion?), though it may survive the intervention of two While divalent oxygen and tervalent nitrogen (and especially the former) seem more effective than any other atoms, it would appear that halogen (—), hydrogen (+), and metals (+) can act as ‘‘key atoms’? to a smaller extent; carbon appears almost indifferent. This principle includes Markownikoff’s rule of addition, the rules of substitu- tion in the benzene series, the rules of reaction of saturated and unsaturated ketones, nitriles, and carb- oxylic acids, as well as of their halogen derivatives. The influence of hydrogen as a ‘‘key atom” is per- ceptible in the cresols, of which the relative acidities can be foreseen from a consideration of the influence of the hydrogen atom in the methyl groups on the latent polarities-of the atoms ,in hydroxyl groups.— Prof. R. Robinson; The conjugation of partial valen- cies. The author deals with the mechanism-of chemical processes on the basis of a hypothesis of divisible valency, assuming that activation of molecules is due . to a partial dissociation or splitting of valencies, and that only molecules so polarised take part in re- actions. This accounts for the well-recognised effect of polar atoms on alternate atoms in a chain, and the theory is extended to include cases such as the addition of hvdrogen bromide to allvl bromide, where the conjugation of ethvlene linkage and bromine atom is relatively weak. Conjugated decompositions and the problem of molecular rearrangement are dealt with. Paris. Academy of Sciences, April 19.—M. Henri Deslandres in the chair.—G. A. Boulenger: The fossil Gavialis of Omo.—A. Vayssiére: The marine fauna of the western coast of the Gulf of Marseilles.—G. Julia : New pro- perties of certain very general classes: of integral or meromorphic functions.—W, Sierpinski : Functions of the first class.—Fr. Lange-Nielsen: A generalisation of Rolle’s theorem.—J. Villey: Flight at high alti- pean | Coe ae May 13, 1920] NATURE 347 ides. Reply to some criticisms of M. Rateau on an earlier communication.—E,. Brylinski: The transport ‘of electrical energy to great distances. A mathe- matical discussion of the properties of a half-wave —S. Posternak : The variations of the composition ammonium phosphomolybdate. An account of: the tions in the composition of the precipitate pro- _by the presence of ammonium nitrate or sul- te in the liquid in which the precipitate is formed. Bourion: The analysis of commercial chloro- renes by distillation. The substances present in commercial product are benzene, monochloro- ene, and higher chlorination products boiling at C., 130° C., and 172° C. or above. A scheme for stematic fractional distillation is given, with results r synthetic mixtures. ‘The method is a lengthy _ one, a single sample requiring three and a haJjf days analysis.—G. Mignonac: The ketimines. Forma- by the catalytic reduction of the oximes. The action was carried out with nickel (reduced from its oxide at 300° C.) in absolute alcohol at ordinary atmo- me pressure at a temperature of about 16° C. The oxime of cyclohexanone gave N-cyclohexyl- _ ketimine, a.substance not previously isolated, and the SO ing ketimines were isolated from the reduc- tion products of the oximes of acetophenone, propio- phenone, benzophenone, and phenyl-a-naphthyl ketone. _ —Mile. S. Veil: Alloys of oxides. Mixtures of the _ oxides of chromium and cerium were compressed and _ heated, and measurements made of the electrical con- _ ductivity and magnetisation coefficient of the products. _ Diagrams are given showing the results for varying ‘tions of the two oxides.—C, Matignon and J. A. mu: The reversible oxidation of arsenious acid. From the thermochemical data it should be possible directly to oxidise arsenic trioxide to the pentoxide, and experiments were carried out at temperatures between 400° C. and 450° C., the pressures of the oxygen being og 127, and 138 atmospheres. The production of pentoxide was proved, but the oxidation of the arsenic trioxide was not complete.—Ch. Gorceix : The formation of the first ocean.—R. Sonéges: The embryogeny of the GEnotheracee. Development of the embryo in Oecenothera biennis.—M. Mboilliard: The influence of a small quantity of potassium on the ysiological characters of Sterigmatocystis nigra. otassium has a marked specific action on the develop- ment of this mould. Deficiency of potassium causes the glucose in the culture fluid to disappear more rapidly than the levulose; conidia and black pigment do not appear as usual; a golden-yellow pigment a sin the fluid, and a soluble substance stained + tions which may modify the activity of chloropicrin towards the higher plants. The effects of chloropicrin are nearly proportional to the concentration of the vapour and the time of action. Moisture and light, eee, Sect sunlight, are without influence.—M. ud : An anatomical measurement permitting the diagnosis of sex in the human skull.—L. Boutan:; ~ Comparative’ yields: of pelagic: apparatus.—P. Wintre- bert: The propagation of the undulating movement of the muscles of the skeleton in advanced embryos of _ Seylliorhinus canicula after section or partial re- section of the spinal cord.—P. Portier: The rabbit deprived of its cecal appendix regenerates this organ 3 cd differentiation of the extremity of the caecum. hen the rabbit’s appendix is removed the terminal portion of the,czecum is modified, becomes infiltrated with Ivymphocytes, and regenerates a new appendix possessing the essential histological and physiological characters of the normal appendix. This is a proof of = a. * oe hes | ind a oe, Ch. Porcher: Lacteal retention.—M. Doyon : The anti- NO. 2627. vol. toc! Fifth edition. blue by iodine is formed.—G. Bertrand: The condi-: the important function of this organ’ in the rabbit.— | coagulating ‘and hzmolysing action of sodium nucleinate.—P. Courmont and A. Rochain: The action of the micro-organisms of sewage effluents purified by the activated-sludge method on albuminoid materials, urea, and nitrates.—E. Aubel: The sterilising power of acids. Books Received. School Dynamics. By W. G. Borchardt. Part i. (with Answers.) Pp. vii+286+xix. (London: Riving- tons.) 3s. 6d. Space and Time in Contemporary Physics. By Prof. M. Schlick. Rendered into English by H. L. Brose. Pp. xi+89. (Oxford: At the Clarendon Press.) 6s, 6d. net. Zodlogy: A Text-book for Colleges and Universi- ties. By Prof. Cockerell. Pp. xi+558. (Yonkers-on-Hudson, New York: World Book Co.) 3 dollars. An Introduction to Paleontology. By Dr. A. M. Davies. Pp. xi+414. (London: T. Murby and Co.) 12s. 6d. net. Practical Plant Biochemistry. By M. W. Onslow. Pp. vii+178. (Cambridge: At the University Press.) 15s. net. ; Wild Fruits and How to Know Them. By Dr. S. C. Johnson. Pp. xi+132. (London: Holden and Hardingham, Ltd.) 1s, net. Aluminium: Its Manufacture, Manipulation, and Marketing. By G. Mortimer. (London: Sir Isaac Pitman and Sons, Ltd.) 2s. 6d. net. , Cotton Spinning. By W. Scott Taggart. Vol. iii. Pp. xxviiit+490. (London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd.) os. net. Diary of Societies. THURSDAY, May 13. Rovat. InstiruTION oF GREAT BRITAIN, at 3.—A. P. Graves: Welsh and Irish Folk Song. Royat Society, at 4.—Election of Fellows.—4.30.—Dr. A. D. Waller: Demonstration of the Apparent ‘‘Growth” of — Plants fand of Inanimate Materials) and of their Apparent ‘‘Contractility.”— W. N. F. Woodland: The ‘Renal Portal” System (Renal Venous Meshwork) and Kidney Fxcretion in Vertebrata. _ sone Lonvon MATHEMATICAL SOCIETY, at 5.—H. W. Richmond : (1) Historical Note on some Canonical Forms quoted by Mr. Wakeford. (2) Historical Note on Cayley’s Theorems on the Intersections of Algebraic Curves.— T. Stuart: e Lowest Parametric Solutions of a Dimorph Sextan Eauation in the Rational, Irrational, and Complex Fields.—A. E. Jolliffe : The Pascal Lines of a Hexagon. Mik Le INsTITUTION: oF .ELEcTRICAL ENGINEERS (at Institution of Civil Engineers), at 6.—S. Evershed: Permanent Magnets in Theory and tice. InstITUTE oF INvENTORS (at Royal Society of Arts), at 7.30.—D. Leechman and Others: Discussion on The Kelations of the Inventor to the State. Optica Soctrry, at 7.30. : InstituTION oF AvTomopILE EnaGinerrs (Graduates’ Section) (at 28 Victoria Street). at 8.—W. E. Benbow: The Chemical and Physical Properties of Iron and Steel. : Roya Society or Mepicinr (Neurology Section), at 8.30.—Annual General. Meeting.—Dr. S. A. K. Wilson: Decerebrate Rigidity in Man, and the Occurrence of Tonic Fits. FRIDAY, May 14. Department oF ScrentiFic AND INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH. Conference of Research Organisations (at Institution of Civil Engineers), at Sy Marquess of Crewe: Introductory Address.—Dr. A. W. Crossley : e Relation of Research Associations to Existing Institutions for Research. —J. W. Williamson: The Staffing of Research Associations : Salaries and . Superannuation. f OYAL ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY. at 5. PuHysicaL Eee oF Lonpon, at 5.—Dr. F. Lloyd Hopwood : Demon- stration of Experiments on the Thermionic_ Properties of Hot Filaments.—G. D. West : A Modified Theory of the Crookes Radiometer. — A. Campbell: The Magnetic Properties of Silicon-Iron (Stalloy) in Alternating Fields of Low Value.—T. Smith: Tracing Rays through an Optical System. 348 NATURE [| May 13, 1920. Petite: Society or Mepicine (Clinical Section), at 5.30.—Annual General eeting. Mavaco.ocicat Society or Lonpon (at Linnean Society), at 6. InsTiTUTION oF ELEcTRICAL EncIngrrs (Students’ Meeting) (at King’s College), at 7.—E. G. Humfress: Electrical Motor Control Devices.— The Meeting will be preceded by the Annual ~~ Meeting. Junior INSTITUTION OF NGINEERS, at 7.30.—Hon. H. Fletcher teen and Others: Discussion on The Business Aspect of the Peace reaty. Society or Tropica Mepicine ann HycGiene (at 11 Chandes Street, W.1), at 8.30.—Dr. E. J. Wood: A Consideration of Pellagra from the Standpoint of a ‘‘ Deficiency Disease.” Roya. InstiruTion oF Great BRITAIN, at 9.—Prof. Karl Pearson: . Sidelights on the Evolution of Man. SATURDAY, May 15. at 3.—Frederic Harrison: te INSTITUTION OF GREAT BRITAIN, 3 A Philosophical Synthesis as proposed by Auguste Comte. MONDAY, May 17. Vicrorta InstiTuTE (at Central Hall, Westminster), at 4.30.— Bishop G- Forrest Browne: Monumental Art in me England, Caledonia, Find - Ireland. - Rovat INSTITUTE OF BRITISH ARCHITECTS, at 8.—B. J. Lubschez: The Two Great Railway Stations of New York. Royat Socirrry or Arts, at 8.—A. T. Bolton: The Decoration and Architecture of Robert Adam and Sir John Soane, 1758-1837 (Cantor Lectures). Royat GrocrRapHicaL Society (at A®olian Hall), at 8.30.—Capt. F. Kingdon Ward: The Valleys of Kham. TUESDAY, May 18. Roya INstITuTION oF GREAT BritTatn, at 3.—Prof. A. Keith: British Ethnology: The Invaders-of England. Rovat SocieETy oF MeEpIcInE, at wi Gehed Meeting. Royat_ Statistica Society, at 5.15.—Y. B. Guild: Variations in the Numbers of Livestock and in the Production of Meat in the United Kingdom during the War. INSTITUTION OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGISTS (at Roval Society of Arts), at 5.30.—R. Stirling: Air Lift System of Pumping Oil Wells. Rovat Puorocrapuic Society or Great Britain (Lantern Meeting), at 7.—A.'C.’ Vowles: Wanderings in Mesopotamia (Babvlon). Rovat ANTHROPOLOGICAL INSTITUTE, at 815.—Sir Henry Howorth: Buddhism in the Pacific. WEDNESDAY, May 10. Socrety oF Grass TecHNno.ocy (at Institute of Chemistrv), at 2.—C. J. | Discussion on The Physical Properties of Glass.— Peddle and Others : C. J. Peddle: The Development of Various Types of Glass. Part i. The Interaction of Silica with the Oxides of Sodium and Potassium. Part ii.: The Interaction of Silica, Lime, and Sodium Oxide. Part i iii. The Interaction of Silica, Lime, and Potassium Oxide. Part iv. : The Interaction of Silica, Lime, and the Oxides of Sodium and Potassium. art v.: A Comparison of the Soda-Lime-Silica and the Potash-Lime-Silica Glasses. —Dr. M. W. Travers : A Surface Effect in Glass, Probably Caused by Re-heating. —s. English and Dr. W. E. S. Turner: The ermal Expansion of Magnesia-containing Glasses.—J. R. Clarke and Dr. W. E. S. urner: The Optical Properties of Some Lime-Soda Glasses.— S. English and Dr. W. E. S. Turner: The prone Temperatures of Soda-Lime and Soda-Magnesia M8 —J. D. Cauwood, J. R. Clarke, Miss C. M. M. Muirhead, and Dr. W. E. S. Turner : The Durability of Lime-Soda Glasses. —Jj. R. Clarke and Dr. W. B.S. Turner: The. In- fluence of Lime on the Value of i Kaeo to Modulus of Elasticity for the Lime-Soda Glasses.—S. English and Dr. W. E. S. Turner: The Density * Soda-Magnesia Glasses and a Comparison with that of the Soda-Lime asses, Roya Society oF ARTs, at 4.30.—J. S. Highfield, Dr. W. R. Ormandy, D. Northall-Laurie: The Commercial Applications of Electrical smosis. Roya Society or Mepicine (History of Medicine Section), at 5.— Annual General Meeting.—Dr., Withington: The Medical Terms in Liddell and Scott. Royat MrreorotocicaL Society, at 5.—Dr. Griffith Taylor: cultural Climatology of Australia.—J. E. Clark and H. B. A Report on the Phenological Observations for 1919. Grotocicat Sociery oF Lonpon, at 5-30.—Dr. H. H. Thomas: Certain Xenolithic Tertiary. Minor Intrusions in the Island of Mull (Argyllshire). eg ra ICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY, at 8.—Annual Exhibition of Microscopic ond Life. Agri- ames : THURSDAY, May 20. ‘Rovat InstiTuTion oF GREAT BRITAIN, at 3.—A. P. Graves: Welsh and Irish Folk Song. : Roya Society, at 4.30.—Probable Papers. —Prof. J. N. Collie: Some Notes on Krypton and Xenon.—Sih Ling Ting: Experiments on Electron Emission from Hot Bodies, with a Preface by Prof. O. W. Richardson.— Dr. ‘L. Silberstein: The ee By an Theory Applied to the Balmer Series of Hydrogen.—Nr, T. E. Stanton, Miss D. Marshall, and Mrs. C.'N. Bryant: The Conditions at the Boundary of a Fluid in Turbulent Motion. Rovat Society or Arts (Indian’ Section), at 4.30.—Brig.-Gen. Lord Montagu of Beaulieu : Roads and Transport in India. Roya. Soctery oF MEDICINE (Dermatology Section), at 5.—Annual General Meeting. INSTITUTION OF MINING AND Niet buxidnot (at Geological Society), at 5.30.—G. Rigg: Roasting and Lead-Smelting Practice at the Port Pirie is. A.) Plant of the Broken Hill Associated Smelters Proprietary, Ltd.—Capt. Tatham: Tunnelling in the Sand Dunes of - the Belgian Coast. NO. 263/, VOL, 105] InsTITUTION OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERS (at Institution of Civil Engineers), at 5.30 (Annual General Meeting). : . OrticaL SocteTy, at 7.30.—B. K. Johnson: The No. 7 Dial Sight, Mk, 11.—Lt.-Col. Gifford : A Short High Power Telescope. Cuemicat Society (Ordinary and Informal Meeting), at 8. FRIDAY, May 21. j sate Society or Mepicrne (Otology Section), at oe Genera eeting. Wireess Society or Lonpon (at Institution of Civil Engineers ass P. Coursey: Some Methods of Eliminating Atmospherics in Reception, Royat Society oF MEDICINE (Electro-Therapeutics Section), at 8.30.— Annual General Meeting. — INSTITUTION OF GREAT BRITAIN, aa bepnie 4, ~ Fleming : he Thermionic Valve in Wireless Telegraphy a SATURDAY, May 22. Rovat InstiruTion OF GREAT BRITAIN, at 3.—Frederic Harrison: The Re-action and the Critics of the Positivist School of CONTENTS. — The Federation of Science |...) i. «4° 0) see Lord Kitchener as a Scientific Worker ...... The Nation’s Food. By Dr. E. J. Russell, F.R.S. . Differential Geometry. ByG.B.M,. .... -. . 321 A Gardeninthe Dunes. By G.A.J.C....... 322 Our Bookshelf... .. 2... 6 is) 3) 9 Letters to the Editor:— The Indian Chemical Service. — Prof, Jocelyn Thorpe, F.R.S. ; Sir Prafulla Chandra Ray . 324 The Cost of Scientific Publications.—Prof, W. A. Herdman, F.R.S.; Prof. H. H. Turner, F.R.S. ; E. B. Knobel ; Walter W. Bryant 326 Atomic and Molecular Forces and Crystal Structure. (With Diagram.)—Dr. A. E, Oxley... .. . 327 Wasps.—W. F. Denning . 328 Dr. J. G. Bartholomew and the Layer System of Contour Colouring. —Geo. G. Chisholm . . 328 The Prismatic Astrolabe. res: Diagrams.) “By Bet ee ee. 329 The Heart of a ‘Continent. (ustrated.) ‘By Douglas Carruthers. . 330 The United States National ‘Research Council. | By . Prof. Vernon Faas, 3 ba i ee Obituary :— \ Marlborough R. Pryor. By Prof. T. G. Bonney, BRR Se a ee Notes .... ght ose PURE ee Our Astronomical Column: i Conjunction of Mars with Spica .....+.- - 340 The Duplicity of » Geminorum. . . s+ +,2 + 340 Kodaikanal Observations of Prominences. . . . . 340 Leonardo da Vinci. II. By Edward pat - + 340 Aeronautical Research . ...:.., +s. s+» g42 Conjoint Board of Scientific Societies Weer tha 6" Agricultural Development in the West Indies. . . 344 A Simple Viscometer yee meee The Chemical Society and its New By-laws: os gad University and Educational Intelligence .... . 345 Societies and Academies. .........+.+. + 346 Books Received 9.0605 3s er eo en Diary of Societies..." eo eee ee Editorial and Publishing Offices : MACMILLAN AND CO., Lrtp., ST. MARTIN’S STREET, LONDON, W.C.2. Advertisements and business letters to be addressed to the Publishers. rt _ Editorial Communications to the Editor. Telegraphic Address: Puusis, LONDON. . Telephone Number: GERRARD 8830. — _ THURSDAY, MAY 20, 1920. Editorial and Publishing Offices: a MACMILLAN & CO., LTD., _ ST. MARTIN’S STREET, LONDON, W.C.2. "Advertisements ied business letters should’ be addressed to the Publishers. ‘Editorial communications to the Editor. Telegraphic Address: PHUSIS, LONDON. Telephone Number: GERRARD 8830. : _ Universities. Na leading article on “The Universities and the 4 ' Army, ”’ in Nature for April 8, we referred to “the Memorandum on the Army Estimates for 4 1920-21 published by the War Office, and quoted _ the words: “One of the important lessons of the ‘war. has been the extent to which the Army is de- ) ‘pendent on the Universities.” Of these lessons one especially was emphasised, viz. the necessity for the reorganisation of the Army on its educational side. We were told again and again, both during and after hostilities, that the war was primarily a " scientific war—laboratory against laboratory, j machine shop against machine shop, trained_in- - telligence against trained intelligence—and it. is 4 gratifying to know that the War Office recognises that “the Universities responded to the call for | help in a splendid manner.”” That they did so ' is an indisputable fact. Thousands of under- : graduates and hundreds of their teachers, from _ junior assistant to full-fledged professor, switched off from classics, history, philosophy, natural - science, and what not, to gunnery, engineering, _ motor transport, and so on. Chemical laboratories Substituted investigations on explosives, anti- gas protectives, and smoke screens for routine qualita- _ tive and quantitative analysis; engineering labora- : tories concentrated their energies on the invention _ of depth charges, shell-gauges, and submarine engines; and the geologist relinquished the study of stratigraphy and paleontology to discover new - sources of sand from which to manufacture glass. _ All this work was novel to the Universities, and, as many would add, foreign to their purpose and traditions ; yet should another war of similar mag- _ nitude ever arise, can it be doubted that the Universities will again be called upon .to play .an ven greater part in it than they did in the Great Le | War of 1914-18? 5 NO. 2638, VOL. 105 | ‘The ‘Officers Training Corps and the eaters) NATURE ae If this be so, and if the dowel be egrets asa profession, should its officers not receive a pro- fessional training, and where more appropriately and effectively than in the Universities? One of the most enlightened features of Army reorganisa- tion introduced by Lord Haldane in 1907 was the institution of the Officers Training Corps in con- nection with the Universities. Had this tentative scheme of professional training for future Army officers received proper encouragement and been developed on suitable and elastic lines, the War Office might have had at its disposal in the autumn of 1914 a large reserve of trained ‘officers who had passed through a properly devised University curriculum, The military’ education committees of the various British universities and university colleges were recently sounded as to their views on the future of the Officers Training Corps, and from the replies received it would appear that most of them are unwilling to commit themselves to any plan of action until the attitude of the Army Council in reference to the Corps has been ascer- tained. What that attitude may be we have at present no means of finding out. We are informed that one of the largest Universities in the Kingdom answered the inquiry in the following terms: “The Military Education Committee are not of the opinion that it is desirable to take any further action at the present time until the Army Council have made a definite statement with regard to the future position of the Officers Training Corps, or to take any steps in regard to the creation of a Department of Military Studies until this official statement is issued.”” Several other Universities replied in similarly non-committal terms, and out of twelve, only one expressed any enthusiasm on the subject. If the Army Council sincerely desires to make use of the Universities in the training of officers, let it say so in clear and unmistakable language, and indicate at the same time how and to what extent it is prepared to aid the Universities in earrying out its ideas. Some progress might be made, for example, if the Army Council would appoint a committee representing all departments concerned with Officers Training Corps, with power to act and not merely to hear and repori, to meet and confer with representatives of the Uni- | versities, who on their side could submit the special needs of the Universities regarding Officers Training Corps. We cannot get rid of the suspicion that the War Office authorities are unaware of the work and organisation of the N 350 NATURE newer Universities, and that they are still con- vinced that Great Britain has only two institutions worthy of the title. Have they any adequate con- ception, for example, of the extent and capacities for teaching and research of the faculties and departments of metallurgy, engineering, chem- istry, and applied electricity at Sheffield, Leeds, Manchester, and Liverpool, to mention only one group of provincial Universities, and how it might be possible, in connection with a properly organ- ised training corps, to provide instruction for. cadets in those branches of specialised military work for which a particular University had special facilities and equipment, involving the application of science to war? “ The Regulations governing the O.T.C. are dated 1912, but we have learnt much since then, and it is essential before these Regulations are revised and re-issued that the Army Council should take the Universities into its confidence, and, in con- sultation with their representatives, produce a scheme of training that shall conform to Univer- sity practice and be within the range of University capacity, while at the same time meeting the requirements of the Army Council in its effort to obtain suitably trained men to command the various units of the Army of the future. Relativity and Geometry. The Foundations of Einstein’s Theory of Gravita- tion. By Erwin Freundlich. Authorised English translation by Henry L. Brose. Preface by Albert Einstein. Introduction by Prof. H. H. Turner. Pp. xvi+61. (Cambridge: At the University Press, 1920.) Price 5s. net. URELY mathematical workers have often found occasion to remark on the prophetic vision of Riemann. He possessed that special genius which catches glimpses of truth, of no special significance to a contemporary, which one day are found to have an importance greater even than the seer himself had dreamed. Certainly this has proved so with much of Riemann’s work. His famous Habilitationsschrift, ‘On the Hypo- theses which lie at the Bases of Geometry,’’ was presented to the faculty of philosophy at Gét- tingen in 1854, and, in an English translation by Clifford, was brought to the notice of the British ‘ public in the columns of Nature (vol. viii., Nos. 183-84, pp. 14-17, 36, 37). It may be per- missible to quote one or two prophetic phrases : “It seems that the empirical notions on which the metrical determinations of space are founded, the notion of a solid body and of a ray of light, NO. 2638, VOL, 105] and we ought in fact to suppose it, thereby obtain a simpler phenomena.’”’ It is worthy of note that. Riemann nev speaks of space itself as being non-Euclidean He carefully refers always: to the metric or measured relations. The “ground 7 aye thegetl metric relations is to be sought in the nature of | the reality underlying space. Is that reality a discrete manifoldness, or is it continuous? If thal latter, then the “ground of the metric relations ’” must be sought in the properties of that reality, or, as he says, it.’? Could anything be more prophetic of Ein- stein’s conception of gravitation? Then, as if to anticipate the conservative and the scoffer of to-day, he continues : ‘‘The answer to these ues can only be got by starting from the conception of phenomena which has hitherto been justified by experience, and which Newton assumed as a foundation, and by making in this conception the successive changes required by facts which it cannot ex- plain. Researches starting from general notions, like the investigation we have just made, can only be useful in preventing this work from being hampered by too narrow views, and progress im knowledge of the interdependence of thing's from being checked by traditional prejudices.” With this open mind, and the work of Gauss, explanation of " ‘in binding forces which act upon — ~ , Lobatchevsky, and Bolyai on the geometry of — figures on curved surfaces to provoke thought, Riemann faces the possibility that the geo- — metry of three dimensions of actual materiaf — bodies may not be so simple as Euclid’s system suggests. Geometry in the ordinary sense is, in fact, eliminated; the metrical relations of — bodies are “studied in abstract notions of diets ; the results of calculation may afterwards — Indeed, what — tity ’’ be expressed in geometric form. is meant by the “length of a line,’’ or a “line | + element,’’ becomes far from clear from the geo- — % metrical point of view. It is merely some quantity which serves to distinguish one point from another. The question is asked: What type of magnitude may be constructed out of the quantities — that serve to define two special points in a material body, which may conveniently be taken ~ eS as a measure of their distinctness one from the other, first from a purely mathematical point of — | view, but afterwards by an empirical test of its Riemann is led to use the general — quadratic differential form as the imp possible — abiding value. expression. | se Mi, cae a a ie = |AY 20, 1920] NATURE 351 is easy for one writing now to see the organic ni _ between Riemann’s thought and the ade by Einstein in passing from the special ciple of relativity propounded in 1905 to the era Sthesry now established. The recognition ‘relative nature of time measurement had y been made in the special principle, and yski quickly perceived that our separate ts of space and time were thereby brought unity. It seems now but a short step to iemann’s analysis to this four-dimensional the universe. uestions still linger; the romance of re- , its sweeping comprehensiveness, leave hless. When Dr. Freundlich tells us space is banished out of physical laws alto- : just as ether was eliminated out of the ‘of electrodynamics by the special theory of ” we must pause and ask ourselves if sm is not going too far. Dr. Freundlich finds the mainspring of Einstein’s method fundamental postulates: (i) that of con- n things as lie within the realm of observa- It was the craving for continuity that gave _Faraday’s conception of tubes of forcé, ping gradually into the electromagnetic _ It is the instinctive faith in the second ate that leads the timid to distrust the able array of differential equations between : of variables that represent the gravita- field in Einstein’s theory. physical theory has the power to forbid the to use the firm scaffolding of Euclidean on which to build its own representation universe. True, it may be that the repre- | is not so simple as we had thought; d exactly to a measured interval in a But the work of the exponents of , is not finished until an added clearness is them to the picture of how natural mena are related. The ether must not be ‘the scrap-heap, but must be rehabilitated. 2 must not be spoken of as warped, for that ave far behind the essential nature of space of apprehension. The only true con- is pepet which the mind conceives. Matter bea singularity in mental space; it can ul é a singularity in the picture drawn upon at background. Matter is one and minds are So many minds, so many pictures of . The correspondences between the pictures he grounds of our intellectual intercourse, the evidence of the external world which we ee No. 2638, VOL. 105] (ii) that of causal relationship between” To turn over the pages of this pamphlet is to encounter many questions; nevertheless the reader will have nothing but thanks to offer to the author, and especially to Mr. Brose, who, while yet a prisoner in an enemy country, found solace in truth that transcends racial strife, and translated it for our enjoyment. E. CuNNINGHAM. Colloidal Therapy. The Use of Colloids in Health and Disease. Alfred B. Searle. With foreword by Sir Malcolm Morris. (The Chadwick Library.) Pp. vii+120. (London: Constable and Co., Ltd., 1920.) Price 8s. net. By ASED on a lecture delivered at the request of the Chadwick Trustees, this volume provides in compact form an account of the principal facts which are known at the present time regarding matter in its colloidal form, with special reference to the utilisation of colloids in the normal animal organism and in the treatment of disease. We find a lucid account of the physical proper- ties of colloidal matter and of its reactions in the presence of ionising currents, of electrolytes, of radiations, etc. There is explained in simple scientific language the colloidal nature of cellular protoplasm and the selective permeability of cell membranes for salts and colloids. The importance of the relatively high content of the protective colloid, lactalbumin, in human milk in relation to its digestibility is emphasised, and the means are stated by which cow’s milk may be rendered more suitable for human con- sumption. In discussing the colloidal nature of the blood, reference is made to the adsorption theory of the conveyance of blood gases and to the phenomena of hemolysis; an isotonic saline solution is, however, 0o’9 per cent. sodium chloride. The modern processes for precipitating colloidal matter in sewage and drinking water, and the use of soap as a detergent, are also briefly reviewed. The author suggests that the hygienic effect of sea-air is due to the presence in it of particles positively charged by the beating of the waves on the shore, which particles precipitate negatively charged bacterial and other colloids; and in regard to the invasion of the body by micro- organisms, he considers that disturbance of the normal colloidal condition of the body-cells or fluids by undesirable electrolytes, salts, or colloids of the “opposite” sign is an etiological factor. The author has devoted considerable space to accounts of the preparation of colloidal sols and of their use in therapeutics. In the latter respect he has digested the bulk of the recent and rele- 352 -NATURE [May 20, 1920 2 vant medical literature on the colloidal remedies now in the market. The relative value of colloidal drugs in treatment is still sub judice, and we can only hope that the author’s optimism regard- ing their effects as therapeutic agents may be justified in the future. In this section we note several misprints, such as “epiditymitis,” “granulama pupendi,” and ‘“leishmonnoris,” to mention only a few, and the assertion that the colloidal state is the ideal one for the administra- tion of alkaloids is contrary to the evidence afforded of the inefficacy of ‘colloidal quinine and cocaine. In ‘the course of the work the author makes many speculations on the réle of colloids in physiology and on their possibilities in treat- ment, speculations which form food for reflection if one is unable to assimilate them all as truths. The volume, to which Sir Malcolm Morris, whose pioneer work with colloids in skin diseases is well known, contributes an interesting and hopeful foreword, forms a helpful introduction to the subject of colloids in their relation to physio- logy, pharmacology, and therapeutics, and may be found useful by medical practitioners and others who desire to have a general and not too scientific account of the subject. Nature Pictures. Twenty-four Nature Pictures. By E. J. Detmold. (London: J. M. Dent and Sons, Ltd., n.d.) Price 5 guineas net. ce re important works have recently been published portraying and describing the birds and mammals of the British Islands. Some of these publications are expensive, others appeal to a slender purse; but, whether the lover of such books is able or willing to spend much or only a little on animal pictures, he is foriunate in having a good deal of scope for choice, many of the works that we have seen of late being excel- lent in every way, combining artistic merit with scientific accuracy. In introducing a new work on_ the higher animals to the British public, therefore, it behoves its author to show that it possesses some out- standing feature of merit which may serve as its raison d’étre. The work under consideration cannot be regarded as serving any zoo- logical purpose, since the subjects are so few in number. Hence any merit it may lay claim to must be sought from its purely artistic side. But such pictures, to be satisfactory, should be accurate in form and colour, so that, while appeal- ing to the artistic sense, they do not at the same time offend the scientific eye; and herein the NO. 2638, VOL. 105] nature-studies of Mr. Detmold are decidedly faulty. ma ae In a series of fetes ‘four plates the artist ors birds, a fish, a crab, and a lobster. Zoologically speaking, the two crustaceans bey in our opinion, - the most successful portraits. in the series. The majority of mammal and bird studies are distinctiy® disappointing, and lead one to fear that they have — been drawn from specimens supplied by some un-_ skilful taxidermist. They seem to lack the subtle — and delicate curves of beauty we are accustomed to associate with the living and healthy animal, while in some cases the colouring is faulty. The pro- portions, too, between the parts of the body are sometimes incorrect, even allowing for the effects of foreshiortening: In the painting of plumage and pelage there are a peculiar “Jumpi-— ness”’ of surface and angularity of outline which are foreign to our ideas of animal form and beauty. Whether the artist has allowed himself to be carried away by the licence proverbial to his pro- fession, or is endeavouring to formulate a new — style of composition and portraiture, we cannot — say, but the effect, at least from a zoological point of view, is disappointing and at times irritating. The surroundings of the various subjects are certainly artistic and original, but in some plates the environment is overloaded with detail, while in others its artificiality is oppressive, and suggests tapestry or wallpaper: rather than a background 7 for a “nature-picture.” W. E. C. Our Bookshelf. if General Science: First Course. « By L. Elhuff- | Pp. vii+435. (London: G. G. Harrap and “vies Ltd.) Price 5s. net. Tuat a pupil’s first view of science should be a — broad one has been more generally recognised in the United States than in this country. The — routine of measurements and weighings, which — is all that so many of our children know as science, — fails to arouse enthusiasm except as a relief from work which is still more dull. Teachers who are F: breaking away from this system have been helped — = by more than one recent American publication. Their attention is confidently directed: to =a volume now under review. In its general outlines the book does not dhe & widely from some of the best of its kind, but it — is exceptional in that stress is laid in the ‘earliest _ chapters on the value and the means of maintain- ing health, To the question “Why study science? ’’ the answer is given: “To learn how to live.’’ That is kept constantly in view through- ~ out the book. In his preface the author puts the following first among the results which he hopes may be achieved: “A desire to grow strong ¢h ¥ 20, 1920] . NATURE 353 — y and mind and to remain free from disease. uccessful work on the part of many boys s is dependent upon this desire becoming enough to rule the body.’’ So it is not ie to read as an exercise to be set to “Notice what effects tobacco, alcohol, etc., have upon those who use them.’’ her, “‘Observe whether tea and’ coffee health and ‘ temper ’ of parents,’’ makes onder whether tactless observation might ve even more effect than the stimulants ! sre it follows lines which are already be- r conventional in America the book is good ; ore novel parts it is even better. Geographical Bibliography of British Ornitho- wy from the Earliest Times to the End of 918. By W. H. Mullens, H. Kirke Swann, d Rev. F. C. R. Jourdain. Part 1. Pp. 96. ndon: Witherby and Co., 1919.) Price 6s. 3. MULLENS AND SwaANN have already made ogists their debtors by compiling a “ Bio- al Bibliography of British Ornithology ” red in 1917). Of this the present work plement or continuation, the books and being now arranged under counties. The -C. R. Jourdain has shared the labour. aim of the authors has been to give an punt; as complete as possible, of the literature records relating to the avifauna of each ty. This will be of great value to local rs, and there is good sense in Gilbert remark, quoted on the title-page: ‘“ Men ertake only one district are much more advance natural knowledge than those sp at more than they can possibly be nted with; every kingdom, every province, have its own monographer.”” The labour ing this bibliography must have been very has extended over six years, and has the consultation and analysis of a huge literature. There are to be six parts, and ich have appeared represent arduous and k well executed. : losophy of Conflict: and Other Essays in "ime. By Havelock Ellis. Second series. 299. (London: Constable and Co., Ltd., .) Price 6s. 6d. net. | essays. His social studies turn on sex- ms, often shrewdly handled. His literary thropological studies are dominated by his of the picturesque. He is arrested by the re-making metaphors of Conrad, and by the ‘esque theories of Sollas in prehistoric ithropology. In his essays in this last group eminds us of his own portrait of Jung, wander- ¢ “with random, untrained steps, throwing out int suggestions here and there.” But in the 7 in which this portrait occurs he is on his ground, and justifiably dwells on his part. in ducing to English readers the picturesque chology of Freud. teat Bastia at stole NO. 2638, VOL. 105 | s is likely to find readers for ike eplteee’ Letters to the Editor. [The Editor does not hold himself responsible fer Opinions ex- pressed by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake to - return, ov to correspond with the writers of, rejected manu- scripts intended for this or any other part of NatuRE. No nctice is taken of anonymous communications] The Cost of Scientific Publications. May I add a word to this most interesting dis- cussion from the point of view of the society with which I am most concerned ? The London Mathematical Society was founded by De Morgan and others in 1865, and has steadily improved its position until it is admittedly the leading mathematical society in the country. It is a com- paratively small society, and its activities are almost entirely concentrated on the publication of its Pro- ceedings, to which purpose practically its whole income is devoted. It has no paid staff of any kind. Before the war the society was able to publish annually about 500 pages of original research, at a cost of some 300l. to 3501. Now a volume of 400 pages only, costs some 6ool., and such slight increase of income as there has been is entirely insufficient to meet the new situation. Most of the members are life-compounders, and it is exceedingly difficult to raise the membership beyond a certain point; it was 290 in 1918, and is now about 340. A committee is considering what is possible in: the way of economy or increase of charges, but every increase of charges makes it harder to secure new members, and the only substantial economy possible lies in a further limitation of output. If the society is to maintain the position won by years of effort before the war, it. must at all costs keep up both the quality and the size of its Proceed- ings. In particular it must continue. to attract the best work of young mathematicians; and it cannot do this if it has to hamper them at every turn by incessant demands for condensation. A considerable part of the volumes must always be occupied by the work of men of established reputation, and if they are to be further curtailed it is the younger men who will in the first instance be likely to suffer. The society has during the last year been able to obtain some aid from the fund under the control. of the Royal Society, but it is plain that the demands on the fund are likely to multiply, and all possible pressure should be brought to bear on the proper authorities to augment it. G. H. Harpy, Hon. Sec. London Math. Soc. New College, Oxford, May 15. In the leading article in Nature of May 6 on the cost of scientific publications, reference is made to the critical financial position of those of our scien- tific societies which have no popular means of adding to their income. The position is serious. The scien- tific worker, upon whom, to a great extent, a scien- tific society depends for maintenance, is rarely in a position to add to his financial obligations, and the interested person from whom the society also receives Sai eeable support is often in a similar position. If a society is to be efficient, the library must be kept up, the standard of publications be maintained, and its salaried staff receive at least a_ living wage. How is this to. be done?, Apart from external aid, there are only two ways—by exercise of rigid economy, and by increased contributions from the members. It is not economy to starve the library, and economy in publication must be employed with 354 NATURE [May 20, 1920 — great discretion. The dignified quarto which supplies a link with the early days of the society may be suspended, illustrations reduced to the absolute mini- mum, communications condensed or reduced, and every conceivable means adopted to avoid expense; but with a diminished sum available for printing, and printing costs trebled, it is obvious that the effi- ciency of the society as a means of publication must be seriously reduced. This result bears heavily on oversea members The member within reach of town has all the advan- tages of the society; he can attend the meetings, consult the library, and meet his colleagues at the society’s rooms; the country member is less favour- ably situated, but he has at least the privilege of borrowing from the library. The only material advantage received by the oversea member is the scientific publications of the society. The oversea members are an important part of the society, w hich, though ‘‘of London” in style, is world-wide in in- terest and membership. Our colleagues oversea, though in many cases supporting their own local society, consider it an honour to belong to the mother society at home, and the aim of the mother society is to strengthen the bond and to show the worker oversea that he is both welcome and neces- sary. Any step, therefore, which tends to lessen the advantages reaped by the oversea nyeriber must be avoided. Apart from external aid there remains only the increased contribution from the individual member. An increase in the subscription will fall hard on many members; but the claims of a society which repre- sents one’s work or the scientific interest of one’s leisure will not easily be set aside. A man or woman does not join a scientific society in a commercial spirit, but because a congenial atmosphere is there found, or, in the highest motive, because it is an obligation and an honour to help forward the societv which represents one’s own branch of science. If each member will consider seriously the position of his society, the claim for external aid, amply justified bv the value to the community of the scientific work of the society, will come with increased power. A. B. RENDLE. THE leading article in Nature of May 6 has so admirably stated the case for assistance towards the publications of scientific societies that it is almost needless to add further arguments. Nevertheless, there is one point which seems to require attention, namely, that during the last two years, when the pressure of enhanced prices in the printing trade has made itself felt, there has been an attempt on the part of societies subject to this burden to palliate it by means. which threaten to change. the character of the meetings. To avoid the heavy cost of papers embodying recent research, there has developed a marked tendency to arrange for lectures and demon- strations of a kind which do not require publication in detail, to the disadvantage of original memoirs which demand illustration and extensive text. Should this procedure continue, it is plain that research will suffer, investigators will not be ready to produce the results of their work in the meetings, and the value of the societies’ issues will be diminished. If assistance of the kind advocated can be secured, former methods can be resumed; if that assistance is denied, it is to be feared that, in svite of stringent economy or increased subscriptions on the part of the societies, the publications will suffer; for the main- tenance charges must first be met before the balance of income is available for printing memoirs. B. Daypon Jackson. NO. 2638, VOL. 105] I, po not suppose that there is a single editor of @ scientific journal who will not read with sympathy and. gratitude of your effort to obtain financial support for such publications in view of the enormously increased cost of paper and printing. In the case of the British Journal of Psychology, with which I am Bey 4 connected, the subscription is being raised fo : a second time since the war, whilst no class has suffered more as regards income than that from which the subscribers to scientific journals are drawn. -CHARLES S, MYERs. | 30 Montagu Square, W.1, May to. The Indian Ghemical Service. : Sir P. C. RAy’s objections to the proposal to form an Indian Chemical Service are based upon the fact that the Education Department of India has failed to © realise the importance of research in connection with university teaching. However, I feel sure that he would not advocate the abolition of that Department, much less would he wish to .see the Indian Education Service a mere adjunct to some other branch of the public services, without even provincial directors to look after“the interests of himself and his colleagues. Every member of a Service knows that, in the event of a difference arising between himself and a member of another Service, he will have the support of a senior member of his own Service. at each sta untif the matter is perhaps settled by the Viceroy himself. Even directors-general and members of council are human, and inclined to support members of their own Department against the world. Prof. Thorpe does not dwell at any length on the personal aspect of the problem, but I gather from his letter that he appreciates the importance of it. I do not doubt that he has grasped the fact that, while the members of such units as the Geological Survey of India or the Indian Medical Service are contented with the conditions of their service, grave discontent © prevails amongst the numerous scientific men attached — to, but not members of, organised Services. The fact that many men holding such positions have thrown up their appointments and come home disgusted has added considerably to the difficulty in recruiting scientific men, and particularly chemists, for service in India. There is no alternative to the bureaucratic system of government for India, and the proposed scheme provides for its inherent defects. It is, of course, essential that the director-generaf and the directors of provincial institutes should be chemists who have proved their capacity for research. The Geological, Botanical, and Zoological Survevs of India seem to get on fairly well under directors- general who are scientific experts, and I do not see the necessity for assuming that the head and sub- ‘heads of the Chemical Service will be any less com- petent than those who have done distinguished service for India in other branches of science. Knowing something of India, I believe that the proposed scheme is sound, and I wish it every success. . W. TRAVERS. Beacon Hall, Priory Gardens, Highgate, May 15. A New Method for Approximate Evaluation of Baie Integrals between Finite Limits. — 1. If. f(x)=a+bx+cx? + dx3+ gat + he? + 7x8 + hx + 1x84 io the value of 3[ /(q5)+/ (io) +4 Go) fas) is @+0°50006 + 0°3350¢-+0°2525a+ 0'2028¢ + 016961 + 0°14557 +0°1270k+0°1120/+0 bi cant which is approximately identical with ¥J PIE NS be 4 i Fe e ig Le NATURE 355 00% + 0°3333¢-+.0'2500d + 0°2000¢-+ 0°16674 + 0°14297+0'1250%+0°1111/+0' 1000/2, AF s) + FG's) + F's) + F(s%0)]. The following table shows for several functions 2 of the integral. and the approximate evalua- by this four-ordinate rule and by two seven- te rules in common use, viz. :— pson’s rule :— c= y's F(Q) + F(G) +2(F (2) + F(4)} + 44F (3) + oa F(3) + F(§)}], approx. 5F(3) + F(4)], approx. [Foods | Newrule | Simpson | Weddle 0 5 70'3927| 0'3949 | 0°3815 0°3835 470 7854) 0°7868 | 0°7775') 0°7789 Ayes as 5 = '228 1231 | 1217 | 1219 | 2log 2—1=0°3863) 0°3859 0°3863 0°3863 @-1=1°718 | 1720 | 1°718 1°718 log 2=0°6931| 0°6937 0 6932 | 0°6931 ‘log $=0'4055, 04056 04055 04055 _|t—cos “"°. =0°4597/ 074593 | 0°4597 | 0°4597 The approximation is convenient for the practical nation of the area of a closed curve, such as cator diagram. The arithmetical mean of the ites at one-tenth, four-tenths, six-tenths, and tenths of the range is the mean ordinate for the "he decimal division of therange, the use of only ir ordinates, the extremely simple arithmetic in- ed, and the degree of accuracy attained should ce the rule of practical value. Trinity College, Cambridge, es April 30. A. F. Durron. tis and Metric Systems of Weights and Measures. Are not those who discuss the relative claims of mils and mils as the substitute for the penny in ma ise the disadvantages of what must in any case rgely in the facilities that it. offers for the division of a sum or quantity into equal parts. In this respect NO. 2638, VOL. 105 | ivision of the pound merely trying to. a change for the worse? It seems that the advan- of any given system of weights or measures lies | any decimal system is deficient by the absence of the factor 3, and by the frequency of the factor 5, which is of,much less use than 4 for’ practical purposes. The reductio ad absurdum of the metric system seemed to be reached in the issue in Portugal some years ago of a 24 reis postage stamp (they now call it Z-cent). A rei is one-thousandth part of a milrei or dollar, about eaual to one-twentieth of a penny— surely a small enough unit for any purpose, and vet it is found necessary to halve it! The following comparison seems instructiye :— No. of farthings in one pound=960=2° x 3 x 5. This has 11 factors between 1 and 20, 20 factors between 1 and 100. No. of inches in one mile=63,360=27 x 37x 5x II. This has 14 factors between 1 and 20, 34 factors between 1 and too. No. of ounces in one ton=35,840=2"° x 5 x7. This has 9g factors between 1 and 20, © 17 factors between 1 and Ioo, No. of grains in one lb. troy=5760=27 x 3? x 5. This has 13 factors between 1 and 20, . 26 factors between 1 and roo. No. of seconds in one day=86,400=27 x 3° x 57. This has 13 factors between 1 and 20, 32 factors between 1 and roo, Contrast with these :— No. of millimetres in one kilometre, or of grammes in one metric tonne=1,000,000=2° x 5°, which has only 7 factors between 1 and 20, 14 factors between 1 and roo, If all the above five English systems be taken to- gether, it will be found that :— The factor 2 occurs 37 times ” ” 4 ” 17 ” 45 ne a The factors 3, 6, and 12 ” » 5, 10, 16, and 20 ” 6 ” The factor 15 occurs 5 ,, The factors g and 18 occur 3 4, And the factors 7, 11, and 14 ,, once each. Now, though it cannot be contended that the man who wants to divide 1ool. into seven parts is helped by the fact that there are 28 lb. in a quarter, or he who would divide a ton into eleven parts by the number of yards in a furlong, yet it seems worthy of note that in our admittedly heterogeneous system all the numbers below 20, except 13, 17, and 19, should be represented as factors, and that to an extent so nearly proportional to their probable utility. M. E. YEATMAN. Parliament Mansions, May 7. Scientific Apparatus and Laboratory Fittings. I am surprised to see that Prof. W. M. Bayliss, who writes in Nature of May 6 on the proposed Anti-Dumping Biil, has misunderstood the Bill so far as it relates to scientific instruments. This Bill does not propose a tariff, but prohibition, except under licence. The British Optical Instrument -Manufacturers’ Association has urged the Government to act by prohibition except under licence rather than by tariff, and this is what the Bill proposes. It has always considered that the effect of a tariff might, as Prof. Bayliss suggests, give ‘‘no inducement to the makers to improve the quality’; and it has urged that licences should ‘always be freely granted where articles were not being made in the required quantity or up to the standard of quality of goods that could be imported from abroad. ~ , 356 NATURE [May 20, 1920 Prof. Bayliss’s desire for ‘‘ free import of such apparatus until equally good material is to be had cheaply at home” is provided for by the Bill with the exception of the one word ‘‘cheaply,’’ and I sug- gest that he has, perhaps unintentionally, given the impression that a tariff on goods which either are not or cannot be made in this country has been proposed. The whole question appears to be: Are scientific men prepared to pay more for British-made scientific instruments of approved quality to meet higher wages or the depreciation of foreign currency rather than have the Whole industry extinguished in this country ? With the mark at something like one-tenth its pre- war value, it is obvious that no instrument can be produced in this country to compete as regards price with those made in Germany. The Government, through the British Scientific Instrument Research Association, is giving State aid as regards perfecting processes. Sir Herbert Jackson (who is director of the association) is already producing most valuable results; but if financial considerations make it impossible to sell the articles so produced, it does not meet the case. Quite apart from the danger to the State which will ensue in case of another war if the scientific industry does not exist, surely it must be evident that science cannot develop properly in any country that cannot produce at least the majority of its own scientific instruments. A much closer combination between ‘scientific and practical men than existed before the war is required. It has already commenced, and I desire to take this opportunity of explaining that the association of which I am president has a technical committee the members of which place their services at the disposal of the scientific world to discuss all questions the solution of which depends on the production or development of scientific instruments. ConraD BEcK, President of the British Optical Instrument Manufacturers’ Association. 2-3 Duke Street, St. James’s, West- minster, S.W.1, May Io. Pror. Bayiss’s letter in Nature of May 6 raises a subject which is of the greatest interest to manu- facturers, as well as to users of all classes of scientific apparatus. We.do not think that anyone will dispute the contention that scientific workers should have the very best apparatus which is available, and wherever British apparatus is not up to the standard of foreign competitors there is no doubt that the importation of the foreign articles should be allowed. It is, how- ever, quite a different matter when orders are placed by scientific workers, hospitals, etc., with foreign firms on account of the latter being able to quote lower prices than the English manufacturers can do at the present time. It has recently come to our knowledge that an important hospital supported chiefly by voluntary con- tributions has placed a large order for X-ray equip- ment abroad on account of the-lower price quoted, not because the staff was of the opinion that better apparatus could be obtained from this source, as, in fact, we were definitely assured that, except for price, our models were preferred. We would ask the com- mittee which was. responsible for placing that order whether it had carefully considered the effect of its act, especially should it be repeated to any con- siderable extent. It is generally acknowledged that, prior to the war, the British manufacturers were not giving to the medical world the very best service, and both medical men and manufacturers NO. 2638, VOL. 105 | have often asked the reason why. It is too large a question to go into the fundamental reasons, and opinion would no doubt differ as to these; but there is no doubt that in the year 1914 there did not exist a sufficient demand for British X-ray apparatus to allow manufacturers to work on a large enough scale to ensure satisfactory service and economical produc- tion. During the war the cutting off of foreign sup- plies and the increased demand for apparatus enabled the firms concerned to venture on a bolder policy, until by the end of the war there were established in the country adequate manufacturing facilities. armistice the Government orders dropped to zero, but the demands for up-to-date equipment from private hospitals, and from foreign quarters which had been starved during the war, were sufficient to fill the gap and to enable various firms to carry on their manu- facturing programme without undue alarm for the immediate future. eee The past year has been one of great difficulty in the manufacturing world, and, with the publication and issuing of catalogues and price lists scarcely yet com- plete, a great deal of the heart will be taken out of British manufacturers if they find that, owing to a circumstance over which they have no control, y are going to lose a large part of their home trade. The circumstance to which we refer is that of the rate of foreign exchange, against which tariffs, unless ex- tremely heavy, are of no value whatsoever. It is very difficult to obtain trustworthy information as to the prices at which German and Austrian goods can really be delivered in this country, but in one specific instance we ourselves are being offered one of our staple articles of manufacture at a price which is very considerably below the actual cost of the raw material which we use in the manufacture. ; to the war the articles were not made in this country at all, and it was only by the employment of consider- able research and a heavy initial expenditure that their production was assured and perfected. We do not think that some scientific workers, medical men, and others quite realise that under present con- ditions high prices are essential in connection with scientific apparatus as with all other commodities, and that if they wish to obtain really good service from British manufacturing firms it is mecessary that the amount of apparatus purchased from them should be considerable. Then when our Colonial and foreign friends come to this country for instruction and advice, and find that instruments of British manu- facture are employed by the doyens of the scientific world, our foreign trade will develop, and in production will then lead to lower prices with better quality. ‘ B. H. Morpuy, Man. Director, The Cox-Cavendish Electrical Co., Ltd. Twyford Abbey Works, Acton Lane, Harlesden, N.W.1o. May 12. REFERRING to’ Prof. Bayliss’s letter on scientific apparatus from abroad, we cannot quite agree with his view that the instruments made in this country are more costly than those purchased from the Con- tinent. We think that when conditions in this country - are more settled Prof. Bayliss will find that foreign prices are equal to, if not in excess of, those ruling on this side, owing to the considerable increase in wages and raw materials. At the moment the rate of exchange makes the prices seem low as compared — with those in this country, but can Prof. Bayliss obtain delivery at the low prices? 7 If manufacturers in this country do not receive the After the. Prior - May 20, 1920] NATURE 357 ort of the public, they cannot be expected to produce scientific instruments to compete with the Ar of excellence obtained on the Continent—for eral reasons, amongst which the following are le most important where microscopes are concerned. number of skilled lens-workers capable of cing + gel objectives is very small, and to rain suitable labour for, say, making 1/12-in. oil mmersion objectives of the ordinary achromatic series uld not be accomplished in less than three or four . A dozen or so of these skilled workers could given employment immediately. he profit on microscopes is not very remunerative, Sahlens some protection such as importation unde: é is established, no fresh capital is likely to be ing; and even if it is, some years will elapse e those investing their money will see any return, on account of the time required to train labour for this highly skilled occupation. If some protection is granted to the trade, the \ufacturers must set a higher standard of excel- ice on their goods than they did before the war, otherwise they cannot expect support from the public; ‘but if support is forthcoming we feel sure manufac- turers will reciprocate by turning out goods not only a lower price, but also of a better quality. Tt was chiefly on account of the excellent standard ai that Continental manufacturers obtained the lead before the war. Individual pieces of apparatus hhave been made in England equal to any produced on e Continent, but, unfortunately, only a very small aes e of the supplies ever reached the standard. if English manufacturers will only pay more attention to inspection, and set a much_ higher _ standard of quality than they did before the war, “eg there is no reason why the purchasing public should _ buy foreign-made instruments. There is also no reason why any instrument previously manufactured on the Continent should not be produced here. 2" ee; C. Baker. «244 -_High Holborn, London, W.C.1. ee hr: May 14. e o me a 7 iy Pe ol he, “We do not think Prof. Bayliss and Mr, Munby will find that the prices of British-miade laboratory apparatus have increased to the same extent as have of some other manufactured articles—for example, leather or metal goods, soap, stationery, etc. Last week a catalogue reached us from a well- known German firm specialising in certain optical _ goods. The pre-war prices are subject to an advance ' of 200 per cent., the basis of payment being 20 marks=1/., and cash to the value of 50 per cent. of the order is required at the time of placing it. _ Thus such imported goods are three times as costly as before the war. } At present the prices of our instruments are from 5, to 120 per cent. above pre-war German prices for instruments which are now admittedly more con- venient and efficient. This is particularly the case - in regard to one instrument, which for forty years _ prior to the war had been built by a German firm practically upside down. . __ Again, we supply certain optical testing instruments ___ which are set at the National Physical Laboratory to am accuracy six times greater than was found in the standard instrument of German origin. It would seem essential that the manufacture of ____ scientific apparatus in this country should be encouraged to the fullest possible extent in order that trained workers may be available in emergency; for even NO. 2638, voL. 105] aa oy Bey. supposing war to be impossible in the future, if such manufactures become the monopoly of another country we shall, sooner or later, be paying still higher prices by reason of that monopoly. As no specific kind of apparatus is mentioned by Prof. Bayliss or Mr. Munby, we have replied as makers of two particular classes of optical testing instruments. These instruments are entirely British as regards optical and mechanical design, as no pro- gress is to be made by adopting and copying designs which have easily demonstrable shortcomings. BELLINGHAM AND STANLEY, Ltp. 71 Hornsey Rise, London, N.19, May 1o. WitH regard to the letters by Prof. Bayliss and Mr. Munby in Nature of May 6, we would say that, generally, we are in agreement with the report of the Branch Committee on Scientific Apparatus, of which I was chairman, an abstract of which is pub- lished in the report of the Engineering Trades (New Industries) Committee of the Ministry of Recon- struction. We have very little sympathy with those who would bolster up our industry by levying heavy duties on imports, and, generally, we think that the result of such a policy would be to increase the cost of home- made goods without improving their quality; but there is a good deal to be said for preventing goods made abroad being dumped in this country at prices lower than those prevailing in the country of their origin. The inevitable result of permitting this is to discourage or kill our own industry, and this is well exemplified in the case of our watch industry. Scientific men cannot, however, have dumped and, consequently, cheap scientific apparatus from abroad and at the same time a flourishing apparatus industry at home producing goods of the highest quality at the lowest prices. Ws. TAayLor. (Taylor, Taylor, and Hobson, Ltd.) Leicester, May 11. Wir reference to Prof. Bayliss’s letter in NATURE of May 6, members of this association are in com- plete agreement that scientific workers should be able to obtain the very best quality apparatus. I quote the wording of our communication to the Board of Trade (Scientific Instrument Branch) in connection with the proposal to form a _ special Licensing Committee on which scientific authorities would be represented: ‘‘They would have power to allow the imports of all apparatus which. cannot be produced of efficient quality or in sufficient quantities in this country to meet the demands.”’ But the menace to British manufacturers is the abnormal rate of exchange with Germany, which en- ables apparatus to be brought in at anything from one-fifth to one-tenth of the normal value. No workshop organisation or economy can possibly compete with such values, and it is during this un- precedented and abnormal state of international finance that British manufacturers are asking for tem- porary prohibition of imported apparatus at purely artificial prices. H. W. ASHFIELD, Secretary, British Lampblown Scientific Glass- ware Manufacturers’ Association, Ltd. 2-3 Duke Street, St. James’s, London, S.W.1, May It. Naturally Fractured Eocene Flints. At a meeting of the Geological Society of London, held on May 5, Mr. S. Hazzledine Warren read a paper entitled ‘‘A Natural ‘ Eolith’ Factory beneath the Thanet Sand.’’ The discovery of flints fractured by natural pressure at the base of the Eocene is not, however, a novel experience, as, in 1910, M. 1l’Abbé H. Breuil described (‘‘Sur la présence d’Eolithes A la base de 1’Eocéne Parisien,"’ L’Anthropologie, t. xxi., 1910, pp. 385-408) in great detail, and by means of no fewer than seventy-six excellent illustrations, a series of flaked specimens of the same kind as those now put forward by Mr. Warren. Also, in 1914, I published an account of the flaked flints occurring in the Lower Eocene ‘“ Bull-head” bed at Bramford, near Ipswich (Proc. P.S.E.A., vol. i., part 4, pp. 397— 404), and gave a full account of this peculiar deposit and the nature of the fractures exhibited by some of the contained flints. It will thus be seen that this question has been fully discussed and threshed out for many years past. Through Mr. Warren’s courtesy I was_ enabled, before the meeting at the Geological Society’s rooms, to examine his material, and I at once recognised that the flake-scars to be seen upon the specimens showed every characteristic of those produced by pressure. Though of interest as corroborating earlier finds, Mr. Warren’s flints have no bearing upon the specimens discovered by me in the Sub-Red Crag detritus-bed and other ancient deposits. The flaked flints which I have collected and claimed as humanly fashioned exhibit flake-scars produced by intelligently directed blows, as is clear to anyone examining them and familiar with the obvious and fundamental differences between pressure and percussion flaking. Further, it is also clear that these pressure-fractured Eocene flints are not comparable with the specimens first found by Mr. Benjamin Harrison, which have been known by that much misused term ‘“ eoliths.’’ J. Rei Morr. Ipswich, May 7. International Council for Fishery Investigations. Tue writer (X. Y. Z.) on this subject in Nature of April 29 seems to beat the air. There is no confusion of the general discussion with the deliberate state- ment of the council that ‘“‘the study of the effect of the war in having closed great areas would materially assist the council in arriving at the most practical results.” The closure of certain areas, for ten years or more, by the Scottish Fishery Board has already shown that such is without material effect on Nattire’s ways. Further, it is just the consideration of the almost valueless mass of certain statistics that, amongst other things, has led to the view that, judged by its promises and performances, the ‘‘ International Council for the Investigation of the Sea,” so far as the welfare of the British fisheries is concerned, is a serious waste of public money. The Development Commission’s ‘‘almost judicial committee” cannot alter that conclusion. W. C. McIntosu. 2: Abbotsford. Crescent, St. Andrews, May 7. Sea and Sky at Sunset. In a note on the Royal Academy in Nature of May 6 “J. S. D.” expresses disbelief in the possi- bility that.a red. sunset can give rise to a pure blue colour in the sea. NO. 2638, VOL. 105 | NATURE [May 20, 1920 Last summer and autumn I occupied a small house on the French coast near Boulogne, and I had the good fortune to witness some of the most wonderful sunsets I have ever seen. The sun used to set across the Channel immediately in front of our windows, and the light of ‘the setting sun was reflected not only in the sea itself, but also in the pools left by the tide along the seashore. \: On several occasions when the setting sun was a deep crimson in a purple sky the sea was an intense blue, while the reflection on the water suggested molten gold. The contrast between the purple and crimson of the sky and the blue and gold of the sea was very beautiful, andthe effect is. not one which I shall readily forget. _As the sea is never free from ripples, it is possib that some of the light reaching the eye is transmitted through the water, but whatever may be the explana- tion there is no doubt about the reality of the effect. K. E. EpGreworrn. Crowborough, May 9. me READERS of Nature will welcome Col. Edgeworth’s description of what a sunset over the sea can be like, but those who have had an opportunity of studying the picture in this year’s Academy to which reference was made will not find any difficulty in distinguishing between the reality as. described by him and the artist’s conception of the reality as seen at Burlington House. As to Col. Edgeworth’s description of sunsets seen over the English Channel, few who have spent holi- days on a western sea-coast, or even on the reaches of. a winding river like the Thames, can be unfamiliar with the pillar of gold seen in the water through the reflection of the sun’s disc on the rippled surface. The golden reflection beneath the sun and the dark blue reflection beneath the sky may give rise to oo contrasts, but there is nothing unnatural in these. The sun is not visible, but the whole sky is red, and where reflected light would cause innumerable spots of red upon the crests of the ripples no colour but blue is shown. ; )..9:. Ane Scientific Research. In common with other subscribers to the Scientific Research Association, I recently received an intimation from the acting secretary and the treasurer that the support accorded to it was not sufficient to justify the establishment of the proposed organisation. There can, however, be no question of the importance of the aim the association had set itself—the promotion of research, irrespective of the economic advantages. it may bring with it; and it may be some satisfaction to those who feel this to know that the National Union of Scientific Workers has formed a research council to promote the interests of research for its own sake. It is desired to make this council as representative as possible of every branch of scientific investigation. Communications from all who have the success of such a movement at heart should be addressed to the secretary of the National Union, 19 Tothill Street, S.W.1, or to myself. Joun W. Evans. . Imperial College of Science and Technology, : South Kensington, May to. In the picture referred to it is far otherwise. | Major Church, May 20, 1920] NATURE 359 eee NT long-distance flights have shown that | . aerial navigation is a practical means of | _ quick transport between distant lands. The long | _ time occupied on the first flight to Australia is no | criterion of the possibilities of the future, when the route is better surveyed. and adequate aero- -dromes replete with all facilities are established. Sir Ross Smith recently spoke of six stages, each occupying a day, as.a reasonable journey from - London to Sydney. Air routes promise to forge a new link in Imperial unity, and to modify to a __- great extent the geographical relationships of the various parts of the Empire. Until now the | c) Imperial ‘Air Routes. Sykes described some of the most important of the probable Imperial air routes, and showed how they naturally centre on Egypt. The flight from Egypt’ to India was accomplished in November, 1918, and this route is one of the first which Sir Frederic Sykes advocates developing. From Kantara to Karachi a flight should occupy 36 hours, compared with the 9 days’ steamer journey from Port Said to Bombay. Baghdad would gain more, being a 12 hours’ flight from Kantara, and by the present mail route 3 weeks by sea from Port Said. In this connection it is important to realise fs a / 300 pe n } Sirte 1 i. " 4 i > ty > ONDON 9 Ross-Smiths Flight Alternative Routes PARIS Lyons Tripoli RIG Scale 1/25.000.000 or 25M ‘~>\ Ben Ghazi fe) 300 \. = yor a ; \ im \Z AIRO Sollum Fic. 1,—Air routes: London to Cairo. ocean has been the link between the home country, the Indian Empire, the self-governing Dominions, and other oversea possessions. In that respect the British Isles are centrally situated as regards routes throughout the Empire; but for flying, the position of the home country is less favourable. An uncertain climate characterised by rapid changes of weather and much fog militates against successful aviation. Moreover, land connections in provision of aerodromes are an essential in air routes. In a recent lecture before the Royal Geo- graphical Society! Maj.-Gen. Sir Frederic H. 1 Geographical Journal, vol lv., No. 4, April, 1920. NO. 2638, VOL. 105] ; oe Fd \ From the Geographical Journal. that air traffic must pay its way if air routes are to become an established feature. Owing to the limitations in the weight that an aeroplane can carry, mails are the most suitable load. In their case also saving of time is a valuable considera- tion, and a return freight is ensured. Sir Geoffrey Salmond points out that the maintenance of a twin-engined machine, providing for a commercial rate of interest, works out on any route at about ros. a ton per mile. An aeroplane carrying a ton, which is a fair cargo, must therefore earn 5ool. on a 1000-mile flight, or about 12501. on a flight from Egypt to Karachi. Little but mails could bear this cost, and, their carriage being a Govern- 360 NATURE | May 20, 1920 4 ment monopoly, could in cases of advantage be partly transferred to air routes. Speed may in time be increased in two ways—first, by the improvement of ground organisation, so as to, permit night flying with a relay system; and secondly, by improvement of the engine. Sir Frederic Sykes quotes some remarkable figures to show the comparatively small risk in flying. During the last eight months of 1919 the total mileage flown by the principal firms engaged in civil aviation was 593,000, and the passengers Fic. 2.—Canea from the east. carried totalled 64,416. During this period only four pilots and one passenger were killed, and six pilots and ten passengers injured. This small proportion of casualties will no doubt be reduced as machines are perfected, ground organisation improved, and air surveys carried out. The close association of the Meteorological Office with the Department of Civil Aviation is a happy augury for the future, and the International Air Conven- tion, to which most of the Allies, and several neutrals, have subscribed, should help to co-ordinate efforts in civil aviation. The consideration of good landing-places to a From the Geographical Journal. large extent controls the course of air routes. From -Egypt the route to India is direct from Kantara to Damascus and Baghdad, thence to Basra, Bushire, and along the shores of the Persian Gulf and Arabian Sea to Karachi. Through India two routes to Calcutta are sug- gested—a northern one via Delhi, Cawnpore, and Allahabad, which is part of the route to Australia ; and a southern one by Ahmadabad, Bombay, and Nagpur. On both routes aerodromes are already built or under construction, and there is now an aerial postal service between Karachi and Bombay. The Australian route from Calcutta goes via Akyab to Ran- goon, whence a stretch of hazardous flying over mountainous country leads to Bangkok. The route continues via Singapore, Java, and Dutch Timor to Port Darwin. The latter stages of the journey offer difficulties in suit- able landing-places. Alternative routes are proposed, and have been partly surveyed, and is even suggested that the use of Dutch territory might be avoided by a route from Singapore to Australia via Christmas Island. This would entail two stages of 810 and g50 miles respectively, to say nothing of the pos- sible difficulties of aero- drome construction on Christmas Island. Routes from Egypt to Cape Town, and from England to St. John’s (Newfoundland), Toronto, Winnipeg, and Vancouver are also suggested by Sir Frederick Sykes. The route from England to Egypt, although flown numerous times, presents difficulties, especially in Italy and the eastern Mediterranean. An _ alterna- tive, but longer, route is tentatively sug- gested from Naples via Sicily, Malta, Tripoli, and the northern coast of Africa. The chief problem seems to be in ‘the provision of a suitable aerodrome at Malta, for, once the African coast is reached, favourable conditions are found. Helium: Its Discovery and Applications. By Dr. Wirt1AM J. S. Lockyer. HE year 1868 is rendered memorable in the advancement of solar physics by the fact that the spectroscope was first used on an eclipsed sun. Up to that time the composition of the pro- minences and corona was unknown, although both these phenomena were then proved to be truly NO. 2638, VOL. 105] | | | solar, the result of diligent systematic application of photography to eclipse problems since the year 1860. On August 18, 1868, a total solar eclipse occurred in the Indian -and Malayan peninsulas, lasting for about five minutes and_ thirty-eight G Max 20, 1920] NATURE 361 onds. This event afforded astronomers an portunity of applying the spectroscope, in con- tion with the telescope, to determine what prominences were really made of. On this sion not only were all the expeditions suc- ul, but an almost identical discovery was made by the numerous observers. was observed that the prominences gave tra of bright lines, and, with the means of nition available at the few moments of ty, the red, green, and blue lines which were were attributed to the gas hydrogen, while strong, bright yellow line was stated to be due to the luminous emission of sodium. During this eclipse the distinguished French ronomer, Janssen, was so struck with the bril- iancy of the prominence lines in his spectroscope t he considered it certain he would be able to “Fic. he did during the following seventeen days which _ he spent at the eclipse station, observing the '_ prominences on the limb of the sun. _ The achievement of Janssen was based upon eg principles which in 1866 had been placed before _ the scientific world by Sir Norman Lockyer. _ Owing, however, to regrettable delays in the _ delivery of the instrument which was ordered in - the beginning of the year 1867, and being specially -_ made for him from funds supplied from the _ Government Grant Committee, Lockyer did not - receive it until October 16, 1868. He first used it on October 20, observing the bright lines which had been recorded in the August eclipse. Both Janssen and Lockyer communicated the results of their diftoveries to the Paris Academy of Sciences, and these despatches arrived a few _ minutes of each other on the same day. In honour _ of the joint discovery the French Government _ struck a special medal (Fig. 1). es NO. 2638, VOL. 105 | | It is interesting as a matter of history to refer here to the first communication which Lockyer made to the Royal Society with reference to his first successful observation. October 20, 1868. Sir,—I beg to anticipate a more detailed com- munication by informing you that, after a number of failures, which made the attempt seem hopeless, | have this morning perfectly succeeded in obtaining and observing part of the, spectrum of a solar prominence. As a result I have established the existence of three | bright lines in the following positions :— (i) Absolutely coincident with C. (ii) Nearly coincident with F. (iit) Near. D. The third line (the one near D) is more refrangible than the more refrangible of the two darkest lines by eight or ‘nine degrees: of Kirchhoff’s scale. . 1 cannot speak with sa as this part of the spectrum requires re-mapping. a t.—Medal struck by the French Government in honour of the joint discovery of the composition of the prominences by Janssen and ockyer in the. year 18€8. From the above it will be noticed that Lockyer gives the position of the bright yellow line «as near D, and not coincident with D, D being the lines of emission of sodium previously referred to. With regard to’ the behaviour of this line, ke states in a later communication (November 14, 1868) :— There is a line in the yellow, most probably pro- ceeding from the substance which gives off the light at C and F, as the length of this line, as far as the later observations with the more correctly adjusted instrument go, is the same as that of those in C and F This statement shows that the yellow line behaved like the lines of hydrogen, and the view put forward then was that probably this line might be due to hydrogen also. The line was called D, to differentiate it from the double line of sodium D, and Dg. A considerable amount of work was now done 362 NATURE [May 20, 1920 with regard to Dg, for no substance was found in the laboratory which could produce this line. By studying the behaviour of Dg in relation to thé hydrogen lines, throwing the image of the sun’s limb on to the slit of a spectroscope, Lockyer found that the lines were distorted—i.e. there were changes of wave-length due to movements of the material in the sun.. The orange line was, however, observed to behave quite differently from either of the hydrogen lines, showing that a different substance was in question. Hence [as Lockyer remarks] we had to do with an element which we could not get in our laboratories, and therefore I took upon myself the responsibility of coining the word helium, in the first instance for laboratory use. At the time I gave the name I did not know whether the substance which gave us the D, was a metal like calcium or a gas like hydrogen, but I did know that. it behaved like hydrogen, and that hydrogen, as Dumas had stated, behaved as a metal (‘‘Sun’s Placein Nature,’’ p. 33). In| the following years numerous other lines in the sun and stars were found associated with the yellow line, but the origins of these were all unknown and designated as such. It. was not until the year 1895 that the terres- trial equivalent of this well-known yellow and other lines. was discovered. “In the course of investigations on argon,” so wrote Sir William Ramsay in a communication ‘to the Royal Society (Proc. Roy. Soc., vol. Iviii., p. 65) on March 26, 1895, “some clue was sought for which would lead. to the selection of one out of almost innumer- _ able compounds with which chemists are acquainted with which to attempt to induce .. argon to, combine.” _ Acting on a suggestion by Sir Henry Miers, who directed attention to the work of Dr. Hille- brand in 1888 on the occurrence of nitrogen in uraninite, etc., Sir William Ramsay employed the mineral cléveite, essentially a uranate of lead containing rare earths. He treated this mineral, _and from it extracted a small quantity of gas, which he subjected to spectroscopic examination. To use his own words, as printed in the above- mentioned communication :— Several vacuum tubes were filled with this gas and the spectrum was examined, the spectrum of argon being thrown. simultaneously into the spectroscope. It was at. once evident that a new gas was present along with argon. Fortunately, the argon tube was one which had been made to try whether magnesium poles would free the argon from all traces of nitrogen. This it did; but hydrogen was evolved from the magnesium, so that its spectrum was distinctly visible. Moreover, mag- nesium usually contains sodium, and the D line was also visible, though faintly, in the argon tube. The gas from cléveite also showed hydrogen lines dimly, probably through not having been filled with com- pletely dried gas. On comparing the two spectra, I noticed at once that while the hydrogen and argon lines in both tubes accurately coincided, a brilliant line in the yellow, in the cléveite gas, was nearly, but not quite, coincident with the sodium line D of the argon tube. Mr. Crookes was so kind as to measure the wave-length ‘of this remarkably brilliant yellow line. It is 587-49 NO. 2638, VOL. 105] millionths of a millimetre, and is exactly coincident with the line D, in the solar chromosphere, attributed to the solar element which has been named helium. Thus was the terrestrial equivalent of the helium line discovered after an interval of twenty- seven years. Solar observations had shown that this line was. observed high in the chromosphere, indicating that the density of the gas should be very low. Special interest, therefore, attached to the deter- mination of this important property. In a pre- liminary experiment Sir William Ramsay obtained 3-9 as a maximum number for the density of helium, oxygen being 16, thus showing that the surmise was correct. Soon after this dis- covery Lockyer prepared some of the gas from bréggerite, and established the fact that numerous. lines, designated “unknown,” in the spectra of the chromosphere, nebule, and stars, were due to this gas. Thus from an observation of the sun a new terrestrial gas was discovered, and from this terrestrial gas the origins of a host of unknown lines in the spectra of the heavenly bodies were explained. Like hydrogen, helium has a wide diffusion in space, for not only is it in strong evidence in the hot stars, but it also must occur in such cooler stars as Arcturus, since this star is at about the same temperature as our sun, in which we know helium is present. In ‘our atmosphere helium is one of the rarer constituents, being present in the proportion of about one volume in 250,000, ec Up to the last few years the amount of helium which has been collected has been small, owing to the costly process of obtaining it, but during the war a demand for it in large quantities arose because of its lightness and non-inflammable nature. Helium is the lightest gas known next to. hydrogen, of which it has about 92 per cent. of the buoyancy or lifting power. It was intended to supply a fleet of airships with this gas, and great fractionating plants were laid down in the United States of America capable of separating helium from natural gas at a very moderate cost. It was due to the above-mentioned demand that helium became more widely known, and attention was at once paid to bring together all the informa- tion that had been published about it as an aid to that enterprise. The U.S. Department of Commerce took the matter in hand, and under Dr. S. W. Stratton, the director of the Bureau of Standards, a biblio- graphy of scientific literature relating to helium was compiled. The information (more than 400 references) thus brought together has since (September 10, 1919) been published in pamphlet form in a Circular of the Bureau of Standards (No. 81), and will be found a very valuable source of reference. The importance of helium to-day may be briefly summarised from the following extract from the introduction to this circular :— Helium has probably been the most interesting of “May 20, 1920] * NATURE 363 | the elements to the theoretical scientist on account f the romantic history of its discovery, its occurrence in a remarkable condition of solid solution in many minerals, its formation as a product of the disintegra- ~ tion of the radio-active elements, its liquefaction after a decade of unsuccessful attempts by some of the ; use of temperatures below those at which the resist- world’s greatest experimenters, the attainment by its — ances of pure metals vanish, its many unique physical Properties, and the many important theoretical con- clusions which have been drawn from its behaviour. All of these points of interest have been the subjects of very thorough investigation. The important developments of the future will probably be along the line of the applications of helium, many of which have already been suggested, : ‘THE results of Dr. Henry Head’s clinical in- _ + - vestigations! are exceptionally interesting from the philosophical point of view, for they are utterly incompatible with the older ideas of the - introspective psychologists. In fact, his work is ‘a complete scientific refutation of all psychologi- eal theories which build up knowledge out of ori- ginal sense-material ’’ (NATURE, November 6, 1919, 2 i 267). Dr. Head has demolished the old psycho- and created a new conception, in accordance which “sensations depend neither for their existence nor for their psychical quality on the __ cerebral cortex, which has a purely interpretative ___ function in regard to them.” he function of the cerebral cortex in sensa- tion is to endow it with spatial relationships, with the power of responding in a graduated manner to stimuli of different intensities, and with those qualities by which we recognise the similarity or difference of objects brought into contact with the body. The old psychologists held that there was something in the external universe correspond- __ ing to primary sensations, which they regarded as _ being combined into the elements of perception. In accordance with such views the changes at the ; periphery were simple and became more complex _ the nearer they approached the highest centres in ‘tthe brain. By submitting himself to a surgical operation in 1905 Dr. Head was able to demon- strate the complexity of the peripheral changes and the diffuseness of the impressions received. _ Moreover, by his clinical studies—monuments of patient research and marvellous insight—he has shown how these multitudes of diffuse peripheral changes gradually become integrated and ren- _ dered more specific in quality, space, and time as _. they approach the highest physiological levels in the central nervous system. The recognition of these facts gives an indication of the mode by - which evolution has brought into existence such a nervous system as that of man. Lower, more impulsive, and less specific reactions become domi- “nated by those that admit of choice. This con- ception turns orthodox psychology upside down. Man’s conceptions of space, time, and material rest ultimately on the nature of the spatial and temporal elements in sensation. These in turn are founded on complex physioiogical activities, many of which may never disturb consciousness directly; although they do not enter into the province of introspective psychology, they are re- a sponsible for much that is usually attributed to 1 “Sensation and the Cerebral Cortex,” Avainz, vol. xli., part ii., 1918. - NO. 2638, VoL. 105] age eee rece L | cerebral cortex. terpret the meaning of this arrangement. 7 New Conceptions of Psychology. the action of the mind. Dr. Head’s work on the cerebral cortex represents the culmination of an intensive investigation of the sensory system upon which he has been engaged for more than a quarter of a century. In 1893 he was studying the phenomena of the localisation of the pain asso- ciated with visceral disturbances and incidentally mapping out the distribution of the sensory nerves. Then he began the analysis of’ the com- ponents of the sensory nerves; and to test the problems that called for solution he invited Mr. James Sherren to cut one of the main ‘sensory nerves of his (Head’s) arm, and with the help of Dr. Rivers he studied the process of the re- storation of function in the severed nerve.’ By this means he was able to differentiate between the three kinds of sensory nerves distributed to his arm :— ‘ (a) The deep afferent system supplying the con- nective-tissues, muscles, joints, and tendons, in virtue of which is conferred the power of recog- nising movement and appreciating the position of any part of the limb, as well as of localising pressure and responding to certain aspects of pain ; (b) A punctate afferent mechanism in the skin, which Dr. Head has called ‘‘protopathic,’’ the primitive nature of which is shown by the early restoration to activity (a little more than six weeks in Dr. Head’s arm) of its end-organs after the nerve has been reunited, by the specific nature of the response of each set of end-organs, and by the diffuse ‘‘ all-or-nothing ’’ nature of the re- sponse, i.e. the absence of any graduation corre- sponding to the intensity of the stimulus; and (c) Superimposed over this older mechanism another cutaneous system of later development and higher functions, which Dr. Head calls ‘‘ epi- critic.’’ Epicritic sensibility is not restored for many months after the reappearance of proto- pathic sensibility, the diffuse reaction of which is then checked and controlled; and the effects of stimulation are modulated according to the in- tensity and locality of the exciting agent. It is concerned with the finer degrees of tactile and thermal discrimination and is opposed to, and controls, the diffuse “all-or-nothing” reaction of protopathic sensibility. It has long been known that the sensory paths in the central nervous system had a_ twofold terminus, represented by the thalamus and the It remained for Dr. Head to in- He 364 NATURE | May 20, 1920 showed that the thalamus is concerned with the affective side of consciousness, and deals with crude awareness to contact, heat, cold, and pain; while the sensory cortex exercises the réle of dis- crimination and endows the basic functions of the thalamus with spatial qualities, intensity and re- lativity. The war afforded Dr. Head the opportunity for testing his theories as to the functions ofethe sensory cortex on a large scale. He made an intensive studyof fifty men with strictly localised bullet wounds of the post-central convolution and the areas adjoining it in front and behind: as the result he has revolutionised our conceptions of the nature of the work of the cerebral cortex. ‘Destruction of the sensory cortex causes a dis- sociation between the spatial and the qualitative aspects of sensation. The patient loses the power of recognising movements or the posture of the affected parts: he can no longer localise the posi- tion of the stimulus, or respond adequately to variations in its intensity: he has no idea of the size, shape, weight, or texture of an object in contact with his body. Yet he can appreciate the tactile, painful, and thermal’ aspects of the impressions it evokes, Thus it is possible to recognise the qualitative aspects of a sensation without of necessity obtain- ing any information concerning the stimulating object, as a constituent of the external world. Sensory qualities, and the affective states with which they are associated, are in themselves dis- | continuous. They are relative to ourselves, and _ appear and disappear in consciousness, without — leaving any connective factor in the activities of the mind. On the other hand, the projected aspects of sensation relate these qualities, not to ourselves, but to the external world. An be defined as a complex of projected sensory re- sponses. only responsible for sensory projection in space, but also ensure recognition of sequence in time. The power of recognising serial movements in both space and time seems to be based on the same physiological processes. They give us a direct appreciation of succession: this is trans- lated into sensations of serial movement in either space or time, according to the nature of the.s con- comitant sensory impulses. These physiological responses, which are so clearly bound up with the activities of the sen- sory cortex, are characterised by a strict depend- ence on past events. All projected sensations leave behind them a coherent train of physiological dispositions: thus a movement occurring at one moment is measured against the consequences: of those which have preceded ih It is difficult to estimate the magnitude of the | vast revolution in our conception of the functions of the cerebral cortex that we are witnessing. Moreover, Dr. Head’s work lays the foundation of a new and true psychology and illuminates the age- long problem of the relationship of body and mind. It is a matter for just pride that we owe this new vision to an Englishman. Obituary. PrINcIPAL R. M. Burrows. kK ING’S COLLEGE and the whole University of | {> _ writer, and a teacher of untiring drive and wide London have suffered grievous loss by the | death of Dr. Ronald Burrows. Born on August 16, 1867, Dr. Burrows went from Charterhouse to Christ Church, Oxford, with a scholarship, and took his degree i in 1890 with first class honours in Classical Moderations and Literae Humaniores. After five years as assistant to Prof. Gilbert Murray, who then held the Greek chair at Glasgow, he was appointed professor of Greek at Cardiff in 1898, and rejoined his Cardiff colleague, Dr. R. S. Conway, as Greek professor in Manchester in 1908. By travel, during these years, in the Medi- terranean, he had gained valuable experience of topography and excavation, and also that first- hand knowledge of the modern politics of Greece and the Balkan States which served him so well in later years. His. published work, mainly about Greek battlefields, ancient sites in Beeotia (where he conducted most instructive excavations at Rhitsona and the Delion), and the newly revealed Minoan civilisation, gained him the degree of D.Litt. in the. University of Oxford in 1910, and > his ‘‘ Discoveries in -Crete,” published in went into a third edition. An excellent scholar, a vigorous and fluent NO. 2638, VOL. 105] 1907, | humanity, Dr. Burrows contributed much to “save Greek ” during’ a difficult period by the simple and characteristic method of making -his pupils in- terested in it, and infecting them with his own keenness ; ous and successful work for the Cardiff University Settlement and for the Ardwick Lads’ Club at Manchester, were for him all of a piece with the “humanities ” of which his Greek studies should be the crown. He enjoyed life and enjoyed people, and his sunny temper and good fellowship were the happy counterpart of his learning and judgment. ' Dr. Burrows moved from Manchester to King’s College as principal in 1913, at a time of crisis and manifold difficulty. Apart from other qualifica- tions, he had, as was said, family’* than had all the other candidates put together, and more: experience, too, than most of other “happy families ” arts could “live and let live.” His width of in- terests and sympathies, enabling him to bring in new subjects to restore the balance between them and the old; his ready speech and de- bating skill; and his real grasp of principles and policies, gave him a position which-experience con- | ‘‘ object ’’? might These functions of the cortex are not a ee he a ee and this did not stop “out of school.” — His lifelong interest in young lads, and his strenu- “more bishops in his - where sciences and _ Ltn a 62 nk May 20, 1920] NATURE 305 . The college organisation for modern lan- es, literatures, and national histories, which commemorates him, was conceived and ed just in time for the war, which so fully sed his foresight and amplified his oppor- es, less perhaps among the Romance lan- s than in the Slavonic and modern Greek tments which lay nearest to his personal sts. Knowing as intimately as he did the ms and the possibilities of the city-state of ancient Greece, he was able in an excep- way to interpret here the ideals, no less than ailures, of the Balkan peoples, whom he stood and impressed like the naughtier boys ‘settlement clubs. Honours conferred by the k and Serbian Governments, and the close al relations which he maintained with s such as M. Venizelos and President yk—the latter one of his professors until his country claimed him—are testimony enough this side, and he just lived to see in the act of sation much for which he had long striven. 1 a man would not spare himself, and he would h help and encouragement along the whole dth of his interests at times when only the est prudence could have preserved his health; 00 he avert to live. We Tegret to announce the death. in London on ay 6 of Dr. J. Hamitton Futiarton, so long ssociated with scientific fishery research in Scot- land. Dr. Fullarton was born at Brodick, Arran, 1856. He had a distinguished career as a student at Glasgow University, taking many ; *s and bursaries, and graduated M.A., with _ the highest honours in natural science, in ” 1881, and D.Sc. ten years later. After acting for some years as assistant to the professor of natural _ history in his alma mater, Dr. Fullarton entered _ the service of the Fishery Board for Scotland as a naturalist on the scientific staff in 1889, a post _ which he held for eight years. On quitting the ey ‘ishery Board service, Dr. Fullarton studied medi- cine with a view to a medical career, and re- ceived the qualifications of L.R.C.P. and _L.R.C.S.(Edin.). After serving for a_ short . medical officer on an _ Atlantic pod as liner, he settled in London as a consultant, ‘and gradually built up-a considerable. prac- tice. Prior to this, on the initiation of the international fishery investigations, Dr. Fullarton re-entered the service of the Fishery Board, and did valuable work for a year .in the supervision of the scientific investigations. on board the re- search steamer Goldseeker. It is as an expert on fisheries that he will be chiefly remembered in scientific circles. He devoted himself in particular _ to the study of shellfish, such as the common edible - mussel, the oyster, the cockle, and the “clam,” % and wrote numerous papers on their cultivation and natural history. In connection with this _ branch of his fishery work Dr. Fullarton on more than one occasion visited the districts in France and Holland where oyster-culture and mussel- _ eulture are principally carried on. He also made NO. 2638, VOL. 105] © a useful series of researches on the breeding and development of the European lobster. Tue death is announced at Copenhagen of the well-known Danish philologist, Pror. L. F. A. WIMMER, at eighty-one years of age. Prof. Wimmer was the author of an important book on the Runic alphabet, “ Runeskriftens oprindelse og udvikling i Norden,” published in 1874, in which he suggested that the Runes were really Latin letters adapted for carving in wood, and of four volumes on Runic inscriptions in Den- mark. In several of the Sagas it is recorded that Runes were inscribed on round pieces of wood, called Kefli, or Runic sticks. It has been sug- gested that the Eddas were recorded in this way, but the evidence is not quite satisfactory. THE bearer of a name highly esteemed in botanical circles has just passed away in the person of AuGusTIN Pyramus DE CANDOLLE, who died at Vallon, near Geneva, on May 9, at the age of fifty-one, surviving his father only eighteen months. The family is of French origin, but for four generations it has been settled at Geneva, adopting the local fashion of employing a capital letter for De. Born in England in 1869, the late botanist visited our shores on many occasions; in 1889 he came to London to receive the Linnean gold medal awarded to his grandfather by the Linnean Society of London, and in 1904 he attended the British Association meeting at Cam- bridge.. He published but little, only about a dozen short memoirs on systematic descriptions of new plants from Madagascar and Tonquin, on parthenogenesis, and on the influence of electricity on the germination of seeds. He filled the office of president of the Société’ Botanique de Genéve in 1905. The brilliancy of the line was shown in the great-grandfather, A. P. De Candolle (1778-1841) ; grandfather, Alphonse De Candolle (1806-93) ; and father, Casimir De Candolle (1836-1918). ‘By the death, on February 27, of ALFRED J. Moses, professor of mineralogy at Columbia Uni- versity, the science of mineralogy has lost (says ““H. P. W.” in Science) one of its most eminent and valued exponents. Prof. Moses’s work as a teacher, as a writer, and as a scientific investi- gator can scarcely be too highly esteemed, and his loss to all branches of his profession is most keenly felt. His text-book on “Mineralogy, Crystallography, and Blowpipe Analysis ” will for many years remain the standard in a large majority of the universities in which courses in these subjects are given. His work on “The Characters of Crystals,” published in 1899, is the first treatise published in America upon physical crystallography, a branch of crystallography which was early recognised by him as of primary import- ance to chemists, geologists, and mineralogists, arid has within very recent years assumed a scope and developed practical applications which have more than justified his early visions of its future. 366 \NATURE [May 20, 1920 Notes. THE general meeting of the Linnean Society on June 17 will be devoted to a celebration of the cen- tenary of Sir Joseph Banks (1743-1820) with essays on various aspects of his life-work, and an exhibition. Dr. H. D. Curtis, astronomer at the Lick Ob- servatory, has been appointed director of the Allegheny Observatory in succession to Dr. Frank Schlesinger, who assumed charge of the Yale Observatory on April 1. Tue Linnean Society has elected the following as foreign members:—Prof. Gaston Bonnier, Prof. Victor Ferdinand Brotherus, Prof. Giovanni Battista - de Toni, Prof. Louis Dollo, Prof. Paul Marchal, and Prof. Roland Thaxter. THE Natural History Museum Staff Association has arranged a special scientific reunion to be held at the museum (by permission of the Trustees) on Thursday, June 3, at 3.30 p.m., in connection with ‘the Imperial Entomological Conference. The exhibits which will be shown will illustrate some of the problems of economic interest, or arising out of the war, which have been studied at the museum during the past few years. Tue motion for the second reading of the Importa- tion of. Plumage (Prohibition) Bill was carried in the ‘House: of Commons on May 14. Lt.-Col. Archer- Shee. expressed a wish to propose that it be an instruction to the Standing Committee by which the Bill will be considered to insert a schedule of the birds the.plumage of which should be prohibited from importation, but the Speaker pointed out that it would be out of order to give a mandatory instruction _to a Standing Committee, which could, if it wished, take such action without any instruction. A notice from the Department of Anatomy, Johns Hopkins» Medical School, Baltimore, Maryland, informs us that the Ellen Richards research prize offered by an association of American college women, hitherto known as the Naples Table Association, is available for the year 1921. This is the tenth prize offered. _The prize has been awarded four times, twice to American women and twice to English- women: The competition is open to any woman in the world who presents a thesis written in English. The thesis must represent new observations and new conclusions based upon laboratory research. THE medal of the Society of Chemical Industry for 1920 has been awarded to M. Paul Kestner in recogni- tion of his distinguished services to chemical industry. The medal is awarded biennially, and among the recipients in recent years have been the Right Hon. Sir Henry Roscoe (1914), Mr. C. F. Cross (1916), and Sir James Dewar (1918). M. Kestner was born in Alsace prior to the German occupation in 1871; he was one of the chief founders and the first president of the Société de Chimie Industrielle in France, which was established in 1917. He has been connected with engineering as applied to chemical industry through- out his career, and among his more notable -achieve- NO. 2638, VOL, 105 | ' ments are the use of forced draught in acid towers, automatic acid elevators, the climbing film evaporator, the scaleless water-tube boiler, and several inventions in connection with beet-sugar manufacture. AN invitation from the Mayor and Corporation of — Barrow-in-Furness to hold the annual autumn meeting — of the Institute of Metals in that town on Wednesday and Thursday, September 15 and 16 next, has been ~ accepted by the council of the institute. Particulars of the meeting can be obtained from the secretary, Mr. G. Shaw Scott, 36 Victoria Street, S.W.1, who will also be glad to forward tickets for the tenth F annual May lecture, which will be delivered by Prof. C. A. F. Benedicks, of Stockholm, at 8 p.m., om June 10, at the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, — Westminster, the subject of the lecture being “‘ The Recent Progress in Thermo-Electricity.”’ dent, Engineer Vice-Admiral Sir George Goodwin, K.C.B., will preside. A sHorT account of the Department of Scientific — Research and Experiment, which the Admiralty has. set up under the Third Sea Lord, was given in Nature of April 22, p. 245. A vote for 302,0001. for scientific services under the Navy Estimates was — agreed to in Committee of the House of Com- mons on May 17. Mr. Long, in reply to points raised © concerning this vote, said that after an investigation into the conditions the Government decided to ask the Lord President of the Council, who was specially ~ charged with the care of all scientific work in the country, to set up a Committee to inquire into the — whole of the work done in the Government Depart-— ments in order to prevent overlapping, and to prevent two Departments doing the same work. The Admiralty had appointed a Director of Scientific Re- search at Teddington, where they were going to con-_ centrate on naval scientific research. When it came The presi- — ee eee to sea-water research they proposed that that should — be carried out at the sea-ports. carried on this year, but they hoped that before Teddington would be — the end of that time they would have the benefit — of the report of the Lord President’s Committee, and they would then be in a position to avoid overlapping and duplication of work. The Admiralty would not hesitate to ask Parliament for such money as they thought necessary to give the fullest effect to scien- tific research and the development of the results of that research. The sum of 430,3001. was voted. for ; educational, services, and Mr. Long said in connec- tion with it that the departure, taken only recently, under which reception was secured at the University — of Cambridge for a certain number of naval officers as undergraduates, had abundantly justified itself. He assured the Committee that the Government is ex- — tremely sympathetic to this scheme, and hopes to increase the number of officer undergraduates. AN interesting conference on ‘‘ The Relations of the Inventor to the State,’’ organised by the Institute of Inventors, was held at the rooms of the Royal Society of Arts on May 13. The discussion was opened by Mr. D. Leechman, who gave a good résumé of the present state of the patent law in the light of the new Patent Act. It was remarkable that in a meeting [ay 20, 1920] NATURE 367 of this kind the whole of the speakers were unanimous in condemning the present attitude in official circles towards inventors. It was stated by more than one cer that those who came forward during the war ideas and inventions that had made our success ble had not only received no reward, but had in al cases been deprived even of the merit of their _by officials who were themselves devoid of the sary technical or scientific knowledge. The thairman, Mr. Walter F. Reid, stated that the work- ig of the Royal Commission on Awards to Inventors »plied abundant evidence of the difficulty experi- by inventors in obtaining any recognition. gh large sums were now being devoted to re- 1, he pointed out that such work was only raw material for the development of industry; it the application of that raw material by the in- tor which resulted in the advance of industrial cesses. The mass of facts as ascertained by re- h was already enormous; what is now required inventive genius to make use of those facts, which . Reid compared to the bricks and stones with ch an architect might produce a building, but | by themselves were of little practical use. = for the week ending May 1, continues greatly the decline over the whole country, the deaths for ninety-six great towns numbering only 202 and in idon 45. For the twenty-eight weeks from ber 25, 1919, to May 1, 1920, during which in- 1enza was practically epidemic, the deaths from the _ disease in London were 1160, and the deaths from all _ auses 35,276. Deaths from influenza were 3 per cent. of the total deaths, whilst the deaths from pneu- monia were 11 per cent, and from bronchitis 10 per t. Between the ages o and 20 the deaths from fluenza were 15 per cent. of the total, 20 to 45 years 36 per cent., 45 to 65 years 28 per cent., and above _ 65 years 21 per cent. The age-incidence of the deaths calculated on the total deaths for the several ages was respectively 4 per cent. for 5 to 20,8 per cent. for 20 to 45, and 4 per cent. for 45 to 65. The insignificance of this is shown when compared with the deaths during the virulent epidemic of 1918-19, in which during thirty-one weeks from October 19, 1918, to May 10, Ig19, the deaths from influenza were 47 per cent. for ages 5 to 20 of those for the corresponding ages from causes, 52 per cent. for 20 to 45, and 22 per cent. or ages 45 to 65. During the three weeks ending April 10, the worst stage of the present epidemic, the _ deaths between 20 and 45, the ages attacked most _ severely, were only 21 per cent. of the total deaths from all causes, whilst in the epidemic of 1918-19 the deaths for ages 20 to 45 in the three weeks ending November 16, 1918, were 73 per cent. of the _ total at the corresponding ages from all causes. In _ the present epidemic deaths were most numerous _ during a spell of exceptionally mild weather. ts A BRIEF, but very interesting, study of the pygmies _ of Central Africa by Mr. Herbert Lang appears in _ Natural History, the journal of the American Museum 4 of Natural History (vol. xix.), and its value is further _ enhanced by a number of most excellent photographs. 4 Anthropologists will welcome this contribution, since NO. 2638, VOL. 105] met NFLUENZA, according to the Registrar-General’s it summarises the results of a prolonged study of these people made during the American Museum Congo Expedition (1909-15). During that time more than a hundred life-masks, representing sixteen different tribes of Central African races, were taken. Some extremely useful observations on the physical characteristics of the pygmies are made, as well as on their mode of life, customs, and language. By way of a supplement, perhaps, to Mr. Lang’s paper, this number also contains an essay on ‘‘The Pygmy Races of Man,’’ by Mr. Louis R. Sullivan, of the Anthropological Department of the American Museum, illustrated by a number of useful tables and diagrams, Tue eighteenth annual report of the Rhodesia Museum, Bulawayo, affords instructive reading. It is evident that but for the assistance the museum is able to afford the mining industry it would cease to exist. The public generally seems to regard the institution, at most, with but a mild interest. Hence, from lack of funds, every aspect of its work is ham- pered. The building is all too small to house its col- lections, and the provision made for the storage and exhibition of specimens is utterly inadequate. It is more than probable that if a better display could be made enthusiasm might be kindled. This state of affairs is lamentable, for, as matters stand, it is im- possible to secure that record of the fauna and’ flora of this important area of Africa which is so essential in a country being rapidly transformed by the march of civilisation. Dr. G. Arnold, the curator, is» evi- dently having an uphill fight; but, in the interests of science, it is to be hoped that the tremendous possibili- ties of a well-organised museum will soon be realised. Tur Pueblo stage of culture in south-western Colorado, New Mexico, Arizona, and Utah, the domain of the cliff-dwellers, has naturally. attracted much attention. ‘The material for studying it is wide and scattered, and it is well that a competent archzo- logist, Mr. J. W. Fewkes, has prepared a monograph on the subject, entitled ‘‘ Prehistoric Villages, Castles, ‘and Towers of South-Western Colorado,” published as Bulletin No. 70 of the Bureau of American Ethno- logy. The general conclusions at which Mr. Fewkes. has arrived are: The buildings express the communal thought of the builders, since they were constructed by groups of people rather than by individuals. The view that either the Pueblo people were derived from Mexican tribes or, as it was customary in the seven- teenth and eighteenth centuries to suppose, their de- scendants had made their way south and developed into the more advanced culture of the Aztecs, is not supported by. architectural data observed among these two peoples; it is preferable to assume that the cus- tom of building stone houses was not derived from any locality not now included in the Pueblo area, but that it developed as a local growth, the earliest stages, as well as the most complex forms, being of locaf origin, That the buildings antedate the coming. of the white men is shown by the absence of mention of them in. any history; no European objects have been found at the Pueblos, and the buildings and pottery have no affinity with any villages inhabited when the Spanish entered the south-west. 368 NATURE EXPERIMENTS with the Amphipod Gammarus chev- reuxi by E. J. Allen and E. W. Sexton at the Plymouth Marine Biological Laboratory (Journal of Genetics, vol. ix., No. 4) have disclosed several mutations in eye-colour. In the wild animal the retinal pigment is black. A single individual with red eyes appeared in the second generation from animals brought into the laboratory, and the new character was inherited as a simple recessive. An. albino-eyed type also appeared, in which the eyes differed in many struc- tural features from the normal type. Another muta- tion, by no means’ uncommon, consists in the loss of the white pigment normally present between the ommatidea of the eye. This may appear suddenly or gradually, or may develop in the animals as they grow older. White-spotting also occurs on the bodies of these animals occasionally, but the rules of its inheritance show complications, and a pure spotted race has not been obtained. In March of 1917 the Board of Agriculture and. Fisheries appointed a Committee to consider the fresh- water fisheries. Attention was directed to the use of coarse fish as food, to the development of the eel fisheries, and latterly to the improvement of the salmon fisheries. Two interim reports were issued, and as a result of these the Board made an Order in March, 1918, extending, as a war emergency measure, the season of capture of coarse fish by one month. This Order was revoked in the spring of 1919. A further Order removing restrictions on eel-fishing and abolishing the close season for pike was made in April, 1918, and revoked in October, 1919. Dealing with the eel fisheries, the Committee recommended that the factory on the Severn owned by ee German Fisheries Union should be taken over, and, ‘‘ after pro- longed negotiations,”’ this was done. The factory ex- ported some five millions of elvers annually to Germany before the war. Arrangements were made to carry jt on, and in 1918 and 1919 about 23 millions of elvers were distributed throughout this country. The Committee hopes this work may be continued regu- larly. In its final report, now published, practical methods of eel cultivation are dealt with, and the necessity for investigation into the biology of fresh- water fishes in general is discussed. Recommenda- tions are made with regard to the pollution of rivers, improvements of the latter as breeding-grounds, and the consolidation of the law as to fresh-water fisheries. Practical suggestions for the cultivation of carp are given in’ an appendix. Mr. W. B. Wricut, of the Geological Survey of Treland, has made ‘“‘An Analysis of the Palzozoic Floor of North-East Ireland, with Predictions as to Concealed Coalfields’? (Sci. Proc. R. Dublin Soc., vol, xv., No. 45, 1919, price 1s. 6d.). Mr. Wright accompanies his careful reasoning as to the synclines and anticlines produced by the Armorican and later foldings by a coloured geological map showing the intersections of: two systems of folds, and therefore the probable domes -and basins. He relies much on the repetition of similar fold-features in the same’ area during successive geological periods—that is, on the NO. 2638, VOL, 105] [May 20, 1920 principle of posthumous folding on which R. A. C. Godwin-Austen based his prediction of the Dover — coalfield. It is no secret that the deep boring put down recently by the Ministry of Munitions on the west shore of Lough Neagh in accordance with the arguments of Mr. Wright has more than proved his main contention, the Carboniferous rocks, on the line of the Armorican syncline of Central Scotland, having been carried down by Cainozoic sinking to depths com- pletely unexpected. ; THE issue of the Revue scientifique for Feteudiy 14 contains Prof. G. Friedel’s opening address on his installation in the chair of mineralogy at the Uni- versity of Strasbourg. Prof. Friedel, himself an Alsatian by birth, looks forward to the development of research in a university that will never become the slave of politics or the mere servant of industrial ideals. He says finely: ‘‘La science n’est pas la servante de 1l’industrie, elle en est la mére.” His address deals with the insight given by the use of X-rays into crystalline and molecular structure, and he describes the work inspired by Laue, of Munich, — in 1912 as “‘la plus belle assurément et la plus riche _ en promesses de la cristallographie récente.” In the developments made by Sir W. H. and Prof.W. L. Bragg he perceives the end of our conception of the existence of molecules as such within a crystal, and a realisa- tion of the crystal as one enormous molecule, in which the grouping of the atoms does not permit of a division into similarly constituted particles correspaOtiam nee the molecules of the chemist. : WE have received rae Koninklijk Magnetisch en Meteorologisch Observatorium, Batavia, the volumes of rainfall records in the Dutch East Indies for ge years 1915, 1916, and 1917 (Regenwaarnemingen n Nederlandsch-Indié). The records are pak complete, and comprise data from several thousand | stations scattered throughout- the islands. There is no discussion of the data, but the volume for 1915 gives the-mean of more than three hundred stations for the period 1879 to 1915. The same volume gives useful notes on the position and equipment of the various stations. Tur Koninklijk Nederlandsch Meteorologisch In- stituut has published the first part of an oceano- graphical and meteorological folio atlas of the Atlantic Ocean under the editorshin of Dr. E. van Everdingen, — director of the institute. The present part covers the months of December, January, and February, and is It follows | based: on observations from 1870 to 1914. the lines of the previous work on the Indian Ocean, and utilises mainly the observations of Dutch vessels, but these are supplemented by data from the Meteoro- logical Office, London, and the Deutsche Seewarte. Maps for each month show the distribution of wind, - cloudiness, and —. currents, sea- and air-temperature, floating ice. The volume of data which was to accompany the atlas-has been delayed in publication. Tue current (April) part of the Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society is of. melancholy Rit a ee ee fen crtns SeacnaiTa ee, Ce ee ey eee PR na Per a De eRey yim ero ems hal ode MG | s S nen penn, May 20, 1920] NATURE 369 ; interest because it contains the conclusion of the ‘late E. K. Wakeford’s paper on canonical forms. The” paper is remarkable for its generality and the _ simplicity which it gains by the use of the theory of i ity. Moreover, certain results follow almost a - intuitively from known geometrical facts, e.g. the ; general: ‘ternary quartic cannot ‘be expressed as the sum of five fourth powers, because the square of the 3 conic ‘through five points may be regarded, in this _ connection, as a quartic with double points at all of them. This example is interesting _ historically, _ because the original (and different) proof of the F theorem in question was one of the first to show the _ untrustworthiness of the method of counting constants. ! _ Wakeford’s premature death will be deplored by all who can appreciate the brilliance and originality of _ Tue April issue of the Journal of the Réntgen _ Society contains the communication made to the society at a recent meeting by Prof. E. T. Jones on the action of the induction coil. By means of an electrostatic oscillograph Prof. Jones has investigated the effects on the potential of the’ secondary of the at both on open circuit and when connected to an _ X-ray tube, of changes in the capacity of the con- denser shunting the break, and in the degree of coupling between the primary and secondary of the coil. He finds that the effects correspond closely with those to be anticipated on the theory that in the secondary on open circuit the potential after break consists of two component waves, which begin in «pposite phase and have amplitudes inversely propor- tional to their frequencies. He considers that induc- tion coils can be further improved by investigating and reducing the losses in the iron cores of the coils, by introducing interrupters which will break stronger currents without such large capacities in parallel with them, and by determining the best method of adjust- ing the coupling between the primary and secondary, either by alteration of their relative lengths or widths or by other means. _ A very interesting example of the progress which has taken place during recent years in electric power supply is presented in a paper by Mr. J. S. Watson _ read on April 30 before the North-East Coast Institute of Engineers and Shipbuilders, in which he gave a brief historical sketch of the development of the generating stations of the Newcastle-upon-Tyne Elec- tric Supply Co., the principal pioneer of electric power supply on a large scale in this county: Dividing the twenty-nine years of this company’s activity into stages, Mr. Watson traced the progress from a small station with 2400 kw. in 200-kw. units to the latest addition, the Carville ‘‘B’’ station, with its five x0,000-kw. turbo-generators. Among the many im- portant features referred to is the gradual decrease in steam consumption per kw.-hour from 28-5 Ib. to ro Ib, An equally interesting comparison lies in the plant capacity per square foot of floor-space occupied, which is 15 kw. as against o-3 kw., and other figures show- _ ing gain in economy are those of kilowatt capacity per Se en ee man employed in the station—633 kw. and 141 kw.. NO. 2638, VOL. 105 | | respectively. These improvements are attributable mainly to increases in boiler pressure, steam tempera- ture, speed of revolution and size of unit, and to more complete utilisation of labour-saving appliances. Another no less important feature of the scheme is the running in parallel with the steam-driven stations of ‘t waste- heat ’’ generating plants at various points on the net- work utilising on a considerable scale by-product energy from coke-ovens and blast-furnaces. IN a paper on the economics of the petroleum industry read recently by Mr. R. S. Dickie at the Imperial College of Science and Technology, there appears a series of well-justified criticisms relative to the geological, chemical, and engineering procedure of the producing companies. Such subjects as the proper spacing of well-sites, the economical utilisation of fuel by the provision of heat and cold inter- changers, the preposterous waste in the current use of boiler-stills, the insufficiency of our present know- ledge of lubrication and lubricating oils, the need for research on blended motor-fuel, and the possibilities of recovering valuable components from the crude oil by methods other than distillation were briefly touched upon. Among the more interesting statements made is the following: The greatest producing well is No. 4 Potrero del Llano (Mexican Eagle Co.), which ran wild for ninety days, flowing at the rate of 100,000 barrels per day. In the eight years of its life it produced 100,000,000 barrels of oil (1 barrel — about 45 English or 50 U.S.A. gallons). WE have received from Messrs. A. Hilger, Ltd., 754 Camden Road, N.W.1, an attractive catalogue of their well-known wave-length spectrometer with high resolving power accessories, including the Lummer- Gehrcke parallel plate, the Fabry and Perot etalon, and the Michelson echelon diffraction grating. At a time when the structure of spectra is receiving so much attention from physicists it is good to know that a British firm can still assist in supplying the very necessary “munitions” in the form of efficient scientific apparatus. As is well known, this firm has been able very largely to control the effects of lack of homogeneity in glass by interferometer methods, which should considerably improve the performance of such instruments. Reapers of Nature in search of book bargains should obtain and consult Catalogue No. 187 just issued by Messrs. W. Heffer and Sons, Ltd., Cam- bridge, in which some 331 books in new and perfect condition are listed at greatly reduced prices. Among the works relating to science we notice the “ Scientific Papers’’ of Prof. J. C. Adams; sets in different bindings of ‘Biologia Centrali-Americana,’’ also separate sections of the work; Prof. J. Stanley Gardiner’s ‘‘The Fauna and Geography of the Maldive and Laccadive Archipelagoes’’; Hagen’s ** Atlas Stellarum Variabilium ’’; Hewitson’s ‘ Exotic Butterflies’ and ‘Illustrations of Diurnal Lepido- ptera”’; Leech’s ‘‘ Butterflies from China, Japan, and Corea’; and a set of ‘‘The British Bird Book,” edited by F. B. Kirkman. 37° NATURE | May 20, 1920 Our Astronomical Column. A Bricut Frirepatt.—A splendid meteor was seen on May 9, 9h. 1om. G.M.1., from Bristol, Cardiff, London, +Weston-super-Mare, and _ other places. Special interest attaches to the object, for it appears to have descended to very near the earth’s surface, if, indeed, it did not actually fall to the ground. ‘The meteor traversed a path of about 60 miles in 53 seconds, and fell from a height of 54 to 12 miles. Combustion occurred over Radnor Forest, and the meteor apparently disappeared over a point 10 miles east of Barmouth. If the object was enabled. to travel in a compact form about 15 miles further, it must have alighted on the ground in the region some ten miles south of Bangor, Carnarvonshire, but no intimation has yet been received that a meteorite has been found, or was seen to fall, there. CONJUNCTION OF MERCURY WITH ¢€ GEMINORUM.— Mr. A. Burnet, of Oxford University Observatory, makes a special study of occultations of stars by planets. He now points out a close approach of Mercury to the third-magnitude star e Geminorum on June 11. The position of the star is R.A. 6h. 39m. 1-73s., N. decl. 25° 12’ 33-8". Mercury is in the same R.A. at gh. 7m. G.M.T., 14” south. The semi-diameter and parallax are .2-9"” and 7-7", so that an occultation will not happen at any part of the earth. The hourly motion of Mercury is +19'4s., S.55°8”. Hence conjunction in declination occurs at 8h. 52m. Micrometer measures of the differences of R.A. and declination of planet and star will be of value, especially as Mercury is a difficult object to observe on the meridian. The sun sets in London at 8h. 14m., and Mercury at gh. 50m. The times throughout are given in G.M.T., not summer time. It is rather un- fortunate that the date coincides with that of the Royal Astronomical Society’s meeting, as that will prevent some astronomers from observing it. LONGITUDE BY WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY.—This sub- ject was discussed at the geophysical meeting at the Royal Astronomical Society on May 7. Prot. Samp- son, Astronomer-Royal for Scotland, pointed out that wireless telegraphy supplied the long-sought desidera- tum of signals that could be received simultaneously over the greater part of the earth’s surface; in the past eclipses of the moon or Jupiter’s satellites, lunar distances and occultations had been employed, but the new method gave far higher accuracy. He formulated a scheme in which three observatories at longitudes some 120° apart, or, if preferred, four observatories 90° apart, should each receive the signals of suitably placed wireless stations and note their local time in the usual manner by meridian observa- tions. The method would determine both the longi- tudes of the stations and the periodic errors in the assumed clock-star places, since different clock-stars would be on the meridian of each observatory at the time of each signal. No extreme accuracy is called for in the time of sending out the signal, since the method is wholly a differential one. Interchange of observers is not contemplated; this has hitherto been the practice in longitude determinations, but the new method contemplates using the ordinary observations with the standard instrument of each observatory for a considerable period. There will thus be several observers, and if the travelling-wire method is adopted very little error will be introduced by personal equa- tion. Plans are already far advanced for connecting Greenwich with Sydney in this manner. A demonstration was given of the method of record- ing the wireless signals on a chronograph by the use of a Fleming valve. The ticks of a chronometer, NO. 2638, VOL. 105 | transmitted by a microphone attached to the glass, were’ simultaneously recorded. ‘The chief difficulty was stated to be not the weakness of the transmitted wireless signal, but the frequent confusion produced by atmospherics. Periodicity in Weather and Crops, [? is generally understood that the principal source of terrestrial weather changes is to be found in solar radiation. Inasmuch, therefore, as the yield of crops depends very largely on the weather, it is quite natural to assume that any periodicity in the: solar radiation is likely to be reflected in the world- harvests and the price of food. Many investigations have had for their object the testing of a direct cor- relation between solar activity, as evidenced by sun- spots, and such terrestrial phenomena as the Indian monsoon in regard to drought and famine. The mechanism of world-weather is exceedingly complex, but progress is steadily being made in elucidating the cause of the numerous departures from obedience to any simple general law. The next step, after comparing terrestrial pheno- mena with the known sun-spot period, was to analyse various sets of data in search of unknown periodicities, — and Prof. Turner, for example, goes so far as to connect what he calls ‘‘chapters’’ of meteorological history with the movement of the earth’s pole that produces latitude variation. There is, however, one very great difficulty in fixing any period the physical basis of which is unknown, and that is the incom- mensurability of all the suggested periods with that of the earth’s revolution round the sun. It is obvious. that a dry period occurring exactly at sun-spot maxi- mum, for example, if such a phenorhenon should be persistent, and if, which is another difficulty, the sun-spot maximum were an exact predictable moment, would have a totally different influence on the har- vest according to the time of year at which the drought occurred. : different in different parts of the world, notably on the two sides of the equator. es On Wednesday, May 12, Sir William Beveridge, Director of the London School of Economics and Political Science, delivered a lecture on the subject of a hitherto unrecognised periodicity in the weather and the crops. From the Times report of the lecture we gather that he rather discredits the ‘‘sun-spot”’’ in- fluence, at least in the form advanced by Prof. Jevons nearly half a century ago, and produces ostensibly consistent evidence in favour of a period of 15% years during the past three centuries. The argument rests upon historic records of poor harvests, of Indian famines, of tropical droughts and equally disastrous wet summers in higher latitudes, and also to a great extent upon official statistics of food prices. There is no indication in the report that attention was paid to such obvious matters as war and plague, ~ which would have an enormous effect on prices. The meteorologists of the next century will not, we hope, attribute the high prices under which we are now suffering to a periodic meteorological influence. Sir William Beveridge has succeeded in setting forth a list of dates at approximately equal intervals, and claims that every one corresponds to a period of high prices. .He admits that there were other times of similar conditions not belonging to the series he claims to have discovered, and he also allows an occasional uncertainty of something less than five years, but he warns us to expect most unseasonable weather, bad harvests, and high prices, with possible famines, in one or more of the years 1924, 1925, and 1926. The effect would also be quite | May 20, 1920] NATURE 371 rom the summary of the evidence produced it is possible to extract some comfort. Sir William eridge’s appeal to the barometer makes it clear - he regards a low mean annual pressure as a ct indication of bad harvests, and points to. the 1878, 1893, and 1909 as the three years of est pressure in a forty-year period over the greater the habitable globe. It is, on the face of it, ally impossible that the pressure over the whole : ild vary from year to year; so perhaps we to assume a higher selective pressure over the m areas in such years.. In any event, we were y fortunate in this country in 1893 with a glorious mer, shared also by France, in spite of the world- conditions. There is another aspect which must not | Acting and that is the physical basis on which the period depends. The lecturer contented himself with suggestions of a.combination of periods of shorter length, hinting that 15} years is a sort of least common multiple of two or more of these. The actual figures given are, however, singularly uncon- -vincing. Sir William Beveridge mentions a meteoro- logical period of just over five years, without any de in support of it, and couples this with ‘the m 2}-year cycle.’’ Is this a period in itself, or is it merely one of the harmonics of the 11-year _ sun-spot period? He says eleven of these make two of his | ae 154-year periods; so if the 23-year period is ‘“important,’’ his new one should be 303 years. What is apparently important, as we remarked before, is the 12-month period, and this would indicate _ 46 years as a super-period, but there is no indication of any specially bad harvests at every third period in his table. _ Sir William Beveridge’s forecast for 1924-5-6 is _ given with some diffidence, showing that he is not too confident of the reality of the period, and it is not likely that he has made much impression on the _ devotees of the sun-spot period, which has. been _ elaimed to show direct correlation with such different _ phenomena as the price of wheat and the number of fellows of the Royal Astronomical Society. _ One last question we might raise is: Does fine weather necessarily mean lower food prices, con- _ sidered in the light of the suggestion that strikes and _ labour unrest are generally regarded as fine-weather _ phenomena ? W. W. B. The National Food Supply. IR DANIEL HALL, in the first of his three recent | Chadwick public lectures on “Gardening and Food Production,’ dealt with the national food supply _ and the possibility of self-support. According to the _ values obtained by a committee of the Royal Society _ for the five-year period prior to the war, only 42 per cent. of the total food supply consumed in the United _ Kingdom was produced at home. At the beginning _ of the nineteenth century the country was practically _ self-supporting, but since that time the population has pre increased, while the productivity has decreased. _ In 1872 there were 14 million acres under the plough in England and Wales, but by 1914 nearly 4 million acres of this land had been put down to grass. Grass land is comparatively unproductive of food as com- ee with arable land, for, according to Sir Thomas iddleton’s calculation, 100 acres of arable land in _ this country normally produce food that will main- tain eighty-four persons, whereas the same Ioo acres _ under grass will maintain only fifteen to twenty per- sons. The great difficulty is that arable land requires much more labour than grass land, and farmers naturally refrain from ploughing up their land when NO. 2638, VOL. 105 | the cost of labour has risen very much more than have the prices of the produce. In 1917-18 another 2} million acres were added to the acreage already under the plough, but the food crisis is not yet over. It is essential that we should increase our productivity, and to attain this end we must agree to pay the prices ne- cessary to. make arable farming reasonably profitable to the farmer. Moreover, the population will have to change its habits and eat more bread, potatoes, etc., than meat, while pork will have increasingly to re- place the more expensive animal foods. The second lecture was concerned with the develop- ment and uses of allotments. The history of allot- ments appears to go back to a very early date; for from the time of Henry III. onwards there are statutes dealing with pieces of cultivated land of the allotment type. The first period of active growth of the allotment scheme was in the nineteenth century, when the industrial system and the large towns developed. A noteworthy example is the still flourish- ing group of allotments started by the late Sir John Lawes on his Rothamsted estate, in connection with which a club-house for the use of the allotment- holders was built as early as 1857. Without doubt the greatest extension of the allotment movement occurred during the years 1916 onwards, when the country was threatened with a serious food shortage. At the present time it is estimated that about one million allotments are in use. The typical allotment of one- sixteenth of an acre is rarely capable of providing all the potatoes and vegetables needed by an ordinary small household, but when a million of such allot- ments are considered, it is clear that they do bring about a marked saving in the national food bill. Unfortunately, the typical allotment is not always cropped to the best advantage, but it is hoped that this will be improved through the publication of a detailed scheme for allotments by the Ministry of Agriculture. In dealing with fertilisers the lecturer pointed out that many allotments are deficient in’ humus, and must be supplied with stable manure in addition to artificial fertilisers. Town-dwellers are faced with further difficulties over the tenure of their allotments, but it is hoped that all building schemes in the future will provide for a reasonable amount of allotment land. “Social and Hygienic Conditions Respecting Gardens and Allotments ’’ provided the subject for the third of Sir Daniel Hall’s lectures. Under this heading was discussed the extreme importance of “*vitamines,’’ of which three at least have been found to be present in food. These vitamines occur mostly in living plants, although they are found also ‘in certain animal foods. They are essential for the healthy development of human beings. In this con- nection appears cne of the great values of allot- ments, for by their means a large number of people are provided with fresh vegetables containing the all- important vitamines, without which various diseases are liable to occur. The lecturer next dealt with the social value of allotments. Passive amusements, such as picture palaces, etc., fail to satisfy completely one’s need for amusement, but there is enormous satisfac- tion in growing things; moreover, some of our best varieties of flowers and vegetables are the result of the efforts of working-men, who found much_ to interest them in the allotments which provided a welcome diversion from work that was often mono- tonous and carried out under unpromising conditions. The growth of the allotment movement will surely put men on a sounder economic basis, in addition to providing an active interest in life and to ensuring the better health of their families. RY NATURE [May 20, 1920 The Research Associations. OTHING could be more satisfactory than the account that Dr. A. W. Crossley gave on Friday last to the Conference of Research Associations of the constitution and methods of the British Cotton Industry Research Association, of which he is director. It embraces every activity that contributes to the production and utilisation of cotton, and represents more than 95 per cent. of the firms engaged inthe industry. Among its members are some of the Labour leaders, and these take the keenest interest in its work. It aims to obtain, in the first place, more exact knowledge of the chemical and physical pro- perties of the fibre and the scientific facts which lie at the base of the processes employed; for it is con- sidered that it is only in this way that the true solu- tion of the problems which present themselves can be assured. It is to be hoped that the same broad and scientific spirit may animate all the associations that have been formed under the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research. It appeared to be generally agreed that one of the most important conditions of the success of the move- ment was its close association with the universities and colleges where scientific research has hitherto been mainly carried out. It is to them that research asso- ciations and the research departments of private firms must look for their supply of science workers, and it is obviously important that those who are engaged in preparing men and women for the task of indus- trial research should be acquainted with the lines on which it is carried on. It is for this reason to be desired that the scientific staffs of these institutions should take their share in the technical research required by our industries, and it is a matter of con- gratulation that the Imperial College of Science and Technology has already led the way in this direction. Lord Crewe, who presided, referred in this. connection to the ‘industrial fellowships ’’ established at Pitts- burgh and elsewhere in the United States to facilitate the investigation of technical problems. The work is carried out in close co-operation with the universi- ties, and at the joint expense of the manufacturers concerned and of the endowment. The question of the publication of the results of industrial research presents serious difficulties. As Dr. Crossley remarked, those employed upon it must keep in close touch with those engaged in pure re- search, on whose conclusions their work is based, but they cannot be always taking without giving something in return. He urged that a large propor- tion of the work carried out should ultimately be published even if for commercial reasons it had to be held back for several years;.and Dr. Lawrence Balls reminded the conference that the stimulus of the prospect of future publication was required to secure the accurate record of the data obtained in the course of a research. Not less important are the closely allied questions of the remuneration and superannuation of the scientific workers employed by the associations. This was discussed by Mr. J. W. Williamson in an in- teresting paper. He came to the conclusion that under present conditions 4ool. per annum is the mini- mum that should be offered to a science graduate who has already had two or three years’ training in re- search. He pointed out that a post under a research association did not afford the same securitv of tenure as one at a university. The desirability of extending to the staffs of research associations the federated superannuation system for universities was acknow- ledged on all sides. J]. W. E No. 2638, vor. 105 | Solid Lubricants. | Atiteven the report of the Lubrication Com- mittee has not yet been issued, a ‘‘ Memorand on Solid Lubricants,’’ prepared for the Committee by one of its members, Mr. T. C. Thomsen, has recently been published (Bulletin No. 4 of. the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research Advisory Council). This pamphlet of twenty-eight pages contains a digest of the existing knowledge in this branch of the sub- ject, and will be found most useful to all engineers and users of machinery. The solid lubricants referred to are natural and artificial graphite (which are by far the most important), talc, mica, and such sub- stances as flowers of sulphur, white lead, etc., whfch are occasionally used for curing hot bearings. greater part of the bulletin is concerned with graphite, and although there is not much matter which is new, there is a great deal of information which will be of interest to many users of lubricants. The action of solid lubricants and the conditions under which they can be usefully employed are clearly explained. The natural graphite used for lubrication is usually ~ of the flake variety, and varies in the size of its particles from 1/10 in. to less than 1/200 in. lubricating graphite produced artificially is amorphous. It is ground even finer than the natural sah and by chemical treatment is further reduced to particles of colloidal dimensions and sold under the trade- names of ‘‘ Aquadag’’ and “ Hydrosol’’ when in ad- mixture with water, and ‘‘Oildag,”’ ‘“ Oleosol,” and ‘Kollag ’? when in admixture with oil. Analyses of the different varieties of lubricating given in the pamphlet, and it is seen that some are almost chemically pure carbon, whilst others contain — mineral matter in variable proportion. Solid lubricants — are applied dry in cases where for special reasons it is inadvisable or impossible to use liquid or semi- solid lubricants, but they are usually employed in admixture with oil or as an ingredient of greases. When mixed with oil ordinary graphite settles out, owing to its high specific gravity. Colloidal graphite does not © settle so long as the vehicle remains neutral, and is carried with oil through the finest orifices, even through worsted trimmings, but it has the disadvantage of being easily caused to coagulate in presence of acid or alkali. “Oildag’’ and ‘‘Aquadag”’ have been on the market for a number of years, and the experiences of users of these and other forms of graphite which Mr. Thomsen has collected for general information will be found of considerable value. Perhaps the most interesting experience is that of Mr. E. W. Johnston, who has successfully employed “ Aquadag” as a cylinder lubricant and eliminated all the trouble caused by the presence of oil im condensed steam. Experiments made at the National Physical Labora- tory showed that the addition of “ Oildag ”’ to mineral lubricating oi! was advantageous where solid friction occurred, as in worm gear, but quite as good results were obtained with natural flake graphite, so that the lubricating value of graphite seems to depend upon its chemical purity, and the special advantage of the colloidal graphite is due to its property of remaining naturally suspended in the liquid medium without requiring to be stirred constantly bv artificial means. The remarks on the use of graphite in internal- combustion engines, in the lubrication of ropes and chains, and in metal-cutting and wire-drawing will be found of great interest and practical use. All who are interested in lubricants should obtain a copy of this pamphlet, which can be purchase through any bookseller for sixpence. L. A. The raphites are © The | “May 20, 1920] NATURE 373° originally a department of Greek philosophy. _ divorce between our science and philosophy had many advantages, but also some drawbacks. portant difference between Greek and modern science is to be found in the method of record. The Greeks exception in this respect. a} NTIL 1908 the life-history of the common peri- that year Dr. ee Oe ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee a a re “tin” hat, the eggs occupying the crown. Greek Science and Philosophy. his inaugural address as lecturer in the history “medicine at University College, London. Sir pert Hadfield presided over a large and distin- hed audience. After alluding to the neglect of the ory of science in this country, Dr. Singer referred the organised effort now being made by Dr. Wolf i others to remedy it at University College. The in- ution in which Augustus De Morgan spent the le of his active life was a peculiarly appropriate » for such an experiment. The history of science was a necessary element in any curriculum that sought © give a view of the mental history of the human race. Turning to the various stages through which ‘science has passed, Dr. Singer made some interesting comparisons between the science of the ancient Easi, the science of Greece, and modern science. Among the characteristics which distinguished Greek science _ from Oriental science and allied it to ours were the individuality and eponymity of its discoveries, as dis- : Soe sedi from the anonymous thought of preceding ea) ‘than as an individual product. Another and more im- portant feature of Greek thought was the conviction of the reign of law, the idea that order rules in tions, which always appeared as a social rather re. is belief, almost an article of faith with _ the Greeks, has been justified more and more with _ the advance of natural knowledge. hand, Greek science differed from ours in various ‘ways. The most obvious difference was the intimate On the other relation between Greek: science and Greek philosophy. This was due to the fact that Greek science moe e Another im- were interested in results rather than in methods, and almost always neglected to give an account of their methods. As a consequence, their results cannot be relied upon, and, except by hard research, we can get no glimpse of their methods of working. The mathematical group of sciences, however, formed an In these the Greeks re- corded their methods as well as their results. _ Life-history of the Periwinkle. ~winkle, Littorina littorea, L., was unknown. In W. M. Tattersall published a brief announcement of some investigations made that included the discovery of its ova. He reserved a more sd account until further observations and re- ‘searches could be carried out, but this proved im- practicable, and Dr. Tattersall has now issued the notes of his work so far as it went (Department of Agriculture and Technical Instruction for Ireland . veries Branch), Scientific Investigations, 1920, ‘Oo. I, pp. 11, 1 plate), being largely instigated thereto by the publication in 1911 of a paper on the ‘same subject by MM. Caullery and Pelseneer. From Dr. Tattersall’s account it appears that the breeding season lasts from the middle of January to June, and the pink eggs are enclosed singly or in pairs (some- times three and exceptionally four) in small, curiously shaped, transparent capsules resembling a_ soldier’s These les are unattached, and vary from 0-6 to og mm. in diameter, the eggs being from or5 to 0-16 mm, NO. 2638, VOL. 105] N Wednesday, May 12, Dr. C. Singer delivered ) Segmentation is completed during the first day, and at the third day the circumoral ring of cilia is complete and the embryo begins to rotate. At the sixth day the embryo breaks out from the capsule and swims freely about in the water. The chief food of Littorina littorea appears to be the hyphal hairs of Fucus ser- ratus and allied seaweeds, and the animal swallows indiscriminately the diatoms and other microscopic organisms clinging to the seaweed. The climbing habits of these molluscs suggested to the author the possibility of establishing ‘‘farms’’ for their more easy collection for the market. Experiments were made by erecting stakes in their intertidal haunts, but, though the snails of all ages would ascend, they seemed incapable of retaining their hold save in calm weather, hence the farming had to be abandoned. In conclusion, the author advocates the grading of the winkles into sizes before dispatching them to market, using two sieves of 2 in. and § in. respectively, and rejecting all that pass through the smaller as un- marketable. The Royal Society Conversazione. HE first of the two annual conversaziones of the Royal Society was held at Burlington House on Wednesday, May 12, when the president, Sir Joseph Thomson, received a large company of fellows of the society and other workers of distinction in the scientific world. As is usual upon such occasions, many exhibits of recent methods and results of in- vestigation were displayed, and much interest was taken in them. Mr. A. A. Campbell Swinton gave a most successful demonstration and exposition of wireless telephony with apparatus supplied by the Marconi Wireless Telegraph Co., Ltd. Gramophone records and musical instruments played at the com- pany’s works at Chelmsford were loudly reproduced in the meeting-room of the society. The apparatus used consisted of an amplifying detector and note magnifier, to which was connected a loud-speaking telephone enabling speech to be heard distinctly over the whole ground floor. The aerial consisted simply of a frame 3 ft. square, wound with a few turns of wire, and placed on the lecture-table in the meeting- room. The subjoined descriptions of most of the ex- hibits, arranged so far as possible in related subjects from man to machine, are abridged from the official catalogue :— Mr. M. C. Burkitt: (1) Tracings of prehistoric rock engravings from the shores of Lake Onega, North Russia, the only site in Russia west of the Urals where prehistoric engravings occur. (2) Palzolithic stone implements from North Africa, showing that there is a series comparable in general form with the regular sequence in France and Britain. Mr. S. H. Warren: Specimens from a factory of Neolithic stone axes at Graig-lwyd, Penmaenmawr. The axes were made from the scree which fell down the mountain-side from a line of crags formed of. the fine-grained (chilled) margin of the Penmaenmawr intrusion. Axes are found in every stage of manu- facture, discarded on account of breakage or unsatis- factory shape, the most freauent fault being excessive thickness of blade. Palzolithic resemblances are abundant and striking. Mr. L. Treacher: A large Palzolithic implement from the Gravel at Furze Platt, near Maidenhead. The gravel in which this implement was found has also vielded a verv large number of palzoliths, mostly belonging to the Chellean type, although a few Mous- terian flakes have been found. The surface level is 374 NATURE [May 20, 1920 about 140 O.D.,- being 20 ft. lower than that of the Boyn Hill terrace in the neighbourhood. Mr. Herbert Bolton: Enlarged photographs of fossil insects from the British Coal Measures. ‘The first recorded fossil palzeozoic insect from any country was discovered in the Coal Measures of Coalbrookdale in the early part of last century. In 1908 only twelve additional types from Great Britain had been made known. Mr. Bolton’s researches during the last ten years have revealed the fact that at least fifty dis- tinct types had lain unrecognised in various museums and private collections. ‘The photographs exhibited were made by Mr. J. W. Tutcher. Dr..W. K. Spencer: Paleozoic starfish and their habits. Recent work by the Danish Fisheries Board upon the habits of recent forms throws considerable light on the mode of life of the fossil starfish. Recent starfish can be divided into (1) starfish, carnivores, and (2) brittle starfish, detritus feeders living on vege- table remains in the mud on the sea-bottom or on very young marine animals. Both these series of forms are modified for their respective mode of life. The exhibit showed that both classes of forms were present in the palzozoic rocks, and that some of the forms from the very old rocks were strikingly similar in mode of life to those of the present day. Forms which are transitional in structure between the two series were also shown. Dr. F,. A. Bather: Stalked Echinoderms with a horizontal habit of growth. In a normal stalked Echinoderm the stalk, body, and five arms are sym- metrical about the long axis, which is vertical, and the waste products are carried away from the vent at the upper. end. But all the Cystids found in the Upper Ordovician starfish bed of Girvan, Ayrshire, have a body. flattened in the plane of the stalk, and this shows that the long axis was stretched hori- zontally. Extreme modification for this mode of life is reached in three different ways by three genera of diverse origin: Dendrocystis, which floated, with its stalk attached probably to seaweed; Pleurocystis, which was possibly attached, but rested its body on the sea-floor; and Cothurnocystis, probably free, with its body resting on the sand by short legs. Cothurno- cystis had no arms, but from thirteen to forty-two mouth-slits. Mr. R. D. Oldham: Model to illustrate an hypo- thesis of the origin of mountains. If the variation in density, and consequently in bulk, of the matter underlying mountain ranges is also the cause of the surface elevation, and if the outer crust is possessed of a considerable degree of strength and _ stiffness, resting on material of a more yielding character, sys- tematic departures from complete equivalence of sur- face elevation and compensation would result. The model is intended to visualise this. Mr. A. V. Hill: Thermopiles for investigating the thermal or the thermo-elastic properties of muscles. When a muscle is stimulated, heat is produced in four separate stages: (a) in the development, (b) in the maintenance and (c) in the disappearance of the mechanical. response, and (d) in the processes of oxidative recovery. This heat-production is recorded by employing delicate insulated thermopiles and a sensitive galvanometer' with photographic recording. Prof. E. Mellanby: The effect of an accessory food factor (vitamine) on: (1) The production of rickets in puppies. Soft bones and other signs of rickets are produced in puppies (five to eight weeks. old) when fed on diets unbalanced in that they contain too little of an accessory food factor (vitamine)— probably. fat-soluble A. (2) The development of the teeth in puppies. Diets deficient in a vitamine, possibly fat-soluble A, produce teeth defectively cal- NO. 2638, VOL. 105 | cified and more or less irregularly placed in soft jaws. . Mr. Julian Huxley and. Mr. Lancelot T. Hogben: The relation of the thyroid to metamorphosis. The exhibits illustrated (1) acceleration of frog’s meta- morphosis by thyroid-feeding; (2) hi changes in the axolotl induced by 4 (3) metamorphosis of Amblystoma by thyroid-feeding with a control. | eae Prof. R. Newstead: Samples of mite-infested flour. Flour which is heavily invested with mutes (chiefly Aleurobius farinae) is certainly ruined. !¢ has a most unpleasant odour, and in the early stages becomes discoloured owing to the quantities of excrement with which it is charged. Prevention from attack may be secured by storing flour with a low moisture content, i.e. below 11 per cent. in the temperate zone and from 6-7 per cent. in the tropics. tages 1, Prefs Gyo Nuttall and) Dr. D. Keilin: Hermaphroditism in Pediculus humanus. ‘The microscopic specimens illustrated hermaphrodites of intersexual type and included a complete series of forms from those of male type to those of female type, the co-existing characters of both sexes being present to a varying degree. The intersexual forms which occur among Pediculi in Nature are derived — from the crossing of the races of P. humanus, i.e. capitis and corporis. Some of these crosses yield up to 20 per cent. of hermaphrodites. — ' Mr. J. E. Barnard: Photcmicrographs obtained by means of ultra-violet light. It is well known that resolving power in the microscope is. dependent on the N.A. of the objective and the wave-length of the light used. Decrease of wave-length results in pro- portionate increase of resolution, and this method opens up a promising field of investigation. There is the further advantage that biological preparations, particularly bacteria and other micro-organisms, are sufficiently opaque to ultra-violet light of suitable wave-length to render staining unnecessary. The result is that they can be photographed in the living state. Dr. J. C. Mottram and Dr. E. A. Cockayne: Demonstration of fluorescence in Lepidoptera by ultra-violet radiation. is produced by means of a quartz mercury vapour lamp in a box with a window of the glass invented by Prof. Wood. This is transparent to radiation of wave-lengths lying between 3900 and 3100 A.V., but opaque to light. Only a small proportion of the Lepidoptera examined have proved to be fluorescent, and all of these are whitish or yellow in colour. The Botany Department, Imperial College of Science and Technology: Recording porometer. This instrument records the rate at which air, under slightly reduced pressure, is drawn through the stomata (pores) into a glass cup fixed on the under-surface of the leaf. It thus gives a measure of the size of these pores. Every time a bubble of the air so drawn in escapes from the lower tube it momentarily makes contact between the mercury and a platinum wire; the current passing then moves the recording pen on the surface of the revolving drum. The Cambridge and Paul Instrument Co., Ltd.: A new microtome. This instrument is designed on similar lines to the well-known Cambridge ‘rocking ” microtome, but the object is in a much more con- venient position for observation and orientation, and the microtome cuts plane sections in either paraffin or celloidin, and the design is suitable for freezing obiects by ethyl chloride spray. The Roval Geographical Society: mounting panoramic views of wide angle. A photo- graphic panorama of wide angle, made up from a - number of separate pictures, gives a false impression . The beam of ultra-violet rays Method of. 375 _ of the country if shown flat. The pictures should be - enle to an equivalent focal length greater than e distance of distinct vision, and mounted in a _ polygon circumscribing a circle of radius equal to the ocal length. _ The Meteorological Office: New instruments and : s: (1) Land aneroid and sea aneroid. Barometer with micrometric adjustment. (3) Two ar synchronous charts and the weather of the owing fifteen days. (4) Normal weather on the oF: to Cape route. (5) Charts of the average dis- tribution of rainfall, cloudiness, and temperature over the northern and southern hemispheres in January _ and July. (6) Map of the annual rainfall in the _ English Lake District. (7) Records of the magnetic _ disturbance of March. 23-24, 1920, and photographs of aurora for height-mezsurements. (8) Frequency of _. thunderstorms on the route between England and _ Australia and at selected stations in Africa and South America. (9) The flow of air over Kew Observatory, Richmond, during the last three years, Air Ministry Laboratory: Apparatus for air naviga- tion. (1) Four alternative methods for the quick solution of spherical triangles necessary for the ob- taining of position lines from astronomical observa- tions taken from aircraft: (a) The d’Ocagne nomo- ram. (b) A slide-rule based thereon. (c) The Veater Gaeta. (d) The Bygrave slide-rule. (2) Wimperis _ wind-gauge bearing plate, to enable the velocity and _ direction of the wind to be measured whilst in flight, (i) by flying on two courses and noting the drift angles, and (ii) by flying on one course and using a chronometer. (3) Capt. Weir’s (Littrow projection) diagram applied to the purpose of obtaining position lines from W/T bearings. The Admiralty Compass Department: (1) Two __ standard types of aircraft compasses. (2) Examples of _ aperiodic compasses for use in ships and aircraft. ‘he aperiodic system adopted in these compasses is a result of the investigations of Mr. G. T. Bennett and the late Lt.-Comdr. C. Campbell. Mr. E. A. Reeves: Apparatus for showing the exist- ence of a true north and south directive force in the electricity of the atmosphere. ‘This apparatus con- sists of a large glass bottle with an india-rubber stopper, from which is suspended by a fibre of un- spun silk a gold-leaf paper indicator. The inner side of the stopper is covered with paraffin wax, and the bottle is coated inside and out with shellac varnish. The whole is mounted on a tripod stand. On a calm, clear day, when the apparatus is set up in a high open space and screened from the direct rays of the sun, it is found that after the paper is electrified by touching it with vulcanite rubbed on dry cloth, and left for some time, it will oscillate about evenly on either side of the true north and south line, or come to rest approximately in that direction. - Mr. C. V. Boys: (1) Noon reflector. The noon reflector is a very simple form of transit instrument intended to be set on a window-sill facing south and producing a pinhole-reflected image of the sun on the ceiling or opposite wall, from which the time may be obtained with an accuracy of about one second. (2) Azimuth declination time-chart. The azimuth declination time-chart is a graphic representation of the hour angle of the sun for all declinations at a particular latitude and azimuth from which the hour angle may be read with an accuracy of one-tenth of a second of time. This is for use with the noon reflector when set at some azimuth other than south. The National Physical Laboratory: Oriented lustre of etched crystalline surfaces. The etched crystalline surface of metal is covered with a number of minute plane facets the orientation of which is uniform throughout each individual crystal, but varies from NO. 2638, VOL. 105 ‘ NATURE one crystal to the next. A beam of oblique light fall- ing on such a surface is selectively reflected by these facets in such a way that the area of certain crystals appears uniformly and brightly illuminated, while other crystals remain dark. By illuminating such a surface by means of three separate beams of coloured light falling upon the crystals at various angles of incidence a striking effect is produced. Each crystal reflects into the eye of the observer a portion of one of the beams falling upon it at a suitable angle, and the various crystals consequently appear of different colours (Dr. W. Rosenhain and Mr. J. H. Haughton). Messrs. Adam Hilger, Ltd.: Vacuum grating spectrograph for the extreme ultra-violet. A concave | grating spectrograph, specially designed for the investigation of the Schumann and Lyman regions of the spectrum. No refraetive substance (e.g. quartz or fluorite) is introduced, but the whole spec- trum is obtained with one setting of the grating by the use of two slits. These are disposed in the end plate of the instrument, just above the plate-holder, which is cylindrical in form and provided with a plate for sealing purposes, The Osmosis Co., Ltd.: Clays treated by electro- osmosis: Photomicrographs and specimens of articles made with osmosed clay. The phenomena of elec- trical osmosis, whereby matter in a very finely divided state is capable of being influenced by an electrical potential, have an important practical use in the puri- fication of clays. | Low-grade and discoloured china clays become usable as paper clays and pottery clays, and all china clays are improved in colour as a result of treatment. Messrs. J. Crosfield and Sons, Ltd.: Synthetic pro- ducts for perfumery. Synthetic perfumes of British manufacture were shown, most of which were for- merly produced entirely in foreign countries. The manufacture was undertaken owing to the difficulty, in some cases impossibility, of obtaining such products during the war. Mr. A. Mallock: Apparatus used in the determina- tion of the variation of rigidity with temperature. The specimen to be tested forms part of a torsion balance, in which the restitutive couple is supplied by the torsion of a long thin wire, together with that of the specimen, the latter being in the form of a short wire or narrow strip about 2 in. long. The specimen and lower part of the balance can be immersed in a tube of fluid kept at any desired temperature. The periods of oscillation are automatically recorded for various temperatures, and the ratio of these periods furnishes the necessary data for determining the ratio of the rigidities. In making an experiment the oscil- lations are maintained continuously, the specimen being immersed successively in water at 100°, at room-temperature, in carbonic acid, in alcohol, and in liquid air. Mr. C. R. Gibson for Mr. Joseph Goold: Experi- ments in rotational dynamics. The exhibit illustrated is a new development of Mr. Goold’s earlier experi- ments in vibrating bars, the most remarkable of these being the vortex phenomenon demonstrated about a quarter of a century ago. The new experiments showed a rotational effect which is independent of the vortex phenomenon. A light clamp is fitted across the steel bar carrving an upright needle or rod. upon the free end of which is supported a light metal vane or “‘spinner.’? On setting the plate in vibration the spinner rotates with considerable energy. This rota- tion results from the interplay of two systems of vibra- tion acting at right angles to each other. The fol- lowing explanation is suggested by Mr. Gibson, who gave the demonstration: In one of the systems the bar vibrates between nodal lines which cross the width of the bar; this is termed a normal system. 376 NATURE In the other system of vibration the bar has a nodal line running along the longitudinal centre of the bar, while cross-nodes are also present; this class of vibra- tion is termed a dual system. may picture the sections of the bar on opposite sides of the central line to be out of phase with each other, so that one section is going upwards at the moment the other section is going downwards. This will give a slight rocking motion to the clamp, causing the free end of the needle to move to and fro in direction across the bar. Similarly, the bar is vibrating between the cross-nodes, so we may picture the sections divided by these to be upwards on one side of the cross-node and downwards on the other, thus giving a rocking motion to the needle in a direction lengthwise with the bar. These two motions (dual) combine to give the free end of the needle an elliptical motion; hence the rotation of the spinner. The Hon. Sir Charles Parsons: Water-hammer cone demonstrating the destructive effect of col- lapsing vortex cavities. The apparatus consists of a hollow cone. At the small end is fitted a die-cap through which passes a hole of the same diameter as the small end of the cone. _ Between this cap and the cone thin metal plates are inserted. The cone is placed in water in the tank, allowed to fill with water, and then thrust quickly downwards, its mouth striking on to a rubber block at the bottom. The sudden arrest by the rubber block gives a high rate of relative acceleration of the water in the cone, pro- ducing momentarily a cavity at the apex, which, how- ever, immediately closes again with a_ perceptible metallic hammering sound, and with sufficient pres- sure, due to the concentrated energy ofthe closing cavity at the apex, to puncture metal plates above .0-03 in. in thickness, indicating a pressure of 140 tons per square inch. Mr. Edwin Edser: The concentration of minerals and coal by froth flotation. Many valuable minerals, particularly metallic sulphides, can be concentrated from low-grade ores by crushing these to a fine powder, mixing them with water, adding a small quantity of a suitable reagent, and agitating the mix- ture so that air is entrained in the form of fine bubbles. On allowing the mixture to come to rest, the bubbles carrying the mineral particles rise to the surface, and find a mineralised froth which can be removed. The barren rock (gangue) is not floated. Demonstrations were given of (1) the recovery of galena (lead sulphide) and blende (zinc sulphide) as separate products from Broken Hill ore; (2) the recovery of coal from waste dumps. Sir Robert Robertson: Instrument for determining the pressure developed by detonators by Hopkinson’s oo This instrument, which was designed by r. H. Quinney at the Research Department, Wool- wich, illustrated the quantitative measurement of the pressure of the blow delivered by a detonator accord- ing to the principle enunciated by Hopkinson. This principle depends on the separation of momentum into pressure and time. When the blow is applied to one end of a steel bar, a short length of the bar, attached by means of a faced joint to the other end, is thrown off as a result of the application of the pressure of the blow. The momentum of this short length (the ‘‘ timepiece ’’) is measured by catching it-up in a ball- istic pendulum. As the rate of transmission of the im- pulse in steel is known, the time taken for the pres- sure-wave to pass twice the length of the ‘timepiece ”’ is also known, and so the pressure can be deduced. Prof. F. W. Burstall: Optic indicator for internal- combustion engines. An instrument for obtaining the power and the pressure in internal-combustion engines. The objects aimed at are to obtain accurate readings of the pressures up to 600 lb. per square inch and speeds up to 2500 revolutions per minute. NO. 2638, VOL. 105 | In the latter we [May 20, 1920 University and Educational Intelligence. CaMBRIDGE.—Mr. E, A. Milne, fellow of Trinity College, has been appointed assistant-director of the Solar Physics Observatory. The new professorship of physical chemistry is declared vacant. It is proposed to make it possible for students to take the first M.B. examination before coming into residence on account of the greater facilities now provided in schools for the teaching of chemistry, physics, and biology. The discussion on the syndicate’s report on the relation of women to the University is fixed for ‘October 14. The Local Lectures Summer Meeting will be held from. July 29 to August 18. The main subject of study will be the history, literature, and art of Spain, but courses in physical science (historical and biographical) and in elementary astronomy are being arranged in co-operation with the Association of Science Teachers. Further information can be ob- tained from the Rev. Dr. Cranage, Syndicate Buildings, Cambridge. ales LiverPpoot.—Dr. Charles Walker has been ap- pointed associate-professor in cytology and lecturer in histology. Mr. J. Wemyss Anderson, dean of the faculty of engineering, and associate-professor of engineering in the University, has been appointed to the recently established John William Hughes chair of engineering- refrigeration. Messrs. Alfred Holt and Co., Ltd., of Liverpool, have contributed 15,o00l. to the University Appeal Fund. The Association of West African Merchants and the African Section of the Chamber of Commerce, Liverpool, have decided to raise 12,0001. by voluntary contributions from their members to provide a chair of Colonial commerce, administration, and history at the University and to increase the endowments of the School of Tropical Medicine. : Lonpon.—The following courses of advanced lec-. tures will begin shortly:—Three lectures on ‘“ The Early Civilisation of Malta,’ by Prof. Th. Zammit (of the University of Malta), at University College, at 5.30 p.m., on May 20, 27, and 28; four public lectures on ‘‘ High-frequency Alternators for Radio- Telegraphy,’’ at the Institution of Civil Engineers, S.W.1, by M. Marius Latour (of Paris), at 5.30 p.m., on May 26, 27, 28, and 31; and four lectures (in French) on ‘‘ Divers Modes de Dynamisme des Erup- tions Volcaniques et les Phénoménes de Latéritisa- tion,” at the Imperial College (Royal School of Mines), by Prof. A. Lacroix, at 5 p.m., on June 14, 15, 16, and 17. Admission to the courses is free, without ticket. ANNOUNCEMENT is made of the impending retirement of Mr. T. P. Gill, who has been Secretary of the Department of Agriculture and Technical Instruction for Ireland since it was established. Tue Regional Association, in co-operation with the ‘Civic Education League, proposes to hold a meeting at Glastonbury from August 21 to September 11. The purpose of the meeting will be (1) to make a regional survey, rural and civic, of Glastonbury and its surroundings, and (2) to proceed, from the material so obtained, to a critical study of social life and institutions. Particulars may be obtained from Mrs. Fraser-Davis, hon. secretary of the Regional Associa- tion. 1a Lancaster Place, Belsize. Place, 65 Belgrave Road, S.W.z1. N.W:3, or . —— -— eae oe May 20, 1920] ay NATURE 377 _ Tue Sorby research fellowship has been awarded to Dr. F. C.- Thompson, of the department of applied ences of the University of Sheffield, for research | the constitution of the alloy steels. The fellow- , Which is tenable for five years, is awarded by a mittee appointed by the council of the Royal ety and the University of Sheffield from a fund gueathed by the late Dr.-H. C. . Sorby. Thompson holds the degrees of Doctor of Metal- jy (Sheffield) and Bachelor of Science (London). e was a Carnegie research scholar of the Iron and eel Institute, is a member of many rned with physical and metallurgical matters, and s published a number of papers on metallography allied subjects. Tue Dr. Jessie Macgregor prize for medical science, of the Royal College of Physicians, Edinburgh, is to be awarded in July to the applicant who presents the best record of original work in the science of medi- cine, published or unpublished, but must not have 2n published earlier than three years prior to the date of award of the prize. The prize, which is of the value of 75]., is open to women medical graduates of _ the University of Edinburgh, or to those who have _ taken the triple qualification and before being qualified _ studied medicine for at least a year in Edinburgh. Ap- _ plications for the prize, with a record of the work of _ the competitor, must be sent to reach the Convener of _ the Trustees, Royal College of Physicians, Edinburgh, by, at latest, June 1. ; Tue Bureau of Education in India has issued a . aly we by Mr. R. K. Sorabji entitled ‘‘ Facilities _ for Indian Students in America and Japan.’’ Mr. _ Sorabji warns students that it is unwise for anyone to visit the United States on an allowance of 50 or _ 60 rupees per mensem, even though the student may _ make some money in the vacations; he requires from 1501. to 200l. a year, of which he may earn 50l. The facilities for technical education and the cheapness of it may attract the student to Japan, but the candi- dates for admission to the colleges exceed the accom. modation, and when a system of competitive examina- tion is introduced, the youth trained in a Japanese thool possesses greater advantages, than the Indian. As is the case in the United States, the student will require an allowance of from rool. to 150l. per annum, and as the teaching is given in Japanese he must acquire that language before he can derive any advantages from Japanese institutions. © s » ; , _. Societies and Academies. iiwad a LONDON. Royal Society, May 6.—Sir J. J. Thomson, president, in the chair.—R. H. Fowler, E. C. Gallop, C. N. H. Lock, and H. W. Richmond: The aerodynamics of a 1 amet shell. This paper deals with the motion through a gas or a body with an axis of symmetry and a spin about that axis. The range of velocities : - includes the velocity of sound in the gas. It has . ial reference to the motion of an ordinary shell gh air under gravity. The problem is approached _ from the aerodynamical viewpoint. The force system __ imposed by the gas is analysed into its most important constituents by help of the theory of dimensions and ___ by detailed wind-channel experiments. The general _ equations of motion are obtained in a vector notation, and reduced to tractable approximate forms in certain important special cases; in particular, when the axis of symmetry and the direction of motion of the centre of gravity nearly coincide. An approximate formal solution of these last eauations is obtained, and the NO. 2638, VOL. 105 | bodies con-, errors in the equations themselves and their solutions are shown to be negligible. The solutions obtained are submitted to the test of experiment, and the. magni- tude of the more important members of the force system determined numerically as functions of the velocity of the shell up to twice the velocity of sound: At the same time the main assumptions made in the analysis are verified. The experimental method used is to fire the shell through a series of cards. The shape of the. holes left in the cards determines accurately the angular motion of the axis of the shell. From this the values of the chief. components of the force system are deduced. One of the principal results is to determine accurately the spin required to render the shell stable at any velocity. The behaviour of the force components as functions of the velocity appears to be of, scientific interest, and of obvious importance in technical ballistics.—Prof. .W. E. Dalby: Researches on the elastic properties and the plastic extension of metals. This paper relates to a ‘new type of load-extension diagram recorded auto- matically by an adaptation of an instrument already described to the society. The extension of the test piece is multiplied 150 times by the instrument. With this magnification, about 7% extension is shown on the negative, and the elastic line appears at a slope of about 60°. The shape of the elastic line can there- fore be studied and the process of extension can be watched, so that stretching can be stopped at an assigned value and the load removed and then. re- applied. The removal and re-application of the load produce a loop on the diagram, and several such loops can be described on each negative. Looped diagrams taken from metals commonly used were shown. Comparisons of these looped diagrams show that each metal is characterised by its elastic line and loops. A succession of plates was taken from a test piece of high carbon steel stretched almost to break- ing. These plates set end to end give a procession of loops, and show that the Joop area tends to a maximum. The questions of time-interval between the taking of loops and heat treatment between the taking of loops are examined in relation to loop area. It is shown that in the high carbon steel and alloy steel lapse of time has little or no effect in restoring elasticity. nor is the elasticity restored by boiling in water. New data relating tothe strengthof materials are given by these diagrams, viz. : (1) The area of the loop. (2) The rate of increase of the area of the loop. (3) The maximum area.—C. T. R. Wilson: Investiga- tions on lightning discharges and on the electric field of thunderstorms. The investigations were carried out at the Solar Physics Observatory, Cambridge, by methods already described (Proceedings, 1916). Ap- paratus has been. added to secure a photographic record of the readings of the capillarv electrometer used in the measurements. Changes in the electric field which occupv less than a tenth of a second are recorded. The sudden changes produced in the poten- tial gradient by the passage of lightning discharges recorded in 1017 were positive in 432 cases and nega- tive in 279. The mean value of the electric moment 20H (Q being the quantitv. discharged and H the vertical height through which this charge is dis- placed) of a lightning discharge is about 3x 10" €.s.u.xcem. or 100 coulomb-kilometres. |The mean quantity discharged is of the order of 20 coulombs, The magnitude of the potentials attained in thunder- clouds is of the order of 10° volts. The rate of vertical separation of charges in a-thundercloud may amount to some coulombs per second, i.e. the vertical current through the cloud is of the order of some amperes. A thundercloud or showercloud mav be regarded as an electric generator, capable of maintaining between 378 NATURE | May 20, 1920 its poles an electromotive force of the order of 10° volts. It tends to. maintain an electric current from the earth. to'the conducting layers of the upper atmo- sphere or in the reverse direction, according as its polarity is + or —. The difference which must exist im the conductivity of the air above showerclouds of + and of — polarity respectively, owing to the large difference between the mobilities of the negative and positive ions dragged out of the conducting layer by the field of the cloud, furnishes a possible explanation of the normal positive potential gradient at a distance’ from showerclouds. lt is also shown that it will account for the prevailing negative sign of the poten- tial gradients associated with showerclouds and_ for the preponderance of positively charged rain and posi- tive lightning discharges, i.e. discharges which pro- duce a positive change of potential gradient.—L. F. Richardson: The supply of energy to atmospheric eddies. Osborne Reynolds investigated the energy of eddies as a balance between income and expenditure. The income was the activity of the eddy stresses upon the corresponding rates of mean strain; the expenditure was by way of molecular viscosity... His theory refers to an incompressible liquid, but it is shown in the present paper that the same applies to an elastic fluid. In a gravitating atmosphere there is an additional channel for gain or loss, because the eddies act as thermo-dynamic engines, either produc- ing or decreasing inequalities of temperature. They are, however, imverfect engines. It is shown that the activity contributed by the eddies by this pro- cess is £ Aro er volume yp an where g is the acceleration of gravity, yp the thermal capacity per mass, c the eddy-conductivity, o the entropy per mass, and h the height. In the actual atmosphere this activity is ordinarily an expenditure by the eddies. By balancing it against their income a criterion of turbulence is obtained. Some observations of the quiescence of wind on a clear evening tend to confirm the theory. Geological Society, May 5.—Mr. G. W. Lamplugh, vice-president, in -the chair.—S. H. Warren: a chapter to the educational facilities at Nairobi — and other centres, which should be helpful to intending settlers who are married. A short history of East Africa, together with some notes on the native races ‘and the effects of immigration from India, Arabia, and Somaliland, ” forms an interesting basis to the general descrip- tion of PHErRDEST developments and future prospects. Several chapters deal with big game and with sport and games of many kinds; those on big game furnish information as to the localities where | various species are to be found, and how their presence _ affects the settler, while a chapter is devoted to beasts which the author. would his picture of animal life on the Loieta Plains are included in the illustrations. To those interested in stock-raising an appendix giving notes on remedial measures against stock Place in a black list as having many un- desirable proclivities and nothing which may | serve to counterbalance their disadvantages. Re- | productions of Mr. J. G. Millais’s “ Buffalo” and _ May 27; 1920] NATURE 393 _ diseases, compiled by the Chief Veterinary Officer of the Protectorate, should be read in conjunction _ with the author’s chapter on cattle. With refer- _ nce to measures adopted to combat the spread of _ inderpest, there is an_ interesting illustration _ showing the method of hyperimmunising cattle. __.. The book concludes with a chapter detailing _ the assistance furnished by British East Africa and the sacrifices made by both Europeans and _ natives in furtherance of the military operations which. resulted ultimately in the conquest of what is now, known as Tanganyika Territory. Those who, like. Lord Cranworth, have the interests of British East Africa at heart will welcome this volume, with its purpose of bringing to the Protectorate an influx of recruits of the right standard requisite to further the develop- ment of its resources, particularly in view of the existing demand for the raw materials required in the reconstruction of the Empire’s industries. _ ‘J °HE interest in weather notes from old diaries A lies in the fact that they may throw some light on the vexed question whether meteorological _ conditions in Western Europe are changing. The diaries of Evelyn and Pepys have been quoted by both believers and unbelievers in changing eonditions, and it must regretfully be admitted _ that the question is, as yet, by no means easy to answer. Evelyn’s diary extends from 1620 .to 1706, but during this long period there are, on the average, only about eight weather notes to every three years. As a rule, we find only very outstanding phenomena recorded, such as serious droughts, great storms, or hard frosts. Evelyn’s diary has, however, never been published in full, and it is quite possible that the complete Se ee ee Re, ne ee ee on the subject. Pepys’s diary extends only from 1660 to 1669, and is, therefore, too short to enable us to draw any safe conclusions. His - weather notes are, however, far more numerous than Evelyn’s, there being remarks bearing on the weather on an average of sixty-two days a year. Like Evelyn, he mentions outstanding features, but he also frequently mentions the weather as it affected his movements or his health, so that we get a much better record for the few years during which Pepys kept a diary than we do for the Ser period from Evelyn. Neither writer is by any means infallible in his recollection of past weather, and both can be confuted _ from their own writings regarding events that _ they describe as unprecedented in their memories. d The most significant facts from which to gauge weather conditions, in times before instrumental readings, are hot summers, droughts, wet spells, and cold winters. So far as hot summers are concerned, we have little to go on. Both writers complain of the heat at times, but the only really exceptionally hot summer seems to have been that of 1698, mentioned by Evelyn. Nor do we get very much ground to go on in droughts and wet s. We are, therefore, restricted to cold winters, and especially to the freezing of the Thames, for evidence of any change in climate ' between the seventeenth century and the present time. The evidence was discussed by several writers in Symons’s Meteorological Magazine in 1911 and 1912, and different writers came to NO. 2639, VOL. 105 | ree ee) we ee ee diary may contain a great deal more information . Weather Notes of Evelyn, Pepys, and Swift in Relation to British Climate. By Capt. C. J. P. Cave. diametrically opposite conclusions. Mr. Walter Sedgwick maintained that the intensity of falls of _ snow was likely to be exaggerated by the seven- _ teenth-century diarists, normally bad, traffic would have been far more for when roads were seriously affected by snow than it is to-day. Mr. W. H. Dines, on the other hand, contended that _when roads were always bad during the winter, “it was a matter of indifference whether roads were blocked by snowdrifts.”” It is also said that the number of references to snow in Evelyn’s diary are very few, but it is quite certain that we do not find zeferences to snow on nearly all the occasions when it occurred. In December, 1648, Evelyn says: “This was a most exceeding wet year—nieither frost nor snow all the winter for more than six days in all”; but none of these six days are otherwise mentioned in the published diary. The winter of 1657-58 was extremely cold, and it is almost certain that there must have been snow ; but none is specifically mentioned. It is certain that the Thames in London froze more often in the seventeenth than in the nine- teenth centuiy, but some hold that this was due to the fact that the river was not embanked, and that Old London Bridge offered such an obstruc- tion that the water above the bridge froze more easily than it does to-day. The Thames in London is recorded to have been frozen, or nearly frozen, on seven occasions during the period over which Evelyn kept his diary, and it is almost certain that it must have been frozen also in 1658. It is noticeable that the freezing in November, 1662, is mentioned by Evelyn, but not by Pepys, while the freezings of December, 1665, and January, 1667, are mentioned by Pepys, but not in the pub- lished diary cf Evelyn. It seems as though the freezing of the Thames was not looked on as such a very out-ot the-way event, while slight frosts or small falls of snow might pass unnoticed. There were, of course, winters when there was little or no frost or snow, but they were looked on as very exceptional, and caused much apprehension as likely to “threaten a plague,” and fasts were ordered by Parliament to pray for “more season- able weather.” From the evidence in Pepys’s diary the present writer thought at first that “there seems no reason to suppose that the weather” in the seventeenth 394 NA TURE [May 27, 1920 century “differed much from that to-day,” ‘but a further consideration of Pepys’s notes, taken in conjunction with those of Evelyn, has led ‘him to modify his views, and he now thinks that, on the whole, there is a good case for supposing that the winters in the seventeenth century were more severe than they are to-day. Sir John Moore, it is true, maintained in a paper, “Is our Climate Changing? ” read before the British Association (Section A) in 1908, that the British climate is not changing; his evidence is based mainly on ob- servations during the nineteenth century, with some from the eighteenth; but the constancy of the climate during the nineteenth century does not seem to preclude a change having occurred since the seventeenth, nor does it follow that a change should be progressive. fe There must, however, be a good deal more evidence in scattered letters or diaries that will in time throw more light on this important point. In Swift’s “Journal to Stella,” which extends only from 1710 to 1713, there are weather references on seventy-eight days a year. The period is short, but I think it bears out the contention that winters with little frost or snow were exceptional. On December 27, 1710, Swift writes: “Did you ever see so open a winter in England? We have not had two frosty days.” This was probably a 1 Qua‘t. Journ. Roy. Met. Soc., vol. xlvi., p- 68. fagon de ‘parler, for at least two frosts are men- tioned previously, and one fall of snow. By a frosty day it must be supposed that the diarists meant more than a slight morning frost of one or two degrees in the screen. If this is so, the warmth of the early winter in 1710 was not very exceptional, judged by present-day. standards. December 27, it must be remembered, corresponds to January 8 new style, but in the last fifteen years during which the writer has kept climat- ological records there have been. four, if not five, winters when there has been no frost worth speak- ing about until .after the middle of January, in Hanipshire at any rate, and these were probably as “open” as the winter of 1710. Swift, on the whole, takes rather more interest in the weather for its own sake ‘than does Pepys. _ He compares notes with “ Stella” on the difference between the weather in Ireland and in London, but, of course, most of the references concern the weather as it affected him personally. There are many complaints of cold, wet, and heat, and Swift seems to have had a constitution that was much - affected by hot weather. It is curious to find that bad weather is frequently made an excuse for dining with Mrs. Vanhomrigh at the time when Swift was beginning that acquaintance with her daughter “ Vanessa” which was fraught with so much tragedy. 1 Optical Instruments in Industry. PTICAL instruments, which proved their worth in war, are now being more and more utilised in developing the arts of peace. account of some of the chief applications of these instruments to industrial requirements, especially the more recent uses, may therefore be not without interest at the present time. Passing over the microscope -with a_ brief reminder of. its modern use, in metallurgy, for showing. the structure of iron and other metals, one. of the first.instruments to note is the refracto- meter.. In many chemical works this, in one form or another, is invaluable as.a means of controlling the» various .operations, by reason. of. the- sim- plicity ofits. manipulation and the rapidity with which the results, are. obtained. . The refractive index suffices in numerous instances to determine the strength of chemical solutions. It is ascer- tained in.a few. minutes, and only a drop or two of. liquid. is required for the purpose if an instru- 4ment.of the Abbe type is employed. No weighing are involved, and no calculations if the tempera- ture is suitably controlled, so that liability to error is greatly minimised. The instrument is thus almost an ideal one for the control of works operations where the degree of strength or purity of a product is required to be ascertained by means of rapid tests, or where a process has to be stopped when the product has reached a’ certain stage. Specific gravity determinations or simple chemical titrations are often used in such cases, NO. 2639, VOL. 105 | A short | but the refraction method is always quicker, is generally more accurate, and sometimes possesses other marked advantages. Thus the strength of an aqueous solution of nicotine can readily be obtained, correct within about o-1 per cent., by the refractometer, whereas the specific gravity method is of no value in this instance, and titra- tion results are vitiated if other basic substances, © such as ammonia, are present. Bd Acetic acid, acetone, ammonia, ammonium sulphate, carbolic acid, cream of tartar, glycerin, and saltpetre may be mentioned as products, made on a large: scale, for. which the instrument is useful. In the brewing industry the determina- tion of alcohol, extract, and original. gravity of beer is readily made by means of the refracto- meter. In the fats and oils industries, in the fractionation of petroleum products, in the: dis- tillation of tar oils, and in the manufacture of many pharmaceutical articles, the refractive index is a valuable aid for controlling the purity of the materials and finished products. It is useful also in the manufacture of various viscous mixtures or semi-solid pastes, in order to determine whether the constituents have been adequately mixed, and thus to obviate local excess or deficiency of th active ingredients. . é The polarimeter is an instrument constantly in use for the evaluation of essential oils, whilst makers of starch products, tartaric acid, and alkaloids frequently have recourse to it, and a i a i i iN i a i el May 27, 1920] NATURE 495 specialised form of the appliance, the sacchari- meter, is practically indispensable in the sugar factory. ‘Mention must also be made of the simple polar- iscope in its application to the glass industry, where it is employed for detecting strains in glass- ware due to faulty annealing. Not infrequently glass articles, imperfectly annealed, are destroyed on the cutting-wheel after a good deal of time Fic. 1.—Twyman’s apparatus for the determination of annealing has been spent on their partial decoration. Use of the polariscope to detect strains is not new; makers of optical glass have, naturally, long availed themselves of it; but as regards ordinary glassware the method has been brought more prominently under notice as a result of war con- ditions, and the “strain viewer ” is now becoming more generally known in glass works. The prin- ciple involved is merely that of the well-known transmission of polarised light through crossed Nicol prisms when crystalline or semi- crystalline material is placed between them. Well-annealed — glass leaves the field of the instrument practically uniformly dark; strained glass _ pro- duces patches or bands of light, the intensity and. colour of which give some idea of the amount of strain. In this connection it may also be men- tioned that certain other faults in glass Middle strip, sample of commercial tin. can readily be de- the two copper lines at 3247 and 3274. tected by means of X-rays. This discovery has proved very useful in making the best qualities of optical glass, by preventing the use of material in which “air- blows ” had formed. ‘Twyman’s apparatus may also be noted here. It is used for determining the annealing tempera- ture of glass (Fig. 1). The method evolved for this purpose is applicable also to metal objects, so far, at least, as the removal of stress is concerned. Trouble during the machining of metals such as manganese-bronze, owing to distortion through NO. 2639, VOL. 105 | | " 1 temperatures, system; C, electrical furnace; D, pyrometer; E, temperature recorder. Fic. 2.—Print from negative taken on spectrograph with wave-length scale. Top strip, sample of reputed “pure i ” : | stress, might often be obviated by proper anneal- ing of the articles. Among recent developments, perhaps the most notable is the fact that the spectroscope, in one adaptation or another, is beginning to take a definite place as an adjunct to industry. This follows upon the progress which has been made in fitting the instrument ‘to quantitative work. In fact, it is the spectrometer, rather than the spec- troscope proper, which is prov- ing its value to the manufac- ‘turer. Hartley’s work on quantitative spectrum analysis, dating from the eighties of last century, may be regarded as the pioneer investigation. He showed that the ratios of the intensities of lines in the spec- trum of an element do not re- main constant whilst the quan- tity of that element is de- creased, and he introduced the term “persistency ” to indicate whether a particular line appears at a definite concentration of the substance emitting . it— e.g. I per cent., o-r per cent., and. so. on, of the total material under examination. This work of Hartley’s was followed by that of Pollock and Leonard in Dublin, and_ of Gramont in France—to mention only three names out of many. Meanwhile, the earlier torms of spectroscope have given rise to the more perfect “constant deviation” wave-length spectrometer A, B, F, G, optical Bottom strip, short exposure of copper spectrum. The presence of copp:r in the commercial tin is shown by the presence in the corresponding spectrum strip of A trace of copper is present in the ‘‘ pure” tin. and the quartz spectrograph, with the result that it is now practicable even to carry out quantitative analyses of metals by means of their spark spectra (Fig. 2). Gramont uses two types of sparking apparatus (see Comptes rendus, 1918, clxvi., 95). In one of these the substance under examination is contained in a crater formed in one pole of the apparatus; in the second type the substance is fused in a platinum vessel, a spark being passed from a thin rod into the fused material. 396 NATURE This method has been used by M. Nicolardot in the chemical laboratory of the Technical Section, French Artillery, and according to Gramont. it gives very satisfactory results in. the control of chemical analyses. The spectrograph has also [May 27, 1920 spectrographic method ‘is, indeed, stated to be more trustworthy than chemical analysis, Another analytical method for metals has been described, depending upon:a difference in volatility of the elements present. The authors (Hill and Luckey) use the “arc” discharge, and measure the time required for a given line to disappear when a known weight of the material is burned in the crater of the arc. Though this process is of limited application, it can be used for the estimation of lead in copper, within a range of 0°004 to 0'216 per cent., with the accuracy neces- sary for the work of a copper refinery. The spectrophotometer, too, is now finding technical application, especially in connection with dyes. As the study of absorption-spectra has pro- gressed, means for making the observations more strictly quantitative have developed also. The possibility of measuring the absorption of a sub- stance for light of each wave-length is, in fact, an important addition to .the resources of the organic chemist in dealing with certain technical _ problems. The apparatus employed is a spectrograph or spectrometer combined with a suitable photometer such as the “Nutting” instrument. It is used in the control and analysis of dyes, the chemical testing of which is often a difficult matter. In pre-war days purchasers of dyes were very much at the mercy of foreign dye-makers as regards the quality and strength of dyes sent to them. Spectrophotometry can now be employed to safe- guard the interests of the user in this respect. For example, a solution of known strength can be prepared from a trustworthy specimen of dye, and its colour-density determined for a series of wave-lengths by the spectrophotometer; a curve plotted from the results can then be kept as a permanent reference with which future supplies can be compared... Similarly the colour-producing value of a dye with various illuminants may be assessed by means of the instrument. Dyeing tests can be quantitatively controlled by comparing the intensity of reflected light from the dyestuff in each part of the spectrum with that of light reflected from a white surface. | The proportion of diluent substance added to a dye, or of two dyes in a mixture, may also be de- termined by reference to standard curves. Thus in ' the subjoined diagram (Fig. 3), A and B denote such curves for known strengths of eosin and ery- throsin respectively, and C is a curve given by a mixture of the two substances, in un- 9 od ag \ i A iY \ of L \ L NA w 7 | \ \ | aa 7 oie Ni Sty 1.4 \ a wt \\ i A : t IL : 510 5to 530 haben my Fic. 3.—Curves plotted from results obtained in examining, dyes with spectrophotometer. been for sometime in use at the Bureau of Standards, Washington, for- determining. small quantities of impurities in tin and in the analysis of steel, especially. as regards chromium and titanium. For estimating small quantities of elements such as niobium and molybdenum, the NO. 2639, VOL. 105] known proportions. By taking ordinates for two suitable wave-lengths, two equations can be formulated, from which the propor- the tions of the two dyestuffs in the mixture are calculated. From these examples the value, actual. and potential, of. the instru- ment to the dyeing industry. will readily be understood. ; i . Of other technical uses to which special instru- ments are applied, a brief mention must suffice. Thus in the iron and steel industry certain rapid _ May 27, 1920] NATURE 397 sorting-out tests can be. made with the grating ; An important development, too, is the use of spectrometer and with the quartz spectrograph, | radiography’ in the examination of metals; but whilst the projection: comparator is a valuable aid, in engineering, for the ready optical gauging of interchangeable parts, such as screw-threads. this need not be dealt with here, as it was referred to in an article on “‘ Industrial and Medical Radio- logy ” in NATURE of February 26. The British Sea. Fisheries.’ HE latest book on the sea fisheries comes most opportunely at a time when everyone interested in these matters is looking for a policy. For the last two years a multitude of committees and conferences have been considering a situation of fish might be utilised, cost of new construction, labour troubles, etc.—these are the matters that immediately and personally concern those engaged in the industry. The conditions are very different from those that obtained half a dozen years ago. 4 py OES 1 had a be } ‘ | Yl ’ * ae* ‘ i* J The herring fleet in Fraserburgh Harbour. that has become acute as the result of war con- ditions, but which was rapidly developing even in 1913. There was then a great recrudescence of interest in the longshore and inshore fishermen ; there were the perennial questions of the impoverishment of the fishing-grounds and of how this might be averted; and there were indications, even then, of troublesome problems relating to the distribution and marketing of the fish caught. There is no doubt at all that it is these latter difficulties that have been accentuated by the circumstances of the last two years. Such things as. landing facilities, railroad and motor transport, market accommodation, cold storage and curing in order that gluts 1‘*The Sea Fisheries.” By Dr. (London : Constable and Co., Ltd., 1920.) NO. 2639, VOL. 105| T. Jenkins. Price 24s. net. Pp. xxxi+ag99. Bide) oa “y “3.3 | Hg Viet hs Pr, : a , =} | ees a ad iG Fe ae au ae From ‘ The Sea Fisheries.’ Then there was practically no control; but one Government Department now has to do with rail- way facilities; another fixes wholesale and retail prices; while others again have to do with regula- tions of many kinds. The result is, for the is present at all events, a confusion which apparent to almost everyone. Under our economic conditions the — profit- The factor in industry is still the dominant one. bulk of the fish landed are caught in order that they may be sold so as to yield a “return” on the capital invested; otherwise no fish would be landed except the small fraction taken by individu- ally owned boats and longshoremen who work for a living and sell their fish for whatever it will bring. How is the deep-sea fishing industry to be carried on so as to yield a sufficient profit? 398 NATURE [May 27, 1920. Long ago we should have left that question. to the trade itself, but it is now clear that a policy of laissez-faire is no longer possible. The people must have food. The State has already taken partial control, and the logical development. of such conditions seems to be the public organ- isation of the means of distribution and, if so, the wa of profits as well as of prices. . Jenkins does not deal with these ‘latter- ae economic questions. The conditions are transient, and it is quite impossible for any man to get trustworthy information tending to elucidate them. Probably no administrator or office is big enough to deal adequately with the difficulties of the moment, and the situation must be left to resolve itself in the near future. On the other hand, it would be hopeless to attempt to study it without reference to the other funda- mental questions which we have indicated. Is there really an impoverishment of the fishing- grounds, and, if so, what restrictions are neces- sary that this may be avoided? Regulation being necessary, what is the best form of administra- tion? What is industrial efficiency as applied to the fisheries? Judged by the ratio of fish caught to the man-power employed, the inshore and long- shore. fishermen are inefficient, and their methods wasteful. But, that being so, is it in the national interest that ‘a prolific, hardy, and ver- satile stock should be allowed to decline? What, above all, are the nature and value of the informa- tion which we use in order to decide upon these matters ? Even in present circumstances, then, there are fundamental problems that must be considered before we tackle those of the moment, and it is these with which the author deals. He gives a summary of the methods of sea-fishing employed in Great Britain, and an_ historical sketch of the development of the trawl- and herring-fisheries. This is based on prolonged literary research and is very well done. There are a summary of the legislation applicable to the— industry, a short account of the British and foreign administrations, and a résumé of the chief results of the fishery commissions of the strictly modern period. A well-selected bibliography should enable the reader to follow the various discussions in greater detail than that which falls within the scope of the book. It is very proper that considerable weight should be given to the scientific side of the subject, and in his introduction the author deals most conveniently with the situation of the industry at the close of the war period, especially with regard to the reconstruction of the national administrations and the development of an ade- quate machinery for scientific and economic investigation. Altogether, the work is one that must be considered quite essential to anyone who seeks to discover, beneath the confusion of the moment, the natural conditions upon which the continued development of the national sea fisheries, as a whole, must necessarily depend. NO. 2639, VOL. 105 | Notes. Tun annual meeting of the British Science Guild will be. held at the Goldsmiths’ Hall on Tuesday,. June 8, at 3 p.m. Lord Sydenham, president of the Guild, will deliver an address on ‘Science and the Nation,’’ and the president-elect, Lord Montagu of Beaulieu, will speak on ‘‘ Some National Aspects _ of Transport.”” The adoption of the report on the Guild’s work since the last annual meeting will be. moved by Lord Bledisloe, and seconded by Sir Gilbert Parker. The Guild is extending its activities in several directions, and all who believe in the appli- cation of scientific knowledge and method to national affairs of every kind should give it support. Tickets of admission to the annual meeting may be obtained upon application to the Secretary, British Science Guild, 6 John Street, Adelphi, London, W.C.2. At the Imperial Entomological Conference to be held in London ‘on June 1-11, the subjects to be discussed, although mainly relating to agriculture, are not the less on that account of great general interest, and ought to make a wide appeal. Mr. H. A. Ballou, just returned from an investigation of them in-Egypt, will read a paper on ‘‘ Cotton Pests,’’ a subject which he has long studied in other parts of the Empire. Dr. R. S. MacDougall will read one on ‘‘ Insects in Rela- tion to Afforestation,’’ which is a subject greatly need- ing attention in our own country at the present day. There will also be read important papers on the special insect pests of tea and other crops, as weil as on the local insect pests of various places within the Empire; and amongst other subjects for discussion “‘ The Edu- cation of Economic Entomologists’’ should prove attractive, the more so as Profs. Maxwell Lefroy and Sydney J. Hickson have promised to give their views upon it. The meetings are all to be held at the rooms of the Linnean Society, Burlington House, and visits — have been arranged to Oxford, Cambridge, and the Rothamsted Experimental Station, Harpenden. ‘ The Work and Finances of the Imperial Bureau of Ento- mology ’’ will be considered at the business meeting on the first day, when, doubtless, there will be nothing but greatly deserved praise for the work, and very serious consideration in regard to the finances. It is.to be hoped that as an outcome the Bureau will be enabled to carry on, unhampered and unimpaired, the extremely valuable work it has done during the seven years of its existence. A Pan-Paciric Scientific Congress has been organ- _ised to meet at Honolulu on August 2-20. The pro- gramme of the congress is directed by the Committee on Pacific Exploration of the U.S. National Research Council, and the chairman is Mr. Herbert E. Gregory, | director of the Bishop Museum at Honolulu. The papers to be read will deal with the present status of knowledge of anthropology, biology, geology, - geography, and related sciences so far. as they refer to the Pacific Ocean, and will place emphasis on the *research work which it is desirable to inaugurate. — The significance and bearing of the research work on other fields of study will be dealt with in considerable detail. It is suggested that in the- working out of May 27, 1920] NATURE 399 the problems only the ability and interest of the scientific workers should be taken into account, onality and institutional rivalry being submerged this purpose. Co-operation would eliminate un- s duplication of money and energy, and point ‘way to the best use of funds now available and he utilisation of further endowments. The director f the museum is also organising a party consisting ie onologist, archzeologist, botanist, and necessary » Which will be stationed in 1920-21 at the Mar- Austral, Tongan, and Hawaian Islands to te standards of the physical form, material cul- traditions, and languages of the Polynesians h may serve as a basis for the determination of significance of changes produced by the overlapping other races. A similar expedition is projected for 21-22 westward to the Caroline Islands, to deter- ne through what place or places the Polynesians reached their present settlements. Funds sufficient for one year’s work, contributed by Bayard Dominic Yale University, have been placed at the disposal the museum ‘trustees. The urgent need for a tific study of the fast-changing Pacific is plain. has been recognised in Australia, where a com- mittee, appointed by the Universities of Melbourne and Sydney, has reported in favour of the establish- ment of fellowships in Pacific studies. If America studies eastern Polynesia, Australia still has Papua and the Western Islands. s Tue preliminary programme of the annual meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of __ Science to be held at Cardiff on August 24-28, has _ been issued from the offices at Burlington House. The ; _ previous meeting in that city was held in 1891, and 4 there has been no meeting of the association in Wales q since that date. The present president, Sir Charles _ Parsons, will hand over his office to Prof. W. A. Herd- man, professor of natural history in the University of _ Liverpool, who will give in his presidential address a _ general survey of oceanography, and deal in detail with - certain special problems and recent investigations, with _ particular reference to sea-fisheries, a topic not only of _ prime interest in connection with the food supply of a the country, but also of special concern to the ports _ of the Bristol Channel. The programme announces a discourse at one of the general evening meetings i: by Sir Daniel Hall, of the Ministry of Agriculture, on _ A Grain of Wheat from the Field to the Table,”’ Bogner pregnant subject at the present time. Sir Richard Glazebrook, lately Director of. the National | Physical Laboratory, will also deliver a discourse. _A scientific exhibition in connection with the meeting ste announced to be given in the museum exhibition q room at the Cardiff City Hall, where the general re- _ ception room for the meeting will also be established. The sections will meet mostly’ in the University _ College and the Technical College, which, with the City Hall, belong to the fine range of public buildings __ which surround Cathays Park. Scientific excursions will be organised in connection with the work of several of the sections. A civic reception by the Lord ‘Mayor is announced, as is also a garden party for members, given by Lord Treowen, president of the NO. 2639, VOL. 105] National Museum of Wales (which has its headquarters at Cardiff). Among other fixtures is a special service in St. John’s Church, Cardiff, on the Sunday after the meeting, at which Dr. Barnes, Canon, of West- minster, wil] preach. Prince ALBERT will preside at the Royal Aeronau- tical Society’s Wilbur Wright lecture, which will be delivered at the Central Hall, Westminster; on June 22, at 8.30 p.m., by Commander Hunsaker, upon the subject of ‘‘ Naval Architecture in Aero- nautics.”’ Tue Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia has conferred the Hayden memorial medal for 1920 on Prof. T. Chrowder Chamberlin, professor emeri- tus of the University of Chicago, in recognition of his distinguished services to geological science. This medal is presented every three years for distinguished accomplishments in geology or palzontology. Tue twenty-fifth annual congress of the South- Eastern Union of Scientific Societies will be held at Eastbourne on June 2-5.. On the evening of Wed- nesday, June 2, the president-elect, Sir Edward Brabrook, will deliver his presidential address. Other items in the programme are :—The Glaciation of the - South Downs, E. A. Martin; First Steps in a Local Survey, C. C. Fagg; Recent Discoveries in. Insect . Mimicry, Prof. E. B. Poulton; Report of Mosquito Investigation Committee; and Migrate of ee ptera, R. Adkin. ; Tue possibilities of cotton-growing in South America are discussed at length by Mr. G. McC. ' McBride in the Geographical Review for January (vol. ix., No. 1). Up to the present South America has produced annually scarcely 2 per cent. of the world’s total output. Mr. McBride shows reasons for believing this could be greatly increased. The principal increase must come from the eastern high- lands of Brazil. In the Sao Paulo region it is already competing with coffee, which suffers more than cotton from frosts. Labour and transport are the factors which limit its growth at present, but as these are gradually overcome Brazil will be able to export cotton on a considerable scale. Other possible cotton lands occur in the plains of northern Argentina and Paraguay, and in the coastal valleys of Peru. Towarps the end of March last a meeting was held in Brussels of the scientific committee of the Solvay International Institute of Physics, and it was resolved, upon the recommendation of the executive committee, to resume the work of the institute, which had been interrupted by the war. New physical councils will be summoned from time to time, similar to those formed in 1911 and 1913. The president referred to the debt which the scientific committee owed to Dr. R. B. Goldschmidt, of Brussels, for the services rendered by him to the institute during the early . years of its foundation. The members of the com- mittee were Prof. H. A. Lorentz (president), Haar- lem; Mme. Curie, Paris; Sir W. H. Bragg, London; M. Brillouin, Paris; Prof. H. Kamerlingh Onnes, ‘Leyden; Prof. Knudsen, Copenhagen ; Prof... A. Righi, Bologna; Sir Ernest Rutherford, Cambridge; and Prof. E. Van Aubel, Ghent. 400 NATURE = | May 27, 1920 _ Majors McKenprick AND Morison have investigated Statistically the occurrence of cases of influenza. on shipboard, from which they deduce a mean incubation period in this disease of 32-7 hours, some go per cent. of the cases having an incubation’ period within two days (Indian Journal of Medical Research, vol. vii., No. 2, p. 364). In a general review of influenza in Medical Science: Abstracts and Reviews: (vol. ii., No. 2) the influenza epidemic of 1918-19 in Switzerland is surveyed. It is estimated that there were 2} million cases. The case mortality was 1-1 per cent.; 65 per cent. of. the cases occurred between fifteen dind forty-nine years of age, and only 5 per cent. in persons of fifty and more, The total deaths were 17,575, a much heavier death-roll than that caused by other epidemic diseases. ATTENTION is directed in a paper by Mr. Mottram and Mr. Clarke (Archives of Radiology and Electrotherapy, No. 237, April,’ 1920) to the reduction in the number of the white blood corpuscles in those handling radium for curative purposes, a reduction amounting to $$ of the normal number. They estimate that the physician-in-charge receives daily about 1-4 per cent. of the total radiation received by a patient during a course of ‘treatment for cancer, and in ten weeks the same quantity of radiation as the patient. THE Committee on Food and Nutrition of the National Research Council, Washington, U.S.A., has just issued a report on meat and milk in the food supply of the nation which gives some interesting facts on the relative values of these two important dietary substances in comparison with the value of the food required to produce them. The Committee supports the British estimates on the same subject, viz. that the good milch cow returns 20 per.cent., the poor milch cow 12 per cent., and the good beef steer only 6 per cent. of the energy-value of the food con- sumed. Crops grown on a given area may be ex- pected to yield four to five times as much protein and energy for human consumption when fed to dairy cows as when used for beef production. An address on the work of the Medical Research Committee was delivered by its secretary, Sir Walter Fletcher, to Members of Parliament at the House of Commons on March g, and has been published in pamphlet form by the Research Defence Society. The history of the committee was first briefly sketched. Some 50,0001. a year has hitherto been devoted to the advancement of medical research, but the Treasury has announced that in the immediate future 125,o00l. per annum is to be allocated for this purpose. Sir Walter Fletcher then described some of the researches that have been prosecuted by means of these funds. A disease, bilharziasis, due to a parasitic worm, is very prevalent in Egypt. Its life-history was unknown, and Dr. Leiper, of the London School of Tropical Medicine, was sent out to investigate. He found that the bilharzia worm passes part of its life-cycle in certain fresh-water snails, from which larval forms hatch out; and these constitute the infective agents. They soon die, how- NO. 2639, VOL. 105 | bilharziasis. where between 2cool. and 3000l., ever, unless they enter the human host, so that water kept for twenty-four hours is safe. This work cost less than 5ool., but bids fair in time to eradicate | _ Trench nephritis, a kidney disease, was very prevalent during the war. Investigations into its causation indicated that it is. probably.of an infec. - tive nature.. Means were devised by which the effi- ciency of the kidney could be gauged, and it was possible to decide which of the thousands of cases at the base hospitals’ were likely to grow worse and should be sent home, and which could probably soon go back to duty. The same tests have been employed since in judging claims for pensions based upon supposed damage to the kidneys. By this | means it is estimated that the Pensions Ministry has, . saved, during the first year, no less than 150,000l. ; yet the total cost of this piece of work was some- Sir Walter Fletcher put in a plea for the better remuneration of scientific . research, and the address was followed by an Jee ing discussion, In the British’ Journal of © Psychology ie: Paks, March) Mrs. S. Brierley discusses the present atti- tude of employees to industrial psychology. She finds, in talking to working-men, much opposition to the suggested introduction of psychological methods into industry—an opposition which cannot be dis- missed as characteristic of the more ignorant and less skilled workman. Several reasons for this atti- tude of mind are considered, of which the most vital seems to be the not unreasonable fear that the introduction of these methods will inevitably lead to an increase of monotony and a diminution in the possibility for initiative or creative work on the part of the individual worker; some of these so-called scientific methods do seem to imply that the manager is to be the brains of the machine, and the worker merely the muscles. It is unfortunately only too true that some. enthusiastic exponents of these methods have allowed their enthusiasm to limit their point. of view to. increased. production, and in so doing they have lost sight of the effect on the individual worker. The problems of monotony, mechanisation, specialisa- tion, and self-government must be considered not only as bearing on increased output, but also as affecting the whole development of the worker; work must offer an outlet for the healthy satisfaction of the crea- tive impulse. The author raises many problems con- nected with present-day industry and shows what psychology as applied to industry has to face before it can win the whole-hearted support of the workers. The paper should prove interesting to all whose scientific work brings them into contact with in- dividual workers in industry. — SincE the early experiments of Cuénet, Castle, Miss Durham, Little, and others on the inheritance of coat- colour in mice, these animals have been a favourite sub- ject for the study of spotting as well as of self-colour. In a recent paper by S6 and Imai (Journal of Genetics, vol. ix., No. 4) the authors distinguish two factors coiidansie in spotting, one of which (D) is epistatic to self-colour, which it modifies to the ‘Kasuri’’ pattern characterised by~ fine “ Silvered NATURE 401 ies BS. “When the recessive spotting allelomorph (S’) _oapind (S) is present with the epistatic factor, a al with dark eyes known as ‘‘ Daruma”’ a a) is produced. Mice which are homozygous il to develop whether S or S’ is present in 1. D is, therefore, a lethal factor, and can ‘ap in. the heterozygous condition, as is well r | to. be the case with yellow mice. — By this : it is shown that a varied and apparently ‘series. of stages from dark-eyed white spotting to pett-celoie depends upon two factors. — ; ir W. VaucHan furnishes a comprehensive ‘of the American Tertiary, Pleistocene, and osha in Bulletin 103 of the U.S. National eu 189-524, 1919, as the fore-part of a describing fossil corals en the zone of the “include the geologist who strives to under- past—can afford to overlook this important ary of recent work. Some readers may be aban statement that “the theoretic possibility and later into an atoll, according to the a hypothesis, may not be denied, but no oj such a transformation has as yet been red.” But the author again and again em- upward growth of coral-reefs in keeping with the apes’ ae of the platforms on which h. sae theory of solution to account lagoon depths is regarded as ‘‘entirely disproved,” and every credit is given to Dr. Guppy and Admiral Sir ty Wharton for their views on the relation of ‘ fs to submarine platforms. The corals that result in barrier-reefs flourish, as Guppy urged, at some ¢ from a shore, because they are there removed 4 deleterious sediments; the reef thickens, as aay perceived, by submergence of its base. In ation of its Reports of the Aeronautics Experi- Ee raciatton (Rendiconti dell’ Istituto speri- ntale aeronautico). No. 1 of the new series just to hand contains an exhaustive article on the treat- it and preservation of wood. The first part of important monograph deals with the botanical aspect of the subject; the second part with the theory of timber preservation, including drying and ng; the third part with the practical side of er seasoning and impregnation with preserva- tives; while part iv. is devoted to methods of rae | ” oth .- physical and mechanical). "Measures are being taken to reorganise and ex- Priced’ various scientific services in’ French Indo-China. NO. 2639, VOL. 105 | M. Aug. Chevalier,’ writing in La Géographie for April (vol. xxxiii., No. 4), gives some account of the plans. The agriculiiral, forest, and survey depart- ments had fallen into neglect when the present governor-general in 1917 took steps to revive them. Several experimental agricultural stations and agri- cultural schools have been founded, and this year ‘work was begun on the building of a central scien- tific institute at Saigon, to which the agricultural service of Indo-China and the botanic gardens at Saigon are to be attached. The institute will con- duct experiments in the growth of rubber, coffee, tea, and rice; study the flora and products generally of Indo-China; and conduct researches on plant diseases. It is also proposed to start a marine station. The Government has provided funds for a scientific library and the issue of a ‘spately, agri- cultural bulletin. No. 23 of the Proceedings of the Dutch Meteoro- logical Institute is devoted to three papers by Miss A. van Vleuten on the possibility of accounting for the daily variations of the earth’s magnetic field-by a system of electric currents external to the earth and the currents within the earth’s surface induced by them. In 1889 Schuster concluded that such was the case. Since that date both Fritsche and Steiner have examined the data available, and concluded that it did not support the hypothesis. In view of this difference of opinion Miss van Vleuten has again analysed the daily variation of the field, and _ re- solved it into an external and an_ internal part. The two show that the principal terms of the Gauss expansion do not support the hypothesis, although the higher and less important terms are in agreement with it. In a further paper the author, by comparing the terms of the potential calculated, first, from the north component, and, secondly, from the east component of the field, shows that the daily variation of the field does not possess a potential, although it is, of course, always possible to deduce part of it from a potential. Tue physiological aspect of flying at high altitudes engages the attention of Dr. Guglielminetti in Génie Civil for March 20. The experiences of mountaineers, balloonists, and airmen who have flown to great heights are reviewed in turn. From tests carried out in the laboratory, and from the experience of Mosso and Agazotti (of Turin), Dr. Guglielminetti is in- clined to the opinion that the physiological disturb- ances caused at altitudes below 8000 metres are due ' to anoxyphemia, and above 8000 metres to acapnia. While the use of respirators having suitable reducing- valves controlled automatically by the varying pressure at different altitudes would no doubt afford a fairly satisfactory solution, the better way lies in the design of suitable closed cabins in which the air-pressure is maintained constant by compressing the air taken in from outside. M. Louis Breguet has already sug- gested a design of aeroplane in which the pilot and passengers would be so enclosed. The excess of air necessary for the engine at high altitudes would prob- ably be supplied by a turbine driven by the exhaust gases, such as has been suggested by Prof. Rateau. 402 NATURE [May 27, 1920 THE report of the Council of the Illuminating En- gineering Society, presented at the annual meeting on May 11, contains an interesting record of the past session’s work. Papers and discussions dealing with photometry, camouflage, colour-matching, motor-car head-lights, and lighting conditions in mines have been arranged, the last in co-operation with the Council . of British Ophthalmologists and the Royal Society of Medicine. The various committees working under the society, notably that conducting an inquiry into eyestrain in kinemas, afford evidence. of similar co- operative effort. Special attention has been devoted to industrial lighting in relation to health and safety, and it is hoped that before long general statutory pro- vision for adequate lighting will be introduced into the Factory Acts. The society hopes now to be able to resume its participation in the international treat- ment of illumination, and is represented in the person of its hon. secretary at the congress of the Royal Institute of Public Health taking place this month in Brussels. Following the presentation of the annual report, a paper on portable kinema outfits was read by Capt. J. W. Barber, several novel forms of ap- paratus being shown. TuHeE work of Willstatter and his collaborators has imparted considerable interest to that branch of bio- chemistry which includes the formation of antho- cyanins in plants. A suggestive paper on the subject is contributed to the April issue of the Biochemical Journal by O. Rosenheim. This. author has isolated in a crystalline form the red pigment of the young leaves of the grape-vine, and has shown that it is most probably identical with oenidin, the non-sugar component of the pigment of the purple grape. This is the first instance on record in which the red pig- ment of leaves consists of free anthocyanidin. The vine-leaves have been shown to contain also a colour- less modification of the pigment, possibly in com- bination with a carbohydrate or other complex. For this compound the general name “‘leuco-anthocyanin ”’ is suggested; it is converted into anthocyanidin by strong acids. The only representative of the family Vitis characterised by the production of free antho- cyanidin is the European species, Vitis vinifera, and it is pointed out that this biochemical test may prove useful in the investigation of genetic problems. An interesting paper by Eiichi: Yamasaki on ‘‘ The Chemical Kinetics of Catalase’? has recently ap- peared in the Science Reports of the Téhoku Imperial University (vof. ix., No. 1). The property formerly attributed to all enzymes of accelerating the decom- position of hydrogen peroxide is really a specific pro- perty of catalase, which is contained as an impurity in most enzyme preparations. Yamasaki was obtained from the edible sprout of a certain bamboo, Phyllostachys mitis, Riv. The velocity of decomposition of hydrogen peroxide by catalase is, in general, proportional to the concen- tration of the enzyme and of hydrogen peroxide, but The catalase used by > the reaction. “As to the cause of this decrease in activity, the author can only conclude that it is due to the substrate and product of reaction, hydrogen peroxide and oxygen; and the rate of decrease is approximately proportional to the principal reaction. The decrease in activity is not to be attributed to change in concentration of hydrogen ions. It has already been found that in a very dilute solution of hydrogen peroxide and a comparatively concentrated solution of catalase the relative activity increases in the first stage and then decreases gradually. This behaviour may be attributed to the facts (1) that the ordinary reaction would be carried out at a rate some- what higher than that which is calculated according to a first-order reaction; (2) that the rate is retarded with hydrogen peroxide and oxygen in ordinary cases ; (3) that such effects are observed only in the course of reaction in very diluted solutions, because the con- centration of both the substrate and the product are very small, i.e. the velocity constant has a maximum — value; and (4) that the retardation proceeds with the measurable velocity, which is approximately propor-— tional to the principal reaction. 3 Tue Rotary Club of London, composed of about three hundred members, each representing a different — trade or profession, and connected with twenty-five other rotary clubs in other parts of the British Isles, © has undestaken the urgent and important work of — endeavouring to find posts for demobilised men out of — employment. We are asked to direct attention to this most praiseworthy task and have much pleasure in doing so. Thousands of capable officers and men who were on active service during the war are now seeking employment, and particulars of vacancies of any kind may usefully be sent to Mr. Edward Unwin, jun., at the ‘Rotary Room,” Horrex’s Hotel, Norfolk Street, Strand, London, W.C.2. : Mr. H. Martin Leake, Director of Agriculture, United Provinces, India, is publishing through Messrs. W. Heffer and Sons, Ltd., ‘‘The Bases of Agricultural Practice and Economics in the United Provinces, India,” in which the history of agriculture is traced; the fundamental facts of agricultural prac- tice and economics are described; the lines upon which. agricultural practice is likely to develop are brought out, and emphasis is laid upon the fact that recent advances in scientific knowledge have made it possible for directed, as opposed to undirected or empirical, methods to be employed. It further indicates the weaknesses of the present economic system, and. develops the idea of co-partnership in the land between: landlord, tenant, and Government. Messrs. Dutau aNnD Co., Ltp., 34 Margaret Street, W.1, have just issued a catalogue (No. 82) of an important botanical library recently purchased by them, the volumes in which are now offered separately. The works listed number 593, and many are scarce. The catalogue is one likely to interest all students: of botany, and copies may be had of Messrs. Dulau: the activity of the catalase decreases in the course of upon application. NO. 2639, VOL. 105 | May 27, 1920] NATURE 403 Our Astronomical Column. RONOMICAL ANNOUNCEMENTS By WIRELESS TELE- ty.—Prof. Kobold, editor of Astr. Nachrichten, irector of the Centralstelle, delegated the ‘latter k& to Prof. Strémgren, Copenhagen, during the t has now resumed it, and announces in ach., 5044, that arrangements have been made distribution of astronomical information by ee aed from the Nauen station. Such will bear the signature ‘‘Obs.,”’ and it is ed that institutions that wish to receive them make arrangements with the wireless station to them that receives Nauen messages. It that they will make a contribution to the the service. The idea of using wireless in this r is certainly a good one, and might be of service in the case of such unexpected pheno- as the outburst of nove, where early observa- are of special value. _ ASTROGRAPHIC CaTaLoGuE.—This great under- king, 6 a third of a_century ago, is still far completion, many of the observatories that ook to collaborate having dropped out, from neial or other reasons. Their zones were after- ds allotted elsewhere, and one of the new ob- tories (Hyderabad) may be mentioned in par- lar for its praiseworthy energy. The late director, r. R. J. Pocock, unhappily died without seeing the « completed; but thanks to the Nizam’s gener- T. P. Bhaskaran, who has just published vol. iii., containing measures of rectangular co-ordinates of $8,745 star-images on plates with centres in decl.— 19°. ~The form of publication is similar to that in the Greenwich and Oxford catalogues. _.Tmat Friction aND THE LuNaR AND SOLAR SELERATIONS.—Dr. H. Jeffreys has a paper on this ‘subject in the Monthly Notices for January, in which ve quotes- Major G. I. Taylor’s result in Phil. Trans., A, ccxx., that tidal friction in the Irish ‘Sea accounts for 1/56th of the required dissipation of energy, assuming that the moon’s secular accelera- tion “eet 8 _ century, which is 4-4" above the amount calculated from planetary action on the -earth’s orbit. The accelerations are here measured, _as is customary, by the space gained at the end of a century. Dr. Jeffreys uses the more strictly logical system of the velocity gained, and, consequently, doubles the value of the acceleration. He gives a list of the seas that seem likely to contribute to the tidal effect, and. concludes that they are capable of producing the whole of it. The tidal acceleration of the moon is the difference of two terms: (1) the apparent acceleration due to the slackening of the rth’s rotation, and (2) the actual retardation due increase of distance. In the case of the sun only 1) is present, though there may be further accelera- tion if the earth is travelling in a resisting medium. Dr. Jeffreys finds for the solar acceleration 1-56" on his stem—that is, 0-78” on the usual system. Dr. Fotheringham has rediscussed the accelerations rom all available ancient observations. He finds 10} or. the moon, and 1”, or somewhat more, for the sun. The corresponding period for the large empirical lunar term is 260 years. Prof. Turner finds that this riod agrees well with the periods deduced from Chinese earthquake records and from those of Nile floods. He also confirms it by statistics of tree- growth, derived from a study of their annual rings. He suggests that the earth is pulsating in this period with consequent alteration in its rotation, which pro- duces an apparent fluctuation in the moon’s motion, and smaller ones in that of the sun and planets. NO. 2639, VOL. 105 | the work is continuing under his successor, Mr. ° The Iron and Steel Institute. a HE annual meeting of the Iron and Steel Institute, held in London on May 6-7, was rendered noteworthy by the fact that the incoming president was Dr. J. E.. Stead. It is somewhat re- markable that Dr. Stead has not been elected to this office before. He has been engaged in metallur- gical work for fifty years, has reached the age of seventy, and no metallurgist in this country holds a higher international reputation. He has carried out a considerable number of researches of first-rate import- ance which are remarkable for their suggestiveness and technique, and he possesses in a striking degree the confidence and respect of those engaged in the industry. The explanation, however, is forthcoming in the opening sentences of his address, from which it is clear that he was invited to fill this office some years ago, but refused as he did not consider he was qualified, to use his own words, ‘‘to accept such an exalted position.’’ It is quite safe to say that this mis- giving has never been shared by anyone else. Dr. Stead finally yielded to the strong representations of his fellow-members on the council, and his acceptance of the office of president has been received with wide- spread gratification by the institute. His presidential address is an attempt to pass in review the progress made in the ferrous industries during the past fifty years. This proved to be a gigantic piece of work, and it isnot surprising to learn that Dr. Stead found more trouble in condensing than in collecting the voluminous data so as to bring them within the limits of an address. Even so, it turned out that he was not able to read more than one-third, of it. The address is divided into a series of sections © which deal successively with the blast-furnace, the puddling process, science in the foundry, the basic Bessemer and basic open-hearth processes, electric furnaces, the production of sound ingots, the recog- nition of science, the advent and progress of metallo- graphy, the application of science to the ferrous in- dustries, the encouragement of science, and technical education. Within the limits of this article it is only possible to touch briefly on the subject-matter of three of these sections. (1) Blast-furnace Practice.—It appears from the accumulated experience of this branch of the industry that no object is gained by in- creasing the capacity of the furnace above 30,000 cubic feet, and that its working is best controlled by having a separate blowing engine for each furnace. Increased output per furnace can be achieved by widening the diameter of the hearth and increasing the volume of the air blown in. The gases issuing from the furnace-top should be conserved by the adoption of the double bell or some similar system. The maximum proportion of their calorific value should be used by freeing them from dust, controlling the proportion of air for their combustion, and main- taining a low exit temperature. Coke-ovens should be close to furnaces and the coke handled as little as possible after it leaves them so as to avoid the production of ‘‘ fines,’’ and should be sufficiently hard to resist crushing. Fine coke disorganises the regular working of the furnace and reduces the output of pig- iron. It should, therefore, be sieved off and either used for other purposes or briquetted, if the process be not too costly, and then charged into the furnace. Dr. Stead concludes that there is sufficient evidence to show that given efficient gas-engines it is advisable to use them in preference to steam-engines. One of the still unsolved problems is the utilisation of the heat carried out of the furnaces in the slag. Inas- much as the gas and the heat obtained from the 404 NATURE [May 27, 1920 blast-furnaces and coke-ovens exceed the require- ments of the blast-furnaces, he regards it as probable that in cases where coke-ovens, blast-furnaces, and steelworks are grouped together sufficient gas will be available to do all the heating at the steelworks without using any raw coal. (2) Electric Furnaces.—The electro-thermal steel fur- nace, which up to 1914 had produced only a very small proportion even of the higher grades of steel, was developed with great rapidity in this country during the war. Germany led in this branch of the industry, and most of the German electric steel was made by refining basic Bessemer steel. Furnaces of 30 tons capacity were used for this purpose. The U.S.A., Italy, and France were all ahead of England in production. To-day the U.S.A. leads, followed by Germany and England. It is stated, however, that the actual number of furnaces and the amount of power used are greater in England than in Germany. By the end of 1918 no fewer than about 140 furnaces of all types were in use in this country, with a production of 150,000 tons per annum. During the war the output in these furnaces was principally used for making steel for bullet-proof plates, aeroplanes, motor-cars, armour-piercing shells, and steel helmets. Stainless steel is being made in increasing quantities, as are also nickel-chromium and other alloy steels. The significant statement is made that on the Tyne electro. thermal steel is being manufactured at a price which can compete with the acid open-hearth steel, since cheap power is available from coke-oven gas. A great ad- vance is foreshadowed in Dr. Stead’s reference to the melting of steel in vacuo. Mr. Albert Hiorth, of Christiania, has designed an induction furnace of this type in which the steel is melted and then cooled. Afterwards it is removed and cut up into sections for forgings. It is stated that in this wav steel free from honeycomb and gases is obtained. While it is probable that this process is likely to be, for the pre- sent, applied only to the highest qualities of steel, ex- perience may indicate tke desirability of its extension to other varieties later on. (3) Technical Education.—Dr. Stead finally puts in a powerful plea for the better education of the technical staffs and workmen engaged in the industry. He mentions that many vears ago he discussed and for- mulated a scheme with the late Mr. Andrew Carnegie whereby there was to be established in every indus- trial centre an institute which could be used as the headquarters of local technical societies, consisting of metallurgists, engineers, electricians, chemists, and others. At this centre proceedings of technical societies and all technical publications were to be assembled. Indexes of subject-matter would be pre- pared by a competent staff, and supplied to the general managers of the various industries. After many years’ discussion a step in this direction has been taken in the Middlesbrough district. Suitable premises have been obtained, which are being re- constructed to meet local requirements. The sum of about 10,0001. has been subscribed, and there are promises of annual subscriptions. This, however, is only a beginning, and Dr. Stead, who has nothing if not vision, contemplates an annual contribution from the iron and steel industry for the purpose of making the scheme adequate. He suggests a con- tribution of o-1 per cent. on the capital invested, or I per cent. on the actual dividends. Taking the former at, roughly, about 250,000,000l., the annual charge would be 250,000l. A fund of this magnitude should be sufficient in his opinion to enable technical institutes to be established and maintained in the eight principal iron- and steel-making districts and in NO. 2639, VOL. 105 | ‘bring it to fruition. London, and to carry on their work with a “ fair | degree of efficiency.’’ It is to be hoped that this suggestion of Dr. Stead’s will be vigorously taken up by his council, and a serious attempt made to H. C. H. Carpenter. The University of London. GOVERNMENT OFFER OF A SITE. A? a meeting of the Senate of the University of | London, held on May 18, the Vice-Chancellor, — Dr. Russell Wells, reported that the Chancellor, the Earl of Rosebery, had received from the President — of the Board of Education, Mr. H. A. L. Fisher, — a communication in the following terms, dated April 7 :— : i ‘““The Government have watched with sympathetic — interest the efforts which the universities have been making to fit themselves for the task that the period _ imposes on them, and to ‘take — of reconstruction advantage of the opportunities for extending their usefulness which are offered by the steadily growing public recognition of the national importance of a Nowhere are — good system of university education. the opportunities more favourable than in London; ee, ia BS for as the capital city of the Empire, with the un- — matched facilities for many branches of study and research which its great national collections, hospitals, — and public institutions provide, London has always attracted a large number of students, not only from : all parts of the United Kingdom, but also from over- . seas. The war has deepened the general sense of — Imperial and international solidarity and has spread — more widely an understanding of the mutual benefits — d which the different peoples derive from drawing closer — the relations between their educational systems; and — it is accordingly to be anticipated that in the near future many more university students will be coming to London from our Dominions and Colonies and from foreign countries. This will inevitably place a very serious strain upon the teaching resources of ‘ the University of London and will add considerably 4 to the alreadv grave difficulties of organisation by which the University has long been confronted. The Government have, during the past vear, sanctioned large increases in the grant to the teaching institu- tions included in the University of London, as in the grants 'to the other universities and colleges throughout the country, and no doubt these addi- tional grants should go some way towards enabling the University to meet its increased responsibilities. The mere increase of the grants to individual colleges will not, however, by itself dispose of the special problem which London University has to solve, and the Government are accordingly prepared to take a further step which thev consider likely to prove of © verv material assistance to the University at this critical stage of its development. re “Tt has seemed to the Government that this is a — suitable. time at which to make an offer which thev _ have long had under consideration and which they — think should helo to remove a good many of the administrative difficulties involved in the housing of the University headquarters in the Imperial Institute at South Kensington. now in a position to acquire a site of about 114 acres behind the British Museum, and they offer to devote — it gratis and in perpetuity to the provision of a site — for new headquarters of the University and for colleges — and institutions connected with it, including King’s — College, whose premises in the Strand are now The Government are — : 4 ae a en ee te ee Bene 27; 1920] NATURE 405 _ inadequate for its needs. It would be out of place for me to enlarge on the advantages to be expected from securing the concentration of the headquarters University and its two incorporated colleges single site, in a quiet residential quarter close ur greatest National Library and Museum, and ible of expansion in the future as the need may se. The merits of this site, as of other alternative 2s which have from time to time been suggested, , I know, been the subject of -much discussion the friends of university education in London, I have no doubt that the University is fully ised of the considerations which need to be ighed. I have no desire to persuade the University inst its will. No one recognises more fully than estinies and shape their own policies. The responsi- lity for accepting or declining the Government’s : er must rest wholly with the University, which _ alone is in a position to estimate how far the proposal | communicate to you is likely to advance what it ei to be its true interests. The view of the Government is, I think, sufficiently indicated by their willingness to provide for the University a site of great value in the heart of London, at a time when there is’no temptation to incur expenditure upon any _ but objects of first-rate urgency and importance. “Tt had at one time been my hope that the Govern- ment would be able to offer not only the site of which I have spoken, but also the buildings for the new _ University headquarters: the Government have, how- ever, reluctantly come to the conclusion that, while _they are prepared to make such provision as will secure the University from loss in respect of main- _ tenance charges on the new University headquarters, ___ the state of the national finances did not justify their _ undertaking to provide the cost of the buildings them- selves from public funds. They feel that in a matter _ _ in which the honour and dignity of the City of London _. are so nearly concerned, the University can look with _ confidence to the generosity and public spirit which have abways marked the citizens of London: it can _ do this with the greater assurance that recent years have shown an increasing readiness upon the part of _ the great business. community to respond to appeals for University purposes. “JT am aware that a matter of such importance to the University needs to be fully discussed, and that I cannot fairly expect an immediate answer to the __ Government’s offer. At the same time the University __will understand that the Government are naturally _ anxious to know as soon as possible whether their __ Offer will be accepted or not, since, if it should be declined, they propose to make early use of the site for other purposes. I have, therefore, to ask that the University’s answer may not be unduly delayed.” as matter was referred to a special committee ____ for consideration and report as speedily as possible. - * Genetic Studies of Drosophila. N2 single animal has provided such a rich field for discovery in genetics as the little fruit-fly Droso- _phila (usually known as D. ampelophila, but now called D. melanogaster), and in this large and hand- __ somely illustrated volume Prof. Morgan and his col- _ laborators bring together the results of some of their __—_« Contributions to the Genetics of Drosophila melanogaster. 1. “The Origin of Gynandromorphs.” By T. H. Morgan and 'C. B. Bridges. _* IL. ** The Second Chromosome Group of Mutant Characters.” By C. B. Bridges and T. H. Morgan. UII. “Inherited Linkage Variations in the _ Second Chromosome.” By A. H. Sturtevant. IV. ‘“*A Demonstration of _ Genes Modifying the Character ‘Notch,.’” By T. H.-Morgan: Pp. v+ & 388+12 plates. Publication No. 278. (Washington: Carnegie Institution Washington, 1919.) NO. 2639, VOL. 105 | do the right of universities to control their own . recent work upon it. Of the four parts into which the book is divided, the most interesting is the first, dealing with the gynandromorphic specimens that have appeared in Prof. Morgan’s and Dr. Bridges’s experi- ments, and including a most valuable summary and discussion of gynandromorphism in other animals. In Drosophila it appears that about one individual in every 2200 is gynandromorphic, but these gynandro- morphs are most varied in their combination of male and female characters. A considerable proportion of those described are bilateral, with male secondary sex- characters on one side and female on the other; a smaller number are ‘‘fore and aft’’; while the majority are irregular mosaics, most often with a preponderance of female characters. It is a remark- able fact, however, that in Drosophila, contrary to what is usual in animals of other groups, the two gonads are always of the same sex—doubtless, as the authors point out, in consequence of the very early separation of the primitive germ-cells in the Diptera. As a result of this, it may happen that a fly is externally almost entirely of one sex while containing germ-cells of the other sex, so that Nature here con- firms the conclusion reached by Meisenheimer and by Kopeé from transplantation experiments, that the sex of the gonad in insects has no influence on the secondary sexual characters. Flies externally chiefly male, but having ovaries instead of testes, court normal females, but attract males. The authors believe that in all but very exceptional cases gynandromorphs of Drosophila are derived from fertilised eggs which would normally produce females, i.e. from eggs containing two X-chromosomes, and that the male portions arise from cells in which one X-chromosome has been lost through an abnormal mitosis in one of the early segmentation divisions. The evidence for this conclusion is that in almost every instance the sex-linked factors borne (according to the chromosome hypothesis) by the two X-chromo- somes introduced from the parents are distributed as might be expected between the male and female por- tions of the fly. For example, a wild-type female (heterozygous for eosin eye and miniature wing) was crossed with an eosin-miniature male. A gynandro- morph among the offspring was female on the left side, with red eyes and long wing, while the right side was male with eosin eye and miniature wing. The explanation offered is that elimination of the | maternal X-chromosome on the right side allowed the recessive eosin-miniature characters borne by the remaining X-chromosome to appear. Morgan’s earlier hypothesis of the production of gynandromorphs by the entrance of two spermatozoa into the egg, and Boveri’s of the division of the egg-nucleus before con- jugation with the sperm-nucleus, are excluded by the fact that the non-sex-linked characters borne by the two parents are not divided between the parts showing different sexes. In respect of these characters, all parts of the gynandromorph, whether male or female, bear the dominant characters, whether they are intro. duced by the male or female parent. The analysis of these gynandromorphs thus gives important confirma- tion to the theory of chromosomes as bearers of hereditary characters. It is remarkable, in this con- nection, that although elimination of the paternal and maternal X-chromosome is equally common, evidence for the elimination of other chromosomes, which would give mosaics in characters unconnected with sex, is very rarely obtained. Analysis of the records of gynandromorphs in other groups of animals shows that most are susceptible of the same explanation. In a few cases some other hypothesis, such as that of a binucleate egg, must be invoked. It should be noted that in part i. there 406 NATURE [May 27, 1920 are several slips and misprints; on plate ii., Figs. 4 and 5 are transposed, according to the description; on p. 28 the word ‘‘visible’’ appears to be a mis- print for “‘recessive’’; and on p. 86, 1. 26, ‘‘ female” is printed for ‘‘male,” etc. But apart from’ these slips and the rather inconvenient arrangement of the subject-matter, the work is the most valuable on the subject of gynandromorphism with which we are acquainted. Space does not allow of more than a brief reference to the other three parts. Part ii. discusses in detail all the mutant characters that have occurred in ‘‘ the second chromosome,” i.e. those characters belonging to the second linked group which are not sex-limited (sex-linked) in inheritance. Full data of crossing- over ratios are given, and on the basis of these a map of the chromosome is constructed, like those previously published for the X-chromosome. Part iii. deals with inherited linkage variations in the same group, and it is concluded that two factors, the posi- tion of which in the series is determinable by their linkage relations, reduce the amount of crossing-over between certain factors without altering their sequence in the series. Part iv. describes the isolation by selection of a factor which affects the extent of development of the character ‘‘notch’’ in the wing, and proves that change -resulting from selection is due, not to an alteration in the factor for ‘‘notch,”’ but to the presence of a distinct modifying factor. It is also shown that Castle’s hypothesis of con- tamination by heterozygosis is untenable. Finally, it is impossible to read the facts presented in this volume without being impressed by the great strength of the evidence for Morgan’s theory that Mendelian factors are borne by chromosomes and arranged in definite sequence within them. Difficul- ties remain, but a theory which enables predictions to be made and verified cannot lightlv be disregarded. L. DONCASTER. The Conservation of Fuel. fe view of the importance of national economy in our fuel reserves, it is not surprising to find that Sir Dugald Clerk selected the subject of the con- servation of fuel in the United Kingdom for the James Forrest lecture which he delivered at the Institution of Civil Engineers on April 20. The coal raised in 1913 was about 287-4 million tons, of which 189 million tons were retained and consumed here. The total coal reserves at 2 per cent. per annum increase will be exhausted in about 250 years, but fuel will be so expensive long before that time has elapsed that we shall be hard pressed to maintain the existing population. A return to the agricultural civilisation of 1750 would reauire the reduction of our population to one-third. It is of the utmost importance to study the engineering problems arising. A great part of the lecture was taken up in criticis- ing the figures given by the Coal Conservation Com- mittee. It will be remembered that this Committee advocated the establishment of large turbo-electric stations at about sixteen centres, and the covering of the country with a network of mains capable of supplying our whole power needs by electric motors. By this scheme the Committee expected to save 55 million tons of coal on power alone. Many competent elec- tricians and capable motive-power engineers have the gravest doubts as to the accuracy of the data pre- sented, and as to the outcome of the ambitious scheme advocated. The Committee adonted the figure of 5 Ib. of coal ver horse-power-hour as the present consumption; Sir Dugald gave estimations arrived at NO. 2639, VOL. 105 | by two different methods: one of 3-9 Ib. per b-h.p.- hour and another of 4-05 lb. per bhp how ‘the first value is based on a census of production data corrected by allowing for steam production other than for motive power, and for an error in total h.p.- hours as determined by the Committee. The second value of 4-05 lb. is estimated by considering the average of many typical steam engines. Taking the whole of the facts into consideration, and assuming electricity in the’ future to be used for the generation of power and light only, then a reduction to 1°56 lb. of coal per b.h.p.-hour would give a possible saving of not more than 373 million tons of coal per annum. The saving of 55 million tons expected by the Com- mittee is, in Sir Dugald Clerk’s opinion, based on fallacious reasoning. The Committee in its report clearly intends also to generate heat, and expects to do so with economy superior to the existing systems of coal and gas com- bustion. Sir Dugald went into the question of the comparison of gas with electricity for domestic heat- ing, and arrived at the figure of 43-6 per cent. of the heat used at the gasworks as the proportion which the, consumer receives at his premises; taking the efficiency of the gas at 42 per cent., the final efficiency, referred to the heat consumption at the gasworks, is 43°6X0-42=18-3 per cent. In electric heating the con- sumer receives 11-7 per cent. of the heat consumed in the thermodynamic transformation at the super-station, and using this with an efficiency of 59 per cent., the consumer obtains in his apparatus 11-7 x 0-59=6-9 per cent. of the heat units consumed at the generating station. Assuming the gasworks to be abolished, and — electric generating stations to be expanded so as to supply current for heat supply. at the same generating efficiency as for power, and taking all facts into con- sideration, million tons of coal per annum will be consumed instead of 67-5; he therefore considers that the super- stations will not justify their existence, that the Government scheme is wrong, and that the sweeping conclusions arrived at by the Coal ‘Conservation Committee are unjustifiable. Sir Dugald gives some methods of saving fuel which are immediately applicable. Great changes are now in operation throughout the gas industry due to the adoption of the thermal unit standard for sale. few years the majority of gasworks will deliver to the consumer in the form of gas 75 per cent. of the whole heat of the coal, and the improvements in gas apparatus, etc., are so great that the efficiency of use of. the gas will rise from 42 to 55 per cent. He estimates that a saving of 4-8 million tons of coal on the present consumption will result from these changes. On the assumption of the complete displace- “ment of coal in households by gas, we should use only 17-5 million tons instead of 35 millions. Mr. D. Brownlie’s figures for coal consumed in boiler furnaces were quoted. If boiler attendants be better trained, and masters take some pride in obtain- ing best efficiencies, a saving of 4 million tons per annum would result. Collieries consume about 17 million tons per annum in boiler furnaces at an average efficiency of 55-5 per cent. If this be raised to 75 per cent., the saving on this item would be 44 million tons per annum. The notion of the great gain to be expected from very large steam turbines is held to be quite erroneous. Even with the most modern plant an increase in power per turbine from 10,000 to 100,000 kilowatts only reduces the steam consumption from 9 to 8-5 Ib. per kilowatt-hour. A recent examination by Sir Sir Dugald estimates that the whole assumed saving on power will be lost, and that 68-6 In a Pe ee ee ee ee ee ee ery eh May 27, 1920] as NATURE 407 _ Dugald of the limits of thermal efficiency of gas and _ oil engines shows that 45 per cent. b.h.p. may be _ obtained in the near future. Sir Charles Parsons at the same time prepared an estimate of the limiting efficiency of the steam turbine as 28 per cent. Steam, ‘internal-combusion, and gas engineers welcome the competition with electricity supply, but consider it any attempt to crush out the smaller power units ‘a great Government scheme will act against the interests of the country as to both coal conserva- tion and economy in cost. _ Sir Dugald also referred to the principle of heating wns by utilising the exhaust steam from steam tur- bines if central stations, and to Lord Kelvin’s proposal to heat rooms by means of reversed Carnot cycle engines. By making full use of our water-power, three million horse-power could be added to the work of the country without consuming any additional coal Buddhism in the Pacific. A? a meeting of the Royal Anthropological Insti- _ 4+ tute on Tuesday, May 18, Sir Everard im _ Thurn, president, in the chair, Sir Henry Howorth read a paper on ‘Buddhism in the Pacific.’’ The ; paper discussed the disintegrated distribution of the _ Polynesian race, and the occurrence, especially in the _ Hawaian archipelago and that of New Zealand, of two of its factors which are separated by the whole of the Pacific Ocean, one occurring in the extreme north and the other in the extreme south, and separated by an intervening area occupied largely _ by Melanesians. The two factors in question agree __yery closely in language, while they differ materially * in the art and form of the objects which they use. Inasmuch as the Maoris almost certainly migrated to _ their nt quarters at the beginning of the E fifteenth century, this is the only way to account for _ the virtual identity of their speech with that of the Hawaians, and the general character of their orna- mental work with that of the Melanesians. The Hawaians, on the other hand, present us with a series of objects, i.e. helmets and cloaks, made of feathers which, in their form and colour, differ entirely from those made by other members of the Polynesian race. They agree in an extraordinary way in colour and form with those of the Reformed Lamaists of Tibet, _awho, like other Buddhists, were great travellers and evangelists at a time when Chinese and Japanese vessels, as has been so completely proved in recent “years, were traversing the Indian Ocean and visiting the whole of the eastern archipelago at least as far as New Guinea, and apparently even reaching New Zealand. where many vears ago a very interesting bronze figure was found. B. Sir Henry Howorth quoted instances of the drift- ing and wreckage of Chinese and Japanese vessels on the central and eastern Pacific during the time which has elapsed since Euroveans first visited that ocean, and also the tradition of the Sandwich Islanders that several Japanese and Chinese ships had been wrecked among them in early times. ; It was not wonderful, therefore, that we should _ find their kings and gods adopting the stately dress used by the Lamas, the colours of which they imi- tated in feathers. All the details of the helmets exactly equate, while the cloaks are ornamented with patches of red on yellow or yellow on red, just as the Lamaist cloaks are. in the latter case in pursuance of the injunction of their founder that their cloaks . must be ragged and patched. a In the interesting discussion which followed the reading of the paper, Dr. Glanvill Corney cited examples, some of which had come under his own NO. 2639, VOL. 105 | obsetvation, of the drifting of boats with native crews for long distances in the Pacific, and pointed out that the Polynesians were always ready to put out to sea. The Chinese had it ‘on record that Buddhists visited Mexico at a very early date. The similarity shown by the helmets and cloaks of Hawaii and Tibet was very striking, and the explanation offered by Sir Henry Howorth was most probable. Mr. Ray said that he himself for some years had been of the opinion that certain elements had been carried into Polynesia at least from Malaya, if not from farther—possibly Japan. The characteristic of the Polynesian was that he was very prone to imitate anything which took his fancy, as, for instance, Euro- pean hats had been imitated. The Cambridge Ex- pedition to the Torres Straits had found a club which “was clearly an imitation of a Loyalty Islands club. Mr. Hocart said that in dealing with the wander- ings of the Polynesians too much stress had been laid on drifting, but deliberate purpose should be more emphasised. There was among the Polynesians a distinct passion for finding out new lands. Dr. Forbes adduced as evidence of early movement Chinese objects which he had seen taken from Peru- vian graves which were certainly pre-Inca in date. Sir Everard im Thurn, in bringing the discussion to a close, said that Buddhist monks might well have accompanied the early voyagers in the Pacific. His attention had recently been directed to the question of the Hawaian helmets, and he wished to point out that the native peoples of the Pacific were very fond of making head-coverings for use on ceremonial occasions. They vaid great attention to the orna- mental dressing of their hair, and if their hair were not suitable for this purpose they made artificial hair out of grass seed. He himself had brought back from Fiji an example of a native wig used in a cere- monial dance, which was now in the Pitt Rivers Museum at Oxford. It was probable, therefore, in view of this particular tendency, that the Hawaians would take readily to copying the head-dress of the Buddhists. This particular form of head-dress or helmet was not confined to Hawaii; objects orna- mented with men’s heads wearing head-dresses like those of Hawaii occurred in Hermit Island, near New Ireland. Astronomy at Oxford during the War. WE have recently ‘received from Prof. H. H. Turner, of the Oxford University Observatory, a collection of papers published during the years 1914-19. These for the most part are reprints from the Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, and represent researches carried out during this period by Prof. Turner and various members of his staff, including several volunteer workers who have rendered some valuable assistance. It is, of course, impossible adequately to discuss a miscel- laneous collection of papers such as this in any detail, but there are several outstanding features of interest which call for special remark. In the first place, a considerable number of the papers is devoted to an important research of Prof. Turner’s on ‘‘A Proposal for the Comparison of the Stellar Magnitude Scales of the Different Observa- tories taking Part in the Astrographic Catalogue.’’ This was first outlined at Paris in 1909, the proposal being: ‘‘That the number of images recorded under each unit of the magnitude scale be counted and tabulated.’’ The chief objects in view were to detect systematic errors of scale at the various collaborating observatories, and to test Prof. Kapteyn’s con- ‘clusion that the Galaxy is relatively richer in faint 408 NATURE [May 27, 1920 ‘stars than the remaining parts of the sky—a theory upon which some doubt had been cast by earlier work of this nature. The method, although of extreme simplicity, has certainly proved efficient for the first of these objects, and various systematic errors of scale have been clearly exhibited. With regard to the second object, an examination of the ratio of the number of faint stars to bright in the various regions investigated appeared at first to negative Prof. Kapteyn’s .con- clusion; but, although this ratio was not found to vary with galactic latitude, certain changes were detected in different parts of the sky. Prof. Turner has thus been led to the interesting conclusion that regions of ‘*‘ obscuration "’ exist which tend to obliterate the fainter stars, and these regions appear to form a ‘spiral in the heavens, the central line of which is approximately given by the equation a+ 3:668= 247°, where a denotes right ascension and 6 declination. ‘There appears to be a fairly sharp boundary to this ‘spiral of obscuration ’’ on the side of smaller R.A. in the northern hemisphere, and on the side of greater R.A. in the southern hemisphere. Another very valuable piece of work is represented by a series of papers on ‘‘ Baxendell’s Observations -of Variable Stars,’’ edited by Prof. Turner and Miss -M. A. Blagg. heard (‘‘ degrowth ’’). The demonstration was, in Dr. Waller’s opinion, illusory. The movement to the right (indicating an elongation of petiole=o-1 m. per sec.) was indeed consistent with ‘‘ growth,’’ although its rate was surprisingly high under the conditions of experiment. The elongation might, however, have been due to, or modified by, many accidental varia- tions of conditions—heat, moisture, handling of plant during preparation, etc.—and was precisely similar to the gradual elongation that takes place in a damp fiddle-string under similar conditions. The second part of the experiment, when the ‘‘ excited ’’ plant shortened. and caused the indicator to flv off to the left, is held to afford conclusive proof of fallacy. The fact belonged to the familiar phenomena of heat contraction aroused by electrical currents in all kinds of (doubly refracting) moist conductors, whether living or dead, to the study of which attention was directed by Engelmann in his Croonian Lecture of 1895. These .are demonstrable with a low-power crescograph (x 10°), and play a part in masking or simulating phvsiological changes when a high power (x 10’) is employed.—W. N. F. Woeod- land: The ‘renal portal’? svstem (renal venous meshwork) and kidney excretion in vertebrata. The first three narts of this memoir contain, in the first place, proof that the assumption, commonly made in physiological literature, that the venous blood _sup- plied ” to the kidneys of lower vertebrata mixes with _ bromine. 2 a ee _G. Chaudron: May 27, 1920] NATURE All arterial blood and traverses the system of channels known in mammals: as the intertubular plexus, is _€rroneous—the renal afferent vein-blood does not pply the kidney tubules. The renal artery-blood traverses the intertubular plexus proper, and the renal erent vein-blood a system of wide sinusoids (renal yenous meshwork), which has no connection with the intertubular plexus, save that the latter opens into the ‘mer where the venous blood flows into the renal efferent veins. In the second place, much experimental! and otherevidence is provided to prove that the “renal _ portal ”” system is devoid of function so far as kidney secretion is concerned. Evidence is also adduced to shew that the urine is solely secreted by the renal _ tubules, tne glomeruli taking no part. The glomeruli _ {as will be explained in the forthcoming Part iv.) are _ solely*to be regarded as retia mirabilia and function as such. This is the tubule-cum-rete theory of kidney secretion. , Zoological Society, May 11.—Prof. J. P. Hill, vice- ae president, in the chair._Dr. W. J. Dakin: Fauna of Western Australia. III. Further contributions to the study of the Onychovhora.—C. Forster-Cooper : Chali- cotheroidea from Baluchistan. Paris. Academy of Sciences, May 3.—M. Henri Deslandres. in the chair.—C. Moureu and J. C. Bongrand : New re- searches on carbon sub-nitride. The action of the halogens, haloid acids, and alcohols. Numerous attempts to prepare the compound CN—C =C—CN in quantity proved unsuccessful, and hence experiments on this substance had to be confined to those requir- ing little material. The sub-nitride combines with ) Hydrobromic acid gives bromobutene di- nitrile, CN—CH=CBr—CN, and hydriodic acid fur- nishes the corresponding iodine compound. Hvdro- chlorie acid acts differently, addition and partial hy- drolysis taking place simultaneously, giving chloro- _butene nitrile amide, CN—CFE =CCI—CONH.. Ethyl alcohol forms an addition product, probably ethoxybutene-dinitrile-—]. Constantin: The fossil challk Siphonez of Munier-Chalmas.—A. Blondel : Best conditions to be fulfilled by long-distance electric cables for energy transmission. Practical solutions.— A. de Gramont: The spectrographic detection | of metals, especially zinc, in animal organisms. Details of the application of the spectrograph to the detection of zinc in the ash from snake poison—G. Julia: Families of functions of several variables.—B. Jekhowsky : Differential equations of the second order verified by Bessel’s functions of several variables.—J. Kampé de Fériet: The use of generalised differentials for the formation and integration of certain linear differential equations.—MM. Descolas and Prétet: The macrographic study of the propagation of cooling in the interior of a steel ingot starting from its sclidi- fication. The method is based on the appearance of _ the specimen after etching with dilute sulphuric acid (77 in 5).—D. Wondros: The integration of the La- place eauation between two non-concentric spheres.— M. Broglie: The properties of reinforcing screens with respect to X-ray spectra and on a split- ting of the 8 line of the K spectrum of tungsten.— Reversible reactions of water on tungsten and the oxides of tungsten. K =A0) has been studied at temperatures between 2 600° C. and 1000° C: The results are given in both numerical and graphical forms.—C. Zenghelis and B. Papaconstantinou : Colloidal rhodium. Sodium rhodio- chloride was reduced in presence of sodium protal- binate by various reducing agents, hydrazine sulphate, NO. 2639, VOL. 105 | The. constant | hydrogen gas, and formaldehyde, the last of which gave the best preparation. After dialysis and drying in a vacuum, brilliant scales are obtained which are very stable. Solutions have remained unchanged for two years. The crystals contain 33 per cent. of rhodium. Colloidal rhodium absorbs about 2700 times its volume of hydrogen, and from 300 to 1800 times its volume of carbon monoxide, according to the conditions.—O. Bailly: The action of neutral methyl and ethyl sulphates on alkaline phosphates in aqueous solution.—J. B. Semderens and J. Aboulenc ; The catalytic decomposition of the fatty acids by carbon. ‘The vapours of the fatty acids, from acetic to isovaleric, give no gas at 460° C. in the absence of a catalyst; but in presence of purified animal charcoal decomposition takes place at 360° to 380° C. The products of the reaction include carbon monoxide and dioxide, unsaturated hydrocarbons, hydrogen and methane, a_ liquid containing water, and traces of ketones and aldehydes. Sugar _ carbon is less active as a catalyst, and a much higher temperature is required to effect the decomposition.— P. Guérin and A. Goris: A new plant containing coumarin, Melettis melissophyllum. The presence of coumarin in this labiate has been proved: it probably occurs as a glucoside hydrolysable by emulsin.—Ad. Davy de Virville: Note on the comparative geogra- phical distribution of Primula officinalis, P. grandi- flora, and P. elatior in the weste of France. P. grandiflora grows best in damp, shady spots, whilst P. officinalis prefers dry soil and positions ex- posed to sun; hence, although hybrids of these two species are readily formed, they rarely occur in Nature. In railway cuttings the conditions favourable to each species may occur in close proximity, and hence the hybrid is particularly abundant along railway lines. It is suggested that P. elatior may have originated as a hybrid between the two species above-mentioned.— H. Coupin: Seedlings which turn green in_ the dark. The green colouring matter of pine seedlings grown in thé absence of light is not identical with that of pine seedlings grown in daylight. The differ- ences are marked in Pinus sylvestris, less marked in P. pinea, and slight in P. maritima.—A. Mayer: The mode of action of the ovoison_ gases utilised during the war —J. Nageotte: Formation and structure of blood-clots.—H. Violle: Mill and hamo- lysis. Normal milk does not produce hamolysis of red blood corpuscles, not even when mixed with 30 per cent. of its volume of water. Any milk producing hemolysis after this addition of water is abnormal.— M. Marage: The limits of debility and pretuberculosis. —P. Wintrebert : Medullary conduction in Scyllorhinus canicula, and the supposed function of the transitory dorsal giant cells of Rohon-Beard.—M. Leécaillon : Eggs intermediate between the summer and winter eegs produced in the cocoon of the silkworm.—L. Hudelo, A. Sartory, and H. Montlour: Eczematoid enidemiomycosis due to a _ parasite of the genus Endomyces.—F. Diénert, F. Wandenbulke, and Mlle. M. Launey: The action of activated sludges. Books Received. The Social Diseases: Tuberculosis, Syphilis, Alcoholism, Sterility. By Dr. J. Héricourt. Trans- lated, with a final chapter, by B. Miall. Pp. x+246. (London: George Routledge and Sons, Ltd.) 7s. 6d. net, Animal and Vegetable Oils, Fats, and Waxes: Their Manufacture, Refining, and Analysis, including the Manufacture of Candles, Margarine, and Butter. By Dr. G. Martin. Pp. x+218. (London: Crosby Lockwood and Son.) 12s. 6d. net. 412 NATURE [May 27, 1920 _ Department of . Statistics, India. Agricultural Statistics of India, 1917-18. Vol. i... Pp. xvi+ 321. (Calcutta: Superintendent, 'Government Printing, India.) 2 rupees. Geology of the Mid-Continent Oilfields, Kansas, Oklahoma, and North: Texas. By Dr. T. O. Bos- worth. Pp. xv+314. (New York: The Macmillan Co.; London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd.) 3 dollars. Chemical Services Committee, 1920, Report. Pp. xii+121. (Simla: Supt., Government Central Press.) Diary of Societies. THURSDAY, May 27 Roya InsTiITUTION OF GREAT BRITAIN, at 3. Toritliaen Archer: Dreams, with Special Reference to Psycho-Analysis. Linnean Society (Anniversary Meeting), at 3. Roya Socirry, at 4.30. Concrete Instirutre (Annual General Meeting, followed by an Ordinary Meeting), at 7.30.—Major H. Best : The Mystery Port, Richborough. Rovat Society oF MEDICINE (Urology Section), at 8.30.—Sir Peter ‘Freyer: Modern Progress in Urinary Surgery. FRIDAY, May 28. Royat Society oF Mepicine (Study of Disease in Children Section) at. 4.30.--(Annual General Meeting.) PuysicaL Soctrty oF Lonpon, at 5.—Sir W. H. Bragg and Others: Discussion on X-ray Spectra. Junior INsTITUTION OF ENGINEERS, at 7.30.—A. Arnold: Two Years as an Engineer in the Grand Fleet. Roya Society or MeEpicineE (Epidemiology and State mone eres (Annual General Meeting), at 8.30.—Dr. P. Hartley and Prof. C. Martin: The Apparent Rate of Disappearence of Diphtheria Bacilli from the Throat = Mis $4 Attack of the Disease. Roya INSTITUTION OF Great Britain, at 9.—Prof. W. L. Bragg: ‘The Packing of Atoms in Crystals. SATURDAY, May 29. Roya InstiruTion or GREAT BRITAIN, at 3.—Dr. J. H. Jeans: The Theory of Relativity (Tyndall Lectures). MONDAY, May 31. Roya Socrery or Arts (Indian Section), at 4.30.—A. Howard: ‘The Improvement of Crop Production tn India. Vicroria InstiTuTE (at Central Buildings, Westminster), at 4.30.—Rev. S. McDowall: The Meaning of the Asthetic Impulse. Surveyors’ INsTITUTION, at 5.—(Annual General Meeting.) Rovat GroGRAPHICAL SOCIETY (at Aolian Hall), at 5.30.—(Anniversary Meeting.) Royat Society or MeEp'cinE (Odontology Section) (Annual General Meeting), at 8.—C. A. Clark: Relation of Teeth to the Floor of the Antrum. TUESDAY, June t. InsTITUTION or Gas Encinerrs (at Institution of Mechanical Engineers), at 10.30a.m.—Sir Dugald Clerk: Presidential Address. —Report_of Refractory Materials Research Committee: (a) Tke Casting of Gas » Retorts; (4) Some Comparative Tests of Machine-made and Hand-made Silica Bricks ; (c) The Specific Heats of Refractory Materials at High Temperatures.—Report of the Life of Gas Meters Research Committee: The Internal Corrosion of Mains, Services, and Meters.—Dr. S. F. Dufton and Prof. J. W. Cobb: Report of Institution Gas Research Fellowship: Some High Temperature Reactions of Toluene and Benzene. Rovat HorricuLTuRAL Society (at Royal Gardens, Chelsea), at~3.— Dr. E. J. Russell: Some Modern Aspects of Manuring. Baral INSTITUTION OF GREAT. BRITAIN, at 3.—Major C. E. Inglis.: The Evolution of Large Bridge Construction. ZooLoGICAL SoOcIETY OF LONDON, at 5.30.—Dr. G. M. Vevers: Report on the Entozoa Collected from Ane, which Died in the Gardens during the Past Nine Months.—Prof. BR. ‘I. Leiper: Exhibition: Experi- - mental Transmission of Some Helminth UP cant —Dr. W.T. Calman: Notes om Marine Wood-boring Animals, 1. The Shipworms (Teredinidz). —Dr. P. Chalmers Mitchell: Notes on an African Trip, .with Lantern Illustrations. Rovat PHoroGcraPHic Socirty of Great Britain (Technical Meeting), at 7.—C. P. Crowther: Japanese J/élange, including Photographs and Examples of Japanese Crafts. RovaL ANTHROPOLOGICAL INSTITUTE, at 8.15.—Dr. B. The Economic Pursuits of the Trobriand Islands. - R6ONTGEN Society (at Medical Society of London), at 8.15.—(Annual General Meeting.) Rovat Society oF Mropicine (Psychiatry Section) (Annual General Meeting), at 8.30.—Dr. D. Forsyth; The Psycho-Analysis of a Case of Early Paranoid Dementia. WEDNESDAY, June 2. INSTITUTION OF GAS ENGINEERS (at Institution of Mechanical Engineers), at 16 a.m.— Third Report of the Gas Investigation Committee. RovaL Sig dg te Sociery (at Royal Gardens, Chelsea), at 3-— Dr: A. - Rendle : Plants of Interest in the Exhibition. SociETY >t Pusriic ANALYSTS AND OTHER ANALYTICAL CHEMISTS (at Chemical Society), at 8.-—R. Leitch Morris: Perchlorate Method for Potash.—H. Droop Richmond: Estimation for Nitroglycerine.—E. R. Dovey: Apparatus for Evolution Methods of cas “is An Improved Form of U-tube. \ 4 THURSDAY, June 3. INSTITUTION OF Gas ENGINEERS (at Institution of Mechanical Engineers), at 10 a.m.—Society of British Gas Industries: .Carbonisation.—H. f. NO. 2639, VOL. 105 | Malinowski: Hodsman and Prof. J.W. Cobb : Oxygen in Gas Production.—J. Fisher: Electricity Supply by Gas Companies.—G. Warburton: Contemplations on the Report of the Fuel Research Board. Royat HorticutTurat Society (at Royal Gardens, Chelsea), at 3.— Capt. H. J. Page: Green Manuring—Its Possibilities in Horticulture. Royvat Institution oF GreaT Brita, at 3. —William Archer : Dreams with Special Reference to Psycho-Analysis. Roya Socigrty, at 4.30.—Sir Ernest Rutherford : The Nuclear Constitu~ tion of the Atom (Bakerian Lecture). Linnean Society oF LONDON, at 5.—R. Swainson-Hall: Exhibition of 50 Drawings of the Oil-Palm, Zlae/s guineensis.—A. Whitehead : Objects Observed near Basra during the War.—Prof. W. J. Dakin: Whaling in the Southern Ocean.— Dr. R. R. Gates : Demonstration of Chromosomes in the Pollen Development of Lettuce. CHEMICAL SOCIETY, at 8. Roya Society oF Mepicine (Obstetrics and Gynecology Section), at 8.—Dr. P. Turner : Traumatic Rupture of the Pedicle ofa Sub-Perito- neal Fibroid.—Dr. F. Anderson: A Case of Rupture of the Uterus.—Dr. F. Shaw and Dr. Burrows: Radical Cure of Advanced Carcinoma of the Cervix, made Possible by the Application of Radium.—G, Ley: The Pathology of Ante-Partum Hzmorrhage. FRIDAY, June 4. Rovat Socrery or Arts (Indian and ‘Colonial Sections, Joint Meeting), : 4.30.—Prof. Sir John Cadman: The Oil Resources of the British mpire. Roya INSTITUTION OF GREAT BRITAIN, at 9.—Sir Ronald Ross: Science and Poetry. SATURDAY, June Roya INSTITUTION OF GREAT BRITAIN, at aia J. H. Jeans : The ‘eet of Quanta. CONTENTS. PAGE The University of London: A Great Opportunity . 381 Manuals on Applied Chemistry . . , Mera iv dy irate ¥. 44 A Standard Book on Soils. By E. PE R. 2 hy ed Savages of the Far Past. By R. R. M. “2 384 The Problem of Clean oak Safe Milk, By Prof. Sheridan Delépine .... 2 els eile eee Our Bookshelf . Sh 386 Letters to the Editor:— Scientific Work: Its Spirit and Reward.—Dr, Gilbert J. Fowler . 387 Applied Science and Industrial Research. eo w. Williamson. . 387 A Rainbow Inside Out. ‘(With Diagrams. \—C--0. Bartram 085 ens ey ‘* All-or-None” in the Auditory Nerve.—Dr. w. Perrett . | 390 British and Foreign Scientific “Apparatus. Douglas es H. Baird. 390 Mortlakes as a Cause of ‘River- windings Henry * Bury . Tn ue ee Science and the New Army. Oe Wright | a ee Waage’s Bmp Synthesis of Phloroglucin ' from Glucose. —Dr. M. Nierenstein . 391 The Development of British East Africa. (Wus- trated.) . 392 Weather Notes of Evelyn, Pepys, and Swift in Relation to British Climate. By Capt. C. J. P. Cave . oieyv'e( RCPS SS Optical Instruments in Industry, (Ilustrated.) + 394 The British Sea Fisheries. (instead By = - 397 Notes F ~ 398 Our Astronomical Column: :— Astronomical Announcements by Wireless Telegraphy 403 The Astrographic Catalogue 403 Tidal Friciion and the Lunar and Solar Accelerations 403 The Iron and Steel Institute. By Prof. H. C. H. Carpenter, F.R.S... 403 The University of London: Government Offer of a ) Site .. 404 Genetic Studies of ‘Drosophila. " By Prof, is Ks Doncaster, F.R.S. . ws cone paa ba ana The Conservation of Fuel - Fae eerie sy Buddhism in the Pacific . 8 ois ene ee Astronomy at Oxford during the War. By D.L. E. 407. The Alligator Pear . 408 The eng Hg of Grassland. " By Dr. Wik a Brenchley yk se 04 3 3g ea Levelling Errors. By H. G re oy oes as Pee University and Educational Intelligence: oo hay eee Societies and Academies. . .:. . 2... «4% 4 ) « 410 Books Received 25. sn. ee Sen es 6 ec Diary of Societies ~ 6 jos i hicaeechbates a sce eee THURSDAY, JUNE 3, 1920. Editorial and Publishing Offices : is MACMILLAN & CO., LTD., ST. MARTIN’S STREET, LONDON, W.C.2. ‘Advertisements and business letters should be addressed to the Publishers. Editorial communications to the Editor. Telegraphic Address: PHUSIS, LONDON. Telephone Number: GERRARD 8830. ; Present State of the Dye Industry. May 21 Sir Henry Birchenough, who has suc- _ ceeded Lord Moulton as chairman of the company, _ emphasised the importance of a great dye-making the occasion of the annual general meeting of the British Dyestuffs Corporation held on industry as an instrument of national defence, . pointing out that practically the whole of the poison gases used by the German Army in the eNweks Cy ‘war were made - doubt be greatly extended, _ the chairman explained, trades of this country constitute the most striking and important single group of allied industries in and “the magnitude and very existence of a very large part of our export trade in textiles depend absolutely upon there being _... a sufficient supply of dyestuffs available.” © the civilised world,” in the establishments of the German dye manufacturers, as well as large quan- tities of high explosives and synthetic nitric acid. Chemical warfare, in any future conflict, will no : and its successful prosecution will depend on the equipment, skill, and experience of the dyestuff industry. Searcely less important is it in peace, for, as “the group of textile What is being done to establish a great dye- y stuff industry in this country? There is no doubt ever, admittedly limited, and, that progress has been very considerable, and it _ is a remarkable fact that the output of dyes ‘in _ this country (given by the Board of Trade as _ 25,000 tons annually) exceeds the total consump- tion before the war. _ The range and variety of these dyes are, how- indeed, Mr. A. Hoegger, chairman of the British Cotton and Wool Dyers’ Association, at the annual meeting NO. 2640, VOL. 105] NATURE ‘require comment here. cially is this true of enamelled appliances. 413 held on the same in as the above,. stated rads, had it not been for the importation of certain Swiss dyes during the war, and the arrival recently of certain “reparation” colours: from Germany, some of the branches of the association would have been seriously embarrassed. There are two rather important points that Sir Henry -Birchenough stated that “an unprecedented demand for finished dyestuffs prevents the creation of stocks, and thereby places difficulties in the way of the main- tenance of uniformity in our products.’ This is no doubt a reply to complaints as to lack of uni- formity in the dyes supplied. There are two ways in which this can occur, viz. as regards shade and as regards strength. If the. preparation of a dye has been properly worked out in the laboratory and in the small- scale plant (such as exists at Huddersfield), the large-scale manufacture should present few diffi- culties. Granted that the first few batches may leave something to be desired, succeeding batches made under careful scientific control should cer- tainly be very close to the standard required, and the stock necessary to allow this difference to be adjusted should not be more than three or four batches—say a ton at the utmost. With regard to the strength of the dye sent out, Mr. Hoegger states that a great proportion of the 25,000 tons is not so highly concentrated as were pre-war German colours. Almost every dye coming from the drying chamber is stronger than the standard, even taking as standard the German pre-war dye, and it is exceedingly bad policy to reduce the strength below it. This cannot be other than deliberate, and is very objectionable, as the quality of the dye is thereby depreciated in the mind of the user, and in this connection there is evidence that the Canadians are not altogether satisfied with the quality of the dyes imported from this country. “Why,” it will be asked, ‘cannot we make here those dyes which are being imported from Switzerland and vicariously obtained from Ger- many?” The answer to this question is: First, lack of plant; and secondly, lack of raw material. The former is referred to by Sir Henry Birch- enough, who points out the great delay in delivery of plant owing largely to the moulders’ strike. The provision of thé multitudinous variety of pans, autoclaves, and acid-resisting vessels required by the industry is proceeding only slowly, and espe- Even P 414 NATURE [JUNE 3, 1920 the refuse of the engineering shops, iron borings, was no longer forthcoming during this strike, with the consequence that the manufacture of aniline was seriously retarded. How the lack of special plant prevents the supply of certain dyes is well illustrated in the case of rhodamine. The intermediate products required for this are diethyl-m-aminophenol and phthalic anhydride. The former is prepared from diethylaniline, for which, unlike dimethylaniline, enamelled autoclaves are required, and the latter requires special plant for the oxidation of naph- thalene by means of a mercury catalyst. Although indigotin is no longer prepared by the Badische process from phthalic anhydride, the importance of this intermediate is still great, and as the English rights of the new process of the American Bureau of Chemistry, oxidation in the vapour phase in the presence of a catalyst, have already been purchased, it may be expected that this pro- duct will soon be manufactured here at a compara- tively very low cost. It will readily be understood that, in view of the necessity of installing two special plants for the intermediates required, manufacturers both in England and in America have not succeeded in placing ee but i insig- nificant amounts on the market. With regard to the provision of other inter- mediate products there is still much to do, and at the present time the demands for such element- ary materials as aniline and 8-naphthol greatly exceed the supply. The latter is required for the manufacture of such important intermediates as y acid and J acid, and when it is considered that B-naphthol was not made in England at the outbreak of war, it will be realised that it is neces- sarily a slow operation to produce these acids, involving as it does three distinct plants. It must not, however, be concluded that British manufacturers have confined themselves to the dyes which are made with least trouble. The Solway Dyes Co., in particular, was first in the field with a range of important vat dyes, and this firm, as well as the British Dyestuffs Corporation and others, has placed a useful series of fast dyes on the market. The erection of a large works in Trafford Park, Manchester, by the British Ali- zarine Co. must lead to a greatly increased output of alizarine dyes, and there is little doubt that slow but steady progress is being made. The time should not be far distant when British manu- facturers will not only supply all requirements for the home market, but also make their products known all over the world. NO. 2640, VOL, 105] Poetry and Medicine. Philosophies. By Sir Ronald Ross. Pp. viii+56. (London: John Murray, 1911.) Price 2s, net. Psychologies. 69 pp. (Same author and pub- lisher, 1919.) Price 2s. 6d. net. HESE slender volumes, by Sir Ronald Ross, deserve to be read with sympathetic interest for more reasons than one—not least because they reflect the mind, and throw light on the spirit which has guided the work, of a man whose services to medical science are great indeed. In the long history of medicine and of poetry we can call to mind many a physician who has been also a poet. No great physician has ever likewise been that rare and wonderful thing, a great poet, for the toilsome life of the one is not to be com- bined with the fine freedom, the careless rapture of the other. But there is a certain excellence which, though it fall far short of supreme per- fection, is still a very fine and splendid thing, and to such excellence I think Sir Ronald Ross has certainly attained. The poet-physicians whose names first cross our minds are men attached by but a slender link, a titular claim, to the profession of medicine; never- theless, the proféssion is proud to have had enrolled among its brotherhood Dr. Oliver Gold- — smith and the great apothecary whom a foolish critic bade “go back to his gallipots.” In Gold- smith’s footsteps follows Crabbe, bringing us his “Village” and his “ Parish Register,” bidding us, in lines scarcely less finished and less memorable than Goldsmith’s own, “Behold the Cot, where thrives th’ industrious swain, Source of his pride, his pleasure and his gain... ”; or, moving quickly to sadder themes, “‘When the sad tenant weeps from door to door, And begs a poor pro- tection from the poor.” A little shred of Keats’ great mantle (and more perhaps of Shelley’s) fell upon that fine poet, and not unlearned physician, Thomas Lovell Beddoes, the friend of Blumenbach and Schoenlien and Frey—Beddoes of “The Bride’s Tragedy.” ‘Death is more a jest than life; you see Contempt grows quick from familiarity. I owe this wisdom to Anatomy ’’—so he wrote from Géttingen while he was a student of medicine there; and the same contemptuous familiarity lasted him to the end, when he used © his physiological knowledge of a new and terrible. drug—curare—to “creep into his worm-hole,” to introduce him to that grim pageantry of Death which his verse: had described with a fearful — reality. ‘‘The power of the man,” said Browning, — “was incontestable and immense”; and in his happy hours he had written very lovely and most _ June 3, 1920] NATURE 415 sical | things. The song about “How many es do I love thee, dear?” is not to be for- ten; nor do those who have read it ever forget exquisite “‘Dream-pedlary ’—“If there were ams to sell, What would you buy?” o another order of poets belongs a little cluster seventeenth- and eighteenth-century physicians, 3 and Akenside and John Armstrong and ‘Erasmus Darwin. They are of that quiet, humour- less, didactic school for which we have lost our relish, and for which Dr. Johnson (apart from his jitter quarrel with the last, the Lichfield, sician) had all too kindly a word. We no longer read Garth’s “Dispensary,” any “more than we read his once celebrated Harveian ore tion, although the poem was “on the side of charity against the intrigues of interest, and of regular learning against licentious usurpation of medical authority.” In other words, it was a : tic account of a quarrel between the College bce Physicians and the Society of Apothecaries. “It _ appears,” says Johnson, “to want something of _ poetical ardour, and something of general delecta- _tion”’—a fair and honest verdict, which we might illustrate and support by any stray line or two— 3 by those, for instance, where the poet describes wey: bilious juice a golden light puts on, And floods of chyle in silver currents run; How the dim speck of entity began T’ expand its recent form and stretch to Man.” ___ Akenside was a much better poet, and seems _ also to have been a more learned physician. His “Discourse on the Dysentery” “entitled him to the same height of place among the scholars as he _ possessed before among the wits”; and “The Pleasures of the Imagination” is still worth our hile to read, if it be only for some few noble nd exalted passages. We may lay it down, as Pope did, with the feeling that “this is no every- - day writer!” There runs through it a sincere and _ almost prophetic belief in the value of research . and the progress of science—in “Science herself Z _.. . the substitute Of God’s own wisdom in this Finisome world, The Providence of Man.” Of Armstrong, who contributed some “medical fe stanzas” to “The G@astle of Indolence,” and wrote his “Art of Pursuing Health” in indolent Thom- _ somian verse, we need scarcely speak. He was _ admired in an age by no means devoid of polished - culture, but content to read and even eager to _ buy such dreary, sluggish blank verse as “ Hail _ sacred flood, May still thy hospitable swains be _ blessed In rural innocence,” and so on, to the end of the quarto volume. Erasmus Darwin’s ‘Botanic Garden ’ ” and “Loves of the Plants” have merits of their own, NO. 2640, VOL. 105 | ” and an historic interest not to be gainsaid; but in his poetry there is a je ne sais quoi qui manque, though it was wont at one time to be spoken of in the same breath with Cowper’s “Task,” and even with “Paradise Lost.” They are the most didactic of didactic poems. The good doctor | revels in facts, in the communication of know- ledge, or rather of information. The world is ran- sacked for objects of wonder and contemplation. As his biographer, Miss Anna Seward, tells us, “the operations of the weather-glass and _ air- pump are described with philosophic accuracy and poetic elegance.” There is “a grahd picture, though of somewhat forced introduction,” of the crocodile bursting from its egg on the banks of the Nile. The embryo plant is introduced to us by “Lo! on each seed, within the tender rind, Life’s golden threads in endless circles wind, etc.” We turn the page and come to “where the humming-bird, in Chili’s bowers, On fluttering pinions robs the pendent flowers; Seeks where fine pores their dulcet balms distil, And sucks the treasures with proboscis bill.”” The sinuous track of the serpent glides, with no apparent reluctance, into “So, with-strong arm, immortal Brindley leads His long canals, and parts the velvet meads.” Yet the simple mind of this old poet- physician, utterly destitute of humour or romance, had (as we all know) a vast deal of wisdom com- mingled with its simplicity. In our own day, or within our immediate recollection, there have been many members of the medical profession who could put on their singing robes once in a way, and write creditable verse or sing still better convivial songs. There was a whole brotherhood of them in Edinburgh a generation ago, with such men as Douglas Maclagan and Andrew Wood and James Sidey and J. D. Gillespie and John Smith, who touched art with the humour, and now and then with the pathos, of their post-prandial lyrics. But we had better not pause over the “Nuge Canore Medice,” or ‘“Mistura Curiosa,” or “Alter Ejusdem ’—certainly not over that triumphant outburst of ‘old Sidey’s” hilarious conviviality, “The Cat’s got the measles and it’s deid, puir thing!” scarcely even over the soft lowland accent and the tender lilt of ““The burnie that wins to the sea ’—“ Up near the scaur where the hoodie- craw bides, Up near the foot of the keelie-craig hie, Deep in the hidie-heugh, riv’d frae its sides, Rises the burnie that wins to the sea.” In the same town of Edinburgh we had very lately the Cornishman, Ricardo Stephens, another poet- physician, writer of strange ballads and dreamer of rich, imaginative dreams. It was he who 416 NATURE [JUNE 3, 1920 wrote “The Piper of Hell ’’—‘‘O have ye heard of Angus Blair, Who lived long since in black Auchmair?” and a more terrible and cruel ballad still—‘‘ Who hath not met Witch,Margaret? Red gold her rippling hair... . Come up and you shall see her yet, Before she groweth still; Before her cloak of flame and smoke The winter air shall fill; For they must burn Witch Margaret Upon the Castle Hill.” Together with these Edinburgh worthies we may say a passing word of two Dublin physicians of the last generation, George Sigerson and John Todhunter. They were both of them fervid writers of Celtic poetry, and have a notable place in their country’s undoubted literary renaissance. Irish patriotism inspired them both, in a-way that we little understand—as when Todhunter cries out “O thou Swan among the nations, enchanted long, so long That the story of thy glory is a half-forgotten song.” He was a power- ful and influential singer, a true Irish Tyrtzus; for it was he who wrote “There’s a spirit in the air, Says the Shan Van Vocht”; just as another learned brother-scholar and fellow of Trinity College, Dublin (not a physician, how- ever), boldly sang : ‘“‘ Who fears to speak of ’98? ™ and sang it to only too receptive ears. But I have gone farther afield than I ever meant to go, and I have left myself all too little room to write of Sir Ronald Ross, the last of our poet-physicians. Most of his poetry was written in India, in Madras or Burma or the Andamans, while he was engrossed in the study of the pathology of malaria, and during earlier years when he began to think and dream over the eternal problems of the East. Sir Ronald’s love and reverence for science, and his admiration for those who have shown and followed the way of discovery, are deeper because far more experi- enced than Akenside’s: “Tho’ we may never reach the peak, God gave this great command- ment, Seek.” It is not the wealth and splendour of the East that touch his imagination; but, looking with the physician’s charitable eyes, he broods over the decadence, the misery, the widespread sickness of its people: ‘The leprous beggars totter trembling past, The baser sultans sleep.” A famine-stricken girl is suckling her three-year- old: ‘‘‘I am too poor,’ she said, ‘ To feed him otherwise,’ and with a kiss Fell back and died.” It is all a gloomy picture. But if its blackness be somewhat overdrawn (and I hope and think it is) its pessimism is inspired and redeemed by charity and pity, by resolution to understand, and NO. 2640, VOL. 105 | by ambition to relieve. Sir Ronald’s second volume, though tragic enough, is in a happier strain. . ‘ Only a few days ago, lecturing to my class of some eighty young men and women newly entered a week before upon their medical course, I tried to tell them what the Protozoa meant to our fathers, and what (thanks*to Pasteur and Grassi and Manson and Bruce and Ross and many another) they have come to mean to us. In my student-days, an Ameceba, a bell or slipper animal- cule, a little ooze from the Atlantic, a few pretty radiolarian or foraminiferal shells, gave us our outline-concept of the Protozoa. To-day a new world is opened, in which we hear of tiny things with strange life-histories, of momentous chains of cause and consequence wherein rat and louse and gadfly and mosquito play their insidious part, bringing fever to the swamp and murrain to the plain; we are told at last of mysterious maladies explained, of epidemics held at bay, of territories and peoples emancipated from disease. And then, as an example of the spirit of the scientific physician, of aims conceived, of dreams come true, I ventured to read them a couple of Ronald Ross’s early verses, written before he and his fellow-workers had brought their hopes to fruition :-— In this, O Nature, yield, I pray, to me. I pace and pace, and think and think, and take The fever’d hands, and note down all I see, That some dim, distant light may haply break. The painful faces ask, Can we not cure? We answer, No, not yet; we seek the laws. O God, reveal thro’ all this thing obscure The unseen, small, but million-murdering cause. My students listened and went quietly away, and I could see by their faces that they had heard the words of the poet and the physician as though he were speaking straight to them. | D’Arcy W. Tuompson. Movements of Plants. Transactions of the Bose Research Institute, | Calcutta. Vol. ii., Life Movements in Plants. By Sir Jagadis Chunder Bose. Pp. v+xiv+253-597. (Calcutta: The Bose Research Institute, 1919.) Price 1os. 6d. N this the second volume of the Transactions of the Bose Institute, Sir Jagadis Bose con- tinues to pour out his almost overwhelming wealth of observations. The first chapter of the volume deals\with a piece of apparatus to be used with June 3, 1920] a=” | sation, Tae NATU RE 417 he “high magnification crescograph ” which mag- ifies the rate of growth up to ten million times. a s, even with much lower magnifications, the oo of light or point of the lever would soon move off the scale or recording surface, the has devised a method of balance different the optical method originally used. In this ew method the plant-holder is connected with a ies of gear-wheels driven by a falling weight |controlled by a fan governor. By this means ne plant-holder can be made to fall at various rates, and thus the growth of the plant is com- pensated, and we have what is termed the “balanced erescograph.” When the rate of growth _ is exactly balanced the record will show a hori- _ zontal line, and any increase or decrease in the _ rate will be indicated by a rise or fall in the curve. _ By this means it is claimed that a change in the rate of growth of only 1 part in 27,000 can be _ detected. The method is one of great delicacy, _ it'is clear, but, in view of the fact that the control of the speed of movement is in part frictional resistance, and also of the effect of grit and of inequality in the cutting of the gear-wheels, one _ would have liked to see the inclusion of a record which would demonstrate that a speed of 0-5 u per sec. was kept constant to 1 part in 25,000 for many hours. The volume contains thirty chapters on various plant reactions which exhibit themselves either by movements or by electrical response. Of these perhaps the most striking is the interesting con- tribution which the author makes to the problem _ of the mechanism of geotropic response. In the _ statolith theory of geotropism one link in the chain of reactions which bring about geotropic curva- ture is the shifting, under the influence of gravity, of comparatively large starch grains in a tissue such as the endodermis of the stem. This theory is upheld by the author as a result of the explora- tion of the plant by means of his “electric probe.” The probe consists of a fine glass tube (0-15 mm. diam.) with a still finer platinum wire fused into, and projecting just beyond, it. The probe can be pushed into the tissues of a stem, while the other end of the platinum wire is connected with one terminal of a galvanometer, the other terminal being connected with some other part of the plant, e.g. a leaf, which is always kept horizontal. The probe is first placed on the surface of the organ, and the deflection is observed when the stem is placed horizontal; the stem is then re- turned to the vertical position, the probe advanced a little into the tissues, the stem again placed horizontal and the deflection observed. It is found that as the probe penetrates the deflec- NO. 2640, VOL. 105 | tion rises to a maximum and then falls to a mini- mum at about the centre of the stem. The point of the probe in the position of maximum deflec- tion is found to lie in the endodermis. If the probe is carried forward towards the other side of the stem, a new maximum is found when the point reaches the endodermal layer on the other side, but the deflection is in the opposite direction. This observation does not, of course, prove that the endodermis is the geo-perceptive layer, but it provides circumstantial evidence in favour: of that view, since it demonstrates that the endo- dermis is the only tissue exhibiting a marked elec- trical reaction to geotropic stimulus. In one case where the angle of the stem was gradually increased there was no deflection until a critical angle of about 33° was reached, but above this there was a marked electrical response. There appears to be some frictional resistance to the displacement of the starch grains, which is not overcome until the critical angle is passed. By comparing the electrical response (which can, of course, be observed without the use of the “probe ”) of organs placed at angles of go° and 45°, respectively, with the vertical, evidence is obtained in support of the view that the geotropic response is proportional to the sine of the angle. The marked effect of temperature on the degree of geotropic response, which leads to decided diurnal movements of many stems, is a thesis which is further elaborated in this volume, as is also the difference between “direct” and “in- direct” stimulation, The volume is filled with numerous and often stimulating observations carried out with the author’s well-known mastery of the technique of experimentation. One must be grateful for the new weapons which he has forged and for the new fields of work which he has opened up, but, like Sir J. C. Bose’s previous volumes, the present one is often sadly lacking on the oplant-physiological side. The work done is never properly related to that of previous investigators, the author confining himself to the quotation of text-books, which are often of no very recent date; in deal- ing with phototropism the work even of Blaauw is not mentioned. Again, Sir J. C. Bose seems sO anxious to add to his collection of “plant- records” that he passes rapidly from observation to observation and from problem to problem, shedding on the way a beam of light into some of the dark places of plant physiology, but never satisfying us with a problem fully envisaged and | worked out. V. 24,3, 418 NATURE [JUNE 3, 1920 Applications of Electricity. (1) Telephonic Transmission: Applied. By J. G. Hill. (Manuals of Tele- graph and Telephone Engineering.) Pp. xvi+ 398. (London: Longmans, Green, and Co., 1920.) Price 21s, net. (2) The Principles of Electrical Engineering and Theoretical and their Application, By G. Kapp. Vol. ii., Appli- cation. Pp. viii+388. (London: Edward _ Arnold, 1919.) Price 18s. net. (1) HE applications of electricity in the tele- graph and telephone services are now so numerous and so highly specialised that no one can claim to have an expert knowledge of every branch. It has been decided, therefore, to produce a series of handbooks which will cover the whole of the ground involved. The editor of the series is Sir William Slingo, late engineer-in-chief of the Post Office, and most of the authors are on the staff of the Engineering Department. Judging from the present volume and from the names of the authors preparing the other volumes of the series, we shall soon have a very complete and thorough account of English telegraphic and telephonic practice. This book is written for experts engaged in the practical applications of telephony, and must be judged from this point of view. It is now ancient history how the early telephonists did their best to diminish the capacity and resistance of their lines with the object of securing good communi- cation. In 1887 Oliver Heaviside pointed out that this rule was quite fallacious. The two qualities of the line which it is necessary to study are the attenuation of the signals-and the velocity with which they are propagated. Heaviside stated this clearly and showed that his “‘ dis- tortionless ’’ circuit gave.the complete solution of the problem. In 1900 Prof. Pupin showed how a distortionless circuit might be secured very approximately by putting inductance coils at cer- tain intervals in the line. | When the distance between the coils is small there will be little re- flection of the waves by them, and in this case the practical working will be satisfactory. - There are many engineers employed in telephone work who have great difficulty in following the advanced . mathematical reasoning of Heaviside and Pupin, and yet. they have to evaluate their complicated formule in everyday work. For their benefit the author introduces additional chapters describing the transmission of direct currents along a leaky line and getting the equi- valent circuits. This should give those engineers confidence to attack the complete mathematical problem which is given in appendices. NO. 2640, VOL, 105 | The symbols and general arrangement: of the | formule are mostly those. used by Kennelly and Fleming, whose work is much appreciated by the British Post Office. To the general man of science most of the book will appear to be endless varia- tions of complicated formulz, involving complex variables, deduced from comparatively simple differential equations. But a study of the book will show him how laborious it is to get numerical solu- tions, and how ingenious are some of the methods employed to get the constants of the line. The chapter on “ the human voice in telephony ”’ iis illustrated by excellent oscillograms of the alter-_ nating currents produced by certain words. There is also a chapter on the thermionic valve as a telephonic relay which is of great interest. Very instructive characteristic curves of the valve are shown. A curve is also given which proves the enormous variation of magnification with input. The use of these telephonic relays is most promis- ing, and great developments may shortly take. place. The book will be of great value to the telephonic engineers for whom it is written. We were much interested in the electrical constants of many of the cables used in practice which have been cal- culated by the author. They prove conclusively — the great value of advanced mathematical theory _ in telegraphy and telephony. . (2) As a pioneer of the applications of electricity Prof. Kapp has had the pleasure of seeing many of his theorems become incorporated in the routine teaching of technical colleges and many of his methods widely adopted in everyday prac- tice. The technical student, therefore, will find much that is familiar in this volume; but he will also find that the proofs given in many cases have been appreciably simplified. The author in- variably keeps practical considerations in the fore- ground and rarely, if ever, digresses on points of abstruse theory. In discussing the running of machines he makes little endeavour to elaborate the theory, but gives, in most cases, a clear first approximate solution. . The book, therefore, will be welcomed by the engineer and the student. The former will. gain a clearer view of the prin- ciples on which his machines work, and the latter will find that many long mathematical solutions can be much shortened by elementary graphical methods. In the earlier chapters direct-current machinery is described. The treatment of the critical speed of: turbo-dynamos_ is. very neat, and _ the results agree with experiment. Little space is given to losses which, are relatively unimportant—bearing friction, for instance. The methods of .coupling dynamos for parallel running are fully described. 3 Joye oF 1920] NATURE A clear description of the Thury system of direct- rent high-tension transmission is given. There ms to be little chance, however, of this system ng adopted on a large scale in this country. ». v. describes the uses of a storage battery 1 connection with a dynamo. Brief descriptions « f the various types of booster used in this con- nection are given and will be helpful to the ai) In bhp. vii. a brief reference is made to _ Fourier’s theorem. The coefficients are obtained _ by drawing the graphs of curves the equations of “soem are of the form y = f(x) cos (2mnx/X), ‘td then getting their area by the planimeter. _ Although theoretically correct, we think that the _ method would prove laborious in practice. We think also that the error for high harmonics would Biciebably be large, as the planimeter reading gives the difference between many areas. _ The author suggests that large choking coils should be constructed in the form of a toroid, _ the diameter of the circular cross-section of which ~ equals 0.311D, where D is the mean diameter of the toroid. This is Maxwell’s solution for the ‘most economical coil; and the author has found practically that the expression 9-35n?D gives its _ inductance, where n is the number of turns. This is in good agreement with Maxwell’s formula, 3mn*D—i.e. 9-43n?D. It has to be remembered, however, that Maxwell’s formula is only a rough approximation. If we use Rayleigh’s formula we - get 9-69n?D for the inductance. The 4 per cent. difference between theory and experiment is prob- ably due to the assumption that the current is uniform all over the cross-section of the toroid. Tf we use Rayleigh’s formula it will be found that we get very appreciably different dimensions for _ the most economical choking coil. The discussions of parallel running, trans- formers, converters, and induction and commuta- __ tor motors are all instructive and suggestive, The last chapter, on phase advancers, is a strong and : convincing plea for their more general adoption in practice. Considerable economies can be effected _ by their use. A. RUSSELL. British Iron Ores. _ The Iron Ores of Scotland. By M. Macgregor, » _ Dr. G. W. Lee, and G. V. Wilson. With con- tributions by T. Robertson and J.’ S. Filett. ' (Memoirs of the Geological Survey, Scotland : Special Reports on the Mineral Resources of Great Britain: Vol. xi. Iron Ores (continued).) "NO. 2640, VOL. 105] 419 Pp. vii+240. (Edinburgh: H.M.S.O.; South- ampton: Ordnance Survey Office.) Price ros. net. HE present volume forms a continuation of the important series of memoirs on the iron ores of Great Britain which the Geological Survey has been issuing for some time past. Unlike some of the previous ones, the subject here discussed affords little scope for original geological investi- gations, the principal deposits of iron ore being very well known and having often been described. As is, however, very truly remarked by Sir Aubrey Strahan, the information concerning them is scattered throughout a large number of publica- tions, and it is a great advantage to the student of the subject to have it all brought together in one volume. The authors have done their work carefully and painstakingly, and the result of their labours has been to render available a. very. com- plete and minutely accurate record of the known Scottish iron-ore deposits. The book is divided into seven chapters. The first gives an introductory and historical account of the subject, containing much interesting matter ; attention should, however, be directed to a mis- take as-to the nature of the old Catalan furnace. The author writes: “These furnaces were of the Catalan type, . . . and castings were apparently made direct from the furnace itself.’”’ These two statements are incompatible, for the essential feature of the Catalan process was that it produced malleable iron, and not cast iron, direct from the ore. The next four chapters are devoted to th= bedded iron ores of Carboniferous age, these being subdivided mainly according to their geographical distribution. In a sixth chapter the bedded Raasay ironstone of Jurassic age is described, and in the last chapter a number of minor occur- rences, which are grouped together under the heading ‘‘ Hematite in Veins and Beds ’’—a-some- what infelicitous title, seeing that true haematite is conspicuous by its absence. As in the previous volumes of the series, the least satisfactory portion of the present one is that relating to the estimated tonnage of ore reserves. It ought to be made thoroughly clear that the tonnage of ore as estimated by a geologist repre- sents a quantity many times greater than that which the miner can hope to recover in actual practice. The iron industry of Scotland requires some 24 million tons of ore annually, about. one- fifth of which is obtained from native Scottish de- posits, and it is poor consolation to the Scottish ironmaster, who for a good many years past has 420: NATURE [JUNE 3, 1920 been in the greatest difficulty to know whence to draw his ore supplies, to. be informed officially that the probable reserves are more than 94 million and the possible reserves more than 435 million tons, he meanwhile knowing but too well thai only a very small fraction of even the smaller figure is ever likely to find its way to his furnaces. H. Louts. Our Bookshelf. Practical Pharmacology: For the Use of Students of Medicine. By Prof. W. E. Dixon. Pp. vili+ 88. (Cambridge: At the University Press, 1920.) Price 7s. 6d. net. WE welcome the appearance of Prof. Dixon’s manual; it is certainly the most practical and use- ful guide to students of experimental pharmacology which we know. The experiments are extremely well chosen to illustrate the underlying principles of therapeutics, and the text, with its illustrations and tables, is so clear and logical that a student can at no time be in doubt as to the methods for performing the experiments, or fail to appreciate their bearing on the practical application of the drugs in disease. The experiments, some seventy-eight in number, are classified to explain the action of drugs on the various systems of the body, and while use is made mainly of the pithed frog, suitable experi- ments with mammalian tissues are introduced. Experiments with decerebrated mammals are not described, the author considering that their use in large classes is impracticable and that they may be replaced by suitable demonstrations under Certificate C. A chapter is devoted to a descrip- tion of the essential physical properties of import- ant drugs, and there is appended a useful table of the doses required to produce typical pharma- cological effects in animals. We have no hesitation in recommending this book as an excellent guide to the study of practical pharmacology. It is one which will be extremely useful to students of medicine, whether they are receiving experimental tuition in the laboratory or not, and it will also be read with much profit by medical men who have not had the advantages of a practical training in the action of drugs. The Teaching of Science in the Elementary School. By Gilbert H. Trafton. (Riverside Text-books in Education.) Pp. x+293. (New York: Houghton Mifflin Co.; London: Con- stable and Co., Ltd., 1918.) Price 6s. 6d. net. In a brief introduction Prof. Cubberley states that the author’s aim was ‘‘ to construct a simple and helpful volume for the teacher who is called upon to teach elementary science lessons, and yet has neither scientific training nor apparatus for the work.’’ The statement prepares the reader for the limitations of the book. Mr. Trafton’s scheme includes practically no chemistry, and the physics is both exiguous and scrappy; by far the NO. 2640, VOL. 105] greatest part consists of simple observational work upon plants and animals. Within these limi- tations, however, there is much that is both attrac- tive and useful, and the limitations themselves correspond to those of most rural elementary schools in this country. ey Mr. Trafton classifies his subject-matter under the headings of biological, agricultural, physical, and hygienic science, and rightly insists that, however rudimentary the work along these lines may be, it should be done in the genuine scientific spirit. In his introductory chapters he gives a good deal of sound and practical advice with regard to ~ the choice of subject-matter and the methods of teaching, and the bulk of the book consists of sections in which typical parts of the curriculum he recommends are worked out in detail. The curriculum is, of course, chosen with reference to American conditions, but the English teacher should be able to profit by Mr. Trafton’s sugges- tions. There is a carefully compiled bibliography, covering practically the whole field treated in the book, but consisting entirely of American titles. Peoples of the Philippines. By Prof. A. L. Kroeber. (American Museum of Natural History’: Handbook Series No. 8.) Pp. 224. (New York: American Museum of Natural History, 1919.) THE interest of the Philippine Islands to the ethnographer lies in the fact that they are the | largest of the possessions of the United States, and the only one of importance in the Eastern hemisphere; that they form a considerable and growing nationality; and that they display in an unusually complete manner the stratification of races and cultures. identified in the present population, may be arranged in the probable order of their arrival—the Negritos of the interior, a short, black people with an elementary type of religion and culture; the Indonesians, of the Mongoloid family, but presenting fewer specific Mongoloid features than the third race, the Malayans, occupying the coastal areas. As regards culture, the remarkable fact is the predominance of Indian influence as compared with that of China, which provided little more than certain manufactured products. India did not furnish the Filipinos with a definitely crystallised religious cult, or, if so, this cult had already disappeared before the Europeans appeared on the scene. But there came from the Indian races, probably by Malay intervention, a mass of religious practices, ideas, and names, a considerable body of Sanskrit words, a system of writing, the art of metallurgy, a vast amount of ‘mechanical and industrial knowledge, and unquestionably a much higher degree of civilisation than their predecessors had acquired. These facts are clearly brought out in the present handbook, which provides in small space much information, and is furnished with good maps and illustrations. Three types of race can be | | / and_ these - NATURE 421 _ Jone 3, 1920] Letters to the Editor. [The Editor does not hold himself responsible for — opini expressed by his correspondents. Neither can be undertake to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manuscripts intended for this or any other part of Nature. No notice is taken of anonymous communications.] a The Flight of Flying-fish. Ir is disputed whether the flight of flying-fish is a tuine flight or simply a leap and a glide. The uestion is referred to in the section devoted to flying- sh in the Natural History Museum, South Kensing- _ ton. Recently I have had ample opportunity to study _ these fish in the tropical waters of the Atlantic and fic Oceans. ‘ The observations which I have made and the con- lusions at which | have arrived are corroborated by the officers of the R.M.S. Victoria. Many of these ees were surprised to hear that there was any _ doubt on the matter. That the flight is a genuine one is proved by the following facts :— __ (1) During flight these fish are able to turn at right ' angles, and even at a very acute angle. More than _ once I have seen a fish turn with great rapidity at an acute angle and come back in a direction opposite _ to the direction in which it set out. A mere glide will not enable any animal to do this. (2) Standing at the bow of the ship directly above _ some flying-fish which were in a hurry to get out of _ the way, I saw the wings flap as distinctly as the wings of any frightened bird. 4 (3) Some of these fish fly for a distance of from _ 150 to 200 yards without rising more than a couple of feet above the surface. ey rise over the crests of the waves and sink into the Littewe. could not do this by a mere leap and a glide. (4) Besides flying low over the surface of the _ waters, they are also able to rise to a considerable height, and not infrequently come on board large steamers. When they fall on deck their wings can be seen, as well as heard, flapping. It is true that they are unable to rise from the deck, but the same is true of many sea-birds. : adap in full flight the outlines of the wings are in and blurred in contrast with the clear out- line of the body. This can only be due.to the very movement, as in the case of hovering flies and humming-birds. J. McNamara. _ 3 Holland Road, Kensington, W. ; ia An Experiment on the Spectrum. In school and college courses little experimental work is done on the infra-red and _ ultra-violet parts of the spectrum. The student is, of course, __- told about these regions, and how they can be de- tected respectively by the heating and actinic pro- __ perties of their rays. But he is not allowed to in- a igate these rays himself, nor are their properties demonstrated before him. This is on account of the . elaborate nature of the apparatus necessary; the infra- p red region requires a thermopile or bolometer, to- gether with an expensive galvanometer, and the ultra- violet requires photographic methods and a spectro- graph. So maiseh apparatus ‘cannot be afforded for one experiment, and besides is apt to distract the student’s attention from the simple nature of the facts involved. : ' If, however, a very intense spectrum is used, the infra-red can be mapped roughly with an ordinary | thermometer, and the ultra-violet with a photographic exposure-meter. Neither galvanometer nor 0- graph is necessary. The thermometer I have used is NO. 2640, VOL. 105] They } | a Fahrenheit one, range 0° to 220°, the bulb of which is blackened by dipping it into lamp-black shaken up with methylated spirits; the bulb is 5 mm. in dia- meter. The exposure-meter is the Imperial exposure- meter for dull light and interiors, which costs 1s, 6d. together with a refill. In this instrument a piece of sensitive paper is exposed to the light, and the time noted that it takes to darken to a standard tint. The sensitive paper supplied darkens two or three times as fast as ordinary P.O.P. As source of light I have used a little 5-ampere arc lamp, which is run off the lighting circuit through a rheostat. The anode is horizontal and the cathode vertical; they are both enclosed in a glass cylinder which restricts the supply of oxygen, and so lengthens the life of the carbons. Lamps of this pattern burn very steadily, and have come into wide use during the past ten years. It is because so many laboratories have these lamps that I describe this experiment here. An arc of this pat- tern is absolutely necessary; a pointolite or half-watt lamp is of no use for the purpose. As lens I have used a spectacle lens of 25 cm. focal , length, and as prism a single equilateral dense flint 1z in. high. The spectrum and are are equidistant from the lens. As slit I have used the crater of the | arc, which measures about 3 mm. in diameter, since the , carbons in this type of lamp are only 5 mm. thick. If the rays of light from the anode fell squarely on the lens we should have a point image of a point source, andthe spectrum would be only 3 mm. high, but by setting the lens obliquely, rotating it through 30°, an astigmatic line image is formed, and we get a reasonablv sharp spectrum 12 mm, high. Stray light is excluded by enclosing the arc in a box. The following table gives a set of results taken in somewhat less than an hour : } Seale Céleur Rise of Photographic : temperature action cm. ad ih 70 — fox) — rab — 08 ae 80 86 3°4 eo: 8°5 5! 54 oe 9'0 Infra-red 3°4 _ 9°5 Red 2'0 a 10°0 Yellow 0's 0°5 10°5 Green — 27 II‘o Blue a I'5 11°5 Violet — 2°4 I2'0 . End of visible _ 50 12°5 . . Ultra-violet — 5°0 13°0 fer a 0°57 The ends of the visible spectrum were at 9-2 and 12 cm. The first column gives the readings on a centimetre scale placed along the spectrum, ‘the second column the name of the colour, the third the rise of temperature experienced by the thermometer in three minutes, and the fourth the reciprocal of the time in minutes taken by the paper to darken to the standard tint.: In the case of the last two readings , the exposure-meter was illuminated by stray. light: It is possible to go further into the ultra-violet if a crown glass prism is used. The infra-red) measured goes to 2-24 or thereabouts. If a piece of P.O.P. is exposed to the spectrum for a. couple of minutes, it shows bands—one from 10-11 cm., another from Ing-11-7 cm., and a third from 11-8-12-7'cm., the positions all ‘being measured on the centimetre scale above referred to. : was the sun, -and’ the arrangement’ was similar to Newton’s original’ one—ttie prism: was placed close up to a slit at a window, no lenses were used, and-the spectrum 422 NATURE ‘| was consequently very impure. Three thermometers were placed apparently at a distance of about 4 ft. or 5 ft. from the prism—one in the spectrum, and the other two in the shadow beside it—and the difference of temperature produced by the rays was noted. The bulbs of the thermometers were blackened; one of them measured } in. in diameter, but the others were smaller. One and a half inches beyond the red there was a rise of 34° in 10 min., 1 in. beyond the red 54° in 13 min., and } in. beyond the red 63° in 10 min. In the violet there was a rise of 1° in 15 min. The spectrum was about 3 in. long, and the heat rays could be detected a distance of 2} in. into the infra- red. ‘ R. A. Houstoun. Dniversity of Glasgow, May 10. Anti-Gas Fans. IN a note in Nature for May 13 you intimated that my ‘‘allegations’’ concerning the treatment of my anti-gas fans by the War Office and the sufferin and loss of life thereby entailed could not be accepte without question, and you called upon the ‘“ well- accredited men. of science,” who, you say, largely staffed the Anti-Gas Service, to make a ‘plain state- ment of the facts.’’ I waited to see if such a state- ment would be forthcoming, though I judged it scarcely likely; and now, since it has not appeared, I ask you, in’ fairness, to grant me space for a few remarks on your note. You suggest that such an indictment as I have brought against the War Office, reinforced as it is with their own letters, reports, and pamphlets, can be refuted by the bare word of certain ‘‘ well-accredited men of ‘science.’’ I pass over the implied slur on myself of being less well-accredited than they, my word of smaller value than theirs. No unprejudiced person who has read that indictment and that evi- dence with any care will agree with you that they can be thus easily disposed of. In my dealings with the War Office I had to do with innumerable officials, some of them men of science, most not. From their behaviour I judged the larger number (and the exceptions were not, I regret to say, men of science) to be mere puppets, acting under the direction of some leading spirits behind. Who those leading spirits were I had no means of knowing; I was carefully kept in the dark. You, sir, intimate that they were ‘ well-accredited men of science.’’ If this was indeed so, then surely you will agree with me that, for the sake of science even more than in the interests of the nation at large, it is essential that this matter should not be hushed up, but that a public inquiry should be instituted. I am not only willing, but‘also most anxious to submit my case to some impartial tribunal. Will the men of Science whom you have asked to speak, but who do not answer, come out into the open and join with me in demanding such an inquiry? If not, both the world of science and the general public will know what to think. HertHa AyRTON. 41 Norfolk Square, Hyde Park, W., May 23. [We did not express an opinion upon the charges made‘by Mrs. Avrton, but limited ourselves to a state- ment of the indictment, and pointed out that it was really directed against the men of science associated with the Gas Service of the Army. Possibly. these officers are not free to enter into a discussion of reasons for the neglect of the use of the fans, ‘and nothing short of a public inauiry will elicit the whole of the facts in regard’to them.—Ep. Nature.] ~~ NO. 2640, VOL. 105] ‘taken as (a+bx+cx’?+dx*+ ex‘). [JUNE 3, 1920 | 4 A New Method for Approximate Evaluation of Definite : Integrals between Finite Limits. ey THE. subject has a particular interest for naval architects, inasmuch as the majority of calculati relative to displacement, stability, strength, etc., o ships involve the finding of areas and volumes bounded by curved lines and surfaces. Ha The particular rule enunciated by Mr. A. F. Dufton in Nature of May 20 has been in use at this college for some years, and gives very accurate results in obtaining areas and volumes, and also, by a further application, the positions of their centres of gravity. The method of its derivation was from one of Tchebycheff’s rules. f(x) in this particular case is It can readily be shown that the value of J y (x)dx=3 f(r) +S (2) +r) t/ (eh a where e 24, =2, xr,?=4, == 5 27r,=4, whence, %,=0-1027, %,=0-4062, X3=0'5938, and x,=0-8973. The approximation to one-tenth, four- tenths, six-tenths, and nine-tenths was obvious, and all the more welcome because it is our usual practice to divide the ship’s half-length into ten sections. No special sections have to be drawn, calculations being readily made with the aid of the existing drawings. This rule was briefly referred to by Mr. W. J. Luke at a meeting of the Institution of Naval Archi- tects in 1915 (Trans. I.N.A., vol. lvii., p. 210). The application of Simpson’s ordinary rule to find the area of a quadrant or semicircle, as quoted, manifestly shows Simpson’s rule at its worst, owing to the wide divergence of the curve from the assumed curve from which the rule is derived. Where curves approximate to these forms, as in many sections of a ship, it is common practice in the use of this rule to interpose intermediate ordinates where the curve is ‘steep ’”’—relative to the base line—to get greater accuracy. Bi An interesting paper dealing with this subject and. giving a great variety of rules for approximate integra-_ tion was read at the Institution of Naval Architects in 1908 (Trans. I.N.A., vol. 1.) by Sir W. S. Abell entitled ‘‘Two Notes on Ship Calculations.” C. F. MercHantT. Royal Naval College, Greenwich, S.E., May 27. Nes oo ee Applied Science and Industrial Research. Your correspondent Mr. J. W. Williamson says in Nature of May 27 that much of my criticism of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research ‘“seems to lend colour” to current misconceptions of industrial research, which he proceeds to construct out of his own imagination, having first fathered them on me, and then submits that the cause of pure science is not well served by inconsiderate attacks on the industrial research movement, such as he would have it believed I made. I judge from this that he was not present:at the meeting, and I therefore wish it to be known thatthe full text of my address to the National Union of Scientific Workers can be obtained by forwarding a stamped addressed foolscap cover to the General Secretary, 19 Tothill Street, Westminster, S.W.1. If Mr. Williamson will have the goodness to read it and the full report of the meeting published in the current issue of the Scientific Worker, the official organ of the union, and then say, if he still desires, what he objects to, it would help rather than confuse the issue. are - FREDERICK. SODDY. | Jone 3, 1920] NATURE 423 _ Mr. Wittiamson’s letter in Nature of May 27, in which he criticises the attitude of Prof. Soddy and ‘that of the National Union of Scientific Workers towards the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research and the struggling research associations, com the issue. To attack the Department. or sociation entrusted with industrial research is tantamount neither to attacking industrial research ‘nor to making invidious distinctions. between pure and a d research. the minds of the members of this union there ; no belief in the superiority of pure science over istrial research; it has always been our expressed lion that there is no difference in their scientific ue. In one of our explanatory pamphlets this view expressed : ‘It [the union] aims at including within angle scheme both academic and technical members. _, . The separation of science and industry has been a principal cause of our disastrous neglect of science in the past, and if continued will remain harmful to both in future. The present organisation, by en- suring the intercourse of the two sides, is therefore desirable on both national and scientific grounds.”’ mbodied in our rules we have as avowed objects: 1) To advance the interests of science, pure and lied, as an essential element in the national life. (2) To promote and encourage scientific research in all _its branches. . — Our criticism is that in any scheme put forward by the Devartment inadequate facilities are given to that _ type of research which, though it has less immediate application, is probably of greater ultimate importance through leading to the better understanding of more phenomena. It would be quite unfair to expect par- ticular industrial research associations to contribute more than others to the prosecution of research which might have a common application to industry or to some aspect of the national life. Obviously this type of work is best carried out at the universities or at __ institutions such as the National Physical Laboratory. Yet how is this research fostered at the universities? According to the last report of the Department, sixty- eight research workers and their assistants and thirty- 5 five students in training received allowances and grants for equipment amounting to 14,170l.; this is at_the _ rate of 53s. a week, and includes equipment. Con- trast this grant with the salary of 4oool. a vear for the director of the Glass Research Association—an appointment which is an affront to all scientific workers. Millions have gone into State-protected industries to the accompaniment of an astounding jation in the value of the shares held by indi- piiale in the State-aided industry. But the uni- versities are begging for funds to provide decent bench : ‘accommodation and instructors for their science students. Speaking at Liverpool on May 28, Dr. Adami is reported to have said that if the university raised the salaries of its demonstrators to a proper standard it would lead to bankruptcy. --——s ‘Tt is unfair to suggest that we are criticising the Department for the starvation of pure scientific re- search because industrial research is fostered; on the __ contrary, we are anxious for the advancement of both. We are of the opinion that neither branch, of science is receiving adequate support, but that research carried out in the general interest is in the more unfavourable position. it is because we honestly believe it is for the. better- ment of research—a- maximum of. efficiency in . the administration of the funds available which. must inevitably tend: towards. the better appreciation . of science. SG + ‘ ee. At the conference of research associations. held ‘under the auspices of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research on May 14, I heard several NO. 2640, VOL. 105] ~ ree ee ~~ — If-we .attack the Department representatives express opinions with those of the National Union of Scientific Workers; suggestions were made and questions asked which are provoked by Prof. Soddy’s address. Mr. Williamson himself dealt with the economic pdsi- tion of the research workers, and made suggestions for improvement which might have been those of a member of. the executive of this union. We entirely concur with Sir Frank Heath that the Department of Scientific and Industriat Research is embarked on a_ great adventure. Mr. Williamson will agree that it is our concern to work for the safety, honour, and welfare of the adventurous ‘scientific workers. So far we have heard too much of the rights of the financial interests concerned to work out their own salvation with money provided largely by the State, but very little of the rights of the scientific workers to safeguard their own interests. We wish to be assured that the leading spirit in the adventure is sufficiently well advised to guide him in his choice of officers for this armv of truth-seekers, and that his army is not defeated by ignorance, mishandled by an unsympathetic staff, or starved to feed the parasites of science. A. G. CuurcH, Secretary. National Union of Scientific Workers, 19 Tothill Street, Westminster, Lon- don, S.W.1, May 31. almost identical The Great Red Spot on Jupiter. Wuen this remarkable object came into striking prominence and attracted general observation in 1878, the rate of its rotation period was slightly increasing, and it continued to increase until the end of the cen- tury. Then in the early part of 1901 a large irregular spot appeared in the south tropical zone of Jupiter. This new feature, moving swifter than the red spot to the extent of about 23 seconds per rotation, soon affected the motion of the latter by accelerating its rate as it overtook it, and this influence has been repeated prior to the seven occasions on which the two objects have been in conjunction during the last twenty years. The rate of rotation indicated by the red spot has, in fact, been a very variable feature in recent times, and the marking named has exhibited an increased velocity and a shortening period. In the years from 1894 to 1901 the mean period was gh. 55m. 41-3s-, but in the last eight years it has been gh. 55m. 35:7s. I have shown the annual differences in Fig. 1, and the rate of rotation determined each year I have also tabulated for inspection and comparison : te. My) 8 h m & 1878 9 55 33°7 1899 ++ 9 55 416 1879 341 1900 4t-4 1880 35:2 IgOL 40°7 1881 36:3 1902, 39°6* 1882 37°3 1903 40:2 1883 38-2 1904 39°7* 1884 39°0 1905 41-2 see 39°6 1906 39°5* I 39°9 1907 40°9 1887 4orl 1908 39°6* 1888 40-2 1909 40'3 | 1889 40-4 1910 . 374 1890 . 40°5 IgIt aes 1891 40-6 FOU hi ae or ie 37:2 1892 40:8 1913 be 34:8* 1893 40'9 1914 a4 35°'5 1894 41:0 1915 37°5 1895 aul 1916 36-4 1896 413 IQI7 _ 345 1897 415, 1918 ae Bw pal 1898 41-7 IgIQ Sed 35'5 { ‘ | A424 NATURE [JUNE 3, 1920 The values are smoothed up to 1goo, but not in later | Phillips and Mr. F. Sargent, and I take this oppor- years. tunity of acknowledging their kindness in furnishing I have placed an asterisk in the table and diagram to those years in which a conjunction occurred between the red spot and the south tropical spot. In every case it will be seen that the red spot moved at a more rapid rate in those years when conjunctions were observed. The south tropical spot or disturbance is a totally different object both in form and nature, and probably in origin, from the great red spot. The latter has pre- served its symmetrical oval form since it was ob- served by Dawes in 1857, but the former has varied enormously in its length and detail. In 1901 it was scarcely. more than 20° long, in 1902 July 87°, in 1903 48°, in 1905 44° to 60°, in i911 115°, in 1912 65°, in 1913 March 140°, and-in 1918 180°, so that in the last-mentioned year it extended half-way round the vast diameter of Jupiter. This. marking exhibited undue faintness in 1918 and the early part of 1919, and it appeared to be on the eve of disappearing, like the hollow in the great the necessary materials. abstention from planetary work has been practically enforced, but, amid the regret caused thereby, I feel great satisfac. tion in the fact that others are pursuing it with much ability and energy. W. F. DENNING. © Bristol, May 11. ) British and Foreign Scientific Apparatus. Now that we are living in an age of “trusts” there is no need to fear foreign competition in respect to prices. The only points our home manu- facturers should lay stress upon are quality and quantity, and should these be maintained at a high _level they can hold their ground against foreign manu- facturers; that is, so long as the manufacturers throughout the world have confidence in their respec- tive associations. Whenever these commercial asso- ciations begin to fall asunder we may ex com- petition in prices to operate, and then it will mean south equatorial belt where the red spot lies. How- | a commercial war, not between nations, but between individual manufacturers in Europe and America. The result will mean [fal | LES financial. benefit to the users of - 54 scientific apparatus, just as the recent slump in prices of the neces- Be ) z,| saries of life may soon prove to be ted y “| advantageous to consumers generally | ATAU TTY throughout the world. 0 bid Scientific apparatus is as neces- ft] t sary to the maintenance of healthy 39 t +39 life as are hygenic clothing and } wholesome food; and if protection 38 7 38 for British manufacturers is requ _| in the form of prohibition except 37 t f\ 34 under licence to induce them to im- i prove the quality and the output, 36 t \ 36| with the ultimate object of deve i t ‘] ing an optical industry within 35 vA 35, Empire of such importance that "| : there would be less danger to the 3¢ 134, State in the event of another war, why should. the users of scientific. Me 33 radar be xp to bear vl Ree Se SE a a ae ee ee es ae ee a rdships in regard to poorer quali *$ 2 8 $8 @ 8 $8 & 8 8 2 2 8 @ and Si ener Be even for Y beat Fic. 1.—Rates of rotation of the Great Red Spot on Jupiter. ever, there has recently been some intensification in the material forming the south tropical spot, so that observations are being made to trace its position and developments. It is satisfactory also to know that the red spot itself continues to retain its definite form, and is sufficiently distinct to be within easy recognition when a steady air conduces to good seeing. This spot seemed to be breaking up or wearing out early in 1919, but it has recovered something of its old-time aspect, and is well within reach of the tele- scopes usually in the hands of amateurs. Since Schwabe first saw the hollow on the south side of the great south equatorial belt of Jupiter in 1831 September 5, the planet has rotated more than 78,000 times. There is every reason to conclude that the object he saw is the same as that which has been so prominently visible in recent years in close contiguity to the red spot. The two features appear to have participated in one and the same fluctuating rate of rotation, a mean of which was gh. 55m. 36-8s. during the 88} years included in the observations. . Thé observations upon which my deductions for recent years are based were made by the Rev. T. E.R. NO. 2640, VOL. 105] » orar riod? Surely it is a ques- ore es the Goperanae to decide . as to what amount of State aid is required to develop a key industry that the whole nation may be called upon to bear the expense instead of an extremely small minority of the population. In pre-war days our principal foreign competitor was Germany, not so much in price as in quality, and if German manufacturers were able to develop an industry of very considerable importance without State aid, why cannot British manufacturers do likewise ? . There was one person in Germany who was more responsible than all other makers together in lowering prices, viz. Leitz of Wetzlar. He always appeared satisfied with a comparatively small profit, and aimed at a very large output; and, I believe, he was the first to sell 1/12-in. oil immersion objectives at 5]., and curiously this ultimately became a uniform price throughout the trade in Europe and America. The same maker sold students’ microscope stands at 55s., which, with suitable optical equipment, was a service- able instrument with highest magnifications. The prices of these articles to-day are ol. and 8l. 5s.— higher than the British equivalents. . Since. the armistice German manufacturers have UNE 3, 1920] VATURE 425 n obliged to adjust their prices in accordance with rate of exchange for each country to which they ort, and for our country their prices are at present per cent. on average above pre-war English prices, wages in the German optical industry have in- ased more than 4oo per cent., and are likely to ‘still higher. Opticians and mechanics earning the ivalent of 1s. per hour before the war now receive are living in a state of semi-starvation, passing an experience at present much worse than any- we endured in the war, and unless foodstuffs are from England and America the Germans may forced to conditions similar to those experienced them during the last two years of war, until the t harvest provides better supplies. The low value German money makes it exceedingly difficult for nufacturers to import raw materials. Many iron steel works are closed for want of coal, and most the coal delivered from the mines is what our ers call ‘‘dust.’’ The French take the coal and e the rubbish, ‘‘which is good enough for the Germans.” Motor lorries are standing idle for want of petrol or benzol; and, for transport, horses are employed instead. Manufacturers do not pay a per- on excess profits, but have to deliver up the vhole of these profits to the State. I fully appreciate the question which Mr. Baker lises in his letter appearing in Nature of May 20: The rate of exchange makes the prices seem low gc puatti with those in this country, but can rof. Bayliss obtain delivery at the low prices?” L Having spent sjx weeks recently in the German interior and purchased a considerable quantity of optical apparatus, I found it impossible to get the goods exported to England at the rate of exchange, - but had to pay English prices in English money; also it was necessary to obtain licences from the Ge n Government before goods could be exported. _ The foregoing statements indicate briefly some of the conditions prevailing in the scientific apparatus rade in Germany, and there is evidence of their having to continue for a very considerable period. J believe our manufacturers have had the oppor- tunity of a lifetime since the armistice, and there is still time to reorganise British workshops to com- ‘successfully with foreigners without State aid, a a with courage, capital, and enterprise. . _* The proposed Anti-dumping Bill is a. misnomer. our country, and never has been any. We could pro- duce quality equal to or better than that of any other nation if we set ourselves to the task. One example during the war—the best aerial photographic lenses were made by an English firm. Germany came second. The tests were made by disinterested officials in the Royal Air Force. J. W. Octrvy. Hill View, Westerham Hill, Kent, May 25. , ae Tue letters from manufacturers on the subject of the supply of scientific instruments are interesting and fairly unanimous, but appear to me to miss the whole __ point of the situation. That is, that after five years’ _ freedom from competition our manufacturers cannot _. in many classes of scientific instruments compete suc- cessfully with German firms. 4 If the rate of exchange is the cause of the importa- _ __ tion of German instruments, what is the cause of hundreds of American microscopes and lenses being sold during and after the war with the rate of exchange adverse to us? The Germans are selling their goods in England at current English rates and above. vet find a ready sale. At first, it is true, some individuals NO. 2640, VOL. 105 | . and have a working week of forty-eight hours.. -Ioo per cent. advance, namely, ul. There is no dumping done in scientific apparatus in. smuggled in German instruments at mark rates, but as soon as the extent of the demand was realised, German firms put up their export rates to 60-100 per cent. above pre-war rates, to be paid in English money, and by some firms payment in advance is insisted upon. This is more than confirmed by Messrs. Bellingham and Stanley in their letter. What more do our manufacturers want? The German goods are sold simply.because they are superior to similar goods produced at reasonable prices in Britain. Mr. B. H. Morphy and Mr. C. Baker state that this was the case before the war, and most scientific workers will tell them that it is so still. One firm complains of a voluntary hospital buying apparatus cheaper abroad, and thinks that an English firm should have been given the contract at higher rates. Whose money is to do this? I hope that the voluntary subscribers would protest against ‘their money being paid to subsidise British manufacturers. A small concrete example of what actually occurs may not be out of place. A German diamond object marker before the war cost 10 marks. ‘Early this year I sent to a leading firm of British opticians for one. It arrived, but was absolutely useless, having no ‘spring safety device and no means of screw adjustment, both present in the German one. It cost 11. tos. Months later, with considerable trouble, I procured from Messrs. Leitz, of Germany, the pre-war article at The German article was bought because it was superior, not because it was cheaper. ; It should be borne in mind that some scientific articles, e.g. photographic plates, can be produced well arid cheaply here, and need not fear German competition. If, as Mr. Baker states, the profit on other classes of goods is too small, why not allow them to be imported from Germany ? Glasgow, May 21. J. S. DuNKERLY. Gost of Scientific Publications. Like other societies which exist mainly for the publication of the results of scientific research, the Royal Society of Edinburgh finds ‘its activities greatly hampered by the present cost of publication, The statements contained in the leader in NaturE of May6 and in the correspondence which has followed it are fully borne out by the experience of this socigty. Taking into account all present sources of income and all necessary expenses, it may safely be said that;the output of scientific literature must be cut down to fully one-third of what it was in pre-war days. — The point to be emphasised is that publication of scientific results is absolutely necessary for the true development of science. ‘A year and a half ago the council of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, on realising the seriousness of the situation, appealed to the Chancellor of the Exchequer for an increase in the annual grant solely in the interest of scientific pub- lication. The appeal was unsuccessful, but in reply the Chancellor of the Exchequer stated that “*he would ‘be ready to reconsider the question along with other similar claims when the financial situation is more favourable.’’ It certainly seems necessary that suffering societies which publish original memoirs should take steps to press on the attention of the nation and on the con- science of the Government this consideration in the interest of scientific investigation, viz. the provision of adequate funds for the publication of the’ results of research, C. G. Knorr, : General Secretary. Royal Societv of Edinburgh, 22 George Street, May 31. NATURE [JUNE 3, 1920 Natural History Studies in Canada.! (r) REVISED edition of Mr. Ernest Thomp- son Seton’s “Arctic Prairies ” (first pub- lished in 1911) is very welcome. It is a well-told story of a canoe journey of 2000 miles in search Fic. 1.—The sandhill crane. From ‘‘ Wild Life in Canada. of the caribou (a kind of reindeer), and it dis- closes a cheerful picture of the abundance of wild 1 (x) ‘* The Arctic Prairies: A Canoe-Journey of 2000 Miles in Search of | | | | ' the Caribou. Being the Account of a Voyage to the Region North of Aylmer Lake.” By Ernest Thompson Seton. Pp. xii+308. (London: Constable and Co., Lid., 1920.) Price 8s. 6d. net. (2) ‘‘ Wild Life in Canada.” By Capt. A. Buchanan. London: J. Murray, 1920.) i Price 15s. net. NO. 2640, VOL, 105 | Pp. xx+264. | | life (in 1907) in the Far North-west of America. “T have lived in the mighty boreal forest, with its Red-men, its Buffalo, its Moose, and _ its Wolves; I have seen the Great Lone Land with its endless plains and prairies that do not know the face of man or the crack of a rifle; I have been with its countless lakes that re- echo nothing but the wail and yodel of the Loons, or the mourn- ful music of the Arctic Wolf. I have wandered on the plains of the Musk-ox, the home of the Snowbird and the Caribou.” The ‘author has fine things to tell us of—such’as the love-song of Richardson’s owl, sung on the wing, “like the slow tolling of a soft but high-pitched bell”; a herd of wild buffalo amid a great bed of spring anemones; a troop of caribou, about 500 strong, charging at full trot through the taint of man; and the wealth of flowers in the so-called “Barren Grounds.” There are grim pic- tures too—of the malignancy of the mosquitoes which for two and a half months make a hell of a land which for half the year might be an earthly paradise; of the epi- demics that periodically wipe out the all too prolific rabbits (billions in the Mackenzie River valley in 1903-4, and none to be seen in 1907); of the Canadian lynx that “lives on rabbits, follows the rabbits, thinks rabbits, tastes like rab- bits, increases with them, and on their failure dies of starva- tion in the unrabbited woods ”’; of the aged dwarf spruces which testify to the rigour of the environmental conditions, for one which was at least 300 years old ‘was only 8 ft. high and 12 in. through. Mr. Seton’s skill as a descriptive naturalist needs no _ praising, and his narrative is full of human interest as well. The book is generously illustrated with pen-and-ink drawings and photographs. The reference in the preface to the scientific | appendices might have been judiciously omitted, for appendices there are none. (2) Capt. Buchanan tells of his wanderings in “the great unpeopled North, which even to-day comprises more than half of the large Dominion of Canada.” He explored the country between June 3, 1920] =: eee NATURE 427 the Saskatchewan River and the Arctic “ Barren Grounds,” and his collection of birds from the area _ drained by the Churchill River was the first to be _ made fromi that remote region. Of this collection a list is given at the end of the book, and birds predominate throughout the pages of what is __ really a naturalist’s journal—unvarnished, graphic, _ and with a strong personal note. A chapter is _ given to the rare sandhill crane, which he saw and heard and stalked. He found the nest and saw the eggs through the field-glass, but, having ‘waited overnight in the hope of the parents return- ward migration, so it is leisurely ; moreover, many of the does are with young. The southward movement of great herds in the fall is largely con- ditioned by the absence of trees, for an icy crust, difficult to break, forms over the snow. “As the thermometer drops in the Far North and food and shelter become difficult to find, the animals will band together and grow restive, and pause from time to time to sniff the wind from the south with question on their countenance. And one day,’ with proud heads up and anxious eyes, they will commence their long travel through sheltering -r ee eS ee a, _ favourite one. Fic. 2.—Caribou travelling in typical Indian file. From ‘‘ Wild Life in Canada.’ ing, he was baulked in the end, for the nest was empty in the morning. ; A fine picture is given of Reindeer Lake, a vast sheet of water stretching 140 miles north and south, and 40 miles across at its widest. Its shores form the favoured winter-haunt of the barren-ground caribou (Rangifer arcticus), which digs through the snow to get at the white moss and marsh grass. Early in the year the does and yearling fawns begin to move northward, and the bucks follow later. There is no weather-change urging the north- forests where snows are soft and food is plentiful beneath its yielding surface.” The picture that the author gives of the caribou is a fine piece of work. Another chapter deals with the admirable sled-dogs, which will gamely do their best, for two or three days on end, in bitter weather and without food, to save an anxious situation. Very good reading, too, is Capt. Buchanan’s appreciation of the Cree and Chipewyan Indians, “quaintly friendly and unselfish in their hospitality,” “resourceful, mag- nificent fellow-travellers on the trail.” Tidal HE idea of utilising the rise and fall of the tides for power purposes has long been a Up to the present, however, no power development of this kind, of any appreciable size, has been carried out. The com- paratively recent arousing of interest in water- power development in general, and the great advance in the cost of fuel, have been accompanied. by a corresponding interest in_ tidal-power schemes, and their commercial possibility is at the moment the subject of serious investigation in this country and in France. The power which may be developed from a tidal basin of given area depends on the square of the tidal range, and since the cost per horse- power of the necessary turbines and generating machinery increases rapidly as the working head is diminished, the cost per horse-power of a tidal- power installation, other things being equal, will NO. 2640, VOL. 105 | Power. be smallest where the tidal range is greatest. It is for this reason that the western, and especially the south-western, coasts of Great Britain, and the western coast of France, are particularly well adapted for such developments, since the tidal range here is greater than in any other part of the world, with the possible exception of the Bay of Fundy, Hudson’s Bay, and Port Gallelos, in Patagonia. In Great Britain the highest tides are found in the estuary of the Severn, the mean range of the spring tides at Chepstow being 42 ft., and of the neap tides 21 ft. In France the maximum ‘range occurs at St. Malo, where it amounts to 42-5 ft. at spring tides, and about 18 ft. at neap tides. The tidal range in the Dee is 26 ft. at springs, and 12 ft. at neaps, while the mean range of spring tides around the coast of Great Britain is 16-4 ft., and of neap tides 8°6 ft. 428 NATURE [JUNE 3, 1920 Many schemes of tidal-power development have been suggested from time to time. Briefly out- lined, the more promising of these are as follows : — (a) A single tidal basin is used, divided from the sea by a dam or barrage, in which are placed the turbines. The basin is filled through sluices during the rising tide. At high tide the sluices are closed. When the tide has fallen through a height the magnitude of which depends on the working head to be adopted, the turbine-gates are opened, and the turbines operate on a more or less constant head until low tide. The maxi- mum output from a given area of basin is Fig. obtained when the working head is approximately one-half the tidal range, and the cycle of operations under these conditions, and with a constant rate of fall in the tidal basin, is shown in Fig. 1. Here the dotted sine curve represents the level of the sea on a time base. The working period extends from A to B. (b) A single tidal basin is used, with the tur- bines operating on both rising and falling tides. The cycle of operations is now indicated in Fig. 2. The working period per complete tide extends from A to B and from C to D. Slightly before low water, at B, the basin is emptied through sluice-gates, and at D, a little before high water, the basin is filled through the sluice-gates. With a working head equal to one-half the tidal range, the period of operation*is approximately 50 per cent. greater than in system (a), and the work done per complete tide is approximately 50 per cent. greater. (c) A single tidal basin is used with the turbines operating on both rising and falling tides. Instead of filling and emptying the tidal basin through sluice-gates at high and low water; and working under an approximately constant head, the water is allowed to flow through the turbines and to NO. 2640, VOL, 105 | will operate. adjust its own level. Under these conditions the rise and fall inside the basin are cyclical, with the same period as the tide, but with a smaller rise and fall and with a certain time-lag. The range in the basin and the time-lag depend on the ratio of the surface area of the basin and of the effective discharge area of the turbines. The working head during each tide varies from zero to a maxi- mum. The cycle of operations-is shown i in Fig. 3. The working period is from A to B and from C to D, where the head at the points A, B, C, and D is the minimum under which the turbines The total working period per tide is greater than with either of the preceding Fig.>. systems, and the possible output is coat greater. On the other hand, the variation of head during any one tide is very large. (a) Two tidal basins of approximately equal areas are used, with turbines in the dividing wall. Each basin communicates with the sea through suitable sluice-gates. In one of these basins, called the upper, the water-level is never allowed to fall below one-third of the tidal range, while ~ in the lower basin the level is not allowed to rise above one-third of the tidal range. The working head then varies from 0-53 H to o80 H, and operation is continuous, as indicated in Fig. 4, which shows the cycle of operations. The upper Bas, basin is filled from the sea through the appro- -priate sluice-gates from A to B, and the lower basin discharges into the sea from C'to D.. For a given total basin area and a given tidal range the output is only about one-half that obtained in system (a), and one-third that obtained in systems. (b) and (c), so that, except where the physical configuration of the site is particularly favour- able, the cost per horse-power is likely to prove very high. (e) Two tidal basins of approximately equal size are used. Turbines are installed in the walls dividing the sea from each basin. Fig. 5 shows NATURE 429 discharges through its turbines into the From B to E the sea enters the lower basin ‘its turbines. The upper basin is filled the sea through its sluice-gates between TD, and the lower basin is emptied through e-gates from F to G. The head varies 1 0125 H to 0-62 H, and the output is some cent. greater than in system (d), but the nber of turbines required is much greater than - is possible, at the expense of additional com- ication, to arrange in each of these systems ‘the head shall be maintained constant during one working period, but since this means that e working head must then be the minimum ining during the period, a loss of energy is ‘olved, with a great additional cost of construc- tion and complication in manipulation, and with little compensating advantage. The great difficulty in developing a tidal scheme as compared with an orthodox low head water- fluctuations in head. In any scheme in which the working head is a definite fraction of the tidal range, the working head at spring tides is much _A BASIN ater than at neap tides. In the case of the Severn, for example, the working head at springs would be twice as great as at neaps, and the energy output per tide would be four times as reat at springs as at neaps, while at St. Malo as at neaps. Not only is the installation subject to this _eyclical fluctuation of head, but in any simple scheme the turbines also cease to operate for a more or less extended period on each tide; and as this idle period depends on the time of ebb or flood tide it gradually works around the clock, and will, at regular intervals, be included in the normal industrial working day. It is true that _ schemes of operation such as have been indicated _are feasible in which this idle period may be eliminated and continuous operation ensured, but only at a considerable reduction of output per square mile of tidal basin area. Even in such schemes, unless the working head is fixed with reference to the tidal range at neap tides, the variation of head between springs and neaps causes the output to be very variable. In any installation, then, designed for an ordinary industrial load, unless the output is cut down to that obtainable under the minimum head NO. 2640. VOL. 105 | power scheme arises from the relatively great available at the worst period of a neap tide, in which case only a very. small fraction of the total available energy is utilised and the cost of the necessary engineering works per horse-power will, except in exceptionally favourable circum- stances, be prohibitive, some form of storage system forms an essential feature of the scheme. Various storage systems have: been suggested. Electrical accumulators must be ruled out, if only on account of the cost, and the same applies to all systems making use of compressed air. The only feasible system appears to consist of a stor- age reservoir above the level of the tidal basin. Whenever the output of the primary turbines exceeds the industrial demand, the excess energy is utilised to pump water into the reservoir, and when the demand exceeds the output from the primary turbines it is supplied by a series of generators driven by a battery of secondary tur- bines operated by the water from the storage reservoir. Evidently this method is available only when the physical configuration of the district affords ‘a suitable reservoir site within a reasonable - distance of the tidal basin. Unfortunately also, considerable losses are inevitable in the process, and the energy available at the switchboard of this secondary station is only about 50 per cent. of the energy of the water utilised by the primary turbines. Where two tidal schemes at some distance apart differ sufficiently in phase, it is possible, by working the two in conjunction, to reduce or eliminate the idle period between tides, ‘and thus to reduce the necessary storage some- what; but this does not affect the necessity of storage as between spring and neap tides. + Since storage reduces the available output by one-half, and at the same time complicates the system, besides adding considerably to the first cost and maintenance charges, the prospects of tidal-power schemes would be much more promis- ing if the whole of the output could be utilised as it is generated. By feeding into a distributing main in conjunction with a large steam station and/or inland water-power scheme, and delivering to an industrial district capable of absorbing a comparatively large night load, such a state of affairs might be realised, at all events approxi- mately. There is also the possibility that the intermittent operation of certain electro-chemical processes may be developed so as to enable any surplus power to be absorbed as and when avail- able, and, if so, power developed tidally will probably prove cheaper in this country than that developed from any other source. Owing to the relatively large variations in working head in any simple scheme, and to the small working heads, the design of hydraulic turbines capable of giving constant speed with reasonable efficiencies, and of moderately high speeds of rotation, is a matter of considerable difficulty. Modern’ developments, however, promise much better results in both these respects than would have appeared possible only a few years ago, and turbines are in existence 430 NATURE [JUNE 3, 192¢ which are capable of operating under a variation of head equal to 50 per cent. on each side of the mean, with efficiencies which do not fall below 70 per cent. over this range, and with reasonably high speeds of rotation under the heads available. Even with such turbines, the number of technical problems to be solved before a tidal scheme of any magnitude can be embarked upon with confidence is large. The questions of single- versus double-way operation, of storage, of the effect of sudden changes of water-level due to strong winds, of wave effects, of silting in the tidal basin and of scour on the down-stream side of the sluices, of the best form of turbine and of generator, and of their regulation and of that of the sluice-gates, are probably the most important, though not the only, subjects to consider. On, the other hand, the possibilities of tidal power, if it can be developed commercially, are very great. Assuming a mean tidal range of only 20 ft. at springs, and 1o ft. at neaps, and adopt- ing the single-basin method of development with operation on both rising and falling tides, each — square mile of basin area would be capable, with- out storage, of giving an average daily output of approximately 110,000 horse-power-hours. In such an estuary as the Severn, where an area of 20 square miles could readily be utilised with a ~ spring tidal range of 42 ft., the average daily. output, without storage, would be approximately 10,000,000 horse-power-hours. At the present time it is difficult to obtain an even rough estimate of the total cost of such a scheme, owing to the uncertainty regarding many of the factors involved. The whole question would appear to merit investigation, espe- cially on matters of detail, by a technical committee with funds available for experimental work. As a result of such an investigation, it is at least possible that a definite working scheme could be formulated capable of generating power at a cost at least as small as, and possibly much smaller than, that of power generated from any coal-fired installation, Obituary. Pror. C. A. TimiriazerF, For.Mem.R.S. THE death is announced of Clement Arkadie- vitch Timiriazeff, emeritus professor of botany in the University of Moscow. Timiriazeff was the only Russian botanist who was at all a familiar figure in England. In earlier days he came to England and saw Charles Darwin, while his last visit was made as a delegate to the Darwin cele- bration in Cambridge in 1909. His earliest pub- lication appeared in 1863—a Russian book on “Darwin and his Theory,” which ran through five editions. | Here he made his mark as an attractive expounder of science for the general reader, and he followed this work with books on “The General Problems of Modern Science,” ‘Agriculture and Plant Physiology,” and “The Life of the Plant.” The last was in great demand, there being seven Russian editions between 1878 and 1908, while in 1912 it was translated into English, and is widely read to the present day. Its characteristic note is an exposition of plant structure and function based on the chemical and physical processes at work in the living plant. Without comparison of the early editions we cannot tell at what date this book took the form in which it appeared in English, but it looks as if Timiriazeff was one of the earliest writers to take up this essentially modern outlook. His attitude was no doubt an expression of his early training under chemists and physicists. Born in 1843, he studied. under Bunsen, Kirchhoff, Helmholtz, and Berthelot before working with Boussingault. Timiriazeff made himself famous by work on one single problem—the participation of the dif- ferent rays of the visible spectrum in the photo- synthetic activity of the green leaf. The tech- nique which he brought to the attack on this problem seems almost an exact expression of the NO. 2640, VOL. 105 | combined influence of his teachers: good methods of gas-analysis, pure spectral illumination, and experimentation on isolated leaves; combined with the sound conception that rays utilised for work in the chloroplast must be rays abundantly absorbed © by the pigment chlorophyll. Working with a micro-eudiometer, concentrated sunlight, and a narrow spectroscope slit, he was able to disprove the accepted view that the yellow region, which is so bright to the eye, is the most effective region of the solar spectrum, and to locate the efficiency | in the red region where absorption by chlorophyll is greater. Afterwards he demonstrated the secondary maximum of photosynthetic effect in the blue region, where also absorption is great. This work was published in different forms, at various dates, in scientific journals of most Euro- pean countries, the final presentation being the Croonian lecture to the Royal Society in 1903. The actual experimental work seems to have been all done between 1868 and 1883. ‘There is no evi- dence that he published research work on any other subject, so that we have in Timiriazeff the remarkable case of a man who, having achieved fame by one important line of research at forty, was content to devote the remaining half of his life to teaching and exposition. THE announcement of a new book, “A Nation’s Heritage,” by HarpwickE DRUMMOND RAWNSLEY, sadly coincides with the record of its author’s death. Born on September 28, 1851, the distin- guished canon died on May 28, to the last pur- suing the self-imposed task of persuading his fellow-countrymen to take care of their own treasures. His mother was a niece of Sir John Franklin, the Arctic explorer. In education Canon Rawnsley had the good fortune to be at Upping- Jone 3, 1920] NATURE 431 ham under Edward Thring, and at Balliol under _ Benjamin Jowett, with fellow-undergraduates who _ in various ways became men of light and leading. _ As a poet and preacher, and in general a quick- _ ener of life and energy wherever demands were _ made upon his active genius, he met with well- | deserved appreciation. As the obituary notice _ in the Times observes, ‘perhaps his chief work - was the founding of the National Trust for the _ Preservation of Places of Historic Interest and _ Natural Beauty.” For the qualifying word “ per- o haps”. it would be better to substitute _ the word “undoubtedly.” Men like Canon Rawnsley, by setting a courageous example, often _ accomplish much more than their immediate object. By the death, at fifty-eight years of age, of Dr. GeorGe Ernest Morrison, “Morrison of Peking,” as he was familiarly known, the Empire has lost a great explorer and expert in the politics of the Far+East. An Australian by birth, Dr. Morrison began by explorations in that continent, New Guinea, and the South Sea Islands, his most _ notable exploit being his famous crossing from the _ Gulf of Carpentaria to Melbourne in 1882, when he marched 2043 miles on foot in 123 days. Coming to Europe, he took his degree of M.D. at Edinburgh, and wandered in the United States, Spain, and Morocco. Reaching China, he crossed to Rangoon and explored Siam. His life-work really began in 1897, when he was appointed Rs cores ondent of the Times at Peking. Here he d from day to day with the prescience of a Ceaiesman and the accuracy of a historian the momentous struggle which resulted from the _ German occupation of Kiao-chao, and he took an active part in the defence of the Peking Legations during the Boxer rising of 1900. In 1907 Dr. Morrison crossed China from Peking to Tonquin, and in 1910 he rode from Honan City to Andijan in Russian Turkestan. Two years later he re- signed his post as correspondent of the Times, and became political adviser to the first President of the Chinese Republic. During his stay in Peking he collected one of the most comprehensive libraries of Chinese literature. His contributions to the study of the Far East, except his well- known book, “An Australian in China,” slit consist of newspaper articles. WE much regret to announce the death, on May 28, in his forty-third year, of Pror. LEONARD Doncaster, F.R.S., fellow of King’s College, Cambridge, and Derby professor of zoology in the University of Liverpool. WE notice with regret the announcement in the Times of the death in India, at the early age of thirty-two years, of PRor, SrinrvASA RAMANUJAN, F.R.S., fellow of Trinity College. Cambridge, and distinguished by his brilliant mathematical _re- searches. NO. 2640, VOL. 105 | Notes, THE Romanes lecture at Oxford was delivered on | May 27 by Dr. Inge, Dean of St. Paul’s, before a | large audience, by whom the lecturer’s brilliant epigrams and trenchant criticism of conventional catchwords were evidently much appreciated. Deal- ing with the “idea of progress,’’ the Dean made it clear that he had no belief in any natural law of continued progress in the sphere of morals or intel- lect, or even of physical organisation. The concep- tion of such a law was, in fact, of comparatively recent growth, and had no foundation in the thought of antiquity or of the Middle Ages. At the same time he wouid not deny a temporary improvement of the race in fulfilment of a finite purpose, though he found little or no evidence of any advance during the historical period in either physical organisation or morals. The results of accumulated experience must not be confounded with a real progress in human nature. Dean Inge would scarcely be con- cerned to deny that the emergence of rational humanity from previous non-human conditions de- served in some sort the name of “progress,’’ but he saw no warrant for the belief that such “ progress” would be continued indefinitely under the domain of natural law. Huxley had pointed out in a previous Romanes lecture that ethical improvement ran: counter to the process of cosmic evolution. Progress was a task for humanity, not a law of Nature. « Civilisation was a disease that had hitherto been invariably fatal. The ancient civilisations had fallen by the attacks of outer barbarians; ‘‘we breed our own barbarians.”’ But progress was possible for the individual, if not for the race, and hope was not only a virtue, but also a solid fact. On May 17 Mr. H. Morris, of Lewes, read a paper to the Oxford University Archzological Society on the evolution of Wealden flint culture from _pre- Paleolithic times, including that of Piltdown Man. He exhibited many flints, which he claimed as inter- mediate between the early Harrison types of the North Downs plateau and the recognised Palzolithic types, representing man’s transition from the stage in which he subsisted on a vegetable diet to the hunting stage. The earliest spear-head accompanies the Piltdown skull and marks the beginning of man the hunter. The flints are confined to a_ limited number of patches, and many prolific “river gravel” areas fail to produce anything resembling them; the proportions in which the various types appear are found to agree closely in all the patches. When the cortex of the flint did not interfere with the design of the implement, it has been cleverly and intentionally preserved; many of the fractures are of thermal origin, but man utilised these natural fracture-surfaces in the same way as he utilised cortex. It is signi- ficant that signs of man’s work appear only in the places where it is essential for the attainment of the required form. Sir Arthur Evans, Prof. Sollas, Dr. Marett, Mr. Henry Balfour, Mr. Reid Moir, and others discussed Mr. Morris’s paper, and hesitated to accept his conclusions. 432 “NATURE [June 3, 1920 A SUDDEN. flood swept through the Lincolnshire town of Louth on Saturday afternoon, May 29, caus- ing immense havoc in its path. The torrent took the course of the small stream known as the River Lud, which runs through the town, and rose 15 ft. in half an hour. The disaster, which occurred shortly before 5 o'clock, is described as a huge wall of water sweeping down upon the town and carrying away bridges and buildings opposed to its course. The River Lud in normal times is a stream from 12 ft. to 15 ft. wide, and about 2 ft. or 3 ft. deep. The flood is said nowhere to have been less than 8 ft. to to ft. high and fully 200 yards wide. It was apparently accompanied by no warning sound, and the torrent of water is said to have exceeded the rate of 4o miles an hour. The loss of life is reported to be from 25 to 40 persons, and the damage to property is roughly estimated at 250,000l. to 500,000l, A heavy thunderstorm had raged for two hours in the afternoon. The disaster was, without doubt, due to intense thunderstorm rains swelling the river far beyond the capacity of its channel. The ‘Meteorological Glossary” published by the Meteorological Office describes a ‘‘cloud-burst’’ as a term commonly used for very heavy thunder-rain, and in.this sense the term seems applicable to the cause of the Louth disaster. THE new by-laws of the Chemical Society came into force on June 1, and women are now eligible for fellowship of the society. THE annual visitation of the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, will be held on Saturday next, June 5. The observatory will be open for inspection by invited visitors at 3.30 p.m. Dr. FREDERICK G. CoTTRELL has been nominated by President Wilson as Director of the U.S. Bureau of Mines, Department of the Interior, in succession to Dr. Van. H. Manning, resigned. Tue Stewart prize of the British Medical Asso¢iation has been awarded by the council to Dr. Harriette Chick, who has been an assistant in the department of experimental pathology at the Lister Institute since 1906, and has published numerous papers on bacterio- logy and physical chemistry. By the courtesy of the council of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, the next ordinary scientific meeting of the Chemical Society on June 17 at 8 p.m. | will be held in the lecture-hall of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Storey’s Gate, Westminster, S.W.1, when Prof. J. C. McLennan, of Toronto Uni- versity, will deliver a lecture on ‘‘ Helium.” A JOINT meeting of the Association of Economic Biologists and the Imperial Entomological Conference will be held at the Rothamsted Experimental Station, Harpenden, on June 4. The party will leave St. Pancras Station by the 10 a.m. train and, on arrival at Harpenden, proceed direct to the park, where the experimental plots will be demonstrated by Dr. W. E. Brenchley. P Sir Wititam J. Pope has accepted the nomination of the council of the Society of Chemical Industry to be president for the year 1920-21. Prof. H. Louis has NO. 2640, VOL. 105 | _ Early been elected foreign secretary in succession to the late Dr. Messel, and Dr. C. C. Carpenter has been ap- pointed the society’s representative on the governing body of the Imperial College of Science and Techno- logy. At the meeting of the Franklin Institute, Philadel- phia, on May 19, the Franklin medal awarded to the Hon. Sir Charles A. Parsons was received by Sir Auckland Geddes, British Ambassador; and Mr. W. A, F. Ekengren, Swedish Minister, also received a Franklin medal for Prof. Svante A. Arrhenius. Papers were presented on ‘‘Some Reminiscences of Days of Turbine Development’? by Sir Charles A. Parsons, and on ‘The World’s Energy Supply ’’ by Prof. Arrhenius. THE national memorial to the late Capt. F. C. Selous at the Natural History Museum, Cromwell Road, South Kensington, will be unveiled by the Right Hon. Viscount Grey of Fallodon, K.G., on Thursday next, June 10, at 3.30 p.m. The presenta- tion will be made by the Right Hon. E. S. Montagu, M.P., chairman of the committee. The granite of the bas-relief which forms the memorial is from the ~ Matoppo Hills, the burial-place of Cecil Rhodes and Sir Starr Jameson, and was presented to the Selous Memorial Committee by the Government of the Union of South Africa. Tue Imperial Entomological Conference was opened in London on Tuesday, June 1, by Lord Harcourt. The official delegates to the conference are :—Canada, South Africa, Basutoland, Bechuanaland, and Swazi- land, Mr. C. P. Lounsbury; Australia, Prof. R. D. Watt; New Zealand, Dr. R. J. Tillyard; India, Mr. C. F. C. Beeson; Queensland, Mr. F. Balfour ‘Browne; British Guiana, Mr. G..E. Bodkin; Ceylon, Mr. F. A.. Stockdale; East Africa Protectorate, Mr. T. J. Anderson; Federated Malay States, Mr. P. B. Richards; Gold Coast,. Mr. W. H. Patterson; Im- perial Department of Agriculture for the West Indies and Leeward Islands, Mr. H. A. Ballou; Mauritius, Mr. G. G. Auchinleck; Northern Rhodesia, Dr. Aylmer May; Southern. Rhodesia, Mr. R. W. Jack; Seychelles, Dr. J. B. Addison; Sierra Leone, Mr. H. Waterland; Straits Settlements, Mr. P. B. Richards; Sudan, Mr. H..H. King; Trinidad, Mr. F. W. Urich; and Uganda, Mr. C. C. Gomory: ‘In the May-issue of the Fortnightly Review Mr. Edward Clodd gives an account of the prevalence of occultism at the present day. This results from the fact that though man calls himself Homo sapiens, his instincts and elemental passions and émotions remain primitive. Prof. Elliot Smith in a recent paper on ‘Primitive Man’’ remarks that, ‘‘so far as one can judge, there has been no far-reaching and progressive modification of the instincts and emotions since man came into existence beyond the acquisition of the necessary innate power of using more cert cerebral apparatus which he has to employ.’’ Plus ca change, plus c’est la méme chose. on the hopes and fears of crowds of dupes of all classes of society, are strongly reprobated. “ Its -exponents lack the harmlessness of the cranky theory- The influence of the present movement, and the mischievous play Presence.” _ men who died on the battlefield, are ‘‘danced’’ by JUNE 3, 1920] NATURE 433 4 tS mongers who, if they have wasted our time in the pamphlets they thrust upon us, at least in some degree condone this nuisance by the amusement which 4 they supply.’’ Sir W. Ripceway anp Dr. L. D. Barnetr have reprinted a paper read by them before the Cambridge Philological Society on ‘‘The Origin of the Hindu . Drama: Additional Evidence.’’ The theory that this type of drama had its origin in dances connected with the cult of the dead is supported by a new series of _ facts. Krishna, whether he be regarded as a deity & from all time or merely a vegetation abstraction, was, _as was suggested by S. Lévi in 1892, the chief element _ in the Hindu drama. The defeat of the Asura demons _ by Indra took a dramatic form, in which the god’s flagstaff became the emblem of the stage, recalling _ the pole known to the Japanese as Mitegura, ‘ Lordly- Cloth-seat,” and to the Chinese Gohei, ‘ Imperial In the same way the Vir, or spirits of the Mahrattas. Other evidence to the same effect has been collected from other parts or India, and the writers sum up the discussion by remarking that “there can therefore be no longer any doubt that Hindu serious drama arose in the worship of the dead.” In the Journal of the Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland (vol. xlix., part 2, December, 1919) Mr. R. J. Kelly, K.C., discusses the question of the famous Donnybrook Fair. On the authority of the great Irish scholar, Dr. Todd, the name seems to be derived from Domhnach broc, “the Church of Broc,”’ a saint who seems to have flourished before the eighth century. By a charter of Prince John, bearing date 1192, the city of Dublin was authorised to estab- lish a fair ‘‘at Doniburn annually to continue for eight days on the Feast of the Invention of the Holy Cross,” and this was confirmed by a charter, 26th of Henry III., dated 1241. The rude merriment, crime, and degradation which occurred during the fair finally led to its abolition in 1855, after it had lasted nearly six and a half centuries. Mr. Kelly’s article contains an excellent collection of extracts from contemporary writers describing the famous fair. Further details are given in the same issue of the journal in an article by Mr. H. Bantry White on **An Old House at Donnybrook.”’ Miss Anne L. Massy gives (Sc. Proc. Roy. Dublin Soc., vol. xvi., No. 4, April, 1920) a revised list of the twenty-five species of MHolothurioidea (‘‘sea- cucumbers”) of the coasts of Ireland. Since the pub- lication in 1905 of Mr. Kemp’s paper on the Echino-~ derms of the west coast of Ireland, the naturalists of the Fisheries Branch of the Department of Agri- culture have taken three species of Holothurians which are new to the British and Irish area, namely, Stichopus regalis, Mesothuria Verrilli, and Benthogone rosea, The first of these occurs in the Mediterranean, and is known as far south as the Canaries, but has not hitherto been observed north of the Bay of Biscay. The other two appear to inhabit the warmer parts of the Atlantic, and probably reach their northern | limit at about 52° N. NO. 2640, VOL. 105 | Dr. H. A. Pirssry’s “‘ Review of the Land Mollusks of the Belgian Congo, chiefly based on the Collections of the American Museum Congo Expedition, 1909- 1915’ (Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History, vol. xl., art. 1, 1919), is a very important contribution to our knowledge of the African fauna. The collections on which it is based are very exten- sive, comprising more than 6000 specimens represent- ing 214 species and subspecies, and a complete record of all the land molluscs hitherto known from the region (compiled by Dr. J. Bequaert) is included. Large numbers of carefully preserved spirit-specimens were available, and Dr. Pilsbry was able to study the anatomy of the soft parts with important results. In the case of the Helicide, of which the tropical African representatives have hitherto been known by the shells alone, he has been able to show that their affinities are not, as had been supposed, with the European genera of the family, but with the Asiatic. The field notes are contributed by Mr. Herbert Lang, whose account of the bionomics, economic uses, and folk-lore of the giant Achatinide is of particular interest. His remarks on the dispersal of certain species over large areas by the agency of man are worthy of note as having possibly a wider application. The memoir is very fully illustrated, and some of the coloured plates are of exceptional beauty. We seem to have much to learn about even the commonest of marine organisms, and the exceedingly abundant and almost cosmopolitan protozoon Nocti- luca—a frequent cause of luminescence in the sea— has just received at the hands of Prof. C. A. Kofoid, of the University of California, a new interpretation which, if accepted, will necessitate a change in classi- fication involving the removal of that supposed Cystoflagellate from its accustomed position and its incorporation in» another group of the Flagel- lata (‘‘Noctiluca,’’ Univ. of Cal. Publicns. in Zool., vol. xix., No. 10, February, 1920). Prof. Kofoid is the recognised authority on the groups in question, and no one is more competent to express an opinion on the matter. In describing several new and remarkable genera of the Dinoflagellata from the Pacific related to Gymnodinium, he points out that Noctiluca may have its essential morphological characters homologised with those of various new highly specialised tentacle-bearing forms, such as Pavillardia tentaculifera. Noctiluca, then, according to these new investigations, is not exceptional amongst Dinoflagellates in bearing a tentacle, and may be inter- preted as having a girdle, a sulcus, and two flagella like any other more ordinary Peridinian. The state- ment, however, that the ‘‘tooth” or prehensile organ represents the degenerate transverse flagellum may possibly be regarded as open to doubt. The accept- ance of this work means that the order Cystoflagel- lata, established by Haeckel in 1878 for the reception of Noctiluca, and adopted by most writers since, should be either suppressed or emended. Noctiluca is no longer its type for text-book and lecture. A CONCISE record of botanical exploration in Chile ‘and Argentina is given in the Kew Bulletin (1920, No. 2) by W. B. Turrill. Among the earliest explorers 434 ~NATURE were the French botanist, Philibert Commerson, who was surgeon and naturalist to: Bougainville’s expedi- tion (1767-68), and Sir Joseph Banks, who with Daniel Solander accompanied Cook on his first voyage round the world (1768-71), and brought home exten- sive botanical collections from the southern hemi- sphere. The collections of the Spanish naturalists, Ruiz and Pavon, at the close of the eighteenth cen- tury were the foundation of an important work on the flora of Peru and Chile. John Miers spent several years in La Plata and Chile, accumulated a large herbarium (now at the British Museum), and pub- lished monographs of various South American families of plants. Charles Darwin visited Argentina, Chile, and Patagonia, and Sir Joseph Hooker in his work on the Antarctic flora contributed largely to our know- ledge of the botany of the Magellanic area. Valuable botanical exploration was also carried out by collectors sent out by the firm of Veitch—William Lobb and Richard Pearce.- The Philippis, father and son, worked for nearly fifty years, collecting and publishing extensively on the flora of Chile.. These are a few only of the long list of botanists and collectors chronicled by Mr. Turrill, who, in conclusion, points out that there is still scope for botanical exploration, especially on the Argentine side of the Andes. In view of the present high prices of sugar, con- siderable interest is being taken in the question of the possibilities of sugar-beet production in England. The Weekly Service for April 3 from the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries contains some useful in- formation on this point. Even apart from the pro- duction of sugar, sugar-beet is a useful crop to grow. The food for stock would not be materially reduced by substituting sugar-beet for roots in the rotation, while both leaves and by-products make excellent cattle food. To ensure good crops the land has to be very thoroughly cultivated—a process which reacts favourably on’:subsequent crops—and there is the further. advantage that the crop gives a_ direct monetary return. Extensive trials were made’ before the war, and these showed that many parts of the country are suitable for large-scale production of sugar-beet for the manufacture of sugar; but it must be clearly understood that, owing to the bulky nature of the crop and the consequent difficulties of transport, it:is advisable to grow beet for sugar production only when the land is within reasonable transport distance of a factory. Srupents of the continental deposits of the Old Red Sandstone and Triassic days may well take note of the illustrative matter provided in South Africa and. described, concisely by Mr.. Wm. Torrance (‘“ Observations. on Soil Erosion,’ Union of S, Africa, Dept. of Agric., Bull. 4, 1919, price 3d.). The numerous photographs are small; but some, like that of the. infilled vlei_ at Grootfontein, are highly sug- gestive... ; AMONG” the many Papers ‘of the United States Geological Survey which havé reached’us are several dealing’ particularly with , the: surface water-supply for the year ending Septem- . Work of this nature was begun many 1916. NO. a4 VOL. 105 | ber 30, well-produced Water-Supply . [JUNE 3, fe: STE years ago in connection ‘ with studies of inigae problems in arid areas, but a particular effort was made in 1915-16 to obtain synchronous observations of the flow of streams. The data supplied for each gauging station in the area covered by each report include a description of the station and tables giving the daily, monthly, and yearly discharge. Illustra- tions of current meters and water-stage recorders are given. TuE reclamation of salt soils is an important agri- cultural problem in India. Without a soil survey it is impossible to say what area is affected, but in Sind, and to a less extent in the Punjab and the United Provinces, it must be considerable. These so- called alkali lands are either uncultivable or injurious to the growth of crops. ‘“Notes on Practical Salt- Land Reclamation ”’ is the title of a paper published as Bulletin No. g1 by the Agricultural Research Insti- tute, Pusa. Mr. G. S. Henderson, the author of the paper, examines the methods employed in Egypt in the reclamation of Lake Aboukir in the Nile delta, and draws some useful conclusions as to comparable work in India. of washing the salt into the subsoil is the only effec- tive way of dealing with the problem. Periodical surface washing is unsatisfactory. It is Pointed out, however, that until the Indus barrage is completed there is not enough water in Sind for this purpose, all the available supply being required for irrigation. Tue Germans during the war, when materials were short, gave a certain amount of attention to the utilisation of blast-furnace slags, and succeeded in obtaining a satisfactory cement after many experi- ments. A new use for slag is foreshadowed in an article in Stahl und Eisen (March 4), viz. for the manufacture of light bricks for building purposes, By passing molten slag horizontally through water, the steam generated blows out or extrudes the slag jet, and forms what the Germans term ‘“spume” slag or artificial pumice-stone. This material has’ been patented under the name of “ thermosite,”’ ‘owing to its excellent heat-insulating properties. The patentee has also invented a press for pressing bricks formed of small pieces of this artificial pumice and a mixture of slag, sand, and slaked lime which is used as a binder. The bricks thus formed are strong and light, and resemble in their properties the alluvial (tuff) stone obtained in the neighbourhood of Andernach. As, in addition, they can be pressed to large dimen- sions, less, mortar will be required in building opera- tions. The German authorities have approved of the new type of brick. for house-building. In the Revue générale des Sciences for April M. Florentin gives.an interesting account of the French experience of .German. gas. warfare, with full. chronological details of its development and an account. of the properties of the substances used, aswell, as.of their mode of manufac- ture. The. section of. the French Gas under M. Kling, director of the Paris Municipal Laboratory, examined about 2400, samples of material, of :wwhich half. were: shells ‘and projectiles, _M. Grignard devoting himself specially to the detection he He insists that the Egyptian method | Service ~ _ JUNE 3, 1920] NATURE 435 impurities which might reveal the modes of manu- e. Reference is made to the Central Laboratory British at Hesdin under the late Prof. Watson, i: ne great rapidity with which new enemy materials we -detected is attributed to the excellent camara- erie which always prevailed between the French and tish Gas Services. The article also contains a _ summary of the report of the French Mission on chemical works in the area of occupation, includ- Statistics of the output. In conclusion, M. rentin expresses the hope that the war has demon- sd the inseparability of chemistry and national ce and the importance of developing the scientific and industrial research which was initiated in France by gas warfare. VE have received from Messrs. Wood Bros. Glass , Ltd., of Barnsley, a copy of their catalogue of English chemical glassware. The list of apparatus is comprehensive one, well-arranged and neatly illus- Judging by the particulars given, chemists } should have no difficulty in obtaining any of the usual "page beakers, burettes, gas pipettes, absorption tubes, _ or other glass instruments employed in the laboratory _ from the selection offered; and as regards any special s in glass that experimenters may want the a neers invite inquiry. Messrs. Wood are old-estab- _ lished glass manufacturers who took up the making of f, 1 glassware in 1915, and they claim that, fol- ¥ lowing the indications given by Sir Herbert Jackson’s _ work on the composition of various special kinds of _ glass, supplemented by the investigations of their own stad, they are able to produce ware superior to the best Jena glass in its resistance to the action of strong _ chemicals. It does not withstand sudden extreme ema of temperature quite so well, but will, it is _ claimed, stand being plunged whilst at a temperature of 150° C. into cold water, and this is more than sufficient for all ordinary requirements. The shapes © d. designs of ware adopted are those approved by the Glass Research Committee of the Institute of _ Chemistry, and it would appear generally that the 7 aim of the makers is the praiseworthy one of pro- ducing apparatus of high quality in close relation to _ scientific needs. A feature is made of standard volu- 4 metric apparatus verified and stamped by the National a Physical Laboratory. ‘Mr. S. Eversuep read a paper on permanent mag- nets in theory and practice to. the Institution of _ Electrical Engineers on May 13. He practically e adopts Ampére’s theory that the molecules of iron ina magnet are equivalent to electric circuits of no Fs _ resistance in which electric currents are always flow- Trek On this hypothesis, and adopting Hopkinson’s _ formula ‘connecting magneto-motive force, reluctance, and flux, he discusses the design and predetermina- tion’ of permanent magnets. He points out: that a! | aince in practice the demagnetisation curve of the | _ steel is known, the problem that has to be solved is to find the shape of the minimum volume - of : steel’ required to produce a given quantity of external i aenemetic energy. the’ reluctance of the paths of ‘the magnetic j tux. Mr. Evershed proves that the performance NO. 2640, VOL. 105] By ‘making assumptions: as to. of a permanent magnet can be predicted in certain cases with accuracy. We are not sure, however, whether this is due to the fact that the errors made in. his assumptions cancel out one another. We fail to understand his formula for the magnetic con- ductance between two spherical poles. It would be true if they were at an infinite distance apart, but appreciable errors come in when the distance be- tween them is less than a hundred times the radius of either. It is easy to show that the magnetic con- ductance between two spherical poles equals 47 times the electrostatic capacity between their surfaces. Hence, as the electrostatic capacities have been tabu- lated, the magnetic conductances could be written down at once with high accuracy. From the en- gineering point of view the paper is valuable, as the subject is of practical importance to manufacturers. Pror. W. W. Warts, lecturing ‘to the South Kensington Branch of the National Union of Scientific Workers on May 27 on ‘The Evolution of the Bicycle,” showed that the development of this, as. of any mechanical apparatus, took a similar course to that observed in biological evolution. It was largely a process of trial and error; advance was usually in small details of specialisation, and, as in the case of the high bicycle, development was apt to take place in a “blind lead ’’ by following out a wrong principle. The lecture will be reported in the next issue of the Scientific Worker, copies of which can be obtained from the Secretary, N.U.S.W., 19 Tothill Street, S.W.1, by sending a stamped addressed envelope. Kopak, Ltp. (Wratten division), have just issued a new series of nine circular light-filters to facilitate visual. work with the microscope. They are 35 mm. in diameter, and so fit the standard turn-out ring usually available in sub-stage fittings. Six are for increasing the contrast in stained or coloured: pre- parations, one is blue and serves for getting ‘the highest resolving power, one a neutral tint for modulating the intensity of the illumination, and the ninth converts the light from metal filament vacuum lamps into the equivalent daylight. This last is also of service with other light sources, such as the new thorium pastille gas lamp and the usual paraffin lamps. Its use gives the same colour values as day- light, and so reduces or eliminates eye-strain when observations are long continued. ’ IN a small leaflet entitled “‘ Radium Facts,” received from Messrs. Watson and Sons, are collected numerous data relating to radio-active substances useful to intending purchasers. From it we learn that, whereas the total production of radium to date by the Standard Chemical Co., of Pittsburgh, was 50 grams of radium element, its present output is at the rate of 18 grams of the element’ per annum. We understand that this output could be increased to 50 grams of radium element yearly if the demand for such a quantity should arise—a very considerable national asset. It is interesting to observe that. the present total available supply of high-grade purity radium in the world is. estimated to be about 120 grams. 436 NATURE [JUNE 3, 1920 Our Astronomical Column. RETURN OF TEMPEL’s CoMET.—Tempel’s second periodic comet, discovered in 1873, was detected by Mr. Kudara at Kyoto, Japan, on May 25d. 7h. 10m. G.M.T., in R.A. 20h. 55m. 7s., S. decl. 4° 53’. The approximate time of perihelion passage is 1920 July 10:36. The other elements are approximately as follows :—w 186° 38’ 43", 9) 120° 37’ 59", i 12° 45’ 17", @ 33° 54° 21", w 685-881". The following ephemeris has been computed for midnight : ‘ R.A, S. Decl. Log x LozA age «Peete pS June 4 2128 0 4 34 0-1402 9:8077 12 215428 441 01330 97739 20 22 21 44 LW | 0°1274 9°7440 28 22 48 40 558 0°1236 9°7166 July 6 23 15.20 4, Ti 01216 9:6950 The comet is probably faint, but as it is approaching both sun and earth its brightness should increase per- ceptibly. It rises half an hour before midnight, and is fairly well placed for observation just before dawn. DousLeE Stars.—Since its erection in 1894, the 28-in, equatorial at Greenwich has been mainly used for the observation of double stars; the list included many of special difficulty owing to faintness or close proximity. Mr. J. Jackson has discussed the observa- tions made at Greenwich and elsewhere in Monthly Notices for March, and publishes twenty revised orbits. One of the stars is Struve 2525, for which very discordant values of the period have been found. The new value, 354-9 years, is larger than those previously found, which range from 138 to 307 years. The semi-axis major is 1-1” and the eccentricity 0-93, so that at the time of periastron, 1887-3, the star could not be separated. The star Struve 2055 had given much trouble to computers; two observations by Sir William Herschel in 1783 and 1802 were mutually inconsistent. Mr. Jackson has unearthed a note that the micrometer reading was not written down at the time, and that the reading entered may be wrong. The quadrant noted is shown to have been correct, and Jlerschel’s other observation in 1802 is well satisfied. The period assigned is 110 years and the eccentricity 0-86. With respect to notation, he directs attention to diversity in the method of reckoning the angle w, and recommends the general adoption of the system used by Campbell, Aitken, and Hussey, in which it is measured in the direction of motion in the orbit plane. DIFFRACTION IMAGE OF A Disc.—Mr. H. Nagaoka contributes a useful article on this subject to the Astrophysical Journal for March. Diagrams of the ‘‘isophotes ’’ are given, and it is shown that the results explain the black drop observed in transits of Venus, and the projection of bright stars upon the moon’s disc that has often been observed in occulta- tions at the illuminated limb. A striking case of this phenomenon has lately been noted in the reappearance of the star Leipzig I 4091 from behind Saturn on March 22 last. Messrs. Reid, Dutton, and McIntyre, observing in South Africa, saw the star reappear within the limb of the planet, its conspicuous orange colour facilitating its detection. They give the explanation that the outer portion of Saturn is composed: of trans- parent clouds, but it would seem that the expansion of the disc by diffraction is sufficient to account for it. (B.A.A. Journal, April.)_ It is of interest to note that in South Africa the star at disappearance passed behind the ring, while in Europe, owing to parallax, it did not. It was clearly visible through the-ring, showing that the separate particles composing the ring are not very densely massed. NO. 2640, VOL. 105] ‘ ‘Monument to Charles Gerhardt. # N OW that Alsace is once. more united to France, - it is peculiarly fitting that Strasbourg, his native place and where he lies buried, should be the site of the long-delayed monument it is proposed to erect to the memory of Charles Gerhardt. British chemists who are at. all familiar with the history of their science scarcely need to be reminded of the part played by Gerhardt in. its development, or of the | influence which his writings exercised in the search for methods of elucidating the structure and con- stitution of chemical compounds. _ His “Traité de Chimie organique” may be said to mark an epoch; it was a significant feature of a movement which characterises the middle of the nineteenth century, and which the book itself greatly accelerated. Although much of its teaching, as the systematised expression of the facts of organic chemistry, is obsolete, the work is, and will remain, a classic, for it forms the basis upon which the super- structure of modern chemistry is erected. Gerhardt, however, was not only a speculative philosopher of the highest type; he was also an experimentalist of uncommon power and insight who framed his theoretical conceptions in the light of his own ascer- tained facts, and tested them by further investigations designed either to substantiate or to disprove them. His name is associated with the discovery of, many new. substances, some of which, like the acid anhydrides, are of the greatest theoretical and prac- tical importance. It may be claimed for him that, together with Dalton and Berzelius, he was one of the principal founders of the atomic theory and the originator of the notation which immediately flows from it. An influential committee has now. been formed to discharge the debt—long overdue—which the chemical world owes to Gerhardt’s memory. It comprises the names of some of the most eminent of French men of science and of those of Allied countries, under the presi- dency of M. Armand Gautier, member of the Institute, with an executive consisting of M. Haller, member of the Institute, as chairman; M. Chenal, treasurer of the French Chemical Society, as treasurer;. and M. Tiffeneau, assistant professor of the Faculty of Medicine, as secretary. The object is well worthy of the consideration of British chemists, and may be specially commended to the notice of the Chemical Society and the Society of Chemical Industry if these’ bodies have not already resnonded to the avpeal.’. T. E. THORPE. Biological Papers from Bengal. Th publications of the Asiatic Society of Bengal during the years 1916 to 1919, which we have lately received for review, contain a large number of contributions to biology, showing an activity in this department that has not been surpassed before. If we consider also the publications issued by the Indian Museum, the Calcutta Botanic Gardens, and _ the flourishing Bombay Natural History Society, we have reason to rejoice over the prosperous state of this branch of knowledge in our Indian Empire. -Allusion should be made also to the enterprise of Dr. N. Annandale, who, alone or with other members of the Zoological Survey of India, of which he is the direc- tor, has in the last seven years investigated the 1 Acircular signed by Sir James J. Dobbie, president of theChemical Society, has just been issued inviting fellows of the society to contribute to the memorial fund. Such contributions should be sent to the Treasurer, Chemical Society, Burlington House, London, W.1.—Ep. NATURE. ‘NATURE 437 Jun 3, 1920] macroscopic fauna of various Asiatic lakes, with results that are of the greatest. interest. _ The Asiatic Society of Bengal issues Memoirs in jarto, and Journal and Proceedings in octavo. In the nore, parts ii. to v. of Dr. Annandale’s ** Zoo- Results of a Tour in the Far East’’ further testify to the author’s wonderful activity and versa- tility, which are known to all zoologists. ‘In these parts he deals himself with the Hydrozoa and Cteno- _ phora, the Batrachia, the Sponges, and the Mollusca, _ together with additions to ethnography; whilst other ‘oups have been entrusted to C. A. Paiva (aquatic emiptera), Col. J. Stephenson (aquatic Oligocheeta), . Asajiro Oka (Hirudinea), Sir Charles Eliot (Mol- lusca Nudibranchiata), Tokéi Kaburaki (brackish- water Polyclads), and Stanley Kemp (Crustacea Deca- g and Stomatopoda). Numerous text-figures and _ five plates illustrate these contributions. _ Dr. Annandale’s paper on the Hydrozoa and Cteno- ol ee is one of special interest, our knowledge of the _ Oriental fresh-water forms of these two groups bein _ of rather recent date and, as the author observes, still very imperfect. A new Medusa is described under the _ name of Asenathia piscatoris, g. et sp. nn., from the _ tidal creeks containing water of low but extremely _ variable salinity in the vicinity of Port Canning, in _ the Gangetic Delta. It is referred to the family _ Olindiadidze of Mayer (order Trachymedusz), and is _ regarded as not improbably the sexual generation of the hydroid Annulella gemmata, Ritchie. ____In the part devoted to the Batrachians, Dr. Annan- dale deals chiefly with the Oriental frogs of the groups of Rana tigrina, R. limnocharis, and R. Liebigii, as well as with the species clustering round R. Tytleri : and R. erythraea; also with various tadpoles from _ Japan, China, the Malay Peninsula, Burma, . and i Ceylon. The author’s views on R. tigrina have since been a subject of discussion between him and Mr. oule r in the Records of the Indian Museum, 4 and further differences of opinion between the two _ authorities will shortly appear in a monograph of the _ Oriental species of Rana to be published by the Indian Museum __ The two marine Sponges (Reniera implexa, Schmidt, and Amorphinopsis excavans, Carter, var. n. Robin- geen by Dr. Annandale were found growing on the wooden piers of a landing-stage at Port Weld in Perak, Malay Peninsula, and their chief ethological interest lies in the fact that they grew immediately below high-tide level, and were, therefore, exposed _ daily for a considerable time to the air and. to the heat of a tropical sun. Several new fresh-water sula are described, and a list of the Spongillidze of Asia, with synonyms, is appended. Among the Mollusca the hybrid name Pseudovivi- para for a new genus is a regrettable choice. _ A paper in French is a revision of the fungi of the _ genus Nocandia, Toni and Trevisan, by Capt. Froilano de Mello and Dr. St. .Antonio Fernandez, of the Portuguese India Bacteriological Service. The Memoirs contain also a revision of the lizards of the genus Tachydromus, with two plates, by Mr. G. A. anieniger, in which this genus is shown to be very closely connected with Lacerta, instead of occupying a quite isolated position in the family to which it belongs, as hitherto believed. Two new genera are proposed under the names of Platyplacopus and Apeltonotus. ee eee ‘Sah In the Journal and Proceedings we have a paper by Baini Parshad on the seasonal conditions governing the nd-life in the Punjab. There are three ‘papers’ on Secthisea : two by E Vredenburg on the occurrence of Cypraea nivosa in the Mergui Archipelago, the only previously recorded habitat of this species being NO. 2640, VOL. 105] plane record has rapidly advanced. metres. from Japan, China, and the Malay Penin-'| petus to the development of the aeroplane, and since Mauritius, and of Dolium variegatum at Mascat and Karachi, a species hitherto regarded as special to the living fauna of Australia, but recorded from the Pliocene of Java; and one by Dr. Annandale and B. Parshad on the taxonomic position of the genus Camptoceras and of Lithotis japonica. W. H. Phelps describes the weaving habits of the spider Cyrtophora citricola, and Maude L. Cleghorn has experiments on the vitality and longevity of silkworm moths during the cold and rainy seasons in Bengal. Botany is represented by four contributions: Notes on the flora of the Anaimaly Hills, by C. Fisher; ‘on the pollination of flowers, by I. K. Burkill; on the Burmese sesamum varieties, their variation and growth, by A, McKerral; observations and experi- ments on the rust of Launaea asplenifolia, commonly known as Jangli Gobi, by Karm Chand Mehta; and on the constituents of the bark of Hymenodactyon excelsum, by C. L. Gibson and J. L. Simonsen. Attainment of High Levels in the Atmosphere. SS ULENCE for March 19 has an article by Prof. Alexander McAdie, of Blue Hill Observatory, on “The Attainment of High Levels in the Atmosphere.’ A. period of 135 years is dealt with, during which various methods and agencies have been employed for exploring the high levels of the atmosphere. Dr. John Jeffries crossed the English Channel in January, 1785, and attained a height of about 2012 metres, and in the following twenty years heights of more than 4000 metres were attained. In September, 1862, Glaisher and Coxwell reached a height of 11,200 metres. Three other noteworthy records by manned balloons are mentioned. Tissandier, Spinetti, and Sivel, acting for the French Academy, attained a height of 8530 metres in April, 1875; Dr. A. Berson reached 9600 metres in December, 1894; and Berson and Siiring in r1gor attained a known elevation of 10,500 metres, and probably 10,800 metres, both men being unconscious at the higher level. Dealing with other than manned balloons, the extreme elevations noted are :—By kites, 7044 metres in 1907; by rigid dirigibles, 6200 metres in 1917; by sounding balloons, 37,000 metres in 1912; and by pilot balloons, height determined by theodolite, 39,000 metres. The aero- In 1909 Latham 161 metres, and Drexel in 1910 made 1829 Prior to 1914 the maximum height attained, according to Prof. McAdie, was 6000 metres by Perreyon in March, 1913. The war gave a great im- made the war, in February, 1920, Major R. W. Schroeder, chief test pilot at Dayton, U.S.A., is stated to have attained 10,979 metres ; in this ascent the oxygen-supply was exhausted. The 10-km. level is the bottom of the stratosphere or isothermal region, and the top of the troposphere or. convectional region—an_ exceedingly important elevation to meteorologists. . Schroeder’s thermograph indicated a minimum temperature of —55° C., or 99° below. the freezing point.on the Fahrenheit scale. «: In Science for April 9 Dr. J. G. Coffin, director of aeronautical research of the Curtiss Aeronautical and Motor Corporation, suggests that Prof. A. McAdie has sometimes accepted too readily, unauthorised state- ments made in the Press as to altitudes reached. A criticism is made of. expressing results without air- temperature correction, which is not only unsatisfac- tory, but also scientifically incorrect. The correction is the larger the colder the air encountered in the flight. It is pointed out that it is esseritial so far as possible for all concerned to work on the same un- 438 NATURE [JUNE 3, 1920. biased scientific basis. Dr. Coffin, to bring out the importance of the air-temperature correction, assumes two cases, both with identically perfect barographs, with no instrumental errors, one ascent in summer and the other in winter to an altitude that both read 8 in. of mercury as the minimum pressure. He assumes that in the summer case the average tem- perature of the air is 10° C., and in the winter —30° C., which values correspond closely to actually observed figures. The true altitudes of these are 33,475 ft. (10,203 m.) for the summer instance and 30,929 ft. (9427 m.) for the winter, although the alti- tude uncorrected for air temperature is 36,020 ft. (10,979 m.) for both. Dr. Coffin states that the flight made by Roland Rohlfs, the test pilot of the Curtiss Engineering Corporation, on September 18, 1919, attained an altitude of 34,910 ft. (10,640 m.), partially corrected, but uncorrected for the average temperature of the air column; the true altitude was 32,450 ft. (9890 m.) corrected for air temperature. The altitude attained by Major Schroeder, similarly corrected for temperature, is 30,751 ft. (9373 m.). In Science of April 30, Prof. McAdie gives as ap- proximate values, corrected for mean air column tem- perature, vapour pressure, gravity, altitude, and lati- tude: Rohlfs, 32,418 ft. (q880-5 m.), and Schroeder, 31,184 ft. (9505 m.). The Meteorological Magazine for March, in an article ‘‘The Highest Aeroplane Ascent,’’ mentions Major Schroeder’s ascent on February . 27 last referred to above, and expresses the hope that it will be authenticated in due course. The record of Berson and Siiring, who, it is stated, reached 25,400 ft. (10,789 m.) in a balloon on July 31, 1901, is mentioned as being generally accepted as the greatest height hitherto attained by aeronauts. The ‘article seems to throw some doubt on the lowest tem- perature observed in the ascent by Glaisher and Coxwell. Physical Problems in Soil Cultivation.? ‘-P. to the: outbreak of the war the farmer could generally rely upon an adequate supply of cheap labour. He had no. great necessity to introduce labour-saving machinery into the routine of the farm. But the increasing demands of the Army for men and the menace of the submarine campaign brought him face to face with the difficult problem of growing more food with a greatly reduced staff. In such conditions the employment of machinery was the only solution, and although at the time it was introduced mainly as a temporary measure, it is now quite evident that economic conditions will cause it to be retained permanently. During the war the rate of progress in the industry of agriculture was necessarily forced above the normal, and the urgent need at the present time is to take stock of the position, so that future developments may be guided along the right lines. In this connection the report of the Depart- mental Committee of the Ministry of Agriculture on Agricultural Machinery appears at an opportune moment. The report deals. with ‘‘the. further steps which should be taken to. promote the development of agricultural machinery,’’ and, so far as tillage implements are concerned, falls naturally into two ‘sections, dealing with (1) fundamental research’ on the physical properties of soil as affected by cultiva- tion operations, and (2) the application of the know- ledge thus gained to the design of new implements and the improvement. of old ones. 1 Report of the Departmental Committee of the Ministry of Agriculture on Agr.cultural Machinery. (H.M. Stationery Office.) Price. rs. net. NO. 2640, VOL. 105 | Taking the second section first, the Committee lays great ‘stress on the fact that all development in the design of machinery has proceeded on empirical lines. ‘Although searching questions were addressed: to several witnesses, we could not discover that any real attempt had been made in the past to determine the principles which underlie the design of the variety of implements in use in modern farming.” As & result an enormous number of patterns of the same implement are made, one manufacturer alone having more than two hundred and fifty patterns of plough. The Committee considers that much of this over apping and wasted effort will be avoided when the Minis of Agriculture sets up its projected Research Insti- tute in Agricultural Machinery. ‘ The first section—research into the physical pro- perties of soil—is regarded, rightly, as of pringary importance. ‘Progress in research as regards tillage implements must depend largely upon the results of investigations into soil physics and the problem of tilth.’’ It is clearly pointed out that this research must not be pursued with the immediate object of obtaining ‘‘practical’’ results. A sound theory of the interesting but complicated physical phenomena shown by soil must first be built up. Once this is achieved, the practical deductions will follow almost automatically. The very nature of this work precludes the possibility of forcing the pace, but it is suggested that, as the work has been in progress for some time at Rothamsted, it should be further developed by the appointment of additional scientific assistants. If this were done it would be possible to pay more attention to those physical problems concerned with the soil tilth than is practicable at present. Tilth is related to. the production of compound particles or — aggregates in the soil, and to the factors causing plasticity, cohesion, etc. At the same time a study of the mechanical action of the plough could. be started having as its aim the specification of the design of mould-board to meet different soil condi- tions. This is an unsurveyed field and full of promise. : The report also deals with the educational and research work which should be carried out at the pro- jected Research Institute in Agricultural Machinery, especially from the engineering point of view. It also advocates the appointment of an Advisory Com- mittee, composed of representatives from the research institutions, implement-makers, and agriculturists, to co-ordinate the whole of the work. ae In the present article attention has been confined mainly to the sections dealing with the physical ques- tions involved. The report covers a much wider field. It is closely reasoned and convincing, and can be cordially recommended to all concerned in the industry of agriculture. B. A. Keren. The Anomaly of the Nickel Iron Alloys: Its Causes and its Applications.* HE lecturer began by a reference to the work of John Hopkinson, and to his own early work on the perfecting of standards of length. His first experi- ments were on. nickel, which had two great advantages over brass for metrological work, viz. its smaller co- efficient of expansion and its greater freedom from cor- rosion. He would probably not have. looked, further but for the difficulty at the time of getting large bars of, the material ,free from flaws. In investigating the 1 Abstract of the Fourth Guthrie Lecture delivered before’ the Phys’cal Society on April 23 by Dr. C.-E. Guillaume. ar ‘oe * = June 2. 1920] 439 NATURE _ ferro-nickel alloys, his first experiments were on. their _ Magnetic properties, as these were easier to investigate ‘than the coefficients of. expansion. Dr. Guillaume showed and explained curves representing the varia- tion of magnetic properties, and of the coefficients a and £ in the expansion equation 1=1,(1+a6+ 86°) for in both the irreversible and reversible categories, and showed from the curves how it was possible to ‘obtain alloys with any desired coefficient. The anomalous magnetic behaviour of some of the alloys ‘was illustrated by demonstration experiments of the e produced on the magnetic condition of bars the materials by dipping in hot water or liquid air. The lecturer then dealt with the properties of ternary alloys containing iron, nickel, and a third element. Manganese alloys were those most. extensively used. ‘He exhibited a cardboard model of Guthrie’s three- eee on agra for ternary alloys. The addition of the third element raised the minimum expansion. In the case of carbon and chromium the elastic con- stant is raised. The. curve ving Young’s modulus with the percentage of nickel in ferro-nickel alloys also showed an anomaly in the same region as the expansion. The chief weakness of the alloys from the point of view of the metrologist’ was instability. If a piece of invar was cooled from a high temperature in air at 100° C. its length reached a steady value in about too hours. If it was then cooled to 50° C. its length would increase to another steady value, reached in about 1000 hours or so. If it were then cooled. to zero it would still further lengthen, a steady state not being reached for a very long time. If the tem- _ perature were then raised again to 100°, the length g g would diminish to its initial value for 100°. The total change of this character between 0° and _ 100° amounted to about 30 millionths of the length. With increasing carbon content the instability very rapidly increased. It was possible from the amount of the instability to estimate the carbon to 1/100th pet ity cent. Moreover, the curve connecting the instabi and the carbon content passed through zero, showing that the instability was due to the carbon. It was therefore possible to get an invar of perfect stability. Among the applications to which invar had been put, the lecturer instanced pendulum rods, leading in wires for electric lamps (an alloy being chosen from the curves so as to have the required coefficient of _expansion), wire standards for base measurements in surveying, etc., and showed curves of the variation of height of the Eiffel Tower with temperature, as measured relatively to invar wires. ‘Another important application of these alloys was in’ chronometer construction. The temperature co- efficient of the rate of a watch was due to variation of the elasticity of the ‘hair-spring. This was cor- rected in the Graham compensation bv a variation of angular momentum of the balance wheel, depending on the difference in expansion of two metals; but it was possible to choose for the spring a nickel steel having a temperature coefficient of elasticity nearly zero. If chosen to give the same rate at 0° and 30°, there would be a secondary error of. only 20 seconds per day at 15°. But a more important chronometric application was the correction’ of the secondary error of 2 seconds in Graham’s compensation. ‘This error, discovered’ by Dent in 1832, is due to the fact, that the variation of ‘elasticity of the: hair-spring ‘is not a lineat function of the temperature, whereas. the _ variation of angular momienttm ‘of ‘the balance wheel ‘is. If, however, for one component:of the bimetallic compensator a nickel. steel of negative B be chosen, it is possible to get a curve connecting the momentum , NO. 2640, VOL. .105 | with temperature which exactly compensates. the elasticity variation over the whole range. Reverting to the curves for Young’s modulus, the lecturer predicted that an alloy would short!v be pro- duced having a practically constant modulus over a range of 200°C, Technical Education and Mind Training. Be Rhone proceedings of the annual conference of the Association ot Teachers in Technical Institutions, which was held in the Polytechnic, Regent Street, London, on Whit-Monday, were full of interest. The president, Mr. E. L. Rhead, of Manchester, gave a stimulating address, in the course of which he reviewed unfavourably the attitude of the Workers’ Educational Association towards technical education as tending to narrow the workers’ educational outlook, and as merely serving to create a human tool better calculated to promote the interests of employers and the sordid aims of industry. He claimed, on the contrary, that, rightly presented, technical education has in it. all the elements of mind training and of a wide view of life and its problems. It may, in short, be, properly inter- preted, constituted as the pivot of a liberal education. He deprecated the exclusive devotion of much of modern higher education to dead languages, dead his- tory, and ancient philosophy, but that is surely to ignore a prime element in the evolution of mankind— the progress of man in his endeavour to search into and to solve the phenomena of Nature. Mr. Rhead went on to consider the status of the technical teacher as compared with that of the secondary-school teacher, and contended that the former should be at least as liberally considered as the latter, not only by reason of his long and arduous practical training in the pro- cesses of industry, but also in respect of the claims of industry itself upon his services. He urged the desir- ability of transfer from lower to higher schools at different periods in the course of the educational life of the capable pupil, and especially dwelt upon the value of the junior technical school, which he would in no wise desire to convert into a trades school, and pleaded that restrictions on their present aims and curricula should be removed. A far more liberal system of scholarships, including maintenance, should be established in co-operation with widely extended administrative educational areas, which should have _regard not only to the pupils in day institutions, but also to the equally urgent requirements of the pro- mising evening students, enabling them to devote themselves to whole-time study in their special voca- tion. There should likewise be an efficient repre- sentation of teachers on all education authorities, so that the present and future problems of technical education should be better considered. Resolutions were nassed urging a large increase in salaries for the several grades of technical teachers; that all works continuation schools should ultimately be vrovided by the local education authorities and the present schools be open to insvection by the local. and central authorities: and that a national Whitley council. for teachers should be set up. ' University and Educational Intelligence. .. Campripce.—Prof. J. T. Wilson, professor of anatomy in the University of Sydney, has been elected .to the chair of anatomy rendered vacant by the death of, Prof. A. Macalister. . We are informed by the secretary of the Cam- ‘bridge Philosophical Society that the adjudicators of oe es 440 NATURE [JUNE 3, 1920 the Hopkins prize have made the following awards :— For the period 1903-6 to Dr. W. Burnside, of Pem- broke College, for investigations in mathematical science; for the period 1906-9 to Prof. G. H. Bryan, of Peterhouse, for investigations in mathematical physics, including aerodynamic stability; and for the period 1909-12 to Mr. C. T. R. Wilson, of Sidney Sussex College, for investigations in physics, including the paths of radio-active particles. Dr. T. G. Adami, Vice-Chancellor of the Univer- sity of Liverpool, has been elected to an honorary fellowship at Christ’s College. An offer of 30,o00l. has been made to the Univer- sity by the Committee of Council for Scientific and Industrial Research for the erection, equipment, and maintenance at Cambridge of a low-temperature station for research in biochemistry and biophysics. The proposal emanates from the Research Board of the Department charged with the co-ordination of researches related to the scientific problems arising out of the preservation and handling of food. It is desired to erect the new station close to the existing | biological laboratories, where a large proportion of the researches initiated by the Board have been earried out. It is proposed to vest the management of the station in a committee of the Senate contain- ing some members nominated by the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research. The director of the station would be appointed by the Lord President of the Council after consideration of a report by the committee. - LivERPOOL.—A Congregation of the University was held in St. George’s Hall on Friday, May 28, when honorary degrees were conferred. Mr. J. W. Alsop, Pro-Chancellor of the University and chairman of the Liverpool Education Committee; Sir Alfred Booth, chairman of the Cunard Steamship Line; Sir Alfred Dale, the former Vice-Chancellor of the University; ‘Mr. John Rankin, a leading citizen and merchant of Liverpool; and Sir Michael Sadler, Vice-Chancellor of the University of Leeds, received the degree of Doctor of Laws. Sir Reginald Blomfield, a member of the Royal Academy and past-president of the Royal Insti- tute of British Architects, and Mr. Frederick Powicke, professor of medieval history in the University of Manchester, received the degree of Doctor of Letters. The degree of Doctor of Science was conferred on Prof. F. G. Donnan, formerly professor of physical chemistry in the University, and now professor of chemistry in University College, London, and on Prof. W. A. Herdman, formerly Derby professor of natural history, and now professor of oceanography, in the University. Mr. Henry Martin, chairman: of the St. Helens Higher Education Committee, and repre- sentative of the borough on the Court of the Univer- sity, and Father Thomas J. Walshe, a distinguished scholar, and formerly chaplain and lecturer at the Notre Dame College in Liverpool, were given the degree of Master of Arts. Mr. Joseph Gibson, a leading engineer and president of the Liverpool Engineering Society, received the degree of Master of Engineering. i. Lonpon.—Two lectures, entitled ‘‘Emploi des métaux ammoniums en Chimie Organique’’ and “L’CEuvre Scientifique d’Henri Moissan,’’ will be given at King’s College, Strand, W.C., by Prof. P. Lebeau, professeur 4 1’Ecole Supérieure de Phar- macie, Université de Paris, at 5 p.m. on Monday, June 28, and Wednesday, June 30. The lectures, which will be delivered in French, are addressed to advanced students of the University and to others interested in the subject. Admission is free, without ticket, 1 NO. 2640, VOL. 105] Oxrorp.—The honorary degree of Doctor of Letters — has been conferred on Dr. Temistocle Zammit, pro- fessor of chemistry in the University of Malta and curator of the Valetta Museum. It was resolved by Convocation on June 1 to confer the title of professor on Dr. T. R. Merton, Balliol College, so long as he continues to hold the office of reader in spectroscopy. St, ANDREwWs.—The Senatus Academicus will confer the following honorary degrees at the public gradua- tion ceremonial to be held on July 2 a Lee Sir Dugald Clerk; Dr.’ Léon Frédericq, for nearly forty years professor of pathology in the University of Liége, Belgium; Mr. R. A. Herman, fellow and lec- turer of Trinity College, Cambridge; Mr. W. J. Matheson, New York, U.S.A.; Dr. N. K. Smith, professor of logic and metaphysics in the University of Edinburgh; and Dr. N. Walker, his Majesty’s Inspector of Anatomy for Scotland. ie THE medal of honour of the University of Brussels was presented by the Vice-Chancellor on May 22 to Lord Dawson of*Penn, Sir Leslie Mackenzie, and Prof. Sir William Smith. Pror. E. F. Nicuots has resigned the chair of physics held by him at Yale University to take up the post of director of pure science in the Nela Re- search Laboratories of the National Lamp Works of the General Electric Co. at Cleveland, Ohio. In connection with the London County Council’s lectures for teachers on recent developments in science, a lecture on ‘‘The World-Problem of Nitrogen” will be given by Prof. F. G. Donnan at University College, Gower Street, W.C.1, on Monday next, June 7, at 6 p.m. The chair will be taken by Lord Moulton, A. PUBLIC. meeting in support of the claim of the Imperial College of Science and Technology for degree-conferring power and university status will be held at the Central Hall, Westminster, to-morrow, June 4, at 5 p.m. Lord Morris will preside, and will be supported by Sir Arthur Acland, Bart., Sir Alfred Keogh, Col. Sir Pierre van Ryneveld, Mr. H. G. Wells, Mr. J. A. Spender, and. others. Tue foundation-stone of the new wing of the London > School of Economics was laid by the King on Satur- day last, May 29. His Majesty was accompanied by the Queen and Princess Mary, and the Royal party was received by Dr. Russell Wells, Vice-Chancellor of the University of London. In an address Dr. Wells referred to the meeting held at the Mansion House in 1918, when it was determined to institute London degrees in commerce, and to collect funds in order to found and endow in the University what it is hoped would ultimately become the greatest school of com- merce in the world. As a result of the response to the appeal of the University by the bankers, shippers, and merchants of London, and the substantial con- tribution of Sir Ernest Cassel, through the Cassel Trustees, the sum of more than 300,0001. was ob- tained towards the founding and endowing of the scheme for commercial education. In the course of his reply the King said :—‘‘I am fully sensible of the patriotic work which has been accomplished by the universities during the war, of their instinctive and immediate response to the call of duty, of their heavy burden of sorrow and loss, of their varied and bril- liant contributions to the science of modern warfare, and of the extent to which their normal activities have been suspended or deflected by five years of national peril. It is for this reason the more gratifying to me to note that the University of London, which has grudged nothing of its youth and valour to our armies in the field, has been planning the development of a ale ll ee et, «eee? om JUNE 2. 1920} NATURE 441 new spheres of usefulness in the furtherance of the | frui arts of peace. Three centuries ago Francis Bacon censured the universities of his own age as the homes of ignorant dogma and sterile disputation. The bad and narrow tradition which was then attacked has long since disappeared, and the circle of academic studies has been steadily enlarged by the pressure of scientific ideas and of practical needs without injury to the claims of a broad and humane education. When estate management, horticulture, and commerce are included in the curriculum, a university can no longer be described as a place in which nothing useful is taught. It is right and fitting that the new faculty of commerce should be linked to the London School of Economics, which has for many years enjoyed the reputation of being one of the principal centres of economic inquiry in my Empire, and I regard it as no less appropriate that a university situated at the very heart of our commercial system should now resolve to turn the dispassionate and illuminating eye et science upon the facts and principles of commercial $ i> Societies and Academies. LONDON. Royal Society, May 20.—Sir J. J. Thomson, presi- dent, in the chair.—Prof. J. N. Collie: Some notes on krypton and xenon. In the paper the measure- ments of a considerable number of new spectroscopic lines at the red end'of the spectrum are given; also a curious property of xenon has been noted. In tubes containing xenon, when a ue current from an induction coil is passed, much splashing of the elec- trodes occurs, and the xenon disappears as a gas. What becomes of the xenon is not clear, as it does not seem to be liberated again, either by strongly heating the metallic splash or | dissolving up the splash in suitable solvents.—Sih Ling Ting: Experi- ments on electron emission from hot bodies. Experi- ments on the electron currents from a platinum disc in a uniform field made by Prof. Richardson in 1907-9 showed that under the conditions of these experiments the distribution of velocity among the emitted elec- trons was very close to the requirements of Maxwell’s law for a gas of equal molecular weight and tempera- ture, but it was noted at the time that rough tests made on the liquid alloy of sodium and potassium, on platinum coated with lime, and on- platinum saturated with hydrogen indicated an exceptional behaviour. The further investigation of these sub- stances was postponed owing to technical difficulties and to the pressure of other problems. In 1914 Schottky investigated the electrons emitted from tungsten and carbon, and found a distribution of energy in close accordance with Maxwell’s law, except that the mean energy varied between 2 per cent. and 25 per cent. in excess of that calculated from the filament temperatures. Errors in the estimation of these temperatures and in other directions might, however, have accounted for these discrepancies. The present experiments show that deviations from Max- well’s law, if not general, are at any rate quite common. With tungsten and platinum in a _ well- exhausted enclosure a common distribution is one which satisfies the requirements of Maxwell’s law, except that the average electron energy is in excess of (frequently about twice as great as) that corre- sponding to the temperature of the source. Other cases have been recorded> in distribution’ has’ a_ different functional form.—L. Silberstein: The aspherical nucleus theory applied to NO. 2640, VOL. 105] which: the velocity | containing dark particles. . the Balmer series of hydrogen. The general formule for spectrum emission by atomic systems containing an aspherical nucleus, given by the author in a previous paper (Phil, Mag., vol. xxxix., p. 76), are now applied to hydrogen atoms the nuclei of which are treated as axially symmetrical charged distribu- tions. The asphericity and the value of the Rydberg factor are determined from Mr. Curtis’s observations of Ha up to Hy. The series formula thus resulting (and containing but two constants) is shown to agree well with the six observations, The value of the asphericity coefficient is then used to determine the fine structure of the members or groups of the Balmer series, more especially of the groups Ha and Hf, which are discussed in some detail_—T. E. Stanton, Miss D. Marshall, and Mrs. C. N. Bryant: The condi- tions at the boundary of a fluid in turbulent motion. Observations were made on air flowing through long pipes of circular cross-section at mean rates of flow covering as wide a range as possible below and above the critical speed. Dimensions of pipes used were 0-269, 0-714, and 12:7 cm. in diameter. Range in experimental conditions varied from vd/v=460 to vd/v=325,000, where v is mean speed of flow, d diameter of pipe, and v kinematic viscosity of air. Estimation of velocity of fluid in neighbourhood of boundary was made from observations of difference in pressure existing in a small Pitot tube facing the direction of flow, and that in a hole in the wall of the pipe. The Pitot was of rectangular section, external dimensions at orifice being o-1xXo-8 mm. and internal dimensions 0-05 x0-75 mm. By this means observa- tions could be made up to a distance of 0-05 mm. from the wall. For distances less than this, by a special device the wall of the Pitot nearest the wall of the pipe was cut away and its place taken by the wall of the pipe. By this means observations could be taken at a distance of oor mm. from the walls. From a comparison of the curves of velocity distribu- tion near the boundary, obtained from observations with the Pitot and the composite tube, it was found that in the case of the former the interference with the flow near the orifice by side of tube adjacent to boundary was considerable. Velocity curves obtained from the composite tube, when further corrected for interference, were found to tend to a definite slope at boundary, which was identical with that which would exist in a layer of fluid in laminar motion and having the same surface friction as that actually measured. Linnean Society, May 6.—Dr. A. Smith Wood- ward, president, in the chair—Dr. G. P. Bidder : Sponges. (1) The fragrance of calcinean sponges. Clathrinidz have a noticeable aromatic scent, probably due to the excretory granules which give their bright colours. These granules especially surround the pores. May this be to attract the spermatozoa? The author has not seen the fine-lashed spermatozoa of Poléjaeff, but in Sycon has observed a stiff-tailed organism—pos- sibly the result of curious gregarine-like objects pro- duced in cells resembling gonocytes. (2) Syncerypta spongiarum, (wrongly assigned to Pandorina in his MS.) the author gives as a name to the “‘ alga ”’ above- ‘mentioned. He suggests that it is a dangerous para- site, against which Grantia compressa has a successful phagocytosis, but that certain other sponges are hosts for its Palmella stage. (3) Notes on the physiology of sponges. (a) Cercids, proposed as a name for the ‘‘minute wandering cells.’? (b) Cessation of the current in sponges. (c) Differences between Calcinea and Calcaronea in their porocytal granules and odour. (d) The excreta of collar-cells are gelatinous globules Probably Dendv is right in comparing these to the ‘‘spermatozoon-heads ”’ of Polé- jaeff, which may be the ultimate residue of victorious 4.42 NATURE [JUNE 3,.1920 phagocytosis. ._(e) Origin of sponges. Archzeocytes may. have been differentiated into external excretory cells and. internal reproductive cells; the former en- gulfed cercids, but only. to. pass them on.to the latter. By abbreviation of this process the excretory cells may have. become self-perforating porocytes, which were then adapted to supply water to flagellate cells in the centre of a Protospongia-like colony, thus converting it into an elementary Olynthus. Royal Meteorological Society, May 19.—Mr. R. H. Hooker, president, in the chair.—Dr. Griffith Taylor ; Agricultural climatology of Australia, The author, after indicating briefly the diversity of climates in Australia, pointed out the extreme importance of the rainfall, more so than in most other countries, as the controlling factor in the settlement of the country; also that the\season at which rain falls and the certainty of its occurrence (its ‘‘ reliability ’’) were as important as the total amount. The greater propor- tion of the wheat-lands: lay in regions receiving less than 20 in. of rain per annum, while the crop can be grown with as little as 7 in. if it falls at the right time. Sugar-cane is confined to the eastern coast, where the rainfall exceeds 40 in. and the temperature 68° F. The hay crop is also important, and in dry seasons when the grain fails includes a large bulk of cereals. Ninety per cent. of the sheep are in the south-eastern third of the continent; a rainfall of at least 10 in. and a temperature below 77° are required for them. Cattle are reared more in the north-east. The great variability of the rainfall frequency results in serious droughts and conséquent failure of the cereal crops and reduction of flocks and herds; but it is hoped that these recurrent losses will become less serious in time with the progress of irrigation, though Dr. Taylor is not sanguine that irrigation will open up to settlement the enormous areas that seem to be anticipated by some writers.—J. E. Clark and H. B. Adames: Report on the phenological observations for the year 1919. The dominant factors in 1919 were the excessive wetness until April and drought in May and early June, lasting or reappearing until October or later. The abnormally warm December of 1918 was followed by four months universally cold, closing with heavy snow in the last week of April. Then hot summer weather in May and early June. preceded a detrimental six weeks or more of abnormal cold. Cold recurred after August, culminating in a November deficiency beyond most records. In consequence, summer- growing garden crops (such as celery and cauliflower) were poor and most field crops short, though fairly good, especially potatoes. Of tree-fruits only plums and apples cropped heavily, the latter ripening and colouring to a degree rarely known, and excelled only by the wonderful autumn tints—both, no doubt, due to the drv and sunny autumn. As to the tables, the four earliest flowers were nine days late, but the effect of May was to make the last four decidedly -early. The early migrants were late, especially the nightingale. The 1919 isophenes were seven days further south than in 1918. The number of observers has been further reduced from war effects, barely exceeding 100, but 1920 prospects are such that at least a 100 per cent. increase is probable. The areas worst represented are Wales,. the south-west of Ireland, and the north-west of Scctland. Observers from these parts will be most welcome. MANCHESTER. Literary and Philosophical Society, April 20.—Sir Henry A. Miers, president, in the chair.—W. J. Perry: The origin of warlike States. In previous papers the author has put forward the theory that, speaking generally, warlike States are those with an hereditary NO. 2640, VOL. 105 | military: aristocracy, In an examination of the. ruling groups of the chief historical peoples, Teutonic,Turko- Tartar, Semitic, the facts suggest their’ beginning as small.groups claiming divine descent. These groups seem to be of ‘‘matriarchal’’ origin, and the chief religious feature was the cult of the Great Mother. ' Just after the new groups of rulers had been formed, the institutions became patrilineal, ‘and the Great Mother was replaced by gods. Study of the practice of heraldry verifies the author’s theory. This law of ‘* dynastic continuity,’ if true, leads to the conclusion that all ruling classes in the world are derived from one original group; and this result harmonises with Prof, Elliot ‘Smith’s claim that all civilisation origi- nated in the AZgypto-Sumerian region. Paris. Academy of Sciences, May 10.—M. Henri Deslandres in the chair.—C. Guichard ; Networks and congruences conjugated with respect to a linear complex.—Prof. W. H. Perkin was elected a correspondant for the section of chemistry in succession to M. Ciamician, elected foreign associate.—P. Boutroux; A family of multiform functions defined by differential equations of the first order.—M. Janet: Systems of equations of derived partials —G. Cerf: The analysis of anti- symmetrical tensors and the symbolic forms of dif- ferentials.—C. Camichel: Application of the principle of images to water-vessels.—Th, De Donder and H. Vanderlinden: New fundamental equations in generalised co-ordinates.—J. Carvallo : A new universal method of measuring and compensating instrumental astigmatism.—A. Kling and A. Lassieur: The separa- tion of tin and antimony. The estimation of tin by cupferron.. The antimony is separated as sulphide in- hydrofluoric acid solution, boric acid added to the filtrate to convert the hydrofluoric acid into fluoboric acid, and the tin precipitated by cupferron.—F. — Bourion and Ch. Courtois: A method of modified en- richment in the analysis of commercial chlorobenzenes, Some refinements. on a method described in an earlier communication.—G. Tanret: Pelletierine and methyl- pelletierine. Hess and Eichel were unable to isolate — the optically active alkaloid pelletierine, and could ~ only obtain the inactive, isomer isopelletierine; hence they propose that the name isopelletierine should be dropped. In the present paper experimental confirma- tion of the work of Ch. Tanret on the optically active alkaloid is given.—A. Mailhe: A new preparation of amines by catalysis. The hydrazines obtained from acetaldehyde, isobutyraldehyde, and from valeraldehyde heated with hydrogen in presence of nickel give mix- tures of primary, secondary, and tertiary amines.— A. Guébhard: The planet Mars and “igneous sedi- mentation.’’—R. Souéges: The embryogeny of the Solanacez. Development of the embryo in Nicotiana. Nine diagrams are given showing the principal steps in the development of the embryo. The statement of Hanstein, that the embryo of Nicotiana develops according to laws comparable with those observed in Capsella, is shown to be inexact.—A. Chevalier : Researches on the Amygdalacez and the apple-trees of the cooler parts of Indo-China and of the south of China.—A. Piedallu, P. Malvezin, and L. Grand- champ: The treatment of the blue casse of wines. Oxygen gas in very minute bubbles, produced by forcing the gas under pressure through the walls of a porous porcelain filter, can rapidly convert. the errous salts into ferric salts. The wines clarify readily, and are reduced to a normal state.—L, Bertin : Remarks on the buccal and feeding apparatus in some Coleoptera.—P. Courmont and A. Rochaix : The action of the microbial flora of sewage effluents purified by the activated-sludge method on carbohydrates. ‘new problems of the mechanics of regulation. spiral compensator of M. Guillaume, obtained by NATURE 443 __ May 17.—M. Henri Deslandres in the chair.—G. _Bigourdan: Lechevalier at the Observatory of Saint- _ Genevieve. ‘M. Hamy:.A particular case of diffraction of the - images of circular stars of large diameter.—L. E. _ Dickson was elected a correspondant for the section _ of geometry in succession to M. Cosserat, elected The co-ordinates of this observatory.—- non-resident member.—P. Humbert; The general _ solution of the system which satisfies the function W (x, y).—N. Pipping: A criterion for real algebraical numbers, based on a direct generalisation of Euclid’s algorithm.—J. Drach: The spiral compensator and The addition of a third or a fourth metal to an iron- nickel alloy, is the first example of a solid the elas- ticity of which increases with.the temperature. The = papa -of this to the control of chronometer nce-springs is discussed, and reasons are given .for supposing that the chronometer will equal the astronomical clock in accuracy.—Ch. Frémont: The genesis of cracks in certain axles.—P. Morin: The study of flow over a weir with the aid of chrono- ography.—M. Battestini: The optimum magnifica- tion of a telescope. The magnification of a reading telescope should be reduced proportionally. to the me ose re root of the illumination of the — field.—L. Thielemans : Calculations and diagrams of lines carry- ing energy to great distances.—G. Bruhat: The pro- perties of fluids in the neighbourhood of the critical oc and the characteristic equations.—J. Villey : discussion of Michelson’s experiment.—C. Zeng and B. Papaconstantinos: The acceleration of the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide by colloidal ium. - From measurements of the velocity con- stants the reaction is shown to be unimolecular. If the solution of colloidal rhodium ‘is treated with a current of hydrogen or carbon monoxide the reaction is accelerated.—F. Bourion: The impurities of the ne extracted from commercial chlorobenzenes. Normal hexane and heptane have been isolated, and also chloroform, from benzene extracted from com- mercial chlorobenzene.—C. Matignon and Mlle. Marchal: The prolonged action of carbon dioxide on silicates and quartz. Six minerals and glass were submitted to the action of a solution of carbon dioxide in water under a pressure of 10 atmospheres for a period of ten vears and three months. The quantities of silica in solution were estimated, and the minerals after this exposure examined microscopically for evidence of attack. Quartz, wollastonite, mica, talc, dioptase, and asbestos showed signs of corrosion. . With glass the corrosion was scarcely perceptible.— J. Bougault and J. Perrier: The action of hydro- eyanic acid on glucose: Kiliani’s reaction. In solu- tions faintly acid, even as weak as hundredth normal, the combination between hydrocyanic acid and glucose does not take place, and this would also appear to be the case in neutral solution. A slight -alkalinity, even as small as that derived from the glass con- taining vessel, determines the reaction, which is there- fore probably between glucose and alkaline cyanide. | The reaction between potassium cyanide and glucose was quantitatively studied, and proved to be bimole- cular.—L. Cayeux:. The Hettangian iron minerals of Burgundy. The iron mineral at Beauregard is not oolitic, but the whole of the oxide of iron is a sub- stitution product for calcium carbonate.—Ph. Négris : The alternatives of the Glacial and inter-Glacial epochs during: the Quaternary period.—G, Ferronniére: An Eifel laver of the Basse-Loire synclinal.—A. Boutaric : The intensity of nocturnal radiation at high altitudes. —E. Rothé: A new electrical anemometer. For observations of wind velocities at high altitudes the anemometer is carried in a small captive balloon, and NO. 2640, VOL. 105 | -and-their Applications. the anemometer vane serves as an interrupter, which at each contact puts in action a small electrical oscil- lator. At the base of the cable holding the balloon is a small receiving apparatus for detecting wireless signals. The indications of several instruments fixed at different heights up the cable can be received simultaneously.—G. André: The exosmosis of the acid principles and sugars of the orange.—P. Bugnon: The structure of certain fibro-vascular bundles in the stems of the Graminaceze.—H. Piéron: The variation of the energy as a function of the time of stimulation for peripheral vision.—A. Mayer, H. Magne, and L. Plantefol: The reflexes provoked. by. irritation of the. respiratory passages. Action of the general exchanges. of the organism. The irritation of the terminations. of the trigeminal nerve in. certain mammals has the effect of causing, for more than half an hour, a reflex diminution of the general exchanges of the organism. These may be lowered to a value very small compared with the normal.— A. Desgrez_ and H. Bierry: Nitrogen equilibrium and lack of vitamines.—R. Hovasse: The number of chromosomes in parthenogenetic tadpoles.—M. Delage : Remarks on the preceding communication.— J. Legendre: The food régime of Carassius auratus in ‘Madagascar. : Books Received. The Story of a Cuckoo’s Egg. By H. Terras. Pp. g5. (London: The Swarthmore Press, Ltd.) 6s. net. A Primer of Air. Navigation. By H. E. Wimperis. Pp. xiv+128. (London: Constable and. Co., Ltd.) 8s. 6d. net ; The Identification of Organic Compounds. By the late Dr. G. B. Neave and Prof. I. M. Heilbron. Second edition. Pp. viii+88. (London: Constable and Co., Ltd.) 4s. 6d. net. The Blind: Their Condition and the Work being done for them in the United States. By Dr. H. Best. Pp. xxviiit+763. (New York: The Macmillan Co. ; London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd.) 21s. net. —— - Australian Meteorology: A Text-book, including Sections on Aviation and Climatology. By Dr. Griffith Taylor. Pp. xi+312. (Oxford: At. the Clarendon Press.) 12s. 6d. net. Keys. to the Orders of Insects. By F. Balfour- Browne. Pp. vii+s58. (Cambridge: At the Univer- sity Press.) 7s. 6d. net. Beauty and the Beast: An Essay in Evolutionary Asthetic. By S. A. McDowall. Pp. vii+93. (Cam- bridge: At the University Press.) 7s. 6d. net. Thermodynamics for Engineers. By Sir bh Ewing. Pp. xiii+383. (Cambridge: At the Uni- versity Press.) 30s. net. _ A Text-book of Physiology. By Prof. R. Burton- Opitz. Pp. 1185. (Philadelphia and London: W. B. Saunders Co.) 32s. 6d. net. : Intermediate Text-book of Chemistry. By A. Smith. Pp. vit+520. (London: G. Bell and Sons, Ltd.) 8s. 6d. net. : : An Elementary Treatise on Differential Equations z By Prof. H. T. H. Piaggio. Pp. xvi+216+xxv. (London: G. Bell and. Sons, Ltd.) 12s.. net. ; Problems in Physical Chemistry: With Practical Applications. By Dr. E. B. R. Prideaux. Second edition. Pp. xii+294. (London: Constable and Co., Ltd.) 18s. net. La mort et son mystére: Avant la Mort. . By C. Flammarion. Pp. 401. (Paris: E. Flammarion.) 6.50 francs net. ‘An Introduction to Entomology. By Prof. J. H. 444 NATURE [JUNE 3, 1920 Second edition. Pp. xviii+220. Comstock Publishing Co.) Comstock. Part i. (Ithaca, N.Y.: The 2.50 dollars. net. \ Plant Indicators: The munities to Process and Practice. Relation of Plant Com- By F. E. Clements. Pp. xvi+388+92 plates. (Washington: Carnegie Institution of Washington.) Carnegie Institution of Washington. Year Book No. 18, 1919. Pp. xvi+380+plate. (Washington: Carnegie Institution of Washington.) Egyptological Researches. Vol. iii. Miller. Pp. 88+40 plates. (Washington: Carnegie Institution of Washington.) . Elementary Agricultural Chemistry. By H. Ingle. Third edition. Pp. ix+250. (London: C. Griffin and Co., ue 5s. . Diary of Societies. THURSDAY, June 3. INSTITUTION OF Gas ENGINEERS (at Institution of Mechanical Engineers), at ro a.m.—Society of British Gas Industries : Carbonisation.— Hodsman and Prof. J.W. Cobb: Oxygen in Gas Production.—J. Fisher : Electricity Supply by Gas Companies.— G. Warburton: Contemplations on the Report of the Fuel Research Board. Royat Horricutturat Society (at Royal Gardens, Chelsea), at 3.— Capt. H. J. Page: Green Manuring—Its Possibilities in Horticulture. Roya Institution oF GreaT BriTAIn, at 3.—William Archer : Dreams with Special Reference to Psycho-Analysis. Roya Society. at 4.30.—Sir Ernest Rutherford : The Nuclear Constitu- ' tion of the Atom (Bakerian Lecture). Linnean Society of Lonpon, at 5.—R. Swainson-Hall: Exhibition of 50 Drawings of the Oil-Palm, Zlae’s guineensis.—A, Whitehead : Objects Observed near Basra during the War.—Prof. W. J. Dakin: Whaling in the Southern Ocean.—Dr. R. R. Gates: Demonstration of Chromosomes in the Pollen Development ia Lettuce. Cuemicat Society, at 8.—M. O. Forster and W. B. Saville: Studies in the Camphane Series. Part XXXVIII. The C yanohydrazone of ‘ Camphorquinone.—R. G. Fargher: Arsenic Acids derived from Guaiacol and Veratrole.—G. T. Morgan and 'D. C. Vining: Diphenylarsenious Chloride and Cyanide. (Diphenylchloroarsine and Diphenylcyanoarsine. ) —F. Challenger and A. E. Géddard: Organo-derivatives of Bismuth. . Part III. The Preparation of Derivatives of Quinquevalent Bismuth.— N. Ray: Modification and Extension of Friedel-Crafts’ Reaction. Part: I,+F, Arnall: The Determination of the Relative Strengths of some Nitrogen Bases of the Aromatic Series and of some Alkaloids.—J. C. Ghosh: ‘The Electrical Conductivity of Pure Salts in the Solid and Fused States ; Determination of the Activity Coefficients of Ions in Solid Salts. = W. - Sanderson and W. J. Jones: Anethole as Solvent in the Cryo- scopic Method of Determining Molecular Weight. Rovat Society or MeEpicinE (Obstetrics and Gynecology Section), at 8.—Dr. P. Turner: Traumatic Rupture of the Pedicle ofa Sub-Perito- neal Fibroid.—Dr. F. Anderson: A Case of Rupture of the Uterus.—Dr. . F. Shaw and Dr. Burrowes: Radical Cure of Advanced Carcinoma of the Cervix, made Possible by the Application of Radium.—G. Ley: The Pathology of Accidental Hzmorrhage. FRIDAY, June 4. Association of Economic BioLoctsts AND IMPERTAL ENTOMOLOGICAL Concress.—Joint Meeting (at the Rothamsted Experiment Station), St. Pancras Station to a.m. train. Royat Society or Arts (Indian and Colonial Sections, Joint Meeting), “3 4-30.—Prof. Sir John Cadman: The Oil Resources of the British mpire. Roya INSTITUTION OF GREAT BRITAIN, at 9.—Sir Ronald Ross: Science and Poetry. SATURDAY, Jone 5. Roya INsTITUTION OF GREAT BRITAIN, at oe. J. H. Jeans: Theory of Quanta. MONDAY, June 7. INSTITUTE OF ACTUARIES, at 5. —(Annual General Meeting.) RoyaL InsTiITUTION OF GREAT BRITAIN, at 5.—(General Meeting.) Society or CuHemicaL INnpustry. (at Institute of Chemistry), at 8.— Informal Meeting.) Roya. INnsTITUTE OF. BRITISH ARCHITECTS, at 8.—(Election of Council.) Royat Society or ARTs, at 8.—Dr. W. Rosenhain : Aluminium and its Alloys (Cantor Lecture. y RoyaL GroGRAPHICcAL Society (at Holian Hall), at 8.30.—Prof. G. A. F. Molengraff: Ocean Research in the Dutch. East Indies. : TUESDAY, June 8, eis: Pporognarvic SoclETY OF GREAT BriTAIN, at 7.—Dr. Wek. Mills and Sir Wm. J. Pope: Studies on Photographic Sensitisers. Part II. (Sensitisers of the Type of Pinacyanol or Sensitol Red.)— G. I. Higson: A Simple Form of Non-intermittent Exposure Machine.— Mr. Offer: Examples of Photographs in Colour taken during Theatrical Performances.—(Lectures under the Control of the Scientific and Technical Group.) WEDNESDAY, June 9. GEOLOGICAL Society oF LonpDoN, at 5. 30.—Dr. ro 'G. Knott: Waves and the Elasticity of the Earth. INSTITUTION OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERS (Wireless en rated (at Institution of Mechanical Engineers), at 6.—M. Latour: High Frequency Machines. British PsycuHo.ocicat Society (Education Section) (at College of ‘- +» Peeceptors), at 6.—W. H. Winch: Equal Additions versus Decom- - position in Teaching Subtraction: An Experimental Research. NO. 2640, VOL. 105 | The Earthquake By W. Max THURSDAY, as Io. f INSTITUTION OF MINING ENGINEERS (at Geological Society), from rx a.m. t® 5-—(General Meeting. )--Prof. H. Louis: Compensation for Subsidences- —W. Maurice: The Fleissner Singing-flame Lamp.— aurice: The Wolf-Pokorny and Wiede Acetylene Safety-lamps.— G. Oldham: The ‘*Oldham” Cap Type Miner’s. Electric Safety. -lamp. —Discussion on First Ropes of the Committee on ‘‘ The Control of Atmospheric Conditions ‘inJ Hot atid Deep Miries.”"—D. S. Newey: A New Method of Working a acta oo Coal at Batgeutige Colliery, —T. G. Bocking: Protractors. G. Bocking: Magnetic; Meridian Observations; A Method of | SUlitsing the Kew Observatory Records. Rovat: Society, at’ 4.30:-—Probable: Papers. —A. V. Hilland W. Hartree: _ The Thermo-Elastic Properties of Muscle.—Sir James Dobbie and J. J: Fox: The Absorption of Light by Elements in the State of Va (1) Selenium and Tellurium ; (2) Mercury, Cadmium, Zinc, Phosp! es, Arsenic, Antimony.— ae ‘annon: Production and Weir of an _ Environmental Effect in "Simecephalus vetulus.—E. C, The Enzymes of B. coli communis which are Concerned in the ecoatgadliien of Glucose and Mannitol. Part IV. The Fermentation of Glucose in the Presence. of Formic Acid.—L. T. Hogben: Studies on Synapsis. II. Parallel Conjugation and the Prophase Complex in Periplaneta, with ’ Special Reference to the Premeiotic Telophase. Lonpon MATHEMATICAL SOCIETY, at 5. Royat Cor_kce or Puysicians of Lonpon, at 5.—Dr. A. F. Hurst: The Psychology of the Special Senses and their Hysterical Disorders‘ (Croonian Lecture). Opticat Society, at’ 7.30.—Miss A. B. Dale: Accuracy of setae. Dr. J. S. Anderson: A New Method of Immersion Refractome INSTITUTE #4 Meta ts (at Institution of Mechanical Engineers), vat 8. rof. C. Benedicks: ‘The Recent Progress in Thermo Electricity (Annual May Lecture). FRIDAY, June 11, INSTITUTION OF Mininc EnGINEgRs (at Geological Society), from rz a.m. O 5. Roya ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY, at 5. PuysicaL Society oF Lonpon, at 5.—Dr. T. Barratt and A. J. Scott: Radiation and Convection from Heated Surleeieae Ss. G. oe An Electrical Hot-Wire Inclinometer.—L. F. Richardson: Convective Cooling and the Theory of Dimensions.—J. W. T. Walsh: The Radiation froma Perfectly Diffusing Circolar Disc. PAGE 413 CONTENTS. Present State of the Dye Industry. . eg Poetry and Medicine. By Prof. Darcy’ w. Thompson, C.B., F.R.S. . eee cia Movements of Plants. By V. H. B. : Applications of Electricity. By Dr. A. Russell . British Iron Ores. By Prof. H. Louis. ..... Our Bookshelf . Pee Letters to the Editor:— ‘ The Flight of Flying-fish.—_ Dr. J. McNamara . . An Experiment on the Speen een RR, Ag» Houstoun . Ce etal pret Anti-Gas Fans.—Mrs. Hertha Ayrton . ee A New Method for Approximate Evaluation of Definite Integrals between Finite Limits.—C, F. Merchant Applied Science ‘and_ Tadiuatehel " Research. ” Prof Frederick Soddy, F.R.S.; Major A. G. Church The ag Soreat Red Spot on Jupiter. (With Die . F. Denning. . British and Foreign Scientific Apparatus.—J. w. Ogilvy; J. S. bunkerly ... is Cost of Scientific Publications. —Dr. ‘c. G. Knott Natural History Studies in Canada. Naseecicrse ; Tidal Power. (With Diagrams.) 2” bid eine Reena Obituary :-— " ; Prof. C. A. Timiriazeff, For. Mem. R;S).5% Notes... . Gath é Our Astronomical Column :— | Recen of Teepe s Same wise: Sioa ts eed a Double Stars. -. eer rer ke Diffraction Image ofa Disc. phe eats epee Monument to. yas: Gerhardt, By Sir T. E. Thorpe, C.B., F.R 9 eel Ge Nea Biological Papers resi Bengal . Attainment of High Levels in the ‘Ackeguatee) Physical Problems in Soil Cultivation, By B. A. Keen. The Anomaly of the Nickel Iron Alloys: Its Causes and its Applications §. . Wie 5:3 Technical Education and Mind Training aus University and. Educational Intelligence. . . . . Societies and Acacenies ... 2... s+ suis alee Books Received. . ee a eh cer Diary of. Sacietiaa 855 See ee es es NATURE 445 _ THURSDAY, JUNE 10, 1920. | - the colleges permits. : _ little outside his séa life—a life astonishingly wide Editorial and Publishing Offices : MACMILLAN & CO., LTD., ST. MARTIN’S STREET, LONDON, W.C.2. Advertisements and business letters should be addressed to the Publishers, ences communications to the Editor. pti: Address: PHUSIS, LONDON. Telephone Number: GERRARD 8830. 3 Naval Education. E discussion in the House of Commons on May 17 on the vote for educational services in the Navy Estimates raised several points of interest. We note a general wish to open more widely the door from the lower deck to the com- missioned ranks. At present the most promising of the younger seamen can rise, through the inter- mediate rank of mate, to that of lieutenant at an age which does not shut them out from further Several members expressed a hope se that it might be possible to promote ships’ boys th The First Lord is reported in the Times to have replied that the Admiralty “could do no more than place at the disposal of these lads the very excellent educa- tional facilities now open to the lower deck, but - would approach the question with a_ steadfast determination to remove every possible obstacle which appeared likely to prevent these lads attain- ing their object.” Lieutenants whose training at Dartmouth was curtailed during the war are now sent to Cam- bridge for a supplementary course. The special situation which led to this arrangement will pass away, but it is “intended to make the Cambridge course a permanent feature of the education of 25 per cent. of the officers, if accommodation at The young naval officer sees in some ways, and equally narrow in others—and intercourse at Cambridge. with. other young men will broaden his ideas. Osborne is to be closed in May, 1921. Cadets will go straight to Dartmouth at the age of thirteen and a half and stay there until the age of seventeen; then to sea. The First Lord spoke » with regret of the necessity of closing Osborne, total number of cadets under training on>shore will be not more than 440, as against. 1000 before the war, and it’ would be incompatible with economy to retain a special college for the younger cadets with these reduced numbers. | If one of the colleges is to go, clearly it must be Osborne, where the buildings are for the most part tem- porary structures, whereas Dartmouth is a sump- tuous edifice of brick and stone, which will house. the whole number. In an explanatory memorandum issued with the Estimates it was stated that changes were to be made in the curriculum. These are of some im- portance, and cannot be properly appreciated with- out some knowledge of the history of the matter. Lord Selborne’s scheme of training (1903) provided for the common entry of executive and engineer officers; all were to enter Osborne to- gether, and to receive an_ identical. training between the ages of thirteen and twenty-two. Having reached the rank of lieutenant at twenty- two, they were to select the branch to which they would afterwards devote themselves—gunnery, torpedo, navigation, engineering, or non-special- ist. The most difficult problem was the training of the engineer. Up to twenty-two he would not have a more intensive engineering training than all other officers ; from twenty-two he wWoiild devote himself entirely to engineering. Many conse- quences followed this decision; in particular, it | was necessary to assign one-third or one-fourth of the instructional time from thirteen to twenty-two to engineering. The engineer officers (Lieutenants E) trained under these conditions are understood to be doing well, but the time left for general education at the colleges was restricted rather severely, and in the case of the executive officers this restriction seemed to be a mistake. How could this defect be remedied without impairing the technical training of the engineers? It emerges from the Admiralty memorandum that the following solution is to be tried. The engin- eering time at the colleges (thirteen and a half to seventeen) is to be greatly reduced, and the time saved to be spent in enriching the cadets’ literary education. At the same time, the age of special- isation for engineers is to be lowered from twenty- two to eighteen. It may be surmised that this increased sense of the value of early general education is not un- connected’ with comparisons made ‘during the war between the midshipmen from Dartmouth and the “direct entry’ midshipmen who entered which. has done good work in education; but the | from the ordinary schools of the country at NO. 2641, VOL. 105] Q 446 NATURE [JUNE 10, 1920 eighteen. The latter are understood to have justified their selection, and in the opinion of some officers were superior to the Dartmouth entry in certain respects. One reason for such a superiority, if it really exists, is so dominant that it is unnecessary to look further. The “direct entry” midshipmen finished their educa- tion uninterruptedly at the schools, carrying it on to the age of seventeen and a half or eighteen. The Dartmouth boys were sent to sea prema- turely, many of them at fifteen and a half instead of at the normal age of seventeen. They were an unfinished product, and from an educational point of view it is satisfactory that this curtailment of general education should have had sucha marked effect on efficiency at sea that many officers were led to make the comparison referred to above. For the reason stated, the comparison could not be fair, but it was made, and it set naval officers thinking. Not so many years ago it was axiomatic in the Navy that sailors “must be caught young,” at a‘tender age, and not when they leave a public school. It is no longer axiomatic. There is acute division of opinion among naval officers on this subject. So long as it was considered neces- sary that cadets of thirteen and upwards should spend one-quarter of their time in engineering, it was impossible to look to the schools of the _ country for the secondary education of naval officers. But the amount of engineering to be learnt in future between thirteen and eighteen is not. more than could be taught at any well- equipped school. The problem is therefore open whether the Navy is to continue to undertake the secondary education of its officers, or to leave the task to the schools. The First Lord stated that the Admiralty had no intention of abolishing Dartmouth as well as Osborne, and referred to advantages which could be conferred at a naval college on the sons of needy naval officers. But he believed the public-school system of entry—the “direct entry’ system—to be thoroughly good, and fifteen midshipmen are to be entered annually from the schools, as against 120 through Dart- mouth. In favour of maintaining a naval college for cadets is urged the advantage of early acquaint- ance with Navy habits and discipline, the doubt whether the numbers required—very moderate numbers. now—could be recruited at the age of eighteen, the present overcrowded state of the public schools, and the special consideration. re- ferred to by Mr. Long in his speech. In favour NO. 2641, VOL. 105 | of relying entirely on the schools of the country, many naval officers argue that a boy’s outlook is narrowed by association from so early an age with none but those of his own profession; that there is nothing at a naval college which quite makes up for the influence exerted by a good public-school house master; that “direct entry ” saves heavy expense to the Exchequer; and that it is more difficult to, select at the age of thirteen than at eighteen. . _ The debate, therefore, has. begun, and the out- come will probably be determined by the eventual balance of opinion within the Service. The Ultimate Data of Physics. An Enquiry concerning the Principles of Natural Knowledge. By Prof. A. N. Whitehead. Pp. xii+200. (Cambridge: At the University Press, 1919.) Price 12s. 6d, net. si HYSICISTS and_ philosophers can unite unreservedly in an expression of gratitude to the author of this most acute and original work. At the present time, when it is generally recognised that the ultimate concepts of physics require reinterpretation, it is a piece of great good fortune that the task should be undertaker by a thinker who is not only one of the foremost of living mathematicians, but also a metaphysician | who sees clearly the wider issues that are involved. As Prof. Whitehead remarks, the incoherent character of the traditional concepts of specula- tive physics has long been a commonplace in philo-. sophical treatments of the subject. Instantaneous moments, geometrical points, unextended parti- cles, etc.—these may be convenient, and even essential, notions for the purposes of physical investigation, but, if taken to indicate existént entities, are quite unworkable notions. On such a basis the fact, for example, of change in all its forms would become not merely incomprehensible, but contradictory; to be intelligible, “change must,’ as Lotze put it, “find its way into the inside of being.”” In other words, change as mere sequence, as mere alternation, is an impossible thought. .Change means, if it means anything, continuous modification in that which preserves a certain identity or unity, without, however, imply- ing that the latter ingredient is something separate from the former. Nothing which is characteristic of force, velocity, energy, and life can exhibit itself at a durationless instant. The slightest functioning of a living organism obvi- ously takes time, but so also does that of a mole- cule of iron. In Aristotelian language, it may be asserted that the true nature of any real existent 4 JUNE 10, 1920] NATURE 447 cage #58 never that which can be present all at once, hee that which is being realised in the totality of _ phases through which the existent thing in Bt eon passes. — —_= Since the appearance of his well-known paper m in the Phil. Trans. of 1906, Prof. Whitehead has A ‘been wrestling with the problem which considera- tions’ such as these occasion, and he has now __ worked out a positive theory of the structure and _ diversification of Nature, upon the basis of which a rationale can be furnished of the concepts indis- pensable in mathematical physics. The aim, then, : of the present volumé@ fay be said to be twofold : _ (1) To determine by analysis of what is offered in _ perceptual experience the ultimate data of science _ and their relations; and (2) to show how the concepts of mathematical physics and _ their relations can be exhibited as functions of the former. Nature, so I understand Prof. Whitehead to mean, must be regarded as in its totality a con- tinuous stream of process, of becoming, of creative advance. Within this whole there call to be distinguished two essentially different, yet intimately connected, types of entity—events and objects. Employing, again, Aristotelian phrase- ology (and in many ways Prof. Whitehead’s scheme of Nature more nearly resembles the Aris- totelian scheme than any other), events constitute the tAy and objects the «ides of things. Events are either durations or bits of a duration, and a “duration” is a “slab of Nature,” limited tem- _porally, but unlimited spatially, which is con- _temporaneous with the specious present of any percipient. The fundamental relation of events is that of extending over each other, and this relation of “extending over” is the common root from which both temporal extension and spatial extension take their origin. Strictly speaking, events themselves do not change; they pass into other events, and in passing become parts of larger events, the passage of events being exten- ‘sion in the making. Moreover, some of the events that are parts of durations (e.g. a specific ‘state of perceiving) have a relation of cogredience to a certain duration—that is to say, they are temporally coextensive with it, and they cccupy in it a fixed spatial position. Furthermore, events are the “situations” of objects—an object is located in an event as that event’s characteristic or quality. Like Aristotle’s «os, an object is permanent. When we speak of its change we really mean its diverse relationships to diverse events. Precisely the same object can characterise two or more events. The continuity of Nature is to be found in events. The atomic properties of Nature reside in objects. There is, in short, a NO. 2641, VOL. 105 | structure of events (an “ether of events” rather than a material ether), and it provides the frame- work of the externality of Nature within which objects have their subsistence. This structure is capable of being analysed in a number of different ways, and by adopting different modes of analysis we human beings can get at the various kinds of events which are “situations” of different types of objects. The more important of these types are: (a) Sense-objects—e.g. definite sense-data ; (b) perceptual objects—i.e. the so-called “things ” of ordinary experience ; and (c) scientific objects— i.e. the characteristics (electrons, etc.) of events as active conditions. With the exception of those perceptual objects that are delusive, all these types of objects are equally real. Their esse is neither percipi nor intellegi. For the mathematician the detailed working out of the way in which the concepts of point, instant, particle, etc., may be brought into connection with the data just indicated will probably be the most valuable part of the treatise; but I must be con- tent to record that it is accomplished through persistent applications of what is named _ the method of extensive abstraction. This method, it is explained, is that which in its own sphere (the sphere, namely, of geometry and mechanics) follows the procedure of the differential calculus in the region of numerical calculation. It converts a process of approximation into an instrument of exact thought. By its means, as Dr. Broad has neatly expressed it, the convenience in these concepts is retained, while the fiction in them is eliminated. With the main principles of Prof. Whitehead’s philosophy, yielding, as they do, a view of Nature strikingly antithetical to that of the logical atomism developed by Mr. Russell, the present reviewer is in close agreement. One would like to press, indeed, for a fuller elaboration of the notions of “duration,” “event,” and “passage of events ” than is here attempted. For one has an uneasy feeling that a host of embarrassing prob- lems lies concealed in those notions. And _ then, again, one is uncertain about the mode in which events are supposed to be apprehended. While objects are recognised, events, we are told, are “lived through,” by which apparently we are to understand that not only the “per- cipient event” (i.e. the actual phase of ex- periencing), but also the whole duration with which it is cogredient is “lived through.” Yet obviously it is mot meant that the countless other events, some cogredient and others not with that duration, are in like manner ‘‘lived through,’’ and one fails to. see how there can be any unique process of appre- 448 NATURE [JUNE 10, 1920 hending them. Once more, one would be prepared to question whether ‘‘ sense-objects ’’ are primary as compared with “perceptual objects ’’—primary, that is, in the sense that the recognition of them is precedent to the recognition of the latter. But the last two of these criticisms turn upon matters of detail, and the first amounts to a large order. When all this is said, the fact remains that in the volume before us we have a really great effort of constructive thinking. Prof. Whitehead modestly observes that his book “ raises more difficulties than it professes to settle.’’ He adds, however, with true insight, that “‘ to’ settle the right sort of difficulties and to raise the right sort of ulterior questions ’’ is to accomplish one step further into Nature’s background of mystery. G. Dawes Hicks. Life and Letters of Silvanus P. Thompson. Silvanus Phillips Thompson, D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S.*Fiis Life and Letters. By J. S. and H. G.' Thompson. Pp. ix+ 372. (London: T. Fisher-Unwin, Ltd., 1920.) Price 11. 1s. net. F this biography of the late Silvanus P. Thompson, written by his wife and daughter, is perhaps a little wanting in the detached criticism that could have come only from someone outside the family circle, it gives, from an inside and intimate point of view, a good idea of the extent to which its subject appreciated the gospel of work, and how he applied himself, with all his might, to the many varied and interesting things that he found for his hand to do. The book commences with some account of Thompson’s Quaker ancestry and his early train- ing at Bootham School, York, and at the Quaker Training College at Pontefract. Later, Thompson returned to Bootham School as a junior master, and it was during this time that he made the first of many visits to the, Continent, which he evidently greatly enjoyed, and which did so much both to widen his outlook and to increase the large number of his foreign scientific friends. His appointment as lecturer on physics at Bristol was the first step in his scientific career, and at Bristol he remained, lecturing to his students and also, farther afield, to various popular scientific societies, attending meetings of the British Asso- ciation, and making many contributions to elec- trical science, until his appointment as principal of the Technical College at Finsbury, which was the chief scene of his labours for the remaining thirty-one years of his life. Essentially fitted by Nature to be a teacher and an exponent, and endowed with habits of industry NO. 2641, VOL, 105] to a rare degree, Thompson touched little that he ~ did not to some extent adorn, and while in an age of specialism, by reason, no doubt, of a certain diffuseness of his interests, he never concentrated sufficiently upon any one branch of scientific re- search for his name to be associated with any first-class discovery, there can be no doubt as to the considerable extent that, by his books, his lectures, and his teaching, he forwarded the pro- gress of science, and especially of its applications, during many years of activity. We learn that | with remarkable industry he was the author of no fewer than seventeen published books, besides. eleven others that were privately printed, while his addresses and communications to societies during the forty years from 1876 down to the date of his death number 177. Electricity, magnetism, optics, and acoustics were his principal subjects, but he also wrote on educational, religious, and other questions, while not least amongst his writings will be considered his biographies of Kelvin and of Faraday, and his notes on the lives of Peter Peregrinus, the soldier of fortune who penned his treatise on the magnet as early as the thirteenth century; Gilbert, the Elizabethan physician, who also wrote on the magnet; Sturgeon, the inventor of the electro-magnet; and Phillip Reis, whose apparatus, if it was not sufficiently developed to become of practical utility, was, at any rate, the forerunner of that wonderful instrument of sublime simplicity, the speaking telephone of Alexander Graham Bell. "iad Thompson, too, at an early stage in his career, tried his hand at practical telephonic invention, but his ingenious valve telephone was held by the courts to be an infringement of the Bell-Edison patents, and its sale was prohibited. Only on one other occasion do we find him coming out as an inventor, this time in connection with submarine cables for telephonic and high-speed telegraphic purposes. Here, though his particular arrange- ment of inductive leaks never came into practical use, it led the way to the Pupin loading coil, with which much has been accomplished. It is recorded that, as a young man, Thompson cared little for games; but that this did not mean any lack of appreciation of the lighter aspects of life is evidenced by the vein of humour in many of his letters, and by the prominent part he took in connection with the “Red Lion ” dinners of the British Association, and with such clubs as the . Gilbert Club and the Sette of Odd Volumes, in which latter he bore the appellation of Brother Magnetizer. which were not scientific, as, for instance, music, poetry, and painting’, while as an artist himself he held no mean place, and occasionally exhibited He also had many hobbies, some of — i | wey ee Oe ee Oe __- JUNE 10, 1920] NATURE 449 at the Royal Academy. An exhibition of his _ sketches held after his death comprised more than ‘ * hundred separate pictures. __ Himself probably the most eloquent of scientific ay Baiionents since Tyndall, it is interesting to learn that Thompson fully realised, as has many * another, the difficulties pertaining to the giving of a Royal Institution discourse, where it is not unusual for some few of the audience to know _ quite as much as, if not more than, the lecturer, __ while the majority can fully understand but little __ of what they hear. Of interest also is the account of the slender beginnings of his library, which his proclivities as a collector and as a learned bibliophile led him to accumulate, until, enriched __ as it was by many ancient works and a whole host of rare pamphlets, it developed into one of the _ most complete and valuable existing collections of electrical publications. It is satisfactory to know that the skill and labour expended in making this collection will not be thrown away, as the whole library is to be preserved intact at the Institution of Electrical _ Engineers, where it will form a worthy monument to Thompson’s industry and discernment. iid A. A. CAMPBELL SWINTON. b _ Academic Research and Industrial Application. The Chemistry and Technology of the Diazo-Com- pounds. By Dr. J. C. Cain. Second edition. Pp. xiit+199. (London: E. Arnold, 1920.) Price 12s. 6d. net. HE important chapter in organic chemistry _ which is summarised so admirably by the author of the treatise under review affords a strik- ing illustration of the difficulty of explaining the details of a chemical synthesis to a non-chemical, although scientific, audience. The element carbon furnishes the framework or skeleton of all organic compounds, but much of the chemical liveliness appertaining to the more reactive of these substances is due to nitrogen, an element endowed with a dual personality. » In the free state inert and loath to enter into chemical combination, when combined it becomes extremely active. Everything living that grows contains nitrogen, and this element is also present in all organic explosives and in the physiologically active alkaloids. It is, therefore, not surprising that the study of organic nitrogenous substances has always had a great fascination for chemists, who have never grown tired of speculating on the molecular structure of these compounds. It was from this academic point of view that about NO. 2641, VOL, 105 | sixty years ago Prof. Kolbe, of Marburg, set his pupils to work on the action of nitrous acid on various aromatic amines, nitrogenous compounds of the ammonia type derived from the aromatic hydrocarbon, benzene. One of these workers was Johann Peter Griess, who, on treating picramic acid with nitrous acid, discovered the first diazo-compound, so called because its mole- cule contained a very reactive group, N,, consist- ing of two atoms of nitrogen or azote. Purely as a matter of scientific curiosity and without any thought of possible applications, Griess proceeded to generalise this reaction and succeeded in showing that the common primary aromatic amines yielded diazo-compounds. These diazo-derivatives, he found, were very reactive compounds, and he tried their action on all pos- sible substances. He was thus led to make a dis- covery of the utmost technical importance, namely, the synthesis of the azo-colouring matters. The diazo-reaction itself was discovered in 1858, and Griess obtained the first azo-colour in the years 1861-62. This dye was first manufactured in 1865 by Caro, a German chemist then employed by Messrs. Roberts, Dale, and Co., of Manchester. The greater part of Griess’s work was carried out in England, first in London in Hofmann’s labora- tory, and afterwards while engaged with Messrs. Allsopp, of Burton-on-Trent. From those early days to the present time the diazo-reaction has gone on becoming increasingly useful both in technical and in academic chemistry. The azo-colours produced a revolution in the art of dyeing because a large and important group was found to have the valuable property of dye- ing cotton directly without the intervention of a mordant. Other azo-dyes have found useful ap- plication as extremely fast mordant dyes on wool. A third group, the azo-pigments or ingrain dyes, are formed within the textile fibre by impregnating this material successively with the components of the azo-coupling. All students of organic chemistry are familiar with the Sandmeyer and Gattermann reactions, by means of which diazo- compounds become synthetic agents useful in elu- cidating the constitution of aromatic or benzenoid derivatives. The diazo-reaction has been of service in the. production of synthetic drugs, notably those of the salvarsan group. _ It was employed during the war in the manu- facture of sternutatory materials for chemical war- fare. These synthetic developments are all duly noted in Dr. Cain’s treatise, which includes many references to original literature. To the student of historical chemistry not the least interesting chapters will be those on the theories of the con- stitution of diazo-compounds. This discussion 450 NATURE [JUNE 10, 1920 deals fully with the celebrated Hantzsch-Bam- berger controversy, which was maintained for several years. The author has himself formulated a theory of the constitution of diazonium salts which, with a modification suggested by the re- ' viewer, is sufficiently elastic to account for the properties of aromatic diazo-compounds and also for’ the existence of a rapidly increasing group of heterocyclic and non-aromatic diazo-derivatives. A new chapter on the latter group has been added to this second edition of a unique monograph. G.. Toa Ancestral Studies of Composite. The Origin and Development of the Compositae: Thesis approved for the Degree of Doctor of Science in the University of London. By Dr. James Small. (New Phytologist Reprint, No. 11.) Pp. xi+334+6 plates. (London: William Wesley and Son, 1919.) Price 15s. net. HERE is perhaps a tendency among system- atic botanists to fight shy of the Composite, on account largely of the enormous size of the family and the difficulties of properly classifying its members. Those, however, who once succeed in passing these lions in the path soon become enthusiastic students of the group, and Dr. Small is no exception to this rule. His contribution to the investigation of the origin and development of the family is by far the most important that has appeared for many years. _ After a general discussion of previous literature, in which the most important names are those of Cassini and Bentham, the author goes on to deal with the various morphological and_ ecological features of the family one by one, considering, for example, the pollen-presentation mechanism, the corolla, the pappus, the involucre, the recep- tacle, the phyllotaxis, and the fruit dispersal From all of these, similar general conclusions are drawn, to the effect that the Senecionee are the most primitive type of the family, and that from them, directly or indirectly, and.ultimately from Senecio itself, as the basal genus from which the Senecionez arose, there sprang all the other tribes and genera of the family. This is then very strikingly confirmed by a study of the geo- graphical distribution, which shows what would be expected upon this theory of mutational origin, and upon the hypothesis of age and area, which is likewise adopted. It is shown that the dis- tribution of Senecio (the oldest genus) is the widest of all, and that of other tribes and genera less and less in proportion to their lesser age. NO. 2641, VOL, 105 | Senecio is supposed (and the evidence is fairly clear) to have arisen from the Siphocampylus- group of Lobelioidez, and probably in the Bolivian. highlands after the upheaval in the Cretaceous period had provided available land above the limit of trees. Once formed, its pappus fruit and the great area of open land available in the mountain chains which with few breaks run all round the world enabled it to spread rapidly over America, Asia, Africa, and Europe. In the final chapter an interesting skort is. given of an hypothetical eyolution of the Com- posite from Senecio, based upon the various con- clusions drawn in the course of the work, summed up largely in a diagram on p. 297, which illus- trates this evolution in time and space. The second great genus to evolve is supposed to have been Gnaphalium (from which the Inulee are descended), then Spilanthes (Helianthez), Solid- ago (Eupatoriee and Asteree), and so on. The whole is a striking and interesting illustration of the way in which our whole outlook upon phylo- geny has been altered by the acceptance of the modern theories of evolution and geographical — distribution. In the course of the work many minor points are further elucidated, such as irritability in the pollen-presentation mechanism. Good reasons are brought forward for supposing the pappus to be of trichome nature, and by an _ ingenious mechanism the dispersal of the seed was studied,. and it was shown that a very slight wind was sufficient to keep the seeds aloft in sufficiently dry air, so that there is no need for land bridges to explain the distribution. Many other points are also dealt with, for which reference must be made to the original. Our Bookshelf. Monarch: The Big Bear of Tallac. By Ernest Thompson Seton. Pp. 215. (London: Con- stable and Co., Ltd., 1920.) Price 7s. 6d. net. THIS is a sjmpbate picture of a grizzly bear,. or, more exactly, the personality of one remark- able bear still living in prison has been credited. with the adventures of several of his kind. Begin- ning with the growth and education of the cub, the book tells the story of many ups and downs, such as the first sheep-stealing, the escape from the forest fire, the circumvention of the hunters; the affair of the ten-gallon empty sugar-keg with the delicious: smell, into which the bear thrust his head; and the final capture (by means of drugged honey) of an adventurer with many aliases. Mr. Thompson Seton is a fine raconteur,. but we wish he had put a little more stuffing into the book; and his literary facility sometimes gets- - forever—in vain.” June 10, 1920] NATURE 451 the better of his judgment. “And still he lives, ‘but pacing—pacing—pacing—you may see him, scanning not the crowds, but something beyond the crowds, breaking down at times into petulant rages, but recovering anon his ponderous dignity, ‘jooking—waiting—watching—held ever by that Hope, that unknown Hope, that came.” Through- out the book we get glimpses of a river that does “not reach the sea, and a poetic parallelism is “sustained between river and bear—both ending in ~ imprisonment. “The river, born in high Sierra’s flank, that lived and rolled and grew, through - mountain pines, o’erleaping man-made barriers, - then to reach with growing power the plains and bring its mighty flood at last to the Bay of Bays, a prisoner there to lie, the prisoner of the Golden _ Gate, seeking forever Freedom’s Blue, seeking and raging—raging and seeking—back and forth, AS So with the bear. The book is delightfully printed and got up, and many of the thumb-nail drawings are very graphic. We are told on what pages they occur and on what pages the chapters begin and end, but there is ‘no pagination ! Religion and Culture: A Critical Survey of Methods of Approach to Religious Phenomena. By Dr. Frederick Schleiter. Pp. x+206. (New York: Columbia University Press; London: Humphrey Milford, 1919.) Price 8s. 6d. net. Ir is well to be reminded by such an acute critic as Dr. Schleiter that anthropology, one of the youngest of the sciences, is still in search of the one scientific method of analysing and co-ordinat- ing the enormous mass of material which has been, and is still being, collected. The object of this book is to review the methods in use at present and to point out certain difficulties which éach involves. Though in his preface the author tells us that he has in some degree modified his iconoclastic attitude towards the comparative method, his criticism still remains sufficiently drastic. Thus he remarks that “in his immensely voluminous works” Sir James Frazer has em- bodied “several mutually irreconcilable types of research.” Again, the method of intensive study tralian culture, for instance—“ bristles with fal- lacies and insupportable pre-suppositions.” In dealing with Mana, Dr. Marett “appears to have expressed bewildering varieties of opinion on this subject.” Sir E. Tylor postulates “a single co- herent and systematic view of the world, or what he repeatedly refers to as a ‘philosophy of nature.’” But “all ethnological evidence tends to show that no such universal systematisation of experiences has ever taken place.” In_ short, “ethnographical literature, as a whole, presents to us little more than groups of classifications carried out from mutually irreconcilable points of view—the advocates of the separate principles being gathered into schools which profoundly dis- trust each other’s résults.” . / Dr. Schleiter, though an acute critic, is not a lucid writer, and his work is critical rather than NO. 2641, VOL. 105 | of a limited group of cultural facts—the Aus- constructive. He supplies a bibliography, but, strange to say, no index. We can do no more at present than indicate the scope of this important review of methodology applied to ethnography. Manuel Pratique de Météorologie. By J. Rouch. Pp. viii+145+xiv plates. (Paris: Masson et Cie, 1919.) Price 6.50 francs net. Tus book, the outcome of war experience espe- cially with aviators, is designed to give those who receive weather forecasts: some knowledge of the principles on which they are based. The greatest measure of success is likely if the recipi- ents have this knowledge, and are also in personal contact with the forecaster. The construction of weather charts, the inter- pretation of their broader features, and the travel of large weather systems are dealt with in the first. eight chapters. The greatest danger, how- ever, often attends the passage of smaller travel- ling systems. Accordingly; chap. ix. discusses in great detail secondary phenomena, line squalls, thunderstorms, etc. Fog has a separate chapter, and an account is given of the main results of recent upper-air research. A useful feature is a list of the chief barometric situations of the year 1917 to serve as examples supplementary to those given in the book. The published daily charts of the Bureau Central Météorologique may be obtained for this purpose. Detail is not lacking, and physical explanations are given of many phenomena. The book should appeal to meteorologists, as well as to “those who, without being meteorologists, wish to know what the weather will do.” M. A. G. Wireless Transmission of Photographs. By Marcus J. Martin. Second edition, revised and enlarged. Pp. xv+143. (London: The Wire- less Press, Ltd., 1919.) Price 5s. A CERTAIN amount of experimenting has been done from time to time on the transmission of sketches, photographs, etc., electrically along ordinary telegraph circuits, but in the case of long lines ‘success has been limited by the difficulty of obtaining sufficiently sharp current impulses owing to the capacity effects in the line. This difficulty disappears with wireless transmission, and it is chiefly for this reason that the author anticipates greater success, as well as greater convenience, in the apparently more delicate methods which it is his purpose to describe. In his own system a bichromate print made on a metal film is rotated on a drum at the same time fed axially, and a stylus is caused by the presence of the picture to make intermittent contact and to send a series of impulses from an ordinary’ wireless transmitting set. A synchronised drum at the receiving end carries a photographic film, and.a beam is directed on to it, which is made intermittent by the move- ment of a small shutter controlled by the receiv- ing apparatus. Considerable ingenuity has been exerted to overcome the many practical difficulties encountered. The additions to this the second edition relate chiefly to optical and photographical matters. 452 NATURE [ JUNE 10, 1920 Letters to the Editor. [The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed by his correspondents, Neither can be undertake to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manuscripts intended for this or any other part of Nature. No notice is taken of anonymous communications.] The Organisation of Scientific Work in India. As Nature waited for more than a year to criticise the Indian Industrial Commission’s” Keport which was published in October, 1918, it wiil probably tolerate this additional delay ot a few weeks (due to my absence in India) in attempting, on behalf of my colleagues, to demonstrate that the impressions con- veyed by the leading article in the issue of February 19, and by the letters which followed in three later issues, bear little resemblance to the Commission’s proposals for *‘the organisation of scientific work in India.” We are well aware out here that the writer of the article borrowed many of his expressions, and that the correspondents who furnished the subsequent applause obtained their impressions of the Industrial Commission’s scheme from a memorandum which was privately composed and circulated among a few scientific men in England after the departure of the only two members of the Commission who were at home last year on leave. If I had seen the private memorandum only, 1, too, should have added my vote to the others in condemning a scheme apparently designed to tamper with the form of liberty that is essential to scientific research; and I doubt if I should have shown the canny wisdom of a distin- guished chemist who, in reply to the author of the memorandum, cautiously commented on ‘* proposals said to have been set forth in the report of the Indian Industrial Commission.’? That most of your distin- guished correspondents had not read the Commis- sion’s report. itself is obvious enough from their letters, though only one of them frankly says so. One writer, for example, states that ‘under the cen- tralisation scheme the. work of an investigator would depend on the previous sanction of the head of the Service, who would probably not be of any scientific eminence, or might even be without scientific qualifica- tion.’’. The one obvious and plainly stated object of the Commission’s scheme is to release isolated scientific research workers from control .by non- scientific officials, and it is so designed that even the scientific officer. suggested for the head of each Ser- vice cannot do more than criticise and advise without interfering. According to the privately circulated memorandum, “two policies are at present in the field: (a) absolute centralisation with the formation of distinct, water- tight, graded departments of science (botany, zoology, chemistry, etc.) being controlled by a separate depart- mental, head.’’ This is intended to represent the policy of the Industrial Commission, and the literal agreement between the statement in the leading article of February 19 and three-quarters of this quotation is as important to notice as the additions made by the .writer of the article. Both, like vour correspondents, have confused the wholly distinct terms ‘‘services’?’ and ‘‘departments,’’ which are clearly distinguished in the Commission’s renvort; but the writer of the article has also gratuitously added a statement. which neither the Industrial Commission nor any other responsible body here has ever sug- gested, namely, the placing of ‘botanists, zoologists, and so on,’’ under the proposed Imperial Depart- ment of Industries. Your correspondents, out of the fullness of their NO. 2641, VOL. 105 | successful experience, reproduce many well-worn B, platitudes on the freedom necessary for iain rs they overlook the fact that many young scienti officers are employed for such accessory routine duties as analyses and identifications, which may be dull, but are essential to the operations of agriculture, forestry, and mineral development. They forget, too, that most of the so-called research work of many others is. purely descriptive, which is equally essential in a country stocked with raw materials of unknown nature. Unless their work comes to the notice of a senior authority of their own caste, young scientific officers so employed in departments or institutions controlled by non-scientific officials would rarely get a chance of showing their worth or of justifying their desire for research opportu ities; unless they are members of: some ‘service,"’) and thus come auto- matically to the notice of their scientific chief, they must either remain low-paid ‘‘hewers of wood” or refuse to renew their agreements and quit. _ 2 . Then among those who already enjoy opportunities for research there are some who need the support of an independent senior authority in their desire to obtain the necessary freedom and funds from the local authorities in control; and it matters little whether the ‘‘ constituted authority” be a committee, a board, a hidebound official, or our most senior ¢ scientific councils, which Prof. Soddy regards as the obsolete product of inbreeding, for all have learnt the danger of taking unchecked the average man’s estimate of his own worth. There are some, too, among our isolated scientific workers who have not sufficient confidence in themselvés to close their inquiries for publication; they need the « tallisin, influence of a senior worker who has the right to ask them how they are getting on with that piece of research which was in progress last year; there are others who, distracted by the abundance of their rs ig and the wealth of available raw material, pass from one inquiry to another without finishing any; there are some who, in their isolation, unwittingly waste time in pursuing lines already more completely developed but not yet published elsewhere. Then there are isolated workers. who, for want of a pace- — maker, grow weary in well-doing; and, finally, there. is the inevitable residue who, through uncontrolled freedom, become charlatans. But although all these well-known species of scientific men are represented in India, I doubt if we have any here who have yet attained such experience and dexterity in the use of “scientific method’? as to justify their criticising a report that they have never seen. ae Your leading article of February 19, after referrin to the research work done in existing institutions o various sorts, asserts that ‘‘the present system has proved successful in practice.’? It would not be fair, nor would you find space, to describe the painfully numerous exceptions; but if the situation must be summed up in only a few words, the following two statements are sufficient: (1) During its tours the Industrial Commission received complaints nearly everywhere of the disabilities that handicap scientific workers under the present ‘‘ system’; and (2) the most conspicuous success is also the most centralised in- stitution of all, namely, the Geological Survey, which is a Department as well as a Service. We cannot hope to provide for other scientific workers the amenities now secured by the geologist; he inherits the results of the forethought of a dis- tinguished scientific worker who had also a genius for administration—Dr. Thomas Oldham. But it was the hope of the Industrial Commission to devise a scheme which (taking into account established vested interests, the tendency towards provincial autonomy, ’ JUNE 10; 1920] ~~ NATURE 453 d the transfer of some provincial scientific institu- to the control of popular representatives neces- ' anxious for visible results) would retain for of their own caste. Our scheme is not an t to impose arbitrary control, but a_ simple se to a general petition from scientific workers wrotection and support. ‘cannot be applied, however, without suitable cation to fit established interests and institu- _ Thete are, for example, forest botanists who orest officers first and botanists after; their bond the Forest Service is closer -than with the ical Survey, and both should be developed as slementary, not coitipeting, Services. There are Itural chemists whose community of interests th the rest of the Agricultural Service forms a service link than their affinities to other amists; they might more appropriately be termed mical agriculturists, and, having one of their own, need not form part of the suggested Chemical ae To find out whether the general principles suggested _ by the Commission are applicable at all to each of _ the major sciences, and, if so, to adjust the scheme _ to established conditions, requires examination. by special committees. One such committee for _ chemistry under Prof. J. F. Thorpe has just pub- _ lished its report, from which it will be seen that a - committee composed of six chemists and one adminis- trative officer, after examination of witnesses and _ institutions in various parts of India, accepts for _ chemists the scheme which your correspondents, _ rashly believing a privately concocted memorandum, label as “servitude undisguised,’’ a ‘“‘means of en- zing mediocrity,’’ “bureaucratic centralisation,” and other epithets. _ To those of your readers who do not know the _ motive of the private memorandum referred to above, the special reasons for delaying the date for its dis- ribution to every member of the Royal Society’s _ Indian Advisory Committee—except myself, its chair- _man—and the selection of “the solid ground of _ Nature” as the point d’appui, this ‘‘mass attack” se on the Industrial Commission’s scheme has doubtless all the appearance of spontaneity and honest con- By an official accident. not foreseen by the author of the private memorandum, I have now before me _ (1) a proposal from a committee of botanists for the enlargement of the Botanical Survey, and (2) the un- sought advice of a forest botanist who. through com- _ mendable but -over-jealous regard for his own institu- tion, submits opinions collected from ingenuous scientific men and the correspondence in NaTuRE in ‘support of his proposal. not for the expansion, but for _ the limitation of the Botanical Survey to one crypto- gamic botanist and three specialists in medicinal plants. And this in a. tropical and semi-tropical country covering 1,750,000 square miles! Fortunately, there is enough evidence available to justify further support for, and the indenendent maintenance of, both botanical institutions: but the petty jealousies of those who suffer from this form of mental astigmatism searcely reinforce one’s efforts to secure for isolated unorganised workers in other sciences the benefits now enjoved by the geologist. or to secure for all scientific workers in Tndia the nrivileges and recognition long a a re of the Indian Civil Service. Tuomas H. Hotranp, President, Indian Industrial Commission. Simla, May s. , NO. 2641, VOL. 105 | aso accorded to engineers, doctors, and the members. [The leading article to. which Sir Thomas Holland refers described the proposals of the Indian Industrial Commission and discussed the policy of centralisation and the creation of graded scientific Services in com- parison with the present system under which research is carried on in India. In the correspondence which followed attention was given chiefly to the general” principles of ‘‘ Organisation of Scientific Work,’ and it was not necessary to be familiar with the Report of the Commission in order to express opinions upon these, or to urge that creative investigators produce their best results when they are given perfect freedom of action. The proposed scientific Services of India may, as regards their aims, be compared with the Industrial Research Associations at home, and are similarly capable of promoting progress in both pure and applied science. But the work carried on at universities and research institutes by men outside official Services has even greater need of financial support, because its value is not so readily understood. This is the aspect of productive research with which we are particularly concerned, and for which we ask full consideration.—Ep. Narture.] Anti-Gas. Fans. I- HAVE.read Mrs. Ayrton’s letter in Nature of June 3, after, unfortunately, missing the note in the issue of May 13, as well as the Times correspondence referred to. I have no intention of entering into a controversy, polemical or otherwise, with Mrs. Ayrton, but should like to put my views before. your readers, as I believe them to be shared generally not only by Headquarters Gas Service officers, but also by regi- mental soldiers of all ranks, including Gas personnel. The crux of the matter is this: The. problems involved in gas defence after July, 1917, when the enemy commenced using ‘‘mustard gas,’’ were of a totally different nature from those which had to be faced before that date. Then, apart from small quantities of the annoying, but otherwise practically inniocuous, “tear gas,’’ we had to deal with moderate quantities of lethal gas shell, containing the volatile. ‘‘ diphosgene,’’ and, very occasionally, with waves of cloud gas. Under those conditions the gas, except in very cold weather, disappeared quickly (a matter of minutes) from the open, or even from trenches of average depth, but was liable to collect and. remain in shelters for hours, or even days. When such shelters had been once cleared they were: habitable, as no ‘“‘gas” remained outside in the neighbourhood to contaminate them further. For this purpose the Ayrton fan was found to be useful, and large numbers were issued as trench stores. Later the more simple, and quite as efficacious, method was introduced of merely lighting a small fire in the shelter, and thus causing a throuch draught. This was found to be distinctly superior for deev shelters, such as those in the chalk country of the Somme battlefield, and, moreover, was far less fatiguing to the men employed. Working an Ayrton fan, even in the most approved fashion, when wearing a gas-mask on a hot day. is a tiring task. After the date mentioned we had essentiallv to deal with a relativelv non-volatile shell-filling, which pro- duced its well-known effects at concentrations far below those at which the volatile fillings became innocuous, and was used by the enemv in verv large quantities. This gave little warning of its presence to the uninitiated, soaked much of the sround and pervaded the whole atmosphere in the shelled area for davs afterwards. made great demands on the endur- ance and discipline of the soldier, and called’ for auite new measures. This is not the place to discuss these measures, but it is clear that the use of either fire or 454 NATURE [JUNE 10, 1920 fan to remove gas from shelters could really be effectual only after first dealing with the area round the shelter. That is one reason for the relative decline in the fortunes of the Ayrton fan. I say relative, as large numbers of such fans were issued even during the winter of 1917-18, and, for all I can remember, still later. Other reasons were the natural and rooted objections of the regimental officer and soldier respec- tively to be responsible for, or to load himself with, stores of (to him) problematical value, and the growing favour shown to the alternative fire method. (It was said, perhaps not without malice, that Ayrton fans Bet) often used for clearing shelters from gas—by fire ! However that may be, there was no demand by troops for the fans towards the end of the war; on the contrary, we were besought to withdraw them. I know this myself from many personal interviews with regimental officers and from reports furnished by Gas personnel of every type of unit and formation. There were, of course, up to the end of the war gas casual- ties caused by men sleeping in shelters which might have been successfully cleared of gas either by the fan or by fire. They were, however, owing to the particular properties of ‘‘mustard gas,’’ a small pro- portion of the whole; and fatigue and ignorance and the exigencies of the battle were their causes. I must, therefore, characterise as quite unfounded the view that much suffering and loss of life could have been avoided by increasing the provision of Mrs. Ayrton’s fan. Regimental and Gas Services personnel were both far too anxious to reduce gas casualties in every way practicable. It was ultimately the fighting soldier who decided, after weighing all the facts of the situation, that the fan, useful in sound and well-established trenches, was scarcely ‘‘ worth while ’’ during the advances and _ retirements of 1917-18 or in the mud and pill-boxes of the Ypres salient—this apart from the question of ‘‘ mustard gas.’’? Mrs. Ayrton is very obviously sincere. but, like another distinguished civilian who has recently written on camouflage, is not quite au fait with the realities of the battlefield. Exaggerated attacks of this nature on the War Office are liable to defeat their own ends, and also to neutralise the efforts of others who are trying to ensure the application of scientific methods to military problems in a more systematic manner than has been the case in the past. A. J. ALLMAND. (Late Chemical Adviser to Fourth and -to Second Army Headquarters.) King’s College, W.C.2, June 7.. Attainment of High Levels in the Atmosphere. I must confess that I am very sceptical as to a sounding balloon having reached 37,000 metres or a pilot balloon 39,000 metres, as mentioned in NaTurRE for June 3, p. 437, although such heights would be possible if sufficiently large balloons were employed. A sounding balloon as commonly used is a small india-rubber balloon expanded by hydrogen to about’ twice its natural diameter, and_ then securely tied up. The rubber -stretches as the balloon ascends, until finally it can stretch no further and the balloon bursts. Under the supposition that the pressure and temperature of the gas inside are the same as those of the air outside, and under average conditions of temperature ‘for Europe, the following rules hold: The. starting diameter is doubled at a little more than 16 km., trebled at a little more than 24 km., and quadrupled at 30 km. Since the starting diameter is about double the natural diameter, this means that at 30 km. the rubber has NO. 2641, VOL. 105 | stretched eightfold linearly and its thickness been reduced sixty-fourfold. I do not think any-rubber that will stand this treatment can be found. On the other hand, a precise calculation of a great height is in practice impossible. We can only measure the pressure, and when the air pressure is greatly reduced a very small error in the pressure makes a large error in the height, ‘ For a pilot balloon, if the balloon is near the zenith and the base line for the theodolites a long one, there is not so much risk of error; but if, as is usually the case, the balloon has drifted a Jong way, particularly if it has drifted in the direction towards which the base line points, then a small error in the setting of the theodolites or in reading the angles will make a great error in the height. It is desirable that when,the recorded height has reached an abnormal value the computer should give full details and state his reasons for. believing it to be genuine, otherwise one is apt to think some mistake has crept in. W. H. Dings. Benson, Wallingford, Berks, June 4. Central Wireless Station for Astronomy. — In the ‘‘Astronomical Column’’ of Nature of May 27 it is stated that ‘‘ Prof. Kobold, editor of Astr. Nachrichten, and director of the Central- stelle, delegated the latter work to Prof. Strémgren, Copenhagen, during the war, but has now resumed it, and announces in Astr.. Nach., 5044, that arrangements have been made for the distribution of astronomical information by wireless telegraphy from | the Nauen station.’’ ae It will be remembered that, in pursuance of resolu- tions adopted by the International Scientific Academies at London and Paris in 1918, there was established at an international conference held at Brussels in July, 1919, among other Commissions, a Commission of Astronomical Telegrams, with a central bureau at the Royal Observatory of Belgium (Uccle), to re- place Kiel, for the purpose of receiving, centralising, and dispatching information concerning astronomical discoveries, observations, and calculations, either by telegram or post, to the various institutions or. private persons subscribing to it. ; Surely with such an organisation in full working order this Commission should undertake the dispatch by .wireless of astronomical information of great urgency, such as the appearance of a new star, etc., if such information is going to be distributed by wire- less at all! . Practically every observatory in Western Europe now takes in the time and weather signals from the Eiffel Tower, and any news of an astronomical nature could be easily transmitted to that station from the central bureau at Uccle (or Brussels) and re-transmitted from the Eiffel Tower at, say, 10.ooh. and 16.00h., the standard times of transmission of the time and weather signals. ‘Ss Before the war the Central Bureau of Astronomical Telegrams was located at Kiel, but this organisation has ceased to exist from.an international point of view, There seems no object, therefore, in reviving it at Nauen (near Berlin) purelv for the sake of this wireléss astronomical information, when this mode of dispatch can be as easily adopted in Western Europe for this purpose. Prof. Kobold seems not only to ignore the existence of the new International Central Bureau in Belgium, but also assumes that the war has made ‘‘no differ- ence.” j WitiiaM J. S. Lockyer. Hill Observatory, Sidmouth, S. Devon, May 28. ee ee Ae ea E 10, 1920} NATURE 455 : The ‘‘ Flight'’ of. Flying-fish. _] Have on frequent occasions (in the Mediterranean, ed Sea, and the Indian Ocean) carefully observed a sek me (x8) the supposed ‘flight ’’ of -fish, and have always concluded that the ‘leap lide’? theory is the correct one, with one or two cations. Dr. J. McNamara, in Nature for - 421, cites five facts in support of the theory pent, but I may point out that all these five n be otherwise interpreted. Flying-fish un- y leap out of the water and gain their initial by tail action, and when out of the water oral fins serve as planes. While gliding the an not only renew its impetus to a limited by an occasional flick of its tail against the st of a wave, but, a$/your correspondent says, can change the direction’ of its glide. I have, how- *, never observed a fish ‘“‘come back in a direc- N opposite to the direction in which it set out,’’ I am tolerably: certain that it could not do this ut re-immersion in the water, unless perhaps a ‘ong wind were blowing in this opposite direction. ving-fish can certainly rise and fall during the glide, this, as well as change of direction, can be easily lained by assuming inclinations of the planes of fins—a very different process from actual ‘wing "- § sufficient to cause flight. The fins can, like of most fishes, move on their bases, but I fail understand how, in the absence of the required isculature, it can possibly be supvosed that the fins “rapid movement, as in the case of hovering " and humming-birds.”’ If seagulls can glide for hundreds of yards, rise and fall, and change direction without wing-flapning, why not flying-fish? In glid- the outlines of the pectoral fins naturally appear be indistinct, because. compared with the rest of body, the fins are thin and irregular in outline on ir posterior edge. ranting that the bodv can gain fresh impetus by occasional flick of the tail against a wave-crest nd this can be easily seen to occur. and is certainly ‘difficult to understand than the initial tail action +h enables the fish not only to emerse from the ter, but also to acquire an impetus which carries it the greater nart of its slide), and that the planes of the ; can be inclined, all the movements of flying- which I have observed are fully intelligible. an W. N. F. Wooptanp. “Kismet,” Lock Mead, Maidenhead, June 4. _ As another observer of Nature at sea I must beg . differ entirely from Dr. McNamara’s conclusions on “flight” of the flying-fish. (1) Turning at an acute angle can be brought about _by an extra puff of wind, and indicates no power on the part of the fish. - (2) It is impossible for a flying-fish to flap its pec- toral fins as a bird does its wings. _ (3) The rise and “fall over waves are due to the _ forcing up or lowering of the air immediately over the surface of the water. ; (4) The impetus is quite sufficient to send flying-fish ‘up to a height of 50 ft. or even more, and to extend the They naturally flop about on % us a soar to 300 yards. _ deck until dead. ; ___ (5) It is quite possible (though I have never seen it) for the tips of the fins to be vibrated by the wind ‘during flight. * - The matter has been dealt with more fully in “Nature Notes for Ocean Voyagers,’’ by Capt. Alfred _ Carpenter and myself, and also in the Nautical Maga- sine for May, 1894. and in the Shipping World for April, 1901. The late Capt. Cromie, at my request, £ NO. 2641, VOL. 105 | ge a made a series of very careful observations from torpedo-boat destroyers and submarines, and was most emphatic that they did not ‘fly.’ As in many other interesting problems, -the help of a super-kinema camera fitted with a telephoto lens would be of great service. Davip WILSON-BaRKER. Fellow-Workers. In Nature for June 3, p. 416, Prof. D’Arcy Thomp- son refers to me and to my “ fellow-workers ’? who helped me to bring our ‘‘hopes to fruition ’’ in con- nection with the old malaria-mosquito business. .My own memories remind me of seven vears’ almost con- tinuous solitary labour, during which time my numerous “ fellow-workers ’’ had many opportunities, as good as mine or better, for doing the same work, but, oddly enough, did not use them; and it was not until I had solved the vroblem that they arrived on the scene in a body, fully armed with paper, pens, and cameras, and resolved ‘‘to join the victory group ’’ at any cost. Prof. Thompson puts one of these gentlemen in the place of honour next to Pasteur—who, by the way, had little to do with the develooment of animal parasitology. The-true history of the subject is given in my ‘Prevention of Malaria’? (Murray), and _ still more trenchantly in Robert Koch’s letter to me, dated Februarv 10, tg01, and published in Science Progress for April, 1917. But this is a detail: and I should like tq thank Prof. Thompson for his kindly references to my medical verses, and for his interestins conspectus of the medical poets. Oddly enough, the dav after it avpeared. in Nature T lectured at the Roval Institu- tion on ‘‘ Science and Poetry.’’ and upheld the thesis that a higher view of both will show how frequently and how closelv thev are connected. . But honesty compels me to add that my own interest in medical matters is quite secondary, and a matter of duty rather than of predilection. Ronatp Ross. 36 Harlev House, London, N.W.1, June>4:- The Apvroximate Evaluation of Definite Integrals between Finite Limits. (1) Tue four-ordinate rule given in my letter pub- lished in Nature of May 20, p. 354, Viz. [Feeder = UF Go) + F Gs) + FG) + Ft is obtained by dividing the range into two and to each half applying the simple two-ordinate rule, 1 [Fayde= FQ) + FO), oO the parabolic or cubic approximation for two ordinates being Frinaenifa( p34 2] = }{F(0'2113)+F(0'7887)]. . . (a) (2) Closer approximations may be obtained by dividing the range into a greater number of parts and applying this rule to each, thus: / F(x)dr= f F(x) + | Fades | Fade nif (rors fee fale) = MF ()s) + F (4s) + Fas) + F's) + FG) + FAD} The following table shows for several functions the value of the integral and the approximate evaluations from two, four, six, and eight ordinates : 456 NATURE | JUNE 10, 1920 aN F(x) | Yi Kx) 72x | Number of ordinates used. The First Act of a Young Thrush. ioe 4 6 8 SINCE observations of the first acts of wild birds Pmt ITE grants {0 : ; i immediately after hatching are very difficult, the Semicircle (x — x?) 0°3927 | 0°4000 0°3949 0°3939 0°3934 following may be worth recording. Last week I Quadrant (1 —x*)! | 0.7854 0°7898 0°7868 0'7862 0°7859 | went to look at a thrush’s nest which I had found a Parabola x* _ 0°3353 | 0°3400 0°3350 0 3341 0°3327 | fortnight before, with four eggs in it. Two s sin x 0°4597 | 0 4580 0°4593 0°4596 0°4595 | were hatched and two were not. As I was watching log (1 +2) | 0°3863, 0°3850 0 3859 0°3861 0°3862 | the young birds, one of the two remaining ‘eggs vai 1°7183 | E7854. 3 DAE 17187 1°7186 | cracked right across, and I saw the bird wriggle out ss 0°693€ | 0'6945 0°6937 0 6934 0°6933 | and toss the two halves of the shell out of the nest I+% | by a .convulsive movement of its back; but the (3) If Fv)=a+dr+ex*+ dx, / F(ede=a[ F(2= 4) +F(3)+ F(2 ae = 3[F(0°1464) + F($)+ F(0°8536)]. . (4) A simple three-ordinate rule is therefore | Fedae=iFQ)+FQ)+FO)) In practice. this is not quite so convenient as the application of the two-ordinate rule. A. F. Durton. Trinity College, Cambridge, May 20. P.S.—I thank Mr. C. F. Merchant for pointing out ‘in. Nature of June 3 that the four-ordinate rule is already in-use, and for giving a reference to Tcheby- ‘cheff’s; rules, with which I was unacquainted. The ‘positions of Tchebycheff’s ordinates, as in (a) and (b) ‘above, are inconvenient, and the rules obtained by taking neighbouring ordinates attain simplicity with- out great loss of accuracy. A.B yD: a June 5." ; ae The Cost of Laboratory Fittings. It is evident from the correspondence which. has followed the publication of the. letter. from me. on the subject of laboratory fittings that I must again ask leave to trespass on your space in order to explain that my remarks referred solely to fixed fittings, as stated, embracing working benches, lecture tables, and the like. | have no doubt that quéstions of actual instruments and: apparatus are of much-greater im- portance, but of these. I have no. right to speak. . Perhaps I may be allowed to make myself clear by reference to one or two specific directions in which research on fixed fittings might possibly prove useful: The present price of teak as bought in bulk from:a merchant is 30s. per cubic foot, and if impreg- nated soft wood could be substituted for bench and table tops much saving would result. This impreg- nation might be effected by precipitation, electrolysis, oxidation (oils), or evaporation (e.g. silica solutions). Again, bituminous materials with perhaps barytes rolled into them might be investigated for use as a thin layer on wood or concrete.. Soapstone is much used in America and lave émaillée in France, but not as yet in this country. There are, further, certain hard flooring plasters which should be very inert chemically. An investigation is much needed into the proper composition of bituminous materials for coat- ing laboratory drains. Drains executed in wood thus coated are in many cases much cheaper than glazed ware drains. For repetition work such as locker doors and even drawers pulped and stamped material might prove economical if some standard could be agreed upon. It should not be a very expensive matter to set on foot some researches of this nature, and any effective re- sults would, [. imagine, be very welcome to institutions at present ,faced with additions to their material equipment.’ Avan E. Munpy. 9 Old Squate, Lincoin’s Inn, W.C.2. nee NO. 2641, VOL. 105] curious thing was that, before the bird was properly free from the shell, it opened its beak—as if for food. I dug up a worm near by and offered it to the bird, which swallowed..it eagerly. I purposely dug for the worm in a place’ from which I could see the nest, and I feel sure that the parent bird did not come and feed the nestling meanwhile. A few minutes later the other egg hatched, and the bird behaved just as in the former case, opening its beak before it was out of the shell. Now the question is: Was the opening of the bird’s beak a reflex or an ‘‘instinctive” act? If it were reflex, it would presumably have been induced by sudden exposure to the. new environment of open air; and, obviously, such a reflex. act would serve the purpose of an ‘‘instinctive’? one in this case. ~ Moreover, is it not a question whether any ‘ instinc- tive’ act at-so early a stage can be anything more than a reflex act thus adaptable to survival purposes —by natural selection if need be? vt ae Honor M. M. Prrrycoste. Polperro, Cornwall, May 30. ts ; Marat and the Deflection of Li apt CaRLYLE’s vivid portraiture of Marat as “ horse- leech’ and savage revolutionist has rather obscured the fact that this ‘‘ friend of the people” was a learned doctor of medicine, a physicist, and a physiologist. It is true that Carlyle refers to him as ‘‘ Renovator of Human Science, Lecturer on Optics,’’ but the -mis- take about the ‘‘ horse-leech”’ is repeated in the same passage. ' In Marat’s ‘‘ Notions élémentaires d’optique ”’ (1784), p. 16, the following statement is made: “Tl est hors de doute, que -les rayons de lumiére changent toujours de direction dans le méme milieu, lorsqu’ils passent a certaine distance d’un corps. Se trouvent-ils dans la sohére d’attraction? ils se réplient jusqu’a certain point a sa circonférence, et se pro- longent ensuite en droite ligne.’’ This at first glance may appear a remarkable anticipation of recent discoveries in physics, but in reality the conclusion is° based on wholly false premises, as further reading of the pamphlet will disclose. W. A. OSBORNE. University of Melbourne, April 22. ; British and Metric Systems of Weights and Measures. On p. 355 of Nature of May 20 Mr. M. E. Yeat- man in a letter on the above subject says: “It seems that the advantage of any given system of weights or measures lies largely in the facilities that it offers for the division of a sum or quantity into equal parts”; and I have seen ‘‘ facility of factorisation ’’ claimed before as one of the merits of the British system. As an engineer who ‘figures frequently,” I fail to appre- ciate this fetish of factorisation. One uses a slide- rule and logs, and never worries about factors. Will Mr. Yeatman, or someone else, demonstrate the use of factors in practical calculations, bearing in mind the use of slide-rules, calculating machines, and logs? The metric system seems to be gaining ground in spite of the lack of factors disclaimed for it. ‘ALFRED S. E. ACKERMANN. ' _ JUNE 10, 1920] NATURE the war possesses great potentialities as an instrument of scientific research. The value of the aeroplane in geographical and geological exploration has already been emphasised in these s, and its employment in the reconnaissance of little-known countries need not be further men- _ tioned; but if aeroplane exploration is valuable, its worth _ photographic work. For, while a trained observer it is quite impossible for | is greatly enhanced by systematic notices many features, him to observe and note more than the salient points seen from a swiftly flying machine, while the camera instantly records every feature in the field of view. Again, from a safe height of, say, 10,000 ft. only the larger elevations or depres- sions are visible to the human eye, but if paired photographs are taken for the purpose of stereo- scopic examination with a wide base of, perhaps, 500 yards, then the whole of the ground relief becomes visible in a most striking manner. But not only do photographs provide a means of obtaining and recording information; they also show the relative positions of objects, and, if taken on an organised system, provide a topographical survey for use in map construction.! In addition, I was frequently struck with the value for scientific purposes of material obtained in the course of the R.A.F. work in Egypt and Palestine, and the purpose of this article is to indicate some types of information which may be furnished. Air photographs may serve either as useful illustrations of known scientific facts, or as a means of discovering new facts, and while they are mainly of geographical or geological interest, they may also assist the botanist, archeologist, and meteorologist. Geography and Geology.—As examples of the illustration of known facts, we may mention the remarkable photographs of Vesuvius taken by Group Capt. A. E. Borton, C.M.G. One of these has already been published in the Press, and it would not be easy to find a more striking demonstration of the structure of a volcanic -cone. Among the photographs taken in Palestine we had many good illustrations of erosion and river development. The soft lake-beds of the Jordan valley were shown in the process of weathering out to form what the Americans term ‘bad-land topography.”’ In this region marls and clays which have been baked by the hot, rainless summer are denuded at a great rate by the heavy | winter rains, and give rise to a complex system of steep-sided wadis spreading back from the main drainage channels. The sides of these wadis are bare of vegetation, but their bottoms: become filled with scrub when reduced to the base level of erosion. 1 See Geographical Journa?, May, 1920. NO. 2641, VOL. 105] Aircraft Photography in the Service of Science. Per - » By:H. Hamsuaw Tuomas. AIRCRAFT photography as developed during The contrast between the wadi forms produced in these lacustrine or alluvial deposits and those carved out of the adjacent Cretaceous rocks is very noticeable, and we have also illustrations of the different erosion forms produced on steep or gentle slopes. : The River Jordan, which had never been very accurately surveyed before the war, has now been photographed over a considerable distance, and furnishes striking examples of some of the phenomena of river development. In.its lower part it has cut down a distinct and well-marked meander-belt below the level of the surface of the lake-beds of the old valley. The river is con- stantly changing its course in this belt (see Fig. 1), which in most places is well covered with vegeta- Fic. 1.—Meander belt of the River Jordan north of Jericho, showing the forniation of an ‘‘ox-bow ” and the cusp-shaped terraces. The’ dark area near the stream is the belt.of willow scrub. tion, and the old courses of the stream are often plainly visible where the vegetation has not yet had time to colonise the former river-bed. We see ‘“‘ox-bows ” and loops of the river in all stages of development, while sometimes a heavy spring flood appears to have resulted in the stream taking an entirely new course. At the sides of the flood- plain cusp-like terraces often show the stages in the cutting down of the gorge, while the presence of hard beds may produce nodes in the series of meanders. The illustrations of such features as have been mentioned are often so striking and. convincing that they would be valuable .to teachers and students if they could be made available. But by the study of photographs and the maps 458 NATURE [JUNE 10, 1920 — made from them we may observe other features of research interest. The story of the earth movements in the Jordan rift is not yet clear, while there has been much discussion about the climate of the region during recent and prehistoric times. In some of the photographs taken, we have good evidence of very recent faulting, and we may distinguish a fault scarp in the lake-beds (Late Tertiary). We find that the trough faulting has resulted in the incision of many of the tribu- tary streams, and in several places in cafion forma- tion. When we look at the drainage system from the point of view of climatic change we find evi- dence of a former period of abundant precipita- tion, during which much of the present surface sculpture of the Judean hills was effected; but this period was a remote one, and preceded the drying up of the Jordan lake to give the present valley. Passing up to the north of Palestine, we have good evidence from a dry gorge, terraced valleys and drainage forms, that at a former period the River Jordan originated in Central Syria; but afterwards the Syrian portion of the river was captured by the Litani. This capture was largely the result of a general uplift of the country, and several of the oblique air views of the coastal plain of Palestine, espe- cially near Mount Carmel, show very well the ‘plain of marine denudation stretching from the ‘present shore to the foot of the hills. It is in the portrayal of the geographical features in the most complete and detailed fashion, so that their developmental ‘story can ‘be studied and deciphered, that aeroplane ‘photo- graphy excels. If the whole of the Palestine material could be carefully studied by the physical geologist, a great deal of information would result, for the above-mentioned deductions have been made from the study of ‘a few small sets of photographs which had been chosen at random for other purposes. __ The investigator of solid geology has naturally little to learn from photographs, but in ‘some places, where the climate is arid and the ground almost devoid of soil, the boundaries of some of the harder beds may become visible, while in other cases the bedding is clearly seen, and the underlying structure may be brought out by surface weathering. A photograph taken during the first flight ever made from Egypt to India showed an interesting locality in western Persia, where a well-marked anticline had been laid bare by surface erosion. Botany.—The student of vegetation who may be sufficiently fortunate to obtain aerial photo- graphs of the ground is at once in possession of the basis of an ideal vegetation map. Different types of vegetation show up very clearly, and also, of course, the transition from desert to open and closed plant associations (see Fig. 2). Itis naturally necessary to go over the ground with the photo- graphs, but after a short time the characteristic tones and appearance of different vegetation types can be readily picked out. Even among crops it is possible to distinguish barley, wheat, and NO. 2641, VOL. 105| maize, besides other plants, like cotton, which have a distinct habit and growth period. Prac- tical use of these facts was made in Mesopotamia for ascertaining the acreage under wheat cultiva- tion, and trials have been made in India with the view of carrying out crop-surveys by aeroplane photography. ; I have not had the opportunity of making many observations on this subject, but it may be of interest to mention a small point observed in connection with the distribution of the willow and tamarisk scrub of the Jordan valley. This vegeta- tion is limited by the water supply from the river, and succeeds in following the stream right down to the Dead Sea. Here, at the mouth of the Jordan, although surrounded by salt lagoons, a narrow belt of vegetation manages to survive as a fringe to the river with its rapidly flowing stream of fresh water. A Spon sc ae Archaeology.—The utility of aerial photography — to the archeologist was strikingly illustrated in | ake pe are ; i ee soe — iad Bi . % * ee es We Fig. 2,—Photograph showing the distribution of vegetation in the Sinai desert. The partial colonisation of sand-hills by dwart scrub vegetation —the black spots—is well shown, also some small groups of date palms: the case of the ninth-century city of Samarra,? in Mesopotamia, where views taken from above the apparently formless heaps of earth and rubble give the outlines and plan of streets and buildings. It may be only rarely that similar | cases may arise, but experience shows that if ruins or remains exist in any regular form, their arrangement will be well depicted by the aero- plane camera. We may by this means be able to locate interesting sites which have been more or less obscured by superimposed material. A feature which was brought to light in Palestine as the result of air survey was the ancient irriga- tion system in the south-eastern part of the Jordan valley. An extensive series of old connected channels, now filled with scrub vegetation, was seen; this must be a relic of the days when the Jordan valley was under general cultivation, 2 See Lt.-Col. G. A. Beazley, Geographical Journal, vol. liii., p. 330, 1919. ‘ruins, JUNE 10, 1920] NATURE 459 _ and very different from the desert condition which _ it possesses to-day. While nothing was found _ in Palestine of the same type as the Samarra the ancient Greco-Roman temples of _ Jupiter and Bacchus at Baalbek, in Central Syria, Fic. 3.—Temples of Jupiter and Bacchus at Baalbek in Central Syria, showing the ground plan and some remains of later Saracenic building. furnished some interesting photographs. A ver- tical view from about 3000 ft. gives a remarkably good ground plan of the present state of these beautiful remains (see Fig. 3). Meteorology.—The study of clouds by the, photography from aeroplanes of their forms and features has been recently discussed by meteor- ologists, and need not be further mentioned. It would be outside the scope of the present article to deal with the methods of obtaining, using, and interpreting the aerial pictures which have been referred to. It may be seldom possible for a scientific expedition to employ aeroplanes, owing to their expense; but, when it can be done, useful knowledge is bound to accrue. In other cases, however, as in Palestine, photographs may be taken for mapping or other purposes, which will also yield important scientific material to those who can make use of it; and possibly photographs taken for the purpose of training airmen may become of great value, even in this country, if certain areas are included. Sometimes the evidence furnished is clear and unmistakable, but in other cases the photographs have to be examined by a trained and experienced worker. The general public has not been very fully informed of the work of the R.A.F. photo- graphers during the war, and to most people the air photograph is a curiosity which seems to have little value in times of peace. Though in some countries ‘the civil importance of aerial photographic survey is realised, in England air photography is in a somewhat languishing con- dition. In these circumstances it is well to remember that, though the aerial camera has not been extensively employed apart from military work, it nevertheless appears to have no incon- siderable value in the domain of pure science. The Dynamics By R. H. ae object of this article is to give a short account of some features of the motion of a spinning shell through air.. Our knowledge of this phenomenon has been somewhat increased by war-time researches. To determine the motion of a ‘shell from the equations of rigid dynamics, we require to know the complete force system which represents the reaction of the air on the moving shell; but, just as in the case of an aeroplane, the components of this reaction are utterly unknown a priori. The problem that arises, therefore, is that of determining these components by observation and analysis of the actual initial motion of shells. Once they have thus been determined, they can be applied, pro- vided the essential conditions remain similar, to the calculation of the complete motion of a shell along its trajectory. In the simplest case of al] this procedure is classical. The air resistance to a shell, moving so that the directions of its axis and the velocity of its centre of gravity coincide, has long been determined thus as a function of the velocity, and trajectories have been computed assuming that this coincidence subsists throughout the motion. Under this assumption the problem is merely one | NO. 2641, VOL. 105 | of Shell Flight. FOWLER. of particle dynamics, of which the solution may be regarded as completely known. The com- parison of calculations and observations shows good agreement in range and height when the shells are suitable and the total angle turned through by the tangent to the trajectory is less than, say, 50°. The calculated trajectory, how- ever, is a curve lying in the vertical plane con- taining the original direction of projection, while the observed positions of the shells do not lie in this plane, but appreciably to the right of it when their axial spin is right-handed. This well-known departure from the original vertical plane is called drift, and converts the trajectory into a twisted curve. It cannot be accounted for on the original assumption. ; It is with these cases, in which particle dynamics fails to explain the observations—such as the drift, trajectories of large total curvature, and (as we shall see) initial motions—that we are mainly concerned here. For their study we must abandon the assumption that the direction of motion of the centre of gravity and the direction of the axis of symmetry coincide, and study the whole motion as a problem in rigid dynamics. In order to do this we must, first of all, deter- 460 NATURE [ JUNE 10, 1920 mine experimentally the complete reaction of the air on the moving shell when the directions of its axis and the motion of its centre of gravity no longer coincide. In such a case the angle between these two directions is called the yaw. . Until recently the reaction on a yawed shell had never been studied experimentally. The necessary data, however, can be obtained by observation and analysis of the initial motion of the shell in the first few hundred feet after leaving the muzzle of the gun, for in this interval the axis of a shell oscillates periodically over an appreciable range of yaw.! The motion is a little complicated, and its interpretation is not yet completely worked out in terms of the reaction of the air. Moreover, a really satisfactory experimental method has not yet been devised. But a start has been made on the problem, and approximate values of the more important components have been determined.? _ The somewhat crude experimental method so far used consists in firing a shell through a series of cardboard screens. The shape of the hole in the card. determines the size and direction of the yaw at the instant of passing through the card. From such observations the motion of the axis can be plotted out against the time (if the velocity of the shell is known), and the period of its oscil- lations determined. The disturbing effect of the cards themselves can be determined by suitable control experiments and roughly estimated. Two specimen observed curves.® traced out by a point on the axis of the shell relative to the centre of gravity are shown. in Figs. 1 and 2. These two paths are strictly comparative, as the only difference between their circumstances is an altera- tion of the axial spin. The slowly spinning shell (Fig. 1) has oscillations of comparatively long period and large amplitude. These curves are closely analogous to the curves which represent the oscillations of a spinning top near its vertical position.. They differ only in showing slight damp- ing and variation of period. Let us consider further this analogy between a shell and an ideal spinning top. The centre of gravity of the shell and the point of support of the top are analogous ; so are the moments of inertia about these points and the axial spins. To the direction of motion in the case of the shell corresponds the vertical in the case of the top; to the disturbing couple due to the reaction of the air on a yawed shell corresponds the gravity couple on a displaced top. The analogy so far is practically exact; it is modified by the following facts :— (1) That.the centre of gravity is not a fixed point like the point of a top, for its velocity varies both in magnitude and in direction under the reaction of the air; it describes a helical curve, thus modifying the couple. 1 Such/experiments are described in a forthmemink pene in the Royal how? Transactions by Fowler, E. G. Gallop, C. N. H. Lock, and 2 The forces on a raddél shell at rest in a steady current of ‘air of low velocity can also be measured directly in a wind channel ; the results are probably applicable to a shell moving at velocities up to 700 f.s. The observations were made for the Ordnance Committee at H.M.S. Excellent, Portsmouth. NO. 2641, VOL. 105] (2 2) That | an appreciable frictional couple exists which, in conjunction with the helical motion of the centre of gravity, serves to damp out the axial oscillations completely. (3) That, in addition to.(1) above, the magni- 4 Vertical. Radial Scale ct Degrees of Yaw. Fic. 1.—Observed path of the nose of a shell, muzzle velocity : 1565 f.s. Rifling x turn in 40 diameters of the bore, Total time taken to describe curve shown 0.38 sec. tude and direction of the velocity of the shell. are steadily altered by gravity. Experiments so far carried out have détecniined approximately the values of the couple analogous to the gravity couple for velocities from goo f.s. f Vertical Scale of Darren of Yaw. Fic. 2.—Observed path of the nose of a shell, muzzle velocity 1563 f.s. ‘ Rifling 1 turn in 30 diameters of the bore. Total time’ taken to describe curve shown 0.20 sec. _ {The scale of Fig. 2 is three times that of © | Fig. 1.] ‘ to 2200 f.s. . for two different shapes of shell, when | the yaw is not too large. By determining thes | couples. for. various different. positions.-of~ i centre of gravity, rough values of the resulting sideways thrust on a yawed shell were deduced. a a a, _ JUNE 10, 1920] NATURE 461 The study of initial motions is intimately con- ed with the question of the stability of a spin- op) is said to be stable if a small disturbance y produces a small maximum displacement the position of symmetry, proportional to disturbance. The condition of stability for ‘disturbances is the same in the two cases; must be fulfilled in order that the shell may vel along its trajectory approximately at zero yaw as desired. A knowledge of the disturbing couple enables us to lay down how much spin is uired to allow a reasonable margin of stability. _ We have said that the usual approximation of motion at zero yaw is inadequate in the case of trajectories of large total curvature. The com- theory indicates that, under the effect of _ gravity (see (3) above), the yaw tends to attain a sort of equilibrium value which increases along the trajectory, and may reach 20° or more at the end of a sufficiently long arc. A study of initial motions with slightly unstable shells in which such _ values of the yaw can be realised experimentally _ will provide the material required for the proper _ discussion of such trajectories. 4 The following approximate theory accounting for the drift of a shell has long been known. _ Owing to the change of direction of motion due to gravity (see (3) above), a shell cannot continue _ to move steadily at zero yaw. The proper equi- librium state of affairs is attained when the yaw is just such as will enable the axis to keep pace x shell at zero yaw. The motion of a shell (or | | with the changing direction - of metion by . pre- _ cession about it. This equilibrium value of the yaw depends on the above-mentioned disturbing couple due to the reaction of the air, which may be determined by a study of the initial oscilla- tions. The resulting yaw in ordinary cases is too small to alter seriously the range at any given time, and does not affect the height because the equilibrium position of the yawed axis lies in a _ Plane which is always very nearly at right angles to the vertical plane containing the original direc- tion of projection. It produces, however, the lateral deviation known as drift. This approxi- mate theory leads to a formula for the drift de- pending on the ratio of the sideways thrust to the disturbing couple. With the values of this ratio recently roughly determined, the. drift has been calculated by this classical theory, and compared with direct observations of the drift of similar shells. The observed and calculated values are in fair agreement, and there is no doubt that the classical theory is substantially correct. In conclusion, it is perhaps worth mentioning that the interest in such investigations mainly arises from the fact that we can thus study the phenomena of motion through a compressible fluid at velocities both greater and less than the velocity of sound in the fluid. The investigation, however, has scarcely begun, and much work will be required before it is possible to describe adequately the complete reaction on a | shell of given shape moving through air. © - Obituary. Re Pror. L. Doncaster, F.R.S. EONARD DONCASTER’S death from sar- 4 coma at the age of forty-two has stopped a __ career of exceptional distinction. When I lately saw ___ him, apparently in his usual health, presiding over his laboratory as the newly elected Derby professor of zoology at Liverpool, I had comfort in the _ thought that by his appointment a fresh centre of genetics was safely begun. Doncaster was a natural investigator. From his student days there Was never a doubt as to the purpose of his life. The problems of biology were always in his mind. For him the materials were everywhere. Though circumstances led him into academic zoology, he was an excellent field entomologist and botanist, with a fair knowledge also of the domesticated forms. Latterly he became more and more drawn towards cytological methods, but he always kept in touch with the other lines, knowing that the next advance may begin anywhere. Doncaster started at Naples with experiments on hybridisation of Echinoderm larve, which pro- duced evidence of value as to the effects of tempeéra- ture in modifying dominance ; but many aspects of that. vexed question remained, and still remain, when the early struggles of Mendelism were acute. Though constitutionally predisposed to caution, he NO. 2641, VOL. 105] obscure. He returned to England at the moment | knew enough of the general course of variation and heredity to be in no doubt of the essential truth of the new doctrines, and undoubtedly his adhesion did much to spread confidence among his contemporaries. He at once joined in breeding work, and at various times experimented with many forms, particularly rats, cats, and pigeons. With insects of several orders he was especially successful. The seemingly more fundamental nature of microscopical work made it very con- genial to him, and he always had a mass of cyto- logical material on hand. These studies enabled him to take a prominent part in that compre- hensive codification by which the confused and contradictory observations as to the sexes of parthenogenetic and other forms in the Hymeno- ptera and Hemiptera were ultimately reduced to order. In the history of biology Doncaster’s discovery as to the determination of sex in the currant moth (Abraxas grossulariata) will have; a permanent place. From the Rey. G. H. Raynor, a fancier of the species, he learnt facts which suggested that the variety lacticolor was;what*we now. call “ sex-linked,” being predominantly associated with females, as colour-blindness in man is with malés. After verification and extension this mass’ of facts provided (1906) the first clear genetic proof of 462 NATURE [June 10, 1920 | sex-determination in the gamete, a discovery of astonishing novelty at that time, though now so familiar to us all that we have forgotten how hard it was to achieve. Being greatly struck with Wilson’s cytological proof that many male insects are heterozygous for sex, and having himself proved that in Abraxas the female is in this con- dition, Doncaster devised a scheme in which both sexes are thus represented, dominance being attributed to the female gamete; but he after- wards accepted a simplifying emendation in which the male is taken to be homozygous. After this, finding a curious strain in which half the females produce daughters almost exclusively, Doncaster showed that these females generally had only fifty-five chromosomes instead of the normal fifty- six. By reasoning analogous to that afterwards used by Bridges in his famous paper on “non- disjunction,” he attempted a cytological interpreta- ‘tion, though, as he admitted, the solution was imperfect, and the case is still mysterious. Progress was also made with the paradox of tortoiseshell cats, known by fanciers to be almost exclusively females. Doncaster proved that tor- toiseshell is the female heterozygote of orange and black, the corresponding male being orange; and in the course of wide inquiries he discovered the -new fact that the rare tortoiseshell tom is often sterile. In his last paper he conjectured, not with- ' out probability, that, in view of Lillie’s extra- ordinary discovery as to the free-martins of cattle, fhese males may owe their peculiarities to the intra-uterine influence of other embryos. Most of these subjects are discussed .in his text-book, “The Determination of Sex,” 1914. Just before his death Doncaster published an admirable “ In- troduction to the Study of Cytology,” in which he declared himself with reservation a convert to the views of Morgan—a judgment which, from so critical an observer, must carry great weight. His death will be cruelly felt. At a time when cytology is becoming a subject of primary importance, the loss first of R. P. Gregory and now of Doncaster leaves us bereft indeed. Doncaster was one of the clearest-headed men I have known, and, being full of both enthusiasm and knowledge, he taught extraordinarily well. In Cambridge he served in various capacities, and was for four years in the University of Birming- ham. As Prof. Herdman has written, his death is “nothing less than a calamity to Liverpool University.” Doncaster was slight in figure and of a nervous temperament, feeling and thinking of everything with intensity, though nevertheless a fluent speaker. He came of a Quaker family, being the son of Samuel Doncaster, manufacturer, of Sheffield, in whose beautiful garden he developed his love of plants. Educated at the Friends’ School at Leighton Park, Reading, he went up as a scholar to King’s College, Cam- bridge, of which he afterwards became a fellow. He married in 1908 Dora, daughter of Walter Priestman, of Birmingham, and leaves three children. as NO. 2641, VOL. 105] We did not speak of such matters, but it was known to his friends that Doncaster had religious instincts strongly developed. The years of the war were to him more hateful even than to most thoughtful men. He held the Friends’ attitude of the unlawfulness of war, but, feeling that alterna- tive service was a duty, he gave up his researches and qualified as a bacteriologist, working in the — 1st Eastern Hospital, Cambridge, and afterwards in the Friends’ Ambulance Unit at Dunkirk. | W. BaTEson. Mr. Joun W. Hyatt, of Newark, New Jersey, whose death is reported at the age of eighty-two, was the inventor of celluloid. He was a printer by trade, and was using collodion in the course’ of his work when he accidentally overturned a bottle, and the idea of celluloid came to him from watching the collodion solidify. He took out 250 patents in all, a large majority of which had an important bearing on manufactures. They in- cluded a billiard-ball composition, a roller bearing, a system of purifying water for domestic use, a sewing machine capable of sewing fifty rows of lock-stitches at once, a machine for extracting juice from sugar cane, and a new method of solidi- fying American hardwoods. In 1914 Mr. Hyatt was awarded the Perkin medal of the New York Society of Chemical Industry. WE much regret to see the announcement in the Times that Pror. Aucusto Ricut, For. Mem. R.S., died suddenly at Bologna on June 8 at seventy years of age. . | 2 Notes. Tue list of honours conferred in celebration of the King’s Birthday includes the following names of men associated with scientific work :—Irish Privy Coun- cillor: Mr. H. T. Barrie, Vice-President, Irish Depart- ment of Agriculture. K.C.B.: Sir A. W. Watson, president of the Institute-of Actuaries. C.B.: Mr. A. W. Flux, Assistant Secretary, Board of Trade. Baronet: Mr. P. J. Mackie, who financed the Mackie Anthropological Expedition to Uganda and other expeditions. Knights: Prof. F. W. Andrewes, F.R.S., pathologist at St. Bartholomew’s Hospital; Capt. D. Wilson-Barker, captain-superintendent of the training- ship Worcester, and ,past-president of the Royal Meteorological Society; Dr. J. C. Beattie, Principal © of the University of the Cape of Good Hope; Mr. W. B. M. Bird, founder of the Salters’ Institute of Industrial Chemistry; Dr. H. H. Hayden, Director of the Geological Survey of India; and Prof. J. B. Henderson, professor of applied mechanics, Royal C. OM. Hutchinson, Imperial Agricultural Bacteriologist, and — Naval College, Greenwich. C.J.E.: Mr. Mr. R. S. Pearson, Forest Economist, Research Insti- tute, Dehra Dun. eminent aural specialist; Dr. J. C. Stamp, distin- guished economist; and Col. W. Taylor, ex-president of the Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland. Com- panions of the Imperial Service Order: Mr. R. B. K.B.E.: Dr. J. Dundas-Grant, NE 10, 1920] NATURE 463 1, assistant in the Department of Geology, Museum (Natural History); Dr. W. Eagle keeper of Natural History Department, Royal h Museum, Edinburgh; and Mr. R. Duncan, Officer, Veterinary Branch, Department of Agri- and Technical Instruction, Ireland. following decorations have been conferred upon © workers in recognition of valuable services during the war, and the King has granted ion to wear them :—Conferred by the King of —Order of the Crown of Italy: Chevalier: Mr. . Roberts, director of Public Library, Museums, ne Art Galleries, Brighton. Order of St. ce and St, Lazarus: Officer: Sir Douglas on, Dr. T. M. Lowry, F.R.S., and Prof. P. F. dand, F.R.S. Conferred by the King of the ins—Order of the Crown: Grand Officer: Sir Sharpe. Commander: Prof. W. Somerville. : Dr. E. J. Russell, F.R.S. Chevalier: Mr. Fagan, Mr. A. R. Hinks, F.R.S., secretary of oyal Geographical Society, and Mr T. McRow. of Leopold IIl.: Commander: Dr. W. R. , F.R.S., director of the Imperial Institute, rof. G. H. F. Nuttall, F.R.S. ‘ Tr is announced in Science that the U.S. National cademy of Sciences has recently elected the following m associates :—Frank Dawson Adams, McGill niversity; Marie Ennemond Camille Jordan, Col- de France; Francois Antoine Alfred Lacroix, d@’Histoire Naturelle, Paris; Heike Kamerlingh University of Leyden; Sir David Prain, Royal ic Gardens, Kew; and Santiago Ramon y Cajal, sity of Madrid. O. F. Brown, assistant inspector of wireless aphy in the Post Office, has been appointed _ Technical Officer to the Radio Research Board, which has been formed recently under the chairmanship of dmiral Sir Henry Jackson, in connection with the artment of Scientific and Industrial Research. : Sir W. J. Porr, F.R.S., was elected an associate of the section for the mathematical and physical lu neces of the Académie Royale de Belgique on Ji fs Ci ! Cor. H. G, Lyons has been appointed director and ecretary to the Science Museum, South Kensington, succession to Sir Francis Ogilvie, who has been ansferred to the Department of Scientific and Indus- trial Research. Pror. Fiinpers Perrie in Ancient Egypt (1920, art ii.) describes a remarkable statue of ebony 27 in. . ‘The pose of the standing position is more own back than in the Old Kingdom, from the waist yward. The head has had inlaid eyes, now missing. le expression is marvellously vigorous and full of vitality, and it differs from other Egyptian figures not _ only thus, but also in the type. The very wide jaw, short chin, and high cheek-bone have hardly a parallel in other statues. It is. clearly one of the great master- ig and of a rare style of work.’’ It is stated to lave come from the Eleventh Dynasty temple at Deir- _ el-Bahri, and may represent one of the Mentuhetep _ kings, but the provenance is so uncertain that it is NO. 2641, VoL. tas] difficult to identify it. ‘‘When workmen are not well rewarded for the objects found, much is taken away without any record of the ‘original place and connec- tion. If we knew the position to which the figure belonged, the burial chamber, the royal shrine, the family shrines, or elsewhere, we might have fixed the historic value of one of the most striking portraits known from Egypt.” Mr. J. Bronté Gatensy, whose papers on the cyto- plasmic inclusions of the germ-cells have formed such a conspicuous feature of the Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science during the last few years, con- tributes to the last number of that journal (vol. Ixiv., part 3) a valuable account of the modern technique of cytology, which, taken in conjunction with his recently published paper on ‘‘ The Identification of Intra-cellu- lar Elements”? (Journal of the Royal Microscopical Society, 1919), should prove of great use to students of microscopical zoology. These papers will place within reach of all many of the numerous modern refine- ments of technique which are indispensable to future progress, and the use of which bids fair to increase to a very great extent our knowledge of cell morpho- logy and development. We are glad to learn that the author has also undertaken to edit a new edition of that .classical and widely appreciated ,work, Bolles Lee’s ‘‘ Microtomist’s Vade Mecum.”’ In sending the Report of the Curator of the Somerset County Museum, Taunton Castle, for the year ended Séptember 30, 1919, Mr. H. St. George Gray directs our attention to three graphs showing (1) the annual increase in membership of the Somer- setshire Archeological and Natural History Society since 1880; (2) receipts from entrance fees to the museum for the years of this century; (3) fluctua- tions in the number of visitors during the same period. We are not prepared to admit offhand that this is the first application of graphic curves to society and museum statistics, but the results are undoubtedly illuminating, and, in this case, raise interesting questions for the consideration of those directing the policy of the museum. If such charts, with more frequent time-intervals, were prepared on a con- sistent plan by all institutions of the kind, their com- parison would bring new light to social and economic studies. Tur Museums Journal for April-May prints a weighty report on the relation of museums to the advanced student, presented to a British’ Association Committee by a strong sub-committee. It is claimed that the interests of the serious student should not be sacrificed to those of the general visitor. The needs of the researcher, university student, private student, and collector are considered, and practical recom- mendations are based on experience. In view of the proposed site of London University, it is interesting to find the report urging closer co-operation between universities and museums. ‘‘ The student may fairly be asked to help by doing some curatorial work. . . . The museum will profit by the improved arrange- ment of the objects, and the student will learn how to utilise specimens and how to discover the relevant - literaturé.’”? The student should be supported by “a 464 NATURE [ JUNE 10, 1920 system of scholarships, held on.the double condition of carrying out in the museum research. work and curatorial work satisfactory to the professor and the curator respectively.’’ AN interesting addition to the literature on the subject of the relationship between light and plant- growth appeared recently in the Journal of Agricul- tural Research (vol. xviii., No. 11, March, 1920). In this paper W. W. Garner and H. A. Allard discuss the effect of the relative length of day and night, and of other environmental factors, on growth and repro- duction. Their results show that the relative length of the day is a factor of the first importance in plant growth, particularly with’ respect to sexual repro- duction. The effect on sexual reproduction of en- vironmental factors such as temperature, water-supply, etc., seems to be simply one of acceleration or retarda- tion so long as these factors are within a normal range. The seasonal length of day, however, may actually initiate the reproductive processes or inhibit them, according as to whether the given length of day is favourable or unfavourable for the particular species. If the length of day is unfavourable to sexual reproduction, but favourable to growth, then vegeta- tive development is continued indefinitely; but if the length of day*is favourable to both reproduction and growth, then the period of sexual reproduction is extended. The seasonal range in the length of. day is therefore an important factor in plant distribution, and, moreover, the relation between length of day and reproduction emphasises the great necessity. for seeding crops at the proper time. In Publication No. 295 of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, entitled ‘‘A New Type of Hereditary Brachyphalangy in Man,’’ Messrs. Otto L. Mohr and Chr. Wriedt illustrate the heritability of a trivial character for six generations. The character is a symmetrical shortening of the second joint of the second fingers and toes which recurred without any break for six generations within a Norwegian family, some members of which emigrated to America. With- out exception the peculiarity was restricted to the particular phalanx mentioned, the hands and feet being in other respects quite normal. There was no associated shortness ‘of stature. The anomaly mani- fests itself under two distinctly different somatic types, one ‘‘slightly ’’ shortened and generally over- looked by the affected individuals, the other ‘‘ much” shortened and very striking. No case of an inter- mediate condition was observed. The brachyphalangy is inherited as a dominant, not as a sex-linked, character. The numerical ratio between the affected and un- affected individuals in the offspring of brachy- phalangous members of the family is in accordance with the theoretical Mendelian expectation. All the brachyphalangous individuals are heterozygous for the gene in question, with one possible exception. The material includes a case of identical twins, -both showing the same type of brachyphalangy. A genetic explanation of the occurrence of the ‘‘slightly” shortened and the ‘“‘much”’ shortened types is sug- gested. The authors are to be congratulated on their careful working out of an interesting case. - NO, 2641, VOL. 105 | On ‘Friday, June 4, the Association of. Economie Biologists and the Imperial Entomological Conference held a joint meeting at.the Rothamsted Experimental! Station, Harpenden. The greater part of the day was devoted to an examination of the field experiments which were demonstrated by Dr. E. J. Russell and Dr. Winifred E. Brenchley.. The park grass plots have been under grass for some centuries; it is not known that seed has ever been sown, and at the beginning of the experiments (1856) the herbage on all the plots was apparently uniform. The twenty- three plots are each manured differently, the same treatment being maintained year after year, and the southern half of each plot is limed. The difference in the vegetation on the several plots is mow most remarkable, and, quite apart from the great and im- mediate practical valuc of the experiments, they are an ecological demonstration of the very first import- ance. The Broadbalk wheat field is perhaps the most famous single field in the world. Here wheat has been grown continuously since 1843, the eighteen plots receiving different manurial treatment which has been maintained year after year. The knowledge already yielded by Broadbalk has served almost to revolu- tionise the earlier ideas concerning the growth and needs of the wheat-plant and the nature of the soil, and, the attention now being concentrated upon it by. physicist, chemist, statistician, protozoologist, entomo- logist, mycologist, and algologist should continue the good work begun by Lawes and Gilbert, and so ably sustained by Sir Daniel Hall and the present director. After tea Dr. A. D. Imms opened a discussion on ‘Tropisms,’’ giving a brief account of his own inves- tigations on chemotrepism, and relating these to the general theory of tropisms formulated by Loeb. A paper specially contributed by the latter author was read, and Dr. Tillyard, of New Zealand, Mr. E. E. Green, Dr. Williams, Sir J. C. Bose, Mr. W. B. Brierley, and Prof. Neilson Jones took part in the discussion that followed. AN interesting case of extreme dificeeiManae of types of igneous rock, in which the whole series is accounted for by gravitational separation, is described concisely by Mr. H. C, Cooke in ‘‘The Gabbros of East Sooke ’’ (Canada Geol. Survey, Museum Bull. No. 30, 1919). In view of the use of the mineral name ‘‘anorthose”’ for soda-microcline, objection may be taken to the term felspar akin to anorthite. Pror. G. CrsARo sends us a paper on minerals — from Monte Somma and. Vesuvius, which is of interest | as having been prepared for issue in the Bulletin de la Classe des Sciences of the Académie royale de Belgique i in 1914, and actually circulated by its author in 1919. Prof. Cesaro has meanwhile, by. the stress of war, become personally known to a circle of British mineralogists,, who will maintain -cordial relations with him despite his return to his own country. As an appendix to the paper Prof. Cesaro describes an apatite from Cornwall as. having a low birefringence, — and therefore a high fluorine content, and in dealing with similar apatite from Vesuvius he quotes from his previous work the relations between the fluorine present and certain angles of the crystals. ee ‘‘anorthosite’’? for rocks with © Cie. eee] Ve ae Tee oe ce Cen a tee eee eee es eee | ae NATURE 405 BULLETIN No. 22, part i., of the Geological Survey New Zealand, on the limestone resources of the try, by Mr. P. G. Morgan, is really a treatise on es and its uses, illustrated from occurrences It is thus exactly suited to local ements; but both it and its successor on the sp) ates will be welcomed in a much wider field. Eiosthne on the land. The literature to be d is wide, but we note that all the papers -as of a general character are of American We thus miss the work of Messrs. Hutchin- and MacLennan at Rothamsted, published in the al of Agricultural Science in 1915. Mr. J. A. y’s account of his experiments with various ; in Yorkshire (Journ. Soc. Chem. Indust., 1918) probably too recent for inclusion, since communica- ions have been disturbed by war; but for some years there have been dications that authors and blis! ling bodies in the United States have been more mjndful than ourselves of libraries in the Pacific region. This should be a reminder for Britons, who the true begetters of the enterprising island folk. HE Executive Committee of the Advisory Council of Science and Industry of the Commonwealth of Australia has issued the third and concluding part an exhaustive report by Dr. F. L. Stillwell upon factors influencing gold deposition in the Bendigo i Id. As is well known, the mode of occurrence have given rise to much discussion, so the thorough investigation here presented should f great interest to all students of mineral deposits. The general conclusions arrived at are that the form f the reefs is due primarily to that of the original acture through which the depositing solutions have reolated; that all the large and important reefs been in some way associated with faults, the r being generally contemporaneous and connected itl “the folding of the rocks, the faults having given » to a network of fractures which afforded a pas- to the mineralising solutions; and that the ion of the gold from these solutions has been it about in three ways: (1) Precipitation from § auriferous solution; (2) crystallisation from a "supersaturated solution ; ‘and (3) crystallisation from solutions the supersaturation of which is due to de- creasing temperature after the main portion of the has been precipitated. The first of these is the most important method of deposition, and appears ) be closely connected with the presence of car- maceous matter. Bet iw his address to the Royal Scavasiad Society at the anniversary meeting on May 31, Lt.-Col. Sir _ Francis Younghusband pleaded for a wider outlook ' in geography and freedom from a strictly utilitarian 4 pint. A knowledge of the beauty of the earth may be legitimately included within the scope of geo- graphical science. Beauty of scenery in many instances is the most noteworthy characteristic of a country and its most valuable asset. Advertisements _ of tourist organisations, railway and steamship com- panies, and even emigration departments, bear con- NO. 2641, VOL. 105 | we Se eee the gold reefs in this field is quite unique, and its. stant witness to the importance of this aspect. ~More- over, natural beauty is inexhaustible; while mineral wealth is limited and agricultural productivity not unbounded. Sir Francis Younghusband contended that the geographical knowledge of a country was incomplete without a knowledge of its beauty, and that -by this means. alone can the geographer gain a sense of the earth ‘‘as live, supple, sensitive, and active.’’ Continuing, he pointed out that there should be less hesitation in accepting this principle when it is realised that natural beauty affects the movements of man, and that man is having an increasing effect on natural beauty, often, but not always, with disastrous results. This relationship between man and the beauty of the earth is one of which geography should take as much cognisance as it does of the relationship between man and the productivity of the earth. The knowledge of beauty must be carefully gathered. Careless snapshots and shallow rhapsodies in guide- book style are unsatisfactory. We require the best photographs as well as paintings and. accurate descriptions of literary merit. ‘The artist both in pencil and in words is essential in seogiaphical work. In the Meteorological Magazine for May . a notice is given of the circulation of forecasts by. Wwire- less telegraphy from _ collective weather reports for London and_ south-east England.. Hourly reports of meteorological information .prepared by the Forecast Service of the Meteorological, Office are sent out from the wireless station at the Air Ministry. The message is given in a code form, which is practically the same as that prescribed in Annex G of the “Convention relating to International Air Navigation,’’ Paris, 1919. The forecasts, which are being issued eight times a day, are based on observations taken about half an hour before the time of issue. Detailed explanation of the code can be obtained on application at the Meteorological Office. A new device is also mentioned for making the meteorological reports rapidly available to the public. A large weather map is exhibited daily at the Air Ministry in one of the front windows on the ground floor of Empire House, Kingsway. All the principal reporting stations in the British Isles, as. well as a few neighbouring Continental ones, are marked on the chart, which is on the Mercator projection, and is 10 ft. high and 6 ft. wide. The information on the chart is changed at about 3h., 8h. 30m., and r4h. 30m, G.M.T., the data exhibited referring to observations made at th., 7h., and 13h. G.M.T. The exceptionally wet character of April is well shown im the Thames Valley Rainfall Map, where upwards of 5 in., and in places more than 6 in., of rain occurred during the month over the .western portion of the valley.. Dis- tricts with less than z in. are rare, and almost entirely confined to the neighbourhood extending from London to the mouth of the Thames. In England and Wales the general rainfall for April was 204 per cent. of - average. For many years the utilisation of the water-power of the Rhone has attracted attention in France., The shortage of coal has renewed interest in the problem, NOU: PaO OI jeLn, We ae 466 NATURE [JUNE 10, 1920 | which is now on the road to solution. The Chamber of Deputies has taken the matter in hand, and agreed to proposals which now await consent by the Senate. According to an article by M. M. Fourniols pub- lished in the Revue générale des Sciences for May 15, the plan is to divide the river into six sections, to be managed separately or preferably by a single body. Concessions are to be for seventy-five years’ duration, and will be helped by State loans. Besides the utilisa- tion of water-power, the project embraces the im- provement of navigation, the creation of river ports, and the construction of irrigation works. At present the conditions are not favourable for navigation, but the recently opened canal from Marseilles to Arles opens a new vista of possibilities in cheap river con- nections with the sea. It is proposed to erect a number of power stations between Genissiat, near the Swiss frontier, and Comps, near Tarascon. Genis- siat with 200,000 h.p. will be the largest, and will probably supply power to Paris. Other important stations will be near Lyons, Valence, Montelimar, and Mondragon. A form of dam and locks is projected which will interfere as little as possible with navigation. In an article in the Revue Scientifique for May 22 M.-A. de Gramont de Guiche, president of the council of the Institute of Optics of France, describes the arrangements made for the first session of the institute, April to July, of the present year. The institute is divided into three sections: (1) A school of higher studies intended to provide the training requisite for the specialists in the subject; (2) a laboratory for research and practical instruction; and (3) a school for the training of the workmen and craftsmen both in glass- and in instrument-making. At the opening of the course on April 12 M. Jobin, one of the members of the council, described in detail the objects of the institute and the steps that were being taken to carry out those objects, and Dr. Dunoyer gave the first lecture of a course on optical instru- ments. Other lecture courses are provided on ‘‘ The Calculation of Optical Systems,’’ ‘‘ Spectroscopy,” ‘“Glass: Its Nature and its Applications,’ ** The Applications of Polarised Light,’’ ‘‘ The Microscope,”’ and ‘‘The Properties of X- and y-Rays.”” The fee for the session is 150 francs, and, although no one is excluded, it is pointed out that to profit as much as possible from the course students should have a fair knowledge of mathematics. In a paper published in the Mathematical Gazette for 1919-20 Dr. S. Brodetsky, reader in applied mathe- matics in the University of Leeds, brings forward a graphical treatment of differential equations as of special value in certain cases which are not soluble by the usual analytical methods and as of general value for purposes of instruction. There is justice in his view that the average student of mathematics regards the usual methods of solution as a series of tricks which he learns to apply with more or less success to such equations as are presented to him. A graphical treatment cannot fail to be of great value in teaching the meaning of differential equations and NO. 2641, VOL. 105 | ‘of acetic acid. During the period of the increase of : nf in giving the student confidence in their use. The paper contains numerous examples, and illustrates the, meaning of singular solutions, cusp loci, ete. Not the least interesting example is the solution of the equation 3 : EY eg ean ax y (x +y ) ’ which occurred in discussing the motion of a plane lamina moving in air under the earth’s attraction— one of the simple types of aeroplane motion. The equation was insoluble by any of the standard methods, but easily soluble graphically. : DurinG the war considerable quantities of acetone were prepared by the fermentation of starchy material. — Hitherto, however, no investigation of the mechanism of this fermentation has been described, and Messrs. J. Reilly, W. J. Higginbottom, F. R. Henley, and A. C. Thaysen publish in the April issue of the Biochemical Journal an account of a quantitative examination of the process. These authors find that the fermented mash contains varying proportions of acetic and butyric acids, the ratio of the latter to the former increasing with the increase (during fermenta-— tion) in the acidity of the mash and reaching a maxi- mum at the stage of greatest acidity. Not until the latter stage is reached are appreciable quantities of acetone and n-butyl alcohol produced. With the pro- duction of ‘‘oil’’ the ratio of butyric to acetic acid diminishes, and finally the mash contains an excess acidity, of the mash the rate of gas evolution rises’ steadily for some time, then becomes constant; and as the acidity falls the rate of gas evolution rises quickly to a maximum, and then falls rapidly until © the end of the fermentation. The gas consists of — hydrogen and carbon dioxide in a proportion varying from 3:1 at first to 2:3 at the latter part of the fermentation. It is extremely probable that acetic and butyric acids are not the only acids formed, and evidence is given of the presence of an acid less volatile in steam. Lactic acid results from the type of infection most frequently observed. If the fer- mentation is carried out in the presence of calcium carbonate it proceeds as far as the point of maximum acidity, but the production of acetone and n-butyl alcohol is almost entirely suppressed. In the Wiener Denkschriften (Math.-Naturwiss. K1., Bd. 96, pp. 671-750, 1919) Dr. A. Defant continues his important researches on tides in landlocked and — border seas, bays, and channels. After a theoretical _ discussion of the influence of friction against the ocean-bed in channels, he deduces an average value — of the coefficient of skin friction from a considera- tion of the tides in the Gulf of Suez and in certain lakes which exhibit seiches. He then enters upon a careful detailed study of the tides in the English Channel, using a step-by-step numerical method for — the solution of the differential equations of the tides _ between successive cross-sections of the Channel. He : es tee ae thus succeeds in demonstrating the truth of a con- jecture made long ago by Airy to the effect that the — complicated tides of the Channel are governed mainly — * “NATURE 467 he North Sea at the two ends of the Channel; ‘view had been contested by Borgen, but the of the view were misinterpreted by the t Dr. Defant shows that not only the co-tidal nes and tidal ranges, but also the phase and speed tidal currents in the Channel, can be explained basis of Airy’s ideas, taking surface friction at hannel-bed into account, and also the rotation e earth. He finds that the latter affords an ex- ation of why the tidal range on the French coast of 1e Channel is greater than that on the English coast. ‘or the‘ sections of the Channel near the east opening to the North Sea the calculations cannot be executed the accuracy elsewhere obtained, owing to the cimation of the ocean-tidal period to the free of lateral oscillation across this broad part of hannel. But even here the chief features can be 1 by interpolation, and throughout the remainder ne Channel all the important features of the com- lannel tides receive satisfactory theoretical ion. Pence paper read by Gen. Squier to the U.S. National y on April 27 on ‘‘ Multiplex Telephony and aphy over Open-circuit Bare Wires Laid in > Earth or Sea”’ has excited great interest amongst o-telegraphists, who find it difficult to make out whether we are on the eve of important developments not. Gen. Squier has established communication distance of three-quarters of a mile over the aac River by means of a bare No. 12 phosphor- wire laid directly in the water. © The*trans- - consisted of an electron tube oscillator, which da current of about 270 milliamperes at a y of 600,000. At the receiving end of the in electron tube and a six-stage amplifier were without any earth connection. With this ent good tuning could be obtained at either the line, and satisfactory telegraphic and tele- transmissions secured by means of:the bare immersed in fresh-water. In another experi- telegraphic and telephonic transmission were ined between two stations three-quarters of a apart by means of a No. 16 copper wire buried n the earth to a depth of about 8 in. It will be sen that if the method develops satisfactorily it will, commercial possibilities. The best Atlantic cannot operate at a frequency greater than 10 per cond, and 80 volts is the highest voltage that can ear plied to work it. There is scope, therefore, for pment in submarine telegraphy. Gen. Squier sts that experiments should be made with bare ss in sea-water to determine what arrangement “ill give the best results. He points out that with method there will be no distortion of the signals, so there is no limit to the distance of trans- sion, and the receiving apparatus will be com- ly simple. It is also possible to transmit eously several signals, both telephonic and legraphic, over the same wire by using different frequencies. The method is an attractive one, and ’ s to have arrived at the stage where commercial research can usefully be started. NO. 2641, VOL. 105] Our Astronomical Column. PHOTOGRAPHS OF THE BRoRSEN-MetTcaLF ComMET.— The Astrophysical Journal for March contains some photographs of this comet taken by Prof. Barnard on Igig October 5, 6, 20, and 22. The tail is shown as fully 6° long, composed of several narrow straight streamers forming a fan. They radiate from a point somewhat behind the centre of ‘the head. About October 20 the comet discarded its tail, and formed a new one inclined 12° to the old. Prof. Barnard notes that similar: phenomena have been observed in Borrelly’s comet, 1903 July 24, in Morehouse’s comet on several dates in 1908, and in Halley’s comet on Ig10 June 6 (probably also in April). ~ In each case the new tail appears to move out faster than the rear portion of the old tail. Prof. Barnard conjectures that the latter is formed of larger particles, the motion of which would be slower. _ He has combined successive cometary photographs in the stereoscope in the endeavour to determine the configuration of the tail in three dimensions. Care is, of course, required to distinguish true stereoscopic effects. from spurious ones. It is stated that the tail of Morehouse’s comet on October 15, 1908, re- peers “part of an open sack, or a partly opened. scroll. THe Pranerary Famities oF Comets,—The report of the nineteenth meeting of the American Astro- nomical Society contains a paper on this subject by Prof. H. N. Russell. He notes that the orbits of the six comets of the Neptune group all pass considerably closer to the orbits of Jupiter and Saturn than they do to that of Neptune. His first conclusion was that these comets had been captured not by Neptune, but by Jupiter. He analysed the orbits of the periodic comets with the following result :— Thirty-six comets on his list have periods of less than ten years. The orbits of all these, except Encke’s, pass within 0-65 of Jupiter’s orbit, while seventeen of them pass within o-15 of it. Thirty-one comets: have periods between ten and one thousand years. Of these, seven pass within 0-5 of Jupiter’s orbit, five within the same distance from Saturn’s orbit, and two within this distance from Uranus’s orbit, the nearest approach to Neptune’s orbit being 1-22. Prof. Russell has calculated the proportion of the thirty-one comets that would pass within o-5 of each orbit on the hypothesis of chance approach, and finds that it is six for Jupiter, three for Saturn, one and a half for Uranus, and one for Neptune. Hence he concludes that the observed figures give little evidence of capture by any of the planets. There is, however, a point not noticed by Prof. Russell, which is that the periods under a century range themselves into four definite groups, the mean period of each group being about o-4 of that of one of the giant planets. This gives strong ground for postulating a connection with these planets. Since Halley’s comet has been observed for more than two thousand years, there is no difficulty in assigning to it a life dating back to the time when its orbit intersected that of Neptune. The longer the period of a comet the less frequent are the occasions when it is subject to serious disruptive influences, and con- sequently its disintegration is likely to be less rapid. It appears to the writer of this note that Proctor’s suggestion that the periodic comets are the products of eruptions from the giant planets deserves more attention than it has generally received. : 468 . SIENA RORE ~..- [JUNE Lo, 1920 The Thunderstorms of May 29 and th ‘ Louth Disaster. HE last week of May was marked by hot weather all over the country and by numerous thunder- - storms, which culminatea in the notable downpours of rain which occurred on Saturday, May 29. ‘The highest temperatures were reported on ‘Luesday, May 25, when 82° F. was reached in London and the Thames Valley. In London the magnificent cumulus clouds made a fine spectacle, but it was further north, in the neighbourhood of Luton, that thunderstorms occurred. Paris suffered from a severe storm on the same day. On Wednesday, May 26, when an area of com- paratively low pressure extended across England and Ireland, there were thunderstorms in London and in other parts of the country during the afternoon. The rainfall in the west of London was exceptionally heavy. The area affected was somewhat sharply outlined on the west. At Hammersmith the roads were flooded and wood pavements burst up by the water, but at the Meteorological Office, a couple of miles away, only 2 mm. of rain fell. At Uxbridge 33 mm. fell in half an hour. ; The distribution of pressure remained irregular, but lower over the British Isles than over neighbouring countries, and on Friday evening a ‘‘low,’’? which appears to have originated over the South of France, began to deepen and to move northward. The map for 7h. G.M.T. on Saturday, May 29, indicates the depres- sion by the isobar 1012-5 mb. over the Bristol Channel. At 13h, pressure was below 1012 mb. over the Mid- lands. By 18h. it had fallen to 1009 mb. in the same region. On Sunday morning the depression was over the North Sea, and by the evening, when it had deepened to 1004 mb., it was centred at the Shetlands. The rainfall on May 29 was insignificant in the South of England, but falls of half an inch or more were general from Nottingham northwards. The exceptional falls in Lincolnshire and Lancashire occurred before the northward passage of the trough of lowest pressure. As to the downpour in Lincoln- shire, to which the damage and loss of life at Louth are to be attributed, records are available from Hal- lington, in the valley west-south-west of the town, and from Elkington Hall, on the hills to the north- west. In each case the measurement was about 120 mm. in two hours, giving a mean rate of fall of I mm. per minute. According to newspaper reports, 1oo mm. fell at Horncastle, twelve miles south-south- west of Louth. : The area with an exceptionally heavy rainfall included Bucknall, sixteen miles south-west of Louth, with a total fall of 54.mm.; at Lincoln, twentv-four miles away, the fall was 52 mm.; and at Spurn Head, to the north, it was 35 mm. The boundary of the area of heavy rain is marked by 34 mm. at Cranwell and 12 mm. at Fulbeck. these places being about four miles apart on either side of the Ermine Street, south of Lincoln. At Skegness only 12. mm. fell. There were. two thunderstorms in the afternoon, both carried westward by the wind on the north side of the cvclone. One was at Skegness at 13.15 G.M.T., and at Lincoln at 14.30. The other, which was the more severe. moved more slowlv, passing Skegness at 16h. and Lincoln between 18.30 and 19h. The. Louth disaster seems to have been associated. with the former. storm. .From the evidence at the inquest of a witness from Benniworth, a village on the far side of the Wolds. in the Bain Valley, it appears that after a little rain between rth. and 14.15 the weather cleared. but that at 14.30 the rain sud- denly poured so fast that the house-pipe could not NO. 2641, VOL. 105] carry it. ‘‘In a moment the fields were at least 8 in. — deep in water. I saw a huge cloud in the shape of — an egg which kept twisting round. There were three flashes of lightning, very vivid and very shocking. One seemed to pierce through the cloud, and imme- diately afterwards the cloud seemed to come earth- ward.”’ Examination of the ground by the deputy coroner indicated that the heavier rainfall had been on the north side of the line from Louth to Lincoln, and that it was more severe higher up the valley than at Hallington, where the rain-gauge, which measured 120 mm., was situated. It is likely that the 120 mm. is a fair average for the fall over the basin of the Lud above Louth. This basin contains three or four brooks which unite above the town and drain an area of about 20,000 acres. The Wolds are chalk hills, however, and no doubt the greater part of the normal drainage is underground. This may account for the absence of any provision for the passage of flood- water, but much of the ground slopes at about too ft. to the mile, so that water would run off rapidly. Rainfall at the rate of 1 mm. per minute over an area of 80 sq. km. would feed a stream 5 metres deep and 100 metres wide rushing along at 160 metres a minute, and the Lud does not appear to have reached such a magnitude as this. The town seems to have been singularly fortunate in escaping floods in the past, as a rainfall of even one-quarter of that on the present occasion could scarcely have found its way through the narrow bridges of the town. — With regard to the heavy falls in Lancashire, we are so fortunate as to have the autographic record from the rain-gauge at Leyland, to the south of Preston. The total fall for the twenty-four hours, gh.-oh. May 30-31, is about 80 mm., ‘the like of which the proverbial oldest inhabitant cannot remem- ber.”? *The heaviest downpours were from 16.30 to 17h. and- from 17.55 to 18.15. In the latter interval of twenty minutes no less than 4o mm. were recorded. The more dramatic exploits of the flood-water due to this storm appear to have been to the north of Preston, where the main line of the London and North-Western Railway was destruction of the embankment near the crossing of the River Brock. In snite of the long duration of the rain at Preston. the fall at Blackpool, fifteen miles to i west, amounted to only 5 mm. in the twenty-four ours. ; Annual Meeting of the British Science Guild. “THE annual meeting of the British Science Guild was held in the Goldsmiths’ Hall on Tuesday, June 8, the chair being taken by Lord Sydenham, — president of the guild. In his address on “Science and the Nation”? the be president referred to the strike evil as one of the great _ industrial problems of the day. The moulders’ strike had seriously affected many industries; loss in coal had reached 50,000,000 tons a year as compared with 1913, With serious consequences to the export trade. The evil was due partly to an abnormal state of mind arising from the war, but was originally fostered by the industrial changes of the last century, namely, | the general use of machinery, rendering labour | skill of the craftsman,. and the formation of large companies, whereby the personal touch between master and man was lost. few hands might lead to. tyranny. This country needed a wider distribution of capital. interrupted by the — monotonous and leaving less room for the individual Capital unduly concentrated in a 3 Labour and capital must be reconciled, and science must find an — UNE 10, 1920] NATURE 469 idote for the deadening influence of the machine. the latter portion of his address Lord Sydenham asised the importance of a more general know- of science, especially amongst members of the ment and the Civil Sérvice, and alluded to the made by the Guild in the dissemination of ific knowledge and methods. He concluded by ng Goethe’s saying that ‘there is no more dful sight than ignorance in action.”’ ord Sydenham then introduced the president-elect, | Montagu of Beaulieu, who delivered an address “Some National Aspects of Transport,’ and after- ards occupied the chair. Lord Montagu remarked n the growing. difficulties of railways, which, though subsidised by the State, were working with 1 diminishing margin of profit owing to the vast reases in cost of materials and in wages. Some the largest tramway systems, such as the L.C.C. in London, were incurring actual loss, and a general _ increase in fares and rates seemed inevitable. Some economies might be achieved by more scientific methods of handling traffic and the elimination of competition, but the saving from this source appeared relatively small. The possibilities of road transport, _ therefore, assumed importance. Already the compara- tive cheapness of short-distance road-borne traffic had deprived the railways of much revenue. Existing _ roads, however, were unfitted to bear very heavy _ mechanical traffic. On a tar-macadam road the trac- _ tive force was 40-45 lb. per ton, three times the force on rails, and on bad roads up to 100 Ib. per ton may __ be needed. In the pre-railway period roads carrving metal tracks 2 ft. wide were constructed for carts carrying coal, minerals. etc. It might be feasible to lay such a plateway from London to Birmingham with a tractive force of only 20 Ib. per ton. The cost of a double track would be about the same as for a single line of railway, as gradients up to 30:1 cot e used. The cost of operation would be on a smaller scale than on railways, and goods could be : Seltvered direct from door to door. The idea could _ be extended to other large towns, and it was con- _ ceivable that overhead roadways, for the exclusive use of fast-running vehicles, might be made from the suburbs. The creation of such routes would lead to a material increase in the value of property through which they passed, and part of the cost might be met by a local transport benefit tax, applied in such cases. Lord Montagu also referred briefly to other possible developments, such as the use of the airship for long distances and aeroplanes for shorter services, and the possible use of gas suction plant for propelling loco- _ motives, motor-lorries, and shivs, and of ,benzol and alcohol in the internal-combustion engine. In view of the national importance of these 3 lems, the creation of a chair of transport at one of the leading universities would be a deserving obiect for private beneficence. The two Institutions of Civil _ Engineers and Mechanical Engineers should be more frequently consulted by the Government in regard to _ road transport. and the National Physical Laboratory had done excellent work. The problem, however, was so vast as to demand continuous research at a special establishment. The adoption of the annual report of the Execu- tive Committee was proposed by Lord Bledisloe, and seconded by Sir Gilbert Parker, both of whom are vice-presidents of the Guild. A cordial tribute was paid to the valuable services T ord Sydenham had rendered to the Guild during his tenure of office, and both sveakers expressed. the general appreciation of Lord Montagu’s acceptance of office as the new president. — She report, aimmatieed by Lord Bledisloe, dealt with various aspects of the work of the Guild. The NO. 2641, VOL. 105 | eh ' =] 3 Coe ee ee a Le eee ——— second British Scientific Products Exhibition, held in 1919, was honoured by a visit from both King George and Queen Mary, accompanied by Prince Henry and Princess Mary, and demonstrated the growing appre- ciation by British manufacturers of the value of applied science. During the present year it is hoped to arrange a conference on science and labour in asso- ciation with the Labour arty. ett | parse fo ee ent ee ee NATURE 471 ndered by the constant strugg!es to find out we had and what we wanted, and it was only they obtained the services of trustworthy statis- s that the Department got into clear order. In d of public health trustworthy statistics were ul importance, and he therefore recommended public the appeal which had been made for nal funds, and promised to do all he could to De Hi. — | the work ot the laboratories. H The Imperial College. CLaimm to University Status. MEETING in support of the claim of the Im- perial College of Science and Technology for er to confer degrees and for university status was d at the Central Hall, Westminster, on Friday, » 4. Lord Morris, who presided, stated that the ng was not called in hostility to any university overnment Department, or in disparagement of atmosphere created by the universities. The 1g body, the professorial staff, and the » now numbering 1300, were unanimous in ‘t of the claim of the Imperial College for power onfer degrees in its own subjects or faculties. students were seriously handicapped by having to to an external body for a degree, because of the rrent preference in the industrial and professional ds for a degree to a diploma. Lord Morris a resolution urging the Prime Minister, the 1 President of the Council, and the President of Board of Education to take the matter into serious leration. resolution also declared that any ner delay would cause a growing sense of in- _W. W. Watts.- who seconded the motion, fe out that the rerort of the Departmental Com- mittee, the rec dations of which in 1906 led c y to the establishment of the Imperial College, Db on a vision of a vast technological and rial institution, not confined to mere technical ‘ruction, but devoted to the highest education and se research in both pure science and techno- _ The Devartmental Committee had stated clearly } reasons against incorporating the’ Imperial Col- » in the University of London, pointing out that f the college was to be able to adapt itself to the ever- _ changing conditions of industry it must be free from 1e academic trammels of an education regulated, and ntly regulated, by other aims. . H. G. Wells, speaking in suvport of the motion. 1ed the meeting that in approaching the Lord ident of the Council and the President of the rd of Education the delegates would have to com- | the suspicion that their proposal involved a system education and training likely to turn out men and omen of narrow culture, mere technical experts out broad views. The curse of education in had been the grandiose ideas of people who d not distinguish between the Universities of wd and Cambridse and the university conditions sondon. It was almost impossible to conceive the dely separated college units in London co-operating successfully to form a single efficient university. Sir Ernest Rutherford, sneaking as a renresentative _ on the governing body of the Imperial College of the Dominion of New Zealand, said it was not generally recognised how much energy is spent in developing the pure science side of the Imperial College. Tt was only right and. proper that the students, and _par- ticularly the oversea students, should have a degree _ Where degree-work had been done, and the degree should be conferred by the teachers, and not by any ‘NO. 2641, VOL. 105] outside body. Surely we might broaden our ideas of university education in general. We had never before had an institution teaching technology on such a vast scale and to such a high standard as the Imperial College does. There was no precedent for the col- lege, and therefore there could be no precedent against its claim to confer its own degrees. Subsequent speakers included Mr. J. A. Spender, Sir Richard Redmayne, and the Rector of the Imperial College, Sir Alfred Keogh. The resolution, modified slightly in accordance with suggestions made by Mr. H. G. Wells and others, was carried with one dissentient. The Smoke Nuisance. % HE Manchester City Council is one of the few local authorities which have gone out of their Way not only to put the smoke clauses of the old Public Health Act into force, but also to investigate the cost to the community of the smoke nuisance. With true wisdom it has realised that the zsthetic sense of the average man is controlled by his pocket, and that the direct road to reform is to make him understand how much he might save by a clean atmosphere. We have received from the Air Pollution Advisory Board of the Manchester City Council a pamphlet entitled ‘The Black Smoke Tax,” and although it deals mainly with an elaborate investigation into the relative cost in fuel, soap, and starch in an industrial and a residential centre, there is an introduction which reviews in brief but expressive language other causes of loss and damage which follow in the train of black smoke. The Board says :—‘‘The damage is both zsthetic and economic. The look of things suffers. The value of things suffers. Everybody suffers and, since everybody suffers, it-is a long time before any- body protests. If the damage were done suddenly there would be a general outcry, but it is done gradu- ally. Thousands of Manchester people live their lives from start to finish in the midst of black smoke and have come to regard it as a normal condition of life. It is only in modern times that we have realised that the nuisance is preventable and that public economy, public health, and hanpiness alike call for its preven- tion.’’ _ The investigation has been conducted on the lines adopted in Pittsburgh, U.S.A., which showed an annual loss amounting to 4l. a head of the popu- lation. A large number of different classes of houses in Manchester (industrial) and Harrogate (residential) were personally visited and the weekly washing bill - as nearly as possible ascertained. The net result was an additional expenditure in Manchester of more than 242,000l, annually on this item alone. The committee employed on this investigation concludes its report as follows: ‘‘As a result of years of patient investiga- tion, coupled with strict rejection of all doubtful evidence, thev can state emphatically that it would well repay Manchester to expend a large amount of thought and money on any measures that would help to reduce its enormous yearly smoke tax of at least three-quarters of a million pounds per annum.”’ The Ministry of Health has now taken the matter in hand and appointed a Smoke Abatement Com- mittee to consider wavs and means of abolishing smoke. The report of this committee will no doubt contain recommendations which will give local authori- ties greater facilities and stronger inducements ‘for dealing with this pest of industrial towns. Coal smoke is. ovposed to everv princinle of economy. health, comfort. and cleanliness. It is a national scourge which has been too long tolerated. ip C. 472 NATURE The Molecular Energy in Gases. pees request of the council of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, an address on ‘“‘ Molecular Energy in Gases’ was delivered on May 3 by Principal Sir Alfred Ewing, who began by referring to a series of papers on the foundations of the kinetic theory which were communicated to the society thirty years ago by a great teacher and a great master of the subject, Prof. Tait. Since those days the kinetic theory had received what might be called ocular demonstration through Perrin’s investigation of the Brownian move- ments, which exhibited the buffeting of visible bodies by the blows of the molecules. Much had come to be known regarding the probable structure of the atom. There had been substantial advances in the study of specific heats of gases and of their absorption and emission of heat in the form of infra-red rays. But the difficulty referred to by Tait of reconciling the known facts about specific heat with the theory of the equipartition of energy, as developed by Maxwell and Boltzmann, still remained, and had led to various applications or extensions of Planck’s quantum theory, not only to the vibrations of gaseous mole- cules, but also to their rotations. Some of these applications of the quantum theory appeared to the lecturer to be highly artificial, and also unnecessary. He proceeded to discuss the corre- spondence between the observed values of the specific heats and those that might be expected by applying ordinary dynamics to the translations and rotations of the molecules of a gas, and pointed out that the results presented a consistent scheme, which had, however, to be supplemented by taking account of the energy of vibration, especially at high tempera- tures. Vibratory energy became developed in a manner which was clearly not consistent with the principle of equipartition. It was now known that in all except monatomic gases the specific heat became notably increased at high temperatures, when the vibrations within the molecules began to be an im- portant part of the whole energy. The experimental facts as to this increase were no doubt well expressed by means of Planck’s quantum formula, but the type of curve which it gave was one that was found in other departments of physics. It was therefore open to question whether, if the nature of the constraints were understood, the development of vibratory energy in the molecules might not be interpreted in terms of other ideas than those of quanta, and without dis- turbing the old-fashioned principles of Newtonian dynamics. University and Educational Intelligence. BIRMINGHAM:-—In common with other universities, that of: Birmingham has been overcrowded with students during the past session, and, in order that the necessary arrangements may be made to accom- modate the maximum number for the ensuing year, public notice has been given that intending students should make application for entry not later than June 30. Already, temporary buildings are being erected to cope with the certain increase in number of second-vear students. The problem of adapting the number to be admitted to the available accommodation is un- doubtedly difficult, but any method of restriction adopted will be devised with the object of securing admission to the fittest. CamBRIDGE.—Announcement.is made in the Times that the directors of the Commercial Union Assurance Co. have allotted the sum of 165,o00l. for a building of biochemistry, on a site provided by the University, NO. 2641, VOL. 105 | ‘weeks. for the provision of adequate incomes for the pro- fessor and his. staff and for the endowment of re- search, : LivERPOOL.—At a meeting of the Senate of the University held on June 2 the following resolution was passed: ‘The Senate records with profound regret the death of Prof. Leonard Doncaster, F.R.S., Derby professor of zoology in the University. But a short time in Liverpool, Prof. Doncaster had taken a prominent place in the University, serving on the University Council as representative of his faculty, and had added to the reputation of the University by his contributions to science, and notably by his text-book upon cytology, published within the last few As colleague and friend he will be mourned by all members of the University. To Mrs. Don- caster and the members of his family the Senate ~ would offer its most sincere sympathy.” Tue Ramsay Memorial Trustees will proceed to. the election of not more than three fellows at the end of this month. Applications must be received not later than June 15. Application forms, containing full [JUNE 10, 1920 © 4 particulars of the award, can be obtained from the | Organising Secretary of the Ramsay Memorial Fund, University College, London. The fellowships are of the value of 300l. a year each, and tenable for two years. They are for the advancement of chemical research, THE annual vacation course in Snowdonia for field- work in geography, geology, botany, map-making, and regional survey methods is being held under the auspices of the Geographical Association on August 7- 21, with Llanberis as a centre. Particulars of the arrangements may be obtained by sending a stamped addressed envelope to Mr. H. Valentine Davis, ‘“ Noddfa,’’ Wistaston, Crewe. The course is primarily intended for teachers of geography in public and other secondary schools. , Lorp ERNLE presided at a meeting held last week at Chelsea House, Cadogan Square, to establish the | training of women as skilled scientific cultivators on a national basis. In recognition of the magnificent work achieved, especially during the war, by Swanley Horticultural College in increasing every class of home-grown foods, and also in food preservation, the Ministry of Agriculture proposes to allot a Treasury grant of 1o0,oool. for the re-equipment and further development of this unique training college, provided the public contributes an equal sum. Never has the national need for scientific food production on one hand, and for remunerative and healthy employment for educated women on the other, been greater. Swanley has full capacities for carrying out both these works of national importance once the ravages of five — years of war-shortages have been repaired, and the urgently. needed new laboratories, agriculture and horticulture is proved by the fact that the applications from employers for Swanley students rose from 130 in go14 to 648 in 1918. Prof. Keeble, of Oxford University, pointed out that the future cultivation of England would become more and. more intensive, and that this intensive cultivation is _ now of the greatest national value, significance, and economic. justification. Plans for the new science buildings at Swanley are now ready and the site is selected. 10,0001. required to secure the Treasury grant for this urgent work of national utility. The appeal recently issued is signed by Lord Ernle, late President of t _Board,of Agriculture and Fisheries ; Lord Lambourne, It only remains for the public to provide the lecture-rooms, library, and students’ hostels have been erected and equipped. The great demand for women workers in eee ee A hii cs bn ie th ate June 10, 1920] NATURE 473 esident of the Royal Horticultural Society; Prof. Bretland Farmer; Prof. Keeble; Lady Northcliffe; id Viscountess Falmouth, chairman of the governing ¥, Swanley College. Donations may be sent to srs. Child and Co., 1 Fleet Street, London, E.C.4. ousand pounds is needed at once, and 50,o000l. complete installation of the science depart- ‘and for the reconstruction of the college and of ntensive training grounds. __-~‘Societies and Academies. se Lonpon. Physical Society, May 14.—Sir W. H. Bragg, presi- nt, in the chair.—Dr. F. Lloyd Hopwood; Experi- nts on the thermionic properties of hot filaments. he experiments shown were some of those described * Dr. Hopwood in the Philosophical Magazine for March, 1915, p. 362, in which the glowing tilament of a carbon lamp and glowing filaments of nichrome and platinum in air are made to move under the Srought, of positively and negatively charged rods brought into or withdrawn from their vicinity, the character of the effects observed being such as to give a qualitative indication of the thermionic emission from the filaments. In addition, he showed a type of tilted electroscope in which the gold-leaf was re- _ placed by a narrow loop of Wollaston wire. When a _ current is passed through the wire so as to make it ae ata forms an electroscope of different sensitivity _ for +ve and —ve charges.—G. D. West: A modified _ theory of the Crookes radiometer. The paper gives a _ short account of a theory of the Crookes radiometer £ worked out by Sutherland in 1896, but, unfortunately, much neglected. The theory as it stands will not plain many radiometric phenomena, but it is shown at when modifications depending on the modern knowledge of thermal surface conditions are made, such explanations become possible. Radiometer * action, especially at the higher gas pressures, would _ appear to depend essentially on the formation of gas _ currents near the radiometer vane. These currents are distinct from convection currents, but are closely associated with the phenomena of thermal transpira- . iaaisk Campbell ; The magnetic properties of silicon iron (stalloy) in alternating magnetic fields of low value. Measurements are described of the hysteresis losses in silicon iron sheet and wires in very low alternating magnetic fields at low and_ telephonic frequencies, using an alternating-current method described in a former paver. The equations giving the hysteresis losses as a function of B,,... are deduced in the case of the sheet material at low frequencies for ranges of H,,,.. from 0-0002 to 0-02. Comparisons are _ made between sheet material and wires of different _ diameters, and curves are given showing the great improvement in the permeability of wires when thev are annealed. The behaviour of the material is studied, both by ballistic tests and at telephonic frequencies, as regards the alternating field when direct-current fields of various values are apvlied at the same time.— 7. Smith; Tracins rays through an optical system. _ Equations for tracing rays in an axial plane through an optical svstem have the normal refraction terms E : ie ee ae ee ee ee separated from those representing aberrations. By expressing the latter as a fraction with the first-order aberration as the numerator and a correcting factor, which may take various forms, as the denominator, _ fays may be traced exactly through the system, using a short table of cosines in terms of sines in place of the extensive tables, giving sines in terms of angles generally employed. A considerable saving of time is effected in the calculations, and the estimation, without _aleulation, of: the aberrations of other rays is facilitated. . NO. 2641, VOL. 105 | Geological Society, May 19.—Mr. R. D. Oldham, president, in the chair.—Dr. H. H. Thomas, with chemical analyses by E. G. Radley: Certain xenolithic Tertiary minor intrusions in the Island of Mull (Argyllshire). The. .paper deals with a series of minor intrusions, generally tholeiitic but occasionally composite in character, which are well represented in the western peninsula of, Mull, lying between Loch Scridain and Loch Buie, and are remarkable for the number and ‘mineralogical pecu- liarities of the xenoliths that they contain. Xenoliths of a highly siliceous nature (quartzites, sandstones, etc.) are met with, but more commonly the inclusions are of a type rich in alumina (shales and clays). Cognate xenoliths of noritic and gabbroic affinities occur in several of the intrusions, and these, together with the accidental siliceous xenoliths, are briefly described; but the communication deals more par- ticularly with the aluminous inclusions which are crowded together in. most of the intrusions, range up to several feet in diameter, and are characterised by well-crystallised minerals such as sapvhire, spinel, sillimanite, cordierite, and anorthite. These xenoliths offer the clearest evidence of the modification of a more or less pure aluminous sediment by permeation of magmatic matter, more particularly by the diffusion of lime, ferrous iron, and magnesia. It is held from the evidence afforded by the xenoliths that the meta- morphism is of a deenv-seated character, and has been effected by a tholeiitic magma on the walls of its basin, which were composed mainly of aluminous sedimentary rocks. CAMBRIDGE. Philosophical Society, May 3.—Sir Ernest Ruther- ford, vice-president, in the chair.—W. J. Harrison : Notes on the theory of vibrations. (1) Vibrations of finite amplitude. (2) A theorem due to Routh. Ray- leigh determined, in trigonometric form, the approxi- mate effect of small terms varying as the square and cube of the displacement in the equation of simple harmonic motion. In the former of these notes exact Fourier series are determined by the theory. of ellip- tic functions, and tables are computed. , The latter note relates to the theorem that an increase of inertia of any part of a vibrating system increases all the periods in such a way that the new periods are separated by the original periods. If the effect of the increased inertia be represented by an addition to the kinetic energy of the square of a linear function of the velocities, it is pointed out that the theorem does not hold unless this linear function involves all the velocities —W. Burnside: On _ cyclical octosection. The complete solution of the oroblem of cyclical quartisection was first given by V. A. Le Besgue in Comptes rendus, vol. li., 1860, without proof; he forms the quartic equation satisfied by the sum of 3(p-1) distinct primitive pth roots of unity, being a prime number of the form 4n+1. If p=L’+4M’, where L=1 (mod. 4), the equation involves p and L, being p—1 {y?+p[2(-1) * —1}}?=4h{y- Li’, where y is one more than four times the sum in ques- tion. The only proof as yet published appears un- necessarily long. The present paper deals with the case when *# is a prime of the form 8n+1; it forms and solves the equation satisfied by the sum of 3(p—1) distinct primitive # roots of unity, which is capable of eight values, by a method capable of extended ap- plication. Expressing p in both the forms a +b’, a?+2b", this equation involves ». a, and a’.—Dr. G. F. C. Searle : (1) A bifilar method of measuring the rigidity of wires. The uvper ends A, C of two equal 474 Wal ORE : [ JUNE 10, 1920 wires are attached to two torsion heads, and the lower ends B, D to a bar loaded with a considerable mass. When the wires are free from torsion, they are in a vertical plane. The distances AC=2a,, BD=2a,, are nearly equal. If the torsion heads are turned through » from: their zeros, the bar will turn through 6 in the same direction, until the bifilar couple balances the couple due to the torsion of the wires. Then sin @=C(@-6), where C is, for practical purposes, inde- pendent of @ and 6. By observing @ and 9, C is found. Then, if r is the mean radius of the wires and M the load supported by them, the rigidity, n, is given by F7AAs n=F N° MC. wrt A damping device is provided so that steady readings can be obtained in a room subject to vibration. Bends in the wires near the upper ends have the same effect as if the points A, C described small horizontal circles. Errors due to this cause are eliminated by a rough harmonic analysis. (2) An experiment on a piece of common string. When a mass M is suspended by a piece of common string from a fixed support, it be- gins, when set free, to rotate about the axis of the string. The string, therefore, exerts a couple, G, on the body, and the relation of this couple to M is studied in the experiment. body makes n revolutions in time t, the angular ac- celeration a, assumed constant, is given by jat?=27n. If K is the moment of inertia of the body, G=Ka. If the length of the string is of the orde1 cf 2 metres, the angular acceleration is approximately uniform for at least the first 10 or 20 revolutions. The load is supplied in the form of a number of equal inertia bars which can be threaded on a light rod carried by the string. Then K is practically proportional to M. It is found that the time for, say, 10 revolutions from rest is nearly constant. Hence G is nearly propor- tional to M. (3) Experiments with a plane diffraction grating, using convergent light. A lens forms a real image B of a vertical slit S illuminated by sodium light. A plane diffraction grating, with its rulings vertical, is placed between the lens and B, so that the vertical central plane of the beam, which cuts the grating in O, makes an angle 6 with the normal to the grating. and BO=u. If C is one of the ‘‘real’’ diffracted images of order p, and if CO or v makes an angle # with the normal, then msec’ Oe usee@ ogo. (1) If the grating interval is d, the wave-length is given by pr=d(sing—sin®@). .. .. . ..- (2) In the experiment the relation (1) is tested, and the wave-length is founé by (2). The images are received on a glass. scale moving along an optical bench, the length of the scale being horizontal and perpendicular to the bench.—Major P. A. MacMahon: Congruences with respect to com- posite moduli. This paper deals with the primitive roots of the binomial congruence the exponent of which is any divisor of the totient of a composite modulus. Numbers being divided into categories according to the number of their different prime divisors, tables of primitive roots are given for the cases of the second and third categories.—A. Kienast: Equivalence of different mean values. This is a continuation of a former paper bv the author, and deals with the equi- valence of conditions for the existence of the limit of the mean sum of a continually increasing number of terms.—Prof. H. F. Baker: Construction of the ninth intersection of two cubic curves passing through eight given coplanar points. Let A. B, C, M, N and P, QO, R be the given points; take T external to their plane; let TP, TO, TR meet a quadric containing NO. 2641, VOL. 105 | “Major T. Cherry; If, starting from rest, the - A, B, C and the lines TM, TN, in further points P’, QO’, R’; let the twisted cubic curve through T, A, P’, Q’, Rk’ which has BC for chord meet the quadric again i ‘i! in O’; then TO passes through the required ninth — point.—W. E. H. Berwick: Quintic transformations and singular invariants. This paver deals with the arithmetical solution of a certain sextic equation aris- ing in the theory of modular functions, thé co- efficients of which are functions of a certain algebraical number. The arithmetical character of the number of fields which arise igs determined in detail. MANCHESTER. Literary and Philosophical Society, May 4.—Mr. William Thomson, vice-president, in the chair.— The origin of agriculture. The annual flood-cycle of the Nile provided perfect condi- tions for the growth of cereals. Since none other of the great rivers on the banks of which civilisation first appeared afforded such natural possibilities for the growth of cereals, it was claimed that man must have learned in Egypt irrigation and the cultivation of cereals. The author, in discussing the origins of wheat and barley, claimed that the originals of our cultivated barley probably evolved in the Nile Valley, and those of our wheat on one of the islands of the fEgean Archipelago. Literary and Philosophical Society (Chemical Section), April 30.—Mr. J. H. Lester, chairman, in the chair.— Dr. J. A. R. Henderson: Alchemy and chemistry among the Chinese. The early obiects of the alchemists were discussed, and their discoveries in metallurgy, mineralogy, and botany detailed. The latter included the manufacture of vigments, lacquers, porcelain, paper, and the early discovery of the ex- plosive properties of gunvowder. ‘The exploitation of vast coal devosits and of iron and other metallic ores, and the production of oils and medicinal substances, are taking place. May 14.—Mr. J. H. Lester, chairman, in the chair. —Prof. F. L. Pyman: The relation between chemical constitution and physiological action. oes DvuBLIN. Royal Irish Academy, May 10.—The Most Rey. the Right Hon. J. H. Bernard, president, in the chair.— J. N. Halbert: Acarina of the Intertidal Zone. The various forms, several of which are new to science, | were studied in their relation to the well-known zones, or belts, of the orange lichen, Pelvelia, and Fucus usually present, where there is sufficient foot- hold for them, on the sea-shore. Excluding the families Halacarida and Hydrachnidz, the spécies are distributed in the four terrestrial families as follows : Gamaside 28, Oribatide 17, Tyroglyphidz 2, and Trombidiida 18.—Miss Jane Stephens: The fresh- water sponges of Ireland. The fresh-water sponges of Ireland number only five species. Their habitat, mode of growth, Among the points of interest are the following: It has been found that the sponges do not occur in — mountain streams, unless there is a lake, however small, in the course of the stream. and that, on the other hand, they occur most luxuriantly in a stream just below its exit from a lake. One svecies avoids the limestone areas. is illustrated by numerous drawings of spicules and bv mans showing the distribution of the species—T. A. Stephenson ; The genus Corallimorohus. bv Moseley in 1870, and later by Hertwig in 1882 and 1888. There are two specimens of C. rigidus in the collection of anemones made by the Fisheries Branch and distribution are discussed. © OR as PT Pee | Pam The variations of the com- moner species are traced at some length. ~The paper Corallimor-. vhus is a genus of deen-sea Actiniaria, first described | fice tala nee JUNE 10, 1920] NATURE 475 the Department of Agriculture and Technical In- tion for Ireland from 1899 to 1913. These speci- are described externally and anatomically in the +, and compared with the eight other specimens cribed by Moseley and Hertwig. The possibility of these specimens belonging to one species is sug- d and discussed, with the conclusion that it is te likely that the genus contains one variable cies only. On the other hand, further material is uired for a final decision, and if the three species, C. rigidus, profundus, and obtectus, should prove valid, the Irish specimens would probably require a fourth species. It is further pointed out that the thick and Heid b ly of the anemones in question seems to be correlated with deep-sea life, and that although the snus has sometimes been regarded as a primitive _ one, it has a number of characteristics which it would seem can be considered only as specialisations or _ advanced features. of oat Paris. __ Academy of Sciences, May 25.—M. Henri Deslandres in the chair.—E. Goursat: Some transformations of partial differential eauations of the second order.— G. Bigourdan: The instruments and work of the Sainte-Geneviéve Observatory. Historical account of the work of Pingré and of Lechevalier done between 1755 and 1836.—]. Bossert: Catalogue of the proper motion of 5671 stars, annotated and published by L. Schulhof.—J. Baillaud: The method of the scale of tints in photographic photometry.—C. Guichard : Con- -gruences belonging to a linear complex such that the lines of curvature correspond on the two focal sur- faces.—G. Julia: Families of functions of several variables.—M. Janet: Systems of partial differential eae and systems of algebraic forms.—G. Sagnac : he real relativity of the energy of the elements of radiation and the motion of waves in the wther.— F, Viés: Ultra-violet spectrophotometry of the nitro- phenols. Seventeen nitro-derivatives were examined and the spectra found to be, in general, constituted of three elements: a constant band, due to the NO, ; a band related to the presence of the benzene ring; and a third band the origin of which is doubt- ful—M. de Broglie: The fine structure of X-ray spectra. Details of a doublet given by rhodium... and ' comparison with the K spectrum of tungsten.—J. L. Pech: Phenomena of antagonism between various radiations (ultra-violet, visible spectrum. and_ infra- red).—L. Thielemans: Regulation of cables for the transport of electrical energy to long distances.— _P. Bunet: The transport of energy to great distances. Remarks on a recent commmnication by M. Brvlinski on the same subject.—M. Toporescu: The lime and magnesia carried down bv precipitates of ferric oxide. Varving weights of ferric oxide were precipitated in nesium salts, and the proportions of lime and mag- nesia carried down were determined. A second pre- cipitation of the ferric oxide is sufficient to remove ‘calcium salts, but this is not the case with magnesia. —L. Guillet and M. Gasnier: The nlatine with nickel of aluminium and its alloys.. The aluminium. or alloy is cleaned and roughened bv sand-blasting, and then takes a satisfactorv. deposit of nickel. The influence of the size of the sand grains and the time élapsed between the sand-hlasting and the dennsit have been examined, and results are given.—A. C, Vour- b BARes : A new series of complex combinations: the antimony oxviodides. The mercurv compound may be taken as a tvne of these substances; it has the com- ; pesition HgfShTO.).—R. Cornubert : The constitution of some dialkvicyclohexanones. ase Silny : _ THURSDAY, JUNE 17, 1920. Editorial and Publishing Offices: a ae MACMILLAN & CO., LTD., ___ ST. MARTIN’S STREET, LONDON, W.C.2. Advertisements and business letters should be addressed to the Publishers. Editorial communications to the Editor. PHUSIS, LONDON. GERRARD 8830. ; _ Telegraphic Address: Telephone Number : University Stipends and Pensions. JO one disputes that “there is no organised intellectual unit higher or more compre- Sidive than a University,” and few, on reflection, would differ from Sir John Seeley in affirming that the education in England is what the Universities choose to make it. Not only are the Universities and institutions of University rank the highest product of our educational system, but they also have the power of influencing the trend of thought and ideals in education to an incalculable degree. To a large extent, therefore, the advance to a higher plane of civilisation is dependent upon their free and untrammelled development. In pursuit of truth, whether in philosophy, or science, or technology, independent of. material considera- tions, they are pioneers of research, blazing the trail for industry, commerce, and those human efforts which add to the sum of life’s happiness. Anything which acts as an impediment or hind- Tance to this development cannot be viewed simply as an injury to the institutions themselves; it is an injury to the community, to the nation, and to civilisation. If this be true, one or two facts of capital importance require to be considered in the light of.a few principles. ‘ever, let us examine the broad relations of the State to the University. The State can no more dispense with the co- operation of the Universities than the Universities with the co-operation and assistance of the State. Their interests are mutual and their services re- ciprocal. The influence of the University ramifies through the whole of the administration of the country, its great Departments of State and its two legislative Houses, its local governing bodies and its courts of justice. Obviously the State cannot ‘afford to see the Universities or the University colleges wilt under economic pressure. Now this is precisely what will happen if it does not take a clearer. view of its responsibilities. and their NO. 2642, VOL. 105] For the moment, how- | NATURE — 477 teigical implications. The University grant, demonstrably insufficient in pre-war, times, is absurdly inadequate now. - Not merely have money values changed to an extraordinary extent, but the demands upon the Universities in regard to accommodation, equipment, and facilities for re- search have increased to an almost equal degree. If to these be added the necessary adjustments in salaries of the staffs, the inadequacy is still more apparent. The State will have to recognise these facts and, if for no other reason than that of enlight- ened self-interest, to assume heavier financial re- sponsibilities. As matters stand at present, those borne by the State are altogether dispropor- tionate to the services rendered by the Universities to the nation. In consequence, the statement is as true to-day as it was when made ten years ago that our newer Universities are “a composite figure in which progress and poverty are the pre- vailing hues.” But such increased financial re- sponsibility should not absolve the State from pre- serving in its traditional integrity that freedom which is the life-blood of an institution coeval in origin with Parliament itself. It is platitudinous to say that no one wishes to see the Universities, new or old, in any sort of intellectual subjection. Unfortunately, however, intellectual subjection is too often the outcome of material subjection. A wise State will show its wisdom in preserving in all its integrity that from which it derives, in- directly though it be, its vital energy, and through which it renews its spiritual life from generation to generation. On broad and general grounds we have argued that the State has responsibilities to the institu- tions of higher learning of which it cannot divest itself, and that these responsibilities are such as can be fulfilled only by ‘much more generous financial support than is given at present. It is necessary, therefore, to indicate how seriously these institutions are affected by the lack of this support. The. question of stipends and pensions alone will be considered. Too often a university is conceived in terms of stone and mortar; essen- tially, however, it is a corporation, a society of human beings, a body of teachers and students. To say that an efficient and highly qualified staff is fundamental is simply to express a truism. Such a staff is the product of many years of patient and unremitting study. If by any mis- chance or lack of vision the flow of able and gifted students to this higher teaching is checked, the loss will be irreparable. That such a result R ‘ ON 9 478 NATURE [Jone 17, 1920 is not a remote possibility is becoming sufficiently obvious to those who: are: watching the present trend of University affairs. A teacher does not enter on his career in the hope of amassing riches. With such an ambition the teaching profession is among the last to which he would resort. De- barred from the financial prizes possible to a busi- ness career, he has the right to expect emolu- ments which will enable him to live decently and to move in a social circle to which his education and training entitle him. This is especially true of the University teacher. Now, as a matter of fact, the stipends of Uni- versity teachers in this country at the present time, particularly, in the non-professorial staff, do not conform to, this standard, but fall miserably short of it. .A large proportion of assistant lecturers and demonstrators, full-time teachers, receive no more, and some much less, than 250l. a year-—a salary. or. wage which, under present conditions, _ would;;be accepted by. no self-respecting mason or miner. The grade of lecturer, comprising as it does-a'great number of men and women who can never ‘hope to attain professorial rank, however well. qualified for it by ability and experience, fares little better. The average salary of this: class ranks somewhere néar 4ool. a year, and one may take it that the pre-war value of this sum is approximately equal to 200l. a year. If the aver- ‘age rate of remuneration of such posts remains at these figures, it requires no gift of prophecy to predict that the flow of talent to the teaching staffs of the Universities and University colleges will inevitably be checked. The’ question of the remuneration of the non- professorial element is most important. The num- bers are great, the aggregate hardships intoler- able. But the stipends of professors as a whole also show little relation to the emoluments in corresponding, positions outside the University. A large;number of professors receive less than 8ool..a year, and considerably more than 80 per cent, less than the professorial salary indicated by the Association of University Teachers as a mini- mum—viz. 11ool, a year. . Obviously, again, the gift of prophecy need not be conjured up to pre- dict the result. Already the professorial ranks have been, and‘are being, depleted by the superior in- ducements offered in industrial, scientific, and com- mercial business organisations. It is futile to argue that public benefactions should make good these pressing needs. One cannot dragoon public benefactions. “NO. 2642, VOL. 105] ‘ Act, It is too much to expect the local authorities and the students to make good the deficiencies. Generally speaking, both conte reasonable proportions. affair, and the State must implement to the. full its responsibilities. The present position regarding superannuation: is very unsatisfactory. As a general principle, it may be laid down that anything which restricts. the field from which the University recruits its staff is inimical to University interests, and hence, in the long run, to education in general. Now the effect of the School Teachers (Superannuation) 1918, is to restrict this field. Any school teacher eligible for its benefits cannot accept an appointment in a University without sacrificing pension rights, in whole or in part. Thus it inter- poses a barrier—in some cases insurmountable— between the University on one hand, and the technical colleges, the training colleges outside the University, and the schools on the other. The free transfer of teachers to the University is ham- pered. Already cases are on record of candidates refusing University appointments on finding that acceptance would entail a loss of pension benefits ‘accruing from the Act. It would be most unfor- tunate if service in schools—a most useful experi- ence for a future University teacher—is to be a bar to later service in the University. Another effect of the Act is to draw an invidious distinction between existing University teachers and other teachers. pension benefits incomparably superior to any previous teachers’ scheme; while 5 per cent., the University teachers, are excluded, and excluded without any compensation. The position is illogical, unjustifiable, and detrimental to educa- tion. One or two illustrations will make this clear. In the University of London some schools of the University come within the provisions of the Act; the rest do not. Thus transfers from one school to another within the same University are made difficult or even impossible. The principal of the Government School of Art attached to a certain University college is said to be the only principal of such a school who is not qualified under the — Act—this solely because his school forms part of the University college. In other districts neigh- bouring institutions engaged in the training of teachers are distinguished from one another in the 3 matter of superannuation, because one forms a — department of a University and the other does not. This is in spite of the fact that the two institutions are doing the same ‘kind of work, for — the same purpose, under the same authority (the — The matter is a State Ninety-five per cent. of the © whole teaching profession are now eligible” for Se as resp would be highly diverting were their conse- es not so serious. ‘his anomalous state of affairs has provoked ch criticism in University circles. What com- ates matters is the fact that there exists a con- tory pension scheme in the Universities—the ted superannuation scheme—which is ght by some to be superior to the Teachers Act in certain respects, such as in cases of death during service and of retirement before the age of 15 m. per sec.) at which, accordirig. to Wenger,, the influence of wind velocity begins to increase turbulence, so that a notable increase in the rate of ascent is to be expected. Moreover, insolation is. strongest between g a.m. and noon; afterwards, clouds mostly weaken, it or prevent further increase. .On the other hand, the rate of. ascent at Batavia between noon and 3 p.m. con- siderably exceeds that between 9 a.m. and noon. Thus an explanation of the observed rates by Wenger’s ‘theory practically fails; on the contrary, the supposition of vertical air movement is tenable. For some years I supposed that the air had to rise in columns, and, the surrounding air being sucked in, the balloon..in most cases would also be sucked in, and afterwards would not leave the ascending air- columns.: Later I read that J. S. Dines. was inclined to this conception. The criticism of this view offered by Wenger’ must be accepted; but why should not both causes co-operate in the lowest strata ? Indeed, I have found that my results and those of Wenger coincide regarding the change of rate of ascent when, passing upwards, gag velocity varies. Denoting this change by 10? 2 _ ” (v=wind velocity in m. pér sec., and z=height in m.), I found: Batavia. Thousand Islands. 12” 4 Rateof No. of ; roe” 4 Rateof No. of - az. -ascent cases az ascent cases , m. p. sec m. p. sec 12 Or 22 o'7 LT3 28 -I'! —1'0 42 | -0'%4 oh Oe —2'2 -0°6 20 As these values show, the change of rate with wind velocity is not developed strongly, the percentage of cases in which dv/dz and A rate were of the same sign being respectively for Batavia and the Thousand Islands 63 and 68 only. Finally, we are obliged to accept the view that in the sea-breeze the air must rise as the breeze dies out at a moderate distance from the coast. Also, the air seems to rise no higher than. the sea-breeze itself, the rate of, rise, diminishing with its horizontal velocity. Moreover, I think the material collected on and near Java: is "not: favourable to the idea of such a pre- ponderating: influence of turbulence as Wenger accepts ; on the contrary, it corroborates the assumption of ascending” columns. - The formation of the finecwenthier cumuli, to be observed’ évery sunny’ day in the tropics, is clear evidence of the. general occurrence of these ascending air columns. 'W: VAN’ BEMMELEN. A On boi Pit 1 jisondari, Pacific. A New Method for Aneeosdaiite ‘Evaluation of Definite . Integrals between Finite Limits. 5 GAves:! “I “believe, between finite limits.. His formule are all based, like Tehebycheff’s rules,, on the assumption: that . the integrand’ iis “expressible approximately .by a finite number of terms of the series a+ bx+cx%+-dx® + His plan was to -use.a minimpm, number of Siably NO. 2642, VOL. 105 | gave ‘avery large number. of térriis for’ approximate evaluation: Of definite integrals . weighted ordinates to give him the exact value of the . integral for a specified number of terms. Taking the range of integration to be from —1 to +1, which can be done without any loss of coneralligg his ’ simplest iit is [- ferae=f- 2) fei where © 41 = VF This formula. with two ordinates gives exact values for [s (a+bx+cx*?+dx)\dx, and is in that redblact on a par with Sivnpaone formula, which has three ordinates weighted in’ the proportions 1, 4, 1, and situated at the ends and middle of the’ range.» — ; The next Gauss formula’ is ie eo | [Upeae= Vel — 2) +8/(0)+ sad), =4+/3. es e This is exact up to. aa including the term. in ee in the series: Put in the same form as Mr. Merchant’ s formula (which is also exact up to the x* term) in NaTturE of June 3, it becomes +a ['Aadae=ielsflo)+ 8/0) + 51ep where where 4, =0'1127, The third formula is +1 I : [opear= cael =) + By) + Byla) +ArC) | where S 5 A =}- he east Hy VP ae = Transferred ‘ the other form, Rs ees : is f | ; K2)dx =0°17397(%) +0°3261f(4y) +0" 32617(%5) +0°17397( +4) Xp=0'S, 43 0°8873 . where %1=0°0694, %2=0°3300, 73=0°6700, 174=0'9306. This formula is exact up to and including the term in x’. ; It may be noticed that although the weight factors _ are now incommensurate, they can be. written ig a very close degree of approximation as x and }%, and the integral then takes. the form [perder eel8/een) + 15/l) + 15fa) + 8a) Possibly Mr. Merchant might find that this form would be useful in ship design. The positions of the ordinates is not sufficiently close to even tenths to permit of such further modifications being made, but if the ship’s half:length ' were -divided’ into fifteen sections, the ordinates would come: very near the’ first, fifth, ‘tenth, and ‘fourteenth. “Some of ‘the higher Gauss integrals might be: found! to’ -fit in even more conveniently. * : - Twos. Y. BAKER. : ; . Admiralty Compass Observatory, tr Bucks, June. To.” - The ‘Royal Military. Academy. SIR GEORGE GREENHILL in an article in ‘NATURE ‘of April 29, entitled, “* Artillery Science,’’ passes severe strictures on’ theRoyal Military » "Academy—‘*The Shop.” ‘ These ‘réflect ‘on ‘the whole staff, especially the military Staff, and as the ‘officers are not Pieter aA te 24LA i ka a wey Salle oasis es Se tie 2, Raa ind fCY _ mission as a civilian to sa _ War is the best test. o _teries or field companies. _ were also given to an equal number of officers, n.c.o.’s, the same was reported ‘in. other subjects. ‘no reason to believe that the German schools were any better. wn - responsible for mathematics and science. JUNE 17, 1920 | NATURE 484 to defend themselves in public journals, I ask per- a few words in defence. a military establishment. During the war the R.M.A,. worked continuously, and turned out more than two thousand young officers who were able to proceed, either direct or after a short additional course, straight to the battlefields and take their full share of. the work with their bat- Courses in field telephony and men of the new armies at a critical period when there were few instructors elsewhere. There were many other activities. Owing to the seclusion in which the Academy works, there were few except those immediately connected with it who had any idea of the great amount of work actually done. Science was encouraged by all three of the Com- mandants during this period, and dealt with all mili- tary applications up to date. The teaching of wireless was commenced in the R.M.A. eighteen years ago, and that it was not used at a much earlier period of the war was certainly no fault of the R.M.A. During the war an opportunity. was given for the study in detail of the course given to French artillery officers. In science there was nothing to be learnt from it, and There is The R.M.A. has been submitted to inquiry from - outside three times in the past twenty years: First, by Lord Esher’s Committee shortly after the Boer War; next, in 1911, an inspection by specialists from the Board of Education; and thirdly, an inspection by the Board of Education in February last. The first ‘two reports were entirely favourable, and no doubt can still be obtained. The latest, which is not vet permitted to be published, gives a fair picture of the place and its work. It also contains criticisms and ~ recommendations which, if adopted by the War Office, would improve the establishment, and consequently the Army. I understood from the inspectors that they had come to the same conclusion as those on a former oceasion, viz. ‘‘ The Academy is very efficient.” The academy is not perfect, but its improvement, not its abolition, is what is desirable. Merely to move it to a new situation while retaining the old system would do ng good; and to amalgamate it with Sand- hurst would, in my opinion, in these specialising days, be a mistake. : : Improvements must commence at Whitehall, for it - is at the War Office that all decisions as to courses of study, staffs, etc., are made. Scientific advisers from the learned societies would help, for it is scarcely to be expected that the officers there can be in touch with scientific progress. There are still some who do not yet believe in the importance of science, and are under the impression that any R.E. officer can teach all that is necessary. 5 “The half-dozen civilians mentioned in the article are They must now be almost alone amongst those engaged in educa- tion in the public service in having no_ security of tenure and no retiring allowance. Their numbers, now reduced below pre-war level, might be increased with advantage, but I understand that it has been decided to dispense with civilians in science altogether in a year or so, and no doubt the mathematical staff will follow. Their places will be filled by officers. I think that most of those who have an intimate know- ledge of these subjects will agree that this is a retro- grade step. Mathematics and. science should have adequate civilian staffs of properly trained ‘men. Appointments should be permanent and emoluments correspond. to those of the military staff, with retiring allowances on NO. 2642, VOL. 105 | the Civil Service scale. Members of the civilian staff could then, without anxiety, devote themselves to the work, which necessarily takes a different direction from that at a civil institution, and even the best civilians require a considerable time before becoming familiar with military requirements and _ military apparatus. Accommodation for research by the staff should be provided. _ Officer instructors, in science at least, should be students as much as instructors, so that at the end of their appointments they would rejoin’ the Army reasonably up-to-date in their subjects. Cadets with a special bent should be given opportunities so far as possible to do extra work, to assist’ themy in deciding on their future course.and to prepare them for it. The present two years’ course is too short to do much in any direction, as it has to be. divided between many subjects.. An increase of length would be an advantage. The R.M.A. is a cadet school, and aims at producing the useful regimental officer, but it cannot «produce experts. For the artillery there should be:a: further selection of young officers, who should: receive: addi- tional training at the Ordnance College, which should be, a genuine artillery university, and not merely:a training place for officers desirous of semi-civil appoint- ments. -It should be the function of this, establish- ment to turn out the artillery. expert, and..if,it, were not done the blame would lie there: .The R-E.-would probably require a similar establishment or an. ¢xten- sion of the ‘tSchool of Military Engineering.’ . Co- operation between the various military schools is advis- able, but, above all, there should be some system ‘established for the regular distribution of information on military matters amongst the departments con- cerned. At present it is exceedingly difficult for those engaged in one department or school to find out what is happening elsewhere. ; The equalisation of pay will now enable cadets to make a free choice between the R.A. and the R.E., but those scientifically inclined will still probably - choose the latter. I do not believe much is to be gained by imitating foreign institutions. In the four years and a half of the war we succeeded in overtaking the German in every direction. in spite of his long preparation. Our aim now should be to avoid retrogression: for that is our chief danger. J. Youne. : Science Department, Royal Military Academy, Woolwich, S.E.18, June 3. The Separation of the Isotopes of Chlorine. On certain plausible assumptions concerning the nature of chemical equilibria and the properties of isotopes, it should be possible to separate the oa se varieties of an element like chlorine by means of a reversible chemical change in the gaseous state, pro- vided that the number of atoms of chlorine in the reacting compound is unequal to the number of atoms in the resulting compound. Thus, for the sake of argument, assume that chlorine contains two isotopes the atoms of which can be represented by Cl and Cl’, then there would be -three classes of molecules, nantely, Cl,, ° €1,/,; and CICY, of which the corresponding liquids and solids would have the very nearly same vapour pressure at the same temperature. . Accordingly, if it may be ‘assumed that 2.mols. of CIC!’ can be converted into 1 mol. of Cl,, and 1 mol. of Cl,’ in the liquid forms at the same temperature. without the expendi- ture of work, (CLYCJ=(CICrPR, . -.. +. Ge) 488 “NATURE \ [JUNE 17, 1920 where the square, bracket has the usual, significance | of. concentration. *. “Now, in Deacon’s process, which is represented, by | the chemical equation 4HCl1+0,=2H,0+2Cl.,, we should have (ii) be ROT sa TCH.) Taking [act as 3, [cl] temperature and concentration of the oxygen are selected so that the concentration of the chlorine is small at equilibrium. But the ratio of the atoms of the two varieties. of chlorine is given by : [ch] +3{CICr)] - [Cly]+3{C1Cl') ., 105 and this, by equations (i.) and (ii.), is equal to oa is 9, provided that the which differs appreciably from 3. plate Deacon’s process is selected merely. for-the purpose of illustration.: ; : ; If the isotopic varieties of chlorine are inseparable by the method above indicated, itis clear that [Cl] +3[CICI']_ [HCI] _ [Cl] - [Cly}+3fC1c!'] [HC] (Cl; “ACKMCWB=[Cler]. 2. Gv.) Now consider two. solids composed entirely of Cl, and Cl,’ molecules respectively. The vapour pressures of the two solids will. be very- nearly (if not exactly) the same—say p—at the same temperature-t, . Evaporate a gram-molecule of both the solids. Reduce the pressure of the Cl, isotope to p,, and that of the Cl,’ isotope to p,, and then introduce both unsaturated. vapours: into a van’t- Hoff’s equilibrium .box. The total work done in these operation is (iii.) whence he _ .Relog, 22. Gutar ts | Now remove 2 grani-molecules' of the CICI’ variety (which from equation (iv.) will- obviously be at the pressure 2/p,p.) from the equilibrium box. Increase the pressure to p, and finally condense at this pressure to the solid form. The work done during this series of operations will be RZ loge APs Therefore the total work performed -in effecting the change represented by the equation. Cl, (solid) + Cl,’ (solid) =2CICl (solid) is Rtlogg=A. 2 Poa ry - But it is difficult to understand how the free energy A could differ appreciably from zero if the molecular heats of.the three varieties of cHlorine are nearly the same-as. they are generally supposed to be—and if the ‘entropy of the reactants Cl, and Cl,’ is equal to that of the resultant 2CICl’ at the absolute zero tem- perature, as Nernst postulates in his heat theorem. An. attempt is being made in the Jesus College Laboratory to separate the isotopes of chlorine by a method‘similar to that given“above, A negative result would be’ difficult to: reconcile with Nernst’s theorem that Sins ‘at ‘the absolute zero: ° Pen Fis. Os CHapMaNn. ~ Jesus College, Oxford. NO. 2642, VOL. 105 | A Note on Telephotography. Havinc examined a number of. formule ; circle of illumination in telephotography, and found them all to be inapplicable in certain cases, J propose the following, which seem reasonable and are applicable in all cases. These formule are par- is at present developing. Let C,=Full circle of illumination. C, =Circle of equal me Cy = Mean circle of rs M = Magnification. J; =Focus of positive lens. = YS, negative ,, -6 =Diameter of positive lens. c= * negative ,, Then A ; : aes (08 _M*fc+fe) — Mie @)- Mf{-A)t+h - c, = Mc +M fo (2) MA —S2) +S Barer oe M*fe nga C= Petit sb bist 76S . . ee a "MC AltA m is also the accurate value for the circle when the aper- ture (b) of the positive lens is small. employed. The second (2) gives the circle that is equally illuminated. If it is possible to make the aperture (b) of the. positive lens equal to the dia- meter (c) of the negative lens, this formula becomes the simplest. das’ ieee! : C. = Met I have received an opinion on ‘the above from a of the opinion that it is necessary to add that certain assumptions have been made in deciding these for- mulz. These assumptions are (a) that the lenses are definite quantities. _(a) Photographic positive lenses are usually not thin. Negative telephoto lenses, except some’ high- power lenses, are always thin. With a thick lens the “equivalent planes’? for the two sides (the ‘‘ object measurements in the above formule are made from negative lens, no confusion can arise between the equivalent planes. f (8) The aberrations of a photographic lens are negligible. ES yi beaonae ayy (y) The positions. of the equivalent planes of the negative lens move over a small space with a change of: magnification. ‘This quantity is negligible in deciding the circle of illumination, which does not need to be known exactly. . a The position of the equivalent plane of the whole veries ‘ereatly with a change of distance of object. This can be completely corrected bv substituting the “back conjugate focus” of the positive lens for the distance, in place of the ‘‘ principal ’’ focus (f,) in the above formule. In telephotography. the object is usually ‘tat infinity,” and this correction. is not necessary... Oh EONS Toei rt, ASATROS 9 USE alien . In a short: note it is not possible to do more than indicate the conditions in which these formulz. may | be used. Consult Lan-Davis on ‘ Telephotography ’’ and Beck. and. Andrews’s ‘*A Simple Treatise on hy | Photographic Lenses”? (Appendix) for “equivalent planes.” Spe ee Be os = iu Lh ce iS 2 A, Bi a. e i oe é fei the : ticularly vital,in the line along which telephotography 4 The last formula (3) is not only the simplest, but it It is the mean between the’ full (1) circle and the evenly illuminated - (2) circle. The first (1) is the most usually used. It — gives the diagonal of the largest plate that can be distinguished authority upon geometric optics. He is thin, (8) that the aberrations may be neglected, and — (y) that the focal lengths of both lenses, f, and f,, are space’’.and the ‘‘image space ’’) are different. As all — the back of the positive lens and the front of the JUNE 17,1920] NATURE 489 Recent Researches on Nebulz.! By Major Wixt1am J. S. Lockyer. ° Sees latest volume (No. xiii.) in the series of Publications of the Lick’ Observatory, situ- ated on Mount Hamilton, California, is completely devoted to a series of well-laid-out investigations of the study of the forms, distribution, velocities, and spectra of the nebula. The volume is one of extreme interest and importance, and will become a Classic for a considerable time on those interest- ing objects scattered throughout the heavens. In these days, when the study of the evolution of the stars is occupying a position in the front rank, the more detailed information of the nebulae, their composition, structure, and movements, is of fundamental importance, for these bodies are criteria in the evolutionary stages of stars. Considerations of space will not permit here more than an outline of the contents of this sub- stantial volume, which includes six separate con- tributions, each devoted to a special research, and a large number of beautifully reproduced plates. Part i. is contributed by Mr. H. D. Curtis (pp. 11-42), and deals with the descriptions of 762 nebule and clusters photographed with the Crossley reflector. It comprises all photographs of these objects which have been taken with this instrument since the year 1898, when systematic work was commenced, forming, therefore, a valuable homogeneous research. It is interesting to note the types of the 762 entries, which Mr. Curtis divides as follows: 513 spiral, 56 diffuse, 36 globular, 24 sparse, 78 planetary, 8 dark, and 47 unclassified. Mr. Curtis is led to believe that all the many thou- sands of nebulz not definitely to be classed as diffuse or planetary are true spirals, and that “the very minute spiral nebulze appear as textureless discs or ovals solely because of their size.” In estimating the probable total number of the spiral nebula, Mr. Curtis concludes that at least 700,000, and very probably 1,000,000, small spirals are within the reach of large reflecting telescopes. A chart showing the distribution of regions on which small nebule were counted indicates also the position of the galactic plane, and the paper concludes with reproductions of a few typical nebulz. The second part. by the same author, is devoted to a study of occulting matter in the spiral nebule (pp. 45-54), and its object is to show that the occurrence of such dark bands running down the length of spiral nebule seen edgewise is a rela- tively common feature. While a description of these appearances is not necessarily satisfactory to those who have not had occasion to observe them or to see the original photographs, Mr. Curtis includes seventy-seven reproductions, By the kindness of Prof. W. W. Campbell, repro- 1 University of California Publications, Publications of the Lick Ob- servatory. Vol. xiii. Pp. 268+50 plates. (Berkeley: University of Cali- fornia Press, 1918.) NO. 2642, VOL. 105 | ductions of some of these spirals are here given (Figs. 1, 2, and 3). References are made to other evidences of occulting matter in the sky, such as the cutting off in the number of stars round a nebula, “coal sacks’’ or starless regions, dark nebule, etc. (see Fig. 4). The fact that many spectroscopic binaries indicate a constant radial velocity for the H and K lines, different from the periodic shift of the other lines in the spectrum, suggests, according to the author, the interposition between us and the binary of a cloud of non-luminous matter, though, as he says, there are some difficulties in this hypo- thesis. The subject of the peculiar grouping of the N.G.C, 7814 4565 5866 4594 5746 Fic. 1.— Spiral nebulz seen almost exactly edgewise and show- ing indubitable evidence of dark lanes. (H.D. Curtis.) spiral nebule about the galactic poles is also mentioned. Part iii. is entitled “The Planetary Nebule,” and in it Mr. Curtis brings together the results of a research on a series of photographs of all the planetary nebule north of 34° S. declination. Seventy-eight of these objects are dealt with, and they are all reproduced either by photographs or by drawings (with scale). Drawings were resorted to only when the objects were so small that they could not be reproduced by the process of photo-engraving, or when great differences. in brightness. between the central and_ the faint outlying portions were encountered, which 490 NATURE [JUNE 17, 1920 prevented an adequate representation of all the details of the nebula (Fig. 5). This col- lection of illustrations, showing the forms assumed by the planetary nebule, will throw considerable light upon the structure and _life- history of these bodies. An important addition to the illustrations is that the exposure for record- ing a selected portion of the Orion nebula has been used as a standard, and the time necessary for recording the brightest portion of a planetary nebula is given in relation to that standard. Thus 4282 678 169 3556 4631 3623 2683 Fic. 2.—Spiral nebulz seen almost, but not exactly, edgewise, and some the planes of which make a small but appreciable angle with .the line of ‘sight,’ showing clear evidence of dark lanes. (H. D. Curtis.) an approximation to the relative brightness of the planetary nebulz is secured. With regard to the distribution of these nebulez in space, an interesting diagram of which is given, Mr. Curtis finds that the smallest objects are almost invariably in, or very close to, the Milky Way, while the larger planetaries, “the giants of the class,’’ somewhat more frequent in the vicinity of the galactic plane, are, “‘on the whole, fairly uniformly distributed over the entire sky.” NO. 2642, VOL. 105 | It is concluded, therefore, that these giants may be in-the Galaxy, but the nearest to us, and, therefore, would only appear outside, and he suggests their inclusion in parallax programmes, as many of them have central stars sufficiently bright for that purpose. Further reference cannot be made here to this interesting paper except to add that the author classifies the planetary nebulz according to their appearances, and then: discusses these forms in relation to homogeneous oblate spheroidal or N.G.C. 4826 7537. 5°35 2903 4212 3389 » Fic. 3.—Spiral nebula making a much greater angle with the : line of sight, showing clear-cut dark lanes (2903, 4212), anda lane absolutely black and. cutting’ across. a’ whorl at the ' right end (4826). (H..D. Curtis.) homogeneous truncated spheroidal shells. under various conditions. Prof. W. W. Campbell and Mr. J. H. Moore are the authors of part iv., which is devoted to the spectrographic velocities of the bright-line nebule (pp. 77-183). The observations are a combination of those made with the 36-in.. JUNE 17, 1920] NATURE 491 refractor at Mount Hamilton and with the 37-in. Mills reflector at Santiago, Chile, and they were commenced in the year 1913. The list includes 138 Fic. 4.—A “‘dark nebula” (17h. 57m., — 27°50’) visible through its projection upon the background of stars, and not considered to be “‘a hole” in the Milky Way. the circular protuberance at the south-west corner, as clear-cut as an ink-drop and perfectly dark. (H. D. Curtis.) nebulz with bright lines in their spectra. In the earlier part details are given with respect to the spectroscopes employed, the probable errors of the results, and a description of the observations made at the two stations. The detailed results of. each object are. then given in the order of right ascension. Attention may be directed to the fact that the lengths of the slits of the’spectroscopes employed were in most cases more than sufficient to cover the width of the images of the objects photographed, so that the spectra of the central and outlying por- tions of the nebule should both be recorded. In a further table the final deduced radial veloci- ties of each object observed are given. The observations recordéd are evidence of most extensive and arduous work, and the numerous observations of each object considerably emphasise Fic. 5.—On the left a photograph of N.G.C. 2392, a double-ring planetary nebula; and on the right a composite drawing of the same made from several photographs to show details of the structure not attainable from any single photograph. (H. D. Curtis.) this fact. The accompanying illustration (Fig. 6) shows a photograph of the chief nebular line in N.G.C. 2392, and exhibits the kind of structure NO. 2642, VOL. 105 | | displayed from which the internal motion of nebula was deduced. The average magnitudes of the derived values for the velocities are as follows: Calling the nebulz less than 5 secs. in diameter “stellar,” and those greater than 5 secs. “non-stellar,” the mean velocity for thirty-one “stellar” nebule is 28 km. per sec., and for sixty-five non-stellar nebule 31 km. per sec. with reference to the stellar system. For evidence of rotation or internal motion in the planetary nebule, the lines in the spectra of forty-six such objects have been examined in detail and are here discussed. Of these, twenty-five gave evidence of internal effects, while nine- teen, and possibly two more, indicated rotations about axes roughly perpen- dicular to the line of sight. It is worthy of note that the most elongated plane- tary nebule showed the highest rota- tional speeds. The study of the radial velocities of numerous parts of the Orion nebula shows a range in_ velocities from +97 km. to +249 km., and, as the authors state, the results do not favour the hypothesis of a rotation as a whole, but the observed differences appear to be local or regional in character. Mr. R. E. Wilson contributes part v. of this volume (pp. 187-90), which deals with the radial the ’ Note velocity of the greater Magellanic cloud. In 1914 it was pointed out that several gaseous nebulz in this region exhibited very large and approximately equal radial velo- cities, so Mr. Wilson presents the results of his study of the cloud as a whole. The author upholds this view after his survey, for he finds that, observ- ing seventeen planet- ary nebule in this region, the radial velocities lie between 251 km. and Papo km... an aver Pe, os eG sae the age of + 279 km. slit of the spectroscope was placed along the major axis of the nebula. 7 (W. W. Campbell and J. H. Moore.) for solar motion, the mean velocity is +261 km. per sec. This average, compared with the mean velocity deduced in part iv. for other planetary nebule, points to Correcting this mean 492 NATURE [JUNE 17, 1920 exceptional conditions in this region. refers to the spiral appearance of this great cloud and to the high velocities observed in spiral nebulz, nebulae which may be considered as isolated island universes similar to our Milky Way system, suggesting that the great cloud may afford an opportunity for the study of detailed characteristics of spiral nebule. Part vi., the last of the series of the important contents of this volume, is contributed by Mr. W. H. Wright, and deals with the subject of the wave-lengths of the nebular lines and general observations of the spectra of the gaseous nebulze (pp. 193-268). The matter falls under three head- ings: (1) The measurement of wave-lengths and the intensities of the nebular lines; (2) the study of the nebular nuclei; and (3) the investigation of the distribution of nebular radiations throughout the nebulze; and is accompanied by a series of plates, which demonstrate, more than text can do, the fine definition and great scale of the photo- graphs of the spectra of the nebule which served as his data. Fig. 7 is an illustration of the 3859 3426 3727 Mr. Wilson | career increasing in temperature, reaching a maxi- mum of development and temperature, and after- wards cooling until the invisible stage is reached. In the light of these hypotheses Mr. Wright, as the result of his research, expresses his view as follows :— There are at present two general conception$ as to the nature of stellar evolution, one of which assumes a falling temperature throughout the period of a star’s development, while the other predicates a rise to maximum and a subsequent decline; both of these views assume the nebula as the primordial state: As ‘between these two hypotheses, the present observa- tions undoubtedly favour the first, since they add to the proof that the gaseous nebulz are associated only with the hot stars. While the above is one of the main conclusions derived by Mr. Wright from this research, there are many other points of particular interest to which limitations of space forbid reference in this article. me: It is interesting to compare a direct photo- graph of a nebula with its.spectrum taken with a slitless spectrograph. | Nebule when photo- Hy 4686 Ni—2 Fic. 7.—The spectrum of N.G.C. 6818, which records images of a variety of shapes and sizes, most of them having the appearance of a horse-shoe, the open end of the shoe lying to the north. Some of the images show mottlings or condensations scattered along the shoe or ring. (W. H. Wright.) spectrum of N.G.C; 6818, taken with the slitless spectrograph with an exposure of four hours. It does not seem that the statement could be con- tradicted that the wave-lengths and intensities of the nebular lines’ deduced will be used as a standard in this branch of physical astronomy for some time. . This research is very opportune, because more detailed facts were required to help in the unravel- ling of the relationships between nebulz as such, nuclei of nebule, and bright-line stars such as Wolf-Rayet stars. As the whole problem of the nature of stellar evolution is that of the solution of the relationship between nebulz and stars, the study of the question is of vital importance. The idea of a falling temperature continuing through- out the whole life-history of a star has more recently given place to the hypothesis, appar- ently a very natural one, of a star in its early graphed with the latter instrument present remarkable varieties of form and size corre- sponding to different nebular lines in the spectrum, while the direct photograph shows only a form resulting from the integration or the fitting together of the component images of the different forms and sizes. The prismatic images afford a means, therefore, of detecting the differences in distribution of the component gases of the nebula, and indicate that the view of a nebula in a tele- scope or on a direct photograph is not the best means of studying the complex structure of these bodies. In conclusion, it may be stated that this addi- tion to the University of California Publications is a valuable contribution, and sustains the high standard of the researches which emanate from the Lick Observatory under the able directorship of | Prof. W. W.-Campbell. : The Importance of Meteorology in Gunnery. By Dr. E. M. T the commencement of the war the know- ledge of the effect of wind and of the density of the air on the flight of a shell was elementary. It was assumed by the gunners that the wind was of the same direction and strength at all heights reached by the projectile, and that NO. 2642, VOL. 105 | WEDDERBURN. the density of the air decreased with altitude according to an artificial convention. rections for wind and density which the gunner _ was taught to apply were supposed to be refer- able to the meteorological conditions observed by him at the battery, but he was not taught how eee ee The cor- — a ae ee June 17, 1920] NATURE 493 _ these conditions should be observed, nor that the observation of surface air temperature was an _ exceedingly difficult matter. _ When an Army Meteorological Service was established in 1915 it was a small unit which had to justify its existence, and in the course of ex- _ ploring fields of usefulness it found the artillery _ ready and anxious for improved meteorological _ information. The shell from a high-velocity gun _ may rise to a height of 20,000 ft. or more, and "surface conditions may be a very misleading | guide. But to ask the gunner to use detailed observations of wind and of atmospheric pressure and temperature at different heights up to 20,000 ft. under active service conditions, and without previous training, was useless. The meteorologist, having found a sphere of useful- ness, had to put his information in a form in which it could be used with the existing artil- lery organisation. It is already suggested in some quarters that the meteorological service adequately met the artillery’s requirements during the war without any peace-time organisation, and that therefore it is unnecessary now to keep any close liaison between the gunner and the meteorologist. _ In the writer’s view this is a great mistake. The meteorological service was able to help the gunner _ by doing work which the gunner could have done if he had received the proper training, and it is necessary that he should do this work for himself in order to make the best use for his particular gun of data supplied to him by the : meteorologist. _ The artillery organisation for meteorological corrections consisted in the supply to gunners of tables of variations in line and range produced by winds constant in velocity and direction at all heights and of variations in range produced by changes in surface temperature and pressure, based on the assumption that the ratio between the actual air density and that assumed in the construction of the range table was the same at all heights. It was a fairly obvious first step to suggest that the gunner should be supplied with a fictitious wind such that, when used with the usual table of variations, the proper correction was applied for the cumulative effect on the pro- _ jectile before reaching the target of a wind vary- ing with height. Such a wind came to be called the equivalent constant wind, or the ballistic wind, and methods of estimating it were investi- gated simultaneously by the Meteorological ion, R.E., and the Anti-Aircraft Experimental Section (A.A.E.S.) of the Munitions Inventions Department (M.I.D.). At first the investigations were entirely independent and from different points of view, but later they were continued in close co- operation under the sympathetic guidance of the Ordnance Committee. An initial difficulty of great importance was that the ballistic wind is not the same for any two trajectories, even for the same wind distribution. But, fortunately, the height to which a projectile rises when fired on the flat is nearly the same for NO. 2642, VOL. 105] all projectiles which have the same time of flight, and also the length of time which such projectiles spend in any particular stratum of the atmosphere is nearly the same. Thus, though the range of a high-velocity gun may be double that of a howitzer for the same time of flight, yet the pro- jectiles in each case rise to nearly the same height, and are affected by the same winds for nearly the same length of time. To a first approximation, therefore, the ballistic wind is the same for every projectile having the same time of flight, and if a selection of such winds for different times of flight is given to the gunner, he can choose the one most nearly suited to the conditions under which a shoot is taking place. As a first approximation, in the calculation of the ballistic wind it was assumed that the atmo- sphere was stratified into several layers, and that in each layer the wind was constant in velocity and direction, though varying from layer to layer. It was further assumed that the effect of the wind in any layer on a projectile was proportional to the time spent by the projectile in that layer and to the density of the air. “ Weighting factors” for the portion of the total displacement of the projectile caused by unit wind in any layer were thus determined. Subsequent mathematical analysis showed that the ‘weighting factors” varied materially for each different trajectory, and also differed for winds across and along the line of fire. Considerable refinements were introduced for the analysis of experimental shoots on which the construction of range tables was based. The researches of the A.A.E.S., M.I.D., though prin- cipally directed towards anti-aircraft gunnery, in- cluded careful and detailed discussions of varia- tions in the trajectory of a shell produced by vary- ing wind and density, and made the careful analysis of such experimental shoots possible. For a considerable period, however, the facilities afforded by the field meteorological service in the different theatres of war made possible much greater accuracy of correction than had been aimed at in the experimental shoots from which range tables were compiled. Ultimately average weighting factors, deduced from _ theoretical factors computed in a large number of cases, were adopted for different times of flight, and the method of constructing the ballistic wind for use in the field became standardised. The second step was the introduction of the idea of ballistic density—a fictitious density such that when used with the usual tables of variations the proper correction is applied for the effect of an abnormal vertical distribution of density. For- tunately, the pressure and temperature which practically determine the air’s density may be considered separately. If it is assumed that the vertical temperature distribution is known and remains unchanged while changes in pressure are registered at the surface of the earth, it is easily shown that there are proportional changes in pressure, and therefore in density, at all heights. Thus the surface barometer reading affords a real, 494 NATURE [JUNE 17, 1920. though partial, index of the density of the air at any height. From this the third step followed— the idea of a ballistic temperature such that when used in conjunction with surface pressure the bal- listic ‘density was arrived at. Methods of com- puting density weighting factors were developed by the A.A.E.S., M.I.D., and by using these factors temperature weighting factors were com- puted (which allowed for the variations in the vertical pressure distribution comsequent on any variation in the temperature distribution). Here, again, the factors vary for each trajectory, but the differences between trajectories are consider- ably less than in the case of winds, and there was little difficulty in arriving at the best average factors to employ for field use. By the employment of wind and temperature weighting factors, very numerous meteorological observations were made available for the use of gunners in the most convenient form. Ballistic winds and temperatures for several selected times of flight were telegraphed to the batteries at frequent intervals, and the information given in the meteorological telegrams, in conjunction with the barometric pressure measured at the battery, gave the gunner data which required no reduction, but could be used directly for applying cor- rections from the range table. It is, of course, essential that the results of meteorological ob- servations should be provided “red hot” to the gunners, and methods of computation were so perfected, and so high a degree of skill was at- tained, that the calculation ‘of ballistic winds from pilot-balloon observations kept pace with the observation of the balloon itself, and no time was lost in putting the information in the form in which it was readily usable by the gunner. A single concrete example may suffice to illus- trate the importance of the methods which were introduced by the meteorologists. If a projectile were fired due south, with a time of flight of 50 sec. (t.e. rising to a height of about 10,000 ft.), under the following weather condi- tions, viz. :— ‘ Wind Height in ft. iow ets Direction bees + ior Barometer -S. oF, } Surface 8 110 50 2,000 40 175 40 sa 4,000 45 185 30 gE 6,000 50 Igo 19 By 8,000 45 190 8 24 10,000 60 185 -2 Then, if surface conditions are used for arriving at the appropriate corrections to apply, we have for a certain gun that the wind will reduce the range of the gun by 13 yards and deflect the pro- jectile towards the west 60 yards. The surface temperature being 10° F. below the range table normal of 60° F., the range will be further reduced by 42 yards—a total loss in range of 55 yards. But the ballistic wind for the above conditions is a wind of 44 f.s. from direction 185°, and the ballistic temperature is 36° F. For the same gun and projectile this wind would produce a deflection towards the east of 35 yards, a decrease in range due to wind of 600 yards and to abnormal temperature (and density) of 407 yards—in all more than 1ooo yards. Thus the corrections applied by pre-war methods would have entailed in this case an error in range of about 1000 yards, and in line of about 100 yards. . . Instead of anti-aircraft gunnery being con- sidered as a special department of gunnery, it is more logical to consider fire on the flat as a specially simple case of the more general science of gunnery. . In a very real way the development of the science was due to the researches of the A.A.E.S., M.I.D., and to the methods employed by that department in the analysis of fuse trials and in the calibration of guns. For anti-aircraft fire under active service conditions the application of meteorological corrections did not reach the | same degree of organisation as for fire on the flat, — for the application of corrections is a much simpler problem in the latter case. But in experimental work full account was taken of all the meteor- ological information available. and the investigation of many ballistic problems made possible. Obituary. S: Ramanujan, F.R.S. S RINIVASA RAMANUJAN, whose death was announced in NATuRE of June 3, was born in 1888, in the neighbourhood of Madras, the son of poor parents, and a Brahmin by caste. I know very little of his early history or education, but he became a student in Madras University, and passed certain examinations, though he did not complete the course for a degree. Later he was employed by the Madras Port Trust as a clerk at a salary equivalent to about 25]. a year. By this time, however, reports of his unusual abilities had begun to spread, and, I believe owing to the intervention of Dr, G. T. Walker, he obtained a small scholarship which relieved him from the NO. 2642, VOL. 105] necessity of office work and set him free for research. I first heard of Ramanujan in 1913. The first letter which he sent me was certainly the most remarkable that I have ever received. There was a short personal introduction written, as he told me later, by a friend. The body of the letter con- sisted of the enunciations of a hundred or more mathematical theorems. Some of the formule were familiar, and others seemed scarcely possible to believe. A few (concerning the distribution of primes) could be said to be definitely false. There were no proofs, and the explanations were often inadequate. In many cases, too, some curious specialisation of a constant or a parameter made Thus one of the main sources of errors in shooting was eliminated, Vece Sg OS CAN OES rey fae A ae A 5 P F i a % i ¥q f ee anien Jone 17, 1920] NATURE 495 the real meaning of a formula difficult to grasp. It was natural enough that Ramanujan should eel a little hesitation in giving away his secrets a mathematician of an alien race. Whatever _ reservations had to be made, one thing was obvi- is, that the writer was a mathematician of the ghest quality, a man of altogether exceptional ginality and power. It seemed plain, too, that Ramanujan ought to me to England. There was no difficulty in curing the necessary funds, his own University and Trinity College, Cambridge, meeting an un- usual situation with admirable generosity and imagination. The difficulties of caste and religion were more serious; but, owing to the enterprise of Prof. E. H. Neville, who happened fortunately _ to be lecturing in Madras in the winter of 1913-14, these difficulties were ultimately overcome, and _ Ramanujan arrived in England in April, 1914. The experiment has ended in disaster, for after three years in England Ramanujan contracted the illness from which he never recovered. But for _ these three years it was a triumphant success. In _ a really comfortable position for the first time in his life, with complete leisure assured to him, and - in contact with mathematicians of the modern school, Ramanujan developed rapidly. He pub- lished some twenty papers, which, even in war- _ time, attracted wide attention. In the spring of 1918 he became the first Indian fellow of the Royal _ Society, and in the autumn the first Indian fellow of Trinity. Madras University endowed him with a research studentship in addition, and early in 1919, still unwell, but apparently considerably better, he returned to India. It was difficult to _ get news from him, but I heard at intervals. He appeared to be working actively again, and I was _ quite unprepared for the news of his death. ~Ramanujan’s activities lay primarily in fields _ known only to a small minority even among pure _ mathematicians—the applications of elliptic func- tions to the theory of numbers, the theory of con- tinued fractions, and perhaps above all the theory _ of partitions. His insight into formule was quite amazing, and altogether beyond anything I have _ met with in any European mathematician. It is _ perhaps useless to speculate as to his history had he been introduced to modern ideas and methods at sixteen instead of at twenty-six. It is not extravagant to suppose that he might have become the greatest mathematician of his time. What he did actually is wonderful enough. ‘Twenty years hence, when the researches which his work has suggested have been completed, it will probably seem a good deal more wonderful than it does to-day. G. H. Harpy. a ee ee, |) i ne PrINcIPAL Str JoHN HerkieEss, D.D., LL.D. - Sir Joun HERKLEsS, whose death we regret to announce, was the son of an engineer in Glasgow; he was born on August 9, 1855, and educated in the High School before entering the University of his native city. His career as a student was varied, and his fellow-students did not think it outstanding. He not only studied arts, but also at- tended medical classes. Like some men who have NO. 2642, VOL. 105 | afterwards made their mark in life, he disliked mathematics, but was fond of philosophy, and finally he decided to study for the Ministry, and was duly licensed, though he obtained no degree from his Alma Mater. For a short time he lectured on English literature at Queen Margaret College, then became an assistant-minister until 1883, when he was appointed to the parish of Tanna- dice in Forfarshire. The death of the eloquent Principal Cunning- ham made a vacancy in St. Mary’s College, St. Andrews, and it was rumoured that Dr. Herkless would be appointed to the post (divinity), Prof. Mitchell, however, resigned his chair of Church history, and he was appointed, whilst Prof. Stewart, of Aberdeen, was made principal. About this time the strained relations with Dundee in regard to the medical school, and the claims of St. Leonard’s Parish in connection with the College Chapel, gave the forceful new professor of Church history an ample field for polemics.: He took the side of Dundee, and opposed the parish. Besides stray papers, he afterwards published two books, viz. “ Francis and Dominic ” and “ Richard Cameron,” whilst, along with Mr. (now Prof.) R. K. Hannay, he edited a volume of documents pertaining to St. Leonard’s College, and four volumes on the archbishops of St. Andrews. He was chairman of the St. Andrews School for Girls’ Company. ‘He was appointed principal of the University by Mr. Asquith on the death of the distinguished educationist, Sir James Donaldson. Though not a man of original cast of intellect, Sir John Herkless had great versatility and shrewdness, and was not devoid of ambition (as he himself stated), his main field for advancement being politics. He was diligent in his duties as principal, but he had little time to make note- worthy advances. His lamented death on June 11 occurred after an operation, and whilst he was in the midst of plans for the improvement of the University. Tue death of Mr. Cuartes E. RHODES is an- nounced in Engineering for June 11, and will be regretted by a large circle who knew him through his activity in colliery developments. Mr. Rhodes was born in 1849, and died on June 7 last. Since December, 1873, he held the position of engineer- ing manager for Messrs. John Brown and Co., Ltd., for whom he sank several shafts and de- veloped a number of pits. He became a member of the Institution of Civil Engineers in 1890, and at various times was president of different institu- tions connected with mining. He was appointed a member of the Standing Committee on Mining in 1916, and joined the Coal Conservation Com- mittee in the same year. WE regret to note that the death of Mr. Wituiam SHELDON is recorded in Engineering for June 11 as having occurred on May 20. Mr. Sheldon was in his sixty-ninth year, and had been connected with the steam plough works belonging to Messrs. Fowler since 1879. He was. president of the Leeds Association of Engineers in 1898-99 496 NATURE [June 17, 1920 | 2 Notes. Tue Linnean Society will be engaged to-day, June 17, in célebrating the centenary of Sir Joseph Banks, Bart., who died on June 19, 1820. On the death of Carl von Linné in 1778, Banks endeavoured to buy his herbarium, but that was acquired by Linné’s son for the remainder of his short life. Five years later, when the herbarium was again for disposal upon the death of the younger Linné, Banks had changed his mind, for when the collections were offered he passed the offer to Dr. J. E. Smith, recommending the purchase, as it would be of great value to him as a young naturalist. On getting the herbarium Smith spent the winter of 1784-85 in collating his new acquisition with the Banksian collection, with the invaluable help of Jonas Dryander, Banks’s factotum; then, after a tour abroad, Smith took counsel with hig friends, and the Linnean Society came into being. Banks was chosen as honorary member immediately, and re- tained that position until his death. Besides con- tinual gifts of books, the cast from Inlander’s relief of Linné, which was the model for Wedgewood’s plaque, and objects of natural history, he paid for the entire cost of illustration for the first volume of the Transactions. It is well that such liberal actions should be recalled to the memory of the present generation. WE‘ have: received from the ae Eth of the Rubber Growers’ Association particulars of a competition which has been organised by the association with the ‘ view of éxtending the industrial uses of rubber. A sum of soool. is offered for ideas and suggestions in this connection, the amount to be divided into the following awards, viz. one prize of toool., three prizes of 500l, each; ten prizes of tool. each, and a sum not exceeding 15001. to be divided amongst the remaining competitors whose suggestions are considered to be practical, according to the relative value of the pro- posals. Among the conditions of the competition it is noted that special value will be attached-to ideas of a thoroughly practical nature, supported by detailed information likely to make them effective; and that the relative value of the suggestions which are deemed practical will depend upon the quantity of raw rubber which their adoption would absorb, special consideration being given to proposals likely to utilise rubber in large quantities. The most important cendition, however, is that relating to the protection by letters patent of any process, method, or apparatus submitted by competitors; this regulation is too long td quote in detail here. Full particulars of the com- petition may be obtained from the Rubber Growers’ Association (Department C), 38 Eastcheap, E.C.3; the closing date of the competition is December 31 next. Tue Albert medal of the Royal Society of Arts for 1920 has been awarded to Prof. A. A. Michelson, For.Mem.R.S., professor of physics in the University of Chicago, and Nobel laureate for physics in 1907. Tue. enterprise of the Royal Horticultural Society in holding .a three-days’ show at Cardiff on July 6-8 marks a new departure in the society’s history. Not in the present generation has it held such a meeting NO. 2642, VOL. 105 | in the provinces, and it has now taken this--step~ to , foster the interest in gardening and the production of home-grown produce that it did so much to develop during the war period. The scientific section will contain exhibits showing how to identify and over- come the various garden pests, as well as displays of the various appliances used in repelling their attacks. Tue David Syme prize, with medal, for the year 1920 has been awarded to Mr. Frederick Chapman,. paleontologist to the National Museum and lecturer in paleontology in the University of Melbourne. Mr. Chapman, before his first appointment in Australia, was known to a wide circle in London through his work under Prof. Judd and his association with Prof. T. Rupert Jones in the investigation of fossil Foraminifera. Foraminifera have always remained his special object of research, but he has published a large number of papers in all branches of palzonto- logy, including a revision of the fossil fish-remains | of New Zealand. Few men have rendered the results. of their observations available with such zeal and regularity, and Mr. Chapman, from the date of his | earliest papers, when he described the preparation | of thin sections of minute objects. for the microscope, has brought to his painstaking studies the enjoyment of an artist in his work. Ar the anniversary meeting of the Linnean ssicieth on May 27, the following officers and members of council were elected :—President: Dr. A. Smith Wood- Secretaries : ward. Treasurer: Mr. H. W. Monckton. : Dr. B. Daydon Jackson, Prof. E. S. Goodrich, and Dr. A. B. Rendle. Council: Stanley Edwards, Prof. J. B. Farmer, Rt. Hon. Lionel Walter, Baron Rothschild, Dr. E. J. Salisbury, Mr. C. E. Salmon, Miss A. Lorrain Smith, Lt.-Col. J. H. Tull Walsh, and Dr. A. Smith Wood- — appointed Mr. E. Ty Browne, Prof. J. B. Farmer, Mr. H. W. Monckton, ward. The president has and Mr. R. I. Pocock vice-presidents. Dame Helen Gwynne-Vaughan was presented at the anniversary meeting with the Trail award and medal, and Sir Ray Lankester with the Linnean medal. A SUCCESSFUL meeting of the British Lampblown Scientific Glassware Manufacturers’ Association, Ltd., was held on June 8 at the Abercorn Rooms, Great Eastern Hotel. Mr. Douglas Baird, vice-president of the association, who occupied the chair, in proposing © s the toast of ‘The B.L.S.G.M.A.,” gave a short history of the formation of the association. The manufacturers who were members of the association were engaged in work which could be truly designated a “‘master-key — industry,’’ because there was no trade or profession that could be successfully carried on without the aid of one or other of the instruments manufactured by The association was formed during the its members. war because it was found by the Government. that there was a great demand for all kinds of instruments i : for the fighting forces which previous to hostilities “ had been introduced into this country from abroad, Mr. E. G. Baker, Mr. H. Bury, Prof. Margaret Benson, Mr. E. T. Browne, Mr. ‘Prof. Be" S." Goodrich, Capt. A. W. Hill, Dr. B. Daydon Jackson, © Mr. C. C. Lacaita, Mr. G. W. E. Loder, Mr. H. W. — Monckton, Mr. R. I. Pocock, Dr. A. B. Rendle, the Lg ; +a iZ "te 2 y June. 17, 1920] NALURE 497 = SS and more particularly from Germany. The Govern- ent experienced great difficulty in getting in touch with manufacturers, and it was at the suggestion of _ the Ministry of Munitions that the B.L.S.G.M.A, was - formed. Mr. Baird emphasised the necessity of each member in the association uniting to their utmost in jmoting and fostering the industry. He pointed - out that it was only by united effort to. turn out " instruments of the highest class of manufacture that ; “the country could hope to keep out. the ee of ; ign glassware. F — Sir C. H. Reap, in his presidential address de- - livered before the Society of Antiquaries, does not { take an optimistic view of the prospects of archzeo- P logical research. While’ the late German Govern- ment lavished treasures on the Berlin museums, the k ‘British Museum, our one institution archeological in regulations against the export of specimens from countries under our control have proved to be in- effective. For example, specimens found in Cyprus are smuggled to any other art centre rather than - to London, and the silver treasures from that island passed easily into the Pierpont Morgan galleries in New York. The same result of Government action is anticipated in India. The president is, however, ; cee, fair in his strictures on the Indian Govern- 5 Why, he asks, are the Indian museums filled [ ah etionsy of the Buddhist age ?—things which he believes are hated by Mussulmans and almost equally disliked by Hindus. He forgets that many of the Indian Mussulmans, being converts from Hinduism, have in a measure lost that hatred for repre- ‘sentations of the human form which survives in orthodox cities like Cairo. Hindus have recognised Buddha as an incarnation of Vishnu, and the ignorant Hindu villager often worships a figure of the Master as a representation of some local deity, male or even female. But Sir Hercules Read is well justified in pleading for the development of excavation in - Bapylonia and in Egypt, in which latter country Prof. Flinders Petrie has done admirable work with very limited resources. He also wisely lays stress on the fact that, while our galleries abound in examples of art in its highest forms, we have comparatively little to illustrate the everyday social life of the populations which . -are now subject to our control. Tue tenth International Cotton Congress was held in Zurich on June 9-11. In_ the course of its pro- ceedings a highly suggestive paper. was’ read by Dr. _ W. Lawrence Balls, scientific expert and adviser to _ the’ Fine Cotton.Spinners’ Association, Ltd., Man- chester, on “The Nature, Scope, and Difficulties of _ Research,’” in which he dealt ‘with the foundation of research, the past. and present scope of the research on cotton, the British organisation, of cotton re- searches, and international research. The demand for - scientific research, with the: view of enlarging the possibilities of the industry, embracing not only, the cultivation of the. plant, but .also ,every subsequent process in its» utilisation, various. changes in recent years. vast accumulation of experience in NO. 2642, VOL. 105 | Pee eee cin es OS Tha We, RR re See Pe a ORT Pk PO oe There is a the cotton its aims, is hampered by lack of funds. Again, the . has -been, induced by ‘induStry,- together with a sail nie in-trade of generdl knowledge. Most of the .work.of tke first deeade undertaken by the scientific workers will have to be spent in defining what the spinner knows, and then in réducing the incoherent mass’ of details to a small number of generalisations easy .to grasp. . The question of the method of utilisation of the results of research which may be condensed under the title of publication is summed up in a'line: To ascertain the’ true facts, to conceal nothing known, and to take personal responsibility. ' Theré must be individualism in effort and communism in knowledge, which is put forward as the code of the pure scientific worker. | With respect to a code of research for industry, the author insists on the need for individual effort, but also that after five years the industrial research worker and his employer-colleague shall miake known the true facts ascertained, which, whilst giving full advantage to the business concerned, shall yet give fair and full assist- ance to the general advance of man’s power over hie environment. In Man for May Mrs. M. E. Cunnington describes a curious stone mould found on the Worms’. Head, Glamorganshire. It is made of two pieces of fine- grained red ‘sandstone about an inch thick. On the corresponding sides of the two stones are matrices for casting four objects: a large ring ornamented with a raised pattern of S-like scrolls enclosed by two narrow rows of irregular chevrons or waved lines, a ring with seven star-like rays, a second ring, and another smaller with a raised pattern of waved lines or loops with seven points. It is suggested that this orna- mentation has been designed with some reference to sun-worship, the disc, the rayed star, and the S scrolls being all well-known solar symbols derived from the wheel. From the objects found in association with these moulds it may be inferred that they belong to the Early Iron age. This part of the coast, though difficult of access by land, was easily reached by sea from other parts of Britain and from the Continent. The moulds may thus possibly have been introduced from abroad, Tue Oxford University Press has issued a revised edition of its General Catalogue, which was first produced in 1916. It is not only an excellent descrip- tion of the varied activities of this great publishing institution, but it is also valuable as a fine example of scientific bibliography, and forms very interesting reading. The Press offers this valuable service to science and literature that the profits derived from school books and other more’ or less popular, works are devoted to the publication of expensive volumes of permanent value which the ordinary publisher may hesitate to produce. One book, Woide’s Coptic New Testament, published in 1799, is still on. sale. There is an account of the ‘Dictionary of National Biography,’’ the copyright of which was presented to the University by- the family of its founder, the late George M. Smith. . Preliminary work , under... the direction of Mr. H. W. Carless Davis ‘is .now»in progress with the view of maintaining and,extending its usefulness. . A history, of course, is given of what is now called the ‘‘ Oxford Dictionary,’*, which since the 498 NATURE oe Hee of Sir fae aan in 1915 has been controlled by Dr. H. Bradley and Messrs. W. A. Craigie and C. T. Onions. Nine of the ‘ten volumes are complete, and as steady progress in the tenth volume is being made we may soon look forward to the completion’ of this monumental work. ‘In the Annual Report of the Director of the Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago, for 1919, perhaps the most novel pages are those dealing with the: work of the botanical laboratories established: by Mrs. ‘Stanley Field. Their main object is to make — reproductions of living plants for exhibition in the museum. To accomplish this the plants are studied jn’ the field; wherever they are best to’be seen. “Thus the first four and a half months of the year were spent in Florida, at a station of the U.S, Department of Agriculture, to secure studies and material for such" plants’ as the coconut palm, the banana, the pineapple, and the Florida cycad. The most perish- able parts were cast and coloured, and plaster moulds were made of other parts, formalin material packed and sent to the museum, and photographs, colour sketches, and detail studies secured for use after return. Reproductions were made of many other. plants cultivated in the garden of the station. A set of tomatoes attacked by various fungi, then under investigation at the station, was reproduced, and pure cultures of the fungi were obtained with the view of making an enlarged model of each fungus for exhibition alongside the infected fruit. i Few works of the same size have had so wide an Pet on geological thought as R. Liesegang’s ‘“Geologische Diffusionen,’’ published in 1913. Ap- plications of the author’s views on zonal deposition are to be found, with excellent illustrations, in Pro- fessional Papers 107 (p. 156) and 104 (p. 45) of the U.S. Geological Survey. In the former case banded jasper-rock is- considered; in the latter, the very common occurrence of bands of iron hydroxide. Messrs. Bastin and Laney, in Paper 104, have made useful experiments with interfusing solutions of ferrous sulphate and sodium hydroxide. A cOLOURED geological map of Western Australia, called a sketch-map, but none the less valuable to libraries, accompanies the Annual Progress Report of the. Geological Survey of that State for 1918 (pub- lished i919). Its scale, 1 in. to 50 miles, or about I): 3,000,000, is large enough to enable us to appre- ciate the immense extent of Nullagine (Late Pre- Cambrian?) beds in the north-west, with their auri- ferous conglomerates; the Jurassic fringe on the west coast; and the Cretaceous overflow on Palzozoic strata in the south-east. An interesting case of serviceable limestone formed by capillary action in sand-dunes is described on p. 14 of the report. A summary of the weather for the spring season, comprised by the thirteen weeks ending May 29, is given in the Weekly Weather Report issued by the Meteorological Office. Mean air temperature for the period was above the average in all districts of the NO. 2642, VOL. 105 | ‘Channel, _at the temperature of liquid air. British’ Isles, the largest excess being © 3:2° Fin in England E. and 2-9° F. in England S:E. In Ireland — the excess was not more than 3° F.,’and in Scotland — it was only about 1°.’ At the close of the season thé — sheltered thermometer exceeded 80° F. in most of the — English districts. The day-degrees above 42° F. were — largely in excess of the normal over the whole king- dom, especially in England E. and in the English , whilst the day-degrees below 42° F. were largely deficient everywhere, especially in the Midland ~ Counties and in England E. and N:E. Rainfall was — everywhere in excess of the normal, the greatest excess _ being’ 5°67 in. in England N.W. In the English — Channel the excess was.only 0-59 in., and in England © S.E. and E. 0-63 in. and 0-67 in. respectively. The — duration of bright sunshine was normal in Scotland N., — but deficient in all other parts of the British Isles. In Scotland W. the deficiency was 109. hours, and in England N.W. and Ireland S. 91 hours. THE second part of the current volume of the Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy consists of a paper by the. late Prof. J. A. McClelland and Mr. A. Gilmour on the electric charge on rain. The ~ observations were made in a small quadrangle at the back of University College, Dublin, between January 1 and August 31 last year. The results. for non-thunderstorm rain are that 73 per cent. “of it was charged positively, and 84 per cent. of the elec- tricity brought down was positive. The average charges brought down by the rain were 0-21 electrostatic unit positive and o-o8 negative per c.c. of water. — The average vertical currents were 1-6 x 10-*® amperes — per sq. cm. positive and o5x10-** negative. Drops — below 0-08 x 10-* c.c. were always negatively charged, — but there appeared to be no relation between the size — of the drop and the magnitude of its charge. Thunder- f storm rain was more highly charged than ordinary — rain and about equally positive and negative. Snow — was more often negative than positive, small hail always negative, and large hail always positive, the — charges per c.c. exceeding those on ordinary rain © and often those on thunderstorm rain. am ors i. In Publication No. 298 of the Carnegie Institution — of Washington (1919) Messrs. E. L. Nichols and © H. L. Howes, with the collaboration of Messrs. E. Merritt and D. T. Wilber and Miss F. G. Wick, give the results of a very exhaustive investigation of the — fluorescence and absorption spectra of uranyl salts. — The authors have examined a large number of simple — and double salts, the influence of water of crystal- lisation. and of crystalline form, and the polarised — fluorescence of crystals at ordinary temperatures and The results obtained — at low temperatures are of particular interest, for — under these conditions both the absorption and — fluorescence bands, which at ordinary temperatures — are so diffuse that it is difficult even to locate the © positions of the maxima with great precision, are — resolved into a number of comparatively sharp com- ponents the homologous members of which can be- arranged in series having constant wave-number a a a ay Ki a 48 NATURE 499 the existence of regular crystalline structure; as an example of this, the broad bands observed in uranium _ glass are not further resolved on cooling to the tem- perature of liquid air. It is shown that many of the P apparent shifts of the bands with change of tempera- _ ture are to be referred to the relative enhancement or. diminution of the components of the bands. A «discussion of different types of ’ " eh ae 500 NATURE [JUNE 17, 1920 Our Astronomical Column. Tue Masses OF THE Stars.—The mass of a star ‘is perhaps its most important element, but it is one ‘that can be ascertained only in exceptional cases. Prof. H. N. Russell, in a paper read at the twenty- first meeting of the American Astronomical Society, gathered together all the evidence, direct and indirect, on the subject, grouping the results by spectral type. Method I. is the usual one for visual binaries the orbits and parallaxes. of which are known; Method IT. is similar, where the parallax and relative motion, but not the orbit, are known; Method III. is from spectroscopic binaries where both spectra are shown, a mean inclination being assumed; and Method IV., |. the vaguest of all, derives the parallaxes of binaries from their proper motions. The resulting mean masses for the pairs of stars are :— ; Spectrum 8 Il. lft. VV. B-B,.... —- 10-4 17°5 71 Bir Ags cas ve 9 3:0 qo 8-4 cm. | sent fo Rea 3°5 3°4 ee 2:5 F,-K, ; dwarf 18 1-4 —- oF s7 J 0-7 1-0 — — , The sun’s mass is taken as 1. The following formule are given for the hypo- thetical parallax (h) of systems of mean distance a, _and period P: h=fs; 3 or where s is the apparent’ distance and w the apparent relative motion, in seconds of arc per annum, h=o-4oofsiw4. The constant f bas the value o-50 for all giant stars, 0:58 for dwarfs of spectrum A, 0-72 spectrum F, 0-86 spectrum G, 1-00 spectrum K, and 1-14 spectrum M. The probable error is given as 12 per cent. where the first formula can be used, and as 22 per cent. in other cases, | Tue PLANET JupirER.—The Rev. T. E. R. Phillips, director of the Jupiter section of the British Astro- nomical Association, contributes an interesting article on the planet to the June number of Scientia. After giving a résumé of Jovian phenomena during the last twenty years, including the red spot and the south tropical disturbance, Mr. Phillips notes the startling change in the aspect of the planet which took place early in 1919; the disturbance and the red-spot hollow both practically disappeared, though the spot itself survived. Discussing the physical condition of Jupiter, he notes the similarity to the sun in density, in varying rotation periods according to latitude, and in the dark belts which are comparable with the spot zones. He suggests that the red spot may indicate a vast cyclonic movement in the atmosphere, noting that this view would explain the rapid passage of the dark matter of the tropical disturbance round the spot when the two are in conjunction. He notes, .in conclusion, the importance of Jovian study from the point of view of cosmogony, since it illustrates a stage intermediate between the solar condition and the earliest geological periods. PaRALLAX WoRK AT THE SPROUL OBSERVATORY.—The list of stars with known parallaxes is being rapidly extended, thanks to the extensive organised campaign carried on by many observatories which possess large equatorials. Dr. Miller, of the Sproul Observatory, has published a useful list of fifty observed parallaxes (Proc. Amer. Phil..Soc., vol. lix., No. 2). Five stars on the list have parallaxes above o-1", viz. W.B. (1) V. 592=0-146", 9 Argus=o-121", i Persei=o-120", Lalande 17161=0-104", and W.B.(1)IV. 1189+0-103". The NO. 2642, VOL. 105 | regarding the masses.of binaries. / ; ‘values found for y' and y* Andromedz are 0-021" and 0-005"; those for the preceding and following com-— ponents of the wide pair 16 Cygni are +0-037" and +o-018". In each of these systems the true parallaxes. of the components are presumably the same. The discordances .are a measure of the probable errors, which in.each case are of the order of oor”. An interesting feature is the closeness with which the new figures verify many of Prof. H. N. Russell’s — hypothetical parallaxes, deduced from assumptions _ Nuclear Constitution of Atoms. By Sir Ernest RuTHERFORD, F.R.S. T° HE idea of the nuclear constitution of atoms was — developed from an examination of the scattering — of swift a-particles in passing through matter, and — the advance afterwards made was due to the proof — by Moseley of the close connection between the atomic — number of an element and the nuclear charge. The accurate determination of the nuclear charge is of prime importance. Recent unpublished experiments. by Mr. Chadwick. in the Cavendish Laboratory indicate that the nuclear charge on an atom in funda- mental units is equal to the atomic number within — an accuracy of about 1 per cent. It follows that there is a region surrounding the nucleus where the law of the inverse square holds accurately. The problem of the constitution of the atom divides itself — naturally into two parts: one the arrangement of — the external electrons on which the ordinary chemical — and physical properties of the atom depend, and the — other the constitution of the nucleus on which depend — the mass of the element, the possibility of isotopes, and radio-activity. The nucleus is composed of posi- — tively charged units. and negative electrons in very — close combination, and estimates of its dimensions — are possible from a study of the collision of a-particles — with light atoms. Close to the nucleus there is a rapid change in the magnitude and direction of the forces, probably in part connected with the deforma- — tion of the nucleus structure under the intense forces — which arise in a close collision. a Unless the nuclei are very stable, it is to be antici- — pated that they would be deformed, and possibly — broken up, as a result of a direct collision with swift a-particles. In previous experiments evidence was — given that long-range particles resembling hydrogen atoms were liberated by the passage of a-particles — through pure nitrogen. New experiments have been — made to determine by a modified method the nature of these particles by bending them in a magnetic” field. The amount of deflection of the particles liberated from the nitrogen of the air was shown to ~ be the same as for H atoms arising from a mixture - of hydrogen and carbon dioxide. This showed ~ definitely that hydrogen is one of the products of the disintegration of the nitrogen atom, and is one of th original components of the nitrogen nucleus. The ~ possibility that the long-range particles are atoms of © mass 2, 3, or 4 carrying a single charge may be ~ definitely excluded. — The deflection in a magnetic field of the short-range particles which are liberated from nitrogen and oxygen, and were originally assumed to be reco: atoms of these elements, is not only much grea than that to. be. expected for such recoil atoms, is also greater than the a-particle but less than H atoms liberated from a mixture of hydrogen carbon dioxide. ‘ ‘ 1 Synopsis of the Bakerian Lecture delivered before the Royal Society on June 3. : z 5 Oe ih 5 3 seme SO tae ‘June 17, 1920] eS NATURE 501 There is evidence that these particles are atoms of about 3, carrying two charges. Consequently atom of nitrogen can be disintegrated in two ways ‘collision with a-particles: one by the escapne of H atom, and the other-by the expulsion of mass 3, ‘both processes occur independently. Atoms of 3 are also released from oxygen atoms, but | atoms cannot be detected. _ It may be concluded, therefore, that atoms of “mass 3, Carrying two positive charges, are components the nuclei of nitrogen and oxygen. This new atom is to be regarded as an isotope of elium, and should give nearly the same spectrum. en of motion of the atom of mass 3 expelled _ from nitrogen and oxygen is about 8 per cent. greater _ than the original energy of the a-particle, showing _ that energy is liberated as a result of the disintegra- _ tion. The atoms of mass 3 probably consist of three ByRbogen nuclei with one binding electron, and ‘atoms of helium of four hydrogen nuclei and two electrons. _ Apart from hydrogen itself, these atoms are important _ secondary units in the building up of atomic nuclei. In the light of the new experimental evidence, . exa are given of the possible modes of forma- _ tion of isotopes and possible structures of nitrogen. and oxygen nuclei are considered. _ that close combinations may exist of H nuclei and electrons, giving rise to atoms of zero nuclear charge, _ evolution of the heavy elements. _ The Rockefeller Gift to Medical Science. sy? was announced in the Daily Mail of June 11, _ «*% the Rockefeller Foundation for Medical Research __ has made the generous gift of a sum of 1,205,000l. for _ the advancement of teaching and research in the Medical School of University College and Hospital. _ Owing to the inconsiderate and premature manner in which the statement was made public, it is natural lat some mistakes should have been made and the ybjects of the gift in certain respects misunderstood. _ The reason for the delay in making a public an- _ nouncement is ur that the Senate of the University of London has as yet had no opportunity of formally * eens the gift. When this had been done it was _ the intention to make it public through appropriate _ channels and in such a way that the people of England might appreciate the intention of the donors to give a _ manifest proof of the friendliness of. their feelings _ towards the work that we are doing here. and their 2 sug og of its value. We have reason to believe _ that they particularly wish this aspect. to be em- _ phasised. It should be remembered that the object of _ the Rockefeller Foundation is ‘the welfare of man- _ kind,’’ so that its benefits were not intended to. be _ confined to the United States. The members of the _ Foundation desire it to be regarded as entrusted to _ them for this purpose, and the present endowment is _ not meant in any way as a charitable gift. In view _ of statements to the contrary, it is necessary to make _ it plain that no conditions are attached, and that the _ recipients are left free in a very wide sense to make _ the best use of the money for the benefit of medical _ Science, and especially as to the details of its applica- tion. It will naturally be understood that the manner of its use has been the subject of much discussion _ between representatives of the Rockefeller Founda- tion and the institutions receiving the gift. With regard to the objects to which it is proposed to devote the endowment, a few words on the history of the negotiations may be of interest. Towards the end of last year two representatives of the Rockefeller It is pointed out’: and that such a conception is needed to explain the the International Health Board) and Dr. Pearce (Adviser in Medical Education to the Foundation), arrivedin London. Before proceeding further they called at University College. In the absence of Prof. Starling, they were received by. the present writer, whom they gave to understand that they had come to make inquiries into the conditions of medical education. in London. They were accordingly informed of. the recent creation of medical and surgical “ units,’’ of their situations and the names of various gentlemen associated with these units from whom they. might obtain further information. This they proceeded to do. Early in the present year they made another visit to University College with definite pronosals, and were seen by Prof. Starling and Prof. Elliot Smith, who showed them what was necessary to be done for the adeauate provision of instruction and research in the fundamental sciences of anatomy,. physiology, and pharmacology. It was clear to them that the most pressing need, was the building of a new anatomical institute, although the medical ‘sciences themselves naturally required the larger proportion of any pro- posed gift. In April four representatives of University College and Medical School visited the’ United States for the purpose of further conference. These were the Provost (Sir Gregory Foster), Dr. Blacker (Dean of the Medical School), Prof. T. R. Elliott (professor of medicine), and Prof. Elliot Smith (professor of anatomy). .On their return they brought back the definite offer of this extremely generous gift, and speak with the greatest appréciation of the friendli- ness of the manner in which they were received, the spirit in which the offer was made, and in which it was impressed upon them that it should be accepted. Owing to the premature publication of the scheme it was necessary to call a general college meeting on Friday last, at which the Provost made a statement of its actual terms. In the words of the Rockefeller Executive Committee, they are as follows: ‘‘(1) An institute of anatomy. (2) Increase of clinical facili- ties. (3) Clinical laboratories planned. (4) Increased maintenance costs. (5) Closely unified administra- tion.’’ The Medical School will receive 835,o00l. and the College 370,000l. Further details of the ways in which it is proposed to utilise the money will be duly announced. At this meeting Prof. Elliot’ Smith pointed out that anatomy is to be understood as in- cluding in its purview the microscopic structure of the tissues, embryology, and a study of the factors govern- ing the development of form. It is further to be hoped that the working of the scheme will involve a much closer co-operation between the College ‘and the medical departments, to the advantage of both. — It is perhaps advisable to direct attention to the fact that the gift is for the purpose of improving medical education and research. At the same time the hospital, as an institution for the cure of patients, will benefit indirectly, although doubtless its working expenses will be ingreased owing to the enlargement proposed. W. M.-Baytiss. The Permanent Value of University Benefactions. a account of the opening of the new building of the Department of Applied Statistics and Eugenics at University College, London, presented by Sir Herbert Bartlett, was given in last week’s Nature. The speech made by Prof. Karl Pearson in seconding the vote of thanks to the donor contains certain truths which have a wider application than to Foundation, Dr. Wickliffe Rose (General Director of | the immediate audience, and we therefore reproduce it NO. 2642, VOL. 105] 502: NATURE in. the hope that it will help to force the present difficult situation of the universities upon the attention of’ the! public. as Henry.V1., 1422-61. ,. You probably all think of him asa weakling, the monarch whose forces were cleared out of the best part of France: by Joan.of Arc—a man ‘naturally: almost imbecile, and dominated by his Queen .and a succession of dukes, and finally deposed bythe. victorious House of York. -I feel otherwise towards him. For forty-five years. I) have worked under his.image in a niche of my library. On my rare. visits’ to Cambridge I would raise my hat to his statue -on the front lawn of the college he founded. He may have been a poor King, but | owe the six most useful years of my life to the freedom his benefaction. gave me to travel and to study. Despised as. a King, ‘there: are many of us who respect our Royal benefactor as a scholar and a gentleman. The.spirit in which the members of old Cambridge colleges regard their founders and benefactors is one that should take deeper root in our new universities. ‘It is not merely the recognition of the name, but the insight: that shall appreciate what the benefactor desired us to achieve, and the determination of suc- cessive generations that the purpose of the benefaction shall be carried out. There are only too many ways of disposing of money! In 1441 it might be done by wars in France, by endowing monasteries to expedite the, passage of your soul through purgatory, but those who founded or extended great centres of learning have remained in men’s affection for all time. Nowadays you can dispose of your money to party funds or to charities; your name will survive just as long as your money is unspent or: you have more to give.. But the man who gives generously to a great academic institute will, if he choosés wisely, be certain of an ever-green memory. -In this institute we have had a number of bene- factors, but three stand out for special mention on such an occasion as the present. The Worshipful Company of Drapers, who. from 1903 onwards have assisted. one section of our: enterprise. Sir Francis Galton, who came of a family which has founded no fewer than three academic chairs, the Sedleian, the Savilian, and my own chair. Under his inspiration we work, and we are more than pleased to be better able to keep his. memory fresh in our new buildings here than has been possible in the past in our cramped and: temporary homes: Lastly, we come to the benefactor whose bénefac- tion is the: subject of our gathering to-day. To him not only I, but every member of my “staff feel. daily gratitude for providing us with a-more fitting, and, I. willsadd, sa: more healthy environment, than we ever. imagined would: be ours, and I trust that the tradition will remain long after I have ceased - to. share the: comfort of this building and the possibilities for the studious life it provides. » . Those who have. gone round this laboratory. will have noted that we try to. keep, before-us not only. the portraits of great leaders of thought, but the por- traits’ of ‘the: men. who have.madé. our work possible,. and: in. this:respect I should hope to be:.pardoned if I reminded::Sir Herbert Bartlett of how. deeply, we should) al. appreciate the: addition of such..a.memorial of:his-gift, so.that we may have .his form .as well as his good works :heforé:usis: 9 ss) i a \ The: wari has left all academic ‘enterprise stranded- In: tg14:we could have.equipped and -fitted:.this .build-. Our. contracts were. ing from basement. to top. storys réscinded,and for five years this laboratory. was- used’ as a military hospital. Sir Herbert Bartlett has provided lie to a large extent NO. 2642, VOL. 105 | At present.the fine buildings unoccupied. extension of old and the founding of new universities a. first claim on their war indemnities. In 1920 we. hear no suggestion. that from our universities a new, national life has to spring, and that if they are to- accomplish their task. it can. only .be if the..State- and private friends come to their help in the present critical state of affairs. In this respect .we can only. trust that others will be.as wise both for the present and for the future as Sir Herbert Bartlett has. been. ‘The winning of the war has been attributed in suc- cession to many causes. .One factor is rarely referred - to, namely, the unselfish way in which. the academic staff of university after university gave up their academic repose, broke through all their scholarly studies and their scientific researches, and, where they could not sacrifice their lives, at. least sacrificed many of. their .best years of work for national service. Voluntary, and unpaid, and unpayable gifts. for. national welfare! It is absurd that the universities should have to prate of such labours; but here is the fact, regard it in what aspect you like, that with a. greater task than ever before them, they are left with far less power to carry it out than they had before the war, and-it is that knowledge which makes us_ the more deeply grateful to the snecial- benefactor whom we wish to honour in this vote of thanks. He saw our necessity and responded to it. Ree ts a af The Imperial Entomological Conference: ; HE Committee of the Imperial Bureau of Entomology may be congratulated on the success of the Entomological Conference which met on June 1-11 in the Linnean Society’s rooms, Bur- lington House, London. The conference was attended by twenty official delegates representing most of the British Dominions, Colonies, and Protectorates, as well as by members of the committee of the Bureau, while a number of entomologists were invited to the meetings and discussions which occupied most of the appointed days. At the opening of the conference the delegates were received by Viscount Harcourt, chairman of the committee, and business meetings were held on the first and final days. On Friday, June 4, the conference visited the Rothamsted Agri- cultural Experiment Station in conjunction with a meeting of the Association of Economic Biologists; an account of this interesting day appeared in last week’s Nature (p. 464). On Tuesday, June 8, the members journeyed to Oxford, and on Thursday, June 10, to Cambridge. Prof. E. B. Poulton acted as host on the former, and Sir Arthur Shipley on the latter occasion. While the entomological collections in the University museums were the chief objects of interest, time was found for brief inspection of some features of the historic cities; for example, after enter- taining the conference to lunch in Christ’s . College, Sir Arthur Shipley took the Overseas delegates into — the rooms occupied ninety years ago. by Charles Darwin, aay Of the. meetings held on the other five days of the — conference it may :be said that several subjects - of much -importance and:.of general interest were well - and: earnestly discussed... On the.morning of June 2, under the. presidency, of Dr. R. Stewart MacDougall » (Edinburgh),.Mr:.C. P. Lounsbury (Entomologist, to the Union of South. Africa) spoke on_‘‘ Legislation in~ | Regard.to Plant: Pests in.the-British Empire,” insist-— ing that the official entomologist should have authority to draft-and enforce. regulations against the introduc- — tion of plants, which might harbour harmful insects; — | he. advocated. ‘the drastic exclusion .of such plants — except. in certain. Special cases,..and, expressed the — laced on — opinion that little or no reliance can -be [JUNE 17, 1920... In 1871 the German nation made: the a — US YA Oe) elegy at AP ae Sey Bee ars i ¥ % in a i sites entomological work could be profitably NATURE 503 _ JUNE 17, 1920] _certi s of freedom from pests—a view afterwards ‘supported ‘by several others who took part in the dis- cussion. . Mr. H. J. Elwes, however, remarked. that along experience in cultivation had convinced’ him that. - interference with freedom of import had sometimes been exercised by the authorities. On the chairman’s suggestion, a sub-committee _ Was’ appointed to consider the establishment of an “ _ Empire Convention on the subject. “The Education of Economic Entomologists,’’ the q subject for discussion at the next morning meeting Stage over by Prof. Poulton, was introduced by f. H. Maxwell Lefroy (Imperial College of Science).. Prof. Lefroy advocated the establishment of entomology as a subject independent of general zoology, arid, describing the courses in his own college, emphasised the necessity of a broad scientific training Sics, chemistry, and biology before the taken up; men with exceptional aptitude, however, tudy. The discussion was continued by Dr: R. J: Villyard (Nelson, N.Z.), Dr. R. Stewart MacDougall haga 1), Mr. F. Balfour Browne (Cambridge), ‘of. R. Newstead (Liverpool), .Prof.'G. H. Carpenter al Coll of Science,*Dublin), Prof. R. D. Watt ney, N:S.W.), and Mr.*F. V. Theobald (Wye). ile some doubt was, expressed as to the advisability of divorcing entomology from general zoological study, there was general agreement as to the need-of a sound and comprehensive. scientific training, and sy: The die direct to advanced entomological _. several of the speakers insisted further that all entomo- logists in direct contact with cultivators ought to have practical knowledge of farm or garden work. — Qn Monday morning, June 7, Sir Daniel Morris in the chair, Mr. H. A. Ballou (Entomologist to the pa labs of Agriculture for the West Indies) opened a discussion on ‘The Resistance of Plants to Insect Attacks.”’ He believed that in many cases pérfectly healthy plants do not afford the best possible condi- . for the life of sucking insects, while the food supply derived from weak or diseased plants may stimulate insects to abnormally quick growth ‘and prolific reproduction. This view was supported by the infestation of thrips on cocoa-trees in the West Indies. Prof. R. D. Watt emphasised the possibility of find- ing strains of cultivated plants immune from insect attack, analogous to those now well known in certain cases as immune from fungus pests. . Mr. C. C. Gowdey z (Uganda) considered good cultural methods as of great ° importance in maintaining the resistant conditions. A cognate subject, ‘Artificial versus Natural Methods of Control of Insect Pests,’’ occupied the conference on Wednesday morning, June 9, when Prof. R. Newstead presided. Mr. F.. W. Urich (Trinidad) opened the discussion with an account of various measures adopted in the, West Indies, of which the distribution by means of spraying machines of fungus spores for the destruction of cercopids on sugar-cane was the most remarkable. Dr. Tillyard regarded spraying with insecticides as an imperfect palliative, and looked hopefully. for results in poisoning aphids and scale-insects from the inoculation of trees with such substances as copper sulphate. Mr. F. Balfour Browne uttered a warning against the possible danger of introducing parasitic insects: into new countries in order that they may prey upon previously introduced plant-feeding insects, but Prof. H. Maxwell Lefrov and Dr. A. D. Imms regarded any danger from this now-established practice as remote. Several interesting papers on more special subjects were read. On the afternoon of Monday, June 7, Mr. G. E. Bodkin save his exnerience of the insect pests of British Guiana, and dwelt on the difficulty of ‘con- NO. 2642, VOL. 105] ' provident fund for the Bureau staff. trolling sugar-cane insects because of their habits ‘of migration. On the same occasion’ Mr. F.’W. Urith described the insect pests of Trinidad, and ‘Mr..H: A; Ballou contributed a general review of conditions in the West Indies. On the afternoon of June “g Dr. MacDougall: lectured’ on ‘Insects in Relation to Afforestation,’’ with lantern illustrations, pointing out the bearing of the feeding habits of common British timber- and bark-beetles upon practical questions ‘of forest management. A discussion involving the uni- formity of habit among insects of the same species in all parts of its range was carried on by Mr. C. F.C. Beeson (India) and Dr. Munro (Board of Forestry); the latter expressed regret that the Scottish and English Scolytidz follow the rules laid down in the classical German text-books of forest entomology. Mr. F. A. Stockdale (Ceylon) followed with an account of the insect pests of tea in that island. On the after- -noon of Wednesday, June 2, when Sir David Prain took the chair, Mr. H. H. Ballou read a’ paper: on ‘Cotton Pests,’? dwelling particularly:on the —boll weevil and the pink bollworm,: the latter’ of ‘which’ caused a loss of 10,000,0001; in Egypt in the year 1917. Cotton insects are controlled by destroying at. the end of the season all material in the field in’ which ‘the species might survive until the next season. Mr. H. H. King described the organisation of. entomo logical work in the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, and’ stated that nine field- laboratories under the charge of trained entomologists would be necessary for the proper working of the area. aH She) Of the special questions discussed the most note- worthy was the tsetse-fly problem, considered at~the meeting on Saturday morning, June 5, appropriately presided over by Sir David Bruce. Several entomo- logists from Africa spoke, including Messrs. R::W. Jack (South Rhodesia), Dr. A. May (North Rhodesia), and Mr. Li. Lloyd and Dr. G. D. H.. Carpenter: (Uganda). An experiment as to. the effect on the fly of the clearance of ‘‘big game’’ from a district in Rhodesia is now being tried. The opinion was ex~ pressed that the result of this will be disappointing, as mammalian blood forms,.as a rule, only a small proportion of the food-supply of Glossina. Dr. Car- penter informed the meeting of the success which had followed the erection of inclined screens, under which hundreds of puparia are found; this means of ‘control was suggested by an observation of the large number of puparia present in the shelter of a blown-down tree. The conference concluded. on Friday, June 11, with a business meeting, at which several resolutions were passed; these may be briefly summarised. (1) A con- ference should be held in London every five years. (2) The Imperial Bureau of Entomology should be established permanently; the cessation or curtailment of its work would be deplorable. (3) The Governments contributing to the expenses of the Bureau should be urged to guarantee their contributions. (4) The funds at present contributed for the upkeep of the Bureau are inadequate; they should be increased so as to pro- vide an income of at least 13,0001. a year. (5) The Colonial Secretary should be requested to establish a (6) The director and committee of the Bureau should have full power to exercise their discretion as to the scope and contents of the publications and the expenditure involved. (7) The director should encourage members of the staff to pay attention to particular groups of insects, especially those for the identification of which no specialist is available. (8) The provision of an adequate number of trained men to carry into effect existing plant-import legislation is of more immediate importance than the revision or’ extension of «such legislation. 504, NALORE [JUNE 17, 1920 Members of the conference. had the privilege of attending .méetings of the Linnean,, Zoological; and Entomological Societies, versazione at the N: tural History Museum, ‘These gatherings, in addition to the three whole-day excur- as, well as the Staff Con- AS STE | | sions to Rothamsted, Oxford, and Cambridge, gave | welcome opportunity for informal discussion and pleasant social intercourse. Much gratification was, felt and expressed at the presence for the first two days of Dr. L. O. Howard, Entomologist of the U.S. Department of Agriculture. His brief, pointed remarks at some of the discussions were much appreciated ; he deplored some recent attempts:to destroy ‘‘ entomo- logy” as a specific economic subject by dividing its subject-matter between ‘‘ parasitology ’’ and ‘‘ phyto- pathology.’’ All who participated appreciated the untiring efforts of Dr. G.. A. K. Marshall and Dr. Neave, of the Imperial Bureau, who before and during the meetings did their utmost for the success of the gathering. On the evening of the closing day the members of the conference were entertained to dinner at Lan- caster House by H.M. Government, Viscount Har- court presiding. Thus was pleasantly and fittingly demonstrated. the increasing recognition of the im- portance of the study and practice of science in rela- tion to the interests and industries of the Empire. G. H. The Selous Memorial at the Natural History Museum. HE movement started in 1917 to perpetuate the memory of the late Capt. F. C. Selous, D.S.O. by a national memorial achieved its aim on Thursday, June to, when Mr. Edward North Buxton, vice-chair- man of the Memorial Committee, himself a great hunter in his day, in the unavoidable absence of the chairman, the Right Hon. E. S. Montagu, M.P., un- veiled) at the Natural History Museum, South Kensington, a bronze bust of Selous—the work of Mr. W. R. Colton, R.A.—before a distinguished and representative gathering. The bust is mounted in a niche of grey granite from the Matoppo Hills, the burial-place of Cecil Rhodes and Sir Starr Jameson, and is the gift of the Union Government of South Africa. It was brought to this country by the Union Castle Line free of all charges. Below the bust is a bas-relief, also in bronze, depict- ing a lion and lioness, and in the distance an elephant, a situtunga, and other big-game animals, symbolical of the interests of the great sportsman and explorer. The granite bears the inscription : ‘Captain Frederick C. Selous, D:S.O., hunter, explorer, and naturalist. Born 1853: Killed in action at Bého-Beho, German East Africa, 4. i. 1917.’’ Mr. Buxton in ‘his speech referred to the qualities of Selous’ which had endeared him to so many friends; and Summarised thesé when: he said that “Selous was a great hunter; and a still. greater gentleman.’ ‘On' behalf of the committee hé asked Viscourit Grey of Fallodon, ‘K.G., and the « other trustees of the mtiseum ‘to accept’ the memorial and to’ preserve it in the museum for all posterity. ‘In ‘his reply Lord Grey ‘stated that in the museum, which - was’’'a’-nationat ‘institution, this” national memorial would be kept ‘and honoured as a memorial to oné Who was a 'grédt explorér, a ‘great ‘traveller, -a great hunter, and, besides’ that, ‘a most brave and single-minded’ and. attractive: character.’ The King sent a message’ to the effect’ that he’ felt that no mote appropriate ‘place than ‘the Natural° History Museum could be selected for a memorial ‘to’ Capt. F. C. Selous. NO. 2642, VOL. 105 | in the conference — the it 4s indeed. in htness. of. things . ‘that “this memorial should have found .a.permanent, place in the museum; for; next to his.own home, there was no place in England which more attracted Selous than the museum, and when he was. in this country he seldom kept away from it for more than a week; sometimes he was a daily visitor. A guard of honour composed of officers and men of the Legion of Frontiersmen, many of whom. had served with Selous in East Africa, and a detachment of the Kensington Division of Boy Scouts were present. The response to the committee’s appeal for funds for the memorial has been so widespread and generous that they have been able to provide. a sum of money for the foundation of a substantial. Selous scholarship at his old school, Rugby, on the basis that preference will be given at each election to the sons of officers who have fallen in the war, and in this connection The Selous Memorial Bust in the Natural History. Museum. On the right hand side of the memorial, not shown here, is the following inscrip- . tion :-—‘* Captain Frederick C. Selous, D.S.O., hunter, explorer. and naturalist. Born _1853, Killed in action at Beho- Beho, German East Africa, 4.i.1917.” it is with uc satisfaction that we learn that in the examination for the scholarship a love and know- ledge of natural history on the part of the candidate will be the deciding : factor. A few words may be said respecting Mrs. Salous’s gift to the nation of her husband’s splendid collection of big-game ttophies‘and ‘of birds’ eggs,: a: gift for which Viscount ‘Grey, on behalf of the trustees, con- veyed ‘to: the donor his. warm thanks, and at. the same -time expressed ‘his high sabia tie of -its, value and importance. ‘The col'ections have now:been cena at the Natural History Museurh; and the big-game specimens are ; in course’ of being catalogued by Mr. Guy Dollman. We understand ‘that ‘it “is ‘the ‘intention: of the: trustees, to publish this catalogue, , a work which cannot fail’ | Jone 17, 1920] “NATURE iso be of abiding interest to naturalists and sports- _ The collection consists of 550 specimens—the ‘part from South and East Africa—of splendid _ It also includes nineteen magnificent lion- and a skull of the South African white rhino- -an extinct species—with exceptionally ~ fine 1 collection of birds’ eggs consists of 7o10 speci- s§ obtained in Great Britain,, Europe, and Asia or. The great feature of the collection is that me S personally took every egg from the nest f. He would never accept any egg or clutch gs offered to him by a friend, nor would he one from a dealer. | neatness and methodical cate with which it inged, to say nothing of (its comprehensive collection is,a particularly, valuable one. i Peas ATER Geek ph eked. a EMS Yh ONG ioe and Educational Intelligence: —On the advice of Sir John Cadman, ointment as a: technical adviser to the on matters relating to coal and petroleum ed, the department of mining is to be re- ‘and extended. - In addition to the new. pro- ining there is to be an assistant-professor technology. It is honed that Sir John Il still retain some connection with the nce. pS: ‘Baise Nit ae W. Burstall has been elected dean of the cience, to succeed Sir John Cadman. _ As briefly announced: last week, a or endowing a school of biochemistry has roved by the High Court of Justice, and has ‘submitted to the University by Sir Jeremiah rt.,.on behalf of the trustees of the late m Dunn, Bart. The residuary estate of Sir Dunn was left in trust for cértain charitable 3, including the alleviation of human suffering. istees - propose, with- that object in ‘view, to e and endow with thé substantial sum of thestudy of biochemistry, one of the funda- ‘sciences of medicine, the progiess of which is fal to the advance of medical knowledge. ng regard to the fact that the study of bio- ry in this country had its first beginnings in‘ Cam- _ bridge, and is at present being carried on there without endowment under Prof. Gowland Hopkins, the trustees _ offer the University 165,o00l. to found the Sir’ William _ Dunn School of Biochemistry. Of this sum they allot 25,0001. to endow a professorship and to,o00l. to endow a readership in biochemistry, the balance to be a used in erecting and equipping ‘an institute of “bio- istry and in providing funds for its maintenance and upkeep and an endowment for research work. - This munificent benefaction is a most “pleasing eer to the work of Prof. Hopkins and his col- versity, has been elected honorary fellow of Jesus College. rah it a hi Mr. J. E. Littlewood, Trinity College, has been appointed Cayley lecturer in mathematics, and Mr. J. H. Grace, Peterhouse, has been’ re-appointed University lecturer in mathematics. bits Special Board for Mathematics has ‘recom: for mended the substitution 6f thermodynamics NO. 2642, VOL. 105 | At the summons of a friend announcing the dis- agues. _ Dr. TG. Adami, Vice-Charcellor 6f Liverpool’ Uni- elementary: optics in Schedule A of Part Il. Mathematical ‘Tripos. . In. conhection with the: coming: meeting of’ the British Medical Association at Cambridge, ‘honorary degrees are proposed for the Master of Pembroke, Sir T. Clifford Allbutt, Jules Bordet, A. Calmette, H. Cushing, S. Flexner, Piero Giacosa,- Major-Gen. Gorgas, Sir George Makins, Sir Patrick Manson; and Sir Norman Moore. vi bees of’ the LivERPOOL.—The council of the University. has appointed Mr. T. R. Wilton as lecturer in dock and harbour engineering, with the title of associate- professor. Mr. Wilton is closely connected with the Liverpool Engineering Society, and has done valuable work, for that body as hon, secretary—a position he has held ‘since 1907. He has been for some. years special lecturer in dock and harbour construction at the, University, has carried out. important inves- tigations on the movement of sand and currents, and .has also taken observations of ‘a practical nature’ on the Mersey. ; Mr. H. Ricuarpson, of the. Municipal College of Technology, Manchester, has been appointed principal of the Bradford Technical College in’ suécession to Prof. W. M. Gardner. ; Tue Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries is open to receive until July 15 nominations for a limited number .of research scholarshivs. in — agricultural science, each tenable for.two years, and of the annual value of 20ol.- Candidates must: be graduates with honours in science of British universities, with evi- dence of high proficiency in subjects having a direct bearing on agriculture, and be nominated by a pro- fessor or lecturer of a university or college. Nomina- tion forms are obtainable from the General Secretary of the Ministry, 72 Victoria Street, S.W.r1. Tue Library Association Record for May contains a paper on ‘‘Technical Libraries and Intelligence’ by Major W. E. Simnet, and also an article on “‘ The Technical Library’’ by Mr. R. Borlase Matthews. Mr. Matthews lays stress on the necessity for making the most recent publications immediately available for reference, and discusses the various ways in which a technical library can be made: accessible to readers. Major Simnet, taking the subject of ret as an example, points out that there are at present in London several libraries containing books and_ periodicals relating to engineering, and that this involves much overlapping which might be avoided-by amalgamation. He also refers to the Transvort Library to be formed . by the Ministry of’ Transport. Such a library would be devoted to all aspects and methods of transporta- tion. The importance of an index of technical litera- ture, possibly on the lines of the International Cata- logue of Scientific Literature, is carefully explained by Major Simnet, who recommends a combination ‘of indexing and abstracting. At the same time he finds that papers on technical subjects become out of date much sooner than papers on purely scientific topics, ‘so that it is less necessaty to’ preserve all titles of technical papers in a permanent index. Major Simnet gives an account of the Technical Review, established since the’ armisti¢e to continue’ the work of: ‘the Technical Supplement, published in 1918 under the auspices of the War Office. As a further contribution to the indexing of technology, the Library Assacia- tion Record for Mav, 1920, contains a subject-index to papers published in 1917-19 on fuel, including gas and petroleum. The list is prepated by the éditors of the ‘*Subject Indéx of Periodicals,’ and is an exaniple of the thoroughness which their work always exhibits. ra NATURE [June 17, 1920 OnE ot the problems at present confronting the Ministry of Agriculture is the provision of advice and supervision for the smallholder. This problem has become more acute now that so many of the men settling on the land are lacking, either partly or alto. gether, in knowledge of the theory and practice of horticulture. When the question arose of appointing organisers to instruct these men and to look after their. interests, it was found that the number of candi- dates qualified to fill such posts was extremely limited. A man who is to organise the horticultural instruction of a county should have a knowledge of the scientific side of the subject as well as of its practical side. Quite apart from this question of supplying instruc- tion for smallholders, it is obviously desirable, in view | of the rapidly increasing importance of horticulture in this country, that the prospective fruit-farmer or market-gardener should be able to obtain instruction in his subject as scientific and comprehensive as that which can be so readily obtained nowadays by the prospective agriculturist. In order that such instruc-e tion may be available, the Ministry of Agriculture has made it possible for the University of Cambridge to establish a degree in horticulture and a post-graduate diploma. The course for the degree will extend over three years, and will consist of instruction in the theory and practice of commercial fruit- and vegetable- growing, the practical side of the subject being treated no less fully than its theoretical aspect. It is hoped that the course for the diploma will provide men qualified for research work in horticulture. Hitherto there has been a dearth of such men owing to difficulty in obtaining suitable training, and research work in connection with an important in- dustry has therefore been greatly hampered. The courses will commence in October next, and informa- tion concerning them can be obtained from the Secre- tary, School of Agriculture, Cambridge. Societies and Academies. LONDON. Zoological Society, June 1.—Sir Sidney F. Harmer, vice-president, in the chair.—Dr. G. M._ Vevers: Report on the Entozoa collected from animals which had died’in the society’s menagerie during the past nine. months.—Dr. W. T. Calman: Notes on marine wood-boring animals. I.: The shipworms (Tere- dinidz). CAMBRIDGE. Philosophical Society, May 17.—Mr. C. T. R. Wilson, president, in the chair.—Dr. F. W. Aston: The atomic nature of matter in the light of modern physics, MANCHESTER. Literary and Philosophical Society, May 18.—Mr. R. L. Taylor, vice-president, in the chair.—W. Thomson and H. S. Newman: Further notes on the filamentous growths from aluminium. amalgams. Experiments to determine the ratio of the mercury to i1oo parts of alumina were detailed, and descriptions of erratic growths given. The action of mercury on zinc was compared with its action on aluminium.—Prof. Svdney Chapman: The effects of lunar tides on the earth’s atmosphere. The barometric: pressure shows a very minute tidal variation with the period of half a lunar day. This variation can be determined only by a difficult process of averaging out other regular and irregular variations from ‘long series of hourly barometric -observations. so that data from very few stations are available. The author described and dis- cussed their theoretical significance. Many questions NO. 2642, VOL. 105 | suggested by the data have as yet received no satis. 4a} factory answer, but their elucidation, as further data accumulate, should add to our knowledge of the atmo- _ j sphere in some important respects.—Dr. R. S. Willows: Transverse section of cotton fibre illustrating Balls’s daily growth rings. : Paris. Academy of Sciences, May 31.—M. Henri Deslandres in the chair.—G. A, Boulenger: Remarks on the note of M. Ad. Davy de Virville concerning the species Primula elatior, acauwlis, and officinalis.—Ch. Gautier ; A sundial giving legal time throughout the year with a sufficient approximation for ordinary purposes, as well as the approximate date. The dial described and illustrated gives the legal time within about one minute. At the equinoxes it gives the exact date, but at the solstices only an approximation to the date. —Alex. Véronnet : The equilibrium figures of a liquid in rotation. Order of succession of the critical figures of bifurcation.—M.. T. Huber: The generalisation of a theorem of M. Mesnager concerning the sense of the displacements of a rectangular plate.—J. Fallow: The expansion caused by Joule’s effect at the contact of two solids. Two metals in contact when heated electrically’ expand proportionally to the square of the current or to the heat developed by the Joule effect.— A, Guillet: An auto-ballistic astronomical pendulum. An attempt to realise the conditions laid down by Lippmann and B. Baillaud, the impulses bein supplied by induced currents.—M. Girousse: The cal- culation of currents causing electrolysis in metallic masses near an electric traction line—F. Vlés: Con- tribution .to the study of absorption based on the properties of the nitrophenols. By the application of formule given in a previous communication it is shown how the absorption spectrum of a compound can be calculated from its composition.—F. Bourion ; Kinetic study of the chlorination of benzene. The effects of rate of supply of chlorine, concentration of the benzene in chlorobenzene, and of temperature upon the reaction velocity were examined separately. —L. Vignon: The resistance of tissues to light and ultra-violet rays. Linen and silk tissues were e to sunlight and to ultra-violet rays (Heraeiis quartz and the — changes in the strength, as measured by the breaking © load, determined. The silk fabric showed greater lamp) under dry and moist conditions, resistance than the linen to the effects of exposure.— E. E. Blaise: The action of hydrazine on the 1:4 acyclic diketones. Details are given of the products of the reactions between hydrazine and acetonylacetone and hydrazine and dipropionylethane.—A. Gascard : Ceryl alcohol and cerotic acid from China wax. The wax, after a preliminary purification, was saponified by potash in alcohol-benzene solution. the cerotic acid precipitated as calcium. salt, and. the ceryl alcohol recovered from the filtrate. Brodie’s formula for the alcohol was confirmed by preparation and analysis of ceryl iodide, C,-H,.T, and for cerotic acid by oxida- tion of the alcohol and bv its acidity figure.—A. Guilliermond ; Observations on the living chondriome of one of the Saprolegniaceze.—L. Daniel: A new race of Asphodelus obtained by the action of a marine — climate. A description of the changes in type pro- duced in Asphodelus luteus by twentv years’ cultiva- tion on the sea-coast. only be reproduced by subdivision of the roots, but also by growing from seed.—P. Ammann: The great richness in nitrogenous matter of certain maniocs from Cambodge.—A. Chevalier: Researches on pear- — trees, walnuts, and chestnuts of the cooler parts of Indo-China and the south of China.—E. Fotx: Necrosis of the stem of the potato attacked by the The modified plant can not — J § eae ee — > ee ene eee Oe oN Om eg se Ma eae oT a NATURE isease potato, leaf-roll,—P. Portier: Regeneration of the . testicle in the pigeon deprived of: vitamines.— Pm... Hollande: Q:nocytoids and teracytes in the a od of caterpillars.—E. Fauré-Fremiet: The action of different chemical compounds on the pulmonary - epithelial cell.—A. Mayer, H. Magne, and L. Plantefol : _ Reflex action produced by the irritation of the deeper _ respiratory tracts. The antagonism of this reflex with that caused by the irritation, of the upper respiratory peeeeees C- Bertrand and Mme. Rosenblatt: The action of chloropicrin upon yeast. and Saccharomyces #. A concentration of 1 milligram of chloropicrin r litre is sufficient to slow down fermentation by yeast, and 5 to 6 milligrams ger litre completely arrests the production of alcohol. Saccharomyces vini is even more sensitive, growth being, stopped by ok milligram of chloropicrin per litre. *" Pe Care Town. tt gt Royal Society of South Africa, April 21.—Dr.J.D.F. Gilchrist, president, in the chair.—L. Péringuey : Note _ ‘on the whales frequenting South African waters. The ° author describes the various whales which are known to frequent the coasts of South Africa. The number _ of these is still under discussion. The fact is now ‘specifically . identical with the Southern whales, and exception of Balaenoptera Brydei, is a well-established . _ animals we ic well established. that certain Northern whales are. are the kinds of: whales found on the South African | senting That they are migrants, perhaps with the | fact, but what is probably less known is that the. to warmer equatorial waters to breed or . they are intercepted on their way there | fon the Antarctic or on their return:the multiplica-_ f : Overgrowths on diamond. In this paper the author discusses in detail overgrowths of calcite, bort of various kinds, graphite; and diamond on diamond. why certain diamonds from yellow ground are not a ee ey a ‘tion of the species will be greatly hindered, to say the | _ least. People interested in the whaling industry admit | _ that some measure of protection is nectessary.—J. R. ‘Experiments were made with the object of determining | ‘separated from the concentrates on the grease tables, . the conclusion: being reached that carbonate of. lime | sator gravel. A clear diamond is readily wetted a solution of carbonate of soda, but not by pure . pater: Overgrowths of graphite and of black bort are common, and define per saltum stages of crystal- lisation. Thirteen specimens of ‘“‘hailstone ’’- struc- forms ‘a coating on a diamond surface, causing | “the diamond to behave like a common mineral in the | ture are described. Laminated diamonds appear to. be examples of overgrowth of diamond on diamond _ with interposing planes of colouring matter.—J. R.. Sutton: Some statistics of thunder and lightning at _ Kimberley. The author gives tables of the results of | eye and ear observations of thunder and lightning | ‘made at Kimberley during the twenty-three ‘years 1897 to 1919, and classifies the storms according to. ‘the ‘classification given by Ley. A phenomenon of interest is the ‘‘smell’’ of a thunderstorm. The author observed this only once strongly in Kimberley. | Europe and eighteenth centuries has many allusions to the “sulphureous smell’’ of lightning.—S. H. Skaife : Notes on some South African Entomophthoracee. The material used by the author was collected at ‘Cedara, Natal, in 1919 and 1920. The great majority of the family are parasitic on insects. The author déscribes and figures South African ‘species of Ento- -mophthoraceze and his experiments of cultivating them from dead and dying flies and grasshoppers and of infecting insects from the cultures. NO. 2642, VOL. 105] | an meteorological literature of the seventeenth | ‘U.S. Army. nvm Books Received. Banff and District. By A: E. Mahood.’ Edited by ‘Dr. E. I.’ Spriggs. Pp. xvi+388. (Banff: Banft- shire Journal, Ltd.) The Glow-worm and Other Beetles. By J. H. Fabre. Translated by A. T. de’ Mattos. Pp. viii+ 488. (London: Hodder and Stoughton, Ltd.) 8s. 6d. net. A Geographical Bibliography of British Ornithology ‘from the Earliest Times to the End of 1918. By W. H. Mullens, H. Kirke Swann, and Rev. F. C. R. Jourdain. Part 4. Pp. 289-384. "(London : Witherby and Co.) ‘6s. net. : The Ascent of Man. Pp. 74. (London: The Horniman Museum.) 6d. Airplane Photography. By Major H. E. Ives, Pp. 422. J. B. Lippincott Co.) 18s. net. The Nation’s Food: A _ Statistical Study of a Physiological and Social Problem. By Prof. Raymond Pearl. Pp. 274. (Philadelphia and London : W:; B. Saunders Co.) 16s. net. Co-Education and its Part in a Complete “Educa- (Philadelphia and’ London : tion. By J. H. Badley. Pp. 39. (Cambridge : LW. Heffer and Sons, Ltd.) 2s. net. The Year-Book of the Scientific and‘ Learned Societies of Great Britain and Ireland. Thirty-sixth ‘Annual Issue. Pp. vii+336. (London: C. Griffin and Co., Ltd.) 12s. 6d. net. The Organisation of Industrial Scientific” Research. By Dr. C. E. Kenneth Mees. Pp. ix+175. _ (New York and London : McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc.) 12s. Memoirs of the Geological Survey, Scotland : The Economic Geology of the Central Coalfield of Scot- land. Description of Area VII. By the late Dr. C. T. Clough and others. Pp. viit144. (Edinburgh : H.M.S.O.) 7s. 6d. net. Memoirs of the Geological Survey. Special Reports on the Mineral Resources of Great Britain. Vol. vi. Second edition. Pp. vit241. (London: H.M.S.O.) 7s. 6d. net. Contributions from the Jefferson Physical Labora- tory and from the Cruft High-tension’ Electrical Laboratory of Harvard University for the Years 1916, 1917, and 1o18. Vol. xiii. (Cambridge, Mass.) A Naturalist on the Amazons. By H.W. Bates. Abridged and edited for schools by Dr. F. A. Bruton. Pp. xix+182. (London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd.) 2s. 6d. Tables of the Motion of the Moon. By Prof. E. W. Brown, with the assistance of H. B. Hedrick, , Sec- tions i. and ii. Pp. xiii + 140+39. Section iii. Pp. 223. Sections iv., v., and vi. Pp. 99+56+102. (New Haven, Conn. : Yale University Press; London: Oxford University Press.) 4 guineas net. Outlines of the Geology of Brazil. to accompany the Geologic Mav of Brazil. By J. ©. Branner. Second edition. Pp. 189-338+plates. (N.Y. City: Geological Society of America.) 3.35 dollars. War against Tropical Disease. By Dr. A. Balfour. (London: — Bailliére, Tindall, and Cox.) 12s. 6d. net. The New Psychology and its Relation to Life. By A. G. Tansley. Pp. 283. (London: George Allen and Unwin, Ltd.) tos. 6d. net. A Guide to the Old Observatories at, Delhi. Tafpur, Ujjain, Benares. Bv G. R. Kaye. Po. vii+ 108+ xv nlates. (Calcutta: Sunt. Govt. Printing, India.) ‘BS: 6d. A Guide to the Identification of our more Useful Timbers. Bv H. Stone. Pp. viiits2+7 plates. (Cambridge: At the University Press.) 7s: ‘6d: net. 508 NATURE [ JUNE 7 For the General Reader. Elgie’s Weather Book : (London: The Wire- By J. H. Elgie. Pp. xii+251. bade Press, Ltd:)- 5s. net. Structural and Field Geology. By Dr. J. Geikie. Fourth ‘edition. Pp. xxiv+454+1xix plates. (Edin- burgh: Oliver and Boyd; London: Gurney and Jackson.) 24s. net. The Evolution of a Coast-Line : Barrow to Aberyst- wyth and the Isle of Man, with Notes on Lost Towns, Submarine Discoveries, etc. By W. Ashton. Pp. xvi+302. (London: Edward Stanford, Ltd.) ros. net. ~ Allgemeine Erkenntnislehre. By M. Schlick. Pp. x+346. (Berlin: J. Springer.) 18 marks. Letters of Travel. By Rudyard Kipling. Pp. vit+_ 284. (London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd.) 7s. 6d. net. The Revels of Orsera: A Medieval Romance. By Sir Ronald Ross. Pp. vi+393. (London: John Murray.) 7s. net. The Grouv Mind. By W. McDougall. Pp. xvi+ 304. (London: Cambridge University. Press.) 215. net. Malaria at Home and Abroad. By “Drege. 2, James. Pp. xi+234.. (London: John Bale, Ltd.) 25s. net, The End of the World. By J. McCabe. Pp. vii+ 267. (London: G. Routledge and Sons, Ltd.) 6s. net. ee Capen By Dr. D. Cow. Pp.. viiit+ 132. (London: J. and A. Churchill.) 7s. 6d. net. . Oil-Finding. Second edition. Edward Arnold.) 16s.. net. ' Forest Management. By Prof. A. B. Recknagel and Prof. J. Bentlev, Jr. Pp. xiiit+269+ iii plates. (New York: J. Wiley and Sons, Inc.; London: Chapman.and Hall,..Ltd.) . 13s. 6d. net, a Aeronautics. By Prof. E. B. Wilson. Pp. vii+ 265. (New York: J. Wiley and Sons, Inc. ; London : Chapman and Hall, Ltd.) 22s. net. ig, By .E. . H.. Cunningham Craig. Po. xi+ 324+ xiii plates. (London : Diary of Societies. | THURSDAY, Jone 17 Roya Society, at 4.30.—Prof. W. Bateson : Genetic Segregation (Croonian Lecture). Linnean Society, at 5.—Celebration ei the Centenary of Sir Joseph Banks, Bart. (1743-1820).—Dr. aydon Jackson: Banks as a-Tra- veller.—Dr, A. B. Rendle: Banks as a Patron of Science.—J. Britten : Banks as a Botanist. Roya CoLLeGe oF Paysictans or Lonpon, at 5.—Dr. A. F. ‘Hurst : The Loan of the Special Senses and their Hysterical Disorders(Croonian ecture Rovat Society oF Mepicine (Dermatology Section), at. 5. CueEmIcAL Society (at Institution of Mechanical Engineers), at 8.—Prof. J. C. McLennan: Helium. Harveian Society or Lonpon (at Medical Society), at 8.30.—Dr. E. G. Little: Differential Diagnosis of some Common Skin Eruptions. Society oF ANTIQUARIES, at 8.30. i _ FRIDAY, June 38. AINSTITUTION OF : SANITARY ENGINEERS (at #ulhor Restaurant), at ' 1x-30a.m.—The President: The Institution and its Future.—A. J. Martin: Sanitary Socialism. At 2.30:—T. Robertson: Poured Concrete Construction.—G. W. Chilvers: Health, Wealth, and Housing.—A. P. I. Cotterell: A Glimpse at Domestic Engineering in some of the Eastern States of America. Roya Society or-Arts (Indian Section), at 4.30.—Sir Valentine Chirol : The Enduring, Power of Hinduism (Sir George Birdwood Memoria! Lecture). GroPpHysICAL CoMMITTEE (at Royal Astronomical Society), at’ 5. ae -mander-H. D, Warburg, -Prof..H. Lamb, Dr. J. Proudman, Dr. A. Doodson, Major A. J. Wolff, and H. L. P. Jolly: Discussion on Tides, ‘Society or Tropica, Mepicine AND Hycieng (Annual General Meeting), at 8.30.—Dr. F. H. Stewart : Recent Work.on Round-worm Infection. SATURDAY, June 19. : British 'Psycuorocicat Sociery (at University College, Gower Street), at 3.30.—Dr. J. Drever : The Emotional Phases of Affective Experience. PuysioLocicaL Society (at Physiological Laboratory, University of London, South: Kensington), at 4.30.—G. Aurepand C, Lovatt Evans.: The Mode of Action of Vaso-dilator Nerves.—C. Lovatt Evans’: The Lactic Acid Content of Plain Muscle. MONDAY, Jone 21. Rovar GEOGRAPHICAL Soctery (at Eolian ‘Hall), at 8.3 +30. saalaine L. FSI. Athill: Through South-west Abyssinia to the Nile. NO. 2642, VOL. 105 | Roya INSTITUTE or Bririsu ARCHITECTS, at 8.3 ARISTOTELIAN SOcteETy (at 74 Grosvenor tena at 3§.—Miss besitos Edgell : Memory and Conation, it. ‘TUESDAY, iene 22. seins CouLEGE.or PHYSICTANS OF ._LONDON, at ‘ical: A. F. Hurst: The. Psychology of the Special, Senses and their Hysterical Disorders sles (Croonian Lecture). Roya AERONAUTICAL Soctery (at Central. Hall,: Westminster), at — Comdr. unsaker: Naval Architecture in Aeronautics (Wilkar Wright Lecture). WEDNESDAY June 2 Geoxocicat Socirty or Lonpon, at thet Holtedahl: The Scandi- navian ‘f Mountain Problem.” INSTITUTION OF EL&CTRICAL ENGINEERS Ned devi Section). (at Institu- tion of Mechanical Engineers), at 6.—B. S. Gossling : The Development of Lhermionic Valves for Naval Uses. THURSDAY, Junk 24. Royat Society, at 4.30.—Probable Papers. —Sir Ray Laake Some Rostro-carinate Flint [implements and Allied Forms.—Lord Ray —. A Re-examination of the Light scattered by Gases in r Polarisation. xperiments on the Common Gases.—A, oped Note on the Influence of ‘Temperature on the Rigidity of Metals.— Drs. E. F. rane and T. P. Hilditch: A Study of eg boed Actions at Solid Surfaces. Tne Rate of Change condition ickel Catalyst and its cde on the Law of Mass Action.—Dr. Somreys : \ Tidal Friction in Shallow Seas.—Other Papers. LINNEAN Society oF LONDON, at 5.—Dr. She - Skottsberg: Recent ' “Researches on the Antarctic Flora.—Dr. R ‘Villyard : —" Institute, New Zealand, and its Biological Function, Oi AND Cotour Cuemists’ Associa TION (at Food R lub, 2, Furnival Street), at 7.30.—A. E. Bawtill: (1) A Hy decomatee te Determinations of Pastes and Viscous Materials; (2 A Vi which iscometer Combines Increased Efficiency with the Power of "Measuring “Stickiness” Independently of Viscosity. FRIDAY, Jue 25. Puysicat Society or Lonpon, at 5.—Dr. J. H. Vincent: His aig ot the Elements.—W. H. Wilsonand Miss T. D. Epps: The of Thermo-couples by Electro-deposition.—J. Guild: The Use of Vacuum Ares for Interferometry.—-S. Butterworth: The Maintenance of a Vibrating System by Means of a Triode Valve. CONTENTS. University Stipends and Pensions ........- 477 Aerography . gis Paper-making and its "Machinery. ‘Sindall ... The Structure of the ‘Nucleus. - By 1 Sa ee ee a Our Bookshelf’. 0) 2 0. 3 eee 483 ‘Letters to the Editor :— London University Site and Needs. —Sir E. ~— Schafer, F.R/S. High Rates of Ascent of Pilot- Ballepi "(With j Dingram.)—Dr. W. van Bemmelin . — . . 485 A New Method for Approximate Evaluation of \ Definite Integrals between Finite Limits. —Com- 0" ee mander Thos, Y. Baker’ . . ee or) The Royal Military Academy.—J. Young. ... . 486 The Separation of the Isotopes of Chior e 2 Chapman, F.R.S.. + ee ate eee A Note on Telephotography. fins) 488 Recent Researches on Nebulae. * iiteSteatéay ‘By x Major William J. S. Lockyer... 489 The Importance of Meteorology in Gunnery. By Dr. E. M. Wedderburn .°..¢ . 3) oe eee ee Obituary :— Ss. Reannes F.R.S.—Prof, G. H. ae F. R.S e's 494 Principal Sir John Herkless, 'D. .D., Li, D. eivine AOS Notes. 5.5: - (jag aa he epee Our Astronomical Column :— ee ten ue , The, Masses. of the Stars: «0: 5). ge) Sau aun OO 4 . The Planet Jupiter . .. =. We Cet Te Parallax Work at the Sproul ‘Observatory | Sar pee ede OO The Nuclear Constitution of Atoms. By Sir Ernest Rutherford, F.R.S. . oe eepet OO The Rockefeller Gift to Medical "Science, "By Prof. W. M. Bayliss, F.R.S. jae AOI The Permanent Value of University Benefactions . 501 The Imperial eerie. Conference, ‘By - ‘G: H.C, » 502 The Selous Memorial at “the Natural. History, Museum.: (Illustrated.) . : wh eee University and’ Educational Intelligence . higates ae ‘Societies and Academies. . Books‘ Received... «+. 5 «be eye = wove eed Diary of Societies, 5. ta ses oe 8 te Peat eee pi Spit! ‘ . ow eer, fw S THURSDAY, JUNE 24, 1920. Editorial and Publishing Offices: oes MACMILLAN & CO., LTD., ST. MARTIN’s STREET, LONDON, W.C.2. Mdvcztisemnents and business letters should be addressed to the Publishers. Editorial communications to the Editor. Telegraphic Address: PHUSIS, LONDON. Telephone Number: GERRARD 8830. _ University and Higher Technical . Education. “9N 1881 Mr. Mundella, then Vice-President | of the Council, and consequently respon- sible for the policy of the Board of Educa- tion, with full knowledge as a manufacturer of the great growth, since the Franco- “German war of 1870, of manufacturing industry ‘in all parts of Germany, and sensible of the in- creasing unrest in British industry caused thereby, ‘induced the Government of the day to appoint a ‘Royal Commission “to inquire into the instruc- ‘tion of the industrial classes of certain foreign countries in technical and other subjects for the purpose of comparison with that of the corre- ‘sponding classes in this country, and into the ‘influence of such instruction on manufacturing and ‘other industries at home and abroad.” The ‘members of the Commission were chosen from representatives of important industries and others engaged in scientific education. They undertook an extensive and exhaustive inquiry into the con- ‘ditions and range of the teaching of pure and ‘applied science in the chief European countries and in the United States, and visited also the Universities and colleges and some of the chief ‘schools and workshops of the United Kingdom. “After three years’ investigation they produced in ‘1884 an exceedingly full and valuable report, - which was widely circulated in this and other countries. . The report laid bare our serious deficiency as aikcaired with the great facilities afforded by foreign Governments, especially those of Ger- many, Switzerland, and the United States, and it aroused a widespread interest in industrial and ‘educational circles, leading, after a considerable lapse of time, to the passing of the Technical Instruction Acts.of 1889.and ‘1890, which’ egsulted NO. 2643, VOL. 105 | a NATURE in the iabiah vsti of many important ee schools throughout the kingdom. We have undoubtedly made great progress in science and in its industrial applications during the past generation, but not less marked has been the advance of German industry, which in some spheres of manufacture, notably those of dyes and fine chemicals, in optical glass, and in certain branches of electrical engineering, easily held the first place. The events of the war have demon- strated the resourcefulness of British men of science, inventors, and manufacturers, who to a surprising extent, as shown by the exhibitions held, under the auspices of the British Science Guild, at King’s College, London, in 1918, and at the Central Hall, Westminster, in t919, met the extraordinary demand made upon their know- ledge, ingenuity, skill, and adaptability. The time is now again ripe for inquiry as to the means and resources of the kingdom, especially from the point of view of a due supply of adequately educated and equipped men of science to be engaged in industry and commerce, to meet the inevitable industrial and commercial competition which will arise on the resumption of normal con- ditions and of free intercourse between nation and nation. The strength of this competition may be illus- trated in the instance of a highly specialised pro- duct. The balance sheets for 1919 of three of the principal aniline dye companies of Germany are now available. At the nominal rate of exchange, F. Bayer and Co. show a net profit of 1,450,000l., against 654,000l. in 1918; Meister, Lucius and Co., 1,210,000l., as compared with 750,o00l. in 1918; whilst the Berlin Colour Works declare a divi- dend of 18 per cent., as against 12 per cent. in 1918. On the other hand, the sum available for dividend in the British Dyestuffs Corporation is only 172,505]. The report of this company states that there is an unprecedented demand upon it for dyestuffs in both quantity and variety, to meet which requires increased efforts in the direction of production and research. It is recognised that it is of paramount importance to have a depart- ment where research work can be carried out along the most modern and scientific lines, and “to encourage those engaged on the scientific and research side of the industry. The production of dyes of high quality in an end- less variety of shades, in which the German firms have excelled because of their unlimited com- mand of high-class scientific and technical ability, Oy eke Mae an. F 510 NATURE [JUNE 24, 1920 the fruit of Germany’s technical high schools and universities, is, like some other imported products, essentially a ‘“‘key” industry, and therefore a dominant factor in the manufacture of finished textiles, which to a very large extent are exported by us to foreign markets, there to meet in com- petition the goods of other countries. Having regard to’ the prime necessity of increasing the supply of competent graduates for scientific indus- trial research, the British Science Guild carefully investigated the subject, and last year issued a report (which has been widely distributed to mem- bers of the Government, to the Universities, and to many leaders of industry and commerce) on industrial research and the supply of trained scien- tific workers. It was shown that in 1914 the number of full-time students of University stand- ard and of students of science and technology in the United Kingdom was relatively small as com- pared with the number of similar students in the United States and in Germany; and further, that the financial resources of Universities in the British. Isles are very much below those of the other countries. Two of the provincial Universi- ties—namely, Manchester and Liverpool—are now engaged’ in the endeavour to raise the sum of 650,000l. and 1,000,000l. respectively to enable them to extend their operations so as to meet in some measure the demands made upon them, espe- cially in the departments of science and techno- logy. Leeds and other centres of higher educa- tion are also appealing for monetary aid. There should be, as in 1881-84, a systematic national survey of the conditions now existing and of the requirements necessary to ensure the satisfactory progress of industry and commerce in the United Kingdom. The circumstances aris- ing out of the war have brought about an entire and welcome change of outlook on the part of British manufacturers engaged in the chief indus- tries of the country, evidence of which is to be found case how such an effect Ry 28 arise if a magnet _ ree from the influence ~~ \e were in a uniform field and of neighbouring magnets. In these circumstances, when the vibrations exceed 130° on either side of — the position of rest, or if the vibrations pass into ~ rotations, then the magnet will appear to be dia- magnetic, because the average time during which the positive and negative poles are in the diamagnetic position is ca ed than the average time during which they are in the paramagnetic position. : Honda (Phys. Rev., Ser. 2, xiii., 1919) has recently examined at length the effect of all the possible rota- tional movements of a magnet in his kinetic theory of magnetism, and, with certain assumptions as to the shape of the atom, comes to the same conclusion. Applying this result to a paramagnetic atom, it is possible that such an atom, in virtue of its motion, may appear to be diamagnetic, and the fact that hydrogen is diamagnetic may be quite consistent with — Bohr’s Baramagnetic model of the atom. The kind of diamagnetism here considered, which may be called pseudo-diamagnetism, differs from that due to induced electric currents in the atom, which may be regarded as true diamagnetism. Pseudo- diamagnetism will be subject to variation with changes of temperature and with the state of aggrega- tion of the atoms, while true diamagnetism is probably independent of these. If the diamagnetism of hydrogen should be found to change at a very low temperature and in a very strong field, it would show that the diamagnetism of — this gas was probably an effect of the motion of its atoms, and such a result would indirectly help to confirm Bohr’s view of the structure of the atom by removing a difficulty. J. R. AsHwortnH. Rochdale, June 8. A Stalked Parapineal Vesicle in the Ostrich. THE ostrich chick on hatching displays an oval, — dark-coloured, bare patch towards the hind part of the. head. Later, it tends to be hidden by the thick growth of hair-like feathers which cover the head In a paper on | i | _ Jone 24, 1920] a NATURE 517 | generally, but even in the adult it can always be _ recognised by turning the feathers aside. Its position x gests that it is in some way associated with the pineal body, and dissection reveals a large pineal _ gland directly beneath, though wholly cut off by the _ skull. Early stages in the developing chick disclose a _ yet more remarkable formation in the same region, __ which leaves no doubt that the bare patch is really a brow t or pineal spot, the ostrich being the only _ bird in. which a permanent structure of this kind has Ostrich embryos of about twenty-six days’ incuba- _ tion—the full period being forty-two days—display a Fic. 1. large pedunculate vesicle projecting from the middle of the bare patch, surrounded by developing feathers & (Fig. 1). The stalk is thick, deeply pigmented, and 4 rounded above, but irregular in outline below, while the vesicle is thin-walled and almost transparent, the _ whole structure strongly suggesting a stalked eye. The outgrowth persists for a few days only, but all ostrich chi from about twenty to thirty days’ in- __ eubation reveal one stage or another in its develop- . ment or retrogression. kg oscopic sections through the fully developed organ reveal the condition represented in Fig. 2. The _* Fic. 2. stalk is solid and broad below, with a thick epidermis produced into small, irregular fimbriations and deeply pigmented, while the vesicle is extremely thin-walled and filled with a coagulable fluid. The underlying dermal tissue is continued unchanged into. the stalk, but below it has undergone a peculiar sclerose modi- fication. The whole structure is thus tegumental and destitute of any special nervous or sensory elements. Beneath it, but not represented in. the figure, is the well-developed pineal gland resting upon the pouch- like dorsal sac. Before the vesicle is fully formed, sections reveal that the basal part of the stalk is double, as if two stalks have become fused, but only NO. 2643, VOL. 105] one has elongated, and ends in the vesicle. At a late stage in retrogression the two components are quite distinct. A pedunculate vesicle, arising from the middle of the head, renders the ostrich unique among birds as well as among the entire vertebrate. series. Its general association, however, leaves no doubt that it is a part of the pineal complex. The latter has, there- fore, been investigated from the earliest chick stage, and many significant. features have been disclosed. The primary pineal vesicle or epiphysis appears about the third day of incubation as a simple, globular, median outgrowth of the roof of the thalamen- cephalon; later, it forms a dense follicular system, and communication with the third ventricle is lost. At the time of its formation a small, solid upgrowth takes place just anterior to it, and situated on the right side, afterwards becoming tubular and detached, and extending upwards and forwards over the left cerebral hemisphere. All the evidence points to this as a vestigeal parapineal organ, arising in close associa- tion with the pineal organ, but detached from it. It disappears about the tenth day of incubation. 2 eee alee Ee SY, en ee 7 Teachers for. the: ensuing year. ; "Dr. W: N. Hawortn has been’ appointed to the been elected president of the Association of University chair of organic chemistry at Armstrong. College, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, in succession to Prof. § Ske See ceca pon reruanee NO. 2643, VOL. 105] been | is to be “Pror. J. StRoNG, of the University of Leeds, has Dr. V. J. HaRDING, associate-professor of biological and physiological chemistry. at McGill. University, has! been appointed professor of pathological chemistry in the University of Toronto. ; Mr. J. W. Scorr, lecturer in moral phildsophy in‘ the University of Glasgow, has been appointed pro- ’ fessor of logic and philosophy in the University Col- lege of South Wales and Monmouthshire. ° ° 4 A SUMMER school of librarianship is to be held at Bristol from August 30 to September 11, under the auspices of the University of London School of Librarianship. Some twenty-five papers have been promised for delivery. Tue Report of the Librarian of Congress for the year ending June 30, 1919, shows that the work of the principal library in the United States was carried on with success during the war in spite of great difficulties. Members of the staff died in the war and \ others have not returned, or have resigned on finding more lucrative work elsewhere. The work has also been hindered by a general rise in prices. The number of printed books now in the library is about 2,700,000. The Library of Congress prints a card catalogue of its books, which is justly valued for its accuracy. By June 30, 1918, the number of different titles in this card-index was 789,000. The average stock of each card was 75 copies, making the total number of cards in stock 60,000,000. The number of subscribers to these cards is 2693, and the sale of cards for the year produced 73,000 dollars. A large number of Chinese books has recently. been purchased. The Chinese section is a unique feature of the library, and now contains no fewer than 887 Chinese official geographical gazetteers. These gazetteers are of great value in the study of the industry, art, agriculture, and geography of China. The report invites executors or others who may possess manuscript papers relating to persons of national importance in politics, science, literature, or art to submit these papers for examination. The librarian undertakes to return papers of a strictly per- sonal or family character, and to preserve any valu- able material that might otherwise be lost or destroved. Societies and Academies. LONDON. Royal Society, June to.—Sir J. J. Thomson, presi- dent, in the chair.—A. V. Hill and W. Hartree: The thermo-elastic properties of muscle. The em- ployment of a thermopile in a carefully closed-in chamber, immersed in well-stirred water inside a double-walled vacuum flask, together with photo- graphic registering of the galvanometer response, has made it possible to record the thermal consequences of stretching a muscle (or a piece of indiarubber) or of releasing a muscle already stretched. When a muscle, alive or dead, is stretched, heat is liberated in relatively large amount at first, but at a rapidly diminishing rate. When a_ stretched muscle is released, there is at first a rapid absorption of heat, followed by a more prolonged evolution of heat. In a complete cycle of lengthening and shortening the net result is a production of heat. which is greater the longer the interval between the two processes. These thermo-elastic effects are large enough to afford a notable complication in the measurement of the heat-production of a live muscle excited to contract. . Their explanation is as foilows :—(a) The muscle, like a fiddle-string, shortens on being warmed ; conversely, ° according to the second law, it will warm on being 538 NATURE [JuNE 24, 1920 | stretched and cool on being released. This explains the initial effects. (b) The muscle, like other colloidal jellies, takes some time to reach an _ equilibrium length on being stressed; consequently, on stretching it more work is done, and on releasing it less work is obtained than is accounted for by the elastic potential. energy existing in it when it has reached its. full equilibrium length. The balance in either case appears as an irreversible production of heat. This accounts for the secondary effects. The phenomena appear to be of physical as well as of physiological interest.— Sir James Dobbie and J. J. Fox: The absorption of light by elements in the state of vapour: Selenium and tellurium. In a previous communication (Proc. A, 1919, vol. xcv., p. 484) it was shown that the absorp- tion of light by sulphur vapour reaches a maximum at a temperature of about 650° C., and that at this temperature the vapour density corresponds with the average molecular weight S;. Selenium and tellurium behave much in the same way as sulphur, the absorp- tion increasing up to a certain temperature, above which it again diminishes. In the case of selenium the maximum absorption occurs between 650° C. and 700° C., and vapour-density determinations show that the ayerage molecular weight at this point corresponds to Se,. With tellurium the maximum absorption is found to occur about 1200° C. The vapour of this element consists of, diatomic molecules at 1800° C., but nothing is known of its constitution at lower temperatures. Its general similarity, however, to sulphur and selenium. as regards absorption of light renders it highly probable that at 1200° C., and below this temperature, the vapour is much more complex than at 1800°.C. The absorption spectra of selenium and tellurium are marked by the presence of large numbers.of sharp narrow bands, and that of tellurium shows a. wide absorption band of which the centre is approximately at 4 3800.—Sir James Dobbie and J. J. Fox: The absorption of light by elements in the state of yapour: .Mercury, cadmium, zinc, phosphorus, arsenic, and antimony. These elements, unlike those of the sulphur group, do not show channelled absorp- tion spectra. when the Nernst filament is used-as the source of light. Mercury, cadmium, and zinc, which ‘are monatomic, transmit practically the whole of the light. at all temperatures. Cadmium, however, shows a few ..narrow absorption bands, of which one at A3261. is the most striking. In the cases of the tetratomic elements, phosphorus, arsenic, and anti- mony, general absorption occurs and increases regu- larly with rise of temperature up to 1400° C. There is no indication of a maximum followed by a diminu- tion .of absorption. The peculiar absorption pheno- mena of the elements of the sulphur group are in all probability due to the breaking-down of complex into simpler molecules, e.g. S, into S,, with the formation of molecules of intermediate complexity. With monatomic molecules no such dissociation can occur. With the ‘tetratomic elements there is undoubted dis- sociation; but the changes are much less complicated than in the case of sulphur, the tetratomic molecules simply splitting up into diatomic molecules. It is, however,.to be. noted that the highest temperature at which silica: tubes can be used is 1400° C. It is possible that at still higher temperatures further dis- sociation of the tetratomic elements would result, «companied by absorption phenomena similar to those observed in, the case of sulphur.—A. E. H. Tutton: Monoclinic double selenates of the copper group. This memoir deals with the four double selenates, of the series R,M(SeO,),,6H.O,. in which M is. copper and R is potassium, rubidium, cesium, and.ammonium. A complete crystallographic and physical investigation has been carried out; similar’to the ‘work’ previously published concerning the ‘mag- NO. 2643, VOL. 105] “do so in a specially notable manner. nesium, zinc, iron, nickel, and cobalt groups, and to that on the analogous double sulphates. ‘lhe results confirm the conclusions derived trom all the groups previously studied, and in a peculiarly valuable manner; for the copper-containing group affords crystals with morphological angles and elements and physical constants which differ appreciably in their absolute values from those afforded by the other groups, in this respect resembling the double sulphates — containing copper. Yet the relationships between the values for the four salts ‘are precisely the same, leading thus to: exactly the same general conclusions as in the cases of those other groups. Every group exhibits its own idiosyncrasies, and the copper groups Yet the same progression, according to the atomic weight and atomic number of the alkali metal present, is exhibited in the case of every property, whether morphological, such as the crystal angles and the tonic axial ratios, or physical,- such as the double refraction and the molecular refraction; also the ammonium salt proves to be practically isostructural with the rubidium salt. The most recent work on the structure of the atom and the further elaboration of Moseley’s law connect- ing the atomic number with the atomic structure and complexity has only strengthened. the conclusion that the author’s results are a natural consequence of the operation of Moseley’s law: the progression in the crystal properties following the progression in the complexity of the alkali-metallic atoms, which exert so dominating an influence in determining the struc- ture and properties of these crystals ——H. G. Cannon : Production and transmission of an environmental effect in Simocephalus vetulus. The experiments were undertaken in order to reveat, if possible, Agar’s work on the production and transmission of an abnormality. in. Simocephalus vetulus; The magnitude of the abnormality, which consisted in a change in the curvature of the valves of the carapace, could be teh ard enh measured by the length/width ratio L/W. The results — indicate that the abnormality can ‘be produced’ by feeding a culture containing ‘practically no other protozoon than Chlamydomonas. The L/W ratio was found to be too variable to allow of its measurement with sufficient accuracy on which to base considera- tions as to the existence or non-existence of a ‘reaction ’’? to the abnormality of such a magnitude as that indicated by Agar. The experiments showed that no antibody was nroduced to eliminate the cause of the abnormality.—E. C. Grey: The enzymes of B. coli communis, which are concerned in the decom- position of glucose and mannitol. Part iv.: The fermentation of glucose in the presence of formic acid. By carrying out the fermentation of glucose by bacteria in the presence of calcium formate the author has been able to unset the normal balance which exists between certain of the products. and thus to show that they are in realitv formed’ bv senarate enzvme actions. Hitherto an anvroximately constant relation-— shin has -been found between the formic acid and carhon dioxide on one hand. and the alcohol and acetic acid on the other. This relationship is shown to be rather accidentalethan essential. Tt results nrobablv from the fact that the hydrogen which arises from the decomposition of formic acid co-overates in the forma- tion of alcohol, and thus the two reactions of alcohol formation and carbon dioxide formation tend to keen pace with one another. The addition of more formic ' acid at the outset of the fermentation tends. however, to prevént the production of formic acid from glucose, and to destroy the ratio'which normally exists between this formic’ acid and the alcohol and atetic acid, thus proving that these’ ‘products arise: by - at: least. two- | separate enzyme’ actions. Taken in conjunction: with the author’s previous finding, that lactic: acid is formed fet Bee es dice aid fail saa NATURE 539 = ; Teeny epee SES _ Sent three separate lines of cleavage of the glucose _. molecule under the influence of the enzymes of the r They involve in either case the narallel conjugation in pairs of the full hat the so-called “chromatin”? granules described bv so many writers, as emitted during volk-formation in _ the insect egg, are in reality products of the plasmo- some. e is no evidence that in Periplaneta the ‘plasmosome is related in any way to the chromatin organisation of the nucleus. Paris. Academy of Sciences, June 7 M. Georges Lemoine in the chajr.—C. Moureu and G. Mignonac : Acyl- ketimines. Benzonitrile, magnesium, and an_allkyl bromide give the product C,H;.CR:N.MgBr, and with an acid chloride acylketimines are obtained of the type C,H,.CR=N.CO.CH,. . Details of the general method of preparation and the melting points of six » acylketimines are given.—G, Bonnier; The changes in ° plant forms obtained experimentally. Full descriptions of the changes brought about in seventeen species of lants by change of altitude. The plants were grown in similar soil in the plains and in the mountains, and the observations extended for a period of from six to thirty-four years.—A. Rateau: The theory of aeria] and marine propulsive: helices and of aeroplanes in rectilinear flight.—M.Kamerlingh Onnes was elected a correspondant for the section of physics in succes- sion to the late Sir William Crookes.—G. Julia : Functions of two complex variables and limiting functions of analytical himoslene. uniform or multi- form, of one variable.—R. Thiry: The conformal representation of, doubly connected. with rectilinear contours.—H. Villat: The conformal representation of doubly connected areas.—B. Gambier : The surfaces of translation. of Sophus. Lie.—L,, Dunoyer.; Magnetic induction in the soft iron compass correctors under NO. 2643, VOL. 105] . the influence of the needles. -M. Dugit; Modifications of a formula given in an earlier communication required by the. discovery of an error in sign.—L. Barbiilion and : The rectilinear scale with equidistant divisions applied to the measurement and division of angles and measuring apparatus of constant sensibility. —Mlle, Paule Collet; fhe reproduction of speech by galena and sustained waves.—L. and E. Bloch; Pro- duction of the band spectra of nitrogen by electrons of low velocity. Earlier. experiments of this nature have been made by the electrical method: the examination of the angular points in the curve of the current produced by the electrons. In the work here described a quartz prism spectrograph was employed and the nitrogen bands were directly observed. It was found to be possible to get the nitrogen radiation at.a critical potential of about 10 volts. Hence band spectra, like line spectra, can be excited by. electron ft) shock with a voltage clearly lower than the ionisation potential (18 volts)—C. Benedicks: The electro- thermic effect in a homogeneous conductor of constant section.—C, Raveau: Variance and the means of pre- suming the value of it without the aid of a formula.— _P. Bary: The viscosity of colloidal solutions. A study of the swelling of colloids in suspension’ based on Einstein’s formula for the viscosity of liquids holding solid matter in suspension.—M. Delépine and L. Ville : The chloride of bromine: its combination with ethylene. Forty years ago Maxwell, Simpson, and James showed that ethylene chlorobromide, CICH,.CH,Br, was the product of the reaction of ethylene on ‘‘chloride of bromine ’’ in a solution: of hydrochloric acid. Recent physico-chemical work, on the other hand, goes to prove that chloride of bromine does not exist, and that the substance passing under that name is merely a mechanical mixture of bromine and chlorine. The authors have examined the action of ethylene on dry ‘chloride of bromine,’’ and find that the compound C,H,CIBr is undoubtedly the main product. From this work the conclusion is drawn that, in some cases at least, physico-chemical data cannot be relied upon to prove the non-existence of a chemical compound.—H. Gault and R. Weick: A case of isomerism in the series of the aromatic a-ketonic acids. The existence of two isomeric phenyl- pyruvic ethers is proved, and the conditions under which one can be converted into the other determined. —J. Bougault and J. Perrier: New researches relating to the action of hydrocyanic acid on glucose. The fact that in presefice of an excess of potassium cyanide: the glucoses form cyanohydrins quantitatively suggested that this reaction might be utilised for the exact estimation of glucose, and the conditions for accurate estimations are given. When the glucose is in excess the cyanide is rapidly converted into the non-poisonous cyanohydrin, and an experiment is cited in which 0-25 gram of potassium cyanide mixed with 6 ‘grams of honey and 6 c.c. of water were given to a gurnea- pig after the mixture had been allowed_ to’ stand fourteen hours to complete the reaction. The animal showed no signs of poisoning. The consequences of these results from a toxicological point of view are ‘dis- cussed.—G. Guilbert : The application of cirrus clouds to the prediction of the weather.—H. Ricome* The phenomenon of torsion comparable to the rolling-up of tendrils produced experimentally.—F. Moreau : The different aspects of lichen symbiosis in Ricasohe herbacea and R. amplissima.—J. Stoklasa : The ‘action of hydrocyanic acid on the organism of plants. The spores of B. subtilis and B. mesentericus vulgatus resist the toxic action of air containing 3 per cent. of hydrocyanic acid by volume, but exposure of twenty, four hours to 3-5 per cent. by volume arrests further development. Mucor mucedo, M., stolonifer, and Peni- cillium glaucum behaye . similarly, and. Aspergillus 540 NATURE [June 24, 1920 glaucus requires a strength of 4 per cent. for destruc- tion. Micro-organisms offer very great resistance to the action of hydrocyanic acid. The conditions under which seeds. can be exposed to hydrocyanic acid vapour without damage have been worked -out, and experi- -ments cited showing how this method-can be used for the practical disinfection of seeds affected with para-. sites—A. Krempfi: The blastodermic origin of the enteroids and of the enteroido-pharyngeal complex in the Anthozoa.—W. Kopaczewski, A.. H. Roffo, and Mme. H. L. Roffo: Anzesthesia and anaphylaxy. The authors have found that anzsthetics and analgesics possess the well-marked property of diminishing the surface tension of serum. On the other hand, it has been proved that all the substances used for the pre-. vention of anaphylactic phenomena, such as lecithin, the alkalis, and soaps, also have the property of lowering the surface tension. Experiments are given on the suppression of anaphylactic shock by anzes- thetics. The results obtained confirm the view that it is not the nervous system which is mainly affected by the anaphylactic shock, but a reaction of colloidal flocculation leading to asphyxia from the obstruction of the capillary networks.—A. G. Pellissier ; -Modifica- tions and lesions of the pulmonary epithelial cells due to suffocating gases.—G. Marinescu ; The modifications of the oxydases during the evolution of the neurone.— R. Cambier: The vurification of sewage effluents by ‘activated sludge.—H. Vallée and L. Bazy: Bacterio- therapy bv A. Mayer, H. Magne, and L. Plantefol: The mechanism of death in the case of acute pulmonary cedema caused by the inspiration of noxious vapours or gases. Books Received. Forest Products. By Prof. N. C. Brown. Pp. xix+ 471. (New York: J. Wiley and Sons, Inc.; London: Chapman and Hall, Ltd.) .21s. net. Practical Geometry, pp. xv+256; . Theoretical Geo- metry, pp. xivt+i104. By C. Godfrey and A. W. Siddons. (London: Cambridge University Press.) Complete, 7s. net. A Primer of Trigonometry for Engineers. By W. G. Dunkley. Pp. viiit+171 (with Answers). (London: Sir Isaac Pitman and Sons, Ltd.) 5s. net. Pyrometry. By C. R. Darling. Second edition. Pp. xii+224. (London: E. and F. N.. Spon,- Ltd.) ‘Ios. 6d. net. The Chemist’s Year Book, 1920. Atack, assisted by L. Whinyates. pp. vit422; vol. ii and Manchester : Phosphore, Arsenic, Antimoine. and A; Raynaud: Pp. iii+417. g-50 francs; Traité de la Lumiere. 155. (Paris: Edited by F. W. 2.vols, Vol. i., , Pp. Vii-vili+ 423-1136. (London Sherratt and Hughes.). By Dr. A. Boutaric (Paris: O. Doin.) By C. Huyghens. Pp. x+ Gauthier-Villars et Cie.) 3.60 francs. Food Inspection and Analysis.. By A. E.. Leach. Fourth edition. Pp. xix+1ogo+xli plates. (New York: J. Wiley and Sons, Inc.; Laon Chapman cand Hall, Ltd.) : 45s. net. Vertebrate Zoology. By Prof. H. H. Newman. Pp. xiiit+432. (New York: ‘The Macmillan Co.; London: Macmillan and Co.; Ltd.) 16s. net. A Second Book-of School Celebrations. By Dr. F. H. Hayward. Pp. 133. (London: P. S. King and Sons, Ltd.) --5s. net. Stories for the Nature. Four, Skinner: and E, L.. Skinner. Pp. -253. . (London: G. G. Harrap and Co., Ltd.) 5s. net. Surveying. By W. -N. Thomas. Pp. vili+ 536 (with Answers). (London: E. -Arnold.) 31s. 6d. net. NO. 2643, VOL. 105 | Compiled by A. M. Diary of Societies. a THURSDAY, Jun® 24. Rovat Society oF MEeEpIcInE: (Laryngology Section), Annual Silbabes Congress, at 2.30,—Papers on peg of the Throat, with Discussion, Royat Society, at 4.30.—Sir Ray Lankester: Some Rostro-carinate Flint. Implements and Allied Forms.—Lord Rayleigh: A Re- examination of the Light scattered by Gases in respect sation. I, Experiments on the Common Gases.—A, Mallock hes = the Influence of Temperature on the Rigidity of Metals.— . F. Armstrong and T. P. Hilditch: A Study of peer gets oe ie Solid Surfaces. V. The Rate of Change conditioned b el Catalyst and its Bearing on the Law of Mass Action.—Dr. i. J jeGieys : Tidal Friction in Shallow Seas.—Other Papers. Linnean Society or Lonpon, at 5.—Dr. C. J. F. Skottsberg : Recent Researches on the.Antarctic Flora.—Dr. R. - Tillyard : The Cawth Institute, New Zealand, and its Biological Function. » Ot AND Cotour CHemists’ Associa TION (at Food Reform Club, 2, Furnival Street), at 7:30.—A. E. Bawtree : (1) A Epdeenon for Accurate Determinations of Pastes and Viscous Materials; (2) A Viscometer which Combines I d Efficiency with the Power of” Measuring ‘‘ Stickiness” Independently of Viscosity, SociETY OF ANTIQUARIES, at 8.30, FRIDAY, June 25 Rovat Society oF MEDICINE (Latyngology Section), Annual Summer Congress, at 10 a.m.—Papers on Cancer of the Throat, with Discussion. PuysicaL Society or Lonpon, at 5.—Dr. J. H. Menon The Origin of the Elements.—W. H. Wilson and Miss T. D. Epps: The Construction _ of Thermo-couples by Electro-deposition.—J. Guild: The Use of Vacuum Arcs for Interferometry.—S. Butterworth: The Maintenance of a Vibrating System by Means ofa Triode Valve: West. Lonpon Mepico-CurrurcicaL Society (at Kensi Hall), at 8.15.—Prof. C. S. Sherrington: Posture (Cavendish TUESDAY, June 29. gyn Horricutturat Society, at 3.—H. R. Darlington; Garden oses. RoyaL ANTHROPOLOGICAL INSTITUTE, at 3-7.—Sir C. Hercules, Read, T. Allworthy, V. B. Crowther-Benyon, S. Fenton, G. W. Willis, and others; Exhibition of Bronze Age Implements. WEDNESDAY JUNE 30. ei gs: Society or. Arts, at 4.—Annual General Meeting. INSTITUTION OF ELEcTRICAL ENGINEERS (at Institution of Mechanical Engiones ye at 6.—Sir Philip Dawson: Electric Railway Contact ystems. : Sawn re). CONTENTS. University and Higher Technical Education . .. 509 Mathematics of Elasticity. By L. N.G.F..... 511 Behaviourism. By Prof. H. Wildon Carr... ... 512 The World’s Supply. of Animal Feoree ide ane. aS Life.and Lore ‘of Birds... Sac) st oe Our Bookshelf. . . eee ceva BES Letters to the Editor :- — The Separation of the Isotopes of Chioritie.—Piof. ~ Frederick Soddy, F.R.S. 516 ‘' A Possible Cause for the Diamagnetism of ‘Bohr’s ~ Paramagnetic Hydrogen Atom.—J. R. Ashworth 516 A Stalked Parapineal Vesicle in the Ostrich. (Z//us- — trated.)—Prof. J. E. Duerden ar a The Alligator Pear.—Dr. Michael Grabham . . . 517 Eye-Colour in Bees.—Prof. T. D. A. Cockerell. . 518 British and Foreign Scientific Apparatus.—F, Ww. Watson Baker...) 50). a eee 518 Applied Science and Industrial Research. wigs w. Williamson - 0.0 Se ee 518 Wireless Telephony. (With Diagrams.) By Prof. W. H. Eccles onesie BID The Meteorology of the Temperate Zone and the General Atmospheric Circulation. (Illustrated.) . By Prof. V. Bjerknes wes 522 @ The Cardiff Meeting of the British. Association ces ee Obituary :— . Prof. J. R. Rydberg, For. Mem. RAS ge. es eee eS BUG eo, 6 fei ip ee Ho bees a ne sgh tar vey 2O Our Astronomical Column :— Mercury an Evening Star PAE Pita cM NS 529 The Zeeman Effect in Furnace Spectra Peer ee Sl 8) yd The Lunar Parallax and Related Constants. . . . . 529 The Centenary of Sir Joseph Banks, Bart. .... 530 South-Eastern Union of Scientific Societies . 530 Genetic Segregation. By W. Bateson, F.R.S.. . 531 Colour Index of the British Isles... shin aes 531 Army Hygiene and its Lessons. By Lt.-Gen. Sir . Thomas Goodwin, K.C.B. pita s. i7} University and Educational Intelligence . Si) spt a ae Societies and Academies. ....... a ets at oe Seta Books Received . 0.0 6. ee yee ee ee ge ee 540 ‘Diary of Societies Fe, Crea Se eos kes $1 6g ee ne _ appointingly small. NATURE 541 THURSDAY, JULY 1, 1920. Editorial and Publishing Offices > MACMILLAN & CO., LTD., ST. MARTIN’S STREET, LONDON, W.C.2. ’ Advertisements and business letters should be addressed to the Publishers. Editorial communications to the Editor. Telegraphic Address: PHUSIS, LONDON. Telephone Number: GERRARD 8830. : Medical Research and the Practitioner. N the interim report! issued recently by the Con- sultative Council on Medical and Allied Services, under the chairmanship of Lord Dawson of Penn, the proportion given to research is dis- Perhaps this was inevitable. The medical organisation suggested includes effective laboratory equipment at every stage from _ the domiciliary work of the practitioner to the conducting of prolonged researches by the Medical Research Council; but the portions dealing with research proper are very generalised. A docu- ment like this should be a new charter for medi- cine, and the scientific mind naturally expects to see the scientific groundwork fully developed. For increased and accelerated research is essential to the continued expansion of scientific medicine. In the report it is hoped “that the scheme of services which we suggest would facilitate enquiry into the causes of disease and the possible remedies. The facts which indi- cated the need for such enquiry might, we think, often be brought together in the first instance by the medical practitioners in a given locality.’’ It is difficult to justify the hesitating note of these sentences. Medical practice bristles with unsolved problems; but usually the practitioner is inadequately trained to discover them. Sir James _ Mackenzie shows what a general practitioner can do when he has the interest and the capacity to train himself. The war has unveiled many gaps in scientific medicine. Even the war reports of the Medical Research Council, not to refer to the many others, prove that the science of medicine will not advance merely by a re-shuffling of the medical army, but by greater intensity of research and discovery. Medicine has to face the fact that, for practical =sl Ministry of Health Consultative Council on Medical and Allied Services. Interim Report on the Future Provision uf Medical and Allied Services. Pp. 28. (London: H.M. Stationery Office, 1920.) Cmd. 693. Price rs. net. NO. 2644, VOL. 105] purposes, it knows nothing about the cause of measles, scarlet fever, mumps, influenza, rheu- matic fever, cancer, or other forms of malignancy ; nor is the knowledge of the causes of dead and premature births more than elementary. These are only a few illustrations taken from the Medical Research Committee’s fifth annual report. It is reasonable to expect that, in a scheme that brings the medical profession into a unity, the clotted masses of problems facing the general practitioner and scientific worker alike would be sketched with precision and force. The report does add that “there are great and important opportunities for research in preventive medicine, which at present are scarcely dealt with by any organisation, and mostly are not attempted by individuals. En- couragement of research in the prevention of disease should, we think, be developed, for the materials are everywhere, and the results would undoubtedly be valuable.” From this the lay public would not readily. gather that the future value of the general prac- titioner to the State depends on the development of research in at least the following sciences: biology, physiology, bio-chemistry, pathology, and experimental therapeutics. To the raw materials of such researches the various classes of medical practitioners can contribute; but they have little stimulus to do so unless they keep more closely in the currents of the scientific work of the schools. The report indicates that, for the purposes of research into fundamental problems, ‘the pro- fession would no doubt look to the Universities and the Medical Research Council for guidance and assistance.” When we reflect that the medical profession has to deal with sanatoria for tuber- culosis, recuperative centres, hospitals for curable or incurable mental disease, institutions for the feeble-minded, epileptic colonies, orthopedic centres, hospitals for infectious diseases, not to mention general hospitals and the innumerable fresh points emerging in every man’s practice, there is abundant occasion to look both for “ guid- ance and assistance.” What we miss here is a compact and well- loaded presentment of the case for research from the general practitioner’s point of view. At present neither general practitioners nor consult- ants have an adequate conviction that more and more as time goes on the value of their work will depend’ on the capacity to understand and to prevent the beginnings of disease, and that, with- out effective training in research at some stage of their career, they can make little headway in pre- é% 542 NATURE [Jury 1, 1920 ventive medicine as now understood. The general practitioner’s part in “field” and “team” re- search might well form the subject of a special reference to the Consultative Council on Medical and Allied Services. If the world of general practice does not realise that research is of vital importance to every branch of medicine, such is certainly not the case with the world of science. Theory of Dioptric Instruments. Ferraris’ “Dioptric Instruments”: Being an Elementary Exposition of Gauss’ Theory «and its Applications. Translated by Dr. Oscar Faber from Prof. F. Lippich’s German trans- lation of Prof. Galileo Ferraris’ Italian work entitled ““The Fundamental Properties of Diop- tric Instruments.” Pp. xxxi+214. (London: H.M.S.O., 1919.) Price 4s. net. HE original of this translation was published by Prof. Galileo Ferraris, of Turin, in 1876. As a copy of this original could apparently not be procured, the English translation was made from a German one by Lippich, which appeared in 1879. At the time of its appearance the book unquestionably marked a great advance in the treatment of its subject, and well deserved the extremely favourable review with which Abbe honoured the German translation in the first volume of the Zeitschrift fiir Instrumentenkunde. Abbe himself, however, has to be credited with far greater advances in the theory of image- formation by optical instruments with which the book before us deals, for his purely geometrical treatment of the problem leads to the same results without being limited to the infinitely con- stricted “threadlike space around the optical axis” which still plays so large a part in text- books, although, with light of finite wave-length, nothing of any optical interest can possibly happen within it. On the other hand, Abbe was the first to deal systematically with the actual course of light through instruments in accordance with the limitations imposed by restricted apertures and by deliberately placed diaphragms, and inasmuch as the great majority of actual instruments are used only at fixed or nearly fixed conjugate dis- tances, the actual course of the rays so deter- mined is of far greater importance and value, both in the designing of instruments and in the dis- cussion of the effects produced by them, than the rays referred to the Gaussian principle and focal planes and points which form a corivenient pons asinorum in the general theory of lens systems. Ferraris’ treatment of the Gaussian theory is, NO. 2644, VOL. 105 | however,. less open to the objections just alluded to than that adopted in most books, and in deal- ing with the Galilean telescope he comes remark- ably close to the correct treatment of the problem of its field of view, which is so easily obtained now by Abbe’s theory of the entrance- and exit- pupil of instruments. Beginners and users of optical instruments desiring to acquire a general knowledge of their elementary theory will also welcome the numerous and frequently elegant graphical solutions of the various problems which are given throughout as alternatives to numerical calculations by algebraical formule. The chief and decidedly regrettable omission is that the simple problem of achromatism is not dealt with at all. It is, of course, not a part of the Gaussian theory, and the omission is therefore justifiable; but it is so closely bound up with the proper explanation of the effects produced by compound object-glasses and eyepieces that the book would certainly have gained in value if the subject had been included. . The book is not so free from misprints as one would wish, and there is a really bad muddle on pp. 87-94, where the properties of thick lenses are discussed. This is not a case of a simple misprint or transposition of diagrams, but of | actual errors by either the original author or one of the translators. Thus on p. 87 a thick bicon- vex lens is stated to be convergent if its thickness is less than one-third of the sum of the radii (both taken as positive, with »=1-5). This should be three times instead of one-third. Then, on p. 93 a meniscus with the shorter radius on its concave face is stated to be always convergent; and on p. 94 the meniscus with the shallower curve on the concave face is credited with being divergent, telescopic, or convergent according to thickness. The actual facts are, of course, the other way about. Immediately after this the properties of a concentric lens are correctly stated. On p. 144 the strange conclusion is reached that of two eyepieces of the same equivalent focal length that one is to be preferred which has the closer eye-point. This is directly contrary to the experience of every observer. In the calculations of the properties of the human eye, or rather of its ‘“‘simplified model,” the author sets a very bad example by starting with data given with three significant figures and undoubtedly uncertain even then in the third figure, and calculating all the deduced figures with six, and even seven, significant figures (pp. 71-75). The idea of beginners that the percentage- accuracy of observed data can be _ indefinitely increased by’ putting them through the mathe- nee Sn eS JULy 1, 1920] NATURE : 543 matical mill with an imposing number of figures is sufficiently difficult to eradicate without such examples by teachers! Apart from a few blemishes of the kind alluded to, the book may still, forty-four years after its first appearance, be recommended as worthy of careful study. A. E. C. The International Research Council. International Research Council: Constitutive Assembly held at Brussels, July 18 to July 28, 1919. Reports of Proceedings. Edited by Sir Arthur Schuster. Pp. iii+286. (London: _ Harrison and Sons, 1920.) Price 1os. 6d. " | ‘HE Constitutive Assembly of the International Research Council, which met at Brussels on July 18, 1919, established for certain subjects new international organisations to replace those exist- ing before the war, and in this volume we have the official text of the statutes there adopted or proposed, as well as the procés-verbaux of the different meetings which were held. It will be remembered that in October, 1918, a conference of the scientific academies of the Allied nations was held in London at the invita- tion of the Royal Society to consider the action which should be taken in regard to international associations ; for some had lapsed during the war, and others were unlikely to meet in their old form for some years to come. The resolutions then agreed to were carried further at a second confer- ence which was held at Paris in November of the same year, when the International Research Council was formed, and an executive committee appointed to prepare proposals to be submitted to the Constitutive Assembly at Brussels. The meeting at Brussels formed the third stage in the formation of the new international organisation which had been decided upon in London, and at it the statutes of the International Research Council and of the Unions for Astronomy, for Geodesy and Geophysics, and for Pure and Applied Chemistry were approved. The legal domicile of the International Research Council is at Brussels, where the general assem- bly will meet from time to time; but this in no Way restricts the Unions, the members of which determine the places of their bureaux and of their periodical meetings as they please. The countries participating in the foundation of the International Research Council are Belgium, Brazil, the United States, France, the United Kingdom, Australia, Canada, New Zealand, South Africa, Greece, Italy, Japan, Poland, Portugal, Rumania, and Serbia, in addition to which the following neutral countries were invited to join the Council: China, NO. 2644, VOL. 105] Siam, the Argentine Republic, Chile, Denmark, Spain, Mexico, the Principality of Monaco, Nor- way, Holland, Sweden, Switzerland, and also Czecho-Slovakia. Besides the three Unions which were definitely established at the Brussels meeting, proposals were made that several others—mathematics, physics, radiotelegraphy, geology, biology, geo- graphy, and bibliography—should be formed, and draft statutes for these were presented in order that the executive committee might communicate them to the National Research Councils of the dif- ferent countries for the desirability of forming such international unions to be considered. The machinery therefore exists for constituting an international organisation in any branch of science where it will be of service. Several countries have already formally signified their adherence to the International Research Council, and some also to the Unions which have already been formed. It has been proposed that the draft statutes of the Mathematical Union should be discussed at an international meeting at Strasbourg this autumn, and doubtless representatives of other branches of science will hold similar meetings in due course to consider the desirability of forming unions of their own. For all such meetings this volume of the pro- ceedings and reports of the Brussels meeting will be of great value, for the general organisation differs from that of earlier associations, and may at first sight seem to be somewhat cumbrous; but a perusal of the documents now published will show that each union can provide itself with the constitution best suited to its own requirements, while conforming at the same time to the essential features of the International Research Council. Problems of Population. (1) Problems of Population and Parenthood. (Being the Second Report of, and the Chief Evi- dence taken by, the National Birth-rate Com- mission, 1918-20.) Pp. clxvi+423. (London: Chapman and Hall, Ltd., 1920.) Price 25s. net. (2) The Social Diseases: Tuberculosis, Syphilis, Alcoholism, Sterility. By Dr. J. Héricourt. . Translated, and with a final chapter, by Bernard Miall... Pp. x+246. (London: George Rout- ledge and Sons, Ltd. ; New York: E. P. Dutton and Co., 1920.) Price 7s. 6d: net. : (3) The Venereal Problem. By E. T. Burke. Pp. 208. (London: Henry Kimpton, 1919.) . Price 7s. 6d. net. (1) R. JOSEPH CHAMBERLAIN set a pre- /% cedent when he gave the name of “Tariff Commission” to a body created by him- 544 NATURE [JULY 1, 1920 self alone. Previously the word ‘Commission ” had been generally applied only to bodies created by Royal or Parliamentary authority, and having power to call witnesses before them, to whom each member of the Commission could put ques- tions. Where bodies had been created for the purpose of hearing evidence tendered by volun- tary witnesses, as had been done with advantage by the Charity Organisation Society, they were usually called “special committees.” They are now often called ‘Commissions ” in imitation of Mr. Chamberlain’s action, and if it is clearly understood that they have no compulsory powers, there seems no harm in applying that term to them as denoting their method of action rather than the authority under which they act. In one respect they are not unlike many Royal Commissions. They consist largely of people who are known to have formed strong opinions on one side or the other, and accordingly their conclusions, if any sort of unanimity can be arrived at, are often in the nature of a feeble compromise, or, on the other hand, if both parties stand to their guns, are split into majority and minority reports. Even SO, such reports may be useful as collections of facts and.as presenting to the public materials for forming its own judgment. The test, therefore, is: Are the results obtained of value? We think the report of the “National Birth-rate Commission,” which has been pub- lished under the title of “Problems of Population and Parenthood,” very fairly answers this test. It shows a Cdntaeus reduction in the birth-rate in England and Wales from 24 per thousand of the population in 1913 to 18 per thousand in 1918. For the further elucidation of the problems arising out of this fact, the Commission unani- mously passed resolutions’! in favour of the estab- lishment of a permanent Anthropometric Depart- ment under the Ministry of Health, and of a General Register. The practice of restricting the family has begun with educated and professional persons, and is gradually spreading through the whole community. That it should be so seems to be regarded by the majority of the Commissioners as inevitable, but they acknowledge the value of the unrestricted family as a training in self-sacri- fice, mutual help, and efficiency, conducing to a better prospect of happiness than the restricted family in general can afford. When the practice of restriction of families is adopted, the tendency is to limit the number to that which will not restore the deficit caused by the loss of the generation that is passing. We thus get a dimin- ishing population, leading to what has been called “race-suicide.” The conditions in which an NO. 2644, VOL. 105 | all alike use. increase of | the population is not desirable do not exist in the British Empire. So far as they exist in Great Britain, emigration (as Sir Rider Haggard suggests) seems to be the right means of meeting them. The Commission reports that there is no moral issue raised in respect of the limitation of the family when there are good reasons for such a course, but that the moral difficulty arises as to the means which may be used for that purpose. Ecclesiastical authorities allow of a limitation of intercourse, which does not afford a complete security, but not of any other method. If, however, the rightfulness of the limitation be admitted, the method by which it is to be effected would seem to be a question of physiology and perhaps of esthetics rather than one of ethics. Some of the methods sug- gested are repulsive, and it is to be hoped none of them will become popular. (2) Dr. Héricourt approaches the subject from a different point of view in dealing with sterility as one of the social diseases of France, where the birth-rate has been steadily falling and depopula- tion in progress for many years. He attri- butes this to voluntary restriction, and shows that the richer inhabitants are the less fruitful, and the poorer the more fruitful. He proposes — a variety of remedies, ranging from the moral encouragement of large families to the taxation of celibates and of small families. He rejects the expedient of a direct bounty from the State to the parent. He would use all legal means to suppress publications in which the limitation of families is recommended, and to prevent the sale of articles designed to effect that object. (3) The venereal problem is a subject common . to all the three volumes under review, and it is curious to note that it is only recently that it has been possible to discuss it with the freedom that This is in some degree due to the war. Since the days when Alva brigaded his “quatre cents courtesanes a cheval, belles et braves comme princesses, et huit cents a pied, bien a point aussi,” and long before, indiscriminate sexual indulgence has been one of the incidents of a time of warfare. The risk attaching to it may be mitigated by suitable measures of military discipline, but the effectual application of similar measures to the civil population would be difficult, if possible. The urgency of the problem lies in the possibility of communicating the infection to innocent persons and to unborn children, and in the loss to the community arising from the destruc- tion of life and efficiency caused by the disease. In the face of these evils it is not necessary to discuss the old view that syphilis was a disease the risk of which was voluntarily incurred in the JULY I, 1920] NATURE 545 performance of an immoral act. If prostitution could be abolished, venereal disease would prob- ably in time become extinct, but no means have yet been discovered by which, mankind being what it is, prostitution can be abolished. - All the authors alike urge propaganda. The National Birth-rate Commission thinks that the Ministry of Health should direct the attention of the public to the urgent duties of citizens in the matter. Dr. Héricourt says that we must act upon the will of the individual by persuasion through fear and through interest, and mentions a work by Prof. Fournier that has been circulated by the French Society for Sanitary and Moral Prophylaxis as well calculated to effect the desired persuasion. Mr. Miall, who adds a chapter of his own to his translation of Dr. Héricourt’s work, urges that proper instruction should be given in the dangers of venereal disease. Mr. Burke, who has been an acting lieutenant-colonel in the Royal Army Medical Corps, argues forcibly that the public must be made more acquainted with sexual matters, increase its knowledge of the pre- valence and dangers of venereal disease, and be induced to appreciate and to assist actively in the means to be provided for treating and finally stamping out of existence those disorders. The education, he says, must begin with the child. The adult must be impressed with the importance, the reality, and the dangers of venereal disease. The medical profession must set its teeth with determination to fight the menace out of existence. Mr. Burke’s treatise, which is illustrated by six diagrams, is likely to be of value in effecting the common purpose of enlightening the public on these important matters. E. B The Elements of Hardy Fruit Culture. - Practical Hardy Fruit Culture. By Richard Staward. Pp. 216.. (London: The Swarth- ‘more Press, Ltd., 1920.) Price 6s. net. - A LTHOUGH in many respects this ‘smal: treatise on hardy fruit culture may be com- mended to beginners as a clear, concise, and ele- mentary guide on the subject as applied to garden conditions, describing methods followed’ with success by the author at Panshanger Gardens, Hertford, it cannot be considered as __ having achieved the main purpose for which it was written. The author has set himself to provide a useful book for those, forming a numerous class at the present time, who are adopting hardy fruit culture as a business and know little. or nothing of such work. The methods - recom- NO. 2644, VOL. 105] | mended, however, are essentially those for the private gardener, as distinct from the commercial fruit-grower. Taking the case of distances for planting trees as an example, it is advised that bush or pyramid apples on free stocks should be planted 12 ft. apart, and those on the Paradise stock from 6 ft. to 9 ft. apart. For standard apple-trees 12 ft. is mentioned as the dis- tance, if space is limited. For commercial work these distances should be at least doubled for varieties of vigorous growth, where the trees are to be treated as permanent and not as fillers. A general criticism may also be made of the lists of varieties recommended, which are almost in- variably too long, and contain sorts which are of at least doubtful commercial value. The sections devoted to the diseases and pests of the respective fruits make mention for the most part of the more serious troubles, and of some which are relatively trivial; but there are im- portant omissions, such as silver-leaf of plums, bitter-pit of apples, and reversion of black-currants. The remedies proposed are typical garden methods and are often inappropriate for commercial plantation use. In some cases they would appear to miss the mark entirely, as when, for instance, the spraying of black-currants with lime-sulphur, or, as the author describes it, “bisulphide of cal- cium,’’ against big-bud-mite attack is advised after the fruit has been gathered. By that time the mites are safely within the cover of the newly formed buds. It may also be questioned whether the author has made the best use of the space at his disposal by dealing with such fruits as out- door grapes, mulberries, medlars, and apricots, by description of methods of propagation which are not adopted in general practice, and by de- tailed accounts of the training of special forms of trees which are never considered except for par- ticular purposes in private gardens. The illustrations are original, and some are of interest. Our Bookshelf. Experiments in the Breeding of Cerions. By Paul Bartsch. (Department of Marine Biology of the Carnegie Institution of Washington. Vol. xiv.) (Publication No. 282.) Pp. 55+59 plates. (Washington : The Carnegie Institution of Washington, 1920.) Price 3 dollars. Cerions are land snails, well represented in the Bahamas by five species. They occur on the ground, under the edges of stones, among dead leaves, on grass, and on bushes. - On an exposed place they attach themselves to the support by a thin epiphragm which also serves to prevent 546 NATURE [JULY 1, 1920 desiccation. They can estivate for a considerable time. In habit they are largely nocturnal; and are most active on misty nights. They feed mainly on fungi. They mate on the ground, and, though hermaphrodite, one functions as a male and the other as a female. The eggs are laid singly at the base of tufts of grass and beneath the surface. It takes between two and three years for an in- dividual to reach full maturity. For experimental purposes a number of Bahama forms were introduced into the Florida Keys, which present a considerable range in climatic factors and vegetation. There is on many of the Keys an indigenous species of Cerion, C. incanum, Binney, but it is not nearly related to any of the forms introduced; and one of the interesting .results obtained by Dr. Bartsch was that the cross-breeding of the native species with the intro- duced C. viaregis brought about a state of flux. Had the resulted colony been discovered by one who did not know the history, a description would have been given of a very variable species. The inference is that similar complexes of unknown origin are likewise the product of cross-breeding. The case is peculiarly interesting because C. in- canum and C. viaregis are very remotely related. “The fact is, that it is very surprising that organisms presenting such great differences in organisation should be able to cross at all, and it is still more remarkable that they should have produced fertile crosses.” The author is inclined to believe that the crossing has an “energising effect’ on the new product, but recent work on “hybrid vigour” leads one to think rather that what occurs is a happy pooling of hereditary items which corroborate one another. The general pic- ture the author’s results leave in the mind is that species separated for ages might be brought to- gether by changes of level, so that crossing re- sulted. There followed an efflorescence of new forms which were later subjected to isola- tion on islands and promontories where inbreeding gradually eliminated diverse characters, eventually resulting in the more or less homogeneous ex- pression which now marks in the Bahamas a multi- tude of insulated colonies. Space and Time in Contemporary Physics: An Introduction to the Theory of Relativity and Gravitation. By Prof. Moritz Schlick. Ren- dered into English by Henry L. Brose. With an introduction by Prof. F. A. Lindemann. Pp. xi+89. (Oxford: At the Clarendon Press, 1920.) Price 6s. 6d. net. HERE is a readable book, excellently translated, for which we have again to thank Mr. H. L. Brose. Though it is called an introduction to the theory of relativity and gravitation, it is more strictly an essay on “The Inseparability of Geo- metry and Physics in Experience,” to quote the title of its fifth chapter. The main problem in presenting the work of Einstein to the physicist is to enable him to see how obstinately meta- physical he is. “Time and space can be dissociated from NO. 2644, VOL. 105 | physical things, and events only in abstraction. The combination or oneness of space, time, and thing's is alone reality ; each by itself is an abstrac- tion.” Many will say such statements are meta- physical in nature. In a sense, indeed, any state- ment is metaphysical which is concerned with logic. The real merit of Einstein’s theory is that it does not trouble to ask what space and time are, or how far they may be logically separated from things. It does not attempt the separation. It goes straight ahead, keeping them all together until a result is arrived at which may be tested without any doubt or dispute as to its logical meaning, by the only method of exact observation, the perception of complete coincidence. It renders Newton’s highly metaphysical definitions of space and time unnecessary; but while philosophers pause to see how they have to re-model their — definitions, the physicist may congratulate him- self that history has again proved that the real advances are made by those who, with open mind, continue in their endeavour to order the direct facts of experience in the most comprehensive manner. History of the Great War, based on Official Documents. By Direction of the Historical Section of the Committee of Imperial Defence: Naval Operations. Vol. i. By Sir J. S. Corbett. Pp. xiv+470+case of 18 maps. - (London: Longmans, Green, and Co.,- 1920.) Price 17s. 6d. net. Tuis important volume, the first of a series which is expected to run to four or five volumes, is described on its cover as the “official history of the war.” This description is modified within by the explanation that, though it is based on official documents inaccessible to the general public, its views and opinions are those of its author alone, for which the Admiralty accepts no responsibility. This explanation unquestionably diminishes the official nature of the publication; but, on the other hand, it immensely increases its historic interest and its scientific value. For Sir Julian Corbett is a master of naval lore; he is deeply versed in the strategy and the tactics of the great captains of the old days. Consequently he has come to the study and interpretation of the masses of in- formation concerning the late war laid before him by the Government with a splendid reserve of knowledge and with a _ perfected apparatus of criticism, and it is eminently satisfactory to be assured that he has had a perfectly free hand in dealing with his material and in drawing his con- clusions. The volume deals in a most illuminating manner and with a wealth of new information with the situation at the outbreak of the war, with the problems which the Navy had to face and solve during the critical months of 1914, and finally with the thrilling battle of the Falkland Islands. We await with eager anticipation the remaining volumes of the series. The maps, it may be added, are of the highest value and importance. Jury 1, 1920] NATURE 547 Letters to the Editor. {The Editor does not hold himself responsible for Opinions expressed by his correspondents, Neither can he undertake to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manuscripts intended for this or any other part of Nature. No notice is taken of anonymous communications.] The Constitution of the Elements. In continuation of my letter in Nature of March 4, further experiments on mass-spectra have been made, the results of which may be briefly announced as follows : Boron (atomic weight 10-9) is a complex element. Its isotopes are 10 and 11, satisfactorily confirmed by second-order lines at 5 and 5-5. Fluorine (atomic weight 19-00) is apparently simple, as its chemical atomic weight would lead one to expect. _The results obtained with silicon (atomic weight 28-3) are somewhat difficult to interpret, and lead to the conclusion that this element has isotopes 28 and 29, with possibly another 30. Bromine (atomic weight 79-92) is particularly in- teresting, for, although its chemical atomic weight is so nearly 80, it is actually composed of approximately equal parts of isotopes 79 and 8r. Sulphur (atomic weight 32-06) has a predominant constituent 32. Owing to possible hydrogen com- pounds the data are as yet insufficient to give a decision as to the presence of small quantities of isotopes of higher mass suggested by the atomic weight. Phosphorus (atomic weight 31-04) and arsenic {atomic weight 74-96) are also apparently simple elements of masses 31 and 75 respectively. No line given by the above elements shows any measurable divergence from the whole number rule. ' F. W. Aston. _ Cavendish Laboratory, June 20. _ Applied Science and Industrial Research. In my reply to Mr. Williamson, published in Nature of June 3, | stated that research workers and their assistants, aided by the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, during the year 1918-19 received on the average 53s. weekly. _ Sir Frank Heath has directed my attention to the unwarranted inference | have drawn. I assumed that the grants made were all annual grants, but I am informed by the Department that this is not the case; less than half the grants to research workers and students were grants for twelve calendar months’ work; the sum of 14,170l. expended included nine osha for apparatus and grants for casual labour. ctually, eighty-five research workers and students received rather less than 13,cool. I am informed also that professors’ recommendations are followed in making these grants, both with regard to recipients and to the amounts allotted. Without expressing any further opinion as to the adequacy of grants to individuals, detailed information not having been supplied, I should be glad if you would afford me the opportunity of expressing my regret that in criticising the grants I unwittingly mis- ‘construed the figures given on pp. 9 and 72 of the Report of the Committee of the Privy Council for Scientific and Industrial Research for the year 1918-19. A. G. Cuurcu. National Union of Scientific Workers, 196 Tothill Street, Westminster, London, S.W.1, June 21. NO. 2644, VOL. 105] Science and Scholasticism. Dr. SINGER’s review of my book ‘‘ Medieval Medi- cine’* in Nature of April 1 has only just come under my notice. The mails separate us trom England more than before the war; may that be my excuse for a belated word? I have nothing to say for the book, it is thoroughly documented and must speak for itself; but may I say a word for poor Aristotle and Hugo da Lucca, whom I have brought under the reviewer’s strictures ? Dr. Singer suggests that Aristotle has come into appreciation again because we have found that he made observations on animal life. Is not the reason rather that now that we ourselves have come to think through our observations to the principles beneath, we have found that Aristotle was usually before us? As Prof. Wundt said, after spending a lifetime at experi- mental psychology: ‘It is only the animism of Aris- totle which, by joining psychology to biology, pro- vides a plausible metaphysical explanation for the data furnished by experimental psychology.’’ In nearly everything else where this generation has thought deeply enough they have found Aristotle before them whenever he had considered the subject. That is why we have come to appreciate better the medieval regard for him. Hugo da Lucca must be allowed to rest on his own work just like Aristotle. Any man who operated on the skull, the thorax, and the abdomen seven hundred years ago, using a metal tube to secure the patulous- ness of the intestines while he was making an intes- tinal anastomosis, who got union by first intention and boasted of it, and whose cicatrices were ‘pretty and linear, so that they could scarcely be seen,’’ may be trusted to posterity in our time. How he could have done such things without an anesthetic is im- possible to understand, so therefore the hints that we have of anesthesia at that time must be taken as historic. We do not need to go to manuscripts for this; there are dozens of text-books of professors of surgery in the thirteenth century that were printed in the Renaissance time. ‘The Renaissance printers had marvellously good judgment, and the authors they printed in their magnificent editions were worthy of the time and labour they devoted to them. We have no word from Hugo himself, but his son wrote a whole volume with regard to him which surely Dr. Singer must know, though it is very hard to understand the position that he takes if he does know of it. It is always amusing to note how the saying of anything good about the Middle Ages arouses opposi- tion. John Fiske’s declaration, ‘‘there is a sense in which the most brilliant achievements of pagan antiquity are dwarfed in comparison with these (of the Middle Ages),’”’ must wait for acceptance. When I ventured to say in a volume on ‘‘ The Thirteenth the Greatest of Centuries,’’ that they had fine technical schools and developed engineering, most people shied; and yet we have their stained glass, illuminated books, wonderful ironwork, carving, and all the rest that we are founding technical schools to secure, and the engineering of their bridges and cathedrals is a marvel. The modern man of science: balks at this. Here in the United States the authors of ‘‘A Short History of Science’? (New York, 1018), professors at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, treated the science of the Middle Ages in a couple of paragraphs, the most important part of which is: ‘“‘ In the thirteenth century it becomes plain that a new spirit is arising in Europe. .. . Thomas Aquinas writes his famous ‘Imitatio Christi.’ ”’ Jas. J.. WatsH. 110 West 74th Street, New York, May 26. 548 NATURE [JuLy 1, 1920 Tue dialectical methods of the Middle Ages, admir- ably adapted to the sharpening of wits and the enter- tainment of audiences, have long been regarded by men of science as an inferior: means of arriving at truth. I have no wish to enter into controversy with my friend Prof. Walsh as to the general merits of Aristotle. Yet 1 will venture to sum up in a sentence what I believe to be the conclusions of the over- whelming majority of modern Aristotelian scholars and of scientific men who have investigated the works of the master: Aristotle’s physical science is almost worthless from the modern point of view; it has scarcely any serious basis of observation and none of experiment; his biological works, on the other hand, show him to have been an admirable and careful observer of animal life. He was thus an_ excellent naturalist but a very poor physicist. I will further endeavour to epitomise the verdict of most scientific students of the Middle Ages on his position in medieval science. It was chiefly Aristotle’s physical works that earned for him his scientific reputation in the Middle Ages; his biological works exerted little influence until the sixteenth century. Those who assent to these propositions will not agree that ‘‘ we have come to appreciate better medieval regard for him.”’ As regards Hugh of Lucca, I_ am aware of the existence of the ‘“‘Chirurgia’’ of Theodoric, and’ that he was perhaps the son of Hugh, though, to my mind, Prof. Walsh has greatly exaggerated the scientific value of his work. But Theodoric’s treatise, though certainly very interesting to us, was not greatly prized by the Middle Ages. Hence copies of it are very rare, and among the fifteen thousand or so medical MSS. that have survived in this country only one (Ashmole 1427, fourteenth century) contains it. A treatise possibly founded on it has survived in one English codex of somewhat later date (Magd. Coll. Cambridge, Pepys, 1661).+ Theodoric’s treatise was not printed until 1498. I see nothing in it, or in what Prof. Walsh now says of it, to justify a modification of my criticism. The English reader who cares to learn more of Theodoric will find a sympathetic account of him in Sir Clifford Allbutt’s ‘‘ Historical Relations of Medicine and Surgery,’? and a very full analysis of his ‘‘Chirurgia’’ in Gurlt’s ‘‘Geschichte der Chirurgie.’ The judgment of the Renaissance printers in their selection of medical works is a matter of opinion. The sixteenth century had run a quarter of its course ere they made Hippocrates accessible (earliest Latin edition, Rome, 1525; earliest Greek edition, Venice, 1526). By that time the ponderous *Kanun’’ of Avicenna had already passed through at least twenty- two editions (Editio princeps, Strassburg, 1472). Those who rate. Hippocrates higher than Avicenna— or than. Theodoric—will rate the judgment of the Renaissance printers—and readers—accordingly. Against Prof. Walsh’s suggestion that I am opposed to any good being said of the Middle Ages | am sufficiently protected by my published works. How- ever these be estimated, they will yet, I hope, guard me against the accusation of having neglected that period. Under such protection as they may afford I would add my regret to that of many of Prof. Walsh’s other admirers that he does not use. his. great learn- ing and literary gifts to portray medieval life as it was instead of as that of a Civitas Dei, which it was not. Whatever the scientific aspirations of the age, the scientific achievement was very small. The ex- planations of this failure are various, but in denying the fact Prof. Walsh belongs to an exceedingly small band of scholars whose conclusions. seem also, to some of us, to be shaped by certain preconceived NO. 2644, VOL. 105] ideas. But we shall not, on that account, value the less any contribution to knowledge that he may make. Oxford, June 12. CHARLES SINGER. Commercial Parasitism in the Cotton Industry. THE opinion of Sir George Watt in Nature of February 23 that the report to the Board of Trade of the Empire Cotton Growing Committee is “in- geniously elaborated,’? but leaves a ‘‘confused im- pression,’’ may justify a brief consideration of an allied phase of the subject. Why ‘‘the whole history of cotton improvement is most disheartening’? ma be explained if an essential feature has been omitted. The argument for research is ably presented in the pamphlet issued at Manchester by the Provisional Committee on Research and Education for the Cotton Industry, but with no reflection of the actual state of production. _Not only should planters have industrial informa- tion, as recognised in Sir George Watt’s proposal of a central research institution at Manchester, but on the part of manufacturers, financiers, economists, and commercial leaders there is acute need of agricultural information. Industrial interest in cotton improve- ment must be made effective through the commercial channels that lead back to the farmer. Problems of agricultural application must be solved, in addition to developing superior varieties, devising better cul- tural methods, and controlling diseases or insect para- sites. The elaboration of the cotton research pro- gramme may bé entirely logical, but without an effective tie-back to the farmer there can be no prospect of a general application of the results of technical investigation, either industrial or biological, to purposes of production. The central cotton institution at Manchester should. be equipped for any elaboration of research that may be necessary to determine and demonstrate to manu- facturers the relation of the svstem of buying to the improvement of production. The parasitic tendencies of the present commercial system are not limited to the speculative features that arg being restricted by law or to the taking of undue profits, but lead to enormous agricultural and industrial waste through the production and manufacture of inferior. fibre, passed on to the consumer in weaker and more perish- able fabrics. To expect manufacturers to be interested in the cotton plant or in the details of farm operations in the growing of cotton might be unreasonable, but at least the financial aspects of cotton production would receive attention if manufacturers knew how their interests are prejudiced by the present commercial system. Instead of serving as a conductor of interest in improved production from the spinner to the farmer, the commercial system has the manufacturers and the growers fenced apart and misinformed regarding the general needs of the industry. Manufacturers are accustomed to pay more for good cotton, and naturally suppose that the farmers who raise better fibre receive higher prices for their crops, but investigation will show that most of the profit is absorbed by the buyers. The commercial idea of improving cotton is by ‘‘classing ’’ the present mis- cellaneous crop into the so-called “‘ even-running lots.” Buyers like to get long-staple bales at short-staple prices, but do not forgo present profits in order to encourage the improvement of future crops that some- body else may buy. The commercial system provides no incentive for improved production. The farmer is at. liberty, of course, to raise better — cotton if he chooses, but extra care and expense must be given, with no assurance of being able to sell at a higher price. Instead’ of gaining an advantage or of being encouraged to continue the planting of a better a : fee Juny 1, 1920] NATURE 549 variety, the progressive farmer at the end of the season may tind himself making a forced contribution to an unjust system. Naturally, he loses interest in raising cotton of better quality, and goes back to ordinary “ gin-run’’ seed or to the shortest and most inferior variety that promises a large yield. There is no agricultural reason why any part of the American cotton belt should produce less than inch staple, nor is it an advantage to any interest that the production of inferior, short, and irregular staple continue, but the inertia of the system must be overcome. I1 longer and more uniform staples are to be grown, they must sell at least as readily and as profitably as short staples. Since the farmer makes no use of cotton at home, but raises it only to sell, the quality of the tibre is of interest to him only as the price is affected. Better prices for better cotton are the only inducements that the farmer should be ed to consider. Preaching from any other text is sure to fall on deaf ears. The present scarcity of superior fibre could be met most promptly and effectively by having more good cotton grown instead of wasting the resources of pro- duction by planting inferior cotton. The real ,obstacle is a defective commercial system, which undoubtedly could be changed without any great difficulty if the manufacturers had sufficient understanding of the conditions and needs. The problem, no doubt, is much the same in other countries as in the United States: to render production more efficient by im- proving the quality of the crop. After two de:ades of investigation of cotton- ee Poems in the United States it is being recognised that the production of the best and most uniform fibre can be maintained only in communities that limit their production to a single’ variety of cotton, so that there shall be no mixing of different kinds of seed at the public gins or crossing of different kinds in the field. One-variety communities have been maintained for several years in the Salt River Valley of Arizona, where the practical advan-. tages of the plan have been demonstrated and the commercial obstacles more clearly revealed. Community production of better cotton in other regions might go forward rapidly if farmers were assured of better markets for good cotton than for short, mixed fibre. High prices may be expected to affect the quantity of cotton to be grown, but the quality will not be improved unless there is a distinct advantage in raising better cotton. So long as manu- facturers are willing to take the present commercial system entirely for granted, and overlook its effect ‘upon production, no prompt or general improvement is to be expected. Lack of discrimination in buying from the growers is the weak point of the present system, not to be made good by paying all growers more for their cotton, but by paying more for good cotton and less for cotton. Discrimination in prices must be applied in the primary markets instead of the present careless and incompetent buying of ‘‘ hog-round ”’ lots at ‘“flat’’ prices, which leads the farmer to produce the worst fibre instead of the best, because varieties with inferior lint often yield well or turn out high percentages of lint at the gin, and do not need such careful handling as the longer staples. Not only the condition or ‘‘ grade” of the cotton, but also the quality or “staple’’ need to be recognised while the cotton is still in the hands of the farmer. Outside of cotton markets it is seldom understood that the grades used in buying cotton from farmers have no relation to the essential textile qualities of _ length, strength, and uniformity of fibre, but only to incidental differences that result mostly from careless NO. 2644, VOL. 105] picking or from exposure to the weather. The system buys grades from the farmer, but sells staples to the manufacturer, getting discounts from the farmer and premiums from the manufacturer. Discrimination could be applied honestly and to the best advantage on the farm before the cotton is picked, Uniformity of the fibre, which is an essential factor of quality and value for textile purposes, can be determined much more readily and definitely while the cotton is still in the field than after it is brought to the gin or passed into the bale. Field inspection of the plants shows readily and easily whether the stock represents a select, uniform variety or is mixed with plants that yield only short, inferior fibre, as most of the ‘off’ plants do when a good, variety is allowed to deteriorate through admixture or neglect of selection. If the cotton is mixed and irregular in the field there is no chance that the farmer will have high- quality fibre to sell, although the average buyer could not determine the admixture from the bale samples. The careless farmer usually sells his cotton at the same price as his more careful neighbours, to say nothing of the dishonest farmer who deliberately grows a mixed field with 20 per cent., or even so per cent., of short cotton, but gets the long-staple price for his crop. The quality of the fibre is affected also by cultural conditions of soil, season, and methods of handling the crop. Even on the same farm or in the same field inequalities of soil or treatment may result in cotton of very different textile qualities, which would be marketed in separate bales if adequate discrimina- tion in buying made such precautions worth while to the grower. The careful discrimination of quality that should be applied in the field can be made good only in part by the elaborate mill-tests by which the manufacturers try to protect themselves against too much waste and breakage in working the cotton. Such losses, as well as costs of cleaning and combing processes, undoubtedly could be reduced to a great extent through more careful buying and the more careful growing and handling of the crop which dis- criminating treatment of farming communities would secure.” Field-inspection buying may be considered as a new application of botanical knowledge, but the underlying facts have been established, and there is no reason to doubt that the talent applied in commercial sampling from bales could be used more effectively for deter- mination of the quality of fibre before the cotton is harvested. Such a reform would give the commercial system a positive, constructive relation to the industry instead of the present negative, parasitic relation. Farming communities would turn at once to the pro- duction of fibre of better quality, to the general ad- vantage of the cotton industry and the consuming public. No doubt the relation of prices to production has been overlooked because it is so simple and obvious, but a new approach is open to manufac- turers through the organisation of one-variety com- munities. A strong department of commercial rela- tions in the new Cotton Research Institute at Man- chester would be a practical recognition of the principle approved by Sir George Watt: ‘‘The cultivator’s interests are paramount.”’ Cook. Bureau of Plant Industry, Washington, May 24 1 See United States Department of Agricu'ture Bulletins, ‘‘ The Relation of Cotton Buving to Cotton Growing,” *‘Cotton Improvement on a Com- munity Rasis,” ‘‘ Cotton Selection on the Farm by the Characters of the Stalks, Leaves, and Bolls,” ‘‘ Extensidnof otton Production in California,” 2 7 arco of American Egyptian Cotton,” and ‘‘ Maintaining the Supply 999 NATURE [JULY I, 1920 4 Fuel Research. By Pror. JoHNn W. Coss. ee rising cost of coal will help to focus atten- tion upon all such potential relief work as that of the Fuel Research Board, which has. now issued its 1918-19 report over the signature of its director, Sir George Beilby. The report is of a comprehensive character, and gives evidence both of care in preparation and of a desire and competence to grapple in a scientific and effective manner with some of the more important problems with which the country is faced. The Board is not only undertaking. experimental work at a station established for the purpose at East Green- wich, and conveniently placed near a works of the South Metropolitan Gas Co., but is also concern- ing itself with inquiries conducted elsewhere into the thermal efficiency of open fires and cooking ranges, the economic position of pulverised coal, the cutting, winning, and utilisation of peat, and the sources of raw material for the production of power alcohol. The report also includes a reasoned account of the proceedings of the Board in the matter of the new gas standards which had been wisely referred to it by the Board of Trade and on which it has made recommendations. A survey of the national coal resources from the physical and chemical points of view is promised, this work having been taken over from the Coal Conservation Committee, which recognised the importance of such a survey, but, being without a staff, did not feel able to carry it out. The equipment and lay-out of the experimental station at East Greenwich are described at some length. Stress is laid upon measures taken to allow of striking a correct thermal balance for each piece of plant employed, although it is no doubt recognised that the smallness of each unit would have to be taken into account in translating results into terms of large-scale practice. It is interesting to note that the position of water-gas as a heating agent for such purposes as_.the firing of the gas-retort installations is now so far established that the Board has felt justified in making blue-water-gas its standard fuel. Recent experience has demonstrated that the traditional | _ that low-temperature conditions are very unfayour- | able for the production of ammonia. restriction in the use of water-gas to operations requiring intense local heat was unnecessary. Apparently the first purpose to which the experi- mental plant is to be put is the complete investiga- | tion of low-temperature carbonisation, concerning | which so many conflicting statements have been put | forward. This is a very legitimate inquiry, and the | report justifies it (if any justification is needed), by insisting upon the wisdom of probing all possible sources of supply for the fuel oil on which the Navy and mercantile marine are becoming in- creasingly dependent. It is plain that Sir George Beilby approaches this process with some predis- position in its favour. He has himself made pre- liminary experiments upon it, and in an appendix to the report there is reprinted a contribution which he made to the discussion of the subject at NO. 2644, VOL. 105 | the British Association meeting in 1913. The report displays a somewhat unfortunate tendency ‘to rule out the carbonisation processes of the gas industry as being unlikely to produce larger quan- tities of fuel oil, because “ present movement is all in the direction of obtaining the highest possible proportion of the total thermal units of the coal in the form of gas with a smaller consumption of coal per million thermal units distributed.” Such ruling out is not justified, as a later qualifying clause admits. The further technical success of the gas industry would be expected to result in a large replacement of coal as a domestic and industrial fuel by gas, and although the thermal units carried by the gas from a ton of coal would increase, the margin for replacement is so con- siderable that the total amount of coal gasified would increase also. Moreover, it is unwise to assume that such developing processes as the dis- tillation in vertical retorts of a descending stream of coal in an ascending stream of steam or other gas cannot be made a most effective and econo- mical means of securing the maximum yield of volatile products, including tar oils if they are wanted. Most of the favourable “non-destruc- tive” conditions claimed for low-temperature car- bonisation may quite probably be secured in this way without the attendant disadvantages of that process as it has so far been described and worked. | | The whole matter is still sub judice. The net commercial result of any carbonisation — process is to a great extent dependent upon the relative market values of products, which change © From a thermal point of view, — however, the movement towards obtaining a large from time to time. proportion of the thermal units of the coal in gas is justified by the high thermal efficiency of gas in use, combined with the low thermal cost of production which can be made to attach to it. From the point of view of by-products, fuel oil has, no doubt, its importance, but it would be a mistake ‘if sulphate of ammonia were to be de- posed from its pride of place without due con- sideration, and it seems clearly to be established It may be that national safety will be held to demand the working of a commercially unremunerative process, but, if so, the decision should be made with open eyes. The results which Sir George Beilby, Prof. Thomas Gray (chief of the laboratories), and their staff are setting out to obtain in connection with the low-temperature carbonisation process will be of great interest to many who have been waiting for trustworthy data concerning it. The com- mercial success of low-temperature carbonisation on an extended scale is bound up with the creation of a demand for the soft coke or semi-coke which would be one of its main products. As compared with raw coal, this material; like ‘any other coke, eT eT Me 5 er eae ee y pd ice ——— it ; : | - _ Jury 1, 1920] NATURE 35! " would have the outstanding advantage of smoke- less combustion, but its ash content would, of necessity, be higher. It would have the great disadvantage of crushing more easily than ordinary coke in all the processes of transference from. the retort to the consumer, but would be correspondingly easier to ignite. Like both raw coal and ordinary coke, it would deliver potential heat units at a cheaper rate than they are supplied in gas. The question of efficiency in use remains, and the report deals benevolently with the effi- ciency obtainable from coal and coke in the most widely used domestic appliance—the open fire. It is set out that with an open fire, which has apparently a chance of regaining a lost reputation if it will only consent to provide a market for large quantities of soft coke, “probably 30 to 40 per cent. of the heat escapes completely, 60 to 70 per cent. being used in warming the room itself and the general fabric of the building.” On this point careful statement is advisable. In view of the comparative unavailability of any heat from the coal fire which is not given up to the room, it would be quite wrong to take 60 to 70 per cent. as being the thermal efficiency of the fire, just as it would be wrong in the other - direction to take the radiant efficiency of such a fire (about 25 per cent.) as the total efficiency. Comparative tests are probably best made on radiant efficiency, and it is not surprising to find that the tests made by Dr. Fishenden and quoted in the report are made on this basis. Dr. Fishen- den’s tests on coal and coke fires have been carried out at Manchester by the method worked out at the University of Leeds for testing the radiant efficiency of gas fires, with such modifications as were found necessary. The work has undoubt- edly been carried out with care and skill, but it _ should be borne in mind that, on account of the varying condition of a coal fire during the course of a determination, the quantity and distribution of radiation from it cannot be measured with any- thing like the same degree of precision as with a gas fire. Dr. Fishenden does seem to be satisfied, however, that the radiant efficiency of the coke ‘fire is higher than that of the coal fire, and, according to the report, “the radiant efficiency of coal fires of different types varies from 19} to 25 per cent., while, with fires of low-temperature coke in the same grate and burning under the same conditions, this amounts to 31 to 34 per cent.” It may be noted that the radiant efficiency of a modern gas-fire is approximately 45 to 50 per cent., but the report does not fail to point out that the real thermal advantage of the gas fire is much greater than would be indicated by any such comparison, because it can be used almost immediately at full efficiency for any period of time, great or small, this, of course, apart from any question of labour-saving and cleanliness. Cooking ranges were brought under test by Mr. A. H. Barker, and his reports are summarised in an appendix. “Mr. Barker lays stress on the extravagance in fuel involved by the necessity of heating the whole apparatus in the use of only NO. 2644, VOL. 105 | one or possibly two of its appliances,” and points out the further difficulty of obtaining high economy under ordinary working conditions because of the large excess of air employed. It is plain that, whether coke or gas is used as a means of replacing raw coal for domestic uses, the smoke nuisance would be abated, and a section of the report given under the head “Air Pollu- tion” shows this aspect of the fuel problem to be receiving attention from the Board. The pioneer work of Prof. J. B. Cohen (which should not be overlooked) was of great service in direct- ing attention to the considerable quantity and evil effects of smoke in our atmosphere, and observa- tions have since been multiplied by the Atmo- spheric Pollution Committee of the Meteorological Office, Dr. J. S. Owens, Mr. William Thomson, and others whose work is referred to in this report. The appointment of properly trained inspectors whose help and advice would be welcomed by in- dustrial consumers of fuel is advocated, in addition to the establishment in every large works of an organised fuel control as the “only solid founda- tion on which to build more revolutionary or further-reaching methods of fuel economy.” It is pointed out usefully that soot from the burning of raw coal, ash and dust from the burn- ing of coal or coke, and acid impurities derived from the sulphur contained in coal, coke, and unpurified gas, are all to be taken into account in a consideration of atmospheric pollution resulting from the use of fuel, and it may be emphasised that the liability to pour out large quantities of fine ash into the atmosphere is not to be over- looked in considering the advantages and disad- vantages of pulverised fuel. The use of pulverised coal has not been developed in this country to the same extent as in America, and, therefore, although the Board is putting down a small plant in order to make experiments at East Greenwich, it has thought it advisable to secure full informa- tion upon the subject through a report made by Mr. Leonard Harvey after a special inquiry con- ducted in America. Mr. Harvey visited © im- portant installations and collected there the ex- periences and views of the leading consumers of pulverised coal. His report has already been issued separately. “The advantages of the method as an almost perfect means of burning coal must be weighed against the cost of producing and handling coal-dust and the difficulties which may have to be overcome in dealing with its ash.” Another special inquiry has been directed to the subject of peat. This work has been carried out mainly in Ireland, and has undergone vicissitudes, but a beginning seems to have been made, and reference is made to a paper, read before the Royal Dublin Society in March last, in which Prof. Purcell gave an admirable summary of the peat situation, not only in Ireland, but also in other countries. It is interesting to note, as indicating elasticity of method, that this paper will be printed as one of the special reports of the Fuel Research Board, and also that the help of the Department 55? NATURE [Jury 1, 1920 — of Scientific and Industrial Research has appar- ently been accorded for the production of an English translation by Prof. Ryan of Hausding’s “Handbook on the Winning and Utilisation of Peat.” As regards fuel alcohol, the position is sum- marised thus: “It is obvious that until an estimate has been made of the possible resources for the production of alcohol within the Empire, and until their probable amount and the cost of using them have been ascertained, it would be useless to embark upon research on any extended scale into methods of production or utilisation.” The report, under the head ‘Gas Standards,” gives a summary of the steps taken by Sir George Beilby and the Board from the time they were asked to advise on the subject by the Board of Trade, which recognised the complete inapplica- bility to modern conditions of gas standards as they had existed before the war. Conferences were held with those interested in the matter in different ways, and at a final conference resolu- tions were put and adopted which were forwarded to the Board of Trade, and constitute a new and much more rational method of regulating gas supply by statute. The central principle is that the consumer shall be charged with the potential thermal units supplied to him in the gas. The permissible percentage of inert constituents is limited by another resolution, although, of course, the temptation to pull “inerts” into the ‘gas is removed now that they have to be distributed at the same cost as combustibles, but have not to be paid for. The.gas undertaking can decide on the calorific value of the gas it intends to deliver, a power which should open the way for extensive technical development of the industry, and allow of the realisation of economies which have hitherto been rendered impossible by useless and out-of- date restrictions. The refusal of Sir George Beilby and the Fuel Research Board to accept any re- strictions in this regard, however pertinaciously and dogmatically they were put forward, unless they could be justified by some adequate reason, has exemplified in a striking way the advantage of referring a matter of this kind to a competent technical authority. The choice of a new standard is a new degree of freedom, but, the choice being made, the gas undertaking is required to adhere very closely to it. Recognition is here given to the valid principle that unsatisfactory performance of a gas-using appliance is far more likely to be due to variations from the standard than to any lowness (or highness) in the standard itself. It is recognised that if the standard is materially altered the burners in consumers’ appliances may need alteration,'and the gas undertaking has to make the adjustment. ‘‘The calorific value of the gas is to be continuously measured and recorded by a recording calorimeter of a standard type to be passed by the London Gas Referees,” and by this means it is hoped that the control of gas quality can be made much more effective than it has been hitherto. Sir George Beilby has had under observation for some time the Simmance recording gas calori- meter with apparently satisfactory results, but the strain will come when legal penalties are depend- ent upon the accuracy (or inaccuracy) of this or any other form of recording gas calorimeter. Pre- sumably, however, the possibilities of error will receive full investigation, and the successful work- — ing of so promising a scheme for the regulation of public gas supply will not be endangered by the imposition of any rigid system of testing which — is not one of fully proved trustworthiness. Use of Sumner Lines in Navigation.’ By Capt. T. H: Tizarp; CB... Ks: aak Sumner line as a means of aiding in the | or Jupiter if they cross the meridian at least navigation of ships has been in use for certainly seventy years, and is one of the best methods of obtaining .the position of a ship at _ sea, for by its means both latitude and longitude © can be obtained simultaneously without difficulty, and it has certain other advantages. In obtaining both latitude and longitude simultaneously, two and a half hours before or after noon, and occasionally both sun and moon are available during the day. In northern latitudes the pole star is always available in clear weather, at twi- light, for observations for latitude, and one or ' two other stars for longitude, but if neither the pole star nor a heavenly object near, or on, the observations” of more than one heavenly body are required, and the Greenwich time must be known | accurately, as well as the approximate latitude. The altitudes of two or more heavenly bodies can | be observed at twilight, both morning and even- ing, when the weather is clear, the horizon dis- tinctly visible, and the stars are yet to be seen before the sky is lit up by the sun. It is possible, too, even without using the Sumner line, to observe in daylight meridian altitudes of Venus 1 “The Sumner Line or Line of Position as an Aid to Navigation.” By G. C. Comstock. Pp. vit+70. (New York: J. Wiley and Sons, Inc. ; London ; Chapman and Hall, Ltd.; 1919.) Price 6s. net. NO. 2644, VOL. 105 | meridian is available for obtaining the latitude, Sumner’s method affords a means of doing so. Sumner’s method briefly is as follows: If a straight line be drawn from the centre of the _ earth to any heavenly body, at the spot where this line cuts the circumference of the earth, the altitude of that heavenly body will be 90°, which spot is named by Mr. Comstock the sub-polar point; a more appropriate name would be the zenith point—that is, the point on the earth’s surface where the heavenly object observed would be in the zenith; and if circles be drawn on the earth’s surface round this spot, with it a ean a ee ee ee j » JULY 1, 1920] NATURE 553 as a centre, those circles are really circles so that when an observer takes an altitude of a heavenly body he is on a circle of altitude, and his position of altitude of the heavenly body; be taken, and the resulting Sumner line should coincide in cutting the other two lines in, or close to, the spot already determined. The second method of obtaining the Sumner Mercator’ Projection. 30’ gio’ 5\0’ 145° 1\0’ 2\0’ 30’ 30 Pog a us cat? ine I 40 ; ‘on 11°44'S. 1 145-4 £. ae As eS . A ; fo = 12 a. ee | fae a eo Fic. x. on that circle can be obtained by taking simul- taneous altitudes of two heavenly bodies, or, in other words, of obtaining two circles of altitude which cut each other at a suitable angle, and the spot where they cut each other is the required position of the observer. The circles of altitude are of such a great radius that for short distances they are practically straight lines. There are two methods of obtaining the position of sections of these circles of altitude, or Sumner lines. In both it is necessary to know the exact Greenwich time, the approximate latitude, and the exact declination of the heavenly object. These are always available in a ship provided with a chro- nometer and a Nautical Almanac. The first method is to assume two latitudes, one, say, 10 miles north, and the other 1o miles south, of the approximate position, and with each latitude, combined with the altitude and polar distance, to calculate the longitude, a pro- cess familiar to all navigators; then plot the two positions thus obtained and draw a line on the chart joining them, and the observer must be on that line. With observations of another heavenly body, and using the same latitudes, go through the same process, and the observer’s position will be on the spot where the two lines cross each other. If it is very important to avoid error—as when sailing towards narrow channels through coral reefs, such, for instance, as the Raine Island passage through the Great Barrier Reef in Australia—observations of a third star can NO. 2644, VOL. 105] line is to use only one latitude, and to calculate the longitude and the azimuth, or true bearing, of the heavenly body; then, as the circle of alti- tude, or Sumner line, is at right angles to the true bearing, already calculated, by plotting the Mercators Projection. glo’ Fic. 2. latitude and longitude and drawing lines at right angles to the true bearing, the position of the observer is where those lines cut each other. The following examples illustrate the methods : (1) On August 30, 1874, when H.M.S. Chal- 554 ' NATURE [JuLY 1, 1920 lenger was making for the Raine Island passage, observations were taken at 5 a.m. of Aldebaran, Sirius, and Canopus, ; and the latitude was assumed to be 11° 4o! S. or 11 ° 50’ S. Using these latitudes, the position of the Sumner lines was found to be as shown in Fig. 1, and the position of the vessel to be 11° 44’ S., 145° 4’ E. (2) On June 13, 1874, observations were taken at 6 a.m. (to fix the position of a deep-sea sound- ing) of 8B Orionis, Canopus, and Saturn, the lati- tude being assumed as 34° 12’ S., the resulting longitude by 8 Orionis being 151° 56’ E., and its azimuth S. 86° 26/ E., the Sumner line therefore running N. 3° 34’ E. and S. 3° 34’ W. The longi- tude by Canopus was 151° 50’ 45” E., and its azimuth S. 39° 18/ E.,: its Sumner line running N. 50° 42! E., S. 50° 42!’ W.; the longitude by Saturn was 151° 54/ 15” E., and its azimuth N. 73° W., and the Sumner line by it running N. 17° E:, S. 17° W. These lines are shown in Fig. 2, lat.' 34°: 8! S., dong, 252°).66!B. But the Sumner line has another advantaa When only one heavenly body is visible, and, therefore, the exact position of the observer cannot be obtained, if with an assumed lati- tude the longitude and azimuth be calculated, and the resulting Sumner line be plotted on the chart, if this line runs in the direction of the*port, or point of land, towards which the ship is sailing, by steering along the Sumner line the vessel will reach her destination. For instance, if when sailing towards the English Channel an observa- tion of the sun be obtained in the forenoon, when its azimuth, or true bearing, is somewhere between south and east, the Sumner line will be between east and north; and if this line runs towards the Lizard or some other known point, by steering along this Sumner line a good landfall may be obtained. Obituary. Dr. F. A. TarLeTon. RANCIS ALEXANDER TARLETON, who died on June 20, was born in Co. Monaghan in 1841. He was the youngest son of the late Rev. J. R. Tarleton, of the Established Church in Ireland, and received his earlier education from his father. At the age of sixteen he entered Trinity College, Dublin. He was in the same year as the late Sir Robert Ball, whom he defeated at the moderatorship examination in mathematics in 1861, taking also a junior moderatorship in logic and ethics. Elected to fellowship in 1866, and called to the Bar in 1868, he was for a time assist- ant to the professor of applied chemistry, and pro- fessor of natural philosophy from 1890 to 1901, when he was co-opted a senior fellow. From that time until a few days befare his death he sat as an efficient member of the board of Trinity College. Dr. Tarleton held several college offices, including those of senior bursar, senior lecturer, and senior dean, the last being a sinecure—for its statutory duties have long since lapsed. As senior bursar he showed his qualities as a first-class financier. He was at one time president of the Royal Irish Academy, and a member of the Board of Irish Intermediate Education. As professor of natural philosophy, Dr. Tarleton followed the traditions of his distinguished pre- decessors, Williamson, Townsend, and Jellett, in treating the subject from a strictly mathematical point of view. Although he had a considerable practical acquaintance with experimental science, he flatly ignored the judicial aphorisms of Francis Bacon, and, instead of treating mathematics as the handmaid of physics, he rather inverted the order, and almost succeeded in reducing hydro- dynamics, elasticity, magnetism, and electricity to branches of pure mathematics. The writer attended Dr. NO. 2644, VOL. 105 | Tarleton’s moderator- ship and fellowship lectures about twenty years ago in hydrodynamics, elasticity, and the electro- magnetic theory of light, and was struck with wonder at his extraordinary memory and accuracy. For two and a half hours he would write down long and intricate calcula- tions without the aid of any notes. Some- times a student at the end of an hour would ask to be allowed to leave in order to attend a lecture in experimental science or history or other subject, and Dr. Tarleton would say with a snarl and a grimace (covering a heart full of humour and humanism): ‘Waal, if you prefer that abominable subject to mathematics, you are wel- come to leave, and we’re glad to get rid of you.’ The last time the writer spoke to him, Dr. Tarleton expressed his intense dislike of Einstein’s theory of relativity. He held that the Newtonian and Kantian conceptions of space and time are good enough to explain all possible phenomena, if sufficient mathematical ingenuity is shown, and he placed relativism in the same category as Bolshevism. Dr. Tarleton wrote the following papers :—‘ On the Solid of Revolution having a Given Volume which experiences the Least Resistance in Passing _ Through a Medium,” ‘Chemical Equilibrium,” “Deductions from MacCullagh’s Lectures cn Rotation,” ‘‘The Foundations of the Science of Number,” “Notes on Crystallography,” “Geo- metrical Proofs of Some Properties of Conics,” “The Harmonic Determinant,” ‘Laplace’s Co- efficients,” and ‘“‘A Problem in Vortex Motion.” His two books ‘‘ Dynamics ” tion with Williamson) and “‘ An Introduction to the Mathematical Theory of Attractions” .are first- class text-books of their kind. The latter contains a chapter on Maxwell’s electro-magnetic theory of light. R. A. P. Rocers. and the position of the sounding was (written in conjunc- _ F born at Roxeth, near Harrow, in - GeoLocists will JvLy 1, 1920] NATURE 555 learn that Dr. Dr. Hind was 1860, and regret to WHEELTON Hinp died on June 21. _ graduated in medicine and surgery in the Uni- versity of London, also gaining the fellowship of the Royal College of Surgeons. practice at Stoke-on-Trent more than thirty _ years ago, and soon occupied a prominent place He began the surgeons of North Staffordshire. His recreation from the first was field-geolo which suited both his athletic activity ‘and ie eagerness for purely scientific work. studies coincided with the movement initiated by Lapworth and others for the more exact correlation of stratified rocks by a very detailed study of their contained fossils; and Dr. proceeded to apply this new method of ‘ His early Hind ‘zoning,” as it was termed, to the Carboniferous rocks of the neighbourhood in which he resided. His success in discovering the regular order in which the different assemblages of fossils occurred in Staffordshire and Derbyshire gradually led him further afield. He co-operated with members of the Geological Survey, and after extended _re- searches in Lancashire and Yorkshire he joined _Mr. J. Allen Howe in 1go1 in contributing to the ~ colonel. Geological Society of London in 1917. Geological Society of London a fundamentally im- portant memoir on the classification of the Lower Carboniferous rocks of north-central England. Dr. Hind also recognised that, for the purposes of the stratigraphical geologist, the species of Carboniferous Mollusca needéd more exact defini- tion than had previously been attempted, and he _ devoted much labour to adding two finely illus- trated monographs on the subject to the series published by the Paleontographical Society. Some of the molluscs proved to be of value for recog- nising the various seams of coal in the Stafford- shire coalfield, and in*1903 Dr. Hind and Mr. J. T. Stobbs prepared an illustrated wall-chart of them for the use of the practical miner. On the outbreak of war in 1914 Dr. Hind joined the Army as a gunner, and took part in some engage- ments in France; but he was afterwards employed as surgeon, and attained the rank of lieutenant- He received the Lyell medal from the Tue death, at the age of seventy-eight, of Mr. James KENNEDY is a serious loss to Oriental studies. The son of an Indian missionary, Mr. Kennedy was employed in the Civil Service of India from 1863 to 1900. After his retirement he was a leading figure in the Royal Asiatic Seciety, serving as treasurer until illness compelled his resignation, and winning the respect of his colleagues by his learning, business capacity, and kindliness of nature. He was one of those patient workers who are always collecting materials, hoping for new light on difficult problems, and thus he failed to accomplish his projected task, a history of the relations of Indian culture with those of Nearer Asia. He contributed to the Proceedings of the Royal Asiatic Society several valuable mono- graphs, the most important being devoted to the NO. 2644, VOL. 105 | early trade intercourse of Babylonia with India, the cults of Krishna, and the Aryans, the last published only a few months before his death. Though some of his ingenious speculations failed to meet with general acceptance, it is much to be regretted that he failed to accomplish the work to which his life was devoted. Last week there died in Paris, in his eighty- second year, M: ADOLPHE CARNOT, a member of the Academy of Sciences and of the Legion of Honour. M. Carnot was the grandson of M. Lazare Carnot and the son of M. Hippolyte Car- not, the Minister of Public Instruction in the Pro- visional Government of 1848. President Sadi Carnot was his elder brother. For many years M. A. Carnot held a professorship at the Ecole Supérieure des Mines, and was afterwards its honorary director, He was also Inspector-General of Mines in France. M. Carnot’s scientific reputation rests chiefly on his contributions to analytical methods, and his treatise on the analysis of mineral substances is the standard French work on this subject. Jt comprises a detailed account of the occurrence, properties, reactions, methods of separation, and analysis of all the metals, including the rare metals, which are very fully described. The in- formation given with reference to the rare metals is based largely on his own original work. He was a frequent contributor to the Annales des Mines, and published papers on methods of deter- mining phosphorus, silicon, potassium, iodine, chlorine, bromine, vanadium, molybdenum, chromium, etc. In 1900 there appeared his important joint paper with Goutal on the veri- fication of compounds existing in iron and steel by using reagents with which to dissolve out certain of the constituents. This paper is one of the best that have appeared on this subject. WE regret to have to record the death of Mr. HAMMERSLEY HEENAN, which took place on June 17. Mr. Heenan was born in 1847, and had been a member of the Institution of Mechan- ical Engineers since 1875, and of the Institution of Civil Engineers since 1876. An account of his career appears in Engineering for June 25. At seventeen years of age he went to India and spent about fifteen years in the Public Works Department. Mr. Heenan returned to England in 1880 and founded the firm of Heenan and Froude, Ltd., of which he was chairman and managing director until his retirement two years ago. The firm is principally engaged on bridges and structural work generally. Among its undertakings is the Blackpool Tower. During the war Mr. Heenan rendered great service both in his personal capacity and in apply- ing the resources of his works to the manufacture of munitions. THE death is announced of Dr. J. H. Hystop, the founder of the American Society of Psychical Research. 550 NATURE [JULY i, 1920 Notes. THE report of the Advisory Committee on Civil Avia- tion (Cmd. 770, price 2d.), dealing with the question of Government assistance for the development of civil aviation, will be read with interest by those who are concerned in the commercial future of the aeroplane. The report considers at length the present position of civil aviation and. the results which have been achieved, and reaches the conclusion that as regards both the progress of commercial flying and _ the maintenance of a healthy aeronautical industry the indirect assistance given in the past is insufficient. Definite proposals for direct assistance are made. It is suggested that such assistance should be limited to a sum of 250,o0ol. within the two _ financial years 1920-22, and calculated on a_ basis of 25 per cent. of the total revenue of the aviation companies concerned, without differentiation as to the nature of the load carried by the machines. ‘ Ap- proved ’’ routes are suggested: (a) London to Paris, with extensions; (b) London to Brussels, with ex- tensions; and (c) a route such as England to Scan- dinavia, giving opportunities for the development of seaplane and ‘‘amphibious’’ machines. Air-Marshal Sir Hugh M. Trenchard criticises this policy in a minority report. He considers that the Committee is not justified in its assertion that commercial aviation has hitherto been a failure, and expresses the view that there has not yet been sufficient time for the advantages of aerial transport to be appreciated widely and so to create the necessary demand. He further considers the policy of subsidies to be funda- mentally unsound, and thinks the money would be better spent in encouraging the design of experimental machines and in helping forward general research on aeronautical questions—a view for which there is much to be said. Assuming the subsidy to be granted, however, Sir Hugh agrees with the mode of applica- tion suggested by the majority report. THERE has just appeared the second interim report of the Water Power Resources Committee, which gives effect to. the extended terms of reference it received in October last, viz. to take into consideration the steps necessary to ensure that the water resources of the country are properly conserved and fully and sys- tematically used for all purposes. The Committee recommends that there should be established, by Act of Parliament, a controlling Water Commission, having jurisdiction over England and Wales, upon which should be conferred certain statutory powers and duties relative, inter alia, to the compilation of proper records of the water resources and water require- ments of the country, the allocation of these resources, the adjustment of existing anomalies and hardships, and the reconciliation of conflicting interests. Such a body would assist Government Departments concerned in the uses and_ con- trol of water, would advise. Parliamentary Com- mittees before which Water or Water Power Bills may be heard, and generally would act as consultants and technical specialists to the Government in regard to questions within their purview. They would also NO. 2644, VOL. 105 | promote and initiate legislation for securing the ; development of rivers as a whole from source to mouth. The Committee recommends that further powers should be conferred on the Ministry of Health and other Government Departments to make orders authorising uncontested schemés of improvement. regards its primary investigation, the Committee reports that there are several parts of Great Britain | in which exist large sources of water power capable of development, but that it will deal more fully with this section of its inquiry in its final report, as well as with amendments required in the law in regard to pollution, underground water, and kindred subjects. Tue Department of Overseas Trade, in promoting the Empire Timber Exhibition at the Holland Park Skating Rink (July 5 to 17), has aimed at bringing under the notice of the British timber trade the various kinds of timber grown within the Empire. The exhibition will be fully representative of the As | ee ee timber-growing countries of the Empire, and acest be of much interest and value. THE annual meeting of the Somersetshire Archzeo- logical and Natural History Society will take place on July 20-22, and an interesting programme has been — arranged. On the opening day, at Bridgwater, the new president, Mr. A. H. Thompson, will deliver an address on ‘‘ Medieval Building Documents, and What We Learn from Them.”’ In the evening of the same day Mr, A. F. Major will read a paper entitled “The — Geography of the Lower Parrett in Early Times and ~ On July 21 a lecture will be © given by Mr. H. Corder on ‘‘Rambles round Bridg- ~ In addition, there will be many excursions Further particulars of the George — the Position of Cruca.’’ water.”’ to places of interest. meeting can be obtained from Mr. Gray, Taunton Castle, Taunton. ey ae THE DUKE OF CONNAUGHT on. Thursday last paid a 3 visit to the Royal College of Surgeons of England and received the diploma.of an HOnERREY. fellow of the — college. Tue Ricut Hon. H. A. L. FisHer and Sir James G. Frazer have been elected fellows of the Royal Society, under the statute governing special elections, on the — grounds of their having ‘rendered ote ser- 3 vice to the cause of science.”’ At the meeting of the Royal Society ae Edinburgh the following were elected on Monday, June 21, foreign honorary fellows :—William Wallace Camp- bell, director of the Lick Observatory; Yves Delage, — Paris; Hendrik Anton Lorentz, professor of physics, Leyden ~ University; Alfred Gabriel Nathorst, Stockholm; Ch. — Academy of © Charles Richet, professor of physio- logy, Faculty of Medicine, Paris; and Georg Ossian professor of zoology, Faculty of Sciences, Emile Picard, secretary, Sciences, Paris; perpetual Sars, formerly professor of zoology, Christiania, and Director of Norwegian Fisheries.. MeEDALs have been awarded to the following by the Council of the Royal Society of Arts for papers read before the society during the past session:—J. W. res BEAR gf: peer a a eet > ow a Pa _ Jury 1, 1920] NATURE 557 _ Pearson, ‘*‘ The Seed Crushing Industry ’’; S. Preston, “English Canals and Inland Waterways”; Sir J. _ urrie, “Industrial Training *’; Air-Commodore E. ‘Maitland, “The Commercial Future of Airships”; ‘Sir W. S. Meyer, ‘The Indian Currency System and its Developments’; A. Howard, “The Improvement of Crop Production in India’; Sir F. Watts, “Tropical Departments of Agriculture, with Special Reference to the West Indies’; and Sir J. Cadman, “The Oil Resources of the British Empire.” _ Tue Riberi prize of the Academy of Medicine of _ Turin has been awarded to Dr. G. Vanghetti for his researches on amputations and kinematic prostheses. Major Kenetm Epccumse has been elected chair- man of the National Illumination Committee of Great Britain in succession to Mr. A. P. Trotter. A meeting of the International Illumination Committee is to be held in Paris next year to discuss technical subjects. © A MONUMENT to Wilbur Wright is to be dedicated on July 18 at Le Mans, France, near which town he carried out many of his aeronautical experiments. THe annual meeting of the Research Defence Society was held on June 23, when an admirable address was given by Col. McCarrison on ‘‘ Vitamines in their Relation to Health.’? Col. McCarrison spoke with authority; he made clear the facts already proved, and the intricacies of the study of vitamines. "It is strange now to recall the old teaching about the “constituents” of our food; the proteins and the fats and the starches; the old South Kensington exhibits of an apple or a mutton-chop analysed down to half _ a dozen phials of chemicals, of water, and of ““ash’?; _ but not a word said of these potent and subtle vita- mines which “animate the whole” and safeguard us _ against rickets and scurvy and beri-beri and epidemic dropsy. After the meeting Dr. and Mrs. Mellanby ‘showed specimens of the results which they have obtained in this field of- research, especially in the relation of vitamines to the growth of the bones and to the development of the teeth. The society’s annual _ feport speaks of increased activity in good educational work. The Jenner Society has become affiliated to ___ the Research Defence Society, and this is a move in the right direction. The Research Defence Society _-has lately published an address by Sir Walter Fletcher on the work of the Medical Reséarch Council, and is about to publish an essay by Sir David Bruce on tetanus and the use of tetanus antitoxin. Sir Cuartes Tomes has presented to the museum of the Royal College of Surgeons of England the entire collection of microscopical preparations made by himself and also by his father, the late Sir John Tomes, during their investigations into the structure and comparative anatomy of the teeth. In this important donation are included the prepara- tions—many of great beauty as well as of scientific worth—on which memoirs published in the Philo- sophical Transactions and Transactions of the Odonto- logical Society were based. The gift thus made is to be known as the Tomes Collection, and will be acces- sible to all who are making.a study of the comparative anatomy and microscopical structure of the teeth of vertebrate animals. NO. 2644, VOL. 105] Amonc the worked flints collected from the ploughed fields of Norfolk and Suffolk Miss Nina F. Layard has lately observed several with well-defined finger- grips, which she describes in the latest part of the Proceedings of the Suffolk Institute of Archeology (vol. xvii., part i.). The implements are beautifully illustrated by photographs, showing how they are adapted by chipping for holding in the hand. They include both scrapers and borers, and one seems to be suitable for cutting hides. The age of the implements is undetermined, and Miss Layard compares them with certain scrapers obtained by the late Dr. Sturge from Luxor, Egypt. She also points out that the North Alaskan Eskimos at the present day carve finger-grips in the wooden or bone handles in which they fix their stone scrapers. Tue problem how to make philology interesting has been solved by Sir George Grierson in two papers on the Indo-Aryan vernaculars reprinted from the Bul- letin of the School of Oriental Studies. The Aryan languages cover, roughly sveaking, the whole of the northern plain of India, penetrating in the case of the Pahari dialects into the lower ranges of the Hima- layas, while closely related to them is another group of tongues in the mountainous country lying south of the Hindu-Kush, which are here styled the Dardic or modern Pisacha languages. The most important result of the Philological Survey is that the Indo-Aryan vernaculars fall into three groups: the midland, occupying the centre of the great northern plain; the outer in a band on the west, south, and east; while between these lies the intermediate group representing the former shading into the latter. These groups of tongues are obviously the result of successive inva- sions or the peaceful introduction of foreign cultures. The pressing problem at present is how to combine the philological with the ethnological evidence, and Sir G. Grierson’s papers are a valuable contribution to the solution of it. Mr. W. E. Heitvanp published in the Journal of Roman Studies (vol. viii., part i.) an elaborate, fully: documented article on the conditions of agriculture in Italy in Imperial times. He specially deals with the question whether Italy furnished a large number of farmer emigrants to raise and maintain provincial agriculture. He finds that the evidence does not favour such an emigration. One of the most pressing anxieties of the Emperors was to maintain a corn supply from Egypt and other African regions. But for the development of this industry native African farmers would be best qualified. Therefore, while we are entitled to assume that the Emperors were anxious to protect their coloni from the oppression of dealers with the connivance of corrupt officials, we ought not to.base far-reaching theories of State-assisted emigra- tion on the occurrence of a few Italian names in provincial inscriptions, the authors of which may not have been themselves coloni. INFLUENZA was persistent this year in London for seventeen weeks from February 7 to May 29, the deaths from the disease, according to the returns of the Registrar-General, numbering 20 or more each week. For the previous fifteen weeks, from 558 NATURE [JuLy 1, 1920 October 15, 1919, to January 31, the deaths in London had ranged irregularly from 12 to 24. The return for the week ending June 12 gives only 13 deaths in London due to the disease, and in the preceding week the deaths were only 19. For the seventeen weeks ending May 29 the average deaths per week numbered 59, and in ten previous epidemics out of a total of twenty-eight since 1890 this number was. exceeded, the highest weekly average being 500 in the epidemic of 1918-19, which lasted thirty-one weeks; the next highest was 171 in the epidemic of 1891, and 162 in 1892. The maximum number of deaths in a single week in the recent epidemic was 131, whilst in that of 1918-19 the number was 2458, the next highest maximum being 506 in 1892 and 473 in 1895. Of the twenty-eight, epidemics since 1890 only two have em- braced the summer months, those occurring in 1891 and 1918. The age incidence of the last three epidemics has differed widely from all others inas- much as the active and able-bodied, aged between twenty and forty-five, have suffered most severely, although the attack, which has apparently now abated, was less marked in this respect than the two epidemics of 1918 and 1918-19. Medical Science: Abstracts and Reviews for June (vol. ii., No. 3) contains among its articles a review of the subject of tuberculosis, particularly in connec- tion with the war. Tuberculosis only slightly in- creased in France and England during the war, and mainly among young women in industry, whereas, in Belgium, Germany, and Austria, all classes of the community suffered and to a rapidly increasing extent. The principal causative factor for this difference appeared to be that of food. In recent years the development of genetics has been marked by the establishing in various countries of a number of new scientific journals dealing with this rapidly growing subject. The latest addition to this list is Hereditas, the first number of which we have just received. It is issued by the Mendelian Society of Lund, Sweden, the president of which, ‘Prof. H. Nilsson-Ehle, is well known for his breeding experiments with wheat. The journal will appear three times annually so far as possible, making a volume containing about 350 pages. The contributions are to be published in English, German, or French, and the subscription is 25 Swedish crowns per volume. The first number includes a study of the resistance of wheat to the nematode Heterodera and its inherit- ance, by Nilsson-Ehle; the hereditary transmission of deaf-mutism, by Lundborg, and of hereditary tremor, by E. Bergman; the rate of pollen-tube growth in (Enothera and its possible effect on inheritance-ratios, by Heribert-Nilsson, as well as studies of colour in- heritance in peas and poppies, chlorophyll factors in the onion, and bud-sports in wheat. The new journal, which thus includes in its range the study of human as well as plant and animal material, will be a wel- come channel of publication for the growing Scan- dinavian school of geneticists, and will take its place among the standard journals on this subject. In the Reports of the South African Museum for 1918 and 1919 Dr. L. Péringuey records some new NO. 2644, VOL. 105 | facts relating to the Strand-loopers. In a cave-shelter a slab-painting was found above the kitchen-midden — material and beneath a stalactitic column. Skulls in — the midden were filled with gypsum. The geological conditions indicate that these formations must have taken a long time to produce—a longer lapse than is usually accepted. ‘If we take into consideration the conclusions of Shrubsall, that Strand-looper skulls differ materially from the Hottentot or so-called Bush races, I am justified, I think,’’ says Dr. Péringuey, “in claiming for the Strand-looper branch of the ‘San’ that occupied at one time the southern littoral of the former Cape Colony, not only a mode of culture more primitive than that retained by any living human race, but also a greater antiquity than for any other living African race.’”? From the South-West Protec- torate was obtained, and is figured in the Report, a rock-graving on which hoofs of animals and reduced representations of human feet had been produced by picking. Such gravings may, -perhaps, denote places where the Bush people had found game. These are only a few of many interesting discoveries mentioned in these Reports. Tue Smithsonian Institution has a custom, which we commend to the British Museum, of publishing each year an illustrated account of its explorations and field-work. The report for 1919, just to hand, contains narratives and illustrations that might well - stir the enthusiasm of the American public and_ lead to donations for similar purposes. Where so much is of interest to astronomer, anthropologist, — ethnographer, geologist, and zoologist, we should be hard put to it to make a selection did we not find some notes by Mr. C. M. Hoy on the extermination of the Australian native fauna, to which the attention of British naturalists should be directed. agent working towards the extermination of the native animals is the fox; next come the cattle and sheep men, who distribute poison by the cartload in the effort to reduce the rabbits. This has also caused or helped to cause the extermination of some of the ground-inhabiting birds. Another great agent is the bush-fires which sweep over the country. These are often lit intentionally in order to clear out the under- growth and thus increase the grass. . . . The country at Bulliac is a good example of what the cattleman will do in a few years’ time in killing off and burning the timber, and the consequent destruction of animal life. . . . The extermination of the native mammals has apparently gone much farther than is generally thought. Many species that were plentiful only a few years ago are now almost, if not altogether, extinct. Diseases have also played a great part in the exter- mination. The native bear died in thousands from a disease which produced a great bony growth on their heads. A mysterious disease also spread through the ranks of the native cat, Dasyurus viverrinus; the domestic cat also played a great part in their exter- mination. Even adult specimens of Dasyurus were often dragged in by the family cat. ... There are very few game laws in Australia, and no one gives any attention to the ones that are in order.” “The greatest _ JuLy 1, 1920] tj NATURE 559 THE greater part of a skeleton of the giant extinct marsupial Nototherium- has lately been found in Mowbray Swamp, Tasmania. The skull.and the limb- bones of the left side are described as well preserved, BS and are especially important for comparison with the numerous scattered remains of the same animal dis- covered in the Pleistocene deposits of Australia. The skeleton of Nototherium is less satisfactorily known than that of the allied Diprotodon, of which many _ specimens were found in Lake Callabonna, South _ Australia, about twenty-five years ago. We have received a copy of vol. v. (1918-19) of the _ Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of Western Australia, from which we learn that this society makes steady progress in membership and in the value and importance of its publications. The papers deal mainly with Western Australian problems. Prof. W. G. Woolnough writes on the physiographic elements of the Swan coastal plain, adding several details that have been overlooked in more general accounts. An important historical paper is one by ‘Mr. J. S. Battye on the early cofonisation of Western Australia. Mr. W. A. Saw contributes a paper on town-planning in Australia. His paper is noticeable for a number of well-chosen illustrations showing good and bad planning in various Australian towns. M. Emme Betor, whose artificial volcanoes were _ fecently mentioned in Nature, vol. civ., p. 575, has published a work on “L’Origine des formes de la Terre et des Planétes’” (Paris: Gauthier- Villars, price 14.40 francs). While holding that the earth and the moon developed from a state of luminous vapour of nebular origin, the heat of this vapour not being due to mere contraction, he points out, on the analogy of nove, that the intensely heated _ Stage may have lasted only a few months, while other Successive changes, such as those when rains of chlorides fell upon a warm surface, may have occurred during the first few years of terrestrial evolu- tion. We cannot here quote the figures by which _ M. Belot argues that the first waters would condense in the primitive atmosphere, owing to its high pres- sure, at the temperature of 364°; it is sufficient to mention that, on similar numerical reasoning, he shortens the interval The tectonics views now popular will certainly encourage thought. Amonc the handsome series of Professional Papers issued by the U.S, Geological Survey in these years of turmoil we may note one by Mr. E. de K. Leffing- well (No. 109) on ‘‘The Canning River Region, Northern Alaska.’’ Its description and illustrations of soil and vegetation above permanently frozen ground, or above a subsoil consisting almost entirely of ice, are of wide interest in lands in which such conditions once prevailed. The author uses the term ““ground ice’’ for bodies of ice in frozen ground, which involves confusion with what has always been’ known as ground ice (‘‘anchor ice’’ is preferred by NO. 2644, VOL. 105] ) between the first rainfall. (Antarctic) and the middle. of the Carboniferous ‘period to less than ten million years. of the crust are discussed with the aid of simple but ‘Suggestive diagrams, and the frequent reversal of Mr. Leffingwell) in rivers or in shallow seas. In most of the areas in which underground ice has been recorded, the downward limit of seasonal thawing is less than 7 ft., 3 ft. being the rule. The author shows, however, that this ice is a product of surface- thawing, water penetrating downwards and adding to the frozen masses at the present day. Underground ice will form wherever the. mean annual temperature is some 4°-6° C. below freezing point. The author makes a strong case for his view that very large continuous ice-masses, with occasional inclusions of earth, like those of the New Siberian Islands, may arise from the growth year after year of ice-wedges originating from surface-cracks. On May 27 Mr. B. S. Gossling read an interesting paper on ‘‘The Development of Thermionic Valves for Naval Uses’’ to the Institution of Electrical Engineers. He gives first a history of the introduc- tion of the thermionic valve into naval radio-tele- graphy, laying stress on the use of Langmuir’s formule for the value of the electron current as a guide to the numerical design of valves. To old- fashioned electricians the formula, which are numerous, are very uninviting. The physical dimen- sions on both sides of the equations appear to be quite different, and the continual introduction of the voltage to the power 1-5 is very puzzling. We think that the time has now come when the definitions of the fundamental quantities should be made more rigorous, and symbols should be used for the various quantities which show their physical dimensions. In the paper the successive stages of the approximations which were adopted in the calculation of the charac- teristics of valves are recorded. The final result shows that the observed behaviour of a high vacuum valve can to a first rough approximation be accounted for in terms of known physical laws. Many ingenious tests are described. The method adopted, for instance, for estimating the vacuum in a valve while still on the pump is to have a special vacuum tube attached to the apparatus and measure the width of the ‘cathode dark space.’? The paper gives a good idea of the immense amount of work done on the valve by physicists and engineers during the war. The varia- tions of the thermionic properties of the valves which were so puzzling and annoying a few years ago have now been brought within bounds, and a rough standard specification for their production is given. ‘Unfortunately, sufficient information to enable rigid life test clauses to be made is not yet available. It is a great step forward, however, that even a rough specification can be given. BuLietIn No. 2 for 1920 of the Classe des Sciences of the Royal Academy of Belgium contains a com- munication from Messrs. J. E. Verschaffelt and R. Crombez on the anomalous dispersion of methyl-violet, fuchsine, and paranitrosodimethylaniline. The authors use the method of Soret, which Wood also adopted, which depends on the division of a glass trough with parallel surfaces into two parts by a glass partition extending from one corner to the opposite one. One of the prismatic troughs thus formed is filled with a solution of the material the dispersion of which is to be inves- 560 NATURE [JuLy 1, 1920 tigated, and the other with the solvent alone. to the opposing action of the two prisms the disper- sion of the solvent is thus eliminated, and the anomalous dispersion of the solute observed directly. By this means the authors have determined the indices of refraction of the materials as follows :—Methyl- violet for wave-length 6712, 2:52; 6497, 2:43; 4455, 1-23; and 4227, 1-45. For fuchsine 6712, 2:21; 6497, 2°41; 6170, 2°63; 5857, 2°78; and 4227, 1-19. For para- nitrosodimethylaniline 6497, 1-74; 6170, 1°78; 5857, 181; 5603, 1-85; and 5270, 1-93. In the course of an article in Engineering for June 18 on the Birkenhead shipyard and works of Messrs. Cammell Laird and Co., Ltd., reference is made to the original generating stations which sup- plied the whole of the power for the works. The original station was equipped entirely with gas engines supplied from a Mond plant, which also supplied gas to the furnaces in the platers’ and other shops. The ten gas engines were of varying sizes, and had a total capacity of 2500 kw. This gas station has done good service, but the large number of comparatively small gas-driven units has resulted in a considerable main- tenance charge. There has also been difficulty at times during the war in obtaining suitable fuel for the producers. These conditions, combined with a‘ growing demand for power, have resulted in a decision to shut the gas station down altogether, and to transfer all power generation to the new turbine station. The matter is of some interest in view of the controversy on fuel economy, and illustrates the fact that there are points other than mere economy of fuel to be taken into consideration by large power-users. WE are asked to state that the Research Association of British Rubber and Tyre Manufacturers has secured laboratory accommodation in the Chemistry Depart- ment of University College, Gower Street, W.C.1. WE regret to learn from an inset announcement in the current issue of the Scottish Naturalist that, not- withstanding that all editorial work in connection with the journal is rendered gratuitously, there was a loss on the year’s working, which, however, has been generously met, and that in consequence of the con- tinued increasing cost of production there is a possibility of the magazine ceasing to exist. We trust that this contingency will be averted, for our contemporary has performed valuabie services to Scottish natural history for the lengthy period of fifty years. A largely in- creased subscription list would probably save the situa- tion, and the publishers, Messrs. Oliver and Boyd, Edinburgh, will be glad to have the names of all who will help in the way suggested to keep in circulation this useful scientific periodical. Tue latest catalogue (No. 188) of Messrs. W. Heffer and Sons, Ltd., Cambridge, gives particulars of upwards of 1900 second-hand books ranging over a number of subjects. There are sections devoted to science and mathematics; folk-lore and mythology; archeology; India; Ceylon; China, Japan, and the Far East; Turkey, etc. The catalogue, which will be sent free upon request, is worthy of perusal. NO. 2644, VOL. 105] Owing ‘May. Our Astronomical Column. TEMPEL’S SECOND PERiopic Comet.—The only addi- tional information that has come to hand about this comet is that it was of magnitude 11 at the end of It should be of magnitude 9 or 10 in July, a therefore visible in moderate instruments. Accurate observations of position are badly needed, as very few were obtained at the last apparition in 1915. period of this comet (5} years) is the shortest known except that of Encke. Observations were secured in 1873, 1878, 1894, 1899, 1904, 1915, and 1920. The following approximate ephemeris is for Greenwich midnight : re R.A. S. Decl. Log ~ Log aA eh ae eee July 6 23 14 51 717 O1216 96962 — eB tie x Pik, 8 59 0-1216 9:6791 222%, Q. 5 240!) Fee 0°1236 96685 30 © 22 24 1327 01274 96636 Aug. 7 0 38 50 16 1 01330 ©=—-g 6650 DENNING’s COMET OF 1881 AND A METEORIC SHOWER. —The Rev. M. Davidson has recently made some interesting computations of the dates and radiant points of certain comets if they originate meteor showers. Among these, Denning’s comet of 1881 indicates a radiant on August 4 at 303°—10° about 3° N. of a Capricorni._ For many years a prominent shower of slow, bright meteors has been. visible from this point at the end of July and the early part of August, and it is quite possibly connected with the comet named. It was well seen in 1900 and 1902, as well as in 1908 and 1916. The comet probably returned in 1899, 1907, and 1916, though it escaped observation, and the next return should occur in 1925 if the computed period of about 8% years is correct. There are, however, meteors every year from this. shower in Capricornus, and it should be specially looked for during the period from July 25 to August 8. CapTurRE Orpits.—Text-books on astronomy fre- quently contain a good deal of speculation on the possibility of capture of comets and satellites; we may quote as instances the Leonid meteors, supposed to have been diverted by Uranus from a quasi- parabolic orbit into an ellipse of short period, and the numerous comets of the Jovian family, on which Jupiter is presumed to have exerted a similar influence. In these cases the perturbing planet made the capture, not for itself, but for the sun. Capture of the former sort, in which the planet retains the captured body as _a Satellite, can apparently take place only with the aid of a resisting medium, in which case we must date the event in remote ages. Little research of an accurate numerical character has hitherto been carried out on the subject. Prof. L. Becker contributes two papers to M.N. (vol. Ixxx., No. 6), in which he shows that a star approaching a binary system may in certain cases suffer capture, while one of the original pair may be expelled from the system. He then points out that approaches would be more frequent in the direction of relative motion of the two star-streams, and by analvsis of the distribution of the major axes of the orbits of binaries obtains a result in fair conformity with the theory. The research is made more difficult by the fact that there are two possible positions of the plane of a binary orbit. In a few cases (notably in the systems of Sirius and a Centauri) the spectroscope has decided which of these positions is the correct one. There are probablv several other systems in which the spectroscope is canable of giving a decision. Observations of this kind are very desirable wherever they are possible } idealised model upon a small scale. cern itself with the tragedies of undeveloped talent, “y JULY 1, 1920] ue ~ Oo gal be ay pe NATURE 561 Education in the New Era. yy addresses given in Leeds last February Mr. F. W. Sanderson, headmaster of Oundle School, very boldly faces the root of the evil in existing educational or-6 Systems as it is felt in the school, and advocates Pe reconstruction upon new lines.. His view is that schools should be altruistic in their aims and methods and be based on service and: co-operation rather than on competition. They exist solely to and enrich the life of the people. ‘Traditional methods based upon public-schooi models accentuate the anti-social spirit of competition and damp down co-operation, whereas the schools of the country ought to be the source from which the transfiguring and transforming spirit of the age is breathed through the thoughts of men. A school is a microcosm, and its subject-matter is to be found, not in books, but in the world around it, of which it itself should be an It should con- the slow decay of the faculties of masses of men caused by their employment in industry, and the sullen * mental stupor that, after the violent revolutionary _ period of youth, brings peace on an animal level. For the schools are concerned with similar problems. one elevation of the submerged, the bringing back the stream of school-life of the weak, and the raising of the general average are even more important there than the provision of the fullest opportunity for talent and ability. So is it in the national life. We are presented with a vision of spacious halls and galleries, workshops, laboratories, gardens and fields, art-rooms, libraries, and museums for children to learn in instead of in stuffy class-rooms, by doing, the age making, inquiring, and co-operating rather than by the preparation for interminable examinations, which suit better those of the possessive and dominating order, of whom the world is growing so tired. ‘The policy of leaving dull, bread-winning drudgery unredeemed in the state it is, and concentrating upon the cultivation of the artistic and literary faculties of the workers in enlarged periods of leisure, can only | have the effect. of making the real work even more le. In spite of the cold douche of authority, we are told; in spite of the attitude of labour-leaders, once bit twice shy; and in spite of the enthusiasm ever seeking a new rallying ground for lost causes, workers, when they are leit to themselves to plan their own scheme of salvation, choose for their educa- tion vocational and technical work. The . average man glories in his daily work and trade so long as his heart is kept in it by‘ his being treated as a human being rather than as a machine. In the spirit of _ craftsmanship, better than in medieval and drawing- room studies, is to be found the remedy for the evils of industrialism. : ; ; ‘Science, the gift of the age, notwithstanding its -fepercussion upon the foundations of society, has not yet penetrated appreciably into our institutions of governance and education. It is the bed-rock upon which all future educational ideals must be based, and the new creative spirit it has reincarnated in the ‘world—its spirit of inquiry for the love of truth for its own sake and its spirit of co-operation with others engaged in the same work—is that by which must outgrow the nightmare which the old pirit has made of it and the world. Scientific thought and research must be applied to creating new wine-skins rather than more new wine until this is put right. It has demolished’ the cobwebs of tradi- tional economics and finance and substituted for them fundamental conceptions of the laws by which men live and move and have their being. It meets no NO. 2644, VOL. 105] opposition, and scarcely even discussion, now from the professional exponents of the merits of the exist- ing régime. Were it not for private interests and the ignorance of its ruling classes science would not ie any difficulty in restarting the world on saner ines. What is especially remarkable about this is that it is no vision of a dreamer, ‘ sicklied o’er with the pale cast of poem, el but rather that of a practical public-school headmaster, who has burst open the prison-doors of the pedagogic strongholds of the past and reclaimed for the schools the right and duty of serving and studying their own age. If there were ten such men, haply they might yet be in ‘time. This picture from a schoolmaster of what could be done in the school opens out broader visions of what universities might accomplish. They are in the most extraordinary case. They can claim that they have given in the research ideal of science—the finding out of the fundamentally new, not the mere redis- covery of the old that has been lost—the creative agency by which alone the modern world is great or even distinguished. But it has been done in the teeth of official apathy and discouragement. On the other side of the balance sheet is the traditional education . they continue to give to the ruling classes, training them to be impervious to new knowledge and able only to find in the old and dead past ideals for imita- tion and reverence. These ideals and maxims have set the producers of wealth of the modern world at one another’s throats for the benefit of its wasters. The code of laws remains as in olden time, though its obvious result has been to turn to debt the increase in the wealth of the community which the labours of scientific investigators have made _ possible. The world despises such results and wants something more from its old universities than that they should be beggars for their existence for crumbs from the tables that its own. schools of science have loaded with gifts. It looks to them for a clear enunciation of the first right of the community to the produce of its own labours, which the law allows by taxation, for the up- bringing of its own youth and for the cultivation of its creative institutions where knowledge is made and disseminated. The claim of the usurer upon that produce is secondary both by law and by common sense. And, lest again the stability of the world be endangered by its rulers being educated on myth and verbal subtleties to the total exclusion of the laws that appertain equally to Nature and to life, let them in the spirit of Plato inscribe over their reformed portals :— : “Let no one enter who is destitute of science.” if FREDERICK Soppy. British Aeronautics. "THE Report of the Advisory Committee for Aero-_ nautics for the year 1918-19 is an -interesting record of work achieved, which acquires additional interest by including a general review of progress made since the beginning of the war. More than ever, after reading it, one is impressed by the range and extent of the demands which this new industry has made upon existing knowledge; of the structural engineer it requires that its stress calculations and the testing of its materials shall be conducted with an accuracy never contemplated before; of the mechanical engineer, that its engines shall be economical both of material and of fuel to a degree which until very recently would have seemed almost Report of the Advisory Committee for Aeronautics for Pp. 77- (London: H.M. Stationery Office, 1920.) Price 4d. net. 1 * Aeronautics.” the Year ror$-19. Cmd. 488. 562 NATURE [JULY 1, 1920 fantastic; and, above all, of its pilots, that with the growth, since the latter was probably dependent on skill and technique peculiar to their craft they shall combine a practical working knowledge of structure and of machinery, of instruments and ‘ wireless,” of meteorology and of navigation, which in other pro- fessions would be the province of different specialists. And this universality, as might be expected, is no less characteristic of the appeal which aeronautics has made to the man of science, who provides it with fresh data; so that it is not surprising to find that the single committee of pre-war days has been compelled to adopt a policy of devolution, and that special sub- committees have been formed -to deal with problems of such different scope as “‘scale effect,’ the investiga- tion of accidents, internal-combustion engines, light alloys, meteorology, atmospheric electricity, and new inventions. The report abounds with indications of fields in which further research is needed, and there seems every reason to believe that this research will be prosecuted with equal success under the auspices of the newly constituted Aeronautical Research Com- mittee. We learn with satisfaction that the demand for the earlier technical reports has been vigorous enough to justify the printing of a complete second edition, since an opportunity is thus given for insert- ing much more complete cross-references than were possible when they first appeared. It is, perhaps, a matter for some little regret that a more definite lead has not been given in this direction by the present report. We imagine that any reader whose interest in the subject extends to the detailed reports of the several sub-committees would wish to have such references to individual papers and their authors as will enable him to find additional information on any special point; moreover, an account so detailed, and yet empty of names and references, may fail to im- press what we believe is the secret of British supremacy in aeronautics: that our official Committee has interpreted its functions as being advisory rather than executive, and has endeavoured to assist, co- ordinate, and encourage research rather than to originate and control it. No useful end would be served, and perspective would be lost, by abstracting from these excellent and thoroughly condensed reports.. Their range is very wide, extending from complete investigations, on both the practical and theoretical sides, of such complex evolutions. as ‘‘spinning’’ to researches on the pro- perties of light alloys, the transmission of heat from rough and smooth surfaces to passing currents of air, the conditions leading to discharge of atmospheric electricity from kite-balloons and cables, and the best shape for parachutes. Few, we believe, will read these pages without discovering some points of con- tact between aeronautical science and their own particular field of investigation. Mention should be made of the very interesting table of comparative performarges of British aircraft which is included as an appendix. Climatic Cycles and Tree-growth. pusLcsne No. 289 of the Carnegie Institu- tion of Washington is devoted to Prof. Douglass’s study of the annual rings of trees in relation to climate and solar activity. When the late Prof. Lowell was seeking an ideal climate for his observatory, with the view of studying the planet Mars, he chose the dry region of Flagstaff, Arizona, on account of its low rainfall and high proportion of clear skies. While Prof. Douglass was at the Lowell Observatory it occurred to him that variations in solar activity might have a ‘measurable effect on tree- NO. 2644, VOL. 105] rainfall, and rainfall might very likely be affected by solar activity. He began by studying the yellow pines of those arid regions, arguing that a very dry climate should be the best for such an investigation. He soon found that the intimacy of the connection between the width of the annual tree-rings and the rainfall, when the latter was known, was far closer than he had dared to hope, and he pushed further afield, examining tree specimens and fossils in European collections as well as in other districts of America. Considerable labour was involved in the interpreta- tion of the various appearances of the rings, the red tissue that denotes the close of a period of growth. The year starts in the autumn. With normal winter snow and spring and summer rainfall growth con- tinues throughout until the autumn, and a ring of normal width is produced. If winter snow is deficient and spring rain also scanty, a narrow ring is produced, closing prematurely without waiting for summer rain. An intermediate condition is shown when winter snow is deficient and the spring drought is not so severe; red tissue begins to form, but growth starts again, and the result is a double ring for the year. z The author considers that five trees in a group give a trustworthy result in general, though in a very dry district like Arizona two might suffice. The only dis- trict where five trees failed to give a satisfactory cross- identification was a rugged region near Christiania, in Norway. d The Flagstaff record is complete from A.D. 1385, but among the sequoias of California stumps are in existence dating back more than three thousand years. Some of these sequoias grew on hillside slopes, and others in basins where plenty of moisture is found at all times. The latter are unsuitable for investigation, — and the author calls them ‘complacent,’’ as they — show practically no variation in the annual growth. — The others he calls ‘‘sensitive,’? as they have to — depend upon snow melting down the slope and upon ~ rain as it comes, not being provided with any storage — such as that found in the basins. Some specimens, ~ including the oldest of all, showed signs of a change in © environment, ‘‘complacent’’ in later .growth but — “sensitive? earlier. Prof. Huntington had previously — investigated these sequoias in his search for evidence _ of climatic change, but his purpose was served with much less detailed measurements, ten-year periods — being short enough for his unit of time. His dates © agree fairly well with those of the present work. — The analysis of the data for periodicities required con- — siderable accuracy in the method employed, and ulti- — mately led to the adoption of the “ automatic optical periodograph,”’ of the construction and application of © which full details are given. 5 Practically all the groups of trees investigated show — the sun-spot cycle or its multiples; the solar cycle becomes more certain and accurate as the area of homogeneous region increases or the time of a tree record extends farther back; this suggests the possi-_ bility of determining the climatic and vegetational © reaction to the solar cycle in different parts of the world. A most suggestive correlation exists in the dates of maxima and minima found in tree-growth, — rainfall, temperature, and solar phenomena, pointing to a physical connection between solar activity and~ terrestrial weather. There is a, very important point © discussed under the title of ‘‘ Meteorological Districts.” — It is essential to restrict any such district for this 4 purpose to one in which homogeneous weather condi- tions are found. Clearly, if one set of conditions makes one district wet and a neighbouring district xe are NATURE 563 dry, these cannot be lumped together for correlation _ purposes, as the whole effect will be masked. We are reminded of the sun-spot maximum of 1893, which Was associated with great heat in England and France, but was exceptionally cold in America and other parts of the world. This limitation of districts _ may not, as the author recognises, be the same for short periods as for long ones, but he finds the major characteristics in mountain regions very much alike ever distances of fifty or sixty miles, and relies upon the evidence of the trees themselves for the demarca- tion of the districts. | One other small difficulty Prof. Douglass has met _ in an ingenious manner. It is often noticed that such an element as rainfall, when expressed as departure _ from the mean, as it must be in correlation problems, _ is arithmetically lacking in symmetry, since the _ defect can only be too per cent. at most, while excess _ can be very much larger. Geometrically, this can be avoided by using a logarithmic scale, but this flattens _ the variation very much. Prof. Douglass’s device is _ to leave the deficient amounts unaltered, but in the _ case of excessive falls to invert the fraction and ’ measure upwards from the normal. Thus a rainfall _ of twice the normal is indicated by a point just so far _ above the normal line as the point indicating a rainfall of half the normal is below it. The symmetry is not _ perfect, as, of course, no possible wetness can give a int corresponding to zero rainfall, but the method is convenient in places where zero rainfall in the unit period is unknown. W. W. B. The Interferometer in Physical Measure- Sete a) 2 dents? A TOURTH volume describing the researches of Prof. Carl Barus with interferometers has recently been issued. The classical work of Fizeau, who applied interference methods to the determina- tion of expansion coefficients, directed attention many "years ago to the possibility of the kind of work which has been so well developed by Michelson and others, and in the present series of papers Prof. Barus seeks to develop the methods of application of the interfero- meter to a somewhat wide range of physical measure- ments. These include spherometer measurements, elastic deformation of small bodies, elongations due to magnetisation, pressure variation of specific heat of liquids, and even electrodynamometry. The re- ‘aunlacier of the volume deals with various modifica- tions of the interferometer methods and with certain gravitational experiments. - Doubtless such an investigation of methods will be useful to workers in any of the foregoing fields, but so far as a first impression is to be trusted it would that the main interest has lain in the method rather than in any results which have been attained. In order to study the motion of a contact lever, it may be made to carry two small mirrors reflecting normally two beams which are afterwards caused to interfere. Any rotation of the lever obviously causes a difference of path, which appears in the shifting of the easily recognisable and distinctive central _ “achromatic’’ interferometer fringes, such motion being measured by a plate micrometer or ‘“ graticule”’ in the observing telescope. . The two mirrors form the limbs of a ‘‘T”’ piece, which is pivoted aboyt a hinge at the end of the foot. One limb ends in a contact pin which abuts against the surface, the motion of which is to be measured. In such circumstances Prof. Barus estimates the oo. = Displacement Interferometrv by the Aid of the Achromatic Fringes.” Partiv. By Prof. Carl Barus. (Carnegie Institution of Washington, 1919.) NO. 2644, VOL. 105] limiting sensitiveness to be 33x 10-° cm., or perhaps even a third of this amount, but it should not be forgotten that the very simple interferometer system of an optical test-plate has a sensitiveness of about a quarter wave-length, say 12x 10-* cm., and this without a doubtful hinge and another contact. The contact lever can, of course, deal with non-specular surfaces, but to use it as a spherometer for a glass lens seems quite needless. Naturally, an apparatus of this nature is excellently adapted to such a problem as that of investigating the changes of length of a magnetised rod, and, although no very novel results are obtained, the investigation has been compara- tively easy, and the method is well adapted for demonstration. Suitable self-adjusting interferometers, such as are described in chap. vii., ought to find an increasingly useful place in the physical laboratory, and students should be taught the practical use of such instruments and their modifications. There is too great a tendency to treat an interferometer as a piece of apparatus sacred to one or two highly specialised purposes, but with little more than a few pieces of good plane parallel glass a set of instruments can be made up which should be of the greatest use in teaching and research. One could wish, perhaps, that some one problem had been attacked and solved thoroughly. The curiously unfinished nature of the work is disappoint- ing, but we must conclude that the method is the chief object. As regards the text, the descriptions are clear and praiseworthy, but the diagrams are both inadequate and unsatisfactory. CoM. Canvas-destroying Fungi. YEN men again began to take to their tents at , the outbreak of war, many noticed that dark brown and black spots, frequently of a diamond shape, were not uncommon on the canvas. Small, sur- reptitiously acquired bits began to be scattered around for information as to the identity of the moulds caus- ing the rot. Now it is very surprising that so little work has been done ‘on canvas-destroying fungi. That canvas is liable to suffer from moulding seems generally to be known, judging from the fact that any material likely to get wetted is usually ‘‘cutched.” Shortly before the war aircraft workers began to interest themselves in the fungi concerned in the damage, but it was not until war broke out that one realised the extent of the destruction of sails, tents, etc., by these organisms. Major W. Broughton-Alcock, in the Journal of the Royal Army Medical Corps for December last, gives a short account of investigations carried out by him in Malta, Italy, and (in conjunction with Miss A. Lorrain Smith) at the Natural History Museum. In Malta attention was soon attracted to the rapid spotting and destruction of tentage—awnings last there only about a vear. The investigators found that the principal agents of destruction of cotton- and flax- made canvas are Macrosporium and Stemphylium. The latter is the more prevalent in Malta, and could be isolated by exposing culture plates to the air. The colours of the spots on canvas correspond to the colours seen in cultures, being first brown and then black. The variation in the colour of the spots, especially noticed in flax-made and more resistant canvas, was found to be due to other fungi in asso- ciation with the above genera—Septoria, Alternaria, Helminthosporium, Chatomium, Exosporium, Peni- cilllum, Oospora, Torula, Saccharomyces, and yellow pigment-forming and other air-borne bacteria. Though 564 NATURE [JULY I, 1920 these fungi may assist in the destruction, no -proof was obtained that this took place without the presence of Macrosporium and Stemphylium. The fungi grew well on Sabouraud’s medium and on ordinary agar. According to the author, the first signs of fungoid growth appear on the inner side of the roof portions of tents and marquees. Often within three months pressure on the spots made by the fungi leads to per- foration, or a strong wind causes tearing. Cotton and linen duck-canvases ready for tent-mak- ing were examined, but, though the flax fibres were in good condition, brown mycelium was found more or less in abundance. It is suggested that the’ fungi reach and begin growth during the retting of the flax, though they may be present on the growing plant. Mycelium was not found on new cotton-made canvas, and ‘‘this is not surprising when its method of preparation is studied.” It is not, however, prob- able that the infection of linen canvas is restricted to the period of retting. Guéguen (Nature, vol. xcix., 1917, p. 206) was of the opinion that fungi from the dead stems of the textile plant were introduced amongst the fibres. This might account for their absence from new cotton-made canvas, but there is little doubt that both linen and cotton canvas often become infected after having been made up. Experiments showed that the Willesden (cupram- monium) method and cutch treatment prevented the growth of the fungi. A method suggested by Prof. Pinoy (soft soap 1 in 5000 solution, followed by a mixture of 1 per cent. of alum and CuSO,) greatly inhibited the growth, and its extended employment in Malta gave very satisfactory results. Mango-treated canvas was in no way inhibitive. No mention is made as to whether the ‘ cutch’”’ was the ordinary commercial cutch (product of Acacia, etc.) or whether it was sodium chromate, which was used in certain areas. In Salonika this was found the best preventive for ‘‘diamond spot’’ on com- parison with Guéguen’s and Pinoy’s treatments, and was at the same time a satisfactory camouflage. J. Ramssottom. The Economic Pursuits of the Trobriand Islanders. a a meeting of the Royal Anthropological Institute held on Tuesday, June 1, Mr. S. H. Ray, vice- president, in the chair, Dr. B. Malinowski read a paper on ‘‘ The Economic Pursuits of the Trobriand Islanders.’ In his opening remarks Dr. Malinowski criticised the methods usually followed by observers in dealing with the economics of primitive peoples. _Whereas it was usually held that such peoples were preoccupied solely with obtaining an adequate individual food supply, he had found that, at any rate among the peoples which had come under his observation, there was a highly complex economic organisation. In support of his view he described the economic system of the natives of Kiriwina or the Trobriand Islands, lying to the north of easternmost New Guinea. These natives are very efficient and industrious tillers of the soil. Agri- cultural production is highly organised, being based upon two social forces: the power of the chief and the influence of magic. The chief is overlord of the garden-land, and initiates in each season the allotment of garden-plots to individuals and settles any disputes about garden-land; he finances any communal work to which the natives resort when clearing the bush, planting the yams, and bringing to the gardens the big, heavy poles used in connection with magical rites. On the other hand, the traditional garden magician controls the detailed proceedings of the work and performs magical rites at each stage. No. 2644, VOL. 105 | _ There are several customary forms of communal work. An interesting institution of ceremonial enter- prise, called Kayasa, is applied to gardening, fishing, - oversea expeditions, and industrial activities, as w as to tribal sports, games, and dancing. Such a period of communal work is announced by the chief, who gives a big feast, which is followed during the continuation of the work by periodical distributions of food. Fishing, the building of houses and canoes, and other economic activities are based upon organisations similar to that of gardening. All are dependent upon the social power of the chief and the influence of the respective magician. The distribution of the products is as highly organised as the production. The producer receives a certain portion, but a considerable part is used for the financing of big tribal enterprises through the chief, and another part is transformed into permanent wealth. By various tributes, dues, and offerings the chief collects about 30-50 per cent. of the tribal wealth, and he is the only member of the community who is allowed on a large scale to transform it into permanent wealth. This he does by keeping a number of indus- trial workers dependent on himself, who, for payment in food, produce polished ‘ceremonial ’’? axe-blades, neck-strings of red shell discs, and arm-shells made of the conus shell, which are of very high value in the eves of the natives, form the -foundation of certain kinds of native trade, and are an indispensable feature of the social organisation of the natives. Every im- portant transaction, whether ceremony or magical rite, birth, death, or marriage, has to be accompanied by gift and counter-gift. These are arranged, as a rule. ~ so that while one party gives a substantial present of food, the other offers one of the tokens of native wealth, such as a ceremonial axe-blade, an arm-shell, or a string of shell discs. The powers of the chief are largely exercised through economic means. In inter- — tribal affairs the chief backs up with gifts his summons — to arms of his vassals, and the conclusion of peace after hostilities; and the same method of remunera- tion was followed when, in his narrower jurisdiction. direct punishment was meted out by ordering a special — henchman to kill the offender or by calling upon a sorcerer to cast an evil spell on the victim. In both cases pavment for the service was made in native tokens of wealth. These tokens of wealth have some- times been designated by the term ‘“‘money,”? but — rather they represent stored-up wealth. Although a basketful of yams, a set of four coconuts, or a bundle _ of taro is, to a great extent, the common measure of ~ value, there is no article among these peoples which, : properly speaking, fulfils the function of a medium of exchange. 4 Two of these tokens of wealth, the arm-shells and the necklaces of shell beads, are used for a remark- — able form of trade, called by the natives. Kula, which e embraces a ring of islands and archipelagoes lying to the east and north-east of British New Guinea, ineg which these two articles circulate in opposite direc- — tions. They are constantly being exchanged, scarcely — > he owns a great As a result of this: 3 eee 4 4 Jury I, 1920] NATURE 565 estigation it would appear that chieftainship, kin- ip, and social organisation in general are intimately up with the economic organisation. In the discussion which followed the reading of the r all the speakers emphasised the value and iginality of the view of primitive culture which Dr. Ma ski had formulated in his interesting com- “munication. Prof. Seligman asked how far the elaborate organisation of garden cultivation depended upon the existence of the chieftainship. Among the Southern Massim of New Guinea, for instance, there were no chiefs, and the native social organisation was ‘based upon the hamlet.’ Had the elaborate garden organisation been observed among such peoples? _ Sir James Frazer agreed that the economic aspect of primitive culture had not been adequately studied. It was interesting to note how the tribal economics were saturated with magic, and how the fallacy of magic still persisted among people who had developed a high system of agriculture. The mention of torches dee y by the magician in the ceremonies led him to compare the torches to which reference was made in ee Greesk legends of Demeter’s search for Persephone. _ Was it possible that these torches represented a sur- vival of a use of torches in early Greek agricultural _ ceremonies similar to that to which they were put in _ the Trobriands? _ Mrs. Routledge suggested that an analogous com- _ plexity of economic organisation might be found among the people of East Africa with whom: Mr. R and herself had come into contact, where ivory played an important part. e. Me Ray said that Dr. _ new view of ethnological investigation to the institute. Some 6f the ceremonies described by him suggested ' ceremonies from the other end of Melanesia, namelv, Loyalty Island and New Caledonia. where the agricul- tural operations were directed by the chief, who pre- scribed what ground should be put under cultivation, the kind of crop, and the like, and received the first and best of the produce. Was it possible that these i “x economic svstems existed wherever there were chiefs whose position, power, and prerogatives de- 4 upon the fact that they were of extraneous : The lecturer in his replv stated that although garden -magic was carried out by the Southern Massim at s Dobu. cultivation was not accompanied by such a complex organisatiori for distribution. | The Organisation of Scientific Work in India. 4% HE Indian Industrial Commission during its tour through India found that all was not well with _the scientific worker, especially in connection with the Ps eg of his work, to industrial development. While stating specifically in its report that ‘“‘ we do not propose to deal with the general problems of pure ‘scientific research,’’ it adds: ‘*We were impressed by the value of the work which had already been done in the organised laboratories, and by the absolutely unanimous opinion which was expressed by ail Gelentific officers as to. the inadequacy of the staffs in point of numbers. Everywhere we were brought face to face with unsolved problems, requiring scientific investigation on an extended scale. On the one side, We saw the results. accomplished by enthusiastic Scientists, which, regarded from the purely economic aspect of the question, have added enormously to the productive capacity of India; on the other side, we were told by forest officers, agriculturists and indigo planters, ensineers, and manufacturers, of the limita- NO. 2644, VOL. 105] alinowski had submitted a- tions placed upon the development of their work and the frequency with which they were brought to a standstill by a lack of knowledge regarding matters which could only be ascertained by systematic research work.’’ It is clear from these and other passages that the Industrial Commission desired to direct attention to the necessity for the elaboration of some scheme by which an organised attack might be made on the large number of problems awaiting solution in con- nection with the development of industry, and the conclusion reached is that ‘‘the maintenance of a staff of suitable technologists and scientific experts is essen- tial to industrial development.”’ The Commission then gives its reasons for consider- ing that it is the duty of the State to provide the necessary facilities, and concludes: ‘‘We have thus no hesitation in recommending a very substantial increase in the scientific and technical services as . essential to industrial development.’’ A general dis- cussion follows as to the relative merits of a system in which the science is the bond, and one in which the bond is formed by the application of the sciences dealt with. In the first case the Geological Survey is given as an example, and the Agricultural and Forest Departments are quoted as examples of the second. But it is clear that the Commission was fully alive to the difference between a service and a denartment, and realised that the differentiation given above was the same as that between a service and a department, because it says: ‘‘The constitution of a certain number of scientific services based on the assumption that the science itself is a chief link between all members does not prevent the formation of depart- ments, either Imperial or provincial, where the applica- tion of various sciences is the chief bond of union.”’ The essential difference between the two types of organisation is clearlv indicated in subjoined extracts from a despatch of the Government of India. The Commission states that its proposals in the case of chemistry will have to be submitted to a special committee, and that it ‘hesitates to offer sug- gestions in greater detail regarding the organisation of the Imperial scientific services for bacteriology, botany, and zoology, as we consider that the best plan will be the appointment of special small committees for the purpose of formulating proposals.’’ The first of these, that for chemistry, has now reported, and the report is open for discussion. As regards other sciences, it would be best to await the reports of the aha committees before offering any remarks upon them. The following extracts from the Government of India’s dispatch dated June 4, 1919. place in a very clear light the intentions which underlie the recom- mendations of the Commission :-— The Scientific Services. One of the main proposals refers to the constitution of scientific services and of an industrial service. The Commission direct attention to the extreme import- ance of research under modern industrial conditions, and to the especial needs of India, in view of her vast unexploited resources in raw material and of the paucity of her scientific workers. They criticise the complete lack of organisation among men of science employed by the Government, and describe the diffi- culties, both administrative and technical, to which this gives rise. The Commission recommend as a remedy the creation of a similar mechanism to that through which the Central and Local Governments have hitherto carried out almost all their most im- portant activities, especially those requiring technical knowledge, viz. all-India services; and they discuss the basis on which these services should be con- 566 NATURE [JuLy 1, 1920 stituted. The Commission propose the creation, not of scientific departments, but of scientific services— an essential distinction which has been clearly brought out in the replies of Local Governments, though it has not been so clearly apprehended by critics of the proposal. The Commission contemplate the recruit- ment of officers into separate scientific services, such as a Chemical, Botanical, or Zoological Service, for employment under Imperial and provincial depart- ments, such as Forests and Agriculture, which deal with the application of a number of separate sciences. They propose that scientific officers in the employ. of the Government, instead of being recruited in small numbers or single units into the different services which happen to require them, should be recruited as experts in their several sciences into scientific ser- vices, each with its appropriate conditions of qualifica- tion, pay, pension, and promotion. Although the ser- vices will be distinct entities for the above purposes, yet the only members of those services that will not be actually employed under the various departments that require their services will consist of a central staff, engaged under such officers, for instance, as Deputy Chief Chemists, at research centres, in scientific work. This central agency will also serve as a reservoir to meet the demands that may be put forward by other departments or by Local Govern- ments for men to undertake temporary special inves- tigations, to fill new posts or leave vacancies, or for the replacement of existing officers. The head of each scientific service would thus exer- cise an influence over the members of his service in matters scientific, by the check of scientific results, and by the provision of advice and criticism on scientific work, whether for Local Governments or for research workers. It is not, we understand, pro- sed by the Commission, nor do we ourselves con- template, that he should actually control vesearch work in the sense of ordering definite problems to be taken up by officers serving under Local Govern- ments, or should turn his department into a gang of hack researchers. We rely on constant correspondence between scientific officers of the same caste and periodical conferences as sufficient to correlate research programmes. Local Governments and heads of Departments find the greatest difficulty in forming an opinion of the work done by men of science employed under them, or of the probable value of lines of research proposed by their officers. Should the administrative authority consider the results obtained by a man of science un- satisfactory, it is almost ‘impossible to obtain an authoritative opinion on his work or qualifications ; or to say whether he might not do better in another post ; or to find such a post for him. The difficulties aris- ing from the existence of isolated specialists in a department are, in fact, notorious. The impossibility of applying any common measure in determining the respective claims to promotion of a botanist, a chemist, an engineer, and a political economist has been recognised in the existing services bv the creation of separate posts on a time-scale. But this does not get over the difficulties already indicated, or supply the proper incentive to the research worker, or afford scope or prospects for men of more than average ability. The absence of such prospects is bound to militate against our chances of obtaining good recruits, to render our staff discontented, and to prevent our securing the best work from the best men. Moreover, so long as students of a particular science are recruited sporadically on ‘behalf of different departments as vacancies occur, the Government will have to accept the men that happen to be left over, whatever their qualifications, after other and more NO. 2644, VOL. 105] ee: =e regular demands have been supplied. The pr of regular annual recruitment will enable the Ge m- ment of India to fill its future demands for men of — science, as it has hitherto done for engineers, forest officers, and medical men. en ae The present system, under which the only chemists employed by the State are scattered through numerous departments without any organisation that can mar- shal the chemical forces of the country to attack problems of national importance, can give no help towards an active Mdustrial policy. abana We might quote as illustrating the inspiring value of a central co-ordinating authority, the work under- taken by the Munitions Board through its chemical adviser. The report of the conference of chemists at Lahore shows that even our isolated and scattered chemists can be moulded into one team for the pur- pose of suggesting new lines of research and means for turning the results to practical account without overlapping and consequent waste of effort. — ¢ This experience, in the light of the magnificent results obtained in England by the Research Com- mittee of the Privy Council, shows clearly how much | may be expected from a system which provides a — permanent organic connection between all chemists — in Government employ. Se ee The importance of a common system of recruit- ment and of a common service has recently ~ q recognised by the council of the Institute of! try in the United Kingdom (vide Pr Institute of Chemistry, 1918, part iv., representation submitted by them to all ; nt ri ~~ bh state their opinion that “the time is opportune fe grant-in-aid, whereas in India the precisely the opposite, rel primarily on State chemists. We therefore agree will the Commission that the advancement of indus in India must depend for scientific assistance almos entirely on State-employed men, and these men wii be far more concerned with the initiation of importan new lines of development and research and far les with merely routine work than is the case in Englanc The need of organisation is the greater in that th functions of Indian State chemists are more importan to the country; while their greater isolation and tf conseauent absence of a scientific atmosphere furnis an additional argument. The case for a Stat chemical service is thus even stronger in India tha in England. : dg We are much influenced by the prospects which f proposed system affords of increasing the number ah ie P ey ULY 1, 1920] NATURE 507 ans in the scientific services. An Indian appointed isolated post, or as an assistant to an isolated sor in a country where the scientific atmosphere -existent, or at the best exceedingly attenuated, 2 C > it of scientific knowledge. His ambitions tend some limited to the improvement of his pay and ts rather than of his professional attainments. embership of an all-India service, based on the it of a common science, will increase the pres- e of that science in his eyes and in those of the idian public; the existence of the proposed Imperial us of scientific workers under a distinguished f will provide him with an incitement to excel with assistance in his studies and with opportunity for training if he desires it. _ The Commission propose that, if the principle of entific services is approved, committees should be pointed to formulate proposals for the permanent ganisation and the terms of employment of each service, and for the location and equipment of arch laboratories. We support this recommenda- ion, subject to the condition that the terms of refer- nce to each committee should include a direction to report as to the advisability of constituting all-India services for each well-defined: science. _ Without anticipating the conclusions of the pro- posed committees, we think it desirable, in view of criticisms which have been expressed, to indicate certain principles in the general administration of _ these services which should govern the relations between the members of the scientific services and ‘the heads of departments and provincial Govern- ments, under whom many of them will be employed. We do not think that members of scientific services should be seconded by the method which the Com- ssion propose, viz. by deputation for periods of five rs at a time; but we consider that (as in the case other services) an officer, when once placed per- _manently under the orders of a local Government, should remain with the Government for the rest of his service, unless the Government under which he ‘serving itself desires his transfer, or unless his ' services are required in a higher post or in a post _ requiring special qualifications outside the province, in which case the local Government will recognise that whi the Imperial Government has a claim on them. This is the system which exists at present in respect of all Local Governments would have complete liberty to appoint, after consulting the head of the service, to ES Poe | . . . . . any post in their industrial or scientific cadre, any available member of the respective services; they ' would also be at liberty, in the special circumstances arising during the initial stages, to appoint to such posts men outside the service; but the subsequent admission to the all-India service of men so appointed would be entirely controlled by the Secretary of State. » local Governments universally support the pro- posed scheme of scientific serviges, and though the Governments of the Punjab, the United Provinces, and Bombay, and the officers and public bodies con- _ sulted by them, put forward certain criticisms of the _ scheme, especially with reference to the position of men of science in the Education Department, these "criticisms are, we think, fully met by the foregoing explanation of the lines on which we think the pro- posed services should be administered. We desire, however, to add a few remarks with “special reference to the case of science teachers. We _fuilv recognise that much is required of a scientific (| oeeae in a college, outside his scientific work. _ He must look on himself as a member of the body responsible for the tone of the college and for its NO. 2644, VOL. 105 | ce and the stimulus of his fellows in the. general success. It will, therefore, we agree, be most undesirable that such a man should continuously have in mind the possibility of promotion outside his own departament.. We think, however, that this’ difficulty will be obviated by the general principle laid down.by us above, viz. that members of scientific ser- vices serving under the Department of Education should not be removed from that Department, unless at the request of the educational authorities, or for posts requiring high administrative capacity, or special scientific qualifications. The advantage to the Education Department of a system of scientific services will still be very con- siderable. In the first place, we consider that, though university and college science workers should be by no means entirely divorced from technical re- search, their main sphere of activity should lie among problems of pure science. The proposed central scientific organisation should afford a means whereby such problems arising in the course of technical re- search can be referred to university and college laboratories. Such co-ordination, both in respect of pure science problems and technical problems, can be most readily effected in cases where the educational researchers are themselves members of a scientific service. This policy will doubtless stimulate the interest in research work taken by students and professors. Officers who have entered the educational service as teachers may be in some cases expected to develop as research workers. The existence of all-India scientific services will afford a ready means for accommodating men whose aims in life have thus been divérted from one form of work to another. In the next place, the present system of recruitment of men of science into the Educational Service is capable of improvement, and far better results could be obtained with the aid and advice of watchful central agencies in India. The absence of a scientific atmosphere, again, has been particularly injurious to scientific officers in the Educational Service, and has led to great stagnation in respect of research work. This atmosphere will in future reach individual officers by the numerous channels of communication which will be created between them and the central agency on_ technical subjects, whether by way of correspondence, confer- ences, and scientific publications, by the central staff’s tours of inspection, or by officers spending some por- tion of their vacations at research institutes. The case of men of science at present employed under the Department of Education will obviously require care- ful treatment; such men should not be allowed to join the scientific services as a matter of course, but each case will have to be considered on its merits, and there may still be classes of appointments for which men will have to be recruited independently. Further, the whole question, so far as it affects the employment of officers with scientific qualifications in colleges and universities, will have to be reviewed in connection with the proposals of the Calcutta Uni- versity Commission regarding .recruitment. In addition to the opinions expressed in the letters received from local Governments, two important con- ferences of chemists have recently put forward their views on the Commission’s proposals., A record of their discussions is appended. A full meeting of the Sectional Conference of Agricultural Chemists at Pusa in February passed the following resolution :— “That this Conference considers that, in view of the intense local knowledge required for effective work for agricultural improvement by _ chemical methods, it is not desirable that the chemists in the Agricultural Departments should be formed into a service apart from the ordinary agricultural service, 568 NATURE [JuLy 1, 1920 © in which the bond of union would be the science rather than its application. On the other hand, in addition to agricultural chemists attached to the Pro- vincial Departments, this Conference is» definitely of opinion that a strong central body of chemists should be maintained by the Imperial Department of Agri- culture from whom Provincial Departments could draw for the investigation of special problems.”’ The main objection taken was, it will be observed, based on the idea that men would usually be trans- ferred after five-year’ periods. We have explained already that such idea forms no part’ of the system which we contemplate. It is also significant that the same resolution declared the necessity of a strong — central body of chemists for the Department of Agri- culture; and, it may be added, the same meeting pointed out the desirability of equipping the agricul- tural research organisation to deal with certain indus- trial problems arising out of agricultural research. The sum of these conclusions seems to point to the desirability of supplying some agency which can cor- relate chemical research with agricultural and indus- trial problems, and of avoiding the needless expense of creating separate research nuclei for dealing with each separate class of chemical problems. A conference of chemists was convened in Lahore in January, 1918, by the Indian Munitions Board. It included not only Government officers, but also chemists attached to missionary colleges and em- ploved under. private firms. The conference passed no formal resolution, but strongly supported the pro- posed system of scientific services. University and Educational Intelligence. CaMBRIDGE.—As stated in our issue of June 24 (p. 537), a donation of 1oool. has been received for the provision of lectures on tropical agriculture for five years. Dr. C. A. Barber has been appointed as lecturer in tropical agriculture. Dr. F. W. Aston has been elected to a fellowship in Trinity College. In presenting Sir Joseph Thomson and Sir Joseph Larmor for honorary degrees at Cambridge recently, the Public Orator spoke as follows: ‘‘ Democritus, philosophus ille antiquus, ut mundum explicaret, atomos finxit, solida rerum primordia, non partium conventu conciliata, ‘sed magis zterna pollentia simplicitate.’ Sed, ut discipulus illius ait, difficile est credere in rebus esse quidquam solido corpore, quod demonstravit Pro- fessor noster. Atomum enim ipsum ingressus, partes discrevit, ordinavit, legibus subjecit. Immo ut Grzecus ex atomo xéopor eduxit, Anglus in atomum xkécpor introduxit. Et multa quidem ejusmodi investigavit, quze dicere non concedit Latini sermonis egestas; hoc saltem concedit exponere, quanta universorum letitia collegio suo Magistrum a Rege impositum nuper viderimus.’’ And: ‘‘Adest alter e burgensibus nostris, idem rei physicze Professor, Isaaci Newton et Georgii Gabrielis Stokes non indignus successor, Societatis Regiz olim a_ secretis, qui scientias innumeras provinciam sibi depoposcit et illustravit. Ut carmen quoddam cenaticum discipulorum com- memoremus ‘gthera materiemque electraque cogitat ille somnia que possint mentes confringere nostras.’ Sed quem mundus ut virum sollertem ingeniosum sapientem miratur, illum collegium suum amicum diligit, providum modestum fidelem. Quem si amplissimis honoribus hodie extollit Academia nostra, hoc multe et apud nos et apud exteros facere occupaverunt.’’ - NO, 2644, VOL. 105] EpinsurGH.—Her Majesty the Queen has consented to accept the honorary degree of LL.D. on the occa- sion of the impending laying of the foundation-stone of the new chemistry department. ee ete Giascow.—The degree of. D.Sc. was conferred on June 23 on the following :—P. A. Hillhouse, for his thesis “Ship Stability and Trim,” with other papers, and D. B. Meek, for his thesis ‘Cyclonic Storms in the Bay of Bengal for a period of thirty years, from 1886 to 1915 inclusive, with special reference to their. Location and Direction of Motion,” with other papers. On the same occasion the following special class” prizes were awarded :— Mathematics (Advanced Honours Class): The Cunninghame gold medal to J. M‘Kinnell. Natural Philosophy (Ordinary Class) : The Cleland gold medal to D. H. Findlay. Political Economy: The Alexander Smart memorial prize to Stewart Mechie. Moral Philosophy (Honours Class) : The Edward Caird medal to 1. W. Phillips. 3 On June 24 the degree of LL.D. was conferred on Dr. J. MacIntyre and Sir Robert W. Philip. — ¥ Lonpon.—At a meeting of the Senate on June 23 Dr. S. Russell Wells was re-elected Vice-Chancellor for the year 1920-21. Me as 4 Communications were received from the Uni a College Committee and from the Dean of the Uni-_ versity College Hospital Medical School, setting forth respectively the terms of the recently published offers” made by the Rockefeller Foundation to present (a) to the University, on behalf of University College, the — sum of 370,000l., and (b) to University College Hos. pital Medical School the sum of 835,000l., or the | advancement of medical education and research. Resolutions were adopted expressing the Senate’ grateful appreciation of the pat i \ cent generosi shown by the Trustees of the Foundation to the U versity and to the Medical School of University CG lege Hospital, and accepting the offer made for t benefit of University College. . 4 Mr. A. E. Jolliffe, tutor in mathematics at Corpus _ Christi College, Oxford, was appointed to the University chair of mathematics tenable at the Royal — (professor n Y University chair of physiology tenable at St. M Political Science; T. E. G. Gregory to the Sir Ernest Cassel readership in commerce, with special reference to foreign trade, tenable at the London School of Economics and Political Science; Mr. D. Knoop to the Sir Ernest Cassel: readership in com- merce, with special reference to the organisation of industry and trade in the United Kingdom,. tenable at the London School of Economics and Political Science; Mr. H. Dalton to the Sir Ernest Cassel’ readership in commerce, with special reference to tariffs and taxation, tenable at the London School of Economics and Political Science; Mr. Ll, Rodwell Jones to the University lectureship in commerce, with special reference to commercial geography, tenable at the London School of Economics and Political Science ; Mr. J. D. Smith to the University lectureship in com- merce, with special reference to business organisation, tenable at the London School of Economies and Political Science; and Mr. T. A. Joynt to the Univer- sity lectureship in commerce, with special reference t transport and shipping, tenable at the London School of Economics and Political Science. © -- Grants from the Dixon Fund for 1920-21 wert ane | Juty 1, 1920] NATURE 569 made to Mr. A. S. E. Ackermann, for researches into the physical properties of clay; Mr. J. T. Carter, for resea 2s on the minute structure of the teeth of fossil mammalia; Mr. L. T. Hogben, for researches on the influence of ductless glands; Miss M. A. Murray, for the study of anthropolgy in Egypt; Dr. _ F. J. North, for preparing illustrations for work in _ palzontology; Mr. A. K. Wells, for the conduct of a geological survey of part of Merionethshire; and _ Dr. C. West, for researches on the effect of environ- _ ment factors on the growth of Helianthus. __ The degree of Bachelor of Science in household and - social science for internal students is to be instituted. 4 | Mr. -P. J. Hartoc, Academic Registrar of the _ University of London, has been. appointed Vice- _ Chancellor of the University of Dacca, Bengal. Dr. R. E. M. Wueeter has been appointed keeper of the department of archeology in the National Museum of Wales, and lecturer in archeology in the University College of South Wales and Monmouthshire. - Win reference to the recent offer by the Govern- ment of a site for the- University of London (see yx YATURE, May 27, p. 404), a largely attended meeting - of the council of the University of London Graduates’ _ Association was of the opinion that the ‘offer of “land on the Duke of Bedford’s estate, accompanied _ by an undefined maintenance grant now made by the Government, is in no sense an equivalent for the accommodation as at present guaranteed by the Government, and does not comply with the stipula- 3 Rene laid down by the Senate.” _ Tue following bequests, among others, of the late Dr. Rudolf. Messel have recently been published :— - 5000l, to Royal Institution of Great Britain; 1oool. to the Chemical Society ; 20001. and his platinum still, “in which I carried out with W. S. Squire my ments in connection with the decomposition of siliaiwicic acid,” to Mr. Squire, requesting him on his death to leave it to the Society of Chemical Industry ; his platinum crucible to the Society of Chemical Indus- try; and his electric telephone by Reis to the Institu- tion of Electrical Engineers. The residue of the property is to be divided into five parts, four of which are to go to the Royal Society and one to the Society of Chemical Industry, the wish being expressed that the fund shall be kept separate from the funds of the society, the capital to be kept intact, and the whole of the income exp in the furtherance of scientific research and other scientific objects, and that no part thereof shall be applied for charitable objects, as the granting of pensions and the like. _ Federation of University Women will be held at Bedford College, London, on July 12-14. The federa- tion has been formed to promote understanding and ' fellowship between educated women of different nations, and to unite them into a league to further _ their common interests and to strengthen the founda- tions of international.sympathy which must form the basis of the League of Nations. The practical means by which the federation seeks to realise its aims are: rganisation of a system of exchange of lecturers olars of different universities. (2) Provision of international scholarships and travelling fellowships, i ly the endowment of post-graduate and. re- search scholarships. (3) Establishment of. club-rooms and hostels for international hospitality in the various centres of university life. (4) Useful co-operation with the National Bureaux of Education in the various countries... Further information may be obtained from the acting secretary, Miss T. Bosanquet, Universities Bureau of the British Empire, 50. Russell Square, London, W.C.r. NO. 2644, VOL. 105] _ (1) 0 ‘tents are occasioned by existent reality. Tue first annual conference of the International . Societies and Academies. LONDON. Aristotelian Society, June 7.—Prof. Wildon Carr, vice-president, in the chair.—Rev. A. E, Davies: Anselm’s problem of truth and existence. The famous proof of the existence of God is not purely ontological, but rather the verification of a specitic mode of experi- ence termed ‘‘faith.’’ In Anselm’s words, it is ‘ faith seeking understanding,’’ and by “faith’’ is meant a mode of immediate apprehension, awareness of God. Two stages are distinguishable in the reason- ing. The first seeks to prove that we must think of ultimate reality in terms of existence. Here the appeal is to logical thought. In the second stage Anselm proves that this ultimate reality is his per- sonal God. Here the appeal is to experience. The argument implies that truth and existence are two ultimate forms of reality: existence is the reality of things, truth the validity of thought-contents. Hence truth must be sought in terms of validity. This is the logical character of the ‘‘proof.’? We can “only know as perfectly as possible.’? We know existent reality only as our thinking is valid, and we cannot think validly that God is non-existent. Between these two ultimate forms of reality is presupposed a funda- mental agreement, such that the relations of thought validly represent the real relations of things. For Anselm such agreement has its ground in God. A second implication is that when thinking is valid it starts from existence, in the same sense that its con- So that without experience we cannot know. The ethical character of the basic conception of God proves it to be no mere thought-product—that is, knowledge pre- supposes a mode of reality dissimilar from itself. Zoological Society, June 15.—Prof. E. W. MacBride, vice-president, in the chair:—Dr. P. Chalmers Mitchell ; Report on the additions to the sdciety’s menagerie during the month of May, 1920.—Prof. J. E. Duerden : Exhibition of and remarks upon a series of ostrich eggs.—Miss Joan B. Proctor: (1) A collection of tail- less batrachians from East Africa made by Mr. A. Loveridge in the years 1914-19. (2) The type-speci- men of Rana Holsti, Boulenger.—R. I. Pocock: The external and cranial characters of the European badger (Meles) and the American badger (Taxidea).— Dr. R. J. Tillyard: Life-history of the dragon-fly, with special reference to Australasian forms. Mineralogical Society, June 15.—Dr. A. E. H. Tutton, past president, in the chair.—F. P. Mennell : Rare zinc- copper minerals from the Rhodesian Broken Hill Mine, Northern Rhodesia. Copper minerals, including malachite, chessylite, copper-glance, and undetermined phosphates, are of rare occurrence in the lead-zinc ore of this locality. Still rarer are the copper-zinc minerals aurichalcite and veszelyite; the latter forms minute sky-blue monoclinic crystals (a:b: c=9-71:1:0-95), and differs from the original mineral from Hungary in its colour and in containing little or no arsenic.— Prof. R. Ohashi: Note on the plumbiferous barytes from Shibukuro, Prefecture of Akita, Japan. This mineral, which is deposited as a white to brownish- yellow crystalline crust in the fissures and near the orifices of hot springs, is similar to the mineral recently ‘called ‘‘hokutolite”” from Taiwan (=For- mosa); it contains 4-69 to 17-78 per cent. of PbO, and is radio-active—W. A. Richardson: The fibrous gypsum of Nottinghamshire. The relation to the nodular types of gypsum of the fibrous veins of the mineral, which are associated with every other type of gypsum deposit in the district and occur at levels 579 NATURE [JULY I, 1920 where there is no other development of the mineral, was considered. Most of these veins are regarded as having been formed shortly after the nodular deposits. The fibres grew upwards and downwards from a plane in the marl, and were probably deposited by descend- ing solutions, being precipitated at planes of tension in a contracting medium. The veins of fibrous calcium carbonate of ‘‘beef’’ described by Dr. Lang show similar structure and field relations, and doubt- less originated under similar conditions.—W. A. Richardson: A new model rotating-stage petrological microscope. This instrument is intended as a sub- stitute for the larger pre-war models, which at the present time could be manufactured only at very high prices. It is provided with a mechanical stage inter- changeable with a plane stage and a conventional sub- stage, and provision is made for rapid change from parallel to convergent polarised light. Owing to the reduction in size, a rotation of 270° only can be pro- vided for the rotating stage.—W. Barlow: Models illustrating the atomic arrangement in potassium chloride, ammonium chloride, and tartaric acid. In the case of the chlorides the suggested structure recon- ciles the X-ray phenomena with the crystalline sym- metry. The arrangement proposed for tartaric acid agrees with the graphical formula of the chemists, and the molecular groups have the symmetry and relative dimensions of the crystals. Royal Meteorological Society, June 16.—Mr. R. H. Hooker, president, in the chair.—W. H. Dines: The ether differential radiometer. This instrument has been designed to measure the radiation from the sky after sunset. It consists of two glass test-tubes containing air and a few drops nected by a glass U-shaped tube containing ether to serve as a pressure-gauge. Each test-tube is pro vided with a movable shield, which protects it from draughts and allows radiation from one direction only to fall upon it. It is used by first directing radiation from the sky upon one of the test-tubes, and then radiation from a “black”? body at a known tempera- ture. The known temperature is adjusted until the change has no effect upon the pressure-gauge, and when this is the case it may be assumed that the radiant energy absorbed by the test-tube from the sky is the same as that from the black body, whence the radiation from the sky is found by a table. The equivalent radiation temperature of the sky is often below o° F., and a method is shown by which in this case the skv radiation can be found without the use of freezing mixtures. This is done by com- pensating the small radiation from the sky by the excess of radiation from a hot body, so that neutral effect is obtained. The method of calculation and of making up the results is given.—Prof. S. Chapman and E. A. Milne: The composition, ionisation, and viscosity of the atmosphere at great heights. In’ the stratosphere, owing to the absence of large-scale mixing, the different constituents of the atmosphere must tend to separate out by. diffusion. so that the composition varies with the height: in particular, well-known calculations have shown that, on the usual assumption of the presence of free hydrogen, the atmosphere above 1-9 km. must consist almost en- tirely of hydrogen. The authors criticise this assump- tion; an examination of the evidence renders uncertain the actual existence of this hvdrogen atmosphere, and the authors accordingly recalculate the variation of composition with height on the assumption that hvdrogen is absent. Jn this case helium, the next lightest element, is the predominating constituent above too km. The results are then used to make an estimate of the depth to which o-. B-, or y-radia- tion arriving from an extra-terrestrial source would NO. 2644, VOL. 105] of ether con- penetrate the atmosphere. It appears that the range of a-particles would extend down to about 80 km., some 20 km. below the auroral zone. In the case of — B- and y-radiation it is found that the maximum — absorption, and consequently the maximum ionisation, should occur at heights of about 50 km. and 25 km, © respectively. In each case the region of appreciable ionisation would be confined to a layer of km, thickness, and the unexpected result emerges that the - layers would be comparatively sharply defined at their under-surfaces, which practically coincide with the positions of the maxima. ‘These estimates have an interesting bearing on recent theories of the existence of ionised layers in the atmosphere. Lastly, attention - is directed to the fact that at great heights, though — the coefficient of viscosity is little altered, the density is so small that the effective viscosity is very high, so that any large-scale motion must die down immediately. as Royal Microscopical Society, June 16.—Mr. A. N Disney, vice-president, in the chair.—L. T. Hogben The problem of synapsis. The data of Mendelian for cor- in many cases biparental, inheritance of ar The theory of synapsis postulates the conjugatic the meiotic phase of homologous chromosomes | from alternate parents preparatory to their segre in the reduction division, and thus affords < pretation of gametic purity and allelomorphi theory itself rests upon the assumption of — sistent individuality of chromosomes and the organisation of the nuclear reticulum. The the meiotic phase raises three questions: (a) Is th an actual-conjugation of chromosomes in the phase? (8) If so, in what manner is it effected (y) Do the chromosomes which pair in synap separate in the reducing divisions? As regards © first, it is pointed out that the parasynaptic and telo- synaptic interpretations for animals are mutua exclusive; the early meiotic phenomena in plants 2 animals are probably very different. With respect the second, the question of discovering a mechanis for the interpretation of partial linkage arises. To t last question it is impossible to provide a de answer from the available data, hence the most val able evidence on synapsis is inferred from the differe sizes and shapes of chromosome pairs in premei mitoses. It is submitted, therefore, that while cytological phenomena of hybridisation and mutation may yield significant facts, a clear recognition of th relation of the mitotic chromosomes to the organi tion of the interkinetic reticulum and a fuller know ledge of the synaptic processes are the most pressings needs for further development of the chromosom hypothesis.—Sir Horace Darwin and W. G. Colli A universal microtome. This instrument, which designed on similar general principles to the Ca bridge rocking microtome, cuts sections from ob embedded in paraffin or celloidin or from frozen pre- parations. It has the advantage over the rockin microtome of cuttine flat sections. The plane of th sections is horizontal, which facilitates examination and the orientating object-holder is of a novel fort and easy of adjustment. The rigidity of the frame an object-holder, and the fact that the knife is rigidl clamped at both ends, secures uniformity in the sé tions. The microtome has no large working surface which must be covered with oil. hence irregulariti due to varving thickness of the oil-film are elimina te SI | ae. + ; By “| a r tj _ Jury 1 1920] NATURE 571 regularity of cutting is unaffected by wear. The rigid connection between hand and object and the smallness of the friction and inertia of the moving 3 ed make for convenience of manipulation. The _ knife-holder is easily adjusted to give a slicing cut, and can also be moved so that sections can be~ cut with new parts of the knife as it becomes blunt or damaged. A simple accessory also enables the clear- ance angle of the knife to be adjusted. ae 1 Paris. | Academy of Sciences, June 14.—M. Henri Deslandres in the chair.—The president announced the death of | Prof. Auguste Righi, and gave a short account of his | life-work.—A, Rateau: Maps of the network of elec- tricity distribution in France. Work of the Technical Committee of the Hydrotechnical Society of France. _ An account of the work of the society since its estab- _ lishment in 1912. Its object is the study of all ques- tions relating to the regulation and utilisation of ~ waterfalls. map, on the scale of 1/200,000, will consist of eighty-four sheets, seventy-eight of which are now submitted to the Academy.—C. Guichard ; _ Determination of the congruences C and the con- i ge 20 which belong to a linear complex.— Ch. Ed. Guillaume: The action of metallurgical addi- tions on the anomaly of expansion of the nickel-steels. _ Certain applications of nickel-steels render necessary the addition of other elements—manganese, carbon, chromium, tungsten, and vanadium. A detailed study _of the action of additions of manganese, chromium, and carbon has been made, and the results obtained have been summarised in two diagrams.—J. Tilho: The frequency of fogs in the Eastern Sahara. Detailed _ observations of these dry dust fogs are necessary, especially in the interest of aerial navigation. The results of three years’ observations are given, classified as thick, medium, and light, according to the month. The fogs are relatively rare in the months be- tween August and November.—M,. Ch. Riquier was elected a correspondant for the section of geometry in ‘succession to the late M. Zeuthen, and M. Pierre Weiss correspondant for the section of general physics in succession to Sir J. J. Thomson, elected foreign associate.—E, Cartan: The projective deformation of _surfaces.—J. Andrade: The special right lines of con- tact of general helices.—S. Procopiu: The double refraction and dichroism of the fumes of ammonium chloride in the electric field. The double refraction and dichroism of ammonium chloride fumes vary with the time and differently. The double refraction varies very nearly inversely as the square of the wave-length, and the dichroism inversely as the third power. If _the phenomenon predicted by Voigt exists, it is masked.—MM. La Rosa and A. Sellerio: A galvano- magnetic effect parallel to the lines of force and ‘normal to the current.—G. Le Bon: Certain antagonistic properties of various regions of the “spectrum. A screen of zinc sulphide placed behind a ‘trough containing a solution of sulphate of quinine remains unaffected; if a trough of ammoniacal copper sulphate solution is superimposed, the zinc sulphide sereen phosphoresces. Similar phenomena were utilised for signalling at night during the war.—J. Meunier: The catalytic action of aluminium in the preparation of the chlorobenzenes. Aluminium is superior to the usual catalyst, iodine, in this prepara- tion. A weight of aluminium equal to one-thousandth of the benzene gives the best results. A detailed example of the method is. given.—P. Landrieu: Re- searches on the polyacid salts of the monobasic acids : sodium tribenzoate.—R. Blanchard: The Durance glacier at Sisteron.—L, Cayeux: The iron minerals of the Longwy-Briey basin.—G.- Mangenot: The NO. 2644, VOL, 105] chondriome of the Vaucheria. Further experimental evidence, both on the living plant and on fixed stained sections, in support of the views put forward in an earlier communication and adversely criticised by M. Dangeard.—E, Saillard: The sugar-beet during the war. The general conclusion is drawn that by using little manure, and especially little nitrogenous manures, the roots are richer in sugar and easier to work. The total production of sugar per hectare is alone affected by this abnormal culture. Similar results have been obtained in Germany.—Ch. Porcher : Want of food and the chemical composition of milk. A criticism of the experiments of Lami, together with additional work on the same subject. While accepting the figures of Lami, the author gives them another interpretation, and considers that the varia- tions of chemical composition observed are dué to the retention of milk and not to starvation.—P. Mathias: The structure of the lips of fishes of the genus Chondrostoma (family Cyprinidz).—M. Piettre and A. Vila: The separation of the proteins of the serum. The technique proposed differs con- siderably from the classical methods studied by Hof- meister, Starke, Michailoff, and J. Kauder, as large quantities of mineral salts are not used. The serum is exactly neutralised, precipitated by acetone, and the albuminoids extracted with water, the last washings being saturated with carbon dioxide. The insoluble proteins free from albumin are left as a greyish-white precipitate.—G. Bertrand and Mme. Rosenblatt: The action of chloropicrin upon some bacterial fermenta- tions. Details of experiments on the action of chloro- picrin at different concentrations on the lactic fer- ment, the ammoniacal ferment, and the sorbose bac- terium. Chloropicrin was found to exert a strongly toxic action’ upon all living cells, and is comparable, in some. cases, with the most powerful known dis- infectants.—A. Frouin ; Variations in the fatty matters of the tubercle bacillus cultivated on definite media in the presence of earths of the cerium group.—F. Ladreyt : Trophic superactivity: giant cell and cancer. —MM. Fauré-Fremiet, Guieysse, Magne, and A. Mayer: Cutaneous lesions determined by certain vesicant compounds. Books Received. Chemical Theory and Calculations. By Prof. F, J. Wilson and Prof. I. M. Heilbron. Second edition. Pp. vii+144. (London: Constable and Co., Ltd.) 4s. 6d. net. The Elements of Electro-Technics. By A. P. Young. Pp. viiit348. (London: Sir Isaac Pitman and Sons, Ltd.) 7s. 6d. net. Historical Geography of Britain and the British Empire. In two books. Book i.: The Making of - England: The Making of Empire: The Establish- ment of Empire, B.c. 55 to a.p. 1815. By T. Franklin. Pp. viii+216. (Edinburgh: W. and A. K. Johnston, Ltd. ; London : Macmillan and Co., Ltd.) 2s. net. Space, Time, and Deity. By Prof. S. Alexander. 2 vols. Vol. i., pp. xvi+347; vol. ii., pp. xiii+ 437. (London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd.) 36s. net. Education for Self-Realisation and Social Service. By F. Watts. Pp. xiit+275. (London: University of London Press, Ltd.) 7s. 6d. net. The Child Welfare Movement. By Dr. Janet E. Lane-Clavpon. Pop. xi+341. (London: G. Bell and Sons, Ltd.) 7s. net. A Summer Tour (1ar1g) through the Textile District of Canada and the United States. By Prof. A. F. Barker. Pp. xi+197. (Leeds: Printed by Jowett and Sowry, Ltd.). 572 NATURE [Jury 1, 1920 The Cambridge British Flora. By Prof. C. E. Moss. Assisted by specialists in certain genera. Vol. iii. Pp. xvit+200; plates, pp. vit1g1. (Cambridge: At the University Press.) Two parts. 61. 15s. net; 2 parts in 1 vol., 7l. net. Memoirs of the. Geological Survey. The Geology of Anglesey. Vol. i. Pp. x1 + 388+xxvi plates. Vol. ii. Pp. 389-980+ plates xxvi B-Ix+ folding plates. By E. Greenly. (Southampton: Ordnance Survey Office; London: E. Stanford, Ltd.) 2 vols., 31. 3s. net. The Arithmetic of the Decimal System. By Dr. J. Cusack. Pp. xvi+492. With Answers. (London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd.) 6s. f Medical Research Council and. Department of Scientific and Industrial Research. Reports ofthe Industrial Fatigue Research Board. No. 7: _ Indi- vidual Differences in Output in the Cotton Industry. 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Pp. xvit+380. (Cambridge : versity Press.) 20s. net. The Mystery of Life as Interpreted by Science. By R. D. Taylor. Pp. 176. (London and Felling-on- Tyne: Walter Scott Publishing Co., Ltd.) 3s. 6d. net. _ Applied Eugenics. By P. Popenoe and Prof. R. H. Johnson. (Social Science Text-Books.) Pop. xii+asq. (New York: The Macmillan Co.; London : Macmillan and Co., Ltd.) 14s. net. Air Ministry. Meteorological Office, London. Pro- fessional Notes, No. 8. Temperatures and Humidities in the Upper Air: Conditions Favourable for Thunderstorm Development, and Temperatures over Land and. Sea. By Caot. C. K. M. Douglas. Pp. t10o-139. (London: Meteorological Office, Air Ministry.) 2s. net. Air Ministry. Meteorological Office. Memoirs, No. 16. Aids to Forecasting: Types of Pressure Distribution. -With notes and tables for the fourteen years 1905-18. By E. Gold. Pp. 147-74. (London : Meteorological Office, Air Ministry.) 25. 6d. net. Notes on Chemical Research: An Account of Cer- tain Conditions which Apply to Original Investiga- tion. By W. P. Dreaper. (Text- Books of Chemical Research and Engineering.) Second edition. Pp. xv+ 19s. (London: J..and A. Churchill.) 7s. 6d. net. The Concept of Nature. By Prof. A. N. White- head. (Tarner Lectures delivered in Trinity College, November, 1919.) Pp. ix+202. (Cambridge : At the University Press.) 14s. net. NO. 2644, VOL. 105 | (London: Institute of Metals.) By Prof. W. R. At’ the Uni- Geophysical William Smith: His Maps and Memoirs. Sheppard. Pp. iii+75-253+plates. (Hull: and Sons, Ltd.) Imperial Institute. on Oil-Seeds. Pp. 6s. net. Conifers and their Characteristics. By r. A. Brown Indian Trade Inquiry. Reports — ix+149. (London: J. Murray.) — By C. Coltman- — eee Pp. xiii+ 333. (London : J. Murray.) 21s. ne The Small Farm and its Management. By Prof. J. Long. Second edition. Pp. 328. (London: J. Murray.) 7s. 6d. net. Anniversaries and other Poems. By L. Huxley. Pp. x+82. hic. (London: J. Murray.) 5s. net. Diary of Societies. MONDAY, Jury 5. Royat InsTiTUTION OF GREAT BRITAIN, at 5.—General Meeti ARISTOTELIAN SocteTy (at 74 Grosvenor Street), at 8.—Rev. Dr. W. F. Geikie Cobb: Mysticism, True and False. f WEDNESDAY, Jury 7. oe InstiruTIon oF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGISTS (in Canada Build ‘bedava Palace), at 6.—E. H. Cunningham Craig : Wild Catting (Free ated Lecture). : SATURDAY, Jury 10.. Puystoi a Soctery (at Physiological Laboratory, University, Oxford)»: at 4.—J. B. Leathes and H. C. Broadhurst : Excretion of Te Sate ‘and F. J. Roughton: Diffusion Co-efficient of Lung.—S. P. a ‘ aeons and E. J. Cohn: Solubility of Globulin.—A. Krogh: oe , of Blcod Vessels to Local Stimuli. CONTENTS. Medical Research and the Practitioner ...... Theory of Dioptric Instruments. ae E.Cc. . The International Research Council: in eae eh, eae Problems of Population. By E.B...,..... - 543 The Elements of Hardy Fruit Culture ..... . 545 Our Bookshelf’. 22.2.0) saa Se tee eae eae 545 Letters to the Editor:— The Constitution of the Elements.—Dr. F. w. ; E ASton 260 eon ie co ie tek ee a 547 Applied Science and Industrial Reset ‘e A; G. Church: 3.0. 4, 2.4 ove ee ee 547 Science and Scholasticism.—Prof, Jas. J. Walsh ; Dr, Charles Singer: .. 4-228 » S42 Commercial Parasitism in the Cotton “Industry. — : O2F “Cook. 0. ye ene era? See Fuel Research. By Prof. John Ww. Cobb a arene oh 55° Use of Sumner Lines in Navigation. (With ei Diagrams.) By ai T. H. Tizard, C.B., F.R.S. 552. Obituary :— r «e» Dr. F. A. Tarleton.—R. x. P> Rogete sia 5% 554. Notes .. so ob oboe at ie ae ee Sa Our Astronomical: Column : i 4 Tempel’s Second Periodic Comet... . . + « - 560° Denning’s Comet of 1881 and a Meteoric Shower . . 560. ‘Capture Orbits: .: ...). 0? soe poe eee ee 560 Education in the New Era. By Prof, Frederick | Soddy, FoRiSe5 si'Si veo eee ‘ . 561 , British Aeronautics, 2... 5 wis wise ee ee » 561 | Climatic Cycles and Tree- growth. By W. W. B. . 562 The Interferometer in FAyGiCe Measurements. ; By Le C.3Me t. itpicg 8 8 ane 563 Canvas-destroying Fungi. By J. Ramsbottom . . 563 The Economic Pursuits of the Trobriand Islanders 564 The Organisation of Scientific Work in India . University and Educational Intelligence ... . Societies and Academies. ..... 2+ eee es Books Received: (0.05.03 yi ese ea een eee Diary of Societies , - Rockefeller NATURE THURSDAY, JULY 8, 1920. Eaitorial and Publishing Offices: MACMILLAN & CO., LTD., he ST. MARTIN’S STREET, LONDON, W.C.2. Advertisements and business letters should be addressed to the Publishers. Editorial communications to the Editor. Telegraphic Address: PHUSIS, LONDON. Telephone Number: GERRARD 8830. Medical Education. URING the last thirty years the feeling has become increasingly insistent, both in this country and in America, that certain radical re- forms were needed in the methods of education in medicine. But our American colleagues . have been fortunate in having the opportunity and the means for building new schools of medicine to meet the new circumstances and for making drastic changes in their methods of teaching which a variety of circumstances has hitherto prevented us from attempting in Britain. Now that the Foundation, by its magnificent generosity, has made it possible for us to embark upon the difficult sea of reform, it is particularly interesting and instructive to study the policy adopted in the more advanced schools of America during the twenty-seven years since the Johns Hopkins Medical School gave the study of medicine in America a new aim and a higher ideal. Though we are a quarter of a century behind our American colleagues in making a start, our delay has given us the advantage that we can profit by the experiments made on the other side of the Atlantic. It is not generally recognised here how thoroughly the leaders of medical education in America explored every possible method of educa- tion throughout the world, and how much devo- tion and thought they have expended on experi- ments to discover, by truly scientific methods, how best to employ the few years that the medical student can devote to the training for his pro- fession. Those who want to understand some- thing of the spirit and the high ideals that have _ imspired the American leaders in this great reform movement should read the account of their work and aims in the volume ‘‘ Medical Research and »” Education,’’ issued by the Science Press in New Balint which chief insistence is placed are as follows: The absolute necessity of (a) an adequate prelim- inary education and a serious University training in the basal sciences, physics, chemistry, and biology, without which foundation it is impossible for the student really to profit from his training in medical science; and (b) a method of practical teaching in all branches of professional work, whereby the student can, so far as possible, investigate for himself the facts and theories of each subject under the direction of men who are themselves engaged in research work, and not rely mainly upon lectures and demonstrations to give him merely the results of other people’s work. In other words, the aim of the reform is to train the student in scientific methods rather than to ‘“cram ’’ him with traditional lore. So impressed were certain American teachers with the evils of the lecture system of instruction that the attempt was made to eliminate lectures altogether. On this side of the Atlantic (and in most American schools also) it is recognised that some lectures are essential to give the student guidance and a right perspective in his work, and that demonstrations are an invaluable means of instruction, provided the student can really see the objects and appreciate the significance of the experiments. No impartial observer will, how- ever, refuse to admit that in most British schools an altogether undue amount of the medical student’s and his teacher’s time is wasted in the attendance upon lectures and demonstrations of” a useless or distracting kind. Several circum- stances make it difficult to break with this vicious system. The financial arrangements in most of our schools are based upon payments for certain courses of lectures or demonstrations : the require- ments of most institutions and examining boards are for attendance at so many lectures: and the method of awarding the Board of Education grants for some time helped still further to stereo- type this system. In the American schools the student pays for his instruction, and the teacher is free to decide how best the required instruction is provided; in other words, the method of admin- istration of the department is so arranged that the perpetuation of obsolete and vicious methods is not made compulsory for a teacher who. has his own ideas as to how to educate his students to the best advantage. The other great reform in American medical educational practice has been to bring the methods of teaching and research in the clinical subjects York in 1913. Briefly expressed, the matters upon | into line with those of the intermediate subjects. NO. 2645, VOL. 105 | U 574. NATURE [JuLy- 8, 1920 The teachers of medigine, surgery, gynecology, etc., used to be men practising their profession who gave up a certain amount of time to teaching medical students. Such men could bring to their teaching the ripe experience gained not only in the hospital wards, but also in contact with private patients; and, in addition to teaching the science and practice of medicine, were supposed to be able to convey to the student something of the subtle art popularly known as the ‘‘ bedside manner,’’ which is sometimes reputed to be more useful to the practitioner than either knowledge or skill. But. it has long been felt that such teachers, in the course of their individual careers, would become more and more strongly tempted to neglect teach- ing and research as the demands of their practices became more insistent, and that it was only the exceptional man who would be sufficiently inter- ested in investigation and teaching to make the financial and social sacrifice which the cultivation of his scientific interests would inevitably entail. British medicine, both now and in the past, has been extraordinarily fortunate in such ‘‘ excep- tional ’’ physicians and: surgeons, who have de- liberately set aside part of their time for scientific research and teaching. But for their zeal, this country could not have acquired or maintained its deservedly high reputation for clinical research. Nevertheless, the fact has to be faced that in some of the hospitals attached to our schools of medicine no real research of any kind is being carried on, and the clinical teaching is of the most perfunctory order. The obvious remedy for this disastrous ten- dency is to appoint selected men to investigate the problems of medicine and surgery and to direct the education of students, who will devote the whole of their time to this work, as the professors of anatomy, physiology, pathology, and phar- macology do at present. Such a development has, ' in fact, become inevitable, for now that a real science of medicine is beginning to emerge the investigation of its difficult problems and the direc- tion of the students’ training demand the whole time and energy of specially selected men with the necessary technical training and self-denying devo- tion to science to cope with such tasks. This system has been tried in America with most encouraging results. Acting on the advice of Sir George Newman, the Board of Education last autumn agreed to provide financial help to enable certain medical schools to introduce the system of full-time teachers of medicine and surgery in England. Of the institutions that availed them- selves of this offer, the University College Hospital NO. 2645, VOL. 105 | Medical School was. the only one which adopted a really whole-time system; and it was this con- sideration that focussed the interest of the Rocke- feller Foundation upon the Gower Street School, for in America the Rockefeller Foundation has played a large part in encouraging the adoption of the whole-time professorships of medicine and surgery. Another factor that played some part in determining its selection was the fact that University College had made provision in its Institutes of Physiology and Pharmacology for the adequate training of students in those subjects, so as to equip them to make the best use of the new facilities for clinical study in the medical school; and further that Prof. Starling had agreed to hand over to the department of anatomy the sub-de- partment of histology, which is vitally important : for the full.development of teaching and research in anatomy. The great. devalopartle in’ the science oe anatomy during the last thirty years has been due mainly to the use of the microscope for the inves- tigation of the structure of the body and for the study of embryology. British anatomy has been hampered by the lack of the facilities for teaching these vital parts of the subject, and has suffered enormously from the lack of stimulating daily contact with them. In other countries, and especi- ally in America, the cultivation of histology and embryology has not only made anatomy one e of the most active ‘branches of medical study and — research, but also brought the work of the department into close touch with physiology, bio- chemistry, and pathology, to the mutual benefit of all these subjects, and especially to the student who has to integrate the information acquired in the different departments. It was the radical re- forms effected in the teaching of anatomy by the late Prof. Franklin Mal) at the Johns Hopkins Medical School in 1893 that played the chief part in starting the great revolution in medical educa- tion in America. The stimulating influence of the abolition of the methods of medieval scholasticism _ : in anatomy and the return to the study of Nature and to the use of experiment brought about a closer co-operation with other departments and a ~ general quickening of the students’ interest in the real science of medicine. The effects of these developments sonia to other American schools, and the Rockefeller Foun- — | dation came to their help and contributed part of the cost of the vital reforms. In 1914 it helped the Washington University at St. Louis to build a new medical school and hospital, with full-time ln oe eT ee Jury 8, 1920] NATURE ‘ 575 professors of the clinical subjects, for the endow- ment of which it gave 250,o00l., a quarter of the cost. In t917 it gave the Chicago Uni- versity 500,000!., and in ninety days the Univer- sity collected a further 900,o00l. to complete the endowment of full-time clinical chairs. In 1918 Yale University raised 650,000]. for the same purpose, of which the Rockefeller Foundation con- tributed one-quarter. In 1919 the Johns Hopkins Hospital established a full-time teaching staff in obstetrics and gynecology, with an endowment of 250,0001., of which the Rockefeller Foundation gave 100,000]. It is rumoured that the same Foundation, which has also given such vast en- dowments for medical education in Canada and China, is about to excel all its former efforts by a new scheme for further helping medical education in the United States. With such examples of the scale on which these things have to be done, surely England can do more for medical education than she is doing! . The task of the reformer of medical education is vastly more difficult in this country than in America, because on every side there is the hamper- ing influence of cast-iron conventions; but now that the Rockefeller Foundation has helped us to begin the urgent reform there can be no doubt as to the ultimate result. The Theory and Facts of Colour Vision. (1) The Physiology of Vision, with Special Refer- ence to Colour Blindness. Bw Dr. F. W. ‘Edridge-Green. Pp. xii+280. (London: _ G, Bell and Sons, Ltd., 1920.) Price 12s. net. (2) Card Test for Colour Blindness. By Dr. F. W. Edridge-Green. 24 cards. (London: G. Bell and Sons, Ltd., n.d.) Price 25s. net. Ligh iy great importance of the subject-matter of the volume under notice and of the card- test which supplements it is beyond all question. Interest in it is enhanced by the fact that the sub- ject is admittedly full of difficulties. In every dis- cussion of human sensations and of the organs which serve as the receivers of stimuli, one is im- pressed by the uncertainty of much which has been put forward as assured truth. It is not long ago that the mechanism of audition was. being ‘dis- cussed anew, and even now, in spite of the re- newed examination, the functions of various parts of the ear are much in debate. Yet in audition we have to deal with purely mechanical stimuli which we might have expected to have yielded up NO. 2645, VOL. 105 | the secrets of their operation long ago. In the case of light the problem is clearly of a more recondite order, and it is not so surprising that little is actually known with certainty about the functions of various parts of the eye, and that we have therefore to fall back upon surmise. The theory of vision most espoused by physi- cists is the three-colour theory of Young and Helmholtz, based upon the facts of colour mix- ture. It is possible to reproduce any tint what- ever by mixing together three selected tints in a suitable proportion. This is accepted now by every school, and it must be taken as the basis of any theory of colour vision. The Young- Helmholtz theory explains the fact by assuming that there are three units in’ the sensitive ap- paratus of the eye (either three sorts of nerves or rods or cones), each of which responds in a maximum degree to one of the three primary tints, but also to a less degree to all (or most) other tints. Red, green, and blue of selected wave-lengths are taken (for reasons which cannot be given here) as the primary tints. A spectral yellow stimulates both red and green sensations, so does a mixture of red and green lights; hence a certain such mixture will produce the same sensation as does a spectral yellow. In this way the phenomena of colour mixture are explained. Unfortunately, there are difficulties in accept- ing this theory. In the first place, there is no histological evidence of the existence of these three units. This objection, taken alone, is not fatal. It is conceivable that anatomical differ- ences exist which are beyond detection with the microscope. But, in addition, there is a vast number of phenomena to be explained besides those of colour mixture, and many of these seem to be directly in opposition to the theory. Dr. Edridge-Green is well known as one who, after prolonged study of the question, was compelled to give up the trichromatic theory. The volume under review summarises the conclusions to which he has.come. We can cite only a few of: the experimental facts. In certain cases of defective colour perception the yellow sensation is diminished, and in others lost altogether, although the percipient ex- periences three definite colour sensations (red, green, and violet). Why do not the red and green make yellow in such cases? If the eye be fatigued with pure spectral yellow light, and be then turned aside to view a spectrum, this will appear to have lost its yellow; and though yellowish-red or yellowish-green will appear less yellow, the terminal red of the spectrum will not be affected. According to the trichromatic theory, 576 NATURE . [JuLy 8, 1920 it should be reduced in intensity. Again, the eye may be fatigued with red or green without alter- ing the: hue of spectral. yellow. If the image of a white object be suddenly formed on a portion of the retina which. was pre- viously occupied by the image of a black object, this image is surrounded by a red border. I, instead of white, a spectral greenish-yellow illumination is used, the border is colourless; if the same greenish-yellow be made up of red and green, it appears red (Bidwell). Many dichromics have a_ luminosity curve similar to the normal, although their colour sensa- tions are limited to red and blue at the ends of the spectrum, with a neutral colour in between. This would not be the case if their blindness were due to the absence of one of the sensory units (green). The theory which Dr. Edridge-Green has de- veloped may be outlined as follows :— A ray of light impinging on the retina liberates the visual purple from the rods, and a ‘“ photo- graph ” is formed. The ends of the cones are stimulated through the photochemical decomposition of the visual purple by light, and a visual impulse is set up which is conveyed by the optic nerve to the brain. Instead of analysing this impulse into three components, Dr. Edridge-Green regards it as an integral unit the shape of which depends vee the nature of the light exciting it. The physicist may be reminded that he himself has already recognised that if the motions in the zther corresponding to white light could be seen, he would not be tempted to speak of them as periodic, though they are capable of being re- solved by Fourier’s theorem into monochromatic components. The gist of Dr. Edridge-Green’s theory is that he deals with the visual impulse as a unit, but asserts (in effect) that if for convenience _it is resolved into components, the number of necessary components is usually large. We do not mean that he says this in so -many words; but this is, in physical language, what his statements appear to us to imply. His theory is therefore of greater generality than the restricted Young- Helmholtz theory which it supplants. (2) The card test, which is supplementary. to the text-book, consists of twenty-four cards, each con- taining a large number of irregular, coloured patches or spots. The shapes of these are pre- cisely the same on all the cards, so that the examinee cannot be coached to discriminate by the form alone. These patches are differently coloured on all the cards. Each card contains a number of patches of a selected . hue, different from the other patches, arranged in the form of NO. 2645, VOL. 105 | a letter. The examinee is required to declare the. letter on each card in turn.’ The colours are so chosen‘as to enable the examiner to discrim- inate between the different kinds of colour blind- ness. We have tested them on numerous individuals. Card 8 is particularly useful in the quick detection of weakness in the green. It contains a green C and a brown S. To a normal individual the C ig very prominent, while the S is a difficult letter to detect. One examinee who was quite unconscious that he was in any way defective detected the S instantly, while he could not detect the C even when his attention was directed to it. We have not space to discuss either the book or the card test fully. We congratulate Dr. Edridge-Green on having brought together a wealth of important and interesting material on the physiology of vision. ; Hydrographical Surveying. Hydrographical Surveying: A Description of Means and Methods Employed in Constructing Marine Charts. By the late Rear-Admiral Sir William J. L. Wharton. Fourth edition, revised and enlarged by Admiral Sir Mostyn Field. Pp. xii+570. (London: John Murray, 1920.) Price 30s. net. HE fourth edition of this work on hydro- graphical surveying differs but slightly from — its predecessor, the main text being practically — untouched, and the only important changes being the addition of several articles on newer surveying methods and experimental devices which had been introduced in the years immediately eithigeeas the war. Of these the description of a form oe ‘vacuum tide-gauge,”” devised by Rear-Admiral H. E. Purey-Cust, a former Hydrographer of the Navy, is perhaps the most interesting, and it will cer- ‘tainly appeal to every nautical surveyor who has had to fight against the difficulties of observing the vertical movements of the tide in situations where direct readings are almost impossible. The ij addition of a trustworthy self-recorder to the in- strument is obviously merely a question of time — and experiment, and when it has been perfected this form of tide-gauge will undoubtedly prove an immense boon to nautical surveyors for use in those parts of the world where the ordinary methods of tide reading are impracticable. It is to be regretted that no mention has been made of the extremely useful and convenient form of current meter known as the “Ekman.’’ This instrument has been used with conspicuous success 4 . . Jury 8, 1920] NATURE 577. by the Admiralty and by the Ministry of Agri- culture and Fisheries, and is the standard form of current meter now used by both Departments. ~In the new chap. xx. the ‘“‘ Douglas-Schafer ”’ sounding traveller is described on pp. 434-36, but as this is the official method of obtaining sound- ings in H.M. surveying vessels, it would have been more suitably placed at the commencement of this chapter than among the _ miscel- laneous collection of methods which are largely experimental. Several new methods connected with sweeping are now described in the new material of the book, and all have something to be said in. their favour ; but it is much to be hoped that the results of mine-sweeping, which developed into such a gigantic and_ well-organised piece of war machinery, will eventually assist in the devising of some form of thoroughly effective sweep for surveying purposes. This last remark applies similarly to the im- provement of surveying devices and methods generally. During the war such enormous pro- gress was made in so many directions affecting scientific developments that many surveying methods must of necessity be entirely, or at least very drastically, altered to bring them up to date. The remarks under the heading “ Recent Develop- ments” on p. 470, which deal with this aspect, are, however, distinctly on the conservative side, as it is considered that the scrapping of old systems must be adopted in a very wholesale manner rather than that attempts should be made at their modification to conform to the most modern methods. It is perhaps somewhat difficult to appreciate what an enormous saving of time, and, therefore, of expense and labour, will even- tually result from the introduction of many of these methods into hydrographical surveying, but a good example will be found in connection with the use of hydrophones, by the aid of which accu- rate positions afloat can be obtained in as many hours instead of days or even weeks, which would have formerly been required under the procedure described under the heading ‘‘ Triangulation by means of Floating Moored Beacons ’’ in the new chap. xxi. The war, in fact, has shown the necessity in this, as in so many other directions, of revising _the text-books which deal with technical subjects, and this is the condition of affairs as regards | hydrographical surveying. The work under notice is undoubtedly the standard publication on the subject, and has a well-deserved and world- wide reputation; but it is considered that all such standard works on technical matters, such as that now under discussion, should be prepared and NO, 2645, VOL. 105 | published by the Government Department which is directly concerned, and, therefore, in a position to obtain the fullest information in every possible direction; and lastly, but not least in importance, which is also in a position to keep such an official work always up to date by the periodical publica- tion of supplements. Forestry, Tree Diseases, and Timber, (1) Our National Forests: A Short Popular Account of the Work of the United States Forest Service on the National Forests. By Dr. Richard H. Douai Boerker. Pp. Ixix + 238. (New York: The Macmillan Co.; London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd. , 1918.) Price 12s. 6d.. net. (2) Commercial Forestry in Britain: Its Decline and Revival. By E. P. Stebbing. Pp. vi+ 186. (London: John Murray, 1919.) Price 6s. net. (3) National Afforestation. By A. D. Webster. Pp. 160. (London: T. Fisher Unwin, Ltd., 1919.) Price 6s. net. (4) Manual of Tree Diseases. By Dr. W. Howard Rankin. (The Rural Manuals.) Pp. xx+ 398. (New York: The Macmillan Co.; London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd., 1918.) Price 12s. 6d. net. . (5)-(8) A Map of the World (on Mercator’s Projection), Having Special Reference to Forest Regions and the Geographical Distribution of Timber Trees: Timber Map, No. 1. North America: Timber Map, No. 2. South America: Timber Map, No. 3. Europe and Africa: Timber Map, No. 4. All prepared by J. Hudson Davies. Each on rollers, size 40 in. by 30 in. (Edinburgh: W. and A. K. Johnston, Ltd. ; London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd., n.d.) Price 8s. net each. (1) R. BOERKER’S book is a_ popular account of the administration and pro- tection of the national forests of the United States, which now constitute about a third of the timber lands in that country. The original forest area was enormous, being estimated at 850,000,000 acres. Nearly half of this has been cleared away, as the land was needed for farms by settlers; but forest fires, felling for timber, and grazing have shared largely in the destruction. To-day the land under timber trees is about 500,000,000 acres. Private ownership: entailed disappearance of the forests, as no steps were ever taken to provide for the growth of a second crop of trees upon the ground. State intervention became necessary, and nothing in the political history of the United States is more creditable than the legislation of late years enfore- ing measures to preserve from fire and to manage 578 NATURE [Juty: 8, 1920 on scientific principles as much of the primeval woodlands as could be rescued from private owner-, Boerker sketches the history: of this; ship. Dr. great movement. The first effective step in conservation was the passing of an Act in 1891, which empowered the President to create forest reserves by proclama- tion. The first to be proclaimed was the Yellow- stone ‘Park, and others were added until ‘they amounted to 100,000,000 acres in..1905. year the Forest Service was constituted as it now exists, with enlarged powers and increased appro- priations from public funds. In 1907 the “forest reserves” were re-named ‘national forests,” to do away with the impression that the timber was not to be used until some future time, Dr. Boerker gives a list of the national forests, arranged by States, and showing the acreage of each and the headquarters of the Forest Super- visor, The national forests are nearly all in the west, comprising the higher parts of the Rocky Mountains, the Cascades, the Pacific Coast ranges, a part of the coast of Alaska, some of the hills in the Dakotas, eastern Montana, Oklahoma and Arkansas, and small areas in Minnesota, Michi- gan,.and Florida. In March, 1915, there were 162 national forests in all, with a total area of 163,000,000 acres. Besides the national forests, set aside out of the public lands of the west, there are mountain forests in the east, in the White Mountains and southern Appalachians, which have been gradually acquired by purchase under the Weeks law of 1911. These totalled nearly 2,000,000 acres in 1919. Under the same law the Federal Govern- ment co-operates with the States in the protection of forested watersheds, and much has been done to stop the ravages caused by fire. In 1910 the Forests Products Laboratory was established at Madison (Wisconsin), and this great research institute has since then made signal advances in almost every phase of wood utilisation, to the great gain of the nation in times of peace and during the war. Researches have been made in wood distillation, the testing and seasoning of timber, the pulp and paper industries, tapping pines for turpentine, using wood waste, the pro- duction of artificial silk from sawdust, etc. In- vestigations in the industrial uses of woods have also been carried out. The attention paid to scien- tific research has been a significant feature of the U.S. Forest Service, as is well shown by the abundant literature on forestry subjects which has been published at Washington during the past ten years. “Dr. Boerker’s book . is well ‘illustrated, “NO. 2645, VOL. 105] : | and In that) contains interesting notes on the field work inthe national forests, including*harvesting seed, modes. of planting, diseases and insect attacks, fire pro-. tection, the building’ of roads, trails, and telephone lines, and the supervision of felling operations and. grazing. The richness of details makes the book valuable to foresters as well as to general readers. , (2) The two small books by Mr. E. P. Stebbing: and Mr. A. D. Webster narrate in a popular manner the achievements and’ hopes of British forestry, and are in strong contrast to the Ameri- can treatise just noticed. Both authors fail notably in their historical chapters. Mr. Stebbing triés to-compress into a few pages the history of the woodlands and forest policy of Great Britain from the earliest times until 1885. He bases this abstract on Nisbet’s disquisition on the subject in his manual ‘‘The Forester.” The fact is that the history of forestry in Britain cannot be written and the public until jit is taken up seriously, records and other documents are studied and ene use of. ’ Mr. Stebbing devotes a chapter to the various Committees and Royal Commissions appointed in the period 1885-1914 to inquire into and deal with forestry in this country. of the activities of the Development Commissioners will meet with some criticism. This body did useful work from 1909 to 1914 in encouraging forestry education, but made no progress in Great Britain in the “purchase and planting of land found after inquiry suitable for afforestation,” one of the main objects for which the Commissioners were appointed. The next chapter treats of the difficulties in timber supplies during the war In the remaining chapters Mr, Stebbing period. is concerned with the future of British forestry, and discusses various matters, such as the require- ments of timber by Britain, what afforestation will do for the people, the connection of forestry and agriculture, the acquisition of land for plant- ing by the State, the protection of afforested areas, etc. He is not content with the recommendations of the Reconstruction Committee for the planting of 1,770,000 acres during the next eighty years. However, we must be satisfied, in the present state of public finance, with the immense progress that has been made in the appointment last year of the Forestry Commission with a definite income _ and an assured programme for the next ten years. At the end of this period the problem can be reconsidered in the light of the experience gained in the meantime. (3) Mr. Webster’ s_ small book begins ‘with i ‘ short chapter on the history of British woodlands, which contains too little information to be of any t His favourable opinion ee ee we ed a ee ek ie mM a ; pe ET ibe iy aig new adventure, sailed [ Seen@ee\ihu/) 9% sii; =~ } "ih Mies 1 Arne oe NEON Me rur in their own small yacht, the Mana, to Ft. 1.—Exterior of Rano Raraku. Eastern portion of southern aspect. Diagrammatic sketch showing position of statues. From ‘‘ The Mystery of Easter Island.” the island, spent some fifteen. months there (Mr. Routledge was away holds out hopes of ‘‘ another volume in prospect, from the island during a considerable part.of the | with descriptions and dimensions of some two time), and have now given us a somewhat full hundred and sixty burial places in the island, and : 3 thousands of measurements of é 1 “The Mystery of Easter Island: The Story of an Bxpedition.” By. really absorbing matter = It apes ene Mrs. Scoresby Routledge. Pp. xxi+4o4. (London: Sifton, Praed, ard Co., Ltd., n.d.) Price 315. 6d. net.” E hoped ‘that this further instalment*of exact data NO. 2645, VOL. 105 | 584 NATURE [Jury 8, 1920 , will be published before the great interest which | has been aroused by the present foretaste has evaporated. The most interesting points brought out in the present book are those which serve to throw partial light on the great stone statues which are so abundant in the island, and, in connection with these, on the origin of the Easter Island folk. It has hitherto generally been assumed that these folk were of Polynesian race. But recent research, by Prof, Keith and others, seems Fic. 2.—A finished Hat at Ahu Hanga O Ornu; others in the distance. From ‘‘ The Mystery of Easter Island,’’ to show that, in Easter Island, as in so many of the South Sea Islands, several races with other than Polynesian culture have from time to time invaded this remote and isolated islet. Mr. Henry Balfour (in Folklore for December, 1917) has suggested (modestly he disclaims to | ] have done more) some of the main results to | which Mr. and Mrs. Routledge’s experiences seem to point, and chiefly to the probability that at some long-distant time a strong wave of Melanesian influence reached Easter Island. Certain points of curiously strong resemblance between Easter Island arts and customs those found in certain of the Solomon Islands serve to illustrate this. Without throwing any doubt on this sugges- tion, tentatively put forward by Mr. and Mrs. Routledge, with the strong support of Mr. Balfour and others, I again venture to put forward the view that, while Easter Island cul- ture is doubtless of very mixed origin, Poly- nesian and Melanesian elements being most strongly represented, there were probably also other elements—e.g. some «influence, _ sional, from the not American shore lying to the east- ward. For instance, the script (on wooden plaques), the rock-carvings, the featherwork, and the very pecu- was used in Easter Island, all seem to me to suggest an Eastern, rather than a Western, origin. One other suggestion may here be put forward as a contribution to the consideration of the Easter Island mystery. the well-known “‘ top-pieces ’’? which are, or were, superimposed on the statues as ‘‘ hats’’; and Mr. Balfour but hair, and in the number of Folk- those which were, and still to some extent are, commonly used by Fijians—though whether by those of Polynesian or Melanesian origin I cannot now say. It would be interesting to know how far such wigs were used in other parts of the Pacific, It is satisfactory to know that a second edition of Mrs. Routledge’s book is already in course of preparation, and all ethnologists must hope that the full scientific data will also soon be published. The Blue Sky and the Optical Properties of Air.t By the Richt Hon. Lorp Ray eicu, F.R.S. Scattering by Small Particles. Polarisation. “THE subject chosen for this evening is one which specially interested my father through- out his career. I shall try to put before you some of his conclusions, and then pass on to more recent developments, in which I have myself had a share. Let us begin with one of his experiments which illustrates the accepted theory of the blue sky. 1 Discourse delivered at the Royal Institution on Friday, May 7, r92c. NO. 2645, VOL. 105 | We have here a glass tank containing a dilute solution of sodium thiosulphate. A condensed beam from the electric arc traverses it and then falls on a white screen, where it shows the usual white colour. I now add a small quantity of acid, which decomposes the solution with slow precipita- tion of very finely divided particles of sulphur. As soom as this precipitation begins you see that light is scattered—that is to say, it is diverted to every side out of the original direction of pro- pagation. Moreover, you will observe that the ‘ and possibly slight, and only very ocea- far distant. liar form of, tapa (bark cloth) which Mrs. Routledge writes of. suggests that these were very prob-- ably meant to represent not hats, lore above quoted he works this out in very ingenious detail. I venture to — suggest a slight amendment to Mr. Balfour’s proposition—i.e. that the stone cap- pieces in question were meant to represent not. actual growing human hair, but wigs, such as Se ee ee eee ee eee) JULY 8, 1920] NATURE 585 scattered light is blue. The transmitted beam is robbed of its bluer constituents, and tends to become yellower, as you may see on the screen. _ The light scattered laterally is to be compared to the blue sky; the yellow transmitted light to the direct light of the setting sun when it has traversed a great thickness of air. As the precipitation goes on, the transmitted light becomes orange, and even red. But the particles of sulphur eventually get bigger, and then give a less pure blue in the lateral direction. We shall have more than enough to occupy us if we confine our attention to the earlier stages, when the particles are small compared with the waves of light. ‘ A very important property of the scattered light is its polarisation. The vibrations of the scattered light as you have seen it, viewed laterally in the horizontal plane, are almost wholly up and down. No light is emitted which vibrates in the horizontal plane. It is easy for individual observers to verify this with a Nicol’s prism held to the eye, but this direct method unfortunately does not lend itself to public demonstration. We may, however, use polarised light to begin with, and you can then observe that if the polar- ising Nicol is set so as to transmit up and down vibrations, these are abundantly scattered towards you by the small particles. As I turn the polar- ising Nicol through. a right angle, you will see that the light scattered towards you is extin- guished. The polarisation of light scattered by the sulphur particles is one of the most conclusive reasons for considering it to be an analogue of the blue light of the sky, for the latter shows a larisation of exactly the same kind when exam- ined at right angles to the sun. _A cloud of small particles of any kind is capable of producing these effects, the essential condition being that the individual particles should be of small dimensions compared with the wave-length of light, so that at a given moment the vibration at a given particle may be regarded as having a definite phase. In this case it was shown by my father that the shorter (blue) waves are of neces- sity more scattered than the longer ones (red); thus the scattered light is bluer than the original. This conclusion can be justified in detail whether we adopt the elastic solid theory, or the electro- magnetic theory of the nature of light, but it is also deducible from the general theory of dimen- sions, without erftering upon any details of the nature of light beyond its characterisation by the wave-length. An alternative theory which still sometimes shows its head attributes the colour of the sky to a blueness of the air, regarded as an absorptive medium. Such blueness is referred to the presence of ozone, and appeal is made to the undoubted fact that a sufficiently thick layer of ozone shows a blue colour by absorption. This theory gives no account of why the sky light is polarised, or indeed of why there is any light in the clear sky at all. Further, its fundamental postulate that the NO. 2645, VOL. 105] air is blue by transmission is contrary to observa- tion. The setting sun is seen through a greater thickness of air than the midday sun. According to the theory under discussion, the setting sun ought to be the bluer of the two, which everyone knows it is not. No doubt the presence of ozone tends to make the air blue by transmission. But this effect is more than compensated by the lateral leakage (scattering) of blue light from the beam, which makes the transmitted light yellow. Dusty Air and Pure Air. If it be conceded that the blue sky is due to scattering by small particles, we are confronted with the question: Of what nature are these par- ticles? At the time of my father’s early investiga- tions (1871) this was left open, though they were regarded as extraneous to the air itself. In 1899 he returned to the subject, and considered the matter from the point of view of what was lost by the original beam by lateral leakage (scattering), which simulates the effect of absorption. He then found that the air itself, regarded as an assem- blage of small particles (molecules of oxygen and nitrogen), would have an apparent absorbing power not much less than that actually deduced by observations of the sun at different altitudes. The inference was that the air itself was capable | of accounting for much, if not all, of the scatter- ing which is observed in the blue sky; in fact, that the molecules of air are the small particles in question. When a beam of sunlight enters a room through a small aperture in the shutter, its course is readily traced by the brightly illuminated motes in the air. Prof. Tyndall, working in this institu- tion, devoted much attention to the nature of these motes, and the methods: by which they may be got rid of. His results may be consulted in his fascinating essay on “Floating Matter.” One way of getting rid of the motes is to filter the air through cotton-wool. We have here one of Tyndall’s own experimental tubes. The electric beam passes axially along it, and is concentrated to a focus about the middle of its length. Its track is conspicuous. If now we displace the air originally in the tube by filtered air, you see that the cone of light fades into invisibility. Another of Tyndall’s experiments was merely to place a spirit lamp or Bunsen burner under the beam. Since most of the dust particles are com- bustible, the gases rising from the flame are free from them. As you now see, dark rifts appear in the beam where the uprising stream of dust-free gases traverses it. Tyndall, on the strength of these experiments, stated without qualification that dust-free air does not scatter light, but my father’s views and theory lead clearly to the conclusion that it does. But when I asked him what he thought about the feasi- bility of detecting it by a laboratory experiment, he was not very sanguine of success. It seemed worth while, however, to make the attempt, and I came to the conclusion that the difficulty was not 586 NATURE [JuLy 8, 1920 so much in the faintness of the effect to be looked for as in the avoidance of stray light which came into competition with it. The essential thing 1s to get a perfectly black background against which the beam (viewed transversely) can be observed. We cannot get this with a vessel like Tyndall’s tube just used. It is necessary to have what may be called a black cave, and to view the beam as it crosses in front of the mouth of the cave, the latter forming the background. If the cave is deep enough, there is no limit to the blackness attainable. The great sensitiveness of the well- rested eye, or the photographic plate, can then be brought to bear, and the track of the beam can be well seen, however carefully the dust is removed. Some persons have been inclined to question whether the dust is removed completely in these ‘ experiments. As a matter of fact, this is not where the difficulty lies at all. Dust so fine as to be very difficult of filtration is an arm-chair con- ception, not encountered in practical experiment- ing. An enormous multiplication of the length and tightness of the cotton-wool filter makes no difference at all, a filtér of modest dimensions doing all there is to do. The dust particles which are originally present in the air, near the ground or in a room, -are large, being in some cases individually visible to the naked eye; thus they do not fulfil the condition for scattering a preponderance of blue light. The molecules of air are, of course, amply small enough, and the band of light seen stretching across the mouth of the dark cave is, to my eyes at least, of a full blue colour. In exhibiting the effect to individual friends (and unfortunately it is not bright enough to be shown to an audience), I have been surprised and somewhat disconcerted to find that they do not all see it blue as I do, but some, for example, describe it as lavender. This is undoubtedly due to a peculiarity of colour-vision where faint lights are concerned. The ultimate test is the spectroscope. Photographs of the scattered light taken with this instrument clearly show that the maximum of intensity is shifted towards the blue, as compared with the original exciting light. Polarisation of Light Scattered by Pure Air. A very important point to examine in connection with the scattered light is its state of polarisation. Visual examination with a Nicol’s prism soon showed that the polarisation was very nearly com- plete. For closer examination I had recourse to photography. It may perhaps be thought an easier and more effective plan to look at a pheno- menon than to photograph it, and no doubt it is so in many cases: not, however, where the light is very faint, but admits of long exposure. It has long been recognised that photographs of the nebulee will show much more than can be detected visually by the keenest and most discriminating eye. In this work on the scattering of light, I have found it positively less trouble to take a photograph than to make a visual observation, NO. 2645, VOL. 105] even when the latter was feasible. The time required to rest the eye in darkness and the effort _ of attention required in observing a faint effect cost the experimenter more than the exposure and development of a plate. When the scattered beam in pure air is photo- graphed, with a double image prism of Iceland spar mounted over the photographic lens, it is found that the polarisation is nearly complete, but not absolutely so. However carefully the instrumental adjustments are made and the air filtered, I have found that there is a slight residual polarisation indicating vibra- tions parallel to the direction of the original beam. The intensity of this residual polarisation, in what may be called for convenience the wrong direction, is about 4 per cent. of the whole. Now, as the — theory shows, there are two causes to which failure of complete polarisation may be attributed. — One, which we may dismiss in this case, is that the particles are not small enough. Another is that they are not spherical—that is to say, it is not a matter of indifference which way they are presented to the primary beam. The latter alternative may be illustrated by considering an extreme case—namely, what we may call a needle- like molecule, capable of vibrating only in one — direction fixed within it. Evidently such a tnaleh: cule when obliquely situated will have a com- ponent vibration parallel to the direction of the incident light. gee From the experimental fact that there is such a component we may. infer that the molecules of | air are not in the optical sense spherical. Experi- ments on various gases have shown a character- istic departure from complete polarisation, differ- — ent for each gas. Much effort has been spent on — determining the exact amount for each, and it is © hoped that the numbers obtained will form valu- — able material in the future for investigating the structure of atoms and molecules. Polarisation of the Night Sky. . We have seen that the polarisation of the day-- light sky is one of the most conclusive proofs that its light is due to scattering by small particles. What of the sky at night? Some of you will perhaps be inclined to reply that the sky at night is dark, and that the question whether its light is polarised does not arise. It is, however, by no means the case that the sky on a clear night is absolutely dark, as anyone may readily prove by holding his hand with outstretched fingers against the sky. The fingers will appear dark against the sky as a luminous background. The light is no doubt very faint, but I thought it would be practicable to test whether it was appreciably polarised or not. For this purpose what is called a Savart polariscope was used. Time will not allow us to consider the rather complex theory of this apparatus; it must suffice to say that if the light which falls upon it contains even a small part which is polarised, bands alter- nately bright and dark are produced, which further show colour due to the composite nature JuLy 8, 1920] NATURE 587 of white light. These bands are clearest when the incident light is completely polarised, as you now see them projected on the screen. But they can still be seen when the polarisation is but slight. I will illustrate this by removing the polarising Nicol which I have been using, and substituting a single glass plate, through which the incident light passes. If I incline this plate so as to polarise a small fraction of the light, you see the bands, faint but sufficiently distinct. In examin- ing the light of the night sky, a photographic plate is substituted for the paper screen I have been using to-night, and the apparatus is designed for the utmost economy of light. With two hours’ exposure a definite image of the sky was obtained, with the stars superposed upon it. The Savart bands could be seen, but they were very faint compared with what. would have been observed with an equally good image of the daylight sky. The part of the sky examined was near the pole, and therefore nearly at right angles to the sun. If, as seemed possible, the night sky derived its light from an attenuated atmosphere so high as to be outside the earth’s shadow, we should expect it to show the same polarisation as the day sky. Since it does not do so, we must attribute the light at night to some different origin. I was fortunate in being able to interest Prof. Hale in this matter while he was on a visit to England, and as a result Mr. Babcock repeated the observations in a modified form at the Mount Wilson Observatory in California. The traces of seyeruiniss which he obtained in that clear atmo- phere were even less than what I got in England. Ozone, and the Limit of the Solar Spectrum. Although, as we have seen, the idea that the blue colour of the sky is due to any action of ozone cannot be admitted, yet there are points of great optical interest connected with the presence of this gas in the atmosphere. We may now turn to the consideration of some of these. It is of course well known that when the solar spectrum is formed by a prism of quartz or by a grating, the spectrum can be observed to extend beyond its visible limit in the violet into the region called ultra-violet. When, however, we examine the spectrum of an electric arc (and for this purpose an iron arc is particularly suitable), the extension is observed to be very much greater than in the solar spectrum. This is not because the sun does not emit any rays of the kind in question, but because the earth’s atmosphere will not allow them to pass through so as to reach us at the earth’s surface. There are many reasons for feeling sure that this is the true explanation, but one of the simplest will here suffice. When the sun is near the horizon, so that the rays pass obliquely through the earth’s atmosphere, and consequently have to traverse a thicker absorbing layer, the extent of the ultra-violet spectrum is found to be even less than when the sun is high and less air is traversed by the rays. This suffi- ciently proves the point. It has long been suspected that ozone in the NO. 2645, VOL. 105 | atmosphere is the effective cause of this absorption of the ultra-violet rays. The most important con- stituents of air, oxygen, and nitrogen do not appreciably absorb at the point where the solar spectrum ends, nor do the constituents of second- ary importance, carbonic acid, water-vapour, and argon. We must therefore look to some rare constituent of air which is very opaque to this region of the spectrum. Ozone possesses this opacity, as I shall now show you. So far as I know it has not been attempted to show this before to an audience, but I think you will be able to see it without difficulty. As a source of light an iron arc is used, and the lenses and prism employed in forming the spectrum are of quartz. I allow the spectrum to fall on a piece of paper, and you see the usual succession of colours, red, yellow, green, blue, and violet, forming a comparatively narrow rainbow-like band. Beyond the violet all appears dark, the eye being insensitive to the ultra-violet rays. If now I substitute for the paper a screen of barium platinocyanide® (of the kind used in X-ray work), we see an immense extension of the spectrum beyond the violet. The screen has the property of transforming the ultra- violet rays, which the eye cannot detect, into green rays which are readily visible. Thus beyond the violet region we see green, which is, of course, in no way to be confused with the original green which was present in the source, and appears in its normal position in the spectrum, on the other side of the blue-violet. I interpose a thin sheet of ordinary glass, and the greater part of this extension of the spectrum which we get on the fluorescent screen disappears. What I want specially to show you, however, is that a thin layer of ozone, much too thin to have any per- ceptible colour, will have the same effect. There is a glass tube, about 6 in. long and ? in. in diameter, situated between the quartz lantern con- denser and the slit, when the beam is parallel, and the walls of the tube are projected as two thin transverse lines on the slit, dividing the spec- trum into thin horizontal strips, one over the other. The light constituting the middle strip has traversed the tube, but the light constituting the upper and lower strip has traversed the open air above and below the tube. A stream of oxygen passes” through a Siemens ozone generator and enters the middle of the observation tube, stream- ing out at the two ends. While the ozone gener- ator is not excited, the middle strip of the spec- trum is similar to the comparison strips above and below. If the induction coil is turned on so that ozone passes into the tube, you see that in a few seconds the greater part of the ultra-violet spec- trum fades out from the middle strip, which con- trasts sharply with the upper and lower ones. When the coil is turned off, the ozone is rapidly blown out by unozonised oxygen, and the original state of things restored. It must be remembered that the ¢ ozone used in this experiment is extremely dilute, probably only a fraction of 1 per cent. of the oxygen in the tube. " 2 Kindly lent by Messrs. Watson. 588 NATURE [JuLty 8, 1920 Yet it interposes an impassable obstacle to the | ultra-violet rays, at least to those of shorter wave- length than about 2900 angstroms. It cuts off the iron spectrum at about the same point where the solar spectrum ends. Speaking roughly and generally, it may be said that glass is somewhat more opaque than ozone—t.e. that with diminish- ing wave-length the limit of transmission is reached somewhat sooner. To make a statement of this kind quite definite the thickness must of course be specified. Sir William Huggins devoted a great deal of attention to the spectra of the sun and stars in the extreme ultra-violet region, using for the pur- pose a reflecting telescope, and prisms and lenses made of quartz or Iceland spar. In this way the absorption of a glass objective was avoided. He noticed in 1890 that the spectrum of Sirius showed a number of bands near the extreme limit of atmo- spheric transmission, the bands tailing off into complete absorption. These bands were observed and discussed by other authors, but no definite conclusion was reached as to their origin until 1917, when the matter was taken up by my colleague, Prof. Fowler, and myself. Our interest was stimulated by an excellent photograph of the bands, taken at Edinburgh Observatory under Prof. Sampson’s direction, which I show on the screen. We found that the same bands were present in the solar spectrum. It may seem strange that this had not been observed long ago, considering how closely the solar spectrum has been scrutinised for more than a generation. As a matter of fact this is one of the cases where a powerful instru- ment is a positive disadvantage. The bands are diffuse, and under high dispersion they are un- recognisable. In any case, they are less con- spicuous than in the spectrum of Sirius, because in the sun numerous metallic lines are superposed upon them and distract the eye. Now the position and general aspect of these bands suggested that they were connected with the absorption which terminates the spectrum. This led us to suspect that they were due to ozone, and the suspicion was readily confirmed by experi- ment. Burning magnesium ribbon gives a con- venient source of continuous spectrum in the ultra-violet region. Interposing a long tube con- taining ozone between the burning magnesium and the slit, a series of bands was photographed which exactly corresponded to those photographed in the solar spectrum with the same instrument, as you will see in the slide shown. Absence of Ozone near the Ground, We are then driven to the conclusion that the absence of short waves from the spectra of the sun and stars is due to absorption by terrestrial ozone. But it was not thought desirable to let the matter rest there. It is true that many attempts had been made to determine the (no doubt very small) quantity of ozone in air by chemical means, but with very conflicting results, because other constituents of air, such as oxides of nitrogen, are liable to produce reactions not unlike those of ozone. It seemed more satisfactory to test the absorbing power of air near the ground for ultra-violet rays, to which ozone is so opaque. I used for this purpose a mercury vapour lamp in a quartz vessel, which is a powerful source of ultra-violet rays, and observed its spectrum four miles away, so that the mass of air intervening was as great as that between the midday summer sun and the top of the Peak of Teneriffe, from which observations of the extent of the solar spec- trum have been made. The result was to show that the mercury lamp spectrum was by no means stopped when the solar spectrum stops, but that it extended to the region where ozone is most opaque. There is a strong mercury line (wave- length 2536) at about this point which was dis- tinctly photographed. Its intensity was of course a good deal reduced relative to the visible spec- trum by atmospheric scattering. But there was no evidence whatever of ozone absorption, = What conclusion can we draw? Evidently that the absorbent layer of ozone in the air is high up, and that there is little or none near the ground. It may seem at first sight that this thin and in- accessible layer of ozone, which we have learned of by a chain of reasoning not less conclusive than direct observation, is a matter of little importance to man and his welfare. There could be no greater mistake. It acts as a screen to protect us from the ultra-violet rays of the sun, which without such a protection would probably be fatal to our eyesight: at least if one may judge from the painful results of even a short exposure to such rays, which those who have experienced it are not likely to forget. Rae The Future of the Iron and Steel Industry in Lorraine. By Pror. H. C. H. Carpenter, F.R.S. EQERING the spring of last year two Commis- sions were appointed by the Minister of Munitions to visit and report upon certain steel- producing areas in Western Europe. One of them visited the steel works in Lorraine and certain parts of the Saar Valley, the other journeying to the occupied areas of Germany, Luxemburg, and certain parts of France and Belgium. The NO. 2645, VOL. 105 | former was under the charge of Sir William Jones, and included Messrs. Percy Cooper, Row- land Harding, and Cosmo Johns, while the latter was entrusted to Dr. F. H. Hatch, who had with him Messrs. L. Ennis, James Henderson, and Richard Mather. The Commissions were absent about three weeks. The terms of reference to them were the same and were to ascertain :— ane eee OT a a now been made public. _ tN i a France’s ore reserves. tons. JuLy 8, 1920] NATURE 589 (a) The character and extent of the technical and other developments which had taken place during the war, with special reference to the steps taken for the development of munitions output. 3 The present conditien of plant and machinery. c) The prospects of these areas either as com- titors with or markets for British industries. (d) The developments in fuel economy in the steel trades of these areas. _ The reports furnished by the Commissions were printed in the first instance as confidential docu- ments by the Ministry of Munitions, but have That of the Commission which visited Lorraine and the Saar Valley is the more complete and interesting in that it throws light on the possibilities of development of the iron- and steel-producing area, which, as a result of the war and the Peace Treaty, has passed from _ German to French ownership. The view of the Commission is that the acquisi- tion by the French of these areas should be of advantage to British industries on the whole, and that while France may become a competitor with Britain in so far as her surplus steel production is concerned, taking the place of Germany to some extent, it will not be until the destroyed works have been reconstructed and full production has been reached in a period which it estimates at from three to five years. As a result of the war, France has replaced Germany as the possessor of the largest iron-ore supplies in Europe, her reserves having been increased by more than 2,000,000,000 tons, making them now about four times those of Germany. Before the war they were approxi- mately the same. Whereas France’s production of pig iron in 1913 was about 5,000,000 tons, with her new pos- sessions in Lorraine and the Saar Valley she is in a position to produce 11,000,000 tons annually. Prior to the war German steel makers frequently complained of the difficulty of obtaining adequate supplies of foreign ores, and this is regarded by many as one of the chief causes of the war, since they hoped thereby to obtain possession of The Commission states whereas in 1913 Germany produced that _ 27,000,000, and France 21,000,000, tons of iron ore, it estimates future production to be in the ratio of Germany 7,000,000 to France 42,000,000 It would appear that outside France Germany can expect to obtain ore only from Sweden or Spain, but as both these countries are actively developing their steel industries they will probably not have very much to spare. With regard to coal, however, France’s posi- tion is by no means so satisfactory. Her pre-war production was about 40,000,000 tons, and her consumption 60,000,000 tons, the balance being obtained from Great Britain, Belgium, and Germany. The control by France of the coal of the Saar Valley area is estimated to enable her to produce twice the tonnage obtained from the Valenciennes district. This would mean an addition of 17,000,000 tons to the annual output, which nearly NO. 2645, VOL. 105] . meets the deficit. The Commission states, how- ever, that the ideal of the French iron and steel makers in the Lorraine area at the present time is that means should be devised whereby a re- ciprocal business may be done with Great Britain by their supplying basic pig iron in exchange for furnace coke or coking coal. If the anticipated output of oven coke in this country is realised there should be some to spare, but the difficulties of ‘transport, transhipment, etc., and the resultant breakage are serious factors to be considered. Possibly the solution of the present problem may be found in the erection of coke ovens in Lorraine close to the furnaces, and in the production of coke on the spot from a mixture of Saar coal and Durham coking coal. The supply of. the latter cannot take place until better and cheaper means of transport are available. The Commission states that France dreads the present position of dependence upon Germany for coke supplies, since, although the Peace Treaty gives her control of the Saar Valley coal- field for, at any rate, fifteen years, the fact ‘remains that under existing conditions the works must have coal or coke from Westphalia for their blast furnaces. The coke obtained from Saar coal is apparently unsatisfactory, so that so long as this position continues French industry will remain to a great extent at the mercy of the Germans, a position the French are, naturally, most anxious to avoid. It is true that Germany will want iron ore from Lorraine, but she will not be so entirely dependent upon this one source of supply as the Lorraine works will be upon Ger: many for coke, unless some means are provided to enable them to obtain coke from elsewhere or to produce what they need from Saar coal and imported coking coal. Various schemes for improved transport are under contemplation by France. The construction of a canal to Dunkirk from the Briey district known as the ‘‘ Canal du Nord et de l’Est’’ has been under consideration for a long time. This would take at least five years to complete, and is not generally favoured by the French steel makers in Lorraine owing to the enormous cost of con- struction and the great difficulties to be overcome in cutting it through the densely populated indus- trial areas of Northern France. The scheme most favoured is that known as the canalisation of the Moselle from Coblenz to Thionville and thence to Metz, coupled with free navigation of the Rhine to Rotterdam or by canal from the Rhine to Antwerp via Maastricht. Either of these schemes, it is considered, would be much cheaper and more quickly operative than the canal to Dunkirk. The estimate of the cost of the Moselle Canal scheme would be between 15,000,000l. and 20,000,000l., and it is calculated that the con- struction could be completed in three years. Plans for this scheme are in the hands of the French authorities. The strong feeling in favour of this scheme to enable reciprocal business to be done with Great Britain is accentuated by the treatment 590 NATURE [Jury 8, 1920 accorded to the Lorraine steel works by Germany in the matter of coke supplies, since the Germans have failed to carry out their obligations under the terms of the Peace Treaty, and have delivered only about one-third of the tonnage promised, not- withstanding the fact that there are large stores of furnace coke in Westphalia. Since Great Britain has been short of basic pig iron for a long time, and there is every prospect of the shortage continuing, some such reciprocal arrangement as that put forward might be of advantage to both countries. The Commission states that there is no doubt that economy in fuel. consumption is very fully effected, owing to the absence of cheap and suit- able fuel and the dependence of the works upon Westphalian coke. All the waste heat is utilised at every works. The blast-furnace gas is suitably cleaned and fully absorbed. The works at Homé- court may be cited as an instance. Before the war they were producing gooo tons of pig iron and 7000 tons of steel weekly, and they used only 280 tons of coal, all the remaining power being produced from blast-furnace gas. This is quite typical. The molten metal is taken from the blast furnaces to the mixers in the adjacent steel works and the sensible heat thus utilised. A study of the report leaves the impression that the development of the iron- and steel-producing areas in Lorraine which have passed from German to French management presents problems which will call for patient consideration, dispassionate counsel, and scientific treatment, ‘if they are to be surmounted successfully. The "formidable posi- tion which Germany had built up between 1871 and 1914 has been lost to her by the war. It remains to be seen what France will make of the heritage which has passed into her hands. Obituary, WE regret to note that the death of Mr. Jouxn W. W. DryspaLE is recorded in the Engineer for June 25 as having occurred on June 21. Mr. Drysdale was in his seventy-second year, and was one of the founders of the well- known Glasgow firm of Drysdale and Co., Ltd. He finished his education at Glasgow University under Prof. Macquorn Rankine, and thereafter started a small works in conjunction with a fellow- student, Mr. Lewis J. Pirrie, son of Principal Pirrie of Aberdeen. Centrifugal pumps formed their outstanding speciality from the first, and the firm has acquired a wide reputation for its pro- ducts. Mr. Drysdale was a member of the In- at ae of Engineers and Shipbuilders in Scot- and. WE announce with great regret the death, at the Queen Alexandra Military Hospital, Millbank, of SURGEON-GENERAL W. C. GorGas, of the U.S. Army, so well known for his work in combating yellow fever and malaria. NO. 2645, VOL. 105 | Notes. Tue Lord Presidént of the Council, as president of the Committee of Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, has appointed Dr. J. S. Flett, at present Assistant to the Director in Scotland, to be Director of the Geological Survey and Museum. Dr. succeeds Sir Aubrey Strahan, who retires this month. Mr. G. W. Lamplugh, Assistant to the Director in England, also retires. Sir Joun Capman, Mr. W. B. Hardy, and Prof. S. Young have been appointed by an Order in Council members of the Advisory Council to the Committee of the Privy Council for Scientific and Industrial Research. Ir is announced that Sir T. Clifford Allbutt is to be sworn a member of the Privy Council. THE secretaryship of the Royal Irish Academy, vacant through the death of Prof J. A. McClelland, has been filled by the election of Prof. G. H. Carpenter, Tue Barnard medal of Columbia University has been awarded to Prof. Einstein “in recognition of his highly original and fruitful development of the funda- mental cohperts of physics through the application of mathematics.’ Dr. E. Sorvay has been elected an baaaeaeee member of the American Chemical Society. Tue Medical Research Council has recently estab- lished at the Lister Institute of Preventive Medicine a national collection of type cultures from which bio- logists in general, and bacteriologists in particular, may obtain authentic strains of recognised bacteria — Flett | Vdd Hs and protozoa for use in scientific work. The scheme — _ is under the general direction of Dr. J. C. G. Leding- x ham, while Dr. R. St. John Brooks has been appointed to the post of curator of the collection and Miss Mabel] Rhodes to that of assistant curator. It is proposed to collect and maintain bacterial strains - human,, from all departments of bacteriology, veterinary, and economic, and already considerable work has been done towards the formation of a repre- sentative collection on these lines. The efforts of the staff are, however, at present particularly directed towards the securing of fully authenticated strains responsible for or associated with disease in man and animals. The bureau proposes to supply cul- tures on demand to all workers at home and abroad, and, as a rule, a nominal charge per culture will be made to defray postage and media. identification and maintenance should be accompanied by particulars as to source, date of isolation, etc. In due course a catalogue will be prepared for publica- — tion. In Nature of January 1 last an account was given of the Cawthron Institute of New Zealand, founded for the furtherance of scientific research in relation to . agriculture and other industries. The scope of the institute has since been extended by the establish- ment of a biological department, of which Dr. R. J. Tillyard, the eminent Australian entomologist, hitherto Strains sent for * j =. - y. Juty 8, 1920] NATURE 591 | fellow of Sydney University, has been ap- _ pointed chief. He will be assisted by Miss K. M. Curtis __ as mycologist and Mr. A. Philpott as assistant entomo- _ logist. We understand that members of the scientific _ staff of the institute will have full freedom as to _ research and publication. € _ A Committee, composed of the following members, - has been appointed by the Ministry of Health to con- _ sider and report on the legislative and administrative measures necessary to secure adequate protection for the health of the people in connection with the slaughter of animals and the distribution of meat for _ human consumption in England and Wales :—Sir __H. C. Monro (chairman), Mr. W. G. R. Boys, Mr. __R. B. Cross, Mr. J. Edwards, Dr. W. J. Howarth, - Dr. A. W. J. MacFadden, Mr. T. Masheter, Mr. _.A. W. Monro, Mr. T. Parker, Mr. R. J. Robinson, and Mr. P. Taylor. Mr. H. F. O. Jerram is the _ secretary of the Committee, and communications _ should be addressed to him at the Ministry of Health, _ Whitehall, S.W.r. It was stated by Mr. Bonar Law in the House of Commons on Monday last, with reference to the question of scientific war inventions, that the Lord President of the Council is about to appoint an inter-Departmental Committee with the following terms of reference :—(1) To consider the methods of _ dealing with inventions made by workers aided or _- Maintained from public funds, whether such workers _ -be engaged (a) as research workers or (b) in some _ other technical capacity, so as to give a fair reward to the inventor and thus encourage further effort, to _ secure the utilisation in industry of suitable inven- _ tions, and to protect the national interest; and (2) to _ outline a course of procedure in respect of inventions arising out of State-aided or supported work, which shall further these aims and be suitable for adoption by all Government Departments concerned. we he RS _ A SPECIAL meeting of the Réntgen Society is to be held at University College, Gower Street, at 9 o’clock ‘on Thursday evening, July 15, when an address will _ be delivered by Dr. W. D. Coolidge, of the Research Laboratories of the General Electric Co., Schenectady, _ New York. An invitation to the meeting is given to the members of other scientific and medical societies. _ A FREE public lecture on ‘Oil Storage, Transport, and Distribution’’ is to be delivered by Mr. H. _ Barringer at 6 o’clock on July 14 in the Canada _ Building, Crystal Palace, under the auspices of the Institution of Petroleum Technologists. The institu- tion has also arranged for the delivery of four lec- tures, as follow, in September, the actual dates for which will be announced later: ‘Oil Prospecting,” Mr. G. Howell; “Petroleum Refining,’ Dr. A. E. Dunstan; “ Utilisation of Volatile Oils,’ Dr. W. R. Ormanby, and “Utilisation of Heavy Oils,” Prof. J. S. S. Brame. . 3 THE annual Oxford Ophthalmological Congress will take place in the. Department of Human Anatomy in the University Museum, Oxford, on July 15 and 16. Among the promised communications are the follow- ing: The Doyne memorial lecture, by F. R. Cross, NO. 2645, VOL. 105] — on ‘“‘The Nerve Paths and Centres concerned with Sight”: A. S. Percival, ‘‘Light Sense”; Dr. Van ‘der Hoeve, ‘Eye Symptoms in Tuberose Sclerosis of the Brain"’; Dr. L. C. Peter and others, ‘‘ Perimetric Methods’’; M. Barton, ‘“‘Examination of the Eyes of Pit Ponies, particularly with reference to Miners’ Nystagmus’’; A. H. Thompson, ‘ Physiological and Glaucoma Cups’; R. D. Batten, ‘‘ Premonitory Symptoms of Glaucoma’’; and Dr. L. Sambon, “Ancient Eye Instruments.’’ Tue Research Association for the Silk Industry has been approved by the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research as complying with the conditions laid down in the Government scheme for the en- couragement of industrial research. The.secretary of the committee engaged in the establishment of this association is Mr. A. B. Ball, the Silk Association of Great Britain and Ireland, Kingsway House, Kingsway, W.C.z2. THE jubilee of the American Fisheries Society will be celebrated at Ottawa on September 20-22 next. In connection with the meeting prizes will be offered for papers on the following subjects: Advance in practical fish cultural work; biological work connected with fish problems in general; and the solution of problems affecting commercial fisheries work. The competitive essays should be received by, at latest, August 20. Further information can be obtained from the executive secretary, Prof. R. C. Osburn, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio. A PROPOSAL is on foot by the Swedish Linnean Society to restore the old botanic garden at Upsala, together with the house in it, the former residence of Carl von Linné, and subscriptions towards this object are solicited. Particulars of the suggested memorial can be obtained from the General Secretary of the Linnean Society of London, Burlington House, W.1, and donations sent to him or direct to the Swedish Linnean Society at Upsala. ArcuirEcts, timber merchants, firms engaged in the building and furniture trades, railway companies, and, in fact, all users and consumers of wood, paper, and other forest products, should visit the British Empire Timber Exhibition, which is open to the public at the Holland Park Skating Rink, London, until July 17. The exhibition has been organised to display the forest wealth of the British Empire. Before the war the greater part of the immense importations of timber into the United Kingdom, some _ 10,000,000 tons annually, came from foreign countries, and many of these were closed during the war. This necessitated a considerable development of the sources of supply within the Empire and a greater demand on our home forests. The main object of the exhibition is a patriotic one, namely, to show. that our timber requirements can be met in great measure from our Dominions and Colonies, thus extending Imperial trade. The specimens of timber include very many ‘beautiful, valuable, and useful woods, of. which only a few may be mentioned as examples, such as rose- wood, satinwood, mahogany and its various sub- stitutes, teak, greenheart, jarrah, ironwood, and the 592 NATURE [JuLty 8, 1920 numerous cedar woods. There is also a complete set of exhibits demonstrating the various uses to which timbers are put, as floors, panelling, veneers, ply- wood, furniture, and articles of everyday use. Many decorative exhibits are of great interest. The pre- paration of paper-pulp from bamboos is also shown. An exhaustive catalogue of the exhibits has been pre- pared. This gives both the botanical and trade names, the countries of origin, and names of shippers and importers. Each wood is fully described as regards its general characteristics, tension strength, and other useful data. The information in the catalogue has been compiled by the various Forest Departments of the Empire, and has a scientific as well as a com- mercial value. Tue half-yearly report of the Department of Civil Aviation on the progress of civil aviation from October, 1919, to March, 1920, contains many features of general interest. A very detailed survey of the results which have been achieved is given with regard to activities both in the British Empire and in foreign countries. Tabulated figures concerning the operation of air services between England and the Continent show that a_ slow but definite progress has been made. The importance of the International Air Convention is emphasised, and it is satisfactory to note that this Convention has now been signed by all the Allied Powers. The record of activities in foreign countries shows that many attempts are being made to develop commercial flying for both inland and international trade. France and Italy show the most promising results, and both are making efforts to exploit the possibilities of com- mercial aviation in Asia and South America. In late enemy countries many aviation companies have been formed to develop commercial flying, but no actual results have yet been achieved owing to the economic conditions prevailing. The first paragraph of the con- clusion of the report is worthy of quotation as an apt summary of the present position. The Controller- General says :—'‘‘The discovery of a new method of increasing the speed of inter-communication has in the past generally indicated a fresh step in the march of civilisation. In aviation a means of transport has been obtained twice as fast as any other previously existing. The majority of countries which are im- bued with the spirit of progress appear to realise that the future of aviation cannot be neglected, and by various methods, such as the creation of aviation departments, research, subsidies, and the conduct of experimental SeeviC[; are striving to adapt aviation to commerce,’”’ Progress may be somewhat slow under the unsettled conditions which now prevail throughout the world, but there is little doubt that as the general economic situation improves, so will the advance of civil aviation become more rapid. In 1910 Dr. W. Max Miiller was enabled, through the liberality of the Carnegie Institution of Washing- ton, to visit the doomed island of Phila, and to glean the epigraphic material left by the Berlin expedition. His immediate purpose was the decipherment of the famous bilingual inscriptions engraved on the walls of the large court between the first and the second NO. 2645, VOL. 105 | pylons. This was exceedingly difficult, as the sonal, shallow-engraved signs become distinctly visible: only © during the short time of the day when they receive — strong light. The Carnegie Institution has now pub- — lished in a suitable style the result of Dr. Max ~ Miiller’s labours. He gives complete facsimiles, transliterations, and translations of the inscriptions, and a learned introduction adequately reviews the historical information thus collected. The work is in every way creditable to the learned explorer and the Carnegie Institution. In the University of California Publications in | American Archeology and Ethnology (vol. xvi., No. 6) Miss Lucile Hooper gives a valuable account of Shamanism among the Cahuilla Indians, one of the largest surviving tribes in Southern California. At one of their fiestas or annual rites the Shaman first. took a dark substance from his breast; then ‘he reached into the fire with his foot and kicked outa few coals. One of these he picked up; it was about the size of a dollar. He immediately put it into his mouth. I was only a few feet away, and one of the — sparks from his mouth, as he blew, fell on my hand, so I can testify that they were hct. The glow from the coal could be seen on the roof of his mouth. He swallowed it in about a minute. He swallowed three coals in this way.’’ The dancing and singing are part of the rite. One man intended to eat the coals, ‘but his song had not gone right; he had forgotten — part of it, no doubt due to some disturbing influence i among those watching, or perhaps because of some spirit preventing his success. Since his song did not — go right, he could do nothing.’’ Other marvels of a ; similar kind are reported. ‘* Another man saw a dove . walking around; he raised his hands and clapped them together. The ‘dove dropped as though dead, and — blood flowed from its mouth. He then picked it up, ; threw it into the air, and it flew off as though nothing — had happened.’’ The report includes a full account — of the religious and domestic rites practised by the — tribe. Their pottery, which was of an interesting — type, has now disappeared with the use of manufac.) tured articles. : AN interesting report, by Mr. R. S. White, on an outbreak of pellagra amongst Armenian refugees at — Port Said during 1916-17 has been published (Reports — and Notes of the Public Health Laboratories, Cairo, — No. 2, 1919). Much controversy has occurred with regard to the nature of this disease. In the outbreak — ; in question the weight of evidence points entirely to a faulty diet as the causal factor, and the disease wale) eradicated from the camp by correcting this, all other — conditions remaining the same. The diet at the time had an energy-value of about 2000 Calories only, — which is’ very low, the protein amounting to but — 46-48 grams, of which some go per cent. was derived — from vegetable sources and was of low biological value. Maize had no direct causal. relation to the — | disease. No protozoan or bacterial cause was dis-— covered, nor could any connection with biting insects : be found. The results of the inquiry are in accord-— ance with the findings of Goldberger in the United : States. ‘ | | logical Album in three volumes. the generous co-operation of the Belgian Government, ‘a selection of duplicate specimens will be sent to the \ a i : ; ‘ remarkable trating anthropology. It Jury 8, 1920] NATURE 593 Mr. Francis Harper, the assistant biologist of the United States Biological Survey, contributes to _ Natural History, the journal of the American Museum of Natural History, vol. xx., No. 1, an article of interest on the Okefinokee Swamp, which covers nearly seven hundred square miles of the south-eastern part of the State of Georgia. ‘‘It ; has no counterpart anywhere in the world.” Drain- age and the ‘“lumber-man”’ threaten its existence, and unless, the hand of the destroyer can be stayed it is certain that a considerable number of vanishing pirds and beasts will be swept out of existence, this swamp being their last stronghold. In 1918 a society was formed for the purpose of securing the swamp as an educational and scientific reservation, and it is devoutly to be hoped that this aim will be secured; for such areas are of immense value, not only to the people of America, but also to the world of science at large. WE have received from the American Museum of _ Natural History a brief preliminary report on the ‘zoological collections made under its direction in the Belgian Congo territory during the years 1909-15. Of mammals, birds, aid fishes respectively there. are about 6000 specimens, of reptiles and batrachians nearly 5000, and of invertebrates more than 100,000. Material has been obtained for mounted groups of the okapi and*, square-lipped rhinoceros in their natural surroundings. There are also 3800 specimens illus- is anticipated that the scientific papers on the collection will occupy twelve volumes of the Museum Bulletin, and a monograph of the okapi is being prepared for the Memoirs. There will also be a Narrative in two volumes and an Ethno- In consideration of c Congo Museum at Tervueren. Tue Crocker Land Expedition to North-West Green- Jand and Grinnell Land covered a district but little visited previously by naturalists. The mollusca obtained on _ the expedition by Dr. M. C. Tanquary and Mr. W. E. Ekblaw have now been described by Mr. F. C. Baker (Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., vol. xli., 1919, pp. 479- 517, pls. 25-27). No new species are claimed, but the number determined exceeds by four those obtained on the Nares Expedition of 1875-76, when thirty-four were enumerated by the late Mr. E. A. Smith. The more important species of Astarte and Buccinum have been figured, with the detailed sculpturing of the shells of the latter, but the chief interest in the col- lection is the number of species found in high latitudes and the extension of the northward range of several of the species. The same author (tom. cit., pp. 527- 39, figs.) also describes a number of fresh-water mollusca obtained by Prof. Frank Smith from various lakes in Colorado and Alberta. Fifteen species in all are dealt with, of which three are believed to be new. A PRELIMINARY account of the Tasmanian skeleton of Nototherium, to which we referred in last week’s issue (p. 559), was read before the Royal Society of Tasmania on May 10 by Messrs. H. H. Scott and NO. 2645, VOL. 105] _ prophet. Tertiary. C. Lord. The authors assign the specimen to N. Mitchelli, and consider that it was originally provided with a horn on the nose. They regard the Noto- theria as the marsupial analogues of the rhinoceroses, some of them horned, others hornless. THE atmosphere: that surrounds the Revue des "questions scientifiques, which is published at Louvain for the Société scientifique de Bruxelles, permits of the most liberal agnosticism in regard to scientific dogmas. Prof. Pierre Termier, in his address on “Les grands énigmes de la Géologie,’’ delivered in the welcome epoch of recovery at Louvain in 1919 (Revue, vol. xxvii., p. 53, 1920), responds with his accustomed vigour to the invitation of his northern colleagues. His splendid oratory rings through these pages, in which he brings us face to face with the sphinxes that rise in the domain of geological inquiry and raise in the soul of the traveller “des pensées vertigineuses et des réves sans fin.’”? In his desire to show how much remains truly enigmatic, he makes ‘no mention of tentative or even probable explanations, and his hesitating spirit before the evidences of organic evolution seems the pose of the courteous guest rather than the free expression of the For Prof. Termier, in his mere use of language, is a prophet and a power, and he hopes yet to see some secrets wrested from the earth as part of the general movement of humanity towards light and truth. On p. 149 of the same number of the Revue M. P. Teilhard de Chardin, who was present with the late Mr. Dawson at Piltdown, gives an excel- lent account of the human remains that have excited so much controversy, and he assures his readers that when paleontologists come to an agreement it is because they believe loyally and invincibly that their judgment has been based on truth. It is evident that these things still need saying, even in sociétés scien- tifiques, though we may have advanced some way from the scene so bitterly depicted by Barabino in his ** Colombo deriso ’’ at the Council of Salamanca. Tue New York Academy of Sciences has published two more parts of the results of its scientific survey of Porto Rico and the Virgin Islands (vol. i., part 2, and vol. iii., part 1). Porto Rico is largely and essentially a heap of volcanic débris, and Mr. Edwin T. Hodge attempts to unravel its geological history after making a detailed study and map of the Coamo- Guayama district. He also adds some useful notes on its mineral resources and hot springs. The lime- stones inter-stratified with the volcanic tuffs contain numerous fossil shells, which are, unfortunately, pre- served only as impressions, but clearly represent several horizons between the Eocene and Miocene The shells are déscribed in detail, with beautiful illustrations, by Miss Carlotta J. Maury, who makes some interesting remarks on their relation to the molluscs of existing seas. She points out that /most of them are represented by living species which are evidently their descendants in the Antillean seas, but that several of the Tertiary genera have now com- ‘pletely disappeared from the Caribbean region, and exist only in the Pacific Ocean. spread before the Isthmus of Panama arose, and it is The latter must have 594 NATURE [Jury 8, 1920 difficult to understand why they survived only on the western side of this barrier of land. Tue Meteorological Magazine for Jurte deals with the recent disastrous flood at Louth as completely as possible at the. time of going to press, and adds somewhat to the account in Nature of June to (p. 468). .The characteristic features are. given of the hot weather experienced over England during the last week of May, which occasioned the development of numerous thunderstorms, A disturbance, centred over the Bristol Channel on the. morning of May 29, traversed the Midlands during the day. Little or no rain fell on May 29 south of a line passing through Plymouth, -Reading,. and -Lowestoft, and none was observed over the centre and west of Scotland. There was more than an inch of rain over the greater part of Lancashire, the West Riding of Yorkshire, Lincoln- shire, and the east of Nottinghamshire. In Lincoln- shire the rainfall was very severe. At Louth the fall was only 1-42 in., but at Elkington Hall, three miles to the west, the fall was 4-69 in., and of this 4-59 in. fell in three hours. At Hallington, about two miles south, 4-10 in, fell in two hours, when the gauge over- flowed and the exact total fall was lost. Ten miles further south, at Horncastle, 3:95 in. fell in three hours. The magazine states that, according to the Borough Surveyor, the Lud stream, normally 3 ft. wide and 1 ft. deep, yas swollen to a width of 52 yards and a depth -of 50 ft, It appears that the stream was temporarily blocked with débris, and the flood was the result of the sudden breaking down of this obstacle. The periodical has a very suggestive and useful article on the ventilation of instrument shelters by the Director of Armagh Observatory. ‘ The general rainfall for May in Eng- land and Wales was 117 per cent. of the average, in Scotland 164 per cent., and in Ireland 145 per cent. 4HE* report of. the Imperial! Wireless Telegraph Committee (Cmd. 777, price 6d. net) contains an in- teresting review of the capabilities of different systems of wireless transmission for long-distance working, and forms a striking vindication of the powers of the thermionic valve, which it is proposed to employ as the sole means of generating the waves required for the chain of stations 2000 miles apart which are recommended. We admire the courage of the Committee in putting forward: a system which, in its own words, ‘‘departs widely from the general direction of contemporary practice.”’ It admits that ‘‘the objects desired might perhaps be secured by other and more conventional methods, but by none, | in our opinion, not involving an immediate capital ex- penditure and a heavy annual loss which the scientific progress of a few years might well prove to have been unnecessary.’’? Discussing the alternative systems, the Committee dismisses even the latest developments, of ' the spark system. as obsolete. The, high-frequency alternator system it; characterises as “‘costly,, difficult to repair, and as. yet. insufficiently tested in pro- longed operation.’’. The arc «system: is described as ,“‘pre-eminent at. the : present . moment’: among methods of long-range wireless transmission.’’...Arcs., of greater power. than: 250.,kw., ‘however, present. elements of uncertainty, and apparently do not deliver NO. 2645, VOL, 105 | obtainable. irequest. _ .AnotHER. of the useful catalogues .(No..403) of Mr. -F..Edwards, 83 High.Street; Marylebone, W.1, has. — ‘reached.us. ' It consists of descriptions of some seven’ — ‘hundred works relating toCentral.and South America, and should be of interest, to, many. readers-of NATURE. — to the .aerial a greater effective current than those rated at lower powers. Although the valve system cannot show the same degree of accomplished results _ as any of the preceding, the Committee has’ evi- dence of such rapid advances now being made that it’ recommends its adoption without hesitation. It has already been found that a group of three glass valves delivering 2} kw. into the aerial can effect communication over two thousand miles. Silica valves are now designed by means of which, with suitable grouping, 120 kw. will, it is hoped, be delivered into the aerial. Owing to the greater purity of wave-form of valve-generated over are-generated waves, this arrangement should be considerably more effective than a 250-kw. arc, which does not really deliver more than 120 kw. into the aerial. There are several other advantages for valve working claimed se the report which we have not the space to mention ere, wa Oog THE deposition of iron by electrolysis is a method which has lately been employed to a_ considerable extent for the purpose of “building up’? worn and under-gauge parts of both aeroplanes and guns. The work, however, has not been done under proper scien- tific control; and not infrequently defects have mani- fested themselves in use in the iron thus deposited. A paper dealing with some of these was presented by Mr. W. E, Hughes at the recent meeting of the Iron and Steel Institute. In his capacity as chief research ‘chemist to the Electrometallurgical Committee of the Ministry of Munitions, Mr. Hughes had opportunities of making extended observations upon the structure of. the electro-deposited metal: He found that it was liable to contain pinholes, lumps, inclusions of foreign matter, cracks, and ‘‘ quasi-cracks,’? and that a given specimen might present very marked differences of structure. He concludes that these defects may render the iron dangerous and unsuitable for en- gineering purposes, but that they arise from causes which can be largely eliminated by efficient control of the deposition process. It is generally assumed that electrolytic: iron is a very pure product, but, as he shows, this is by no means necessarily the case. Fur- ther, it is usually assumed to be hard, and may indeed be so, though not always. Whether the hardness, when it occurs, is due to included hydrogen is a question which has not yet been settled. Mr. Hughes’s investi- gation has proceeded sufficiently far for him to enter- tain decided doubts about this explanation. ped Messrs. Durau AND Co., Lrp., 34 Margaret Street, — important catalogue — W.1, have just issued an (No. 83) of secondhand books of science in the: departments of ornithology, entomology, general zoology, geology and paleontology, geography, travel, and topography, botany and horticulture. Of the 1256 works listed many are out of print and not easily B .The catalogue can be had free upon Jury 8, 1920] NATURE 595 Our Astronomical Column. ~ COMMENCEMENT OF THE GREAT PERSEID SHOWER OF -Merrors.—The first Perseids probably appear-at the end of June. They have certainly been observed in the first week of July. -The earliest meteor of this ‘shower, which has been doubly observed and the real path of which has been computed, was seen on July 8, 1918, by Mrs. Fiammetta Wilson and Miss A. Grace Cook. This year the moon left the evening sky about July 6, and the sky should be watched for traces of oncoming Perseids. At this time of the year meteors generally increase in numbers, and especially ‘after the middle of July. The Perseids gradually become more abundant, and among the minor displays the chief ones are: 8 Aquarids 338-11 | o Draconids ... 291+60 a Capricornids . 303—11| A Andromedids . 350+51 ' @ Cygnids 292+52]| ¢ Pegasids 332 +10 a Perseids 48+44 | B Cepheids 333+71 a Cygnids 315 +48 Lacertids 334451 _. The radiant point of the Perseids moves N.N.E. as _ follows : — ~ July ‘8 aid Seas bs Sige | 33455 Pie oO. .:.. 36+49 9 43 +573 et, 24 24+ 52 17 «+. 9 54+59 ~ Tue Expanpine Disc or Nova ae: —Dr. Lunt Eaidtuted a paper on this nova to the June meeting of the Royal Astronomical Society which contains 'some interesting calculations on the rate of expan- sion. It was written before the recent Lick measures, which | indicate a mean annual rate of increase of ‘diameter of 1-9’, but he notes that Barnard’s measures ave an increase of 2” in the first six months, so that ‘the rate may be diminishing, _Assuming the displacements of the edges of the - bands in the spectrum to be a measure of the rate of _ expansion of the nova into a planetary nebula, Dr. Lunt found a radial velocity of 1500 km./sec., which would give a diameter of 1/100 light-year in a year, -and would imply a distance of the nova of 1000 light- "years. ar sctin to Van ‘Massien s parallax of. the ring nebula in Lyra (the largest nebula on his list), its diameter is 0-16 light-year. The expanding nova would attain this size in ‘sixteen years if the rate were _ maintained. _ Dr. Lunt notes that in the-nova spectrum there are fine. dark lines close to:the normal positions of the -H and K lines of calcium, which indicate a-motion of approach to the sun of 17 km./sec., exactly the “amount due to the sun’s own motion. A similar ‘feature has been noted in several other stars, and we suggestion made that these lines arise ’ from, of very tenuous calcium vapour at rest in ace. On this view these lines exist in the spectra & ‘most stars, but are hidden by the star’s own lines “unless the latter are shifted by a large radial motion. Tue New Minor Pranet GM.—It will be remem- : there’ that last January Sefior Comas Sola, of Barce- -lona, discovered a new minor planet which was much brighter than most of those discovered in recent years, and was taken for a comet by some observers. object was very well observed for several months, SO. that an accurate determination of the orbit is possible, and there is not much fear of its being lost again, as has happened to many of these little planets. -The discoverer has now given it the name “ Alphonsina,”? in double homage, as he says, to Alphonso X. of _ Spain, who was known as ‘‘ the Savant, af ne to the present king, Alphonso XIII. NO. 2645, VOL. 105 | 3 ‘the laboratory. a part of the aluminium-magnesium-silicon Annual Visitation of the National Physical Laboratory. N the occasion of the visitation of the National Physical Laboratory by the General Board on June 22, a large number of distinguished visitors availed themselves of the opportunity of inspecting ‘The visitors were received by the chairman of the board (Sir Joseph J. Thomson) in the 7-ft. wind channel of the new aeronautics build- ing, and afterwards, visited the various departments of the laboratory, where exhibits illustrative of recent work were on view, The exhibit in the engineering department was noticeable for the large number ot machines for test- ‘ing resistance to shock and to fatigue. The day is past when a simple test in tension is considered to yield sufficient dat&a for structural material, and many other forms of test are now in use. One machine, designed by Dr. B. Haigh, subjects the specimen, by means of an alternating magnetic flux, to a maximum load of +075 ton reversed two thousand times every minute. Another instrument, designed and constructed in the department, tests the endurance of stranded cables passing over pulleys. Among the impact testing machines, many of which were designed and made in the department, mention may be made of one in which both hammer and. anvil are’swung; by this means it is ey i to obtain a striking velocity as high as ft. per second. Machines for measuring t sities limits of materials at high temperatures and for determining the efficiency of chains, gears, etc., were also among the exhibits. In the aeronautics department various wind channels _ were operating, measurements of the performance of air-screws, the effects of aeroplane bodies on screws, and stability tests on bodies being carried out. Ap- paratus for measuring the skin-friction of air passing over thin plates was also exhibited. Amongst the exhibits in the metallurgy ‘department were a number of examples of failures. of steel and alloy articles which had been sent in for investigation. Photomicrographs illustrating sections from these, as well as various sections under the microscope, were _ shown, The representation of the constitution of a series of ternary alloys has never been an easy matter. Three models were exhibited which are designed to overcome this difficulty. They represent parts of the “diagram” for copper-aluminium-zinc alloys and “ dia- ram.’ Considerable improvement has recently been intro- duced into the manufacture of thin-walled refractory tubing for thermo-couple protection and insulation ; the apparatus with which it is made was shown in | Operation... Demonstrations of. the rolling of manganin, cast at the laboratory, into rods prior to wire-drawing were given in the rolling mill. Much valuable work has been done, in conjunction with the electricity department, on this metal,.and it is now possible to produce manganin wire equal to the best pre-war ' material which was imported from Germany. The | . used for measuring the permeability of balloon fabric, -was A modified form of the Shakespeare katharometer, in operation in the » aeronautical chemistry division. The exhibits in the Froude national tank can be divided into three heads. The first dealt with tests -on the trim, the longitudinal stability, and the resist- ance of hulls of flying-boats. The second was.work which was being carried out for Lloyd’s Register in 596 NATURE [Jury 8, 1920 connection with the design of oil-tankers to determine the stresses in the bulkheads of the oil compartments when the ship is pitching. The effect of varying the frequency of the pitch was studied. Thirdly, an apparatus was shown for testing the effects of a screw propeller working behind a ship. If we know the thrust which the screw must develop, and the velocity of the water behind the ship where the screw is working, relative to the velocity of the ship, then the ordinary data can be used to find the dimensions of screw required for a particular service. The object of the experiments is to find out these two factors. The heat division of the physics department exhibited, amongst other things, a method of measur- ing humidity based on the property, shown by dry. cotton, of absorbing moisture at a very high rate. Two similar coils of cotton-covered wire, one of which is coated with cellulose, are wound on to a single bobbin and connected up to the two sides of a Wheatstone bridge. They are dried by being inserted into a tube containing P,O,, a current being passed through them at the same time to ensure complete drying. ° The coils are then drawn out of the drying tube into the atmosphere the humidity of which is to be measured; the cotton on the uncoated wire absorbs moisture with extreme rapidity, which causes a rise in temperature of the wire, thus upsetting the balance of the bridge and deflecting the galvanometer. Another exhibit consisted of a pointolite lamp for calibrating optical pyrometers. The special feature of this instrument is that the tungsten disc had a tungsten-molybdenum couple fused into it, by means of which it was possible to measure the temperature of the disc, In the optics division of the physics department an apparatus was shown for measuring the coefficient of expansion of short specimens. It has been used lately for determining the coefficient of expansion of various glasses, and has given very interesting results. Interferometer tests and methods of measuring refrac- tive indices were also shown. One of the most interesting exhibits in the metro- logy department was a machine which was con- structed to measure accurately to one-millionth of an inch. Slip-gauges are now made accurate to 1/100,000 in., and to test them it is advisable to have a machine which can read to one-tenth of this. The machine is used as a comparator, i.e. it measures the difference between the standard gauge and the one under test. The chief feature of the instrument is the complete absence of a micrometer head. The magnification is obtained partly mechani- cally, but mainly by a tilting mirror, which moves the image of a cross wire over a paper scale, giving a magnification such that a movement of } in. over the scale corresponds to a _ difference in 1/100,000 in. Another machine, for comparing end standards with line standards, can be used for lengths up to a metre. An important point about this instrument is that the two standards under comparison ‘are in the same straight line. A new type of micrometer for measuring the diameter of small balls, rollers, etc., was also shown, in which the readings are made on two parallel circles, one of which drives the other through epi- cyclic gearing; tenths and hundredths of an inch are read on one circle, and thousandths, ten-thousandths, and, by estimation, hundred-thousandths on the other. Both sets of readings are in line with each other, making the instrument very rapid to read. The position of contact is found by means of a small mirror moved by the tail-stock of the instrument. The list of exhibits in the electricity department was NO, 2645, VOL. 105 | length of° large and interesting, but there is only space for — reference to a very few of them. A ‘considerable number dealt with photometry. Others were con- cerned with the temperature coefficient of manganin, with the measurement of frequency, efficiency, amplifying power, and characteristics of electric valves, and with a selenium-cell current regulator. The Carnegie Foundation and Teachers’ Pensions .. | sgh! EACHERS’ pension controversies are not con- fined to England. All our recent discussions of this subject have their counterparts in the United States, but there they are immensely complicated by the lack of co-ordination between the different States of the Union. Great diversity exists between the school pension systems which have been adopted or are under consideration, and no attempt seems to be made to bring them into relation one with another. The universities and colleges (or such of them as are admitted into association), are the special provine of the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, and the fourteenth report of this body con- . tains evidence of work of great value. Begining in. 1905 with an initial benefaction of ten million dollars, the endowment administered by the trustees has been increased by later gifts and accumulated interest to more than twenty millions. The object of the founder : was to provide retiring pensions for teachers in uni- versities, colleges, and technical schools in the United States, Canada, and Newfoundland ‘‘ without regard to race, sex, creed, or colour’’; but the granting of pensions does not by any means represent the whole of the activities of the trustees. To enable them to discharge effectively the duty laid upon them, they have felt compelled to conduct many inquiries and, when necessary, to offer fearless criticisms, these means they have undoubtedlv exercised a power- ful influence on the quality of higher education in America. | During the vear 1918-19 the trustees disbursed. in retiring and widows’ allowances a sum _ of more than eight hundred thousand dollars. But in that vear the old plan of granting such allowances was definitely abandoned in favour of a scheme under which the teacher himself is called uvon to contribute towards the provision for his own retirement. It is of special interest to observe that, at the time when we in this country were adopting for school-teachers a national pension system on a_ non-contributory basis, which many university teachers wish to be extended to themselves, the Carnegie Foundation had come to the conclusion, as a result of thirteen years experience, that a “free pension”? could not be a solu- tion of the problem in a democratic country, but that the system must be contractual and rest upon the co- — operation of the teacher and his college. This method, ~ in the opinion of the trustees, is the only one that is “just, feasible, and permanent.’ To this end they organised a Teachers’ Insurance and Annuity Asso- ciation, in the control of which the teachers them- selves will have real representation, and invited the universities and colleges to adopt pension schemes — based on joint contributions by the teacher and his institution and worked by means of policies issued — by the new association. The trustees continue the system of free pensions for those who were in the service of associated institutions before a certain date, — but for others will content themselves with the pro- 1 Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. Fourteenth Annual Report of the Chairman and of the Treasurer. (New. York, 1919.) —s fo oe ea all “los i Jury 8, 1920] ee ee ae) ae eae __-universit almost ments of it. essential unity of a great profession; by the latter ‘we tend to separate it into parts and hamper the free interchange of teachers between one institution and NATURE 597 vision of disablement allowances and the guarantee of a certain rate of interest on policies issued by the association. We see, therefore, that, through the administration of a great private benefaction, there has been evolved in America a pension system which in general form is not dissimilar from the Federated Superannuation System for Universities and University Colleges in this country. There are, however, important difier- ences. Whereas our federated system’ is in all essen- tials applied uniformly throughout the institutions concerned, the rew system in America is subject to a variety of conditions as to the rate of contribution, the grades of staff admitted, and other qualifications as to length of service and amount of salary. Also, while some institutions make entrance to the scheme compulsory on all members of certain grades of staff, others leave it entirely to the option of the individuals. So long as this lack of uniformity continues, the simplicity of transfer from one institution to another, so valuable a feature of the English system, can scarcely be secured. It is further to be observed that ‘the rate of contribution of the American college is never more than 5 per cent., as compared with the Io per cent. now generally given by the English ; but against this must be put the fact that policies issued by the American Teachers’ Associa- tion are a little more generous in their terms than ‘those of the insurance companies in our federated system. __A particularly useful section of the fourteenth report _of the Foundation is that which deals with current sion problems both in America and in this country. - is here that we are most impressed with the chaotic condition of the pension arrange- its in America as a result of the diversity of the State systems; but we are bound, on the other hand, to confess that our own Fisher scheme, while ad- mitted to be generous, comes in for severe criticism, especially on account of its non-contributory basis and of the alleged weakness of the arguments used _ to support the adoption of a scheme of that character. ‘Indeed, throughout the report the virtues of the contributory plan are urged repeatedly and with great insi , and we cannot dismiss lightly the opinions of an authority occupying the unique position of the Carnegie Foundation. ough perhaps not within espes ll of immediate practical politics, it is legi- timate to conjecture whether would not result from a contributory system of pen- ‘sions applied to the whole of our teaching profession greater advantage ranted to a part than from a non-contributory system recognise the By the former plan we shou __ Those who are concerned in unravelling the knots _ in our own pension systems will find much suggestive material in this and previous reports of the Carnegie _ Foundation. But it is gratifying to feel that without the colossal munificence of a Carnegie we have yet reached a position which, with all its weaknesses, is still in many ways far in advance of that occupied by our Transatlantic cousins. Though we may regret lost opportunities, we realise that in a com- parative sense we are not so badly off as we thought. and we are led to ask ourselves whether, after all, the scheme insvired by Sir William M’Cor- mick’s Committee and designed by our universities in co-operation does not represent the best thing so far done in the matter of teachers’ pensions. In addition to its. achievements in the pensions field, a valuable series of educational reports stands to the credit of the Carnegie Foundation. Under this NO. 2645, VOL. 105] head the papers contained in the fourteenth report on current tendencies in education, on legal educa- tion, and on the training of teachers are worthy of notice, though perhaps not so much for their dis- covery of new ideas as for their clear exposition of accepted principles and their straightforward descrip- tion of the good and the bad in existing practice. National Food Consumption in the United States. pSOF. RAYMOND PEARL has contributed to the Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society (vol. lviii., 1919, p. 182) an instructive article upon the consumption of foodstuffs in America from Igit to 19138. He distinguishes between (1) primary foods, such as plant materials directly consumable by man, or animals not nourished upon primary food- stuffs, and (2) secondary foods, which cover the edible products of animals nourished upon primary food- stuffs. The necessary deductions were made for loss in storage, transit, etc., and for inedible refuse. The Statistics are expressed in terms of metric tons of proteins, carbohydrates, and fats, and also in terms of Calories. Broadly speaking, the salient feature of the analysis is the uniformity of consumption from year to vear. The greatest relative advance (relative, that is, to the increase of population) was in the consumption of fat, the least in the consumption of protein, but the deviations from the line of increasing population are small. Turning to the sources, it appears that 47 per cent. of the protein is derived from primary, and 53 per cent. from secondary, foods. Of fats, 82 per cent. are derived from secondary sources, while 95 per cent. of the carbohydrates come from primary sources. In terms of Calories, 61 per cent. of the intake is from primary foodstuffs. These figures are not greatly different from the British returns analysed by the Food (War) Committee of the Royal Society. We derived 42 per cent. of our protein, 92 per cent. of our fat, and 35 per cent. of our energy from secondary sources. Put otherwise, we get fewer Calories and less protein, but more fat, from animal sources (exclusive of fish, which comes under primary sources in Prof. Pearl’s classification) than the Americans. We should, perhaps, use the past tense in this comparison, since the British data do not refer to existing conditions. Thirty-six per cent. of the American intake of pro- tein is in the form of grain, 26 per cent. in meats, and 20 per went. in dairv products. Of fat, 51 per cent. is furnished by meats, 27 per cent. by dairy products, and 12 per cent. by vegetable oils and nuts. Of carbo- hydrates, 56 per cent. is furnished by grains and 26 per cent. by sugars. Of total energy, 35 per cent. comes from grains, 22 per cent. from meats, 15 per cent. from dairy products, and 13 per cent. from sugars. These four groups contribute 85 per cent. of the total energy value. The effects of the food economy campaign and the food administration in 1917-18 are of interest. The total consumption of food increased, but not in pro- portion to the population; the consumption of meat practically did not increase at all, and the consumption of grain only 1 per cent. The great increases were in the consumption of vegetables, of oils and nuts, and of oleomargarine, amounting respectively to 30 per cent., 29 per cent.,and 116 per cent over the averages of the preceding six years. The increase in the two former groups may have been due to the activity of 598 NATURE [JuLy 8, 1920 the Food Administration in urging the consumption of these commodities to relieve the pressure upon wheat } and animal products. The increased consumption of oleomargarine was no doubt due to a favourable price in comparison with that of butter and lard. Prof. Pearl provides a summary of. daily. consump- stion per ‘“man,” which again brings out the uniformity from year to year. The largest figure is 4361 Calories in 1913-14, and the smallest 4211 in 1916-17. The average figures are: 121 grams of protein, 169 grams of fat, and 542 grams of carbohydrate, yielding 4290 Calories. Assuming that 5 per cent. of protein, 20 per cent. of carbohydrate, and’25 per cent. of fat are lost in the wastage of edible substances, the per capita average of ingested food becomes :—Protein, 114 grams; fat, 127 grams; and carbohydrate, 433 grams, yielding 3424 Calories. These final figures are in good accord with the results of dietetic studies both in America and in England, Prof. Pearl justly remarks that ‘discussions of the minimum protein, fat, and carbohydrate requirements of a nation are in a con- siderable degree academic if they base themselves upon net consumption rather than gross consumption. A considerable excess over any agreed-upon minimum physiological requirements must always be allowed, because there will inevitably be, in fact, a margin between actual gross consumption and net physio- logical ingestion or utilisation.”’ The report is a useful contribution to knowledge. It is to be feared that since the armistice little atten- tion has been devoted to the study of national dietetics in this country. During the war British physiologists made valuable experimental and statistical contribu- tions to the subject; on the statistical side the work of the late Sir William Thompson, and on_ the experimental side that of Prof. Cathcart and his collaborators, deserve special mention. It is to be regretted that there is little prospect of the founda- tions then laid being. built upon; it will be long indeed before the task of feeding the nation ceases to cause anxiety and to merit sciennne plucliaoy: Engineering Research in the U.S.A. 2 ates problem of co-ordinating the interests and activities of the various engineering institutions and societies has been subject to much discussion in this country. In America this problem was largely solved by: the establishment in 1904 of the United Engineering Society, which combined the interests of four founders’ societies, namely, the American Society of Civil Engineers and the American Institutes of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers, Mechanical Engineers, and Electrical Engineers. The. United Engineering Society now numbers some forty thousand members, and its administration comprises three principal departments, namely, the library board, the engineering council, and the engineering foundation. The last-named department is of particular interest, and is directed to the furtherance of research in science and engineering. The engineering foundation was established as a result of a gift of 200,000 dollars by Mr. Ambrose Swasey, this sum being used as the nucleus of a fund the income of which was to be devoted to research or for the advancement in any other manner of the profession of engineering and the good of mankind. This first gift was made in 1914, and in September, 1918, Mr. Swasey added a further sum of 100,000 dollars to the endowment. ~ The donor is an engineer and manufacturer, and president of. the Warner-Swasey Co., of Cleveland, Ohio, a firm manufacturing fine tools and astro- NO. 2645, VOL. 105 | ‘nature. ‘the heat | nomical and other instruments of precision. Mr. Swasey is a member of most of the American en- gineering societies, and of several English scientific societies, including the Royal Astronomical Society. He is the author of a number of papers read before American engineering societies. oe _ For all practical purposes the engineering founda- tion is a professional .trust organised along the lines of the Carnegie, Rockefeller, and Sage foundations. The facilities it provides have heretofore been devoted principally to engineering research, and’ its most notable work has been conducted through co-operation with the National Research Council, which is an organisation of men of science, engineers, and educators brought into being by the National Academy of Science at the request of President Wilson in 1916, and employed largely in the conduct of scientific investigations’ relating. to anti-submarine and other war: problems. seks. + < EDT When the National Research Council was formed the administrators of the engineering foundation made themselves responsible for its financial support for a ‘ 25 perio? of one year, and this brought into successful — co-operation a body of engineering and ‘scientific men — in a comprehensive and practical manner. ay Since July, 1919, the research work undertaken by the foundation has been of a very comprehensive It ‘has included, for’ example, preliminar: researches’ on such subjects as a mew hardness testing machine, the elimination of casting: defects from steel, the uses of cadmium, the uses of alloy steels, Neumann bands in iron and _ steel,’ treatment of carbon’ steel, electrical insulation, and substitute deoxidisers. A sum of 15,000 dollars'a year for a period of two years has been voted for the conduct of research in the fatigue phenomena of metals in the laboratories of the en- gineering experiment station of the University of Illinois. From approximately fifty suggested subjects, the engineering foundation has also selected for in- vestigation: (1) The wear of gears, (2) spray camou- flage for ships, (3) the directive control of wireless — communication, (4) weirs for the measurement of water, (5) the establishment of a testing station. for large water-wheels and other large hydraulic equip- ment, and (6) the mental hygiene of industry. . These investigations are now all in progress or have been completed. Particular attention has been given to research relating to mental hygiene in ~ industry, the objects of the research being to develop or discover methods for adapting psychopathetic — individuals to usefulness in industry. Realising, further, that mental hygiene dealt with only one of the many elements of the industrial fer- sonnel problem, the foundation board, in association with the National Research Council, arranged for — the appointment of a committee representative of — anthropology, psychology, educational relations, indus- — trial relations, engineering, and medicine to consider — means for furthering the study of the problems of — industrial employment. Silty Quite apart from such efforts, the engineering foundation has interested itself-in an attempt to co- ordinate the activities of many of the very numerous societies and associations, some local, some national, — having a bearing on engineering, and to harmonise _ their relations and aims. Up to the present, however, — no active investigational work: along these lines has‘*3 been undertaken. ‘While the foundation maintains the — closest relationship with the divisions of engineering of the United Engineering Society and the National — Research Council, it reserves the right to conduct under its own immediate direction such researches as ‘may. commend ,themselves-to.its membership. | io nd oe ; about the same hardness as that of spruce. Juxny 8) 1920] | NATURE 599 The administration of the engineering foundation . is conducted by sixteen members elected by the United | whom must be Engineering . Society, thirteen _ of I Although finally members of the founder societies. organised only in the early part of 1915, the founda-' tion has become thoroughly established, and is carrying on a most admirable work. A. P. -M. FLEMING. _ African Softwoods for Pulp Production. . By A. H, Unwin,- Late Senior Conservator of Forests, Nigeria. me POUT the year 1907, at the instigation of the late Sir Alfred Jones, an inquiry was addressed to the West African Colonies with regard to the softwoods suitable for paper or pulp production, As a result a list was compiled for the Benin country, which included some twenty species of whitewood. Since that date little or nothing has been done towards the solution of this problem. Nevertheless, much greater knowledge has been obtained of the softwoods of the _ West African Colonies—the Gambia, Sierra Leone, Gold Coast, Nigeria—and of West Africa generally. _ Although baobab (Andansonia digitata) has been t as suitable, it is usually found rather remote from navigable waterways, and in such scattered quantities that it is doubtful if its exploitation will y. On the other hand, the wood of the cotton-tree, riodendron anfractuosum and E, orientale, has been adversely reported upon, but it does not appear that very exhaustive experiments were made with either of these species. The ease of its production, the rapidity of its growth, and the softness of its - wood would seem to commend the cotton-tree for pulp production. The wood of Bombax buonopozense may also be of use. © : Perhaps a more suitable wood will be obtained from | the African maple, Triplochiton Johnsonti and The wood of both these. species is of It is of a similar colour, and the fibres are long. The tree is very valent, its reproduction easy in the proper localities, and its growth rapid. On average - soil the trees reach pulp-wood size within ten years, and nigericum, ‘there are many specimens even in seven years. In certain localities the occurrence of Sterculia Barteriti is such as’ to redden the hill-sides with its flowers in March. The growth of the tree is very rapid, and the wood is fibrous and porous. The tree will attain pulp-wood size in five years. In suitable localities the natural reproduction from mature trees _ is rapidly filling the whole forest. — aeO r Sterculie, such as tomentosa, rhinopetala, and tragacantha, might be used. Of these the last- named appears to be the most suitable. It is also very prevalent, and grows rapidly. The wood of Sterculia rhinopetala may. prove to be a little. hard, but with modern means of pulping it may be possible to use all these species at the same time. | : The quantity of bamboo on the West. Coast of Africa is negligible, though the area of its, distribution, is gradually widening. csi : The Albizzias usually produce in their vounger stages a whitish-yellow softwood. Most species grow very. fast, and would. yield pulp-wood within ten years. The wood shows long fibres. Owing to the prevalence of the tree in the forests, there would be no difficulty’ as to the quantity. The wood of Terminalia superba’ should prove of value, though its brownish tinge mav have to be removed in order to make the best-colouted) | pulp. It is prevalent and its growth is rapid. Another very common tree is Alstonia congensis, NO. 2645, VOL. 105] which is often found in the swamps as well as in the moist forests. Its, growth is very rapid, and it would yield pulp-wood in seven years. Owing to its pre- valence, this softwood with its longish fibre should prove of value. et The wood of Ricinodendron Heudelotti appears to , be suitable, though the colour is dull grey-brown. The tree is very prevalent, and its natural regenera- tion prolific. It reaches pulp-wood size within a period of seven to ten years. Pycanthus kombo is another tree which appears to yield a suitable species of timber.. It is very prevalent, the wood is soft’ and fibrous, and natural reproduction is great. Even the muchdespised Musanga Smithii might on occasion be used to supplement inadequate supplies: of other pulp-wood timbers. Near. the rivers in some districts there is a ‘common tree named Otu, which is plarited by the natives. It yields a soft whitewood which has a longish fibre. With the great shortage of paper-pulp it appears that the utilisation of these West African species of trees should be undertaken as soon as_ possible. Naturally, it will mean a good deal of experimental work,, but with the experience already: gained in Canada and, Norway and Sweden it should be possible to produce pulp below existing cost. Although African labour: is expensive as. compared with Indian or Burman, it has proved itself thoroughly adaptable to training in the use of complicated machinery such as that employed in shipbuilding and in oil- and saw-mills.” With a population of about sixteen millions of people in Nigeria alone, it has been found possible gradually to obtain sufficient men-for a new industry. -Effect of Topography on Precipitation in . Japan. ONSIDERABLE #éattention has been directed recently to the subject of the orographical dis- tribution of rainfall, and results obtained in different ‘places are liable to lead to general deductions, not only independent, if not quite contradictory, but also, on the face of them, improbable, We may instance an alleged connection between Indian monsoon intensity and the extent of local water surfaces, and also M. Mathias’ cartographical demonstration that the increase of precipitation with altitude .is directly dependent on the latitude, at any rate in France, Mr. Carle Salter’s lecture to the Institution of Water Engineers on the relation of rainfall to configuration gave little ground for suspecting either of these possi- bilities. At first sight, Prof. Terada’s contribution in the Journal of the College of Science, Tokyo Imperial University (vol. xli., art. 5), appears to be only a supplement te previous work of Profs. Nakamura and Fujiwhara, but one or two comparatively fresh notes are struck. Prof. Omori had previously found a cor- relation between earthquake frequency in some dis- tricts and precipitation in others. This is. now described by Prof. Terada as a case more of parallelism than of cause and effect, for. he prefers to’ attribute both phenomena to barometric changes rather than to associate the instability of the soil with percolation. His main purpose, however, is ‘to study the effect of the discontinuity of wind velocity ‘on land and sea, and for this purpose he divides Japan ipto six districts, three facing the ocean and three 8 Japan Sea, and. in each, district. chooses two or three stations near the coast. : Mae: ae dee VaR i The three‘ ocean’’ divisions show a marked intrease in rainfall with decreasing Jatitude, but.on the ‘con- 600 NATURE [Juty 8, 1920 tinental side the middle section is the wettest.. More- over, taking the divisions in pairs, there is a marked difference in the comparison. In the northern and ‘central. pairs the ‘‘continental ’’ section is the drier, while in the remaining pair the difference is greater and also reversed in sign. Prof. Terada connects this anomaly with a possible ‘‘centre of action ’’ controlled by the position of the Korean promontory, but it seems to be quite possible that he has overlooked the probable effect of the contour of the land itself. A glance at the map will show that his southernmost “ocean ’’ division is practically outside the main island, which includes the northern and central divi- sions and the greater part of the continental southern division, so that we should naturally expect some sort of anomaly in that region, apart from the fact that the vertebral line of division, which is not far from a meridian in the north, tends to become more nearly a parallel in the south. The author has adopted a good plan in using per- centages instead of totals to prevent undue emphasis being placed on the wettest periods and places. _ W. W. B. Economic Entomology in the Philippines.’ Pe CONSIDERABLE portion of the Bulletin before ; us is the outcome of work undertaken with the definitely economic object of procuring and trans- porting to the battlefield natural enemies of the beetle Anomala orientalis, which, by reason of the havoc wrought in the larval stage on the roots of the sugar- .cane, is a serious pest in the plantations, and was causing heavy losses in the Island of Oahu, Hawaii. It is gratifying to learn that the quest of the entomo- logists was entirely successful, and that through their labours the foe appears to have been vanquished, and thereby all mankind benefited in the saving of. large quantities of one of our most valuable articles of food. The ally which thé entomological staff summoned to the aid of the sugar-planters was the ‘‘ wasp ”’ Scolia manilae. It is perhaps prudent here to indicate that the term ‘‘wasp studies ’’ must not be understood to apply solely to the true Diplopterous wasps, the Vespide; it is used in this publication as a con- venient term including many families of aculeate Hymenoptera other than the bees. _ -Scolia manilae is a small black and yellow wasp that occurs. abundantly in the Philippines. The females possess the power of detecting the presence of certain subterranean beetle grubs, and, having located their victim, dig down. to it and deposit on its ventral surface an egg from which there soon emerges a larva that devours the beetle grub. The plan of campaign was simple. At Los Bafios. quantities of females of Scolia manilae were captured and placed in suitable vessels in which had been placed beetle grubs of appropriate age, and a sprig of foliage moistened with water and honey for the personal benefit of the wasps. Most of the grubs duly received an egg; those so favoured were placed in clay cells which were packed in soil in a tightly closed can, and then shipped to Oahu. Here the Scolie of the next generation emerged and were liberated. They established them- selves with such success and increased so rapidly that they are now more abundant near Honolulu than at their native place, Los Bafios, while the pest 1 “ Philippine Wasp Studies.” Part i,, Description of New Species. Py Part ii., Descriptions of New Species and Life-historv Studies. By F. X. Williams. Report of Work of the Experiment Station of the Hawaian Sugar Planters’ Association: | Entomolozical Series. Bulletin No. 14. Pp. 186+106 figs. (Honolulu, December, 1919.) NO. 2645, VOL. 105| S. A. Rohwer. Anomala orientalis is vanishing so satisfactorily as to cause wonder how the wasp maintains itself. 4 The authors describe and figure twenty-six new species belonging to several different families of ‘““wasps’’; and the bionomics of these and others are narrated with great detail by Dr. Williams. His observations show that many species of these “‘ wasps” are of economic importance in keeping in check the numbers of harmful insects, and suggest that an important line of research is here open to the field- naturalist. From the purely scientific point of view, perhaps the most interesting feature of the Bulletin is the frequency with which instincts and behaviour that are characteristic of the most highly devele social wasps manifest themselves sporadically at an incipient fashion among these solitary species. So. much is this the case that it becomes almost possible to construct a gradually ascending series from the simplest to the most highly svecialised. Commenc with species that differ but little in habits from Ichneumonide, stinging and’ only temporarily para- lysing their victim in order the better to attach their egg, but constructing no nest or burrow any description, we may pass on to those that dig burrows or build nests eithér unaided or in contain tale a few other individuals, and reach the climax in the elaborate domestic arrangements and architecture of our familiar social wasns and hornets. O.H.L. ” ~ é _ Climate of the Netherlands. PELE 4) ‘Eee Royal Netherlands - Meteorological. Insti- tute has recently issued, as publication No. 102, “The Climate of the Netherlands with — the Respect to Air Temperature,” by Dr. Ch. M; A. Hartman. Many years have previous discussion of air Netherlands was undertaken. The stations yield- ing observations only for recent years have been compared with the stations available for longer elapsed since any temperature in the- periods, by which, together with the aid of stations | affording hourly observations, special corrections have ~ been found for each month and for each station required to secure the true temperature from observa- tions at the hours of 8, 2, and 7. At Zwanenburg, situated midway between Amsterdam and Haarlem, — i there is a series of observations from 1743 to 1860, and at De Bilt observations are available from 1849 to 1917.. The annual variation is given for twenty-four years from 1894 to 1917 inclusive at twelve stations; the range of temperature varies with latitude and with an increased distance from the sea.’ Diurnal varia- tion is much affected by the influence of the sea, which suggests the difficulty of obtaining a true mean temperature from a combination of, say, three hours, 8, 2, and 7, and of maintaining the same hours in winter and in summer, but a change of hours is recognised as not practicable. The highest tempera- tures observed are 99° F. and 97° F. at Maestricht respectively on August 4, 1857, and July 28, tart, and g7° F. at Oudenbosch on June 8, 1915. The lowest’ readings are —8° F. at Winterswijk on February 7, 1895, and at February 14, 1895. tures is given for several stations and for all months, and the occurrences of diurnal variations of tempera- ture for each degree Centigrade are tabulated, also the, diurnal range for each of the twenty-four hours. — One of the many tables shows the temperatures which occur ‘each month, with the different directions of — the wind. ° Katwijk-on-Rhine on _ : Frequency of different tempera- x Jury 8, 1920] NATURE 601 The Present Condition of the. Aborigines & . of Central Australia. NFORMATION lately received in this country dis- closes an appalling condition of affairs among the aborigines of the interior of Australia. The whole population is thoroughly polluted with disease, both tubercular and venereal, and the north- eastern tribes are doomed. It is anticipated that another ten years will see the last of such interesting s as the Dieri, Yanntowanta, Ngameni, and _ Nauroworka. This is largely due to contact with the _ lower elements of European and immigrant Asiatic civilisation. Misdirected kindness, however, is also, ‘to some extent, responsible. A liberal supply of Govern- _ ment blankets has been distributed among the tribes; ___ they wear the blankets when working in the sun, and _ then, when thoroughly overheated, sleep on the ground; recently been aggravated by severe drought. pneumonia follows as a natural consequence. Another cause of their disappearance is due to the difficulties attendant on food-supply. The game on which they subsist is killed off or driven away. by the encroach- ment of civilisation. Distress from this cause has The extent of the ravages arising from these various causes may be gauged by the fact that half a century it Was estimated that there were 12,000 rk Aig within 180 miles north and 200 miles east of Adelaide, __ and now there are not more than about 120 in that area. in the early eighties of last century Gason stated that 4 steps were not taken, multiplication of the aborigines would result in* the disappearance of the European population, yet in this same area of which he wrote it is now estimated that at the outside there are not more than 2000. The deplorable condition of the aboriginal populé- _ tion was discovered owing to the fact that during the _ War a number of,expeditions were sent out to Central and Northern Australia in connection with the search _ for minerals for use in munition work. Dr. Herbert _ close contact with the tribes. Taide at the end of the war he endeavoured to arouse w, a Protector of Aborigines in the service of the South Australian Government, who was a member Of several of these expeditions, was then brought into On his return to Ade- the public conscience by a meeting in the Town Hall, had seen. at which he gave an undisguised account of what he As a result sool. has been subscribed, and an equal amount promised by the Government, for the i provision of medical relief. This sum has enabled Dr. __ Basedow to get together a small relief party. His first expedition on this work followed the course of the ~ Strzelecki to Innamincka, thence along the Cooper, _ across the boundary into Queensland. Recrossing the rder, the party visited Cordillo, Cadelga, Ringa- ™murra, and Birdsville, thence following the Diaman- tina to Hergott Springs. One of the severest droughts on record was raging at the time; the heat was terrific—the average temperature was 116°118° F,.— and sand-storms blew for forty-eight hours at a time. No fewer than seven horses were abandoned ex- hhausted along the route from Diamantina to Hergott ings. The condition of the aborigines alons the route is described by Dr. Basedow as “ shocking.’’ Dr. Basedow has recently started on another exnedi- tion. on which he pronoses to proceed along the head of the Australian Bight as far as Eucla, along the Nullarboi Plains to Port Augusta, thence northwards ‘to Oodnadatta. and across ‘the boundary to the MeDonnel Ranges. ~ Sek ; Valuable as is such provision of medical relief as is possible by these expeditions, it is obviously onlv a temporary palliative. One of the most effective of the measures adovted for the assistance of the aborigines, NO. 2645, VOL. 105] whether directly under State protection or not, in the neighbouring State of Western Australia has been the establishment by the Government of a regular medical service. Further, while undesirable Europeans and Asiatics are permitted to mingle without control with the natives, it is inevitable that diseases will continue their ravages unchecked. A movement, which is receiving influential.support, has been set on foot to induce the Government of South Australia to proclaim the north-west corner of the State, including the Mus- grave, Mann, and Tomkinson Ranges, as an absolute reservation. It is hoped that it may also be possible to secure from the Commonwealth and the Western Australian Governments the proclamation of the ad- joining ranges of the Northern Territory and Western Australia as strict reservations. This will probably be the last chance of preserving the Central Australian tribes from complete extinction. . ; E. N. FALvaize. _ University and Educational Intelligence. CaMBRIDGE.—Dr. Shillington Scales has been ap- pointed University lecturer in medical radiology and electrology, and Mr. F. Lavington, Emmanuel College, Girdlers’ lecturer in economics. Mr. J. Chadwick, Gonville and Caius College, has been elected to the Clerk Maxwell scholarship in experimental physics; Mr. H..F. Holden, St. John’s College, to the Benn W. Levy research studentship in biochemistry; and Mr. A. J. Beamish, of Corpus Christi College, to the Wrenbury scholarship in economics. : The Marshall herbarium, comprising 23,000 sheets of British plants contained in -dustproof oak cases, has been bequeathed to the University by the late Rev. E. S. Marshall, a keen and able field botanist, ‘‘ unsurpassed as a collection of the critical flowering plants both in point of the number of interesting things he found and the care and industry he showed in selecting and pressing specimens of them.”’ A EDINBURGH.—The foundation-stone of the new University buildings was laid by the King on Tuesday last, and the Queen accepted the honorary degree of ahiekd. LivERPOOL.—The King, on the recommendation of the Chancellor and Council of the Duchy of Lan- caster, has contributed 100 guineas to the appeal fund. SHEFFIELD.—Dr. W. E. S. Turner has been ap- pointed professor of glass technology, Mr. J. Husband professor of civil engineering, Dr. Mellanby professor of pharmacology, and Mr. R. E. Pleasance demon- strator in pathology. By an inadvertence these appointments were given in Nature of June 24 under the heading ‘ Leeds.” Pror. F. Francis has been appointed Pro-Vice- Chancellor of the University of Bristol in succession to Prof. Lloyd Morgan, who is about to resign the office. ; Dr. O. C. Braptey, principal of the Royal (Diclx) Veterinary College, Edinburgh, has been elected pre- sident of the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons in succession to Mr. J.. McKinna. A scnHoo. of medicine, surgery, and dentistry in connection with the University of Rochester, New York, has received an endowment of 1,800,000l. from the U.S. General Education Board and Mr. G. East- man, of the Eastman Kodak Co. The contribution of the Board is 1,000,000l., and that of Mr. Eastman 800,000. 602 WELORE. [Jury 8, 1920 — Tue Eugenics Education Society has arranged for the holding of a summer school of eugenics and civics at Herne Bay College on July 31-August 14. The inaugural address will be delivered by Prof. A. Dendy on ‘Evolution in Human Progress,’’ and there will be lectures and discussions on heredity, biology, eugenics, and sociology. The address of the society is 11 Lincoln’s Inn Fields, W.C.2. A SUMMER school of civics is to be held, under the auspices of the Civic Education League, at the Technical Institute, High Wycombe, Bucks, on July 31 to August 14. There are to be lectures on maternity and child welfare work, analytical psycho- logy, and reconstruction problems; and courses on civics, sex education, local and central government, and anthropology have been arranged for. Further particulars can be: obtained’ from the Secretary, Summer School of Civics, Leplay House, 65 Belgrave Road, S.W.1. AN important American academic change is an- nounced in the simultaneous resignations of Dr. G. Stanley Hall as president of Clark University and of Dr. Edmund C. Sanford as president of Clark Col- lege, and the appointment of Dr. Wallace W. Atwood as single head of both the University and the college. Dr. Atwood has been professor of physiography at Harvard since 1913, and is at present in the West in charge of a field expedition for the U.S. Geological Survey. In addition to his executive position, he will occupy the chair of regional and physical geography at Clark University. Dr. Stanley Hall is retiring in order that-he may devote his whole time to the completion of several books on psychology which he has had in hand for a considerable period. Dr. Sanford will take the chair of psychology at Clark University, which Dr. Stanley Hall is vacating together with the presidency. WE learn from Science that the following appro- priations have recently been made by the U.S. General Education Board:—TIo the Washington University Medical School, St. Louis: For endowment, 250,000. ; for additional laboratory facilities and equipment, 14,0001. To Yale Medical School: For endowment (towards a total of 600,000l.), 200,000l. To Harvard Medical School: For improved facilities in obstetrics, 60,0001.; for the development of -teaching in psychiatry, 70,oool. _ To Johns Hopkins Medical School: For’development of a new department of pathology (towards a total of 120,000l.), 800ol. From the same source we learn that the Rockefeller Founda- tion has made appropriations as follow:—To Dal- housie University . Medical School, Halifax: For buildings and equipment, 80,o00l.; for endowments, 20,0001. To the Medical Research Foundation of Elisabeth, Queen of the Belgians, Brussels: For general purposes of medical research, 1,000,000 francs. Tue frontier between school and university has recently been the subject of much discussion. The Prime Minister’s Committee on Science recommended that eighteen should be the normal age of entry from secondary schools to the universities, and in making that. recommendation it was supported. by all the witnesses who gave evidence on the subject. The Board of Education, by its efforts to standardise the Second School Examinations, and by watching the advanced courses given in schools, has done much to direct the studies of those who really are in the post- matriculation stage while at school; and the universi- ties are faced, more than ever before, by the problem of how to arrange for students who enter with wide differences of attainment. There is but one solution :. elasticity of organisation, both in the. matter of examinations and NO. 2645, VOL. 105] in that of prescribed - courses. , During the past year a consultative council, on which were representatives of seven universities and four associations of school teachers, has ‘been formed by the Association of Science Teachers in order to discuss the overlapping of school and university training. As a result, a resolution was sent to the various universities urging them “to recognise the value of the post-matriculation work in éfficient schools by acceptin the passing in subjects in one of the approved Seco School Examinations as exempting from the corre- sponding subjects in the Intermediate Examination and the first Medical: Examination of the University.” The Association of Science Teachers is to be con- gratulated on organising the discussions which have led to this expression of opinion by a body well con- stituted to view the situation from opposite sides. . Societies and Academies. Lonpon. ~ “ta Faraday Society, June 14.—Prof. A. W. Porter, vice- president, in the chair.—Dr. A. Fleck and T. Wallace : Conduction .of electricity through fused sodium hydrate. The resistance to the passage of current through fused caustic soda and its rate of change with temperature have been examined by a direct-current method. In view of the difficulties of containing the soda in a non-conducting non-porous vessel, the experi- ments have been carried out in the centre of a large mass of soda. The decomposition voltage has been studied and found to be a _ variable quantity, decreasing at the rate of 2:25 x10-* volts per degre Centigrade rise in temperature. This figure differs from the previously published figure of 2-95 x 10-*. Kt has been found that when a current is passed through fused sodium hydrate between two sodium electrodes the current is always proportional to the applied E.M.F.—Dr. H. F. Haworth: The measure- ment of electrolytic resistances using alternating cur- rents. An electrolytic cell’ acts like a capacity in series with a resistance. - If this capacity and resist- ance be measured at various frequencies, they will. be found to vary with the frequency. If the imped- ance of the cell is plotted vectorially with respect to the resistance for various frequencies, the locus is a straight line which cuts the resistance axis at infinite frequency. ‘This gives the true resistance of the elec- trolyte.—J. L, Haughton: The measurement of elec- trical conductivity in metals and alloys at high tem- peratures. The study of the electrical conductivity of alloys has generally been carried out by measuring the conductivity of the alloys at room-temperature and plotting a curve connecting conductivity with com- position, but much valuable information can be ob- tained by plotting the curve connecting the composi- tion and temperature and using a series of such curves in the same \way’as the ordinary thermal curves. The paper describes a method which can be employed for this —N. V.. S. Knibbs and H. Palfreeman: The theory of electro-chemical chlorate and perchlorate formation. This paper is the outcome of a study of the electrolytic: formation of chlorate and perchlorate based on’ recent large-scale operations. It aims ata presentation of the’ theory of the ‘mechanism of ‘chlorate and perchlorate formation and its application to their’ technical production. A’ series of investiga- tions was undertaken in order to elucidate a number of doubtful points and to obtain data which were of — importance in the technical control of the process.— ~ J. B> Firth: ‘Sorption ‘of iodine by carbon. The sorption ‘of iodine by carbon was studied over a period of five vears; the forms of carbon used were lamp- — black, blood’ carbon, sugar carbon, animal carbon, 4 (cage) Ooa ee eae _ charges will appear as though having half, a ‘third, etc., their real mass. The corresponding _ dines are called lines of the second, third, or - higher order. In spectrum ii. the lines of doubly _ charged chlorine atoms appear at 17-5 and 18-5. “Analyses of argon indicate that this element con- sists almost entirely of atoms of weight 40, but a _ faint component 36 is also visible. Spectra v. and _ Wi. are taken with this gas present; the former _ shows the interesting third order line at 13}. _ Krypton and xenon give surprisingly complex method (see Phil. Mag., May, 1920, p. 621), some results of which are given in spectrum vii., hydro- gen is found to be 1-008, which agrees with the value accepted by chemists. This exception from the whole number rule is not unexpected, as on the Rutherford “nucleus” theory the hydrogen atom is the only one not containing any negative electricity in its nucleus. The results which have so far been obtained with eighteen elements make it highly probable that the higher the atomic weight of an element, the more complex it is likely to be, and that there are more complex elements than simple. It must | be noticed that, though: the whole number rule °o tal Sy See BOLL is Se TT wee Soh hs r, A oH < a se, Fic. 2.—Typical mass-spectra. than six isotopes, the latter of five (spectra viii. and ix.). Mercury is certainly a complex element probably composed of five or six isotopes, two of which have weights 202 and 204; its multiply charged atoms give the imperfectly resolved groups, which are indicated in several of the spectra reproduced in Fig. 2. By far the most important result obtained from this work is the generalisation that, with the ex- ception of hydrogen, all the atomic weights of all elements so far measured are exactly whole numbers on the scale O=16 to the accuracy of experiment (1 in 1000). By means of a special NO. 2646. VOL. 105] results ; the former is found to consist of no fewer | | asserts that a pure element must have a. whole | number atomic weight, there is no reason to sup- | pose that all elements having atomic weights closely | approximating to integers are therefore pure. | The very large number of different molecules | possible when mixed elements unite to form com- pounds would appear to make their theoretical chemistry almost hopelessly complicated, but if, as seems likely, the separation of isotopes on any reasonable scale is to all intents impossible, their practical chemistry will not be affected, while the whole number rule introduces a very desir- able simplification into the theoretical aspects of mass. 620, NATURE [JuLy 15; 1920 Obituary. ” Major-Gen. Witt1am CRAWFORD GorGas, K.C.M.G. N St. Paul’s Cathedral on July 9 a very remark- able’ tribute was paid to one who may fittingly be termed a Napoleon of Hygiene. On that day a military funeral was accorded to the remains of Major-Gen. William Crawford Gorgas, Surgeon-General of the United States Army and president of the American Medical Association. The impressive service was attended by a large concourse, including the Director-General of the Army Medical Department, who represented the King, the Director-General of the Medical Depart- ment of the Navy, the Presidents of the Royal Colleges of Physicians and Surgeons, the Presi- dents of the Royal Society of Medicine and_ the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, and representatives of other learned societies and scientific institutions. Had the late Gen. Gorgas been a British subject such a tribute to his life and work would have been sufficiently noteworthy, but that a citizen and soldier of the United States should be honoured by these funeral rites is a unique testimony, not only to the man who fought and conquered yellow fever, but also to preventive medicine generally. It is right that it should be so, and to no one could such an honour be more fittingly paid than to the man who devoted himself heart and soul to making the tropics healthy and habitable and, above all others, translated the pioneer scientific work of Laveran, Manson, Ross, Grassi, Finlay, and others into action. Gorgas’s life, one of ceaseless activity in the cause of science and humanity, began on Oc- tober 3, 1854, when he was born at Mobile, Ala- bama, and terminated in the Queen Alexandra Military Hospital, London, on July 3. Death over- took him on his way to a new field of work, for he was taken seriously ill in England when en route to the West Coast of Africa with the view of studying the yellow fever problem there, a problem by no means solved and differing in some respects from that which presented itself in the New World. Gorgas was a son of the South, his father being Gen. Josiah Gorgas, of the Confederate States Army, and his mother a member of a Southern family. He received his medical training at the Southern University, Tennessee, where he gradu- ated A.B., and in 1879 he qualified M.D. at fhe Bellevue Hospital Medical-College of New York University, thereafter holding a house appointment in the hospital. In 1880 Gorgas joined the United States Army as a surgeon and served in various parts of the country, first coming into contact with yellow fever in Western Texas and himself suffering from an NO. 2646, VOL. 105 | ‘ attack of the disease. His promotion in the service was rapid, and, his bent being towards the preven- tive side of medicine, the year 1898 saw him appointed Chief Sanitary Officer of Havana. At that time Havana was a hot-bed of yellow fever, and Surgeon-Major Gorgas found plenty of scope for his energies. While his colleagues Reed, Carroll, Agramonte, and Lazear established the role of Stegomyia fasciata as the vector of the then unknown parasite of yellow fever, Gorgas, as soon as he was certain of the facts, embarked whole- heartedly on an anti-mosquito campaign which in a remarkably short space of time freed Havana from the scourge of “ Yellow Jack.” It was then that he first displayed to the full those qualities of drive, tact, tenacity, firmness, and resolution which eventually gained for him the proud titles of “a Master-Administrator of tropical hygiene” and of “a Hercules of modern hygiene.” Gorgas had a wonderful way of getting at the heart of things. He was essentially practical, and this practicality, combined with enthusiasm and a devotion almost religious in character, found a still greater field in Panama. He was rewarded for his labours at Havana by being promoted Colonel and Assistant Surgeon-General in the United States Army, and it was in 1904 that he was sent to the famous isthmus to report upon the sanitary condition of the Canal Zone and to be- come ere long. Chief Health Officer of an area which for centuries had been notorious for its un-— healthiness, a region devastated by malaria pi yellow fever and a veritable forcing-house for tropical pathology. . \ At first Gorgas had many difficulties. He was up against the Canal Commissioners; he was at loggerheads with the engineers; he found himself hampered by red-tape and restrictions of all kinds. Fortunately, the reins of power were at that time held in the United States by a man of very similar calibre to himself, and Theodore Roosevelt, real- ising all that depended on Gorgas’s work, and having every sympathy with him and none for hide-bound traditions, swept away the obstacles from his path, and gave him a free hand and full responsibility. This was all Gorgas wanted. He knew, thanks to the work of Manson, Ross, and _ Finlay in the first place, and to the labours and sacrifices of his colleagues at Havana in the second, thdt he was on sure ground, and, backed loyally by the governor of the Canal Zone, Judge Magoon, he embarked with a worthy band of ~ helpers and abundant sinews of war upon a cam- paign which speedily routed the forces of disease ~ and death, rendered the Canal Zone not only habit- able, but also healthy, and which will stand for all time as a monument to what can be done when science and administrative hygiene are given ample powers. cage tne Ry fee ee Le Te is i ‘Jury 15, 1920] NATURE 621 _ The results achieved induced Gorgas to put forward the theory, advanced also by Sambon and Mthers, that if insanitary conditions are removed : white man can not only live and labour in e tropics, but also propagate his race there, and - his descendants will be healthy and virile. t is too early yet to say that this is wholly the ise, but it is interesting to note what Gorgas about this important question. Speaking of work, he wrote :— ve real scope of tropical sanitation, which has almost entirely developed within the last fifteen r twenty years, | believe, will extend far beyond our york at Panama. Everywhere in the tropics to which ‘the United States has gone in the past fifteen years has been shown that the white man can live and in good health. This has occurred in the Philip- es, in Cuba, and in Panama, but the demonstra- _ tion has been most prominent and spectacular at Sooo at and therefore has attracted there the greatest yorld-wide attention. Here among our large force f labourers we had for ten years some ten thousand Americans—men, women, and children. Most of these American men did hard manual labour, exposed to the sun, rain, and weather conditions day in and day out, yet during that time their health remained perfectly good, just as good as if they were working at home. The same remark as to health would apply to the four thousand women and children who lived 2 tropics for a given amount of labour is so much ~ larger than that which can be produced in the tem- | -perate zone by the same amount of labour that the sect é small ys mogpey When the great valleys of the Amazon and of __ Panama made Gorgas famous; the Royal _ Society awarded him its Buchanan medal; the een of Oxford made him an_ honorary _ D.Se.; the Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine presented him with its Mary Kingsley medal; and he was not forgotten in America. He did not, however, rest upon his oars. In 1913 the Chamber of Mines at Johannesburg sought his advice as regards the prevention of pneumonia among mative miners on the Rand, and he proceeded to _ South Africa and carried out an investigation _ which led to useful results. He then turned his _- attention to South America, for the dream of his _ life—and no vain dream—was to stamp yellow _ fever out of the world. He made a survey of the endemic foci in South America, and then started to obliterate the worst of them at Guaya- - quil, in Ecuador. Here, again, his efforts and those of his assistants were crowned with success, and it is a tribute to his tact and discretion that so much could be accomplished in one of the NO. 2646, VOL. 105 | now produced in all the rest of the inhabited world. . lands of mafiana, as some of the Spanish South American republics may be not inaptly called. As director of the International Health Board of the Rockefeller Institute, a post to which he was appointed on the completion of the Panama Canal, Gorgas had excellent facilities for travel and investigation, and he became an apostle, as well as a priest, of the go&édess Hygeia. As Surgeon-General of the United States Army, he had to organise the medical service for the Great War, and during the war he visited both France and Serbia, retiring, however, from the United States Army in 1918 under the age-rule. Scarcely had hostilities ceased when his atten- tion turned again to yellow fever, and along with Surgeon-Gen. Noble and Dr. Guiteras, of Havana, he was, as stated, on his way to the African West Coast, when he was stricken down by what proved to be a fatal illness. On his sick bed he was visited by the King, who conferred a K.C.M.G. upon him, and just before he took ill, when he was in Brussels at the Congress of the Royal Institute of Public Health, he was pre- sented with the Harben gold medal, while at the recent annual meeting of the British Medical Association the University of Cambridge con- ferred upon him its honorary LL.D. Gorgas died full of honours, if not of years. His work received its rightful recognition, and if he died comparatively early it must be remem- bered that his life was a very strenuous one, spent to a large extent in hot climates, and that he came very near to realising his lifelong ambition. He was a man of resource and courage, but he was also a man with a kindly heart and a gratify- ing sense of humour. He knew how to handle those serving under him, and how to get the best out of them, while he gave credit where credit was due. It has been said of him, sometimes bluntly, sometimes even rudely, that, in the strict sense of the term, he was not a scientific worker, but the fact remains that Gorgas worked ever on strictly scientific lines, and that the moment a scientific truth had been enunciated he was up and doing in order to apply it for the welfare of mankind. Without men of his stamp the labour of the microscopists would to a large extent be futile. His art was the natural corollary of the laboratory, and no more efficient exponent of it can be imagined. As his coffin, shrouded by “Old Glory,” borne by stalwart British Guardsmen, flanked by British medical officers of high rank, and followed by his widow and a distinguished company, passed up the aisle of St. Paul’s, it was in keeping with his life’s work that, amongst the wreaths waiting to be placed upon it, was one sent as a token of remembrance and esteem by his friend Sir Patrick Manson. | 622 NATURE [Jury 15, 1920 Notes. | Tue exhibits of the Research Department, Wool- wich, at the Imperial War Museum, Crystal Palace, illustrate some of the work vital to the war which was done there, and incidentally our unpreparedness, as much of it might have been done before. Amongst the specimens shown are the six isomers of T.N.T., isolated whilst devising’ new processes for the manu- facture of the symmetrical variety, and for cheaply eliminating the undesirable isomers—a problem not yet fully solved. There are also specimens of amatol, which has largely replaced T.N.T. as a shell-filling ; tetranitromethyl aniline, which is of increasing use as an initiator of detonation in others; trinitrobenzene, which should have a future, and many others. The exhibits of fragments of shells detonated by picric acid, T.N.T., and amatol respectively show by the relative numbers of the fragments that picric acid still remains our most shattering shell explosive, and, by the minuteness of most, how limited the killing range -of such shells really is. The specimen of R.D.B. cordite illustrates how, when through lack of fore- sight our supply of acetone failed, our chemists and distilleries saved the situation by providing soluble nitrocellulose and alcohol-ether to gelatinise it. The sections of gaines show how the problem of detonating insensitive shell-fillings was solved during the war by employing a series of explosives in the detonator, and accomplishing in several steps what could not be done with certainty in one. The specimens which display the eroding effect of hot gases on gun-tubes present a problem to chemists which will probably be solved by the invention of a new alloy. An excellent series of X-ray photographs shows that great progress has been made in the penetration of metals. Internal flaws in parts are revealed, and also the internal structure of ammunition—an important matter when captured ammunition has to be examined and dis- sected. ° There are many other exhibits of interest. THE appeal which the chairman of the Brent Valley Bird Sanctuary makes in our correspondence columns for funds with which to buy and endow the reserve which the Selborne Society has maintained for eighteen years will commend itself to most naturalists. It is as important to rear two useful birds as it is to make two ears of corn grow where there was but ‘one before, and the sanctuary has done more than this. Not only has it enabled birds to build undisturbed near London, but its example has been followed else- where, and in thousands of gardens have birds been brought up where there were no fledglings previously. This is through the nesting-boxes which the com- mittee has sent out. Such work should go on. A permanent sanctuary within the London area would be an excellent memorial to Gilbert White and crown the efforts of the Selborne Society. Although. the gift of the purchase money or some substantial con- tributions would bring the endeavour to an earlier completion, we imagine that the more subscribers there are the better pleased would the committee be, and small amounts would therefore be welcomed. THE fifty-seventh annual general meeting of the British Pharmaceutical Conference will be held at NO. 2646, VOL. 105] Liverpool on July 19-23 under the presidency of Mr. C, A. Hill, managing director of The British Drug Houses, Ltd., who will deliver his presidential address at the Royal Institution, Liverpool, on Tuesday, July 20. The British Pharmaceutical Con- ference is an organisation established in 1863, and during the fifty-six years of its existence it has made at its annual meetings a total addition of more than a thousand original researches to the common stock of chemical and pharmaceutical knowledge. Among the subjects of the scientific papers to be read at the forthcoming meeting are: A New Method for the Estimation of Cineole in Eucalyptus Oils; The Deter- mination of Hydrocyanic Acid, of Nitrate in Bismuth Carbonate, and of Free Acetic Acid in Acetylsalicylic Acid; Aconite Alkaloids: An Improved Method for their Estimation; and The Detection of Inorganic Phosphate in Glycerophosphates. ng WITH the view of obtaining further evidence as to the relationship of the Early Mousterian palzolithic flint implements to the Glacial Chalky Boulder Clay, excavations will be carried out shortly at High Lodge, Mildenhall, Suffolk, by Prof. J. E. Marr, Mr. J. Reid » Moir, Mr. Reginald Smith, Mr. Henry Bury, and Mr. M. C. Burkitt. The owner of the High Lodge property, Sir Henry Bunbury, Bart., having given — permission for the diggings to be conducted, it is hoped — that it may be possible to ascertain with certainty whether the well-known brick-earth of Mousterian age occurring at this spot is younger or older than the Boulder Clay with which it is intimately — associated. A full account of the excavations and the conclusions arising therefrom will be published in due course, t Tue following elections in connection with the © Royal College of Surgeons of England are an- — nounced :—President: Sir Anthony A. Bowlby. — Hunterian Professors: Mr. C. W. G. Bryan, Mr. — A. G. T. Fisher, Mr. W. S. Handley, Mr. W. G, Howarth, Prof. A. Keith, and Mr. H. Platt. Arris and Gale Lecturers: Mr. J. F. Dobson, Dr. F. W. Edridge-Green, and Mr. J. H. Evans. Erasmus Wilson Lecturer: Prof. S. G. Shattock. | Arnott Demonstrator: Prof. A. Keith. Pathological Curator: — Prof. S. G. Shattock. Physiological Curator: Mr. — R. H. Burne. Honorary Curator of the Odontological Collection: Sir Frank Colyer. Sir D’Arcy Power is ‘to deliver the next Thomas Vicary lecture. THE Very Rev. Dr. W. R. Ince, Dean of St. — Paul’s, is president for the new session of the — Aristotelian Society which will open in November next. ae TuE Sir Alfred Jones Laboratories of the Liverpool. School of Tropical Medicine will be officially opened by Lord Leverhulme on Saturday, July 24, at 2.30. — The presentation of Mary Kingsley memorial medals _ will also be made. pane SiR Ropert Jones has been awarded the Cameron — prize of the University of Edinburgh in recognition — of his work in orthopedics. Earlier recipients of the prize, which is of the value of about rsol., were Pasteur, Lord Lister, and Sir Lauder Brunton. Jury 15, 1920] NATURE 623 Dr. Seymour Hapwen has resigned his position as s ‘Chief Pathologist in charge of the Biological Labora- _ tory, Health of Animals Branch, Canadian Depart- ment of Agriculture, Ottawa, Canada, and become hief Pathologist in the Reindeer Investigations of Bureau of Biological Survey, U.S. Department or Agriculture. We are informed by the Dapartieat of Scientific * and Industrial Research that the Research Association for the cutlery industry has been approved by the Department as complying with the conditions laid down in the Government scheme for the encourage- ment of industrial research. The secretary of the Committee engaged in the establishment of this asso- ciation is Mr. W. H. Bolton, P.O. Box 49, Sheffield. _ Tue Royal Statistical Society has opened a register _ of the names of persons eligible for statistical posts. } ef It has from time to time been asked to recommend qualified statisticians, and has taken this means of _ bringing those who have appointments to offer into touch with suitable applicants. A list of names and & qualifications is now available, and the secretary {9 Adelphi Terrace, W.C.2) will be ee to furnish re eaten accordingly. _ WE learn from Science that Prof. L. H. Bailey is Aya ike the American Pomological Society, of which he is president, and establishing junior branches in a number of agricultural colleges in the United ‘States and Canada. It is proposed under the new ‘scheme that the society shall give consideration to such national affairs as touch the growing of fruits, _ @g. legislation, quarantine, export, transportation, and standardising methods. Carr. W. J. RurHerrorp has reprinted from ‘‘ The oe History of the Berwickshire Naturalists’ Club ”’ by (vol. xxiv.) a paper on ‘‘A Border Myth: The Stand- ing Stones at Duddo.’’ The local folklore accounts _ for their origin by supposing that the stones are the petrified bodies of a gang of field-workers who pro- _ faned the Sabbath by going into a field singing and _ thinning a crop of turnips, while the leader was _ thrown on his back and lies prostrate to this day. Capt. Rutherford compares the legend with that attached to the ‘‘ Maidens” or ‘“‘ Merry Maidens ’’ and _the “Hurlers’’ in Cornwall. The story is not un- common, and it would not be difficult to quote other ei peraliels. _ Tue report of the Felsted School Scientific Society for 1918 and 1919 is welcome evidence of the place given to scientific pursuits in an up-to-date school. The natural history notes, which predominate, reach _a high standard and contain many interesting observa- tions on the local appearance and movements of migratory birds, while the photographs which have been selected for reproduction say much for the skill and patience of the young naturalists. The report shows how greatly the progress of a school society depends upon the guidance of an enthusiastic master. It is gratifying to see from the balance-sheet that the governors, by a generous contribution to the funds of the society, give evidence of their belief in the value of Nature-study, and their faith is well NO. 2646, VOL. 105 | founded, for the recording of detailed observations, whether of rainfall or temperature or migration, is a sowing of the seeds of the scientific habit and the love of truth. UNpDER the title ‘‘The Birds of Eastern Canada,” the Canadian Department of Mines has issued a memoir—No. 3 of its Biological Series—by P. A. Tavener. This has been written ‘‘to awaken and, where it already exists, to stimulate an interest, both gesthetic and practical, in the study of Canadian birds and to suggest the sentimental, scientific, and economic value ef that study; to assist in the identi- fication of native species; and to furnish the econo- mist with a ready means of determining bird friend from bird foe . . .; to present in a readily accessible form reliable data upon which measures of protective legislation may be based; to point out some of the pitfalls that have caught the inexperienced in the past; and to suggest methods for their future avoidance.’ To accomplish these desirable ends, the memoir treats of all the species with which the ordinary ob- server is likely to meet ‘‘ between the Atlantic coast and the Prairies north of the International Boundary.” It is prefaced by some general remarks on classification, geographical distribution, migration, and protection, and by an illustrated key to the characters of the groups to which the various species belong. The main portion of the work deals, with 766 selected birds, and shortly describes their plumage, haunts, nesting, economic status, and distribution in Eastern Canada : many of them are depicted in the series of coloured plates which forms the concluding portion of this useful memoir. In the interests of commerce itself it is becoming increasingly plain that where the exploitation of wild animals is concerned men of science, and not the captains of industry, must determine the levy which any given species can stand without endangering its safety. The urgent need for the speedy recognition of this fact is very emphatically shown in a series of able essays published in the form of a bulletin by the Scripps Institution for Biological Research of the University of California (No. 9). Where all are of such surpassing excellence it is difficult to select any one of these essays for special mention. But since a choice must be made, it shall fall upon that of Dr. Evermann, who surveys the present position of the Northern fur-seal. He throws a lurid light on the attitude of the non-scientific legislator. Even Depart- ments of State, he shows, for the sake of present revenue, will adopt covertly hostile methods to sup- press the findings of scientific men appointed for the express purpose of investigating the conditions of the sealing industry, if such findings seem to threaten the earnings of that industry. The fact that, unless wise methods of conservation are adopted, the industry will presently extinguish itself seems entirely to be lost sight of in the desire to secure immediate revenue. ‘‘Take. the cash in hand and waive the rest’? seems to be the motto pursued. Those in- terested in the salmon fisheries contend that the seals eat vast quantities of these fish, and are therefore injurious to the fishing interests. Yet no attempt has so far been made to discover what fish really constitutes 624 NATURE [JuLY 15, 1920 the staple diet of the fur-seal. -This aspect of the problem adds to its complexity, since it affects con- flicting interests. At the same time it emphasises the need for immediate action, not for academic dis- cussion. THE many friends of the veteran geologist, Mr. Henry Keeping, who was born near Milton, on the Hampshire coast, in 1827, will welcome his simple and unaffected ‘‘Reminiscences,’? published as a pamphlet by F: W. Talbot, Sussex Street, Cambridge (price 1s. 6d. post free). A characteristic portrait appears on the cover. Anecdotes of ‘Sedgwick and of the early days of collecting in Devonshire and the Isle of Wight form pleasant reading. The story of the plump farmer in the Fenland who checked a disaster by sitting in the gap of a broken dyke is told with humorous appreciation. Pror. PIERRE TERMIER, in a paper on ‘‘ Les Océans a travers les Ages ’’ (Revue Scientifique, May 8, 1920), emphasises the differences in structure of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, and regards the deep-water ring around the central area of the latter as a _ per- sistent feature of the crust, liable to disturbances, but not to elevation as dry land. The Indian Ocean, on the other hand, is post-Jurassic and the Atlantic is post-Miocene. The narrowing of the continents south- wards is not a primary feature of a tetrahedral earth, but results from the widening of these comparatively modern areas of subsidence as they approach the south. THE Geographical Review (New York) for March, 1920, contains two articles of especial interest to British readers. The first is by Lieut. Leo Walmsley on “The Recent Trans-African Flight,’ with several photographic illustrations. The writer’s wide know- ledge of Eastern Africa and his success as a scientific observer even when fighting from his aeroplane fully justify his remark that ‘Africa, as seen from the air, is one of the most wonderful of all countries. . A civilised country seen from the air is simply a gigantic mosaic . . . the airscape of Central Africa is as untamed and irregular as that of the moon.’’? The second article is by Mr. C. R. Dryer on *‘Mackinder’s ‘World Island’ and its American ‘ Satellite.’"" The author cleverly shows, on Moll- weide’s projection, the American continents as a “world ring’’ round about the ‘‘ world island,’’? and pictures the people of that world ring, which has no barbarous -heartland, as ready to come to the aid of the coastal races that stand for Civilisation in the world island. StonyuHurst College Observatory has recently issued the results of meteorological and magnetical observa- tions for 1919 with a report and notes by the director, the Rev. A. L. Cortie, S.J. The results with the report occupy 55 pages, and details of the observa- tions are given with great precision for the several months and for the year. The observatory has long since been associated with the Meteorological Office, and the Monthly Weather Report publishes many of the results. The monthly mean temperature’ is NO. 2646, VOL. 105 | obtained in two ways, from the mean of the highest and lowest daily readings and from the mean of readings at g a.m. and g p.m., both means being corrected by Glaisher’s tables. The thermometers are mounted 7 ft. above the ground in a Stevenson screen ; why in this case should not the height above ground be 4 ft., the normal height for uniformity? Taken as a whole, 1919 was drier and colder than the normal, and: every individual month was cold with the excép- tion of May and December. Bright sunshine for the year was 25 hours less than the normal. nearly 6 in. deficient, although the rainy days were only two fewer than usual. October was relatively the driest month, rainfall being only about 50 per cent. of the average. Magnetic observations and distgrbances are popularly explained, and afford: considerable in- formation for obtaining uniformity of results. Sun-spot activity, which had steadily declined since August,» 1917, and throughout 1918, revived in 1919. The seismograph, which for a time had been thrown. out of action, is said to be now. working satisfactorily. : Mr. J. I. GraHaM, research chemist at the Bentley Collieries, Doncaster, has devised a very convenient and portable apparatus for the estimation of. small quantities of carbon. monoxide in the air of mines. It consists of a vessel containing a known volume of the sample, which can be introduced by running water out of the vessel. By operating a three-way tap and blowing water into the vessel the sample may be passed into iodine pentoxide contained in a U-tube heated to go°-1 50° C. In examining air in the mine the temperature is maintained by hot oil contained in a thermos flask which keeps the U-tube within — The iodine liberated these limits for several hours. from the pentoxide is thus sublimed and driven into a tube containing a solution of potassium iodide in which the free iodine can be titrated and estimated uch in the usual way. The inventor claims that an- analysis can be completed in about five minutes with an accuracy of 0-005 per cent. using 100 c.c. of air, or of 0-005 per cent. with 1 litre. It is of special value for estimating small quantities of carbon monoxide in mine-air, since 0-2 per cent. is highly dangerous, and even 0-02 per cent. produces after a time unpleasant effects. As the quality of compressed oxygen supplied in cylinders is important in life- saving operations in mines, Mr. Graham _ has introduced a simple piece of apparatus for deter- — mining the amount of oxygen by absorbing a known volume in alkaline pyrogallol. Both’ pieces of apparatus can be purchased from Messrs. and Branson, Ltd., Leeds. In order to obviate the use of the high voltages required in wireless telegraphy when a triode tube is operated from a direct-current supply by means of a mechanical ‘chopper’? which periodically breaks the | of the Bureau of | supply circuit, Mr. L. M. Hull, Standards at Washington, has used with great success an alternating supply from a 2-kw. machine giving _ i 500 cycles per second at 150 volts, and a short account © of his method and results is given in the Journal of — the Washington Academy of Sciences for June 4. — | The sending key is in the alternator circuit, and the — Rainfall was Reynolds s ; a? al : ~ Jury 15, 1920] NATURE 625 filament current and plate potential are both provided by means of transformers. The author finds that, operated in this way, the triode tube gives results which compare favourably with those obtained with _ the usual direct-current method, and that it has the tage of not requiring a high-voltage generator er battery, while over a limifed distance signals may * . be received with a non-oscillating detector. - €ollege - of Technology, A more ete account of this work is to appear as a ‘Scientific Paper of the Bureau. Mr. S. J. Peracuey, lecturer in chemistry at the Manchester, claims to have discovered a process for the cold vulcanisation se of rubber. This is applicable not only to rubber in _ its solid forms, but also to solutions. The final pro- duct may be obtained containing no free sulphur. | Leather waste, wood-meal, and starch cellulose may be mixed with rubber so as to yield cheap, fully _ vulcanised products with new properties and great durability. Leather waste and rubber may be con- _ verted into a product resembling leather, and at the same time waterproof. No details of the process are _ given beyond the fact that it employs “two gases BS t.?? which are by-products of several chemical manufac- turing processes, and are available at a very low If these claims can -be substantiated, it _ appears that the process should be one of very. great - technical interest and importance. ae Suscee of manipulation and precision in adjust- ment are two prime features in X-ray tube stands. They a - to have been carefully considered in the models ark III. and Mark IV. which we find in Bulletin 255 of Messrs. Watson and Sons, Ltd. In the screen attachment to the latter model there is an arrangement whereby the X-ray tube and the screen move together during vertical examinations. We would suggest that a valuable addition to the illus- trations of these models would be the protective devices to be employed with them. It is especially necessary during screening examinations to avoid stray radiation reaching the operator, and the adop- tion of rigorous, protective measures would no doubt ‘become more general if publicity were given to this ioe a; In the course of an article on Pelton-wheel con- struction by Mr. Percy Pitman, in Engineering for June 25, the author describes the method adopted for ‘improving the jets, which were unsatisfactory in the existing turbine. Experimental nozzles were made in _ fluid-pressed bronze, and four rustless steel. blades, _ 5 mm. thick, were dovetailed into them so as to lie _ in axial planes. These blades were ground and highly _ polished up to a thin knife-edge. ment resulted ; ‘of useful information in this article; A great improve- the jets were of extraordinary solidity and transparency, the water for about 2 ft. issuing almost like a glass rod. Those interested in the design of Pelton-wheel buckets will find a good deal there is but little of practical value in -text-books, and the author gives the _complete lay-out of the new buckets, and includes ‘copies of the working drawings. NO. 2646, VOL. 105 | Our Astronomical Column. An Easy Meruop oF Finpinc $Latirupe.—The Observatory for June contains an article by N. Liapin on a method of finding latitude which is interesting and a useful exercise tor astronomical students, and requires no other instrument than a watch. The method consists simply in observing the number of seconds between first and last contacts of the sun with the horizon at sunrise or sunset. The formula for solution given by the author is cos’ latitude= sin’(sun’s_ decl. )+4(sun’ s radius)*/(time interval)’, where the radius and time interval must be expressed in the same units. This formula does not take account of the change of sun’s decl. in the interval; a correction for this may readily be made. Five actual determinations by this method are given, the resulting latitude being 10’ from the truth. While a sea horizon is preferable, any straight and level. horizon will serve. INCREASING THE PHOTOGRAPHIC POWER OF ‘TELE- scopEs.—In the Proceedings of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences for March Dr. Shapley describes a method of increasing the photographic power of large reflectors for the purpose of photographing extremely faint objects. The faintest stars at present reached by the 60-in. reflector are of magnitudes 20 to’ 21, and it is believed that the great Hooker tele- scope will gain about one magnitude over this. Dr. Shapley is of the opinion that this is bordering on the limiting magnitudes in globular clusters, and if one or two fainter magnitudes were available for study, some most important information might be obtained with regard to several questions of stellar and galactic evolution. The method employed is quite simple, consisting essentially in shortening the effective focal length of the telescope by means of a short focus lens placed between the mirror and the plate. The brightness of the image is thus increased, though, of course, a reduction of scale is inevitable. This, however, is immaterial in many sidereal prob- lems. A trial series of exposures with different inten- sifiers seems to have yielded satisfactory results, and questions relating to globular clusters, the limits of the galactic system, and similar problems appear to be more hopeful of solution. A NEw SPECTROPYRHELIOMETER AND SOLAR MEASURE- MENTS MADE WITH iT.—In No. 378 of the Scientific Papers of the U.S. Bureau of Standards, recently issued, Messrs. W. W. Coblentz and H. Kahler give an account of a new spectropyrheliometer and measure- ments of the component radiations from the sun and from a quartz-mercury vapour lamp. The spectro- pyrheliometer consists of a quartz spectrograph and cylindrical condensing lens placed upon an equatorial mounting, thus eliminating the ultra-violet absorption produced in heliostat mirrors. The paper sums up the data given on the relative components of infra- red, visible, and ultra-violet radiation from the sun and from a quartz-mercury arc lamp, also on the gas-filled tungsten lamp, the iron arc, and the carbort arc. In the first appendix methods are given for excluding ultra-violet light from buildings, one of these being the use of a kind of Venetian blind or louvre of wide slats, painted buff to reflect the light into the building, the buff or red paint absorbing the ultra- violet, thus protecting the contents of the building (balloon hangars, etc.) from photochemical action. The second appendix suggests methods for protecting projection lantern films from the heat of the lamp, and a simple method put forward is to provide. the water-cell with windows of Corning “ heat-absorbing ” glass, which is very opnaiie | to infra-red radiation. aq. NATURE [JULY 15, 1920 British Association. SUBJECTS FOR DiIscUSSION aT THE CARDIFF MEETING. He sectional programmes for the British Associa- tion meeting at Cardiff, August 24-28, are now taking shape, and some of the principal scientific subjects which will be discussed may be indicated. The Mathematical and Physical Section, under the presidency of Prof. A. S. Eddington, will be con- cerned with the Einstein theory, and will receive a paper on the shift of the Fraunhofer lines with refer- ence to that theory. The Section will also discuss the examination of materials by X-rays, the origin of spectra, terrestrial magnetism, aurorz, solar disturb- ance, and various phenomena of the upper atmosphere. The Geological Section will, as usual, pay attention to local geology, and will also, in joint session with the Sections of Zoology and Botany, discuss Mendelism and paleontology with reference to the Mendelian interpretation of gradual changes, especially when new characters appear late in the individual life-cycle. The Zoological Section will also consider the need for the scientific investigation of the ocean and of fisheries—a subject in which not only the president of the Section (Prof. J. Stanley Gardiner), but also Dr. W. Herdman, president of the Association and professor of oceanography at Liverpool University, are leading authorities. The president of the Geographical Section, Mr. J. McFarlane, will deal in his address with geography and nationality as factors in the formation of the new Europe; the Section will also discuss the dis- tribution of population in South Wales, the new Ordnance Survey maps, the place of geography in a reformed classical course, and various problems con- nected with Abyssinia, Algeria, Tunisia, Asia Minor, Finland, and other lands. The Engineering Section is expecting papers from Sir Arthur Duckham on the use of coal and from Mr. S. F. Edge on farm tractors, and will also deal with a number of metallurgical and mechanical topics. The Anthropological Section will consider several subjects of Welsh interest, including before it a number of practical subjects concerned with crops and livestock. 38 In addition to general excursions, several Sections, including those of Geology, Geography, Engineering, Anthropology, Botany, and Education, will visit sites, works, or institutions in Cardiff and the neighbour- hood appropriate to their various interests. The subjects of the evening discourses given at general meetings will be ‘‘A Grain of Wheat from the Field to the Table,’ by Sir Daniel Hall, of the Board of Agriculture, and ‘‘Some Requirements of Modern Aircraft,”” by Sir Richard Glazebrook, lately director of the National Physical Laboratory. ¥ Museums Association Annual Conference. THE thirty-first annual conference of the Museums Association was held in Winchester on July 6-8, under the presidency of Sir Martin Conway, Director- General of the Imperial War Museum. There were present about a hundred delegates from the various. museums and art galleries of Great Britain and Ireland, while Colonial and foreign institutions were represented by Mr. Fitzroy Carrington, from the Boston Museum of Fine Arts; Mr. E. C. Chubb, from Durban Museum; and Dr. G. Johansson Karlin, from the Kulturhistoriska Museet, Lund. — The meeting marked an epoch in the history of the. association, since it partook of the nature of a joint conference with the Museums Association of France, which was represented by Prof. Louis Roule, of the Paris Museum, and Dr. Loir, secretary of the French Museums Association. In his presidential address Sir Martin Conway gave an account of the formation of the Imperial War Museum temporarily housed in the Crystal Palace. He explained how the difficulties of the collection and transport of specimens are being met, and dealt with some of the problems of their storage, especially in the case of war kinematograph films the preservation — of which at present is both difficult and expensive. Abergele, ‘‘hill-top’’? camps, especially in North | Owing to the vast mass of material collected and Cardiganshire, and Welsh folk-music; in this Section | the large size of many of the exhibits, the president — also, among other speakers, Prof. Flinders Petrie is | pointed out that their permanent home must of neces- — expected to give an account of recent work in Egypt. | sity be spacious. He suggested that no more fitting — The Physiological Section, jointly with its sub-section | war memorial could be raised than a stately museum of Psychology, will deal with the subject of psycho- | on the Surrey bank of the Thames near the proposed — logical medicine in the United States, while the | site of the new Charing Cross bridge. Here the ~ Section will also consider the place of physiology in | thousands of specimens connected with and illus- — education, and will receive from Prof. A. D. Waller | trating the war period could be housed, and with them — a demonstration of the ‘‘emotive response’? of the | a complete Roll of Honour, with biographical notes, © human subject. The erection of psychology into the | of every man and woman of the Empire who had ~ subject of a separate section will be brought forward. | fallen in the great struggle. _ The Sections of Physiology and Botany jointly will Mr. E. N. Fallaize read a paper of great interest — discuss biochemistry and systematic relationship. The | and utility to museum curators on ‘Suggestions for Botanical Section, in addition to other joint meetings, | the Classification of the Subject-matter of Anthropo- will join that of Agriculture in dealing with soil and | logy.’’ In consideration of the vast field covered by plant survey work. In the Educational Section the | this subject, he pointed out the necessity for the forma-— report of a committee will be received upon training | tion of a definite plan for its study, suggesting a in citizenship, in connection with which Bishop | broad classification of the subject into two heads, one Welldon, Sir R. Baden-Powell, and Lady Shaw are | dealing with man as an organism and the other expected to speak. The Section, among other sub- | treating him as a rational being reacting to his en- jects, will discuss the relation of schools to life, post- | vironment. For the first, a study of man’s structure graduate international education, and the relation of | and the functions of his organs is needed, including universities, public schools, training colleges, and | a study of the abnormal, both physical and mental. higher technical schools to a national system. In | Having thus established a type, the second heading connection with the last discussion it is hoped to | falls naturally into two groups: ethnology, a study receive a communication on universities from the | of man in space, and what may be termed pala- Right Hon. H. A. L. Fisher. A number of papers | anthropology, a study of man in time. In addition, of psychological and educational interest will be | man’s nature as shown in the develooment and em received in joint session with the sub-section of | plovment of specifically human faculties should Psychology. The Agricultural Section will have | studied, not chronologically, but in a logical sequence NO. 2646, VoL. 105] Welsh ethnology, the Roman sites at Caerwent and. ‘ + Jury 15, 1920] NATURE 627 _ leading from primitive gratification of the senses to - man’s relation to the unseen. One of the outstanding problems which a museum curator has to face is that of the lighting of his building, and a paper given by Mr. Hurst Seeger on “The Lighting of Museums and Art Galleries’? was _ particularly instructive on this point. He dealt especially with the question of reflection in the glass _ of pictures and museum-cases, and pointed out those inciples of construction whereby such reflections could be avoided. _ Mr. Lowe explained the Public Libraries Act of Igig, stating that, in his opinion, it gave their charter to the museums and art galleries of this country. _ A discussion as to the desirability of a diploma for Museum curators was opened by Dr. Hoyle, who was of opinion that without some recognised diploma the status of curators could not be assured. In the course of the discussion Mr. Bailey outlined a scheme suggested by Sir Cecil Harcourt-Smith for the train- ing of museum curators at the Victoria and Albert. _ Museum. A paper on the museum and art gallery of Baroda, dealing pe ccularly with the difficulty of preserving pictur hot climates, was read by Mr. Dibden. Mr. M. J. Rendall, Headmaster of Winchester College, gave a paper, illustrated by lantern-slides, on the teaching of art in local museums, emphasising the i played in such teaching by good lantern-slides. nstrated the vast difference made by the quality of the slides used, and explained how and where the best slides could be obtained. Dr. A. Loir gave an account of the formation of an Association of Curators of French Museums, and a joint committee of English and French curators for international co-operation. Papers were read on ‘ Winchester City and Westgate Museum,” by Mr. Hooley; ‘‘ The Winchester College Museum,’’ by the Rev. S. A. McDowall; ‘‘ Selection of Pictures for Municipal Art Galleries,’’ by Mr. Howarth; “Biography of the Comte de Lacépéde,”’ by Prof. Louis Roule; ‘‘ The Child and the Mummy,” by Mr. T. Peart; and ‘“‘ Suggestions for a Bureau of Exchange through the Medium of the Museums Journal,” by Mr. Allchin. _A full account of all papers and discussions will be oar in the September issue of the Museums Journal. The University of Edinburgh. New Scrence BuILpincs. HE foundation-stone of the new chemical labora- tories of the University of Edinburgh, the first of what will be known in future as the ‘King’s Buildings’ of the University, was laid on July 6 by the ing, who was accompanied by the Queen and Princess ary. These buildings are to be erected as separate blocks on a site of 115 acres acquired by the University in November, 1919, mainly for the use of the scientific departments. They are situated on the southern outskirts of the city, near the Royal _ Observatory on Blackford Hill, and are about two miles distant from the Old College. Thousands of spectators assembled, notwithstanding the drenching rain which fell before and throughout the ceremony. The general lay-out of the chemical laboratories _was planned by Prof. James Walker, who has worked in collaboration with Mr. A. F. Balfour Paul, the architect of the building. The building is rectangular in plan, having’ a frontage of 220 ft. and a depth of 320 ft. Three corridors, one central and one on each side, run backwards through the whole length, and NO. 2646, VOL. 105] are connected by a cross-corridor in the front portion. This arrangement permits of indefinite extension by increasing the depth of the building. Between the central corridor and the side corridors are situated the main laboratories with their stores- and service-rooms, as well as the lecture department. Each main labora- tory (of which there are five) measures 70 ft. by 45 ft., and receives north light from a saw-tooth roof. Smaller rooms used in conjunction with the main laboratories are situated across the outer corridors, and are lit from the side. The whole building is of one story, except the frontage block and the front part of the east and west wings, which are two stories in height. In these will be housed administra- tion, library, special laboratories, and research-rooms. When complete the department will provide places for about four hundred students working simul- taneously. It is estimated that the total cost of the chemical laboratories with fittings and equipment will be approximately 250,o000l. His Majesty, in replying to the address of the Vice- Chancellor, Sir Alfred Ewing, expressed the hope that generous donors would be found able and willing to complete the plan of extension which had been sketched with so bold a hand. At the conclusion of the ceremony of laying the foundation-stone the degree of LL.D. was conferred on the Queen. Lessons from the Smithsonian. ‘THE report of the secretary of the Smithsonian Institution for the year ending June 30, 1919, is, as always, full of interest, and it differs from similar reports issued in this country in that the points of interest are clearly brought out and not left to be deduced by the reader from masses of undigested detail. The institution controls the work of the National Museum, the Bureau of American Ethnology, the International Exchange Service, the National Zoological Park, the Astrophysical Observatory, and the United States contributions to the International Catalogue of Scientific Literature. The Astrophysical Observatory seems a little out of the picture, but the association of the other bodies tends to co-operation and the prevention of overlap. The National Museum itself embraces every form of museum activity and combines subjects which in London are distributed among the two sections of the British Museum, the Victoria.and Albert Museum, the Science Museum, the Museum of Practical Geology, the National Galleries of Art, and several other coins: The Washington people are as well satisfied with their system as we (to judge from perennial complaint) are dissatisfied with ours. The single administration, it is claimed, ‘‘not only ensures greater economy in management, but permits of a more logical classifica- tion and arrangement, the elimination of duplication, and a consequent reduction in the relative amount of space required.” Those in this country who are advocating the co- ordination of our museums and allied establishments under a single board would be well advised to study the conditions in Washington. The most obvious danger of such a system is too great rigidity and un- necessary red-tape. It is, however, clear that such an objection does not apply to the Smithsonian Institution. The constitution of the various bodies permits of far more flexibility and enterprise than we are accustomed to in some, at any rate, of the similar bodies in this country. This, it seems to us, is because the Smithsonian is not a Department of State run by politicians or clerks without experience of the varied 628 NATURE _ [Jury 15, 1920 activities. which they have to direct, but is, from Secretary Walcott downwards, managed by men who have received their training in the field or the labora- tory or the museum; men who are familiar with the needs and difficulties of their assistants; men who combine high ideals with a clear appreciation of what is practicable, and so carry out a consistent policy. . A feature of the National Museum, as of other American museums, is the large amount of exploration undertaken. An expedition, including collectors and kinematographers, is now at work in Africa. Mrs. Purdy Bacon has bequeathed fifty thousand dollars to establish a travelling scholarship for the study of faunas outside the United States. Many other expeditions are here reported on. But we would chiefly emphasise - the policy of sending out the officers of the museum to study and collect. The whole of the geological staff was thus émployed during the field-season of 1918, filling gaps in the collections, obtaining speci- mens needed for public exhibition, and taking photo- graphs to illustrate the explanatory labels. Many of the other departments also had members in the field. Among other signs of life and growth, the report records the inauguration of popular scientific lectures, and the introduction of a Bill to provide 4 museum of history and of the arts as a memorial to Theodore Roosevelt. The building would afford much-needed space for the rapidly extending National Gallery of Art. The Religion and Origin of the Hawaian People. is oe sixth volume of the Memoirs of the Bishop Museum at Honolulu’ continues the publication of Judge Fornander’s literary collections. The first portion contains two important papers by native writers on the religion of the Hawaians. One, by Kamakau, contributed to the collection by Dr. W. D. Alexander, describes certain ancient ceremonies of which the principal are those connected with the pre- natal development of the royal child, the direction of services to the gods, the catching of the fish opelu, and the feasts of the year. There are shorter notes on heathen prayers and the ceremonial erection of the heiau or god’s house. A much longer paper by the Hawaian author, S. N. Haleole, deals with the functions of the Kahuna, ‘‘the priesthood called the Order of Sorcery.’”’ The word in varying forms (tahuna, tahunga, tauna) is used throughout the Eastern Pacific to denote persons possessed of varying degrees of wisdom from priesthood to sorcery, but in the west, in Tonga and Samoa, has become entirely secularised, and there (in the form tufunga) means nothing more than a carpenter or skilled workman. The Kahunu in Hawaii was properly trained for his office, and gave evidence of his powers by divination from pebbles, clouds, shadows, and dreams, and by his magical effects with the mawnai or cast-away por- tions of nail, hair, tooth, or clothing. His services were in request in times of war and threatened evils, for house-building or loss of lands, in courtship and medicine. The omens of agriculture, canoe-making, and fishing, with descriptions of the occupations themselves, are fully described. The second part of this volume contains For- nander’s speculations on the ‘‘Source and Migrations of the. Polynesian Race.” This appears somewhat | out of date in the present stage of linguistic study. 1 Memoirs of the Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum of Polynesian Ethnology and Natural History. Vol. vi., Nos. 1 and 2. “‘ Fornander Collection of _ Hawaiian Antiquities and Folk-Lore.” Third Series. Parts 1, 2. Pp. 358. | Honolulu : H. I. Bishop Museum Press, 1919.) NO. 2646, VOL. 105 | The author regards India as the original home of the ‘Polynesian people, and supposes that the Poly- nesian and Aryan language families separated before the latter had developed their inflected form, and that traces of Polynesians are found in the Malay Archi- pelago. A majority of the immigrants are thought to have passed through Torres Straits to the Loyalty Islands, and thence to Fiji, Samoa, and Tonga. Fornander’s so-called evidence is very unsatisfactory. It is based mainly on the casual resemblances of certain Indian words to Polynesian, the Polynesian meanings being read into the Indian word or vice versa. The theory of an Indian origin of Polynesian may be seen to underlie the theories of Macmillan Brown, Percy Smith, Christian, and Churchill, but certainly lacks the support of sound linguistic evidence. According to this view, everything east of India which agrees with modern Polynesian is borrowed from an ancient form of Polynesian speech, though the lan- guages themselves prove that Polynesia has received many of its words from primitive Indonesia, and ‘that not by one migration, from one place at one time, but in severa! colonisations from various parts of the archipelago at different times. Pilea The final portion of part 2 contains other papers by Fornander on Hawaian tradition, history, and genealogy. As all the native writings in the first part are in the original Hawaian with translations, t form a considerable body of text which will be useful to the student of the language, quite apart from their value in the exposition of Hawaian religion. The whole work is very clearly and tastefully printed and a credit to the Museum Press. Srpney H. Ray. | € Soil Temperatures... ‘THE paper by Messrs. West, Edlefsen, and Ewing referred to below is an attempt to predict the probable temperature of any hour of any day. If the mean monthly temperatures of any place are known from previous records, it is possible to represent them by a Fourier series of the form Cyt on ea T=a+b cos (6—c)+d cos 2(6—e)+f cos 3(@—g)+ . . . where —T=temperature at time 6, a=mean annual temperature, b, c, etc.=constants. It is also found for normal days that the temperature at any given hour is a certain percentage of the mean daily temperature, © and that this percentage is practically constant irre- spective of ‘season. The Fourier series is used to predict the mean daily temperature, which is then multiplied by the appropriate percentage factor to obtain the temperature at the given hour. An arith- metical method, avoiding the use of the Fourier series, is also described. The results are fairly trust- worthy for arid regions, but not for humid areas where storms, etc., are frequent. i In Capt. Franklin’s third paper on soil temperatures (see ‘‘ Forecasting Frosts,’? NATURE, January 1, 1920,| p- 450) the variations in the ratio of temperature ranges at the 4-in. depth and the surface, =) are studied under a variety of weather conditions. The values vary widely, from o-19 in a very dry soil to 0-85 during heavy rains. The most common value is about 0-40. The influence of the soil-water on tem 1 “Determination of Normal Temperatures by Pine of the Loh ts i of the Seasonal Temperature Variations, and a Mo ph Record.” By F. L. West, N. E. Edlefsen, and S. Ewing. Journ. Agi Res., vol. xviii. (1920), p. 499. Set Ee ‘*The Effect of Tioather Changes on Soil Temperatures,” By T. B Franklin. Proce. Roy.:Soc. Edinburgh, vol. xl. (1920), p. 56. + Jury 15, 1920] NATURE 629 perature is very marked. The downward percolation of warm or cold rain from the surface to the 4-in. depth causes rapid changes in temperature, especially in sandy soils, when percolation is rapid. After drainage has ceased a rise in temperature may enable to begin again, owing to the diminishing viscosity Ww: ter with increasing temperature. The formation of a dry surface-mulch reduces the value of (Fs) wing to the low conductivity of dry soil. But the stual temperature at the 4-in. depth is not greatly iced by the poor conductivity of the dry soil. This attributed to the dry surface layers reaching a igher temperature owing to their lessened specific it, and this counteracts the effect of decreased con- activity. It is shown that a strong dry wind causes _ the temperature of the surface soil to fall considerably elow that of the air. The effect of frost is examined id a formula given for depth of soil frozen in _ terms of mean surface temperature and duration of ‘frost. A very close relation holds between the date _ of flowering of coltsfoot and the number of frosts for _ the two months previous to the date of flowering on open soil not covered with deep snow. It is shown also that strong warm west winds—associated with syclonic depressions—rapidly raise the temperature of h ¢ underground layers of soil in spring. B.A.K . Control of Insect Pests. ENGusH tomato-growers in the Lea Valley are ~ threatened with an annual loss of from 5!.—10l. _ per acre unless special remedial measures are adopted the glasshouse tomato moth, Polia (Hadena) oleracea. L. Lloyd (Monthly Circular of the Lea_ Vall and District Nurserymen’s and Growers’ Association, Ltd.) finds that spraying with lead arsenate for the destruction of the pest must be supplemented by trapping the caterpillars and moths and by destruction of the pup. The cater- illars can be trapped in old sacks, and ultimately tilled by boiling water, while the moths are attracted to wide-mouthed jars containing brown treacle and __ ale mixed with 1 per cent. of sodium fluoride. Emphasis is laid on the necessity for ascertaining that each control measure is effective. _ Several papers have recently been published dealing _ with the control of various ‘borers ’’ that infest crop _ trees. Attempts have been made to control the peach- _ borer by means of toxic gases derived from poisonous substances distributed on the soil round the base of the trees, E. B. Blakeslee (Bull. 796, U.S.A. Depart. _ Agric.) finds that the more usual toxic agents, viz. carbon bisulphide, carbon tetrachloride, sodium _eyanide, and naphthalene, are all unsuitable for _ various reasons, but that para-dichlorobenzene offers distinct possibilities for the purpose. The surface crust about the collar of the tree is broken, the _ required dose of poison (about 1 oz. per tree from 6-15 years old) distributed evenly about the trunk in a band 1-2 in. wide, and a covering of earth applied and moulded up. It is claimed that by this ~ method 94 per cent. of the larve can be destroyed. Much damage is wrought in the United States by the apple-tree borer, which usually takes two or three years to pass through its life-cycle. It is difficult to attack the larvae by means of poisonous sprays, and “mechanical devices are necessarily resorted to. F. S. Brooks (Farmers’ Bull. 675, U.S.A. Depart. Agric.) maintains that the most effective method of control is the old-fashioned practice of. ‘‘ worming” with a knife and a piece of wire, but recommends the use of carbon bisulphide when the burrows are obstructed NO. 2646, VOL. 105] and the larve cannot be reached by the wire. Egg- laying can be prevented by a thick coat of paint applied to the bark of the tree, or by means of wrap- pings of cloth or newspapers applied close enough to exclude the. adult female from the bark. The beetle can be killed by spraying the trees with arsenate of lead, as by this means their food is poisoned, but it is doubtful if this is profitable as a general rule. A most comprehensive account of the toon shoot and fruit borer (Hypsipyla robusta, Moore) is given by C. F. C. Beeson in the Indian Forest Records (vol. vii., part vii.). The stages of the insect, its life- history and habits, and studies of its seasonal history are fully described, and from the information thus gained the best methods of control are elucidated. The toon borer passes through five generations in the year; the first is spent in the flower, the second in the developing fruits, and the last three in the young shoots of the current season. The effect of this habit is that the first and second broods cause great injury to the seed crop, and in bad years may hinder seed- formation entirely, whilst the three later broods may completely nullify the season’s growth in young trees, and, in any case, they cause great delay in the development of the saplings. It is often of little use to make young plantations in the neighbourhood of old toon trees which are infested with the borer. The young trees are subject to attack from _ their second or third year onward, but may be somewhat protected by banding the trees: breast-high with sacking, and removing and destroying at intervals all the larvz and cocoons found inside the sack-bands. After the fruits are ripe it is advisable to cut out and burn all shoots that are attacked, and in bad cases a second pruning should be made during the cold weather. Scientific and Systematic Pomology.! oe may be taken as a sign of the development of research in fruit culture in this country, and of the interest which has been aroused in connection therewith among growers of fruit and progressive horticulturists generally, that the well-known firm of nurserymen, Messrs. George Bunyard and Co., Ltd., of Maidstone, has considered the time ripe for the issue of a new quarterly journal devoted exclusively to pomology. The editor, Mr. E. A. Bunyard, a member of the firm named, is recognised both as a practical grower of wide experience and as one of the foremost authorities on systematic pomology and pomological literature. Under his guidance the Journal of Pomology should without difficulty estab- lish itself as a publication of scientific value, meeting the needs of a branch of horticulture which has ad- vanced with rapid strides in its importance for the country economically and physiologically since the day when the late Mr. W. E. Gladstone advised farmers to grow fruit for jam production as a remedy for agricultural depression, and is at present none too well catered for in this respect. The contents of the first two numbers may appear to suggest that there is scarcely occasion yet for a periodical intended primarily to serve for scientific and systematic pomology in this country, some of the more important articles being reprints or abridgments of papers previously published in other journals. Such articles, however, as those by Miss Sutton on self- sterility in plums, cherries, and apples, and by Brooks and Bailey on silver-leaf disease, are of a ‘1 The Journal RA Pomology. Edited by Edward A. Bunyard. Vo 1. i. Nos. 1 and 2. aidstone: Geo. Bunyard and Co., Ltd.) Published Quarterly. Single Nes. 3s. 6¢.; Annual Subscription ros. 630 NATURE [JuLY 15, 1920 degree of interest to pomologists which justifies reproduction in a journal more likely to come under their notice than those in which they originally ap- peared. It is improbable, moreover, that with research bearing on fruit culture in active progress at such centres as Woburn, Long Ashton, and East Malling, as well as at Cambridge and the John Innes Institu- tion at Merton, there will be any dearth of material on the scientific side for future numbers. In addition to the articles mentioned, others of particular interest which have already appeared in the journal are those on ‘‘ Black Currant Varieties,”’ by R. G. Hatton; ‘Seedling Apples,’’ by the editor and Edward Laxton; ‘‘Insect Visitors to Fruit Blossom,’”’? by C. H. Hooper; and ‘‘The Recognition of Fruits,’? by H. E. Durham. Provided that the policy already adopted of the inclusion of reviews and short summaries of recent pomological research as well as of original papers is maintained, those whose interests are mainly centred on fruit culture should find this journal of much .service in keeping them in touch with the advance of knowledge in the subject—a matter which has not been easy hitherto owing to the diversity of the publications in which such work has appeared. University and Educational Intelligence. BirRMINGHAM.—At a Degree Congregation held on July 10 the Vice-Chancellor (Sir Gilbert Barling, Bart.) conferred the following degrees :—Doctor of Science: Frederick Challenger, Arthur Hubert Cox, Harold Ashley Daynes, and John Leslie Haughton. Doctor of Medicine: Gladys Mary Cooksey. Philo- sophiae Doctor (a degree new to this University) : William Hulse, Frederick Joseph Meggitt, and Leonard Johnston Wills. M.Sc. (Official): William Cramp, Arthur Robert Ling, Gilbert ‘Thomas Morgan, Samuel Walter Johnson Smith, and Richard Henry Yapp. M.Sc. (Ordinary): F. H. Clews, H. J. Collins, H. G. Evans, A. E. Goddard, F. B. Jenkins, L. J. Lambourn, E. W. Mason, K. N. Moss, A. H. Naylor, N. A. Nicholls, D. S. Newey, A. J. Nichol- son, G. N. Scott, H. J. Thompson, E. Tyler, and W. R. A. Weatherhead. Master of Surgery: B. T. Rose. In addition to these, 107 candidates were admitted to the degree of B.Sc. and 16 to the degree of M.B. The honorary degree of Master of Music was con- ferred on Sir Thomas Beecham and Francis Donald Tovey. Bristot.—The resignation of Prof. F. Francis as dean of the faculty of science is announced. Prof. A. M. Tyndall is to succeed him in the office, with Mr. P. Fraser as deputy dean. Prof. C. Lloyd Morgan, on relinquishing his chair, has been appointed emeritus professor of psychology and ethics. Dr. C. D. Broad has been appointed to the chair of philosophy. CAMBRIDGE.—Dr. T. M. Lowry, C.B.E., has been elected professor of physical chemistry in the Uni- versity. This is a first appointment to. a newly created chair. LiverPooL.—Dr. W. Mason has been appointed professor of engineering (strength of materials), Mr. C. O. Bannister professor of metallurgy, and Mr. W. H. Gilmour professor of dental surgery. Lonpon.—The King has been pleased to approve the appointment of Mr. Ernest Barker, fellow and NO. 2646, VOL. 105 | | other branches of science, and towards the publica- tutor. of New College, Oxford, to the office of Prin- — cipal of King’s College in succession to the late Dr. R, M. Burrows, o Applications are invited for the William Julius Mickle fellowship, which is awarded annually to the man or woman who, being resident in London and a graduate of the University, has, in the opinion of the Senate, done most to advance medical art or science within the preceding five years and shown conspicuous merit. The fellowship is of the value of at least 2001. Applications must reach the Principal Officer of the University by, at latest, the first post on October 1 next. MANCHESTER.—The King, on the recommendation of the Chancellor and Council of the Duchy of Lan- caster, has contributed 100 guineas to the appeal fund. The Manchester correspondent of the Times an- nounces that Mr. Maxwell Garnett, Principal of the College of Technology, has resigned, and is asking to be relieved of his duties at the end of the summer vacation. He adds:—‘tThere has for some time past been acute controversy between the Principal and the Education Committee regarding the former’s policy of raising the educational status of the college, which constitutes the Department of Technology in Manchester University. The Education Committee recently decided to limit the number of degree students and to admit a certain number of senior technical- school boys as whole-time students. In communi- cating this decision to candidates for admission to the degree courses, Mr. Garnett suggested the possibility of its reversal by the City Council. The Education Committee published its censure of this letter, and both the policy of the committee, which was repre- — sented in the debate as an emergency policy for a single vear, and the censure were endorsed by the City Council last week.’? Under Mr. Garnett’s guidance the educational work of the college has developed greatly, the number of matriculated students being now more — than six times greater than it was when he became Principal eight years ago. The demand for graduates — from the college is far greater than the supply, and ~ there has been a ready response to the appeal for funds for the purpose of extending its highest work. Mr. W. M. Cummina, hitherto of the British Dye- stuffs Corporation, Ltd., has been appointed senior lecturer in organic chemistry at the Royal Technical College, Glasgow. a Two Frecheville research fellowships, each of the © yearly value of 300l., tenable for one year, and pos- — sibly for a second year, are being offered by the © Imperial College of Science and Technology, South © Kensington. The fellowships are intended. to aid in — carrying out any investigation or research connected — with mining, mining geology, metallurgy, or the — technology of oil considered by the selection com- — mittee to be of sufficient use or promise. Applications, — in writing, giving particulars of the proposed inves- — tigations of candidates, should be made to the Secre- — tary of the College by, at latest, August 31 next. Tue following bequests, among others, were made by the late Mr. T. W. Backhouse, whose death was reported in Nature of May 13 (p. 335) :—5ol. to the - British Association; 7ool. to his trustees upon trust, — to apply the same as they in their absolute discretion may consider expedient towards the carrying on of the scientific calculations based upon observations and notes made by him in astronomy, meteorology, or | "Jury 15, 1920] NATURE 631 _ tion of them, any sum remaining over being given to the British Association; and all his astronomical om and drawings of Jupiter and Mars to the ) tish Astronomical Association. His trustees are to complete and publish the star maps for tracing meteor _ paths now in process of completion under the care and charge of Sir William Peck, of The Observatory, Edinburgh. _A SUMMER meeting of the Association of Technical Institutions will be held at Cambridge on Friday and _ Saturday, July 23-24. The proceedings will com- mence on the Friday at 10 a.m., when the president, _ the Marquess of Crewe, will take the chair. Papers will be read on Friday morning by Principal J. C. _ Maxwell Garnett on a national system of education and by Principal C. Coles on the necessity for close _ €0-operation between technical colleges and the uni- versities. On Saturday morning Principal C. L. Eclair-Heath will read a paper on the relations which should exist between the day continuation schools and _ the central technical college, and Principal L. Small one on adult education in relation to the work of technical schools. Resolutions dealing with adult education will be submitted at the conclusion of the reading of Principal Small’s paper. _ WE are notified by the Board of Education that the _ removal of the main offices of the Board from the Victoria and Albert Museum, South Kensington, to King Charles Street, Whitehall, is in progress, and will, it is hoped, be completed by the end of the present month. On and after July 26 the official _ address of the Board will be Whitehall, S.W.1. It is requested that only urgent communications shall be sent until after July 24, and that these shall be marked ‘‘Urgent’’ on the outside wrapper. The Medical Branch of the Board is: at Cleveland House, 19 St. James’s Square, S.W.1. The Pensions Branch is at the Science Museum, Imperial Institute Road, _ South Kensington, S.W.7. The Examinations Section of the Board is housed at 49 Cromwell Road, South ston, S.W.7. The office of Special Inquiries and s and the Library will remain for the present at the Victoria and Albert Museum. Visitors whose business solely concerns these branches should call at the addresses given above. Tue activity of the scientific society of a school may be taken as a measure of the interest aroused in scientific subjects and a sign of progressive teaching. ‘Clifton College occupies a re i position, judged by this standard, and its scientific society, founded so long ago as 1869, continues to foster the inborn aptitude of many young people for observation and experiment. We have before us a list of exhibits at a conversazione given by the society on July 8, and we do not hesitate to say that the demonstrations, apparatus, specimens, and collections shown would do credit to any scientific society. The demonstrations included wireless telegraphy and telephony, the arti- ficial formation of clouds, the fixation of nitrogen, the fractional distillation of petrol from crude petroleum, and other subjects, and the exhibits illustrated many interesting facts and phenomena of biological and physical science. The conversazione was held to show to parents and friends the work and resources of the scientific society, and we are sure that the eoreny must have been impressed by what was _ displayed. Clifton College is renowned among the public schools for its attention to science, and the recent conversazione shows that it is able to main- tain the high place gained for it by men like Wilson, Shenstone, Worthington, and Rintoul. “NO. 2646, VOL. 105 | Societies and Academies. LONDON. Royal Society, June 24.—Sir J. J. Thomson, presi- dent, in the chair.—Sir Ray Lankester: Some rostro- carinate flint implements and allied forms. A series of rostro-carinate flint implements is described and figured in this paper from various localities, including one from the Lower Paleolithic gravel of the valley of the Oise (France). It is shown that the form exhibited by ,the ‘‘ Norwich test specimen,’’ with . ventral plane, dorsal plane or platform, anterior rostrum, with dorsal carina or keel, is modified in some of the specimens here figured by the “ flaking away’’ of the ventral plane and by the hook-like curvature of the rostrum. A large Sub-Crag example is described, in which only one of the characteristic features of the type, namely, the great ventral plane, is retained, the implement serving as a very efficient ‘‘jack-plane.’? The evidence of the manufacture of these implements by a-series of humanly directed blows is indicated by the illustrative drawings.—Lord Rayleigh; A re-examination of the light scattered by gases in respect of polarisation. I.: Experiments on the common gases. Re-determinations are given of the relative intensity of the two polarisations in the light scattered at right angles by pure gases. The paper is chiefly concerned with developing. accurate experimental methods. The values obtained are as follows : Gas He No Air Og CO», N2O Intensity of weak com- ponent polarisation ... | 4°51 | 4°74| 5°68 | 10°r | 12°4| 16°1 (Strong component=100.) | —A, Mallock: Note on the influence of. temperature on the rigidity of metals. The experiments here described were carried out at the Davy Faraday Laboratory as a continuation of a somewhat similar set on the temperature-variations of Young’s modulus (see Proc. R.S., A, vol. xcv.). The method adopted in the present series depended on the determination of the periods of a torsion balance the restitutive couple of which was given by the rigidity of a speci- men of the metal tested at various temperatures. The coefficients of temperature-variation found for rigidity agreed with those for Young’s modulus in so far that in both cases the variation diminished as the melting point of the metal increased. The chief value, however, of the present experiments was in showing that the natural plasticity or internal friction of metals (which leads to what has sometimes been called hysteresis) was even more affected by tem- perature than were the coefficients of elasticity, and that the value of “rigidity’’ obtained from the observed periods was very appreciably affected by the variation of plasticity. For this reason the numerical results are not given in the paper, but the method of experiment is described and the nature of the errors introduced by the change of plasticity stated.— E. F. Armstrong and T. P. Hilditch: A _ study of catalytic actions at solid surfaces. V.: The rate of change conditioned by a nickel catalyst and its bear- ing on the law of mass-action. The hydrogenation of selected simple organic compounds containing one ethylenic linkage has been studied with reference to the indications of a linear relation between the amount of hydrogenation and time which were observed .in the case of mixtures of unsaturated glycerides (part i. of this series). It is now found that this relation, in the case of methyl and ethyl cinnamates, safrol, or anethol (when hydrogenated in the liquid state in presence of nickel at 140° or 180° C.), takes a linear 632 NATURE [ JULY 15, 1920 form for at least.60 per cent., and in most cases 80 to go per cent., of the whole action. The interpretation of the mechanism of the action which the authors deduced from the work on unsaturated glycerides thus receives experimental confirmation.—H. Jeffreys: Tidal friction in shallow seas. In a recent paper G. I. Taylor has shown that the friction of the tidal currents in the Irish Sea over the bottom causes enough dissipation of energy to account for about one-fiftieth of the known empirical secular accelera- tion of the moon. This suggests that other and larger shallow areas within strong tidal currents will contribute a still greater amount to the dissipation of energy, and in the present paper the chief shallow seas of the earth are treated separately. The greatest dissipation is found to take place in the Bering Sea, the Yellow Sea, and the Strait of Malacca. Alto- gether, enough is found to account for about 80 per cent, of the secular acceleration, leaving a balance to be explained by currents in fjords and along the open coast.—Prof. J. C. McLennan, J. F. T. Young, and H. J. C. Ireton: Arc spectra in vacuo and spark spectra in helium of various elements. (1) The vacuum arc spectra of antimony, bismuth, calcium, magnesium, silver, and copper, and the spark spectra in helium of antimony, bismuth, aluminium, cadmium, lead, magnesium, thallium, and tin, have been investigated in the region below A=1850 A.U. (2) The measurements of the arc spectra of antimony, bismuth, calcium, and selenium, and the spark spectra of antimony and lead, appear to be the first recorded for these elements in this region. (3) The work with the vacuum grating spectrograph has resulted in the extension of the vacuum arc spectrum of copper to about A=1216 A.U.—Prof. J. C. McLennan and A. C. Lewis: Spark spectra of various elements in helium in the extreme ultra-violet. In this investigation the spark spectra in helium of the elements silicon, tellurium, molybdenum, and zir- conium have been determined for the spectral region between A=1900 A.U. and A=1600 A.U.—K. H. Kingdon: Low-voltage ionisation phenomena in mercury vapour. (1) By the use of a magnetic field experimental proof has been given that when mercury-vapour atoms are bombarded with electrons possessing volt-velocities greater than 4-9, the atoms may be ionised by these collisions. (2) An attempt has been made to explain the experimental results of Davis and Goucher on the basis of the results ob- tained. (3) Arguments are presented for showing that the production of ions in mercury vapour at this voltage is not so definitely at variance with the Bohr theory as might at first be thought. (4) The experi- ments go to show that the low-voltage ionisation is not due to ionisation by successive impacts, but that perhaps, in order that a 4-9-volt collision should pro- duce ionisation, the velocity of the impinging electron ‘must bear some definite orientation with regard to the orbit of the electron which is to be ejected from the atom.—Sir George Greenhill: Electrification of an insulated lens and allied problems treated by the stream function.—C. Chree: Simultaneous values of magnetic declination at different British stations. A comparison is made of corresponding diurnal varia- tions of magnetic declination at Eskdalemuir and Kew observatories. Mean monthly, daily, and hourly values of declination at Eskdalemuir, Stonyhurst, Falmouth, and Kew are compared. The results are also given of the measurements of a large number of irregular declination changes at the several stations. It is found that the. differences between different stations increase with the amount of magnetic dis- turbance, and that-if accurate information is desired as to magnetic declination anywhere in the field, NO. 2646, VOL. 105 | observations taken on disturbed days should not be relied on. It is thus important that observatory records should be consulted before the results of field observations are accepted. A number of results are obtained as to the relative amplitudes of ir lar declination changes at the several observatories.— J. Mercer: Symmetrisable functions and their expan- sion in terms of biorthogonal functions. The purpose of this communication is to announce certain results relative to the expansion of a symmetrisable function x(s,t) in terms of a complete system of fundamental functions corresponding to x«(s,t), regarded as the kernel of a linear integral equation. An expansion of the function of positive type by which x(s,t) is symmetrisable is obtained and applied in two im- portant cases.—W. F. Sheppard: Reduction of error by linear compounding. The paper deals with the | general problem of improving an observed quantity which contains an unknown error by adding to it a linear compound (linear function) of other observed quantities, called auxiliaries, the coefficients in the added portion being chosen so as to make the mean square of error of the whole a minimum. This is a generalisation of the special problem of finding the improved value when the auxiliaries are the differ- ences of sufficiently high order of a set of quantities. The treatment of the problem is simplified bv a brief. statement of general theorems, and by a theory of coniugate sets of quantities. The object is to arrive at formule suitable for numerical caleulation.—G. B. Jeffery: Plane stress and plane strain in bipolar co- ordinates. The solution is given for a flat, elastic plate bounded bv two circles when under stresses applied over its boundaries. Curvilinear co-ordinates are employed, for which the co-ordinate curves form a double set of orthogonal coaxial circles. Important particular cases are: (1) A circular plate with an eccentric circular hole: (2) a semi-infinite plate bounded bv a straight edge with a circular hole: and (2) an infinite plate containing two circular holes. The differential equation of the stress function is solved for these co-ordinates, the stress function is obtained for given arbitrary stresses applied over the boundaries, and expressions are deduced for the stresses and displacements produced at any point of — the plate.—R. O. Street: Irish Sea: Its currents and its energy. Certain general relations are obtained from the Laplacian The tidal motion in the » dynamical theory connecting the form of the tidal — wave and the magnitude of the surface current on a sea of limited extent rotating with the earth. In continuation of a former paper, these are applied to the recorded data for the Irish Sea, and the agree- ment is found to be fairly satisfactory. A second approximation to the hydrodynamical problem for a rotating tidal basin is then effected, and by means of — the relations thus obtained the mean rates of transfer of water and of energy across certain vertical sec- tions placed transverse to the direction of the flood-— stream in the Irish Sea are computed from the exist-— ing hydrographical data. The results show that there is a residual flow of water northwards through — this region of such magnitude that the Irish Sea ~ would empty itself through the North Channel about — three times a year, while the tidal flow of energy from all causes which takes place into this area is at — the mean rate of about 6x 107" ergs per second. result of this estimate of the flow of energy into the area is in general agreement with an independent one— made recently by Mr. G. I. Taylor (Phil. Trans., A, vol. ccxx., I919, PP. 1-33). this energy is all dissipated, the result would be about 250 times the viscous dissipation calculated directly by the writer in a previous paper (Roy. Soc. Proc., A, Tf we could assume that Jury 15, 1920] NATURE 633 vol. xciii., 1917, pp. 348-50), on the assumption of _ smooth laminar tidal motion throughout the region, —W. G. Palmer; The catalytic activity of copper. a Part i. Simple apparatus is described for the * measurements by chronograph records of the reaction _ velocities at diiferent temperatures of a_ typical | Catalytic action—that of the dehydrogenation of alcohol by copper. Details are given of the methods used in Preparing a reproducible contact material. After oxidation and reduction a second time the een that an activity of unchanged value. It ; n that copper prepared electrolytically is quite m4 ive as a catalyst, in spite of great variation in __ the conditions of its deposition. Copper reduced from its oxide was active at temperatures above 200° C., ‘but this activity depended on the temperature at _ which the metal was reduced from its oxide.—S. ‘Barratt : The origin of the ‘cyanogen ’’ bands. (1) Ob- ; servations have been made of the spectra of the of a number of gases containing carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen. (2) The cyanogen bands are stron ly developed in the coal-gas-nitrous _ oxide flame. (3) Evidence has been obtained that are entirely absent from the hydrogen-nitrous he flame if ail traces of carbon are excluded, and b, $k: appears to follow that the presence of carbon is essential to their production. (4) The appearance of cyanogen bands is, under appropriate conditions, a more delicate test for carbon than that of any of the other bands associated with that element. “On the other hand, - developed when both carbon and nitrogen are present. _ (5) The conclusion of Grotrian and Runge that the anogen spectrum is to be attributed to nitrogen is pt to rest on assumptions which are not con- firmed in the present investigation. (6) The cyanogen es oy provides a very delicate test for the presence compounds of nitrogen when admitted in the form of a ~s to hydrocarbon flames burning in air, since nitrogen does not appear in ordinary to. be effective in producing the bands in such flames. (7) The intensity of the cyanogen bands when carbon compounds are to the hydrogen-nitrous oxide flame bears no simple relation to the amount of carbon thus a Horton and Ann C. Davies: The effects of electron collisions with atmospheric neon. The “critical velocities for electrons in neon were inves- f+ Aaa by methods similar to those employed with he and argon. It was found that neon differed from these gases in showing more than one critical both for radiation and for ionisation, these critical velocities being detected under conditions such as to preclude the possibility of any of them being due to the displacement or removal of a second elec- ‘tron from the atom.—A. G. Bennett: The occurrence of diatoms on the skin of whales. With an appendix by E. W. Nelson. The author states that the skin of certain fin whales and blue whales captured in sub- Antarctic waters is discoloured by a superficial film of a buff colour, resembling in tint the coloured bands often observed on floating ice. Whales thus affected are nearly always fat. Microscopic examina- tion showed that this film consists of immense numbers of diatoms. The fat individuals are probably those which have spent some time in the far South, where the supply of whale-food is very abundant during the summer. There is reason to believe that _ the thin individuals are recent arrivals from warmer water. The skin of these thin specimens appears to be free from any noticeable film of diatoms; their light parts are thus white instead of having the yellow tinge which has given rise to the name * sulphur- bottom ’’ applied by the whalers to whales in which the light parts are yellowish. The cutaneous film | NO. 2646, VOL. 105 | this spectrum is not necessarily. of Antarctic ‘‘sulphur-bottoms’’ may be composed of the same diatoms as those which form the coloured bands on ice.—R. W. Wood: An extension of the Balmer series of hydrogen and spectroscopic pheno- mena of very long vacuum tubes.—F. W. Aston and T. Kikuchi: Moving striations in neon and helium. When an induction-coil spark is passed through a spectrum tube containing neon, and the discharge observed with a rotating mirror, it is seen to consist of bright striations moving from the anode towards the cathode. When first observed the velocity was found to be roughly that of sound in the gas. Further investigations now show that this is only a limiting case of a very complex phenomenon. The velocity is found to decrease with increase of pressure, and also to depend on the bore of the tube. The effect of change of temperature has been investigated, and curves are given showing that at constant volume the effect is much greater than the expansion co- efficient. At constant pressure the temperature effect comes in only at high temperatures, when it is probably due to impurities liberated from the tube. Helium is found to give much the.same sort of results as neon. Experiments with mercury vapour and other gases are also described. No satisfactory theoretical conclusions have yet been arrived at, and further experiments are in progress. Geological Society, June 23.—Mr. R. D. Oldham, president, in the chair.—O. Holtedahl: The Scan- dinavian mountain problem. A brief account is given of the history of research regarding the Scandinavian mountain problem, which deals with the superposition of highly metamorphosed, often gneissose, rocks upon slightly altered fossiliferous Cambro-Silurian sediments. From a consideration of the phenomena in the mountain-belt of deformation it is inferred that the age of the displaced materials depends upon the angle of inclination of the thrust-planes and their depth. Though the thrusts have extended downwards for a considerable distance, they have not generally, in the author’s opinion, reached below the level of the pre-Cambrian plane of denudation, and no true Archean rocks could, as a rule, have been tapped. In support of these conclusions some of the tectonic features of two districts are indicated : (1) Finmarken, in Northern Norway, and (2) the southern part of the Sparagmite area near Randsfjord, in South- Central Scandinavia. Brief descriptions are given of the rock-groups in Finmarken and their structural relations, Special attention is directed to the struc- ture of the Alten district, where the main tectonic feature is a highly undulating thrust which does not intersect the pre-Cambrian floor. Regarding the Randsfjord district, the original order of succession of the strata is indicated from the Holmia shale to the close of the overlying Cambro-Silurian sediments. Pressure from the north in Late Silurian time developed imbricate $tructure in these sediments, but such displacements are not supposed to have affected the pre-Cambrian floor. As investigation proceeds it seems to become increasingly evident (1) that the highly metamorphic sedimentary rocks of the middle and northern parts of the eastern mountain-belt are mainly of earlier Ordovician age, while those west of the Sparagmite region in the south-western mountain district are chiefly of Silurian age, and (2) that the igneous materials associated with these highly meta- morphosed sediments are younger intrusive rocks. Aristotelian Society, July 5.—Prof. Wildon Carr in the chair.—Dr. W. F. Geikie-Cobb: Mysticism, true and false. The application of the term ‘‘mystic’’ to current psychic phenomena was unwarranted. True mysticism was an immediate apprehension of the one 634 NATURE [JULY 15, 1920- as the good rather than the true; it possessed a posi- tive, personal, unquestioning quality which is a neces- sary feature of all moral valuation, and belonged to the world of the ‘excessive,’ and therefore was, per se, beyond logic. All attempts to communicate the mystic experience were limited to the use of symbols, and, therefore, by their very nature doomed to partial failure. Those symbols, however, were not selected arbitrarily by the conscious mind, but drawn from the storehouse of the unconscious. Mysticism differs from ‘‘extroversion’’ in that its supreme interest is in the one who is at once another and the ground of the mystic’s being. The truth of mysticism is implied in the truth of the self as tran- scendental, a truth without which the empirical self loses most of its value. But mysticism is not adequately defined as a form of feeling, and what has led to its being so-defined is the fact that not thought, but love, is the distinguishing function of all true mystic experience. If an air of unreality surrounds the utterances of mystics, it is only for those who are strangers to love. He who loves eternal beauty holds its transitory appearances as of lesser worth. Dante, for example, at the height of his vision saw love enthroned, and declared that it was love which moved the sun and the other stars. Before this supreme experience of love it would seem that all discursive thought was foredoomed to silence as a worshipper in the outer court of réality. DUBLIN. Royal Dublin Society, June 22.—Dr. F. E. Hackett in the chair.—Prof. W. Brown and P. O’Callaghan : The change in the rigidity of nickel wire with mag- netic fields. Transverse magnetic fields, both direct and alternating, have the reverse effect on the rigidity of nickel that direct or alternating longitudinal mag- netic fields have; that is, for the former there is an increase, and for the latter a decrease.—Prof. G. H. Carpenter; Injurious insects observed in Ireland durin the years 1916-17-18. The paper contains records o injury to apple fruitlets by capsid bugs, as recently noticed in England, and also by beech weevils (Orchestes fagi), as observed by Theobald in Devon- shire in 1912. There are also accounts of the feeding of Ptinus tectus in stores of casein and in carpets.— A. G. G. Leonard and Agnes Browne: Some deriva- tives of nitrotoluidine (4-nitro-2-amido- 1 -methyl- benzene). ‘The following compounds obtained by the diazotisation of nitrotoluidine [NH, : Me /NO,=1: 2:5] and suitable couplings have been described: Nitro- methylphenylazo-6-naphthol, bright red needles, m. p. 204° C.; nitromethylbenzenediazoamino - 0 - toluene, yellow needles, m. p. 133° C.; nitromethylbenzene- diazoamino-p-toluene, yellow hexagonal plates, m. p. 131° C.; nitromethylaminobenzene-p-sulphonic acid, yellow amorphous substance, m. p. 129° C.; methyl- nitrodiazoamino-p-nitrobenzene, yellow amorphous powder, m. 118° C.; and 2-methyl-5-nitro-2’ : 4/- dihydroxyazobenzene, yellow amorphous powder, m. p. 234° C.—The late Prof. McClelland and the Rev. H. V. Gill: An investigation into the causes of the self- ignition of ether-air mixtures. When a mixture of ether and air is allowed to expand suddenly into an evacuated tube 3 ft. long and of about 3 in. diameter, it is found to ignite. This ignition is often followed by an explosion which may shatter the tube. The authors describe experiments made to determine the temperatures at different parts of the tube when pure air is used instead of the mixture. A thermo-couple was employed. The increase of temperature fol- lowing on the inrush of air was found to be a maxi- mum near the closed end of the tube, and to decrease in positions further from the end. The length of the tube has an important effect on the rise of tempera- NO. 2646, VOL. 105 | ture. In the case of a tube 3 ft. long the temperature reached was 193° C. From results arrived at by other methods it appears that this temperature is sufficient — to cause the ignition of ether-air mixtures. Theoretical considerations were dwelt on. It is proposed to inves- tigate further certain points of interest connected with this effect. Paris. Academy of Sciences, June 28.—M. Henri Deslandres in the chair.—L. De Launay: The course of the Coal Measures in the Central Massif and at its edges. An attempt to deduce some general considerations upon which experimental borings can be placed in the Paris basin.—L. Maquenne and kK. Demoussy: A case favour- able to the action of copper on vegetation. A study of the influence of traces of copper salts on the water- culture of lettuce, peas, and wheat.—Em, Bourquelot and H. Heérissey: The presence in the melilot and woodruff of glucosides furnishing coumarin under the hydrolysing action of emulsin. The fresh plants (Melilotus officinalis), extracted with boiling water, gave a solution containing traces only of free coumarin, but the same liquid after treatment with dilute sulphuric acid gave crystals of coumarin on distillation, proving that the coumarin was combined, . probably as a glucoside. The plant was shown to contain an enzyme also capable of hydrolysing the glucoside. Similar results were obtained with Asperula odorata,—A. Righi: Relativity and a scheme for a decisive experiment.—Ch, Guillaume ; Values of the expansions of standard nickel-steels. In the preparation of nickel-steels certain amounts of manganese and carbon are necessarily present. For the standard of reference a nickel-steel containing 0-4 per cent, manganese and o-1 per cent. carbon has been chosen, and the effects of varying amounts of these elements upon the expansion have been based on this asatype. The results are condensed in two curves repre- senting the values of the two coefficients, a.. and B,, of the equation of expansion.—G. J. Rémoundos; The modulus and zeroes of analytical functions.—J. Chazy : The course of the movement in the problem of three bodies when the time increases indefinitely.—E. Belot ; The origin of solar and stellar heat.—A, Véronnet : The temperature of formation of a star in an in- definite homogeneous nebula._-_M. Gouineau; Verifica- tion of the thermo-electricity of liquid mercury. C. Benedicks has recently proved experimentally the existence of a new thermo-electric effect produced in a homogeneous metallic circuit by an asymmetrical distribution of temperatures. The results verify and complete those of M. Benedicks.—A. Sellerio: The © analysis of three galvanomagnetic effects. Confirma- tion of a new effect.—M. Audant: Contribution to the study of the critical state of ethyl ether. Studies on the variations of the critical temperatures with the tube-filling and on the critical -opalescence.—M. Pauthenier: The ratio of the absolute retardations in the Kerr phenomenon for different wave-lengths in the case of nitrobenzene, Application of the method of | instantaneous charges to carbon bisulphide. The ratio of the absolute retardations in both carbon bisulphide and nitrobenzene is —2 if the times of charge are sufficiently short.—E, Damour: The application value — (valeur d’usage) of combustibles. This value is in-— versely proportional to the weights of two com-— bustibles required to produce the same thermal effect” in a given furnace. Since the efficiency depends on F the nature of the fuel, the application value is not — measured by the calorific value alone. The tempera-— ture of combustion is an important factor in deter-_ mining the price of a fuel.—R. Dubrisay : The applica-_ tion of a new method of physico-chemical analysis to— the study of double salts. The method is based on ¥; JULY 15, 1920] 2 ; a ; NATURE 635 the’ measurement of miscibility temperatures with» phenol. The miscibility temperatures of certain pairs of salts follow very nearly an additive rule; other salts show marked deviations, and for these the exist- ence of double salts in solution appears probable.— MM. Lespieau and Bourguel: The production of true acetylene hydrocarbons starting from epidibromhydrin. Compounds of the type CH,:CBr-CH,R are readily _ obtained by the interaction of a-epidibromhydrin and a magnesium allyl derivative, and from these by three simple reactions good yields of substituted acetylenes, HC:C-CH,R, are produced. Full details of the pre- paration of normal pentine (n-propylacetylene) by this method are given.—E. Chaput: Remarks on the réle of dislocations in the tectonic of the Céte d’Or.— P. Bonnet: The movements of the seas at the limit of the Permian and the Trias in the geosynclinals of Eurasia.—G. M. Stanoievitch: The aeroplane and hail. Suggestions for the prevention of hailstorms by aeroplanes.—M. Nobécourt: The anatomical structure of the tubercles of the Ophrydew.—G. Mangenot : The _ evolution of the chromatophores and the chondriome in the Floridee.—P. Guérin and Ch, Lormand: The ee rs action of a certain number of vapours.— M. Lapicque and Brocq-Rousseu; Marine alge as food for the horse. An account of an experiment on two horses in full work. The oats in the ration were gradually replaced by seaweed (Laminaria flexi- eaulis), and the horses worked normally for twenty days on food from which oats were absent. Then the horses were put to extra heavy work for three days, still on hay and seaweed, and their condition was as _ good as that of horses doing the same work on the usual food, hay, straw, and oats.—M. Gautiez: The influence of the attitude of the body on respiration.— A. @Arsonyval: Remarks on the preceding communica- tion.—J. Amar: Attitudes of the body and respiration. Walking on the front of the foot, head thrown back, allows large and deep respirations. Walking on the heels has a contrary effect, generally harmful to the health.—_R. Wurmser: The action of chlorophyll on radiations of different wave-lengths.—A. L. Herrera : The imitation of cells, tissues, cell-division, and the Structure of protoplasm with’ calcium fluosilicate. Confirmation of the researches of MM. Gautier and Clausmann on the biological importance of fluorine. Calcium fluosilicate produced by the double decomposi- tion of an alkaline silicate and potassium bifluoride in presence of calcium chloride and water, if the diffusion of the soluiions is very slow, gives remark- able imitations of the structure of protoplasm, natural cells, and their division. These imitations can be studied, stained, and preserved by the usual histo- Ive eee processes.—C. Pérez: A new type of Epicarid, Rhopalione wuromyzon, sub-abdominal parasite of Ostracotheres spondyli.—]. Dragoiu and M. Fauré- et: Development of the aerial canals and the histogenesis of the pulmonary epithelium in the sheep. —W. R. Thompson: Cyrillia angustifrons, parasite of a terrestrial Isopod, Metaponorthus pruinosus.—P. Thomas and A. Chabas: The estimation of tyrosin and the dibasic amino-acids in the proteids of yeast.— A. Mayer, H. Magne, and L. Plantefol: The toxic action of dichloroethyl sulphide.—A. Besredka: ‘An attempt at the purification of therapeutic sera.— F. Ladreyt: Histological polymorphism of certain epithelial neoplasms and the relations between these inflammatory neoformations to.cancerous tumours. SYDNEY. © Linnean Society of New South Wales, April 28.—Mr. J. J. Fletcher, president, in the chair.—G. H. Hardy: Synonyms, notes, and descriptions of Australian flies of the family Asilidz. As a result of work done since NO. 2646, VOL. 105 | | the revision of Australian species of this family by Miss Ricardo in 1912-13, it has become possible to establish the identity of many of the species which were not identified at the time. The present paper deals almost entirely with the genus Neiotamus. Of the forty-seven species usually placed in sub-genera of this genus, twenty are dealt with and placed under twelve species; two additional species are descriped as new.—F. Muir: A new genus of Australian Delph- acidze (Homoptera). Most, if not all, of the described Australian Delphacide are from eastern States. Of the fourteen genera recorded as Australian the author considers only one as entogenic. The genus described as new in this paper is from King George’s Sound, South-West Australia, and is regarded as entogenic.— Dr. C. P. Alexander: An undescribed species of Clyto- cosmus, Skuse (Tipulidez, Diptera). The genus Clyto- cosmus was proposed by Skuse in 1890, and has remained monotypic until now, the type species being C. Helmsi from Kosciusko. A second species is here described as- new from Ulong, on the Dorrigo table- land. Books Received. A Text-Book of Organic Chemistry. By E. de B. Barnett. Pp. xii+380. (London: J. and A. Churchill.) 15s. net. Johnston’s New Era School Atlas. Pp. 40. (Edin- burgh: W. and A. K. Johnston, Ltd.; London: Mac- millan and Co., Ltd.) 1s. net. A Orographical, Regional, Economic Atlas. Part i.: British Isles. Pp. 32. (Edinburgh: W. and A. K. Johnston, Ltd.; London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd.) Is. 6d. net. ( Notes on Dynamics: With Examples and Experi- mental Work. By T. Thomas. Pp. 123. (London: Crosby Lockwood and Son.) 6s. net. The Nomenclature of Petrology. By Dr. A. Holmes. Pp. v+284. (London: T. Murby and Co.) 12s. 6d, net. The Botany of Iceland. Edited by Dr. L. K. Rosenvinge and Dr. E. Warming. Vol. ii., part 1. Pp. 248+5 plates. (Copenhagen: J. Frimodt; London: J. Wheldon and Co.) ’ The Life and Work of Sir Jagadis C. Bose (an Indian Pioneer of Science). By Prof. P. Geddes. Pp. xii+259. (London: Longmans, Green, and Co.) 16s. net. Meddelelser fra Kommissionen for Havundersggel- ser. Serie Fiskeri. Bind 5, No. 9, 1919. Investiga- tions as to the Effect of the Restriction on Fishing during the War on the Plaice of the Eastern North Sea. By Dr. A. C. Johansen and Dr. K. Smith. Pp. 53. Serie Fiskeri. Bind 6, No. 1, 1920. On the Occurrence of the Post-larval Stages of the Herring and the ‘‘ Lodde ’’ (Clupea harengus, L., and Mallotus villosus, O. F. M.) at Iceland and the Faeroes. By P. Jespersen. Pp. 24. (Kobenhavn: C. A. Reitzel.) ; ; : Fisheries. England and Wales. Ministry of Agri- culture and Fisheries. Fishery Investigations. Series ii.: Sea Fisheries. Vol. iv., No. 3. Report on the Scales of some Teleostean Fish, with special reference to their Method of Growth. By G. W. Paget. Pp. 24+4 plates. 3s. 6d. net. Series ili. : Hydrography. Vol. i.: The English Channel. Part 3: The Section from the Isle of Wight to Havre. Review of the Physical and Chemical Properties of the Surface Waters, and the Variations of these Pro- perties from August, 1904, to December, 1918, in Comparison with Corresponding Variations on the Sections discussed in parts 1 and 2 of this volume. 636 NATURE [JuLy 15, 1920 By Dr. E. C. Jee. Pp. 24. 3s. net. Series iii. W. W. Westcott. Seventeenth edition. In 2 vols. Hydrography. Vol. i.: The English Obensi Vol. i. Pp. xxxix+r115. (London: H. K. Lewis and Part The Section from Newhaven to Caen. | Co., Ltd.) 27s. net. Review of the Physical and Chemical Properties of British Museum (Natural History). Economic the Surface Waters, and the Variations of these Pro- | Series, No. 1. The House-fly as a Danger to perties from November, 1903, to May, 1912, in the | Health. By Major E. E. Austen. Pp. 20. 3d. English Channel from Newhaven to the Bay of the Seine _By Dr: Be: Ci ee. Pp. 262): 138, / net, Series iii.: Hydrography. Vol. iv.: The North Sea. Part 1: From the River Tyne towards the Naze of Norway. Review of the Variations of the Physical and Chemical Properties of the Waters of the North Sea, together with Observations on the Dogger Bank. By Dr. E. C. Jee. Pp. ror. 12s. net. (London: H.M. Stationery Office.) On Gravitation and Relativity : Lecture delivered on June 12, 1920. By Dr. R. A. Sampson. Pp, 24. (Oxford: At the Clarendon Press.) 2s. net. Caithness and Sutherland. By H. F. Campbell. Pp, ix+168. (Cambridge: At the University Press.) 4s. 6d. net. Kirkcudbrightshire and Wigtownshire. By W. Learmonth. Pp. ix+149. (Cambridge: At the Uni- versity Press.) 4s. 6d. net. Creation: Viewed by the Light of Modern Science. A Lecture given by W. Hackney, 1875. Pp. vi+29. (London: N. G. Hackney.) Heredity and Social Fitness : A Study of Differential Mating in a Pennsylvania Family. By Dr. W Key. Pp. 102. (Washington: Carnegie Institution.) The Inscriptions at Copan. By S. G. Morley. Pp. xii+643+33 plates. (Washington: Carnegie Institution.) Department of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Weather Bureau. Annual Report of the Weather Bureau for the Year 1917. Part 3: Meteorological Observations made at the Secondary Stations during the Calendar Year 1917. Pp. 360. (Manila.) Union of South Africa. Department of Mines and Industries. Geological Survey. Memoir No. 13: Mica in the Eastern Transvaal. By A. L. Hall. Pp. 95+xviii plates. (Johannesburg.) 7s. 6d. Type Ammonites. By S. Buckman. Part xxii. Pp. 17-18+.16 plates. (London : W. Wesley and Son.) Unconscious Memory. By S. Butler. Third edition. Pp. xxxix+186. (London: A. C. Fifield.) 8s. net. Luck, or Cunning, as the Main Means of tie gan Modification? An Attempt to Throw Additional Light upon Darwin’s Theory of Natural Selection. By S. Butler. Second edition. Pp. 282. (London: A. C. Fifield.) 8s. 6d. net. The Assessment of Physical Fitness by Correlation of Vital Capacity and Certain Measurements of the Body. By Prof. G. Dreyer, in collaboration with G. F. Hanson. Pp. xi+115. (London: Cassell and Co., Ltd.) tos. net. A Geographical Bibliography of British Ornithology from the Earliest Times to the End of 1918. By W. H. Mullens, H. Kirke Swann, and Rev. F. C. R. Jourdain: Part v. Pp. 385-480. (London: Witherby and Co.) 6s. net. Department of the Interior. Bureau of Education. Statistics of State School Systems, 1917-18. By H. R. Bonner. Pp. 155. (Bulletin No. 11, 1920.) (Washing- ton: Government Printing Office.) , The Tides and Tidal Streams. By Dawson. Pp, 43+ viii plates. (Ottawa: of the Naval Service.) Cocoa and Chocolate: Their History from Planta- tion to Consumer. By A. Knapp. Pp. xii+210. (London: Chapman and Hall, Ltd.) 12s. 6d. net. The Extra Pharmacopceia of Martindale and West- cott. Revised by Dr. W. H. Martindale and Dr. NO. 2646, VOL. 105] Br WB. Department Being the Halley 6d. . . Economic Series, No. 3. and Domestic Animals. 4d. Fleas as a Menace to Man By J. Waterston. Pp. 20, Economic Series, No. 4. Mosquitoes and their Relation to Disease. By F. W. Edwards. Second edition. Pp. 19. 4d. Economic Series, No. 6. Species of Arachnida and Myriopoda (Scorpions, Spiders, Mites, Ticks, and Ceniipedes) Injurious to Man. By S. Hirst. Second edition, Pp. 59+3 plates. 1s. Economic Series, No. 8. Rats and Mice as Enemies of Mankind. By M. A. C. Hinton. Second edition. Pp. x+67+2 plates. ts. Museum (Natural History).) Diary of Societies. THURSDAY, Jory 15. Roya Society or MEDICINE (Dermatology Section), at 5. Cuapwick Pustic Lecture (in Surveyors’ Institution), at 5.r5.—Dr. N. White: Health Conditions in Eastern Europe—Typhus a Serious Menace. ROnTGEN Society (at v Aetng College), at 9.—Dr. W. D. Coolidge? Address (Special Open Meeting CONTENTS. PAGE Medical Research. By Prof. G. Elliot Smith, FIRS. 0s. we ee . . 605 Intellectual Stock- ‘taking. By H. "WG ae OOF Petroleum Geology. ye --Miloer. oo eee ee Fuel Problems. By J. S. Bio a8 phe Oe - Hurter and Driffield. By joe Ae ee, Out Bookshelf 3.2 0-052 1930 «26: Pee Wao Letters to the Editor:— The Separation of the Isotopes of Chlorine. —D, L Ss. Chapman, F.R. gy 611 Anti-Gas Fans,—Hertha Ares 3 Prof. A. Allmand 612 The Stretching of Rubber in Free Baie Dr. Henry P. Stevens; W. H. Dines, F.R.S. 613 Notes on the Habits of the Tachinid Fly, pr (Miltogramma) conica.—Oswald H. Latter . 614 - Temperature Variations at 10,000 ft.—C. K. M. Douglas. 5.5 Pe ee ee 614 The Brent Valley ‘Bird Sanctuary. —Wilfred Mark Webb (005.0. ee 614 Researches on Growth of Plants. faites oc: By Sir Jagadis Chunder Bose, F. RS ee 615 Isotopes and Atomic Weights. (Illustrated.) By Dr: W:; Aston... 0s Peete eet ee 617 Obituary :— Major-Gen. William Crawford Coa M.G, 620 NOtGO vos ee ee ee Y Our Astronomical Column :— An Easy Method of Finding Latitude .... ... 625 Increasing the Photographic Power of Telescopes . . 625 A New Spectropyrheliometer and Solar Measurements made: witht: i294 eke ees Ren ae en 625 British Association: “Subjects for Discussion at the Cardiff Meeting <2.) ii owe tees O86 Museums Association Annual Conference Maps a fk) The University of Ecipbarene New Science _ Buildings |... 5.5... 2.37 (5) 449 As ie ee 627 Lessons from the Smithsonian Mea 627 The Religion and Origin of the Hawaian Peopie. Ae By Sidney Ai. Rayo ee ee ‘ 6 Soil Temperarineer By B. | is « Cape me 6 (iain eed eae Control of Insect Pests ‘2 "? 29 ee . 629 Scientific and Systematic Pomology ..... - 629 University and Educational Intelligence. . . . . 630 Societies and ‘Academies... . i... . "y Wierae ae sae eae (London: British NATURE oe _ THURSDAY, JULY 22, 1920. Editorial and Publishing Offices: MACMILLAN & CO., LTD., ST. MARTIN’S STREET, LONDON, W.C.2. Advertisements and business letters should be addressed to the Publishers. Editorial communications to the Editor. Telegraphic Address: PHUSIS, LONDON. Telephone Number: GERRARD 8830. Aerial Navigation and Meteorology. ETEOROLOGY has been international ever since it became a science. From the first congress of directors of meteorological institutes at Vienna in 1873, meteorologists have been en- gaged in standardising methods of observation and exposure of instruments, and in devising codes for the transmission of observations by telegraph in order to compress as much valuable information as possible in the small space available for transmission at moderate cost. So the introduction of upper-air data, though strongly recommended by those who wanted to substitute calculation for “rule of thumb,” had to fight its way against other useful and more easily acces- sible information of the older kind. The last international code, fixed at Rome in 1913 after long correspondence and discussion, kept the morning message at four groups of five figures, and allotted only one figure to upper-air data— direction of high cloud—in addition to the cus- tomary figure for weather or state of the sky. For the benefit of aerial navigation, the results of pilot-balloon ascents were telegraphed by many European observatories to the central station at Lindenberg. Funds for the telegraphic distribution of these data and of those of soundings of the atmosphere by means of kites or cable balloons were usually lacking. The great war has changed all this; aerial navigation demanded quick and detailed informa- ‘tion, especially about low cloud, visibility, and wind velocity in free air. Many reporting stations were erected and connected to central offices by telephone or wireless. Meteorologists sprang up from the ground, the observational hours were anultiplied, and no one considered the cost. The result lies before us in the form of NO. 2647, VOL. 105] | Paris in October, Annexe G of the Convention for the Regulation of Aerial Navigation,! the object of which is to substitute legal regulation for free international co-operation. The prominent features are :— (1) Regulation of the collection and dissemina- tion of meteorological information—introduction of four observational hours instead of two or three; of short-period (three to four hours) and route forecasts (six hours) on one hand, and of long- period forecasts (two or three days) on the other, besides the normal forecasts (twenty to eee hours). (2) Extension of the number of groups in the reports from individual stations to a central office from four to six for all stations, and from four to any number between twelve and forty-four for stations observing upper-air wind, temperature, and humidity. (3) Introduction of new codes for the new in- formation and several of the customary data. Annexe G has been discussed at a meeting in London of members. of the pre-war International Meteorological Committee, and again at the Con- ference of Directors of Meteorological Institutes at 1919; but definite resolutions: were postponed. We have reason to think, how- ever, that the following remarks express the opinion of a large majority of Continental meteor- ologists and several of their British colleagues. There is practically no difference of opinion about the necessity of reorganisation and central- isation of the collection and dissemination of meteorological information. Standard observa- tional hours, quick transmission of the reports to the national centre, exchange of collective reports between centres with a maximum distance of 1500 km. within an hour and a half of the observation, followed by selections from these reports sent out over world-wide ranges by a few high-power wireless stations within three hours of the observation, is a good, but not altogether new, scheme. Its complete realisa- tion will be hampered only by the unsatisfactory state of communication by telegraph or telephone in some countries. The proposed simultaneous transmission of several of the national collective reports may cause the receiving stations to. miss part of them; successive transmission may take more time than the convention grants; but these are only technical details: the principle is all right. Differentiation of forecasts also is neces- sary, but it has to be adapted to local circum- stances. 1 * Air Ministry. Aérienne (13 Octobre, 1919). Convention Navigation (October 13, 1919).” Pp. 48. Office, 1920.) Cmd. 670. Price rs. net. Convention portant Réglementation de la Navigation ae the Regulation of Aerial (London: H.M. ener oe 638 NATURE [JULY 22, 1920 Appendix III. mentions, in addition to the observations of physical quantities like wind, pressure, temperature, and humidity, no fewer than seven kinds of weather phenomena (fog, clouds, precipitation, visibility, etc.), and only as additional and facultative do we find wind, temperature, and humidity in the upper air, in spite of the fact that knowledge of the latter data is essential for a real prediction of weather phenomena, whereas the most minute description of present weather does not form a guarantee. against sudden changes. Some years ago it might have been urged that sufficiently recent upper- air data were not available—we have shown, how- ever, in Holland that the aeroplane is an excel- lent substitute for the kite or the cable balloon in almost any weather, and hence this excuse is no longer permissible. In this respect Appendix III. almost looks like a step backwards. Certainly the multitude of codes introduced by European meteorological institutes since the war is a nuisance, but it may be taken as a symptom of the general dislike of the codes prescribed in Appendix IV. These include units, like the millibar, unfamiliar to the majority of Continental meteorologists (unless in purely scientific work), and change codes for the trans- mission of the usual elements without any real gain for practical purposes, and they do not use sufficient economy with the room available in the telegrams. A few specimens may illustrate this. Wind direction is given in two figures as usual, but in a scale of 1 to 72 instead of 1 to 32; this means that an accuracy of 5° is claimed. Every meteorologist knows that such accuracy is imaginary—the exposure of the anemometer, the turbulence of the winds, etc., cause larger varia- tions with space and time. No fewer than four figures are allotted to past and present weather. The result is that the observer is puzzled as to the number he is to choose out of 50 or 100, five or six numbers applying equally well, or he gets into the habit of reporting some favourite. phenomenon —the very slightest degree of haze, for instance. The multitude of phenomena reported makes one lose sight of the distribution of any particular class. In our view, Appendix IV. is a mistake, and ought to be deleted as soon as possible; it may prevent some States from joining the con- vention, Article 34 of which allows a minority of one-fourth or even less to prevent any modifica- tion of the annexes. General rules ought to be given in the convention, details being left to a competent body like the “Comité Météor- ologique International,” reconstituted at Paris in NO. 2647, VOL. 105 | | October, 1919, which certainly is fully aware of the need for reforms, and will choose the best way to ensure general approval. In the meantime, reforms are not being post- poned; the majority of the Continental countries have already their wireless collective reports, and others will soon follow—special route reports for flying purposes are being exchanged, for example, between England, France, Belgium, and Holland. Meteorologists are thankful for the stimulus which aerial navigation has given to their weather services; they admire the desire for organisation and centralisation apparent in the convention; but they cannot overlook the fact that meteor- ology has other important applications. Theoretic- ally it might be argued that these may look after themselves; practically it is impossible to main- tain an independent system of information, say for agricultural purposes. In following up the historical line, the Comité International will try. to serve all purposes equally well. E. vAN EVERDINGEN. Child Physiology. The Principles of Ante-Natal and Post-Natal Child Physiology: Pure and Applied. By W. M. Feldman. Pp. xxvii+694+6 plates. (London: Longmans, Green, and Co., 1920.) Price 3os. net. — R. FELDMAN’S work is a notable addition to the books which deal with physiology. As in them, so in this volume, the reader is im- pressed by the great change which the past decade has wrought in the content of physiological science, and especially in the predominance of physics, of mathematics, and of chemistry which is so noticeable. Here and there one comes upon pages occupied almost entirely with mathematical formule. Dr. Feldman’s book has all these char- acters; but it has also another feature, which is novel: it brings to the study of the physiology of the child (up to puberty) a consideration of the conditions of life which exist before birth, and an evaluation of the effect which the process of birth itself has upon these conditions. a fructifying novelty. It sweeps into the scope of child physiology not only the vital processes of foetal life, which differ merely in details from those which prevail after birth, but also those of . embryonic life, which are so manifestly unlike physiology that we commonly call them “ embryo- logy,” as if they were something apart; and it travels still further back towards the origins of It has in this _ respect and for this reason what one might term ane Ce eee ee Oe : " JULY 22, 1920] _ neurogenic, in origin. NATURE 639 i things and brings in the physiology of the germ or heredity, which it requires an effort of the mind to associate with physiology at all. With so - novel an outlook and so enlarged a sphere, it _ is impossible that everything should be exact and _ beyond argument; much must remain for a time uncertain, and theories will abound, and do - abound, within the cover of this book. For _ example, the statement that the normal new-born infant is in a condition resembling acidosis is not by any means secure against attack, as a research by Sehom, made so recently as 1919, shows. _ Dr. Feldman does not claim to carry over into _ pathology the ideas which this widened outlook _ of physiology suggests, and yet indirectly disease and the abnormal are recognised as lying just _ below the horizon in almost every part. Thus the peculiarities of the foetal circulation underlie every statement which one can make regarding congenital heart disease. And the converse is also true, for the fact that the foetal heart beats before and even at birth in a foetus possessing neither brain nor spinal cord throws light upon the physiology of cardiac action before birth, and suggests that its rhythm is myogenic, and not Interesting notions spring up on every page, and the reader can scarcely escape the stimulation to think out for himself _ their application to all sorts of phenomena. One is ‘well accustomed to apply physiology to the clarification of the diseases of adult tissues and organs; but a certain degree of novelty attaches to the effort to look at the pathological occur- rences in the new-born infant in the light supplied by the special conditions of ante-natal physiology. For example, the umbilicus is, so to say, the “one portal” by which all things (food supplies, oxygen _ for respiration, and the germs of disease and toxic substances) reach the unborn infant—it lives through its umbilicus, and it may die by its um- bilicus—and after birth, whilst it is no longer nourished by the navel, it may yet for a time be infected through it, as in cases of septic mischief round the root of the cord stump. Most text- books speak with an uncertain sound regarding the diseases peculiar to the new-born infant—the neonatal maladies, as they are called; it will ere long be found that much which is inexplicable in their characters and causation is made plain by the study of ante-natal physiology as it is affected by the impact of birth-traumatism. The book is abundantly illustrated and admir- ably arranged, and the author is particularly happy in his choice of the quotations with which he ushers in each chapter.. For instance, what a range of thought along novel lines is brought NO. 2647, VOL. 105 | before the reader’s mind by Samuel Butler’s para- doxical truth with which the work begins: “ Birth . is commonly considered as the point at which we begin to live. More truly it is the point at which we leave off knowing how to live.” One is tempted to turn away from the thought as, in a sense, mental somersaulting; but if one re- sists this inclination and looks fairly and wholly at it, one sees that Nature’s ante-natal provision for the weil-being of the unborn child is as near perfection as can be imagined. The foetus, so to say, knows how to live. Birth comes as the jolt due to the changing of the gearing, and it is some time before the new-born infant, with all the aid that doctor, nurse, and mother can give him, can be said to be in harmony with his environment. We should like to follow out other lines of thought suggested by this volume, such as His’s dictum: “The ultimate aim of embryology is the mathematical derivation of the adult from the dis- tribution of growth in the germ”; but enough has been said to send the interested reader to the _ book itself, where he will find fertile fields for the intellect to water and in due season to reap. Je We Forest Research. The Fungal Diseases of the Common Larch, By W. E. Hiley. Pp. xi+204. (Oxford: At the Clarendon Press, 1919.) Price 12s. 6d. net. HIS volume is the most important contribu- tion to the scientific literature of forestry that has been made for some years. Mr. Hiley was well advised to select the larch as the subject of his first investigation as Research Officer in the School of Forestry in Oxford, for it is in many respects the most important species of tree that is cultivated in this country. Moreover, it is a tree the health of which has given much concern ‘ to foresters and others for many years past. After an introductory chapter on the general relationships of host and parasite, and on the morphology of the larch, Mr. Hiley proceeds to deal with the larch disease, or larch canker in the specific sense of the term. This is due to the attack of a Discomycetous fungus, which is usually known in this country under the name of Dasyscypha calycina. The author does well to ‘remind us that M. J. Berkeley was the first to recognise the fungal character of this disease, although the work of Willkomm and of Robert Hartig is more frequently cited. Hartig, followed by Massee, believed that infection could take place only through a wound, and it must be said that there is much observational and experimental evi- 640 NATURE [JuLy 22, 1920 dence in support of this contention. Probably the most interesting section of Mr. Hiley’s volume is that in which he supports and elaborates the view that in the great majority of cases the stem of a larch is infected by the mycelium of D. calycina which is living saprophytically on the dead branches. This theory is not new, but it has never before been subjected to so. critical an examination. It is a matter of common observa- tion that a branch springs from the centre of a canker, and it had generally been assumed that death of the branch followed invasion of the stem. But Mr. Hiley now produces evidence which seems to prove beyond reasonable doubt’ that the branch has always died before the canker has originated, and, in fact, that the dead branch, serving as food for the fungus living saprophytically, has been the vehicle of infection. Such infection always takes place between the end of one grow- ing season and the beginning of the next, conse- quently the last wood ring in the centre of a canker spot on a_ stem is always completely formed. Another parasite of the larch which receives exhaustive. treatment in the volume is Fomes annosus, the common cause of heart-rot. Unlike D. calycina, it is equally common on other coni- fers, and in the aggregate does a great deal of damage: The same may be said about Armillaria mellea, perhaps the most destructive single fungus species with which the forester has to contend. - The more important leaf and seedling parasites are also reviewed, the volume finishing with an interesting general summary and with a useful bibliography. More than seventy illustrations add greatly to the value of the treatise, which is indis- pensable alike to the mycologist and the forester. The Absorption of Light by Organic : Compounds. Etudes de Photochimie. By Dr. Victor Henri. Pp. vii+218. (Paris: Gauthier-Villars et Cie, 1919.) ‘ HIS monograph is the first instalment. of a : series in which are to be presented the results of several years of work of the author and his collaborators. From 1908 to the outbreak of war Dr. Henri devoted his attention to the experimental study of various. chemical aspects of the interaction between radiation and matter, dealing chiefly with the absorption of light in the infra-red and ultra-violet regions, with dispersion in the ultra-violet, with chemical reactions brought about by light,, and with certain tech- nical and. biological aspects of the subject. NO. 2647, VOL, 105 | | be of a high order, In: 1915, he went to Russia to help in scientific work? in connection with the war, and towards the end’ of 1917 began to work up the mass of data accumulated in preceding years. Very few of his’ results had been published separately—papers by Bielecki, Boll, and Wurmser will, however, be’ familiar to workers in this field. The present volume essentially contains the results of the author’s work on absorption and) dispersion, and is of considerable interest. Em-- ploying a photographic method, carefully checked, | and using a powerful source of ultra-violet light, worked out by himself and giving a continuous spectrum, he was able to measure quantitatively’ the exact form of the absorption curve in the’ ultra-violet for about 240 organic compounds. As: he points out, this represents a very considerable’ advance, previous work being confined to the’ mere investigation! ef the positions of the bands. ’ To these measurements are added a series of de-- terminations of dispersion in the ultra-violet, em- ploying a specially designed apparatus, and a number of. absorption measurements in the infra-- red. The application of formule developed by’ Helmholtz and Ketteler, Drude, Lorentz, etc., has: enabled him to draw sénchisioapy ie an the’ nature’ of the oscillators responsible for the absorption’ { of light of different wave-lengths, the damping’ (usually very great) to which ane oscillators are’ subjected, ete. The more important results are as folswers (a) The oscillators absorbing in the infra-red are of’ molecular size, are atoms or fractions of atoms in’ the mean ultra-violet, and electrons in the exe treme ultra-violet. (b) These different oscillator’ systems are closely bound up’ with one another, and there exist simple numerical relations between: the infra-red frequency due to a chromophore and! the ultra-violet frequencies in molecules contain= ing such a chromophore. This, of course, was’ previously discovered by Baly, to whose work adequate reference is not made by the author.’ (c) By the application of simple rules, the absorp-- tion spectrum: of a compound can be calculated’ with considerable accuracy from its constitution’ — and the characteristic infra-red frequencies of the chromophores, two simple constants for each’ infra-red absorption band being necessary. (d) The structure of a molecule is essentially mobile. The existence of ultra-violet absorption’ bands is an index of a labile and reactive state. This, again, is in agreement with Baly’s views. Other more speculative conclusions’ are perhaps” less justified. The experimental work appears to: and the other volumes: promised will be looked for with interest. = ~ othan in Great Britain. _ thirty-two periodicals dealing more or less speci- fically with industrial efficiency and factory man- ie NATURE 641 - Juny 22, 1920] Our Bookshelf. Bibliography of Industrial Efficiency and Factory _ Management. (Books, Magazine Articles, etc.) __ With many Annotations and Indexes of Authors and of Subjects. By H. G. T. Cannons. (Efficiency Books.) Pp. viii+167. (London: me *. Routledge and Sons, Ltd. ; New York: _ E. P. Dutton and Co., 1920.) Price ros, 6d. net. ‘Can this country pay the interest on the money ‘borrowed during the war without reducing darge sections of the community to poverty? The ‘answer to this question appears to be that only ‘by increasing the annual production by at least as much as corresponds to the necessary increase in taxation can we provide enough for everybody. _ Industrial efficiency is thus seen to be of vital _ importance. _ should therefore welcome any book which helps Employers and employed alike to improve methods of production. It will be generally agreed that our manufacturers have still . much to learn in this direction. Mr. Cannons is to be congratulated on having _ collected no fewer than 3500 references in this bibliography. It would appear that more attention ‘has been given to the subject in the United States For example, in a list of ‘agement, we notice that twenty-three are published ‘in America. ~The bibliography is divided into sixty-four sub- sections. The titles of a few of these will serve to ‘andicate the scope of the book: ‘‘ Academic study ‘and teaching,’’ “Principles of industrial efh- siency,’’ “Factory and workshop management,”’ “Scientific management applied to _ special ‘branches of industry,’’ “Fatigue study,’’ “ Hours of labour,’’ “Personal factor in scientific manage- ment,’’ and ‘Safety methods.” We wish Mr. Cannons had done more to in- dicate which among the articles referred to are more likely to be worth careful study. Some help in this direction is, however, given in brief notes of the contents of many of the books and papers indexed. Aliments Sucrés. fitures—Sucreries—Sucs et Réglisse. Par Dr. E. Roux et Dr. C.-F. Muttelet. Pp. vi+474. Paris and Liége: Ch. Béranger, 1914. Price 12 francs. Tue manual of Drs. Roux and Muttelet on the analysis of foodstuffs of which sugar is an im- portant constituent is naturally of somewhat re- stricted interest. The first part deals with the general optical and chemical methods of deter- mining sugars and various other substances, such as dyes and antiseptics, used in confectionery, In the second part these methods are applied to the examination of commercial products such as thoney, sugar, syrups, and preserves. The French laws and regulations dealing with the ‘subject are given at some length together with extracts from those of other countries. NO. 2647, VOL. 105 | Sucres—Miels—Sirops—Con- | Letters to the Editor. [The Editor does not hold himself responsible for Opinions expressed by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manuscripts intended for this or any other part of Nature. No notice is taken of anonymous communications.] British and Foreign Scientific Apparatus. It may, perhaps, be useful if I attempt to sum up the conclusioris that seem to me to be justified from the somewhat divergent views that have been ex- pressed by those who have written upon this question. It is satisfactory to find that the makers are keenly desirous of meeting the requirements of the scientific worker. I think [ am correct in saying that the majority of these prefer to obtain British rather than foreign goods, even at a somewhat higher price, pro- vided that the quality is sufficiently good. It is here that the difficulty shows itself. It is significant ‘that most of the makers who have written on the matter belong to the optical industry, and it is in this case that the state of affairs appears to be the least to be com- plained about, except, perhaps, in the smaller acces- sory apparatus, such as the object-marker referred to by Mr. Dunkerly (Nature, June 3, p. 425). It is chiefly with regard to glass, porcelain, and chemicals that experience has been unfortunate. - There has undoubtedly been improvement, but the impression given is that the makers as a whole have not altogether grasped the necessity of putting some of their best men to the work, and that there has been some carelessness in sending out goods of inferior quality. I have been told of flasks the necks of which drop off on the draining rack. It is natural that the users should be critical, especi- ally when a large expense in time and money may be incurred by the breakage of a beaker in the final stage of a process. The exhibitions arranged by the British Science Guild in 1918 and 1919 showed that excellent apparatus can be produced, and the difficulty is presumably in the main a matter of price. Glass and porcelain of quite satisfactory quality are being made in this country, and due credit should be given to the makers. The Woreester porcelain works, for example, supply ex- cellent crucibles. At the same time, consumers meet with the experience that a large order cannot be relied upon to be of uniform quality. It is unfortunate, though perhaps unavoidable, that unsatisfactory apparatus was put on the market in the early stages ‘of the supply of British glass, and'it was to enable a greater perfection to be attained that I made the sug- gestion of a subvention (NaTuRE, May 6, p. 293). It is to be remembered that this is being done through the research associations of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, and it is in the direction of more scientific investigations that progress is to be looked for. In this connection, I may direct attention to the statement in the leading article of Nature for June 24 that the profit of some three or four German dye-making firms in 1919 was more than 3,000,000!., as compared with only 172,000l. by the British Dyestuffs Corporation. The manufacturers want prohibition of import of foreign apparatus, at all events for a time, with the granting of special licences to import. I think it will be generally agreed that this would not meet the case, owing to ¢he difficulty and delay that would necessarily be involved. They do not wish for a tariff, and the only alternative seems to be a grant in some form. When British ‘goods have attained the neces- 642 NATURE [Jury 22, 1920. sary quality and are then put on the market, it appears that there will not be any great risk of foreign com- petition in the. matter of price. Indeed, according to several correspondents, there is little to be feared at the present time. But opinions are not in agreement. There should be no objection to ‘* manutacturers’ associations,’’ provided that their object is to obtain the advantage of more economical methods of manu- facture, as by uniformity of standards and large-scale production, rather than the maintenance of high prices. The cost of all research work, whether paid for by Government grants or otherwise, is greatly increased by inferior apparatus. rials, a single biochemical preparation may cost 4l. or 51. or more. This may be lost by breakage at the final stage. The. question naturally arises whether economy would not be effected by allowing free im- port, even at the cost of subventions to British makers. With reference to Mr. Watson Baker’s statement (NaTuURE, June 24, p. 518) that there are 12,000 German binoculars in London, I confess that I had chiefly in mind the use of apparatus in teaching and research. The sale for general use certainly raises a difficulty. As to losses incurred by work done for Government Departments during the war, so far as my information goes payment for these did not. err on the side of economy. Liability for excess-profit duty surely implies that the profit has been made. The statement by Mr. C. Baker (Naturr, May 20, p- 356) that capitalists will not put money into the business raises another question. It may well be that British makers do not find it profitable to undertake the supply of fine chemicals and special apparatus used only in small amount, even apart from foreign competition. If so, why not give up the trade to those who make a profit on the sale? The desire of the British industry for prohibition of import appears to rest chiefly on the fear of com- petition by Germany. I am not one of those who imagine that because an instrument is of German origin it is necessarily superior to all others. Indeed, I have heard of instruments verified at Charlotten- At the present prices of mate-. any apparatus at any time the situation would be different. There seems to be much doubt as to whether it is really possible to obtain foreign apparatus at a price much lower than the British. Should this be the case, the payment of a subsidy might be considered where there is actual underselling. The test would then become one of quality. The importance of the subject may, I think, serve as an excuse for this lengthy letter. Scientific workers have every desire to assist the development of the industry, but they feel that they are not justified in wasting time and money where it could be avoided. And if this correspondence has brought out the fact that satisfaction has not yet been given in the matter of quality, especially in the case of certain goods, it — will have been of some value. It is possible that users have not sufficiently made known their difficul- ties to the makers, and have been sometimes tent with the purchase of foreign material when further inquiry and discussion might have enabled British goods to be forthcoming. W. M. Bay iss. University College, London. The Separation of the Isotones of Chlorine. — Mr. D. L. CuapMan’s argument appears essentially to be similar to that already developed from a quite different point of view by Lindemann (Phil. ee, 1919, vol. xxxvii., p. 523; vol. xxxviii., p. 173), that because isotopes are (theoretically) separable by physical means, they must also be chemically separ- able according to thermo-dynamical reasquias ae fact that the particular mode of separation by semi- permeable membranes (assumption (3), NATURE, July 15, p. 611) is highly fanciful need not obscure the nature of the argument. Lindemann’s conclusion that, though isotopes cannot be identical chemically, — the difference may be reduced to an unmeasurable one of the second order of magnitude by suitable assump- tions as to the ‘‘ Nullpunktenergie,’’ seems to indicate — the more hopeful line of advance. The chemical non- separability of isotopes, of which there is an accumu- lated mass of experimental evidence, seems to call for — consequent adjustments in thermo-dynamic theory — rather than the reverse. . The following considerations may throw light on — the matter. I have stated (NATURE, June 24, p. 516) — that, on the assumption of the chemical identity of — the isotopes, the distribution given by probability con- — siderations of the two kinds of atoms among the — three kinds of molecules is 2 Cl, : Cl’, : Cl.CV: : n?:(1—m)*?: 2n(t—m) . (i) where n and (1—n) are the fractional proportions of — the Cl and Cl’ atoms respectively. This leads to the © equilibrium condition : om [C1,][Cl’,]=3[C1L.Cl]? . Xi tah MEY ; Now if one applies in the conventional manner this: result to the reversible reaction 4 1 Cl,+CV,=22CL.Cr, ; burg being found inaccurate. It would certainly be less obstructive than total prohibition if the restric- tion applied to German goods only. But there are other: considerations to be remembered here, such as the importance of giving an opportunity to that country to restore its credit. However this may be, the large profits of their chemical industries referred to above raise some doubt as to the real cause of the present unsatisfactory conditions in Germany. The point raised by Mr. Dunkerly that American microscopes and lenses are being sold here, although the rate of exchange is against us, suggests that the source of the trouble is not the low value of the German mark. This view is confirmed by other cor- respondents. If it is correct, there would be no real gain in a mere prohibition of import. Improve- ments in modes of manufacture are needed, and we come back again to the necessity for more scientific research. I note that the British ‘Optical Instrument | denoting by k, and k, the coefficients of velocity of the Manufacturers’ Association (Nature, May 20, | direct and the inverse reactions, one gets p- 355) considers that a tariff might have the result of removing the inducement to improve quality, | 5, but I foresee so many difficulties in the way of convincing a Government official that a particular piece of apparatus could not be obtained in England that I am unable to accept the Suggestion of import by permit as a satisfactory alter@ative. If, however, it were possible for every scientific worker to obtain without difficulty a general permit for the import of NO. 2647, VOL. 105 | k,n*(1—n)?=k,{2n(1—n)}? k,=4k,. This, to say the least, is unexpected, because if co- efficients of velocity of reaction have any physical significance at all, one would expect them to be the same for substances assumed to be chemically iden- tical. The result is clearly due to a loose method of jULY 22, 1920] NATURE 643 5 ; : _ choosing the concentrations, for if we re-write the reversible reaction ied Cl,+Cl’,—Cl.Cl’+Cl.CY it transpires that we have chosen for the concentration of the resultants, because they are the same, the sum of their individual concentrations, although for the reactants, which also are chemically the same, the - individual concentrations have been taken. It is clear _ that it is the individual concentrations in both cases _ that have to be taken, and therefore that one-half of _ the CI.Cl’ concentration is involved. Then k,=k,. _ So with any reaction of this type involving two mole- cules, apart from the question of isotopes altogether, _ the 4 that always appears in the conventional text- book examples is merely a consequence of a loose and _ physically unjustifiable mode of representing the con- ‘centrations. Writers of future text-books might ponder a little over this. If the same change in the choice of the concentrations is made in the thermo- > pea argument, the difference of entropies, R log, 4, reduces apparently to R log, r=o0. I have now made some progress in the application of probability considerations to the kinetics of the reaction. The distribution already given (i) has refer- ence merely to the manner in which the two kinds of atoms will arrange themselves among the three kinds of molecules, assuming promiscuous combination be- _ tween the two kinds, the two kinds being identical. _ But the particular distribution obtained does, I find, depend upon the kind of recombination assumed. As regards the dissociation of the molecules into atoms prior to their recombination, the matter appears So aay at least so far as I have got. Thus whe one supposes that in a certain time a certain fraction of collisions, the same on the average for _ each kind of molecular collision, is fruitful in dis- _ sociating the two molecules into four atoms, or one _ regards the dissociation as monomolecular, as _ pre- sumably it would be if light were the dissociating agent, one arrives at the same result, that if x, y, and _ # denote fractional proportions of Cl,,Cl’, and C1.Cl’ ‘molecules respectively (x+y+z=1), the relative rate of disa rance of each by dissociation is similarly denoted. By equating this rate of disappearance to the rate of formation for the three kinds of molecules, one gets the equilibrium distribution. The distribution given by (i) is got in this way, whether (1) all the _atoms of the two kinds recombine promiscuously or x (2) the four atoms formed in a single fruitful col- fision recombine again only among themselves. If a similar limitation be applied to a monomolecular dissociation, obviously the reaction cannot affect the distribution at all, which remains unchanged whatever _ the initial distribution. But I also found by in- _ advertently applying the law of promiscuous recom- bination separately to each of the nine cases that have _ to be taken into account on the collision view—since _ there are three types of molecules which may collide _ with any one of the three types—instead of to the : sums of each of the two kinds of atoms produced, _ that a very extraordinary equilibrium distribution resulted, given by Cl, : Cy: CLCY : : 4n(t+2n) : {(3-2n)(1—n) :4n(1—n), which leads to the curious concentration equation [C1,][Cl’,] =} { [C1.Cl’]?+ [C1.C1’] }. This in the case n=o-5 ‘happens to reduce to Mr. Chapman’s relation (i) (NATURE, June 17, p. 487). case, of course, has no physical meaning, but it may serve to show that the equilibrium distribution is sensitive to the particular ‘assumptions made as to NO. 2647, VOL. 105] the type of reaction which occurs. I do not imagine I have exhausted the physical possibilities, but, so far as I can see, my distribution relation (i) covers the physically conceivable cases, and therefore the half, not the whole, concentration of the substance under- going a bimolecular reaction with itself ought to enter into the equilibrium equation. FREDERICK Soppy. Science in Medical Education. TuE discussion at the British Medical Association on july 1 on the place of preliminary science in the medical curriculum seemed to indicate practical unanimity on some points, such as the need for a higher minimum standard of general education, the raising of the minimum age tor the registration of medical students to seventeen years, and the. neces- sity for the maintenance of a high standard of instruc- ‘tion in physics, chemistry, and biology. There was no indication of the desire on the part of any one of the speakers to reduce the present standard of require- ments in any one of these three fundamental sciences, and several suggestions were put forward for extend- ing the courses of each of them into the later years of medical study. Particularly welcome to many of the science teachers who were present were the remarks of Dr. Bracken- bury, .who insisted that a high standard of scientific education was just as necessary for the general prac- titioner as it is in the case of any specialist, and that consequently, in so far as the preliminary science courses are concerned, there should be no division of the courses into a higher and lower standard for different classes of medical students. On the question of the relegation of the science courses to the school period of the student’s educa- tion there were some minor points of difference of opinion, and there is need for further consideration of this matter and for the development of a common plan of action. If by raising the age of registration to seventeen years the school period is increased by an ‘average of one year, there will be time for some school instruction in the fundamental sciences after the student has passed a matriculation examination without science, and there can be no doubt that if this time is profitably used, so that the student gains some knowledge of the elementary facts and prin- ciples of the sciences, the courses in the first year of study at the universities can be so modified in form as to bring home to the student much more forcibly than the courses do at present the relation of pure to applied science in medicine. The very prevalent idea that a great deal of time is wasted in the first year at the university in learning science that has no application to medicine arises entirely from the fact that the majority of the students come to the uni- versity so ignorant of elementary science and so un- trained in scientific thought that the time of the university teachers is wasted in teaching the most elementary principles that could and should be taught at school. It seemed, however, to be the general opinion of those who were present at the meeting that the teaching of chemistrv, physics, and biology should not cease at the end of the school period, but be extended into the first year of university study in a form which would be more general as regards prin- ciples, and more specialised as regards its application to the medical sciences. The suggestion made by Prof. Lorrain Smith and other sneakers, that the teaching of science should be extended into the later vears of the medical curricylum so that the links that bind the pure sciences to the medical sciences should be continuously presented to the medical student, does 644 ‘WATURE [JuLy 22, 1920 ar not seem to me really practical unless the time required for a medical- qualification is increased. The time-table of the later years of medical study is already so overcrowded, there is such urgent demand for more time for pathology, for instruction and practice in the wards, for the study of special medical subjects, and for some course of irstruction in psychology, that it is difficult to see how any more lectures on pure science subjects can be squeezed in. It seems to me that the special need of medical education at the present time is a carefully thought out scheme of post-graduate studies, in which the teachers of chemistry, physics, and biology would take part, in all the large medical schools of the country. Manchester. SypNEy J. Hickson. The Mechanics of the Glacial Anticyclone Ilustrated ~ by Exweriment. In various publications issued during the past decade’ the present writer has treated the peculiar air circulation which obtains above a continental glacier. A number of well-known writers, among them Sir John Murray and Buchan, had early pointed out that essentially anticyclonic conditions obtained over the Antarctic region as a region, but without reference to any connection with the continental glacier; while the late Admiral Peary was the first to note the dominance of centrifugal surface-currents over the Greenland continental glacier,*? which im- portant observation was the starting point of the writer’s studies, In all my writings upon the glacial anticyclone I have been at much pains to explain that the domed surface of the ice is essential to the development both of the anticyclone and of the alternating calms and blizzards which record its strophic action. In my “Characteristics of Existing Glaciers’? it is stated (p; 149): ‘“‘It is due to the peculiar shield-like form of this ice-mass that the heavier cooled bottom, laver [of air] is able to slide off radially as would a film of oil from a model of similar form. The centrifugal nature of this motion tends to produce a vacuum above the central area of the ice-mass, and the air must be drawn down from the upper layers of the atmosphere in order to supply the void. It is here that is located the ‘eye’ of the anticyclone.”” Again (p. 266): ‘‘This anticyclonic circulation of the air is not determined in any sense by latitudes, but is the consequence of air refrigeration through contact with the elevated snow-ice dome, thus causing air to slide off in all directions along the steepest gradients.” In my monograph published in the Proceedings of the American Philosophical ‘Society it is stated (p. 188): “It is because the inland-ice masses have a domed surface that they permit the air which is cooled by contact to flow outward centrifugally, and so develop at an ever-accelerating rate a vortex of exceptional strength.”’ It is, of course, fully realised that a domed surface is not the only one which theoretically might be con- ceived to produce such an anticyclone, but it is the only one of which we have examples in Nature bringing about such results. Any sort of pyramid would suffice; the essential thing is that the surface 1-““The Ice Masses on and about the Antarctic Continent,” Zedtsch. f Gletscherk., vol. v., 1910, pp. 107-20. ** Characteristics of the Inland-ice of the Arctic Regions,” Proc, Am. Philos, Soc., vol. xlix., 1910, PP. 96-109. “Characteristics of Existing Glaciers” (Macmillan, rorr), chaps. ix. and xvi. and Afterword. ‘‘ The Pleistocene Glaciation of North America Viewed in the Light of our Knowledge of Existing Continental Glaciers,” Bull. Am. Geogr. Soc., vol. xliii., rorz, pp. 641-59. ‘‘Earth Features and their Meaning” ( illan, 1912), pp. 283-86. ‘‘The Ferrel Doctrine of Polar Calms and 1's Disproofin Recent Observations,” Proc. Second Pan-American Scientific Congress. vol. ii., Sec. IL., Washington, 1917, pp. 179-89. 2 Geographical Journal, vol. xi., 1808, pp. 233-34. d . NO. 2647, VOL. 105 | should have its convexity upwards rather than down- wards. Either over a concave surface or about a flat one the refrigerating engine cannot operate. With the view of demonstrating the relation of the air circulation above a continental glacier to the ice- dome, I have prepared some simple devices for ex- perimentation. In the first experiment water was used as the fluid medium to represent air in an apparatus (Fig. 1) which consists of a glass tank 12 in. by 6 in. by 6 in., containing at the bottom a copper vessel of semi-elliptical cross-section to repre- sent a portion of the domed surface of the glacier. This copper vessel may be filled from below and quite independent of the tank itself. When used for the experiment the tank itself is filled with distilled water at room-temperature, rendered slightly alkaline by addition of sodium hydroxide. Phenolphthalein is then sprinkled over the surface of the water in the tank. It soon develops a dark-red cloudiness which remains .near the surface. When ice-water is introduced into the copper dome the adjacent layer of water is cooled by contact and slides off to either side, thus drawing down the coloured water from the surface so as to simulate the vortex and the outflow of a glacial anticyclone. If Victoria green is used to Fic. 1.—A glacial anticyclone simulated in water currents (with use of Victoria green as a colouring dye). replace phenolphthalein as a dye, its crystals must be supported by a container having a bottom of fine- meshed screen, but in this case ordinary tap-water may be employed, since it is not necessary to render the water alkaline. ; A similar experiment may be carried out using air as the circulating medium and smoke as the visible substance which betrays the currents. It is, however, less suited to photographic representation of the circulation, and the device only is therefore represented in Fig. 2. The device consists of a glass jar open at the top, such as is in common use for — goldfish; within this jar is a metal dome to repre- sent the domed surface of the glacier. This dome when filled with ice-water at once develops’ strong anticyclonic circulation of the air in the jar, and the ~ circulation can be made visible if a burning cigarette is supported on a platform near the top of the jar and near its central axis. The jar is covered by a metal plate, the central portion of which is separate and attached to the funnel through which the ice- | water is admitted to the dome and on the stem of which is the platform that supports the cigarette. The funnel may almost equally well be dispensed with, and the dome, already filled with ice-water, introduced — into the jar with the hand. o97- 1920] ‘ - Jeny “ATURE 645 We are here dealing with the constrained motions of falling bodies corresponding to those sliding on inclined planes all joined at their highest points. Such sliding motions are subject to the acceleration , of gravity, and hence are slow in starting, but later wire high velocities. Since the falling body is air which is displacing warmer, and’ hence lighter, air- layers, in the case of the glacier its motions are further modified as a result of adiabatic changes, _and,, since large quantities of moisture are involved, important transformations of sensible and latent at. The source of this moisture is believed to be rgely the ice-needles of the cirri. ~The tendency to produce centrifugal surface-air circulation above the glacier (anticyclonic movement) _is promoted by quiet conditions of the atmosphere, since the measure of contact cooling of the surface c og of air over the ice is a direct function of time. _ The halting of this circulation or the induction of _-_+amy reverse centripetal movement of the surface air (cyclonic movement) is an inverse function of the time, since it is a direct function of the distance the air currents descend vertically during their outward ales ee 7 > 1 Fic. 2.—Device used to produce anticyclonic circulation in ait above a cold dome, ‘movement. Each of these movements is, however, modified by the transformations of sensible and latent _ heats of fusion and evaporation of the water brought _ im in the form of the ice-needles of the cirri. , acceleration of gravity, is also retarded by the neces- sity of fusing and vaporising the ice-needles high up abstraction of heat and local displacements of air; whereas heat is evolved: near the end of the blizzard, when fresh snow is precipitated near the glacier sur- face. latent heat will operate so as to add their effect rather than to counteract that due to cooling or to adiabatic effect. They thus tend to cause blizzards to develop gradually and to end suddenly. The halt—the ' end of the stroke of the refrigerating glacial engine— comes about as soon as the rapid descent of the air carried out by the blizzard has, through its adiabatic effect, quite overcome the surface cooling due largely to the earlier calm. The length of the blizzard, if it NO. 2647. VOL. 105] in the vortex of the forming anticyclone, which causes. Both these transformations of sensible and. precipitates fresh snow, should therefore be adjusted™= in a measure to the expanse of the glacier surfacé— over which the currents of air must slide beforé= gaining the two miles of descent on the dome, in addition to that which takes place in the ‘“‘eye” of the anticyclone. Wan. H. Hopps._ Ann Arbor, Michigan, U.S.A., June 17. The Diamagnetism of Hydrogen. Tue fact quoted by Dr. Oxley in his letter to Nature of July 8, that the diamagnetism of hydrogen becomes less as the temperature is raised, seems to be in favour of a kinetic hypothesis of the diamag- netism of that gas rather than against it. If a magnet starting from rest is made to oscillate it remains paramagnetic until the oscillations on either side of the position of rest become 130°, after which it behaves as a diamagnetic body, the diamagnetism increasing until rotations begin. But once in rotation the diamagnetism diminishes as the rotational energy increases; and when this energy is very great the magnet is nearly indifferent to a magnetic field, and it appears to be non-magnetic. If it is allowable to treat temperature as a measure of this energy, then this result means that the diamagnetism should become less as the temperature is raised, and this is what has been observed. Since the paramagnetism of a rotating magnet is found only for oscillations of less than 130°, the kinetic energy must be comparatively small, and in the case of hydrogen a change from diamagnetism to para- magnetism can be expected to take place only when the temperature is very near to the absolute’ zero. Apart from the kinetic hypothesis, the fact that there is any change at all of the diamagnetism of hydrogen with temperature is opposed to the accepted view which regards true diamagnetism as independent of temperature. J. R. AsHwortu. July 14. Occurrence of Ozone in the Atmosphere. WirtH reference to the lecture of Lord re ee published in Nature of July 8 on ‘The Blue Sky and the Optical Properties of Air,’’ the conflicting results obtained by chemical methods in the estima- tion of atmospheric ozone are recalled. I beg to direct attention to my, paper on ‘‘The Occurrence of Ozone in the Upper Atmosphere ’’ (Proc. Roy. Soc.,. 1914, A, vol. xc., p. 204), in which it is shown that a reagent of potassium iodide solution can be made to provide a basis for the distinction of ozone and oxides of nitrogen at high dilutions and enable the _approximate estimation of the former. method it is shown that, in accordance with the con- clusions of Lord Rayleigh, ozone is present in the upper atmosphere, the amount present at an altitude of 10,000 ft. being of the order of 5x10-° parts per unit volume, Measurements made with sounding- balloons up to altitudes of 20 km. also showed the presence of definite amounts of ozone, but no detect- able increase between 4 km. and 20 km. The view /was put forward that this amount of ozone must. be taken into account in considering the optical pro- perties of the sky. _ An extension of these measurements was made with greater precision at the Mosso Laboratory on Monte Rosa at an altitude of 15,000 ft., where an: | average proportion of about 1x10~° parts per volume | of ozone was found. J. N.’ Prine. / The Victoria, University of Manchester, / July 14. By. this. x 646 [JuLy 22, 1920 NATURE Crystal Structure. By Pror. W. L. Brace. f ba’ arrangement of the atoms in many of the simpler crystalline forms has now been determined by X-ray analysis. In 1912 Laue published his classical research on the diffraction of X-rays by crystals, and the investigations thus initiated have immensely increased our knowledge of the nature of X-rays, of crystal structure, and of the structure of the atom. Several methods of analysing crystal structure have been used. Laue passed a composite beam of X-rays, con- sisting of radiations of all wave-lengths over a continuous range, through a thin plate of crystal, and he recorded the diffracted beams by allowing them to fall on a photographic plate. The results he obtained were too complex to admit of ready interpretation, and a simpler method was realised in the X-ray spectrometer devised by W. H. Potassium chloride, KCl. Calcium carbonate, calcite, CaCO3. Bragg, in which monochromatic X-rays are re- flected from individual crystal faces. In the course of a series of experiments in which the author took part, the structures of a number of crystals such as rock-salt, the diamond, fluor, zincblende, pyrites, and calcite were determined. New fields were opened up by the method of analysis initiated bv Debye and Scherrer, in which a beam of monochromatic X-rays is passed through a mass of finely powdered crystalline material, and the resulting “haloes” recorded photographically. Hull has extended this work to a number of substances unobtainable as large single crystals such as must be used in the X-ray spectrometer. By these methods a wide range of crystal forms has been surveyed. Some crystalline structures possess symmetry of a high order,, examples being potassium chloride and zincblende, models of which are shown in Fig. 1. In such cases as these every atom occu- pies a symmetrical position in the crystal struc- 1 Discourse delivered at the Royal Institution on Friday, May 28. NO. 2647, VOL. 105 | Zinc sulphide, zincblende, ZnS. Fic. 1, ture. In potassium chloride each potassium atom is symmetrically surrounded by six chlorine atoms, each chlorine atom by six potassium atoms. The atoms cannot be displaced from their positions without destroying the symmetry of the crystal structure; they are therefore fixed by symmetry alone. Such a crystal is analysed very simply. © We have only to choose between various alterna- tive arrangements, each quite determinate, in seeking an explanation of the observed diffraction effects. When the symmetry does not fix the exact posi- tions of the atoms, the analysis is more difficult. In such cases atoms may occupy any position along some axis or in some plane of the crystal structure, and yet be in accord with the symmetry provided the other atoms of the same kind are Aluminium oxide, ruby, AlgOg. given corresponding positions. In the structure of the ruby, Al,O, (Fig. 1), the unit of which the structure is composed consists of a pair of aluminium atoms surrounded symmetrically by three oxygen atoms. The distance apart of the aluminium atoms along the axis joining their centres, and the distance of the oxygen atom from this axis, are both indeterminate in so far as the crystalline symmetry is concerned, and their exact. values must be deduced by the X-ray analysis. It is these indeterminate parameters which make a crystalline structure complex. The problem is simplified by regarding the atoms in a crystal as a set of spheres packed tightly together. This manner of regarding the structure was proposed in 1907 by Barlow and Pope, who assigned to the sphere representing an atom a volume proportional to its valency, and by packing these spheres together as closely as possible they obtained structures which accounted for crystal forms. We now know the structure of the crystals dealt with by Barlow and Pope, " * i f 2 3 ; : _ Jury. 22,.1920] NATURE 647 and we know ‘that’ it is-in-many~ cases” not that | a by the “valency volume” law. The law can be modified, however, so as to apply to the majority of crystals so far analysed. It may be shown that we can assign a definite diameter to the sphere representing the atom, a diameter characteristic of the element in question. :Some “atoms appear to occupy a small domain in a ‘crystal structure, others a larger space. By find- ing the distances between the atomic centres in a number of crystals the diameters represented in Fig. 2 have been calculated. This figure sum- marises an empirical relation, which states that the distance between neighbouring atomic centres in a crystal structure is equal to the sum of two constants, characteristic of the atoms concerned. We can therefore picture the crystal structure as a set of spheres packed tightly together, just as Barlow and Pope did; but in this case the dimen- ‘arrangements, those of the inert: gases, are those in which the outer shell has its full complement of electrons. Such forms are very stable; they are characterised by a weak external field. The chemical properties of the other elements ré-re- sent their tendency to revert to a more st: ble electron system. . The crystal of potassium chloride, on this point of view, consists of alternate potassium and chlorine ions. The potassium atom is surrounded by nineteen electrons when electrically neutral. Eighteen of. these electrons complete the three electron shells, represented, for instance, by the very stable arrangement of argon. The remain- ing electron has no place in the stable system, and there is therefore a tendency for the atom to part with it and become’a positively charged potassium ion, the nucleus with nineteen element- ary charges being surrounded by eighteen elec- sions of the spheres are those in Fig. 2, not those | trons. Chlorine similarly tends to gain an elec- given by the valency volume law. tron. The KCl structure may therefore be re- < SE aim] § e » en | ‘ 43 | - Ry 2 x< a. \ mR aE iced Ba > 8 ] Sr Thi, a eee $a Sr” ga ts § Cd 5 mee Fags i ey oe ne roe s Ti Fe Coy. Cuz, Po? 5 Sn Spe. ee SS 2 gis (errr B) fo]: cemal | | "5 se Br BV BE Le S 3G \ 2 S 2 c . be Be = NOF aie “full ; oLLLit | [ Litt itt tty LI Litt tt tty Litt, 2 ee 10 1S 20 25 35 40 45 50 55 60 Atomic Numbers of the Elements . Fic. 2. The atoms in a crystal are thus packed together as if they were inelastic spheres in contact. This _ is merely a way of visualising the structure, and must not be interpreted too literally. A ready explanation of the form of the graph in Fig. 2 is afforded by that conception of atomic structure which Stark, Born, Landé, Lewis, and others have helped to build up, and which has recently been so brilliantly summarised in a series of papers by Langmuir. Many independent lines cf investigation have led to the conception of the atom as a positive nucleus surrounded by an elec- tron system, in which the electrons are fixed at, or oscillate about, certain definite positions in the atomic structure. This is a view which forms a contrast to the Bohr atomic model, where the electron orbits enclose the atomic nucleus. In the “fixed electron” atom the electrons are arranged in a series of shells surrounding the nucleus, the numbers which complete the succes- sive shells being 2, 8, 8, 18, 18, and 32. Certain NO. 2647, VOL. 105 | ’ garded as an assemblage of argon shells, with resultant positive and negative charges, which are held together by their charges, and kept apart by some force of repulsion which we must sup- . pose to exist between the outer electron systems. The result is the structure in Fig. 1 where every ion is surrounded symmetrically by the greatest possible number—six—of ions of the opposite sign. : In the case of two electro-negative elements which are chemically combined, both atoms have a smaller number of electrons than corresponds to stability of the outer shell. Stability is attained by their holding pairs of electrons in common. In this way Langmuir has succeeded in the most striking manner in explaining the complicated valency of such elements as nitrogen and phos- phorus. The structure of calcite (Fig. 1) is an example of both types of chemical combination. The cal- cium atom, represented, by the large sphere, is 648 NATURE [Jury 22, 1920 an. ion with a double positive charge, the ‘CO, group an ion. with: a double negative charge. These ions group themselves in the same way in the calcite and potassium chloride structures, as the models show, except that the form of the CO, | group distorts the cube into a rhombohedron,. The electro-negative atoms of carbon and oxygen | hold electrons in common, and form a closely knitted group, and from their distance apart we can'iform an estimate of the dimensions of the outer electron shell; it is the lower limit ‘to which the diameters tend at the end of each period in Fig. 2. In this an explanation is found of the large diameters assigned to the _ electro-positive elements, and the small diameters assigned to the electro-negative elements, in Fig. 2. The electro-positive atoms never share electrons with their neighbours; ‘they are therefore isolated in the crystal structure, and appear to occupy a dJarge domain. The electro-negative elements, bound together by common electrons, have to be represented by. small spheres. Comparing two crystals such as sodium fluoride and magnesium oxide, which have identical struc- tures, we see that botle may be represented by alternate electron groups of the Neon type. Jn the case of magnesium oxide the ions carry a charge twice as great as the sodium and fluorine ions, and the consequence is that the MgO struc- ture, though identical in form with the NaF struc- ture, has its dimensions reduced. The side of the elementary cube has a length of 4.22 x 10-8 cm. in the case of MgO, a length of 4-78 x 10-8 em, in the case of NaF. In diamond every carbon atom is surrounded symmetrically by four other carbon atoms ar- ranged at the corners of a tetrahedron. The carbon atom has four electrons in its outer shell, and, in erder to complete the number eight re- -quired for stability, it shares a pair of electrons with each neighbouring atom. The whole crystal is thus one continuous molecule, and the great hardness .and density receive a simple explane- tion. A crystal of an electro-positive element cannot be bound together by common electrons. .Here we’ must suppose that the crystal consists of ions and electrons, the ions representing the stable electron systems, and the electrons being present in sufficient numbers to make the whole assem- blage electrically neutral. From the fact that all crystals of electro-positive elements are con- ductors of electricity we deduce that the electrons have no fixed place in the system; they move under the influence of an electromotive force. - It has been possible only to indicate the manner im -which -erystal structure helps to elucidate the structure of the atom, and many generalisations have been made to which there are exceptions. It is hoped that this discussion will show the in- terest of the study of crystals. In a crystal there are countless atomic groupings oriented with per- fect regularity. Individually their effect is too small to observe,. but by illuminating the crystal with X-rays, the wave-length of which is much less than the distance separating the atoms, we can make use of their concerted effect on the rays to enable us to see into the intimate structure of matter.’ ‘Researches on Growth of Plants.: By Sir JaGapis CHUNDER Bose, F.R.S. Il. ~The General Principle Determining Tropic Movements. put movements in plants under the stimuli of - the environment—the twining of tendrils, the effect of temperature variation, the action of light inducing movements sometimes towards and at other times away from the stimulus, the diametric- ally opposite responses of the shoot and the root to the same stimulus of gravity, the night and ‘day positions of organs of plants—present such diversities that it must have appeared hopeless to endeavour to discover any fundamental reaction applicable in all cases. It has, therefore, been customary to assume different sensibilities espe- cially evolved for the advantage of the plant. But teleological argument and the use of descriptive phrases, like positive and negative tropism, offer no real explanation of the phenomena. I propose to describe experimental ‘results from which it will 1 Continued from p. 6r7. NO. 2647, VOL. 105] be possible to discover an underlying law which determines the various tropic movements in plants. Direct Effect of Stimulus.—In the motile pul- vinus of Mimosa the excitation caused by stimulus causes» a sudden ‘diminution. of, turgor and con- traction of the cells. With regard’ to this fall of turgor it is not definitély ‘known whether excita- tion causes a sudden diminution in the osmotic strength of cell sap or increase in the permeability of the ectoplast. The state of excitation in a vegetable tissue may, however, be detected, as I have ‘shown elsewhere, by the following i tions :) (1) diminution : of turgor; (2) contraction and fall: of leaf of Mimosa; (3) electromotive change of galvanometric negativity; (4) variation of electric resistance; and (5) retardation of the rate of growth. : Continuity of Physiological Reaction in Growing and Non-growing Organs. In investigations on the effect of all modes _ of stimulation, mechanical, .electrical, or radia- JuLy 22, 1920] NATURE 649 tional, I find that they check growth or bring about an “incipient ” contraction; when the in- tensity of stimulus is increased, the effect cul- minates in an actual contraction— a result exactly parallel to the contraction of the pulvinus under direct stimulus. This would ex- plain the similarity of tropic move- ments in pulvinated and growing organs. Indirect Effect of Stimulus.—A novel result was discovered under indirect stimulation—that is to say, when the stimulus was applied at some distance from the responding area, i.e. the pulvinus or the grow- ing region. This caused an increase of turgor, an expansion, an en- hancement of the rate of growth, and an erectile movement of the leaf of Mimosa, and an electro- motive variation of galvanometric positivity. This effect is specially exhibited in tissues which are semi- conductors of excitation.2 The contrasted effects of direct and indirect stimulus are given in the following tabular .statement :— Taste I.—Direct and Indirect Effects of Stimulus. a . Direct Indirect Increase of ex- pansion. Erection of the leaf. Enhancement of the rate Diminution — of turgor, contraction. Fall of leaf of Mimosa. Diminution of the rate of turgor, growth. of growth, 3 Galvanometric nega- | Galvanometric posi- tivity. tivitv. In Fig. 4 is given a record which shows in the same specimen (1) the acceleration of growth under indirect, and (2) a retardation of growth under direct, stimulation. . Fic. 4.—Effect of indirect and direct stimulation on growth : ({) shows application of indirect stimulus with consequent acceleration of growth ; application of direct rt d ; _ stimulus at (X) induces contraction and subsequen - We thus arrive at the law of effects of direct and indirect stimulus :— 2 ** Plant Response,” p. 524. NO. 2647, VOL. 105] of growth Direct stimulus induces contraction; indirect stimulus causes the opposite effect of expansion. The same law applies when stimulus acts on ca) Spree | a | 1 3 ee Fic. 5.—Effects of direct and indirect stimulus: @, Stimulus applied directly at the growing region inducing retardation of growth or contraction as represented by dotted line (stimulated area in this and in following represented as shaded); 4, stimulus applied indirectly (at some distance from growing region) gives rise to acceleration of growth and expansion} c, stimulus applied at right side of organ causes contraction of that side and expansion of the opposite side, thus giving rise to positive curvature towards stimulus; ¢, excitation transmitted to the opposite side causes neutralisation; e, excitation caused by intense stimulation js transmitted across and thus reverses the normal curvature to negative, ze. away from stimulus. one side of the organ. When stimulus of any kind acts on the right side (Fig. 5c) the directly stimulated right side contracts, and the indirectly stimulated opposite, or left side, expands, the result being a positive tropic-curvature towards the stimulus. This explains the twining of tendrils and positive heliotropism. Negative Heliotropism.—When the light is very strong and long continued, the over-excited plant- organs may begin to turn away. How is this effected? My experiments show that the strong excitation percolates into and traverses the organ and provokes contraction on the further side, thus neutralising their former bending (Fig. 5d). The organ now places itself at right angles to the light, and this particular reaction has been termed dia-heliotropism. In certain cases the transverse conductivity of the organ is considerable. The result of this is an enhanced excitation and contraction of the further side, while the contraction of the near side is reduced on account of fatigue caused by over-excitation. The organ thus bends away from light or exhibits so-called negative heliotropism (Fig. 5e). These effects are accentuated when one side of the organ is more excitable than the other. Thus under the continued action of light the response record shows first a movement towards light, then neutralisation, and finally a movement away from light. In this way a continuity of reaction is demon- strated proving that the assumption of specific positive and negative heliotropic sensi- bility is unjustified. That the application of stimulus on the near 650 NATURE [JuLy 22, 1920 side of the organ induces at first an increase of turgor on the distal side and that this first effect may be neutralised and reversed by transverse conduction of excitation are seen strikingly ex- hibited in the accompanying record (Fig. 6), where a narrow beam of light was applied at a point of the stem diametrically opposite to the motile leaf which was to serve as the indicator of the induced variation of turgor.under the unilateral action of light. That this indirect stimulation eaused an enhancement of turgor of the opposite side was soon demonstrated by the erectile move- ment of the leaf. When the stimulus is moderate and of short duration, the response is only erectile or positive. But when the stimulation is con- tinued the excitatory impulse is conducted to the distal side, giving rise to diminution of turgor, contraction, and the fall of the leaf. Fic. 6.—Increased turgor due to indirect stimulation inducing erection of Mimosa leaf: a, diagram of experiment ; 4, erectile response (shown by down-curve) followed by rapid fall (up-curve) due to transverse conduction of excitation. TaBLeE II],—Showing Responsive Effects Common to Pulvini and Growing Organs under Uni- lateral Stimulation, Effect of direct stimulation on ~ r Effect of indirect stimulation on proximal side - i distal side Diminution. of turgor, Increase of turgor. Contraction and _ con- | Expansion and convexity. cavity. Galvanometric nega- | Galvanometric posi- tivity. tivity. When stimulus is strong or long-continued, the excitatory effect is conducted to the distal side, neutralising or reversing the first response. Space does not allow my entering into the ques- tion of Nyctitropism, which will be found fully explained in the ‘Life Movements in Plants,.”’ vol. il. Geotropism.—No phenomenon of tropic re- sponse appears to be so inexplicable as the oppo- ° site effects of stimulus of gravity on the root and the shoot. As regards the mechanism of the up- eurving of a horizontally laid shoot, it may be due NO. 2647, VOL. 105] either to the expansion of the lower side or to an active contraction of the other. In order to decide the question I devised the method of geo-electric response whereby the state of excitation (which is attended by contraction) is independently detected by the induced electromotive change of galvano- metric negativity. Displacement of the shoot from the vertical to the horizontal position is found to be immediately followed by the clearest electric indication that the upper is the excited side. The electrical response is found to increase as the sine of the angle of inclination. This excitation of the upper side involves its contraction and the ‘resulting geotropic curvature upwards. Localisation of Geo-perceptive Layer by Means of the Electric Probe.—The new investigation was carried out by means of my electric probe, which consists of an exceedingly fine platinum wire en- closed in a capillary glass tube, the probe being thus electrically insulated except at the extreme tip. When the probe, suitably connected with a gal- vanometer, is slowly thrust into the stem, so that it enters one side and comes out at the other, the galvano- meter deflection shows by its indica- tion the state of irritation of every layer of cells throughout the organ. When the stem is held in a vertical position the probe during its passage shows little or no electric sign of irrita- tion. But when the stem is displaced from the vertical to the horizontal position, the geotropically sensitive layer now perceives the stimulus and becomes the focus of irritation, and the probe on reaching this point gives the maximum deflection of galvano- metric negativity. This electric indication of irrita- tion disappears as soon as the geotropic stimulus is removed by restoration of the stem to a vertical position. I was thus able to map out the contour lines of physiological excitation inside a living organ. The geo-perceptive layer was thus local- ised at the endodermis. In geotropic response the only anomaly that remained was in regard to the response of the root being opposite to that of the shoot. Every cut portion of the growing region of the shoot responds to the stimulus of gravity by bending upwards. The growing region of the shoot is therefore both sensitive to stimulus and responsive to it. Hence geotropic stimulation of the shoot is direct. But this is not the case with the root; here it is the tip of the root which perceives the stimulus, the geotropic bending taking place at some distance from the tip. From the results of electric investigation I find that the root tip be- comes directly stimulated, while the responding growing region some distance from it becomes indirectly stimulated. Hence geotropic stimu- lus acts indirectly in the responding region of the root. I have shown that the effects of direct and indirect stimulus on growth are antithetic; it if i. aa eye. soon. only a big man can play with success. _ JuLy 22, 1929] NATURE 651 therefore follows that the responses of shoot and ‘root to the direct and indirect stimulus. must be _ of opposite signs. _. The diverse movements of plants are thus _ explained of the induces establishment direct stimulus from the general law that * a contraction and indirect stimulus an expan- 3 sion. ) . | I. have shown, further, the extraordinary simi- larity of physiological reaction in. the plant and animal (Friday evening discourse, Royal Institu- tion, May 29, 1914). The responsive phenomena in plants must thus form an integral part of vari- ous problems relating to irritability of all living tissues, and without such study the investigation must in future remain incomplete. Popular Natural History.! : (1) ae best popularisers, after all, are the -masters—if they care to try; and Fabre’s “Story Book of Science ”’ is a fine illustration. It is very perfect—full of interesting . material, vividly written, stimulating both observation and reflection. He tells of ants, aphides, long-lived ants and animals, procession caterpillars, bees, spiders, shells, cotton, paper, silk, clouds, thunder, rain, the sea, and more besides—all as _ if ‘it were a pleasure to him to talk, and just the very easiest thing in the world. The book must have been fashioned long ago, but so wisely that there is little that requires changing; it was meant for the children of more than a generation ago, and it would be a joy of a reading-book in _ schools to-day; it was written in French, and it reads as if it had been composed in English. The translator, Mr. A. T. De Mattos, has done his work with great skill. We confess that we should not call Hemerobius a dragon-fly, and there must be something wrong in speaking of the ‘sharp bones” in the silk-moth’s cornea, which Fabre described as a rasper for filing at the silk threads of the cocoon. But these are pin-pricks; the book is past praising, and its pages are very pleasant to read—pleasant both to the inner and the outer (2) A translation of Fabre’s “Story Book of Birds and Beasts ” is very welcome. The subjects are for the most part familiar, but the handling of them is masterly in its simplicity, grip, and vividness. Fabre had a way of taking the reader ‘into his confidence, and making a sort of partner of him in his observations. But it is a game that We are introduced to the cock and the hen, the egg and the chicken, the duck and the goose and the pigeon, the cat and the dog, the sheep and the cow, the horse and the donkey, and we get inter- 1 (a) ‘The Story Book of Science.” By J. H. Fabre. Pp. 299. ¢ on: Hodder and Stoughton, n.d.) Price 7s. 6d. net. (2) ‘The Story Book of Birds and Beasts.” By J. H. Fabre. Pp. 315. (London : Hodder and Stoughton, n.d.) Price 7s. 6d. net. (3) ‘Animal Life under Water.” By Dr. Francis Ward. Pp. x-+-178+ plates. (London: Cassell and Co., Ltd., 1910.) Price 7s. 6d. net. (4) “Birds in Town and Village.” By W.H. Hudson. Pp. ix+274. Illustrated. ndon and Toronto: J. M. Dent and Sons, Eta. ; New York: E. P. Dutton and Co., 1919.) Price ros. 6d. net. (5) “The Book of a Naturalist.” By W. H. Hudson. Pp. viii+360. on: Hodder and Reng Ng n.d.) Price ras. net. (6) ‘‘ Wonders of Insect Life: Details of the Habits and Structure of Insects.”’ Illustrated by the Camera and the Microscope. By J. H. Cra’ . Pp. viiite2rr+32 plates. (London: George Routledge and Sons, Ltd. ; New York: E. P. Dutton and Co., n.d.) Price 6s. net. (7) ‘Just Look! or, How the Children Studied Nature.” By L. Beatrice Thompson. Pp. viiit+2oq4+58 plates. (London: Gay and Hancock, Ltd., n.d.) Price ss. net. NO. 2647, VOL. 105] We should be having a Fabre centenary ested in them as if they were novelties. It is high art. The stories should be used in schools. The book is not without blemishes, of which we venture to give some samples. We do not know what to call the first part of a. hen’s stomach, but we are sure that it cannot be called “the succenturiate ventricle.” The story of the making of the shell of the egg is misleading, and it is not true to say that the hen must have car- bonate of lime in her food. We are rather stag- gered by some humming-birds “as small as our large wasps.” The account given of “pigeon’s milk” is erroneous. It should have been noted that the passenger pigeon, in regard to which Audubon’s account is quoted, has now ceased to exist. For the translator’s work we have great admiration; but it might have shown. wisdom as well as piety to have got. an, editorial expert to look into points such as we have illustrated. There is no sense in perpetuating mistakes. (3) Dr. Francis Ward’s book is in great, part an attempt to take the point of view of the animal under water. Seen’ from below, the surface of the water would appear as an extensive. mirror, with the river-bed reflected upon it. Immediately. above the observer _the reflecting surface is, broken by a circular: hole or ‘“‘window.’’? Through the surface of the water, in the area of this ‘‘ window,” the sky and objects im- mediately overhead have their usual appearance, but in addition surrounding objects above the water level are also seen through the ‘‘ window” as dwarfed and distorted images, suspended, as it were, in the air above the circumference of the circular hole. .A ring of iridescent colours separates the ‘‘ window” from the surrounding reflecting surface. Many of Dr. Ward’s observations have a direct bearing on the concealment of aquatic animals, and deserve careful attention from naturalists. Let us illustrate. The size of the “window” varies with the depth of the under-water observer ; when birds and fishes on the surface slip out of the “window ” they cease to be conspicuous (to their enemies below) as silhouettes against the sky. Protection under water may be afforded, as in the case of brown trout, by reflection of the surrounding coloration. White animals, such as a white sea-anemone, take up a position where the revealing top light is cut off. Black-plumaged birds, like the water-hen, become mirrors under the water owing to reflection from the air-bubbles retained in their plumage. After explaining the sub-aquatic conditions as 652 NATCGRE [JULY 22, 1920 regards illumination, the author discusses the life and behaviour of a number of types. In connec- tion with diving birds, he suggests that the “flashes” of reflected light from the moving body may attract fishes. Under the water the back of the Great Northern Diver ‘“‘simulates a shoal. of small shining fish.” The inordinate appetite of diving birds is emphasised; thus a small cor- morant took. from Dr. Ward at one time twenty- seven herrings of average size. It seems to us that the author does not sufficiently appreciate From ‘‘ Animal Life under Water.” The otter alarmed. the good these birds do from the fisherman’s point of view in destroying species which devour food-fishes. There are two sides to most indict- ments of birds. In addition to the contributions to the theory of concealment of water animals from enemies or from booty, the book contains many very interesting natural history sketches—of the seal, the heron, the kingfisher, various. kinds of gulls, and, best of all, the otter. the otter strikes us as the finest part of the book. NO. 2647, VOL. 105 | Indeed, the story of © We are not sure that a popular book, especially one with a definite and very interesting problem to discuss—animal life under water—is the place for weighing the beneficial and injurious effects of the activities of particular birds. That should be done in a severely scientific and critical way- Dr. Ward describes, for instance, the contents of the stomachs of thirty black-headed gulls, which show that these birds were “certainly not helping the farmer.” But it is easy to get expert records of thirty cases which show the reverse. The question is to which side the balance inclines in a particular area and through the year. This enter- taining and breezy book is copiously illustrated with very interesting photographs. We appreciate these, but we may hint at the injudicious- ness of putting even a diagrammatic penguin into a scene on a Highland loch. (4) Mr. Hudson’s “Birds in Town and Village” is based on “Birds in a Village’ (1893), his first book about bird life, but much of it is new. It is a continual delight—a succession of fine pictures—and it is very gratifying that the beautiful text should be so successfully illustrated. Mr. E. J. Detmold’s coloured drawings are alto- gether charming. The time is past for speaking of the author’s style, his irresistible enthusiasm, his intimate knowledge of birds, and his pas- sion for them. If more _ people read his books there would soon be no need for a Plumage (Prohibi- tion) Bill. “The robin is greatly distinguished in a sober-plumaged company by the vivid tint on his breast. He is like the autumn leaf that catches a ray of sunlight on its surface, and shines conspicuously among russet leaves.”’ “The kingfisher, speeding like an arrow over a field of buttercups so close that they were touching, seemed, with the sunshine full on it, to be entirely of a shining, splendid green... . . Flying so low above the flowery level that the swiftly vibrat- ing wings must have touched the yellow petals, he was like a waif from some far tropical land. The bird was tropical, but I doubt if there exists within the tropics anything to compare with a field of buttercups— such large and unbroken surfaces of the most bril- liant colour in nature.” But we might as well quote the whole book. The delightful “Birds of a Village,” which forms about half the book, is echoed at the end in a story of the birds in a Cornish village, and between the, two there are essays’ on exotic ‘birds for Britain (we confess to regarding introductions with insular prejudice), ind Seren ahs eee Jury 22, 1920] NATURE 653 moorhens_ in Hyde Park, the eagle and’ the canary (concerning cages), chanticleer, and the birds of an old garden. If the birds a knew what Mr. Hudson has done for them, they would sing all the year round. - (5) It is difficult to imagine anything more delightful than Mr. Hudson’s “ Book of a Natural- ist,” and we wish he had called it vol. i. Why should there not be many volumes, when it is so easy to make one so good? So easy! for all that is necessary is to have (1) an intimate per- ~~ sonal experience and a deep understanding of the re - att Pate es =, rg, ameeae life and conversation of animals as they live in more or less wild Nature; (2) an artistic or poetic sense which gives Blake’s “double vision”; and (3) an ear for words that makes the pages of the book sing. The same subjects are often treated of by many painters, and likewise by many naturalists. Ants and wasps, bats and foxes, ‘moles and earthworms, snakes and toads, pigs and potatoes—these are fair samples of Mr. Hudson’s stock in trade; but he is a magician-pedlar, and the familiar things among his wares turn out to shave most unexpectedly profound and subtle ex- .cellences. Here science and art seem to meet in a deepening of our appreciation of common things, -and perhaps this is the biggest service that a man who sees can do to his day and generation. Mr. Hudson wished to call his book “ Diver- sions of a Naturalist,” but Sir Ray Lankester was ahead of him. We do not think he lost much, for what he has given us are really ‘“ Apprecia- tions,” as Sir Ray Lankester’s “diversions ”’ were also. The expert biologists get down to the depths of life in a way that is indispensable and - fundamental, but the _ field-naturalists, among whom Mr. Hudson stands out as Saul among the rophets, get at the heights of life in a way that is indispensable and supreme. What is con- tributed in these fascinating essays is a wealth of first-hand observations, and to this, of course, there are added the reflections of a highly gifted intelligence. But we submit that there is more— that feeling has a réle in the interpretation of Nature, and that sympathetic insight (through -gwsthetic emotion at one pole, and sheer sense of kinship at the other) opens up one of the rights- of-way to reality. This is too academic in its phrasing, and unfair to Mr. Hudson, through whose writings sunlight streams and _ breezes blow; but we mean that this is the book of an expert naturalist and of a man of feeling as well. 6) The entomologist is. always discovering new wonders, and very frequently he has enthusiasm enough to wish to share his pleasure with others. Mr. Crabtree has the entomological enthusiasm right enough, but we are not sure about all his wonders. In the first place he is too much of an anthropomorphist, for he says the study of insect-life “provides a host of examples and illus- trations of such noble aims as ‘living for a purpose,’ ‘striving for the best,’ ‘helping one another,’ ‘bearing each other’s burdens,’ and “sympathy in sorrow.’” He _ has_ interesting observations to describe, and he tells his story NO. 2647, VOL. 105] fairly well; but again there is the false note: he should not speak of his book selecting “repre- sentative members of the principal species,” or of “the Pulex family.” It is a pity that an author who seems to have seen a lot of things for himself should write like this: “‘The numerous family of Lice that is parasitic on certain animals is classed under the common term Hzemotopinus.” Why do not publishers see to it, by utilising readily available advice, that this sort of thing is not printed? It is not good business, for it obscures the book’s good qualities. Many people see common insects like the lady- bird, the devil’s coach-horse, the earwig, the frog- hopper, the green-fly, the may-fly, and the wasp, and would like to know more about them, espe- cially if they can get the information not too learnedly expressed. Mr. Crabtree’s book is well adapted to meet this reasonable demand. It deals pleasantly with about three dozen common insects, and there is a generous supply of photographic illustrations. But, again, Mr. Crabtree’s reach too often exceeds his grasp; thus his story of cuckoo-spit is far from correct; we do not like to hear of female Aphides without ovaries, in which “multiplication occurs by the process of gemmation or budding on the individual Aphis.” We are staggered by the crane-fly, the limbs of which are merely hooked together,.so that. a cap- tured part has only to be hooked off; and we do not think that a wise approach to a very difficult problem is made by saying: “It may be said with sincerity. that the development of instinct in ants is much akin toreason in higher mammals.” But, forgiving a lapse in biological philosophy, we are pulled up by errors in grammar, for our eyes have fallen on more than one sentence like this: “To the thorax, or chest, is attached the fly’s six limbs.” Why should a scorpion be referred to as “the dangerous arachnid of the South American forests,” and why should an author go out of his way to use an expression like “of. that ilk”? when he does not know what the words mean? We believe in popular natural history, but it should have a high standard of accuracy, and it should be written in English worthy of the subject. Mr. Crabtree’s studies are interesting; they often describe observations; they are certainly instruc- tive; but we are bound to say that there are too many flies in the ointment.. And many of these flies are gratuitous. (7) Miss Thompson tells in a pleasant way of corals and seeds, of the work of water and ice, of springs and seashore animals, and illustrates her talks with very clever drawings. To those who enjoy talks between a somewhat encyclopedic Miss Marshall and a number of children who ask extraordinarily appropriate and searching ques- tions, the book will be welcome; our own impres- sion, based on some experiments, is that neither children nor adults care for the “Sandford and Merton” mode of imparting instruction. The author has a very skilful pencil and a power of simple exposition; we wish she had chosen the direct method. jr AoT: 654 NATURE [JULY 22, 1920 Notes. Mr. ALAN A. CAMPBELL SWINTON has been elected chairman of the council of the Royal Society of Arts for the ensuing year. Dr. EpRIDGE-GREEN, C.B.E., fai been appointed a special examiner in colour vision and eyesight by the Board of Trade. Tue Civil List Pensions granted during the year ended March 31 are shown in a White Paper just issued, and include the following :—Mrs. Howell, in recognition of her late husband’s eminent public ser- vice in the Geological Survey of Great Britain, 5ol.; Miss Juliet Hepworth, in recognition of her late brother’s services to meteorology and oceanography, 5ol.; Mrs. K. Macdonald Goring, in recognition of her husband? s services to biometrical science, 85/.; and Mrs. Leonard William King, in recognition of her husband’s services to Assyrian and Babylonian study, 85]. At a public meeting held at the Mansion House in October, 1912, the following proposals for com- memorating the work of Lord Lister were adopted :— The placing of a memorial in Westminster Abbey, to take the form of a tablet with medallion and inscription; the erection of a monument in a public place in London; and the establishment of an Inter- national Lister Memorial Fund for the advancement of surgery, from which either grants in aid of re- searches bearing on surgery or awards in recognition of distinguished contributions to surgical science should be made, irrespective of nationality. A meet- ing of the general committee was held in the rooms of the Royal Society on Monday, July 19, to receive and adopt the report of the executive committee ap- pointed in 1912. The chairman, Sir Archibald Geikie, stated that the sums received in respect of subscrip- tions from the British Empire and foreign countries amounted to 11,8461. 5s. tod. A memorial tablet, executed by Sir Thomas Brock, was unveiled in West- minster Abbey on November 1, 1915, and steps are being taken for the erection of a monument in a public place in London. In order to carry out the scheme for the establishment of the International Lister Memorial Fund for the Advancement of Surgery, it was resolved that :—(a) Out of the general fund a sum of sool., together with a bronze medal, be awarded every three years, irrespective of nationality, in recognition of distinguished contributions to surgical science, the recipient being required to give an address in London under the auspices of the Royal College of Surgeons of England. (b) The award be made by'a committee constituted of members nominated by the Royal Society, Royal College of Surgeons of England, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, University of Edinburgh, and University of Glasgow. (c) Any surplus income of the general fund, after providing for the erection of a monument and defrayving administrative expenses, be either devoted to the furtherance of surgical science by means of grants or invested to increase the capital of the fund. The to hecome. the frustees and administrators of the . Lister, Fund and to carry out its objects, subject to the above provisions of the scheme. The subscription ‘list is still open, and the hon. treasurer, of the fund is Sir Watson Cheyne, Bart., to whom donations may be addressed at the Royal Society, Burlington House, London, W.1. A MARBLE statue to the memory of Wilbur Wright was unveiled on July 17 at Le Mans, where twelve years ago this aviator accomplished a flight of nearly a mile. We learn from the Times that the statue | is the work of the sculptor Landowski, and typifies the struggle of man to conquer the air. The nude figure of a man is represented as having scaled a rugged mountain peak and as stretching out his arms to the hitherto unconquered element, air. The base of the monument is carved with bas-relief figures of Wilbur and Orville Wright and Léon Bollée, the Frenchman who collaborated in the early experiments. Tue thirty-ninth annual meeting of the Society of Chemical Industry was held at Newcastle-upon-Tyne on July 13-16. The gold medal of the society was presented to M. Paul Kestner, president of the Society of Chemical Industry of France, by Prof. Henry Louis, who read the presidential address of Mr. John Gray. Sir William J. Pope was elected president for the ensuing year. An invitation to hold the next annual general meeting at Montreal was accepted. A Concress of Philosophy, in which members of the Société Francaise de Philosophie are taking part, and to which the American Philosophical Association is sending delegates, is to take place at Oxford on September 24-27. Two of the subjects of discussion _ are likely to be of especial scientific interest: one a . symposium on the principle of relativity, to be opened by Prof. Eddington, and the other a discussion to be opened by Dr. Head on disorders of symbolic think-. ing due to local lesions of the brain. The opening meeting of the congress will be presided over by Lord Haldane, and the inaugural address will be by Prof. Bergson. Arrangements are under the direction of Mr. A. H. Smith, New College, Oxford. Tue Faraday Society and the Physical Society af London are arranging to have a joint symposium and general discussion in October next upon the physics and chemistry of colloids and _ their bearing on industrial questions. The subject will be introduced by a brief survey of the present position of colloidal physics and chemistry, and there will then be discussion on the following. sub- divisions of the subject :—Emulsions and emulsifica- tion, physical properties of elastic gels, cataphoresis and electro-endosmose, precipitation’ in disperse sys- tems, .glass and pyrosols, and non-aqueous systems. In spite of the importance of colloidal physics and — chemistry in many branches of manufacture, and of _ the interest which the subject has aroused in recent years, much light remains to be thrown on the nature of the manufacturing process in which colloids play — a part. It is hoped that the discussion will focus attention on some of these problems, that its Royal College of Surgeons of England has consented | result will be to indicate lines of advance and suggest NO. 2647, VOL. 105] - _ Suiy 22, 1920] NATURE 655 _ further researches, and that it will be fruitful not _ only in helping to a fuller understanding of the laws _ of the colloidal state, but also in suggesting new _ applications for colloids in the laboratory and in the works. The exact date and place of meeting and further particulars will be announced later. -In the Meantime, anyone desirous of using the opportunity _ of the discussion to bring forward experimental matter 0r theoretical considerations bearing on the above- __mentioned branches of the subject is asked to com- __municate as soon ‘as possible with the secretary of the = joint committee, Mr. F. S. Spiers, 10 Essex Street, ____ London, W.C.2. ___ A sPEcia meeting of the Réntgen Society was held on July 15 in the chemical theatre of University Col- lege, London, by kind permission of the authorities. The occasion was an address by Dr. W. D. Coolidge, director of the research laboratories of the General Electric Co., of Schenectady. An audience of more than 250 people gathered to hear from the inventor of the X-ray tube which bears his name a detailed account of the processes involved in the manufacture of the Coolidge tube—or rather we should say the Coolidge tubes, for a number of different types of tube, each suitable for different working conditions, are the outcome of the investigations carried out under Dr. Coolidge’s direction over a number of years. Dr. Coolidge in his address laid considerable emphasis upon the amount of investigation entailed in the use of tungsten either as a hot filament or as the target of an X-ray tube. The welding of this highly brittle a metal and ‘its perfect annealing with copper are ____ technical triumphs, and the details of these processes in their final stages were of very great interest. While the effort is at present being made by the _ General Electric Co. to standardise radiographic pro- _ edure by combining a high-tension outfit which auto- __ matically limits the quantity and quality of the X-rays _ from the tube, it is recognised that no such procedure is possible in radio-therapy at the present day. The _ limitations imposed upon the production of very short wave-length X-rays are largely technical ones, ___ and we look with confidence to their production in the __ mear future, for both in medical work and in the ate examination of metals and other materials they are likely to prove of great value. If the production of __ these more penetrating radiations involve new ideas in the construction of the X-ray tubes, those who heard Dr. Coolidge’s address will feel that such con- _ siderations will not be allowed to delay what is becoming a seriously felt want. In a paper read before the Royal Statistical Society in April (Journal, 1920, vol. Ixxxiii., part 3, pp. 1-44), Dr. T. H. C. Stevenson presented the results of an inquiry into the fertility of the various social classes in England and Wales from the middle of the nine- teenth century to 1911. Child mortality varies directly and. very markedly with the number of children born and the rapidity with which they are born. It also varies with the age of. the mother at birth. If allowance is made for the differences of marrying age in different classes, fertility is found to increase downwards throughout the social scale. NO. 2647, VOL. 105] The difference in fertility between the classes is, broadly speaking, a new phenomenon, for it is small for marriages before 1861, and rapidly increases to a maximum for those of 1891-96. That the decline in the birth-rate is due to the artificial restraint of fertility is indicated by the following features: The gradual spread of the decline throughout society, from above downwards; the exceptionally low fertility of occupied mothers; and the increase in the defect for the higher social classes with increase of duration of marriage up to twenty-five years. The lowest fertility rates are returned for the most purely middle-class occupations —the professions. The comparatively low child mor- tality of the less fertile classes goes but a small way numerically to compensate for their low fertility. The classes which are least fertile when married are likewise those that marry latest in life. Ante-nuptial conception leads to great under-statement of the number of marriages of less than twelve months’ dura- tion. Such under-statement is the rule amongst all classes where the wife’s marriage age is under twenty, and becomes less frequent as the wife’s age increases. At ages above twenty its frequency varies with the social position, reaching its maximum amongst un- skilled labourers. Pror. E. W. MacBripe contributes to the latest number of Scientia (vol. xxviii., No.. 99, 1920) a trenchant article on ‘‘The Method of Evolution.’”? By the ‘force of heredity,’’ he says, is meant the tendency of the offspring to resemble the parent. It is obvious that in some way this force must be modified as time progresses, otherwise evolution could not take place, and the manner and means of this modification are just. what we mean by the phrase ““method of evolution.”? The Darwinian view that large results may be reached by the selection of small individual variations is seriously weakened by ‘pure line’? experiments. The mutationist view of the im- portance of ‘‘sport’’-variations exhibiting Mendelian inheritance cannot be accepted as more than an acces- sory theory, for most mutations are of the nature of “‘cripples,’’ and utterly unlike the differentiating characters which distinguish allied species. There remains a third alternative: the inheritance of the effects of use and. disuse. This is the method of evolution, ‘‘the dominating influence which has moulded the animal world from simple beginnings into the great fabric of varied life which we see around us.’’ If we ask for evidence of the trans- mission of somatic modifications, we are referred by Prof. MacBride to the researches of Kammerer. If we submit that opinion is divided as to the validity of these, we are told to repeat the experiments, which is, of course, a fair enough answer. In the mean- time, we are invited to consider how bacteria, modified to perform feats in disruptive chemistry of which their ancestors were incapable, hand on their individually acquired new qualities to their abundant progeny. And if we suggest that this is not a test case, since bacteria have no soma and do not multiply by germ-cells, we are told that the distinc- tion between somatoplasm and germplasm is a ““Weismannian nightmare.’’ All this points clearly to the need for fresh experiments. 056 NATURE [Jury 22, 1920 Pror. STEPHENSON’s paper ‘* On a Collection of Oligo- cheta from the Lesser-known Parts of India and from Eastern Persia’? (Memoirs Indian Museum, vol. vii.) is very informative. The known Oligocheta, about 150 before 1883, were about 1000 species in 1911. To these Prof. Stephenson adds 24 species and 5 varieties, modestly remarking: ‘‘It can scarcely be said, how- ever, that the results of the present investigation include anything of the first order of importance; it is now too late to expect it.’”’ One of the new species, Nais gwaliorensis, is about one-tenth of an inch long and one-hundredth of an inch broad, yet in an earlier paper the author shows this brevity far outdone by Annandale’s Chaetogaster spongillae. Among _ very much larger forms the systematist may note that Prof. Stephenson here makes his Eutyphoeus Kempi a synonym of Eutyphoeus chittagongianus, Michaelsen, and that author’s bengalensis a synonym of his species Waltoni in the same genus. So lately as 1893 ‘‘absence of branchiz’’ was included in the defini- tion of the Oligocheta. Now, not only does Branchiura Sowerbyi, Beddard, have, as its generic name implies, gills on the tail end, but Prof. Stephen- son also finds a species of Branchiodrilus, ‘‘a Naid worm with gills remarkably like those of Branchiura, but on the anterior part of the body.’’ THE twenty-eighth Report, for the year 1919, on the Lancashire Sea-Fisheries Laboratory contains a note by Mr. A. Scott upon a midwinter invasion of the Barrow Channel by an immense swarm of the phosphorescent flagellate Noctiluca and the Cteno- phores Pleurobrachia and Beroé. On December 16, 1919, Mr. Scott made one of his routine visits to the sandy mud-flats between tide-marks, and found that the area—5oo yards wide and 1000 yards long—be- tween Roa Island and Foulney appeared as if it had been thickly sprinkled with glass marbles. These were the Pleurobrachia, many of them of large size (22 mm. high), and mingled with them were stranded Beroé. At the water’s edge was a brick-red, oily-looking zone 6 in, to 12 in. wide, and the water in the creeks was covered by a similar oily layer, which on examination proved to be composed of Noctiluca. Twenty-four hours later the area was again examined, but only one Pleurobrachia was found, and there was no Nocti- luca in the plankton. It is quite unusual to find an abundance of Noctiluca and Ctenophores in this area in. midwinter. Noctiluca has been abundant on former occasions along the coasts of North Wales and Lancashire, but hitherto only in the period between the beginning of August and the end of September. THE ‘Reports for the Year 1919 on the Science Museum and on the Geological Survey and the Museum of Practical Geology’? (H.M. Stationery Office, 1920, price 3d.) are accompanied by a map showing the grouping of institutions devoted to educa- tion and research in the great quadrangle between Cromwell and Prince Consort Roads, South Kensing- ton, The Science Museum has gone into temporary occupation of part of the eastern block of new build- ings while this block is being completed, the galleries thus occupied being left in an unfinished state until a second move onward can be made. The’ arrange- NO. 2647, VOL. 105] ment is a testimony to the energetic and necessary _ expansion of the collections, which now include an aeronautical division. The report on the Museum of Practical Geology refers to the congestion of its col- lections, which have been largely increased by the groups of materials of economic importance brought together in recent years. There is no reference, how- ever, to any scheme of extended buildings. The pub- lication of maps and memoirs has been maintained at a high level, and it is interesting to note how the public demand shows an enormous and intelligent pre- ference for the ‘‘drift’’ series of colour-printed maps as against those showing the ‘solid ’’ geology only. - Tue Geological Survey of Scotland has issued the fourth of its series of memoirs dealing with the de- tailed economic geology of the central coalfield of Scotland, the present volume being devoted to Area VI., which forms a block near the centre of the field eal’: includes the districts of Rutherglen, Hamilton, and Wishaw. This is naturally an area of very great economic importance, and comprises some of the most productive portions of the Scottish coalfield. A valu- able feature of the publication is the series of sections obtained from borings and sinkings, which have been printed on separate sheets; it may perhaps be regretted that the scale selected is somewhat minute. It need scarcely be said that the geological relationships of the ccal seams and of the various economic minerals met with in the field are described in full detail, and that the memoir, together with the revised maps which it is intended to accompany, will be of the greatest value to mining engineers whose professional work lies” in that area of the Scottish coalfield. A REPORT on the weather experienced at Falmouth’ Observatory has recently been issued by the Observa- tory Committee of the Royal Cornwall Polytechnic Society. The observatory is closely associated with the Meteorological Office, and many of the records for Falmouth appear in the several reports of the Office, which probably is sufficient reason for the small amount of work done actually at the observatory. Funds available at the spot are clearly limited, and the staff is, consequently, small. Pressure, tempera- ture, and rainfall results in the report are compared with the means of the forty-five years 1871 to 1915, whilst in the Meteorological Office publications the records are compared with the new normals for thirty- five years, 1881 to 1915. Probably in course of time general uniformity in this respect will be adopted. The mean air temperature for November was a record for cold, and its minimum, 26° F., was the coldest for the year. The total rainfall for the first six months of the year was 5-89 in. greater than for the last six months, which is a reversal of the ordinary rule. October was a record for dryness, rainfall measuring 1-62 in. Bright sunshine had an average record for the year of 4:8 hours per day. October had 158-9 hours, which is a record for that month; the extreme ~ range of the totals for October is 77-6 hours, not 69:2 hours, as stated in the report, for which result 1919 was overlooked. The table of sea temperatures from observations made in the harbour and the com- _ is of considerable _ interest, but the differences from the air of the maxi- — parison with air temperatures “Individual Differences a _ researches made by a % conclusive in its nature, * intensive fury 22, 1920] NATURE - mum and minimum sea values scarcely seem satis- factory, since the observations are not strictly for the 3 iapumne spesiods, ‘the sea tempenatanes being. for fewer oueys.- _ Tue Seventh Report of the Industrial Fatigue q teeeesirch Board (Textile Series, No. 1), dealing with s in Output. in the Cotton iy Industry,” has just been issued. It is the result of x Mr. S. Wyatt, Investigator Be 80" the Board. The scope of the report repre- an attempt to collect information on the ae question of the relative importance of the human and __. «mechanical factors in various branches of the cotton industry. It is intended to be suggestive rather than . to lead on to a careful collection of facts and thence to more detailed and investigations. There is great variety in the conditions obtaining in various types of ‘cotton mills, some, for example, in which, as in the ' spinning of cotton, the output is almost entirely con- trolled by the machine, whereby individual differences in ability are reduced to a minimum; while in others, such as in the process of drawing-in by hand, there appears to be much more scope for the expression of individual differences of ability, and therefore of out- put, by the persons concerned. Thus it may be found possible, where there exist large individual differences of output—which implies that the mechanical factor is subsidiary—so to modify the human condi- tions of employment that increased efficiency, pros- *perity, and comfort may result. The inquiry has of -mecessity been of considerable difficulty, having _ regard to the variability of the conditions prevailing in the course of preparation and manufacture, yet _ waluable, if inconclusive, results have been reached, _ which at least show that the various processes in the _ cotton industry can be classified and graded according to the magnitude of the individual differences which _ ‘they produce, wherein lies the relative importance of ‘the human and mechanical forces. Scarcely any attempt has been made in the mills to determine efficiency in the various processes, yet the collection of statistical data would cause the employer and the Manager to take a scientific interest in their work, _ stimulate inquiry and investigation, and lead to im- proved methods. We may reasonably ask why the ; workers should not be invited to participate in the _ research, since it is in their interests also that the best results should be secured. _ ‘Tue International Institute of Agriculture at Rome has issued the following information with regard to the estimated yields of cereals throughout the world. In the United States the area under winter wheat is considerably smaller than that of ‘last year. More- over, the-season has been somewhat unfavourable, so that the coming crop is estimated at 13-2, million tons, which is 66 per cent. of last year ’s yield and 86 per eent. of the five previous years’ average. It is, how- ever, probable that there are considerable stocks of old wheat still to be exported, and these, together with the reduced new crop, should make the ‘exports for the coming season equal to those for the year ending June, 1920. Drought. has considerably affected the crops in Algeria and in southern Italy, and the NO. 2647, VOL. 105] ‘the introduction of new ideas. outlook in Poland is unpromising, especially for rye. In the other ‘countries of the northern hemisphere the condition .of the winter cereal crops is normal, while the recent wheat crop in British India shows an in- crease of 30 per cent. over last year’s yield. The maize crop in Argentina is estimated at 30,000,000 quarters, which is 32 per cent. higher than the five previous years’ average. This increased yield will probably be . an important factor among the cereal resources of the coming ‘season. Tue ‘Journal of the British Science Guild for June contains a special tribute to Lord Sydenham, the retir- ing president, contributed by Sir O’Moore Creagh. A series of six articles reviews the administrative activi- ties of the Guild, of special interest being the account of the reception by Mr. A. J. Balfour of the deputation on State awards for scientific and medical discovery. The deputation had a sympathetic reception, . the justice of the principle being generally conceded, but Mr. Balfour suggested as a difficulty the exact alloca- tion of credit to the authors of scientific discoveries. This problem, it is pointed out by Sir Ronald Ross, has already been dealt with satisfactorily by the Royal Society, the Nobel Prize Committee, and other authori- ties. It is suggested that pensions and awards might be -included in the Civil List. Lt.-Col. W. A. J. O'Meara writes with experience of the need for the utilisation of science in Government Departments. An element of consequence is the concentration. of power in the hands of the higher division clerks and the permanent staff, which doubtless militates against Memoranda .by the Health Committee on the milk question raise a number of important points in connection with the purity of supply and the possibility of the com- munication of diseases through milk. Sir .Thomas H. J.-C. .Goodwin’s Chadwick lectures .on ‘‘ Army Hygiene in the War and After ’’ (see Nature for June 24, p. 532) and Mr. J. J. Robinson’s popular lecture on ‘‘ Knowledge in National Reconstruction,”’ delivered before 1100 members of the Portsmouth Brotherhood, are summarised. The issue is completed by a list of the officers, fellows, and members of the Guild. Tue Ministry of Transport has stated that it | Si Deck ' Log a ee he Pegs es Jag oe. Oe I 14 0-1402 9:9674 23.3... DB ae I 26 01488 — 9-9623 Sioa 2 1080 Oa eee 01585-99577 Aug. 8 2 30 52 2 36 0-1693 99522 16 2 42 32 4333 ©0:1805 9-9 467 24 25048 447 1920 99403 PUBLICATIONS OF THE DomINION ASTROPHYSICAL | OBSERVATORY, Victoria, B.C., VoL. 1., No. 1.—This volume contains a full account of the inception of the — scheme of constructing the great 72-in. equatorial, and — demonstrates the immense amount of careful thought _ and consultation of experts, both opticians and astro- — nomers, that preceded the adoption of the designs. Before the site was settled, Mr. W. E. Harver 4 tested the quality of seeing at a number of stations in — different parts of Canada, using a 43-in. Cooke photo- — visual telescope. Victoria was finally selected, owing — to the excellent seeing at night, though there was less — sunshine than at Ottawa; the small diurnal range of temperature also favoured it. foo The glass discs were cast at St. Gobain, the optical — work was entrusted to the J. A. Brashear Co., and the ~ enna work and dome to the Warner and Swasey — oO. 4 The ball-bearings, in dustproof cases, prove very efficient, so that it is stated that when the clock is — disconnected a 33-lb. weight on a 26-ft. arm suffices © to set the telescope in motion; a 4o0-lb. weight is — found sufficient for the driving clock, which is wound — automatically by an electric motor. The volume con- — tains details of the zonal tests applied to the mirror, % the results being very satisfactory. Temperature in- sulation, consisting of cotton-felt, is used round the — mirror, and with the small temperature changes tha take ‘place at Victoria the definition will never be appreciably affected by this cause. . a The comfort and convenience of the observers are studied, all the movements being carried out elec-— trically. Details are also given of the powerful spectrograph, which is surrounded by a temperature-— case. It is possible to use the instrument visually without removing the spectrograph, the image being” displaced laterally by reflecting prisms. Numerous large-scale photographs of the vari parts make it easy to follow the descriptions... Jury 22, 1920] NATURE 659 Progress in Science and Pharmacy. 4 By Cuartes ALEXANDER HILL. > *T WENTY-F OUR years have passed since the f British Pharmaceutical Conference met in this . a at city of Liverpool. On that occasion the late Ca William Martindale in his presidential address dealt _ with the use in medicine of “active principles’? in _ substitution of the natural, i.e. naturally occurring, _ drugs. At the same time he described the introduc- _ tion of synthetic substances into medicine as a novelty. + y it is fitting to reflect upon the changes in _ pharmacy wrought by progress in science—progress in _ chemistry and biochemistry, in physics, in physiology, and in science and practice of medicine; next, to : examine the extent to which active principles and _ synthetics have replaced natural drugs; then tenta- __ tively to survey the lines upon which future develop- ment may be expected. ¢ Of the changes that have occurred the increased use of synthetic drugs is the outstanding, though by no means the only, feature. It is noteworthy that im- portant discoveries of new vegetable drugs are prac- tically unknown. The animal kingdom, on the other hand, has furnished us with drugs of the first import- ance; of these the products of the pituitary body, the thyroid gland, and the suprarenal g and afford notable examples. The importance of these discoveries is in nowise diminished if the active principles have been synthesised and can be produced artificially. The use of synthetic remedies in medicine is some- _ times said to date from the introduction of antipyrin _ in 1884, but chloroform and chloral hydrate had long been known and used, and synthetic salicylic acid was freely used in 1877. Hypnone (acetophenone) followed in 1885 and antifebrin (acetanilide) in 1886. These were succeeded by phenacetin, sulphonal, and trional, and since then there has been a steady flow of new synthetic drugs. é _ To-day the world’s annual consumption of phen- -azone or antipyrin may be roughly estimated at too tons, of phenacetin at 250 tons, and of medicinal salicylates Goan salicylate, methyl salicylate, aspirin, and salol) at no less than 2500 tons, and are a few only out of the multitude of pure chemical substances used in medicine. : | Notwithstanding the remarkable extent to which _ synthetic drugs have come into use, and despite the _ increased employment of active principles according _ as our knowledge of these progresses, the use of the _ drugs themselves in the form of galenical prepara- tions, whether ‘‘ standardised ’’ or not, continues to a remarkable, and perhaps significant, extent. Further- more, as we shall see, signs are not wanting of (a growing recognition of the truth that many a drug and many a food may contain valuable properties not readily determined by chemical methods. It may be only slowly that the full value of a drug discovered empirically can be stated in scientific terms. Para- doxical as it may seem, the tendency to-dav, with advancing scientific knowledge, is to recognise the failure of the active principle to replace the parent drug. When it happens, the replacement of a natural drug by a synthetic substance may be conceived as pro- ceeding ideally in four stages. First, the drug is examined chemically, and from it is isolated a pure substance, frequently an alkaloid or a glucoside, which upon beings’ subjected to physiological tests is found to have an effect similar to that of the parent drug; ‘*1 From the presidential address delivered at the Royal ‘Institution, Tiiverpool, on July 20, at the fifty-seventh annual meeting of the British Pharmaceutical Conference. NO. 2647, VOL. 105] such a substance is termed the “ active principle ”’ of the drug. The second stage is to determine the chemical constitution of the isolated active principle ; this, in general, is a matter of extreme difficulty, taxing the resources of our most brilliant organic chemists, which, indeed, is equally true of the third stage, which consists in effecting the synthesis of the substance. Once the synthesis has been success- fully accomplished we arrive at the fourth and last “stage, which is the manufacture of the substance upon a commercial scale. The case of suprarenal gland and adrenalin affords an illustration. It does not follow as: a matter of course that if the synthesis of a substance be accomplished the artificial or synthetic article will replace the naturally Occurring one. Supposing quinine were to be syn- thesised, it is by no means to be assumed that it would be cheaper to produce it on a large scale in the laboratory than to get Nature to conduct the synthesis, and then to extract the alkaloid from cinchona bark and afterwards purify it. It has been amply illustrated in the case of cinchona bark that it pays to subsidise Nature and to encourage her to increase her yield. Intensive culture may be a better business proposition than laboratory manufacture. Synthetic Drugs. By far the larger number of chemical substances used in medicine are not the active principles of natural drugs. It would lead me beyond the confines of my address to attempt even a cursory survey of what has been accomplished in the limitless field of synthetic drugs, to the enormous consumption of which I have already made reference, or to make more than the barest mention of the fact that syn- thetic organic substances are employed as antiseptics, anesthetics, narcotics, hypnotics, “and antipyretics, and in the treatment of diseases, notably those of parasitic origin. Nor need I remind you of the many attempts made by chemico-physiologists to correlate chemical con- stitution and physiological action. Much chemical and physiological work has been done in this fascinating field of research, and certain eneralisations have resulted by deductive reasoning from very numerous data, yet it has to be admitted that really very little is known of this borderland subject. The physical condition of the substance, its solubility, especially its relative solubilities in different solvents (‘‘ partition coefficient"), its adsorptive power, osmotic properties, and other physical properties, have as much to do with its physiological action as has its constitutional formula, It may indeed be that the purely chemical action of a drug is destined to play a subordinate réle in therapy, and that, in the past, the physical action has not been sufficiently considered. Chemotherapy shows us clearly that the physio- logical action of a substance is not due to one con- Stituent only of that compound, but that it also depends largely upon the molecular orientation of the compound and the ratio of adsorption which exists between it and the protein colloidal particles through which this or that constituent is going to act. Con- sider arsenic, for example. In the treatment of disease plain liquor arsenicalis is not so effective as colloidal arsenic sulphide, nor is the latter so effective as arsenophenylglycine, nor the last so effective as diaminoarsenobenzene. They all contain arsenic, but the last, in virtue of its amino-groups, is able to be adsorbed in very large quantities by the protein col- loidal particles; _ consequently, the greatest amount possible of the element gets taken up. So far as can be seen at present, the amino-groups are of great 660 NATURE [JuLy: 22, 1920) importance in a chemotherapeutic compound, especially if they can be placed in the ortho-position to the element one wishes to incorporate, Of greater importance than the group is the mole- cular orientation; one needs only to mention the effect of introducing an acetyl group to illustrate this point. Compare diorthoaminothiobenzene with its acetyl derivative; the former is practically a specific for metallic poisoning, while the latter is as inert as plain colloidal or sublimed sulphur. Even dipara- aminothiobenzene cannot compare with the ortho- body. The addition of an acetyl group to salicylic acid results in a new analgesic property, while at the same time the undesirable after-effects of salicylates are in some measure eliminated. A similar addition to phenetidin gives us phenacetin with its valuable antipyretic properties. On the other hand, the addition of an acetyl group to parahydroxyphenylethylamine (an active principle of ergot) results in a loss of activity. The introduction of an acetyl group into the choline molecule converts this comparatively inert substance into a powerful heart poison. Highly interesting is the case of aconitine. This intensely poisonous alkaloid is the acetyl derivative of benzaconine, the laffer substance being relatively non-toxic. Yet the introduction of further acetyl groups into the aconi- tine molecule does not increase, but diminishes, its toxicity. : : Recent Advances in: Biochemistry. Theoretically, every ingredient of a drug or prepara- tion.must have some effect, though it may be so small as to be inappreciable by any known means; and some drugs and foods have constituents minute in quantity, and therefore long unknown, of the very highest degree of importance. Indeed, recent advances in biochemistry have proved the existence in drugs and foods of physiologically active substances which give a rational explanation of facts based upon experi- ence and established empirically. : Fresh in the memories of all of us is the discovery of the cause and cure of beri-beri, constituting one of the romances of medical science. Beri-beri is a disease of a high mortality which ravaged tropical countries and caused much misery. It had long been connected in the minds of the investigators with the rice which formed the staple food of the populations affected by it, but it has only recently been discovered that the disease is caused by the refinements of rice- milling, brought about by the introduction of machinery. It was observed by Eijkmann, the medical officer to a prison in Java, that the poultry of their establishment suffered from symptoms re- markably like those of beri-beri, which was common in his gaol, where the inmates were fed on a rice diet. Investigations showed this observer that the fowls could be quickly cured by adding to their diet the pericarp and embryo of rice removed during the process of milling. ; : From this starting point there was established by research a complete correlation between the occurrence of beri-beri and the consumption of steam-milled rice. In districts where rice is polished by hand the disease does not frequently occur, because it rarely happens that the whole of the pericarp and embryo are removed by hand. Fowls fed on polished rice quickly suffered from polyneuritis, and birds almost at the point of death were quickly rescued, it was found, by the administration of a watery extract of rice polishings. Thus was beri-beri found to be caused by the absence from the diet of a substance soluble in water and present in rice polishings. This water-soluble constituent belongs to a class of accessory food substances which have been some- what unfortunately named ‘‘vitamines.”? Work on NO. 2647, VOL. 105 | these. vitamines can scarcely be said to have a chemical basis, since all: attempts to isolate them have failed. At least three have been recognised : (1) water-soluble B factor, which prevents beri-beri,. occurs in the seeds of plants and the eggs of animals, in yeast and liver and grain cereals. ig Scorbutus or scurvy is a disease which in former times caused high mortality. Sailors’ particularly were subject to attack, this being due to the fact that they were not obtaining another water-soluble vita- mine, (2) the anti-scorbutic factor. The disease yields Rage’ J to a diet of potatoes, cabbages, and most fresh ruits. Thirdly, there is a fat-soluble vitamine; this is present in cream and butter and beef-fat, and affords. us a rational explanation of our natural preference for real butter over vegetable margarine. Cod-liver oil, which may be regarded as intermediate between” foods and drugs, has long enjoyed a deservedly great reputation as possessing qualities superior to those- of other oils. These qualities are due to the fact that good cod-liver oil has a high vitamine content, and is therefore important in the prevention. and cure of’ rickets. On the other hand, vegetable oils, such as linseed, olive, cottonseed, coconut, and palm, contain: only negligible amounts of, this vitamine. Biochemistry. shows us the importance of other accessory substances besides vitamines. Enzyme action has been shown to be modified or stimulated by the presence of other substances termed co- enzymes. Parallel phenomena have been observed in the digestive processes of mammals in the remarkable activating nature of bodies termed hormones. It would be. beyond the limits of my address to go further than these somewhat brief indications that naturally occurring drugs and foods contain substances , that long remained unsuspected and still longer un- — revealed, but quite enough will have been said to show how unsafe it is to substitute one thing for another. Research, It is not easy to state concisely what is to be dis- tinguished as pharmaceutical research. All will agree that it means something more than an improvement in processes for the exhibition of drugs in pharma- ceutical preparations. Does it mean problems arising out of the cultivation of drugs not hitherto grown within the Empire, or the intensive cultivation of in- digenous drugs with a view to increased activity, or the chemical investigation of drugs for their active con- stituents; or, again, does it mean research in organic chemistry for the production of new synthetic remedies, or does it mean pharmacological experi- ments, or all of these things? I would submit to you the following consideration: We have seen that — pharmaceutical preparations of drugs continue to find employment even after the active principles of those drugs have been isolated, and are readily available — in a pure state. We have seen that drugs and food- — drugs are found to have valuable properties which — cannot be stated in definite terms in the present state — of our knowledge. Further than this, as our know- — ledge of such bodies as vitamines, enzymes, and hormones advances, so increases our respect for the — natural source of such bodies—they may be glands or they may be seeds—whether as a food or as a remedial — agent. Such may be the fate of many an ‘old. fashioned”’ remedy about which hard words have been used merely because it was not fully understood. — Here then, it seems to me, is presented a most fitting — subject for pharmaceutical research: to determine and control the conditions of collection and prepara-— tion of the parent drug, the process of treatment and manufacture and the conditions of storage, to 4 _. demands so imperious and so obvious that there is a danger _ pharmacy flourish. f JULY 22, 1920] NATURE 661 cover characters and devise tests within the scope of the skilled, trained pharmaceutical chemist without involving experiments upon living animals, so that the engine preparation exhibiting the drug shall = both active and uniform. The Future. The annual meeting of the British Pharmaceutical Conference affords a great opportunity for all pharmacists to meet each other on common ground and consider their common interests. Is not the ____ present a period in pharmaceutical history at which it is fitting that all of us whose lot is cast in pharmacy should band together for our common welfare? The . of the business side of pharmacy are to-day of neglecting what, to my mind, is of primary import- - ance if we are to persist. If I am asked what path should be pointed out for pharmacists to pursue in order that the present condition of affairs may be improved and the outlook for the future made more bright, then I say without doubt that the answer lies in cultivating assiduously the scientific side of acy; in the promotion, encouragement, and assistance of pharmaceutical research; in the im- provement of pharmaceutical products; and in keep- ing pharmacy abreast of advances in chemistry, physiology, bacteriology, vaccine-therapy, and other i subjects. Only by giving first place to the professional side of pharmacy, keeping as distinct as possible the purely business side and declining to mix with pharmacy proper business in things so far removed from drugs as to be derogatory to the calling of pharmacy—only thus will it be possible to maintain and enhance the esteem in which pharmacists are held by their fellow- men, both medical men and laymen, as well as public bodies and Government Departments. The British Pharmaceutical Conference exists for “the cultivation of pharmaceutical science ’’ and ‘to maintain uncompromisingly the principle of purity in -medicine.’’ Let pharmacists see to it that the con- _ ference receive full and generous support, and that _-no effort be spared to enable it to carry out these worthy objects. Thus shall pharmacists prosper and Medical Science and Education. ie his wisely eloquent presidential address to the British Medical Association meeting at Cam- bridge Sir T. Clifford Allbutt struck many a nail on the head. He began with the claim that the universi- ties, ancient and modern, from Alexandria to Edin- burgh, have made the professions, and stated the university ambitions to be building up character, - training in clear thinking, and imparting particular knowledge and experience. He confessed, however, that the new universities comvare ill with the old in nourishing the imagination. There is need to learn how to teach; there is need for simplification by more blending of details into larger principles; and there is need to beware of letting our teaching stiffen into formulas. Another point, refreshingly illustrated, was the debt of other sciences to medicine, for what impulses have come from medical studies to cytology, to organic chemistry, to bacteriology, and so on, up to philosophy, as the address itself shows. In medical research, as elsewhere, natural observation is yielding more and more to artificial experiment as investiga- tion penetrates from the more superficial to the deeper processes. ‘The progress of medicine must in large part be endogenous.’? ‘Mere observation—Nature’s NO. 2647, VOL. 105] march past—will not count for much. now; and as te family histories—well, they vary with each historian.”’ Once-more Sir Clifford Allbutt made a plea for the study of the elements and phases of disease in animals and plants—a comparative pathology that would stir the imagination of young workers and save the world from a wastage as unnecessary as it is incalculable. ‘Yet no one stirs, save to gyrate each in his own little circle. There is no imagination, no organisation of research, no cross-light from school to school, no mutual enlightenment among investigators, no big outlook. . .. How blind we are!’’ After a very severe but timely criticism of psychotherapy—a criticism which is not marked, however, by any lack of appreciation of the fruitfulness of experi- mental psychology—Sir Clifford Allbutt closed with some discussion of the immediate problems of general practice and preventive medicine. There is inspira- tion in the whole address (see British Medjcal Journal, No. 3105, pp. 1-8), not least in its final glimpse of the possibilities before medicine as a social service and international bond. At the same meeting of the British Medical Associa- tion there was an exceedingly important discussion on the place of “preliminary science’’ in the medical curriculum—a discussion which will lead, we hope, to some highly desirable changes. In his introductory address Sir George Newman indicated several reforms —a quantitative lightening of the curriculum at. both ends, a fresh orientation of the preliminary sciences in relation to the training of medical students, but, above all, more biology and more real biology. ‘It is the biological outlook and spirit that is required, the capacity ‘to see great truths that touch and handle little ones’; for biology, pure and applied, is the most educative, germinative, and dynamic subject in the whole curriculum.’’ Prof. S. J. Hickson em- phasised the value of biological studies in cultivating habits of verification and precision, in preparing the ground for subsequent anatomical and physiological studies, and in introducing the student to practically important sets of facts, either very concrete as in the case of parasites and their carriers, or more theoretical as in the case of heredity. He recom- mended a reduction in the number of ‘“‘types ’’ so as to make room for more important studies, better orientation of what is taught, and more emphasis on fundamental questions—admittedly difficult as it is to handle them well in teaching beginners. Prof. A. Keith urged that ‘‘anatomy could be made a living, practical part of medicine if only the teacher would ask himself : Could this fact help me in diagnosis and treatment?’’ Sir Ernest Rutherford, speaking of physics, insisted on the necessity for a sound training in the fundamental methods and principles of the science before the medical curriculum is begun, and for a subsequent professional course oriented in a judicious way to future studies in physiology and the like. Prof. Lorrain Smith laid emphasis on the fundamental value of the preliminary sciences as a training in method and criticism, but maintained that the general introduction at present supplied is waste- ful in its discontinuity with what follows later. It misses part of its aim because its bearings on more professional studies are not made clear. Prof. Smithells, speaking of chemistry, indicated some ways in which more value could be got out of the present opportunities if there were more adjustment to the particular ends in view. In general, there seemed to be agreement (see British Medical Journal, No. 3105, pp. 8-21) on two points: (1) The need for making sure of a firmer grasp of principles. and (2) the need for a re-orientation of the class-teaching in relation to the particular needs of the medical student. 662 NATURE [JuLy 22, 1920 First Conference of the International Federation of University Women. HE International - Federation of University Women held its first conference at Bedford College, London, on July 12-14, and it has been interesting to note how thoroughly the Federation deserves its name. If Great Britain and the United States were the most numerously represented, as they are the founder nations, there were plenty of other nationalities to meet them. France, Spain, Italy, Holland, Belgium, the Scandinavian countries, Czecho- Slovakia, India, and the Overseas Dominions of the British Empire had all sent their delegates to par- ticipate in the conference. The proceedings opened on the evening of July 12, when a large audience listened to speeches by Lord Grey of Fallodon, Prof. Caroline Spurgeon (Bedford College), Dean Virginia Gildersleeve (Barnard College, New York), and Prof. Winifred Cullis (the London School of Medicine for Women). Lord Grey emphasised the necessity for intercourse between the peoples of the world, and the women speakers outlined the means by which the International Federation intends to promote this mecessary contact between the women of the universities of the world. Briefly, their aims are the establishment of travelling fellowships and _inter- national scholarships; the exchange of professors, lec- ‘turers, and students; the establishment of club-houses and other centres of international hospitality; and useful co-operation with the national bureaux of education in the various countries. ° On the following days the foundations of the .Federation were established. A constitution and by-laws were freely discussed and _ considerably amended before final adoption. The effect of these will be to establish a central office in London for general information, which will operate in connection with Committees on International Relations set up in each country which is a member of the Federa-. tion. Officers have been elected for the ensuing two years, the president being Prof. Spurgeon; the vice- president, Mrs. R. F. McWilliams, of Winnipeg; the treasurer, Mrs. Edgerton Parsons, of New York; and tha secretary, Miss T. Bosanquet, ‘assistant secretary to the Universities Bureau of the British Empire, 50 Russell Square, W.C.1. Informal reports on the position of the higher education of women in the various countries repre- sented were read, and steps will be taken to correlate the academic standards in the different universities. The next meeting will be held in the summer of 1922. It is hoped that in the meantime each branch association of the Federation will work actively to further the aims of the Federation in its own country. The British Federation of University Women is losing no time in getting to work, and will initiate a cam- paign for the programme of the International Federa- tion in the autumn. Insect Pests. > connection with tropical agriculture, attention has been directed to the question of the influence of the condition of the host-plant on infestation with sucking insects. It is believed that such pests as thrips on cacao and froghopper blight on sugar-cane can be held in check by increasing the resistance of the plant by improving agricultural conditions. In the Agricultural News (vol. xix., No. 464) it is claimed that the ‘‘mosquito blight ’’ of tea (caused by a capsid bug of the genus Helopeltis) is affected in a similar NO. 2647, VOL. 105 | way, and that the condition of individual tea-bushes — determines the susceptibility to attack. The distribu- tion of mosquito blight appears to. be connected with soil conditions, and;analytical data indicate, that soils on which the pest is prevalent show similarities in the potash-phosphoric acid ratio, the addition of potash having an appreciable, though irregular, action in reducing the blight. Water-logging tends to encourage infestation, probably because the vitality of bushes grown on such areas is lowered; draining is the remedy advised in such cases. Acidity and poverty of soil are other factors which vitiate the health of the tea-bushes, so rendering them more liable to attack. _ The spread of prickly pear in Australia is so rapid that large areas of land will continue to be thrown out of cultivation year by year unless some effective measure of control can be devised. that the pest claims for its own 1,000,000 acres of fresh land per annum. Various methods of eradica- tion have been tried, but destruction by mechanical or chemical means has proved too expensive for use on © a large scale. The pear cannot be fed off tostock, and the manufacture of potash and paper from it has not proved to be commercially successful. A fourth line of attack—destruction by natural enemies—is now being followed up (Science and Industry, vol. ii., No. 1). It is necessary to find some enemies of the prickly pear that will not attack other vegetation, as the introduction of ‘‘omnivorous vegetarians ”’ would probably result in serious injury to other forms of plant-life. For this reason certain rodents, snails, and insects which are known to feed on prickly pear in America and Africa cannot be recommended for introduction into Australia. One insect, however, Coccus indicus, appears to. feed exclusively on one form of pear, Opuntia monocantha, but unfortunately it will not feed upon the chief: pest, O. inermis. It is recommended that experiments should be carried on to induce the insects to transfer their attention from one species to the other, if necessary by means of hybridising the pears. Other insects—bugs, ’ flies, moths, and beetles—are known to feed upon one or other species of prickly pear, and it is possible that useful enemies might be introduced from Mexico and South America. The loss caused by the jointworm flies of the genus : Harmolita (Isosoma) in the United States runs into millions of dollars per annum, the wheat jointworm (H. tritici) being the greatest devastator. W. J. Phillips (Bull. 808, Professional Paper, U.S.A. Dept. Agric.) has gathered together the available information and classified the species into groups that attack grain crops, cultivated grasses, and wild grasses. The two first groups cause considerable loss by the injury they entail to the crops. The members of the last group, however, may possibly be beneficial in an economic sense, as they provide intermediate hosts for the para- sitic insects which prey upon the genus, the more important parasites being common to the majority of species of Harmolita. The life-histories of several species are described, together with the way in which injury is caused to the plants attacked. H. tritici causes the most serious losses, reducing the yield of wheat by as much as being .somewhat small and shrivelled.. H. grandis is also confined to wheat, and produces two genera- tions in the year, but as it is easily controlled its powers of destruction can be kept in check. Breed- ing experiments indicate that each species is probably confined to a single host, as it has proved impossible to induce the more important’ forms to attack other crops than that with which they are normally asso- ciated. The jointworms are much subject to parasitic attacks, and‘ for this reason do not often get’ quite It is estimated _ 50 per cent., the grains | a * 3 a, ai aay 3 _ fecessary to arrange the crop rotation so as to allow _ Jury 22, 1920] ~ NATURE 663 out of hand and destroy an entire crop; but, even so, _ they exact a toll of from 1 to 5 bushels per acre _ unless control measures are adopted. Experiments seem to show that ploughing under the stubble is the most effective remedy, as wholesale destruction the insects is thus brought about. It would be the wheat-stubble to be ploughed up, but if this could be done it is estimated that millions of dollars could _ be saved yearly. Parasites such as lice and mites cause considerable _ loss in the poultry industry by reducing egg-production and injuring the quantity and quality of the flesh of _ the birds. A cheap but effective remedy is therefore much to be desired, and it is now claimed by F. C. Bishop and H. P. Wood (Farmers’ Bulletin 8or1, ‘U.S.A. Dept. Agric.) that sodium fluoride fulfils these conditions, and that, if properly used, one application will completely destroy all the lice present on any ird. The treatment can be carried out by dusting or by dipping. In the former case pinches of the fluoride are placed among the feathers close to the skin on the parts most frequently attacked; dusting with a . Shaker is less effective, and also causes more irritation to the nose and throat of the operator. In the latter case #1 oz. of commercial sodium fluoride is dis- ‘solved in a gallon of tepid water, and the birds are then dipped for a few seconds. The lice die more rapidly in this case than when the dry powder is used. It is estimated that the cost of treatment works out to about one farthing per bird, 1 lb. of sodium fluoride sufficing for about a hundred hens. Investigations of the Upper Air.! ‘THE interesting publications referred to below deal with the investigation of the upper air, ‘the first two being written in German. Dr. Ever- dingen, in Holland, has experienced the same diffi- culty that has occurred in England and elsewhere in eyins on the investigation owing to the scarcity and ness of the necessary materials, on account of which the mean height of the kite and captive- balloon ascents, when compared with that of previous years, was reduced considerably. The two years’ reports contain full particulars of each ascent made; they are noteworthy as showing the increasing im- portance of aeroplanes compared with the old method of kites as a means of observation. The third publication, Geophysical No. 14, gives an account of the pilot-balloon ascents made in November and December, 1911, by Capt. Cave and Mr. J. S. Dines in the Scilly Isles. Plenty of information about the relation of the wind to the surface-pressure gradient up to a few kilometres | height over land is available, but similar information ‘about the wind over the sea is very scarce. The expedition to the Scilly Isles was planned and carried out by Capt. Cave expressly to meet this want, and the results, which contain a large and useful amount of information, have at last been published. The islands are noted for their fine formation of rock, and they are exposed to the full force of the Atlantic gales; in no part does the surface rise much above the sea-level, and the whole land area is small, thus the influence of the land on the air-currents must also be small. Moreover, except to the south- _west, readings of the barometer are available, and hence the isobars on the daily weather charts can be 1 “ Koninklijk Nederlandsch Meteorologisch Institut,” No. 106. _ Ergebnisse Aerologischer Beobachtungen,” parts by a and vi. (1917). _. Air Ministrv. Meteorological Office. Geophysical Memoits, No. 14: ** Soundings with Pilot-balloons in the Isles of Scilly.” NO. 2647, VOL. 105] Memoirs, drawn in the neighbourhood ofthe. islands with fair precision. The balloons were mostly followed by two theodo- lites at the ends of a base line of 5260 metres, but on a few occasions, on account of the difficulty of reaching the distant station, only one was used. The period covered was from November 22 to December 8. The weather was mostly rough and stormy with a prevalence of clouds, so that the balloons could seldom be followed to any great height, but the conditions ‘were very favourable for the purpose of the observa- tions. The authors found, as they expected, that the effect of surface-friction is far less at St. Mary’s than inland, and they give the loss of velocity at the anemometer head at Scilly as 20 per cent., against 35 to 50 per cent. at Ditcham Park. The question of the rate of ascent of pilot balloons is considered. The same kind of balloon was used as at Ditcham Park and the same free lift given, The mean rate of ascent was 160-6 metres per minute.. It has been found inland that balloons show a tendency to rise faster in the first half kilometre, but this was not the case at Scilly. The rate of ascent varied considerably from minute to minute, but no systematic difference was found, and hence the authors conclude that the general results obtained from single theodolites may be looked upon as quite trustworthy The last section deals with the type and height of the clouds prevalent during each ascent, and some evidence was found of the motion of the upper clouds away from the centre of the depression which dominated the weather at the time. The whole memoir is very interesting and should be read by every student of meteorology. Bionomics of Glossina palpalis. O. XVII. of the Reports of the Sleeping Sickness Commission: of Royal Society (H.M. Stationery Office, price 4s. net), which has recently been issued, includes the third, fourth, and fifth reports on the bionomics of Glossina palpalis on Lake Victoria by Dr. G. D. Hale Carpenter, of the Uganda Medical Service. Interesting descriptions are given of the natural features and of the fauna and flora of the thirty- six islands visited. These should be consulted in the original by those interested. From a study of the conditions prevailing in these islands it was deduced that the conditions for the prevalence of fly above the average are (1) suitable breeding-grounds, viz. dry sand or gravel ridges representing old lake-shore levels; (2) abundant shade combined with open spaces to permit of the movements of the fly; and (3) absence of large spiders (? Nephila). The characters of a suitable breeding-ground are the following: (1) Loose soil, (2) dry soil, (3) well- ventilated soil, (4) adequate shade, and (5) within 20-30 yards of water. Further research will probably enable us to define these conditions still more precisely and to decide whether they, as one would expect, are also the optimum for the development of pupe. The practical suggestion is made that fly may be controlled by constructing artificial shelters with the characters above defined which would be attractive to the fly as breeding-grounds, and where the pup would be regularly collected and destroyed. It might be possible to add some chemical to the soil in these shelters which would obviate the necessity of collec- tion’ and destruction. The author has established the fact that flies pupate in these shelters. 664 NATURE ‘| Juuy .22, 7920 The report. is an example of the value of the methodical collection of data. Whether the destruc- tion or control of Glossina, which seemed at first sight an almost hopeless quest, can be achieved by this method we shall no doubt soon learn. J. W. W.S. Dante and Trepidation. N a note entitled ‘‘La trepidazione in Dante? ’”’ (Atti della R. Accad. di Torino, vol. lii., p. 353) Signor O. Z. Bianco discusses the novel interpretation given by Duhem (‘‘Le Systeme du monde,” t. iv., chap. x.) of a well-known passage in the ‘‘ Paradiso ”’ (xxvii., 142-48) : : But ere that Jannary pass to spring ‘’hrough that small hundredth men neglect. below, These higher spheres,shall with loud bellowings ring ; The tempest fierce, that seemed to move so slow, Shall whirl the poops where now the prows we see, So that the fleet shall on its right course go ; Anu following on tue flower, the true fruit be. (Plumptre’s translation.) The first two lines clearly allude to the difference between the Julian year and the true value of the tropical year, which Dante assumed equal to 1/100 day, the neglect of which was gradually making the spring equinox occur earlier, and would (if the error were not corrected) eventually make the spring begin in January. Duhem suggested that the second half of the passage alludes to the so-called trepidation of the equinoxes. According to the theory formulated by Tabit ben Korra in the ninth century, the equinoxes * do not move uniformly from east to west, but alter- nately advance and recede in a period of more than four thousand years. This imaginary phenomenon is not alluded to by Al Fargani, from whose text-book Dante seems to have derived his astronomical know- ledge. Signor Bianco rejects Duhem’s suggestion, which is at variance with what Dante says elsewhere 4“ Convito,’’ ii.,6; “* Purgat.,’’ xi., 108) about the slow ‘motion of 1° in a:hundred years. It is surely much more natural to suppose that the poet simply meant that long before the spring equinox after some thousands of years had moved back into January, great upheavals would take place in Italy. Japanese Botanical Work. H Baie Journal of the College of Science of the Imperial University of Tolkyo, vol. xliii., con- tains (article 1) an admirably illustrated monograph (in English) of the genus of brown seaweeds, Alaria, by Prof. K. Yendo. ‘The author has studied the various species on the west coast of Vancouver Island, along . the coast of the Kurile Islands and of Kamtschatka as well as in Japan, and also the material in some of the important European ‘herbaria. The descriptive portion is preceded by a general account of the morphology, structure, and development. The vexed question of the cryptostomata in the brown seaweeds is discussed at some length, and the author concludes that these tufts of hairs, at any rate in the Lamin- arias, may be regarded as absorptive organs. A résumé is also given of the differing views held as to the life-history, especially as to evidence on the manner of renewal of the blades; of Alaria, which, the author considers, ‘‘may be either gradual or sudden, according to the conditions of the place where the plant grows.’’ As regards the economic uses of Alaria, though A. esculenta was extensively used for food in earlier times in North-West Europe, and this and other species are still eaten in various sub-Arctic NO. 2647, VOL. 105 | areas, the author concludes that the genus has very — little value as human food or for kelp-ash. For manure it may be used equally «ell with other brown seaweeds. The species inhabit the colder northern seas, the greatest number being found within a range from about 42° N. up to the Arctic Circle. Fifteen. species are recognised. Of these full descriptions are given, variations in form and synonymy are cussed, and a list of localities is cited. The form and structure of the species are illustrated in nineteen excellent double-page plates. The same volume contains a short paper (article 2) by T. Matsushima describing investigations on the ‘transpiration of cut branches, and an ecological study (article 3) by Y. Yoshii of the Ota dunes—both in German. In the ‘“Icones Plantarum Formosanarum,” vol. viii., Bunzo Hayata continues his descriptive work on the flora of the Island of Formosa, based on the study of the collections of the Botanical Survey of the Government of Formosa. The present volume contains descriptions of species and varieties of flowering plants in various families, and of ferns; III new species and 17 varieties are included. The total number of species of the flora is brought up to 3458, contained in 1174 genera representing 169 fami- lies. The genus Citrus (orange, lemon, Pri is treated at some length, as also are the figs, Ficus, of which the author recognises 29 species in Formosa. In addition to eighty-eight text-figures, the species are illustrated by fifteen excellent full-page plates showing habit and floral dissections. : “ Researches on Egyptian Cotton. THE newly appointed Cotton Research Board for Egypt has issued a Preliminary Report, in which a sketch is given of the general significance of the Egyptian cotton crop and the formation and pro- ‘posed operations of the new Board are described. Plans of the buildings under construction are shown, and a few illuminating figures serve to bring home to the reader the immense volume of detailed in- . formation required in the modern study of crops. An outline of the field of work to be undertaken by a staff of eleven non-Egyptian scientific workers and twenty Egyptians is given for the ‘botanical, entomo-~ logical, chemical, and physical sides, though the Board is rightly careful not to bind itself to a definite programme. . : Those interested in cotton or in Egypt cannot fail to be very glad that this Board has at last come into existence, but the matter is of wider interest in that a move has ‘here been made towards the separation of administration from research. Both functions have been hampered in the past history of many agricul- tural services by mutual confusion, and we anticipate that the step taken by Egypt in this matter will be generally adopted. The only criticism we would offer on this report is upon the reason given for the establishment of the Board, to wit: ‘*Past experience of... the dis- advantages attaching to the investigation of cotton problems from the point of view of any one branch of science.” We would rather have judged that — Egyptian cotton had been singularly fortunate in the informal and voluntary co-operation of every branch of science, the schools of medicine and engineering, and the departments of survey and geology, as well as the agricultural organisations, having given invalu- able help in all directions. We would suggest that past experience showed rather the need for a body ~ (such as this Cotton Research Board) which would Juty 22, 1920] NATURE 665 _ status and help to the scientific co-operation already _ in existence. It is to be hoped that the Board‘ may _ ultimately see its way so to extend its ranks as to effect liaison with bodies outside the official Egyptian ‘Service. W. Lawrence BaLts. ; . University and Educational Intelligence. ____Campripce.—Applications are invited for the George _ Henry Lewes studentship in physiology, value 245l. _ Candidates must send their applications, with par- ___ ticulars of their qualifications and the subject of their ba Sys d research, by July 31 to Prof. Langley at a hy Be Physialocy School. f A further gift of 60001. has been received from Mr. and Mrs. P. A. Molteno to meet the increased cost of Institute of Parasitology. This avoids the need to reduce the accommodation originally proposed. ; been appointed assistant to the professor of chemistry. 4 _ Honorary degrees are being conferred on the Spanish 7 Ambassador, the President of Harvard University, Prof. H. Cushing, and Prof. J. J.- Abel. _ Grascow.—The following were among the degrees _ conferred on July 19 :—Doctor of Medicine (M.D.): (i) With Commendation: James Gordon. Wilson— thesis, “‘A History of Influenza and its Variations.’’ (ii) Ordinary Degrees: Albert Barnes Hughes— sis, ‘Puerperal Eclampsia’’; Donald MacKenzie MacRae—thesis, ‘‘The Bechuanaland Protectorate : Its People and Prevalent Diseases, with a special consideration of the effects of tropical residence and _ food’ in relation to health and disease”; and John _ Young—thesis, ‘‘ Bacillary Dysentery.”” Lonpon.—Mr. Fisher, President of the Board of Education, has stated, in reply to a question asked in the House of Commons relating to the offer of the Bloomsbury site to the University of London, that when the time comes for King’s College to move from the Strand to Bloomsbury, the Government is prepared _ to seek authority to purchase, at a fair valuation, the buildings at present occupied by King’s College in the Strand, and the price so paid will be available towards _ the cost of the new buildings to be erected for King’s Gollege on the new site. | SHEFFIELD.—Dr. R. B. Wheeler has been appointed to the recently established chair in fuel technology, and Mr. Douglas Knoop to that of economics. . Str Jesse Boor has made a gift of 50,0001. to Uni- versity College, Nottingham, in aid of the develop- ment of the scheme for a University of Nottingham. erat for the building fund and 20,0001. for the } ion of a chair of chemistry. _, Tue council of University College, Swansea, has made the following appointments to headships of de- ! nts, viz. :—Professor of Metallurgy: Prof. C. A. Budwards Professor of Chemistry: Dr. J. E. Coates. rofessor of Physics: Dr. E. A, Evans. Professor of Mathematics: Lt.-Col. A. R. Richardson. Lecturer in Geology: Dr. A. E. Trueman. Lecturer in His- tory: Mr. E. Ernest Hughes. "Tue Trustees of the Beit Fellowships for Scientific by Sir Otto Beit to promote the advancement of NO. 2647, VOL. 105 | cut across departmental boundaries, and ‘give official’ labour and material in the building of the Molteno Mr. R. H. Vernon, Gonville and Caius College, has’ Research, which were founded and endowed in 1913, science by means of research, have recently elected Mr. M. A. Hogan to a fellowship. Mr. Hogan was educated at the Catholic University School, Dublin, 1907-15, and has been a student at the University College, Dublin. (National University of Ireland), from 1915 to date. Mr. Hogan will carry out his research at the Imperial College at South Kensington. Tue Industrial Fellowship System for the promo- tion of industrial research, originated by Prof. Robert Kennedy Duncan, has been in successful operation in " the University of Pittsburgh since September, 1911. Full particulars of the system are given in a pamphlet by Mr. T. Ll. Humberstone published by the Board of Education. The seventh annual report of the Mellon Institute, founded in the University in 1913, states that the total funds contributed by industrial firms for the nine years ending March 1, 1920, was 1,213,425 dollars, and that in the year 1919-20 the number of fellowships was 47 and the number of fellows 83, the fellowships being 35 for individuals and 12 for groups of workers. A list of fellowships in operation at March 1, 1920, is published, which shows the great diversity of subjects of industrial research. to which the scheme has been applied. The fact that. the resources of the institute are fully used, and that. applications exceed the available accommodation, is convincing evidence of the soundness of the principles on which the ‘system is based. The institute is. administered by the director, Dr. Raymond F. Bacon,, assisted by an associate director and three assistant. directors, who prepare schemes of research work,, select the fellows, and supervise their investigations. Tue foundation-stone of the new buildings of the University College of Swansea was laid. by his Majesty the King on Monday,.July 19. A magnificent’ site of forty-five acres in Singleton Park, on the shores of Swansea Bay, has been presented to the’ college by the Corporation of Swansea, which has also granted the temporary use of Singleton Abbey for the housing of the faculty of arts and the administra- tive offices.of the college. It should be a matter of encouragement to the council of the college that the main, features of its policy received marked approval. and support in the terms. of. the King’s reply to the address of welcome on Saturday last. It is the natural ambition of Swansea to build up a strong School of Applied Science, including a department of metallurgy of the first rank. At.the-same time the educational ideals of the Welsh people demand for the great popu- lation of this industrial district the fullest provision for. the study of the humanities. and for the advancement. of learning in the widest sense. The authorities of the college are fully alive to the magnitude of their opportunities and the greatness of their trust. Un- mistakable proofs have already been given by repre- sentatives of. all classes of deep interest in the work of the college and a determination to secure practical’ assistance. The wide publicity afforded by the Royal’ visit and the statesmanlike terms of the King’s address’ cannot but serve to widen and strengthen both enthusiasm and practical support. The conclud- ing terms of the King’s reply to the address of wel- come were as follows :—‘ Efficiency is much, but it’ is not all. We must never forget that education is a’ preparation for life, and that its true aim is the en- largement of the human spirit. It will be the task. of your college to send out into the world men and women fully equipped for the material work which awaits them, and with minds attuned to high ideals, opened to the rich and varied interests of modern life, © and steadfastly set towards the service of their fellows.”’ : 666 NATURE [JULY 22, 1920 Societies and Academies. EDINBURGH. Royal Society, June 7.—Prof. F. O. Bower, presi- dent, in the chair.—D. Balsillie:; The intrusive rocks of the Dundee district. These belong to two types, viz. diabases and felsites. The former are generally fine-grained dark masses that contain hypersthene and free quartz, which minerals, along with mono- clinic pyroxene and abundant plagioclase felspar (60 per cent. anorthite), occur in a highly felspathic ground mass. Hornblende, biotite, iron ores, and apatite occur as accessories, the first-mentioned, how- ever, only rarely." Occasionally free quartz disappears, the place of hypersthene being then taken by olivine. As a type of olivine diabase may be cited the large intrusive mass near Newton, west from Auchterhouse station. The hypersthene diabases are characterised by the presence of acid segregation veins that often show beautiful graphic intergrowth of quartz and felspar. Nearly all these basic rocks are much altered, the phenomenon ‘of albitisation being of frequent occurrence, and typically displayed in the diabases of Castle Huntly, west from Dundee. The pink rocks would probably have been classed by the older writers as mica oligoclase porphyrites, which name still sufficiently describes them. Reference was also made to an outcrop of highly solidified ash occurring at Mill of -Mains, north of Dundee, that probably marks the site of an old volcanic vent. In discussing the age of the intrusions, the opinion was put forward that these rocks of the Dundee district should be regarded as belonging to the volcanic cycle of Lower Old Red Sandstone times.—F. L. Hitchcock ; An identical relation connecting seven vectors. June 21.—Prof. Bower, president, in the chair.—J. Goold: The musical scale. The author described a new way of regarding the genesis of the musical scale. Beginning with the four notes, or with the three perfect fifth intervals determined by the four notes F, C, G, and D, the author showed that the group of four notes a major third above these, and the third group of four notes a major third below them, gave, when reduced to the range of one octave, all the notes of the recognised chromatic scale. Another point emphasised was that all the notes of the scale had relative frequencies which depended on powers and products of the numbers 3 and 5.—J. Marshall: A law of force giving stability to the Rutherford atom. It was shown that if the law of force between a positive nucleus and a nega- tive electron were of the form I : ae re wy ye? a value of m can be found which will preserve the stability of a group of electrons not exceeding seven in number. Since b is small compared to the radius of an atom, this law is indistinguishable from the inverse square law for distances large in comparison with the radius of the atom. If in the case of an atom built up of a series of rings of electrons the tentative assumption be made that the inner rings act on the individuals of the outer rings as if the inner set were replaced by an equivalent charge at the centre, the investigation may be generalised to include such cases also; and it is found that for dis- placements perpendicular to the plane of the orbit the configuration is unstable when the number of elec- trons in the outer ring exceeds seven. This would seem to indicate that the atom could be built up of a series of rings of seven electrons, and that we should expect a periodicity in the chemical properties NO. 2647, VOL. 105] of the atoms corresponding to Mendeléeff’s classifica- tion, which was stated by Newlands in 1864 in t form: ‘‘The eighth element starting from a given element is a kind of repetition of the first.’’—Prof. A. W. C. Menzies: The explanation of an outstand- ing anomaly in the results of measurement of dis- sociation pressures.—Prof. J. A, Gunn and Dr. D. G. Marshall; The harmala alkaloids in malaria. Paris. ‘Academy of Sciences, July 5.—M. Henri Deslandres in the chair—A. Lacroix; An eruption of the Karthala volcano at Grand Comore in August, 1918. This eruption commenced with a quiet flow of lava; a fortnight later explosions commenced, with emis- sion of ashes reaching a great height. The explo- sive emission is considered as being probably due to the action of superficial water.—Em. Bourquelot and M. Bridel: The biochemical preparation of cane- sugar, starting with gentianose. Experiments made in 1910 indicated the probability of cane-sugar being one of the products of emulsin on gentianose, but the sugar could not be isolated. In 1920, using emulsin specially purified from traces of invertin, after separa- tion of the glucose as $-methylglucoside, saccharose was obtained in a pure state.—A. A. Michelson: The application of interference methods to astronomical measurements. A development of a method described in the Philosophical Magazine in 1896. Measure- ments on Capella made with the 250-cm. reflector at Mount Wilson Observatory gave the parallax of this star as slightly under o-o50", with an accuracy of about 1/1oooth of a second of arc. Experiments at Mount Wilson on a larger scale are contemplated.— W. Kilian and P. Fallot: The existence of the facies of various Jurassic layers in the province of Tarragon (Catalonia).—A. Righi: Observations concerning a recent note on Michelson’s experiment. An adverse criticism of some calculations by M. Villey.—W. Sierpinski: The measurable B ensembles.—E. Cartan ; The projective applicability of surfaces.—E. Berger: The production of chlorides with a primer.—M. _ Godchot; The oxidation of coal. The experiments described afford no support to the view recently put forward that the oxidation of coal results from the action of bacteria pre-existing in the coal.—E. E. Blaise: The action of substituted hydrazines upon acyclic 1: 4-diketones. A study of the reaction between dipropionylethane and phenylhydrazine. Sub- stituted hydrazines give pyrrol derivatives with 1: 4-diketones.—M. Delépine: Ethylene sulphide, C.H,S. Previous attempts to prepare the sulphur analogue of ethylene oxide have been unsuccessful. It can be obtained by the action of sodium sulphide upon ethylene chlorothiocyanate, CH,Cl*-CH,*CNS, and subsequent distillation in a current of steam. Ethylene thiocyanate, CNS-CH,-*CH,*CNS, can re- place the chlorothiocyanate in this preparation.— J. Bougault and P. Robin: The iodoamidines. Benzamidine with iodine and dilute soda solution gives the compound C,H,N,I, in which the iodine is attached to a nitrogen atom, since it is quantitatively removed by potassium iodide in acid solution. The reaction appears to be a general one for amidines.— M. Guerbet: A reaction for benzoic acid based on its diazotisation :-its application to toxicological detection of atropine, cocaine, and stovaine. based on the production of B-naphtholazobenzoic acid, and will detect readily o-1 milligram of benzoic acid.— P. Idrac: Convection currents in the atmosphere in their relation to hovering flight and certain forms of clouds.—P. Nottin : for manganese. treated with soil, manganese is fixed and some lime The absorptive power of earth The reaction is. | When manganese solutions are — JuLy 22, 1920] NATURE > 667 _ is found in solution. Calcite was proved not to react _ with manganese salts, but lime was dissolved from aragonite and manganese retained—M. Gallaud: A _ face of wallflowers with multiple and hereditary _ anomatlies.—A. Marie and L. MacAuliffe: Study of P.) 344 sies. An anthropometrical comparison with the Frepch race.—E. Roubaud: The mode of action 4 of powdered trioxymethylene on the larve of Ano- _ pheles. Further details of the best method of using _ trioxymethylene for the destruction. of mosquito _ larve.—J. Dufrenoy: The excretion of vital colouring _ miatters and degenerescence in Ascidians.—E. Chatton : _ A morphological and physiological xeno-parasitic complex :- Neresheimeria catenata and Fritillarga pel- ___‘tucida.—R. Combier: The purification of sewage by activated sludge.—A. Mayer, L. Plantefol, and A. _ Tournay: The physiological action of symmetrical dichlorodimethyl ether. Care Town. Royal Society of South Africa, May Young in the chair—J. Moir: Colour and chemical constitution. Part xi.: A systematic study of the brominated phenolphthaleins regarding the relation between position and colour. The spectra of twenty- / three bromine derivatives. of phenolphthalein are 4 described, these being selected from the 658 possible th isomers so as to give clear evidence of the value of ‘3 each of the twelve possible positions for bromine as regards change of colour. These values are tabu- lated, whereby any of the uninvestigated isomers should be calculable. Phenolphthalein differs from benzaurine in not having a negative paraposition ; hence the author concludes that the current chemical formu for the former is incorrect, and suggests a : new formulation.—J.- R. Sutton: The relationship a between cloud and sunshine. A brief discussion of 7 the observations of sunshine and cloud made during the twenty years 1900-19 at Kimberley.. In a general way much sunshine postulates little cloud; but the relation is not intimate, and a sunshine recorder cannot be regarded as an automatic device for deter- mining the cloudiness of the sky. August gets the aes sunshine and February the most cloud.—Miss Ethel M. Doidge:| The haustoria of the genera -Meliola and Irene. The fungi belonging to the genus Meliola are true parasites, .sending haustoria into the cells of the host. The most common type is that which has a fine filament penetrating the cuticle and a small globular, thin-walled, uninucleate vesicle in the epidermal cell. Certain species penetrate through the epidermis, through sclerenchyma cells, if these are present, into the first chlorophyll-containing cells of the mesophyll. The haustoria cause a consider- able disorganisation of the cells into which they penetrate, and the mycelium completely blocks many of the stomata. j 19.—Dr. A. , SYDNEY. ; Linnean Society of New South Wales, May 26.—Mr. - J. Fletcher, president, in the chair—Dr. R. J. : The Neuropteroid insects of the Hot Springs Region, New Zealand, in relation to the problem of trout-food. Examination of the contents of trout- stomachs showed that the most abundant foods were the green manuka-beetle, Pyronota festiva, the larvee of caddis-flies of the family Leptoceridz, and a small mollusc, Potamopyrgus sp. Less abundant were larve of dragonflies, mayflies, stoneflies, families of caddis-flies, etc. Since the introduction of the trout the insect fauna of the region has been very greatly reduced, the percentage reduction being esti- mated as follows: Mayflies, more than 50; stone- flies, 80; and caddis-flies, 90. In the vicinitv of a few streams to which the trout have no access insects are NO. 2647, VOL. 105] ae en ee oe other. still comparatively very abundant. Suggestions for improving the position are made along two lines: (1) Improvement of the food-supply, and (2) reduction in the number of trout.—Dr. R. J. Tillyard: The Panorpoid complex. Additions to part 3. Additional evidence is brought forward from the study of the pupal .tracheation of Morova (Siculodes) subfasciata, Walk., to support the conclusion that it is unlikely that any existing Heteroneurous type represents even a close approximation to the original archetype of the Rhopalocera. WasuHInctTon, D.C. National Academy of Sciences (Proceedings, vol. vi., No, 1, January).—C. Barus: An example of torsional viscous retrogression. Observations interesting in their bearing on Maxwell’s theory of viscosity.— C. M. Myers and C. Voegtlin: The chemical isolation of vitamines. The method eliminates purines, hist- idine, proteins, and albumoses, leaving a liquid that can be crystallised; and probably contains histamine or histamine-like substances. The physiological action of the active fractions resembles that of extracts from the mucosa of the small intestine when the intestinal and yeast extracts are purified in the same manner.— C. G. Abbot: A new method of determining the solar constant of radiation. A method using the pyrano- meter applicable on many more days than the old -method, and having the advantage that several inde- pendent observations of the solar constant may be made on a single day.—F. G. Benedict: The basal metabolism of boys from one to thirteen years of age. A formula and a curve are given, and it is shown that, although age and stature as well as body- weight must be considered in pfedicting heat output for adults, it is not necessary to consider more than the body-weight in the case of boys—a fact probably due to the close correlation between the changes in age, weight, and stature for boys.—R. A. Dutcher ; The nature and function of the antineuritic vitamine. A general review of the theory, with numerous refer- ences, is followed by a brief sketch of the author’s work, suggesting that the hormone supply is depen- dent upon the vitamine-content of the food.—H. F. Osborn and C. Mook: Reconstruction of the skeleton of the Sauropod Dinosaur Camarasaurus, Cope (Morosaurus, Marsh); and W. K. Gregory: Restoration of Camarasaurus and life-model. A restoration both in the articulature and in the musculature, with a brief statement of the essential characteristics of each.—W. D. Matthew: Plato’s Atlantis in palzogeography. It is suggested that the present conformation of the Atlantic bottom dates back, in part at least, to the Palzozoic era.—A. A. Noyes and D. A. MaclInnes: The ionisation and activity of largely ionised substances. A general dis- cussion, with considerable bibliography, leading to the conclusion that most of the largely ionised in- organic substances at moderate concentration may considered as completely ionised, and the decrease in the conductance-ratio wholly attributed to the decrease of ion mobility, and the change in activity-coefficient entirely attributed to some unknown effect of a physical nature.—A. C. Lunn: The commutativity of one-parameter transformations in real variables. A proof previously given by Lie and Engel applicable to analytic functions is supplanted by a proof assuming the existence of continuous first partial derivatives only.—D. L. Webster: The intensities of .X-ravs of the L series. II.: The critical potentials of the platinum lines. After a discussion of the special apparatus employed, a discussion of the lines observed places six lines in L,, six in L,, three in L,. The faint lines of Dershem and Overn are unassigned. 668 NATURE ULY 22, 1920 [JuLy 22, 19 Critical points and intensity ratios are discussed.— J. B. Murphy: The -effect of physical agents on the resistance of mice to cancer. The evidence points to the lymphoid tissue as an important agent in the immunity reaction. of transplanting cancer of mice.— H. C. Sherman: The protein requirement of mainten- ance in man. For the maintenance of healthy men and women an intake of not more than 35-45 grams of protein per ‘“‘man” of 70 kg. per day is sufficient even when the protein is not “especially selected, and hence the ‘‘standard”’ allowance of 1 gram of protein per kg. of body-weight per day provides an ample margin of safety.—R. P. Cowles: The transplanting of sea-anemones by hermit crabs. A _ study of behaviour with the problems it presents in this par- ticular case.—J. A. Anderson: Spectra of explosions. Discussion of a new method for obtaining intense spectra of short duration, the new source of light being of the order of one hundred times the brilliancy of the sun.—Report of the Autumn Meeting: The report contains items of business, including the award of medals, the distribution of research grants, and the list of papers read before the Academy. Books Received. Gold: Its Place in the Economy of Mankind. By B. White. Pp. xi+130. (London: Sir I. Pitman and Sons, Ltd.) 3s. net. ; British Museum (Natural History). Catalogue of the Lepidoptera Phalanz in the British Museum. Supplement, vol. ii. Catalogue of the Lithosiade (Arctianze) and Phalzenoididz in the Collection of the British Museum. By Sir George F. Hampson. Plates xlii-lxxi. (London: British Museum (Natural His- tory).) 32s. 6d. Splendours of the Sky. By Isabel M.. Lewis. Pp. viit+343. (London: J. Murray.) 8s. net. The United States Forest Policy. By Prof. J. Ise. Pp. 395. (New Haven: Yale University Press; London: Oxford University Press.) 21s. net. Lectures on Modern Idealism. By J. Royce. Pp. xii+266. (New Haven: Yale University Press; London: Oxford University Press.) 12s. 6d. net. The Medizval Attitude towards Astrology, particu- larly in England. (Yale Studies in English, No. Ix.) By T. O. Wedel. Pp. viit+168. (New Haven: Yale University Press; London: Oxford University Press.) ‘Ios. 6d. net. Some Famous Problems of the Theory of Numbers, and in particular Waring’s Problem. . An Inaugural Lecture delivered before: the University of Oxford. By Prof. G. H. Hardy. Pp. 34. (Oxford: At the ‘Clarendon Press.) 1s. 6d. net. Anthropology and History. Being the twenty-second Robert Boyle Lecture delivered before the Oxford University Junior Scientific Club on June g, Ig2o. By W. McDougall. Pp. 25. (London: Oxford Uni- versity Press.) 2s. net. Manuel de Topométrie. et Calculs.. By J. Baillaud. Pp. vii+222. H. Dunod.) 13 francs. Bureau of Education, India. Indian Education in 1918-19. Pp. ii+86+plates. (Calcutta: Government Printing Office.) 1.8 rupees. Ministry of Agriculture, Egypt. Report on the Maintenance and Improvement of the Quality of Egyptian Cotton and the Increase of its Yield. By H. Martin Leake. Pp. iv+38. (Cairo: ceria Press,): 2.75 5 The National Physical Laboratory. Report for the Year 1919. Pp. 152. (London: Office.) 55. net. NO. 2647, VOL. 105] Opérations sur le Terrain (Paris : ‘Investigations of sinh Upper ‘Ais $2 Sus) Ogee eel H.M. Stationery Dictionary | of Explosives. By EP. xiv+159. (London: J. and A. Churchill.) 15s. “The North of Scotland College of Agriculture. Guide to Experiments at Craibstone, 1920. Pp, 44. (Aberdeen: Milne and Hutchison.) ; Ministry of Public. Works, Egypt. Report on Psychrometer Formulz based on Observations in Egypt and the Sudan. (Physical Department. Paper No: 2.) By E. B. H. Wade. Pp. ii+45-72+2 plates. (Cairo: ,Government Press.) P.T. The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute. _ Vol. xlix., July to December, 1919. Pp. 181-370+ I2. (London.) I5s. net. An Ethno-Geographical Analysis of the Material Culture of Two Indian Tribes in the Gran Chaco. (Comparative Ethnographical Studies, i.) By E. Nor- denskiéld. Pp. xi+295. The Changes in the Material Culture of Two. Indian Tribes under the Influence of New Surroundings. (Comparative Ethno- graphical Studies, ii.) By E. Nordenskidld. Pp. xvi+ 245. (London: Oxford University Press.) 20s. net, 2 vols. - Ministry of the Interior, Egypt. Department of Public Health. | Reports and Notes of the Public Health Laboratories, Cairo. Egyptian Water Sup- plies. Pp.. iit+105. (Cairo: Government Press.) P.T.20. CONTENTS. _ PAGE Aerial Navigation and Meteorology. By Prof. E. van Bwerdingen: \. :.. 3.3.2) ee . 637 Child Physiology. By J. W. iB, tc.) Va is . 638 Forest Reseatch . ...°), 4.) 84. - 639 The Absorption of Light by Organic coe 640 Our Bookshelf. ..... - 641 Letters to the Editor:— British and pia 29 Seen tilts. Apparatus. —Prof. . W. M. Bayliss, F.R.S “4 The Separation of the sae, of Chlorine. _Prof. i Frederick Soddy, F.R.S. 642 Science in Medical Education. —Prof. ‘Sydney 7 Hickson, FUR. acca ieee 643 The Mechanics of the Glacial Anticyclone Illustrated by Experiment. (Illustrated.)—Prof. W Mebhbsio to ceiecne teen 644 The Wiicineceios of “Hydrogen. —Dr. J: R. Ash- WHOLE 2505 45 a! bald line oe meee 645 Occurrence of Ozone in the Atmosphere. ee oa N. PHO oo ee We eae 645 Crystal Structure. (Illustrated.) By Prof. w. oe : Ara Roe ety 646 Researches on Growth of Plants. (Illustrated, ) By Sir Jagadis Chunder Bose, rRS 648 Popular Natural History. (IMustrated.) By x; A. 7. 651 Notes: 40M 2) STE AOR - 654 Our Astronomical Column :— A New Comet %.) 20). Wieck Sates ee ee 658 Publications of the Dees Astrophysical Observa- tory, Victoria, B.C., , No.2: 658 Progress in Science ge pilneeey By Charles ut Alexander Hill) os) sc a 659 Medical Science and Education ...... 661 First Conference of the International Federation . of University Women oo aloe./s: ee ieee 662 Insect:Pestesi i350). Gi Ay anleten 9 662. Bionomics of 'Glossina palpalis. Dante and Trepidation |<.) 004 44. c= seas Rig aaa Japanese Botanical Work Researches on Egyptian Cotton. By D W. ., Lawrence Balls os oe eg eee aoe eT tee University and Educational Intelligence . Pee Societies and Academies a Bi ery ko ‘ Books Received . . pares Sg oe atv A. Marshall, 2 a. a 669 «THURSDAY, JULY 29, 1920. ie ae Editorial and Publishing Offices: - MACMILLAN & CO., LTD., ST. MARTIN’S STREET, LONDON, W.C.2. Advertisements and business letters should be addressed to the Publishers. Editorial communications to the Editor. Telegraphic Address: PHUSIS, LONDON. Telephone Number: GERRARD 8830. A Chemical Service for India, - * CHE constructive proposals put forward in the ee A= Report of the Indian Industrial Commission, 1916-18, presided over by Sir Thomas Holland, were dependent on the acceptance of two prin- ciples: (1) That in future Government must play an active part in the industrial development of the country, with the aim of making India more self-contained in respect of men and material; ___ 2) that it is impossible for Government to under- take that part unless provided with adequate ad- ministrative equipment and fore-armed with trust- worthy scientific and technical advice. The Report under consideration ! is the work of a Committee which sat in Simla, from February 16 until February 28 of this year, after the president with two members of the Committee had toured through the provinces. The Committee was ap- pointed “to formulate proposals for the organisa- tion of a Chemical Service for India and for the - location and equipment of research laboratories.” Prof. J. F. Thorpe, professor of organic chem- istry in the Imperial College of Science and Tech- nology, London, was president of the Committee. His associates were Dr. K. S. Caldwell, principal of Patna College; Mr. R. W. Davies, district and sessions judge, North Arcot, Madras Presi- dency; Dr. W. Harrison, Imperial agricultural chemist, Research Institute, Pusa; Sir P. C. Ray, professor of chemistry, University College of Science, Calcutta; Dr. J. L. Simonsen, forest chemist, Forest Research Institute and College, Dehra Dun; Dr. J. J. Sudborough, professor of organic chemistry, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore. The terms of reference to the Committee were : - (1) To consider whether an all-India Chemical Service is the best and most suitable method of ‘1 Report of the Chemical Services Committee, 1920. (Simla: Govern- ment Central Press.) NO. 2648, VOL. 105] aa NATURE overcoming the difficulties and deficiencies pointed out by the Indian Industrial Commission. (2) In the event of the Committee approving the principle of an all-India service, to devise terms of .recruitment, employment and organisa- tion; to indicate the extent to which chemists already in Government employ should be included in that service; and to suggest what should be the relations of the proposed organisation with the public and with Departments of the Government ‘of India and of Local Governments. _ (3) In particular to frame proposals for the loca- tion, scope and organisation of institutions for chemical research. During his tour Prof. Thorpe became satisfied that the development of the chemical industries of India could be adequately realised only through the agency of an efficient Government Chemical Service.. Nowhere did he find an effective organ- isation to co-ordinate the various efforts which were being made; not one of the provinces had even formulated a programme of its requirements or decided what educational methods were neces- sary to attain the desired ends. To achieve success the proposed Chemical Service must be recruited mainly from Indian sources: the ques- tion of an adequate training in Indian universities is therefore vital. This subject is specially dealt with by Prof. Thorpe in an able introductory note: the Committee expresses itself as in agreement with his views. The evidence put before the Committee was so definitely in favour of a Chemical Service that it came to the conclusion that question No. 1 of its remit, quoted above, could be best answered by the formation of a service having as its primary objective the encouragement of industrial research and development. The Committee makes thirty-five recommenda- tions of which the first twelve are as follows :— (1) That a Chemical Service should be con- stituted. - (2) That the service should be called the Indian Chemical Service. (3) That the service should be controlled by a Director-General. — (4) That a Central Imperial Chemical Research Institute should be erected at Dehra Dun under the Director-General of the Chemical Service, as Director, assisted by a’ number of Deputy Directors. (5) That each Deputy Director should be in charge of a separate Department and that, in the first instance, there should be four Departments, (a) Inorganic and Physical Chemistry, (b) Organic Chemistry, (c) Metallurgical Chemistry, (d) Ana- lytical Chemistry. (6) That a Provincial Research Institute under Z 670 NATURE [ JULY 29, 1920 the control of the Local Government should be erected in each province near the chief seat of industry in that province and. that each Pro- vincial Research Institute should be under a Director of Research. (7) That the functions of the Central Imperial Institute should be as follows :— (1) to create new industries and to carry out the development of new processes up to the “semi-large ” scale or further if necessary, to investigate those problems of a _ funda- mental character, arising from the work of the Provincial Institutes, which have been transferred to the Central Institute by the Local Director of Research in consultation with the Director-General. Such problems will be those which have no apparent im- mediate practical importance but which, in the opinion of the Director-General and the Director of Research, are likely to lead to discoveries of fundamental industrial import- ance affecting 'the industries of the country generally, (iii) to assist in the co-ordination of the work in _ progress in the provinces: both by means of personal discussion between the officers of the Central and Provincial Institutes during the course of the tours made by the Director- General and the Deputy Directors and by means of periodical conferences of Provincial and Imperial officers, (iv) to carry out such analytical work as may be required and to correlate the methods of analysis in general use throughout the country, (v) to maintain a Bureau of Information and Record Office, (vi) to issue such publications as are considered necessary. ) (8) That the functions of the Provincial Re- search Institutes should be as follows :-— (i) to maintain -close touch with the works chemists and with the works generally and to work out any problems which may be sub- mitted to them, (it) to develop and place on an industrial scale ' new industries which have been previously worked out on the laboratory and “semi- large ” scale by the Central Imperial Institute, (iii) to carry out such other work as may be _ necessary to establish and foster new indus- tries peculiar to the province, (iv) to carry out such analytical work of a chemical character as may be required in the province, (v) to erect and control sub-stations in such parts of the province as the development of industry may require. . (9) That, under (8) (i) above, arrangements should be made by which a firm supplying a prob- lem should have the use of the solution for an agreed period of time prior to its publication, (10) That members of the service should be NO. 2648, VOL. 105] (ii — ~~ lent to private firms as occasion demanded and should during the period of their service be paid an agreed sum by the firms. ies (tr) That the Research Institutes should not undertake manufacture in competition with private enterprise but that chemical industries developed in accordance with (8) (ii) above should be handed over to private firms as soon as practicable. (12) That, whenever necessary, experts should be employed to establish chemical industries based on known processes. Among the other recommendations are that agricultural chemists should not at present be included in the service; that a Ministry of Science should be created as soon as practicable; that a Chemical Survey of India should be carried out at the earliest possible moment; and that the Government of India ‘should give maintenance: and equipment grants to students, to enable them to undergo the training in chemical .research re- quired for recruitment. : It is not a little remarkable that the only member of the Committee to take exception to the creation of an all-India Chemical Service is the one Indian member, Sir P. C. Ray. A separate note is appended to the Report in which he forcibly states his objections. Sir P. C. Ray’s opinion must carry great weight, not only on account of his long experience and his distinction as a teacher and investigator but ‘also because of his:familiarity with industrial requirements and possibilities, he having long been concerned with the management of a chemical works which he — was instrumental in establishing. The present writer had the. opportunity. of visiting this works when in Calcutta in November, 1914, and was much struck by the ingenuity displayed in the construction of the plant; various heavy chemi- cals were being made, including sulphuric acid, in substantial quantities. rae A Although Sir P. C. Ray considers that tke days of Government services are over and that the development of industries by the agency of a Government service is not the most suitable way of dealing with the problem, yet he agrees that, if a Government service be constituted, the pro- posals of the Committee, represent the best method of constituting and carrying on such a service. His view is that better results would be obtained by improving the teaching of chem- ia istry in the Indian universities; by attracting — brilliant young men by the offer of research scholarships ; and by attaching technical institutes — to each university. sn! ee The circumstances of India are so entirely 4 t nt 4 a t intinn al ie JULY 29, 1920} NATURE 671 / peculiar that it is impossible to judge the scheme from an ordinary point of view. A number of those who contributed to the recent correspond- ence in NATURE appear to fear that the liberty of the subject engaged in research work may ‘be improperly interfered with and curtailed by the institution of a separate Chemical Service. This should not be the case. It is to be supposed that the studies undertaken will be strictly utili- tarian in character—the primary objective being the encouragement of “industrial research” and to secure the co-operation of science and industry. The fact is, the term “research” were better put aside altogether in the present connection—it now has so many meanings, if any meaning in Particular: it should be confined to strictly original inquiry and regarded as a word of sacred import. Organised scientific inquiry into industrial problems is what is aimed at by the promoters of the scheme: therefore Central Scientific Institute would be a better title than ‘Central Research Institute, “Research” being a word unknown to the multitude and one for which it never can have any feeling. India is a country of vast size and is broken up into an infinitude of small holdings: its problems are more than numerous: the nature and extent of its raw materials must be surveyed without loss of time: very little has been done to develop industries. The one crying need seems to be an organisation of effort. A service is required if only in protection of the workers. Perhaps the chief objection to be taken to the scheme is its magnitude and therefore its costli- ness; it involves the simultaneous establish- ment of so many district institutes, to satisfy the desire of the several provinces to exércise ad- ministrative control in their own areas. The real difficulty will be to find men who are competent to act as directors—men who are not only tech- nically competent but also sufficiently imagina- tive and broad in outlook, able to hold their own Socially and to manage men. Such men have been in constant demand here of late and too rarely forthcoming. Indeed, the complaint is frequent that, though those entering technical careers may be chemists by training, they Jack initiative and are unable to shoulder responsibility. Science does not at present attract the right type of in- telligence to its ranks. Do not let us delude our- selves into thinking that we can repair our past errors and become a scientific nation at will—by admitting large numbers to the schools and creat- ing numerous new posts: without acumen and NO. 2648, VOL, 105] worker. experience, nothing can be done. The success of the Indian scheme will depend largely on the man first chosen to fill the post of Director of the Central Institute: he must be gifted with a liberal spirit and with ideas; his time must not be unduly taken up in attending to administra- tive details; he must himself be a skilled scientific Only such a man will be able to assist the work of the universities and be a generous and capable critic of the men they educate for the purposes of industry and the State service. Sir P. C. Ray would in all cases start industries by means of technical experts imported from abroad and would not attempt to work them up locally with the aid of the Research Institutes, as proposed by the Committee. He is unquestion- ably right in so far as large industries, well estab- lished elsewhere, are concerned; and as a matter of fact the Committee advises that this course should be taken in all such cases. The proposals of the Committee apply specially to small-scale industries in which it is desirable to encourage native activity; the work done by Sir Alfred Chatterton in Madras in developing the use of aluminium may be quoted in illustration. The Indian is eminently conservative and is not easily persuaded to do new things—but he can often be led by ocular demonstrations; it will be the function of the provincial institutes to give these. In its reference to the exploitation of forest products, the Committee mentions match-making as an industry which it understands the Forest Department has under contemplation and seems to give its approval. Here Sir P. C. Ray’s criticism is to the point. Match-making is so thoroughly understood that it seems undesirable that academic workers should take it in hand: in such a case, it were better at once to call in the expert. The suitability of various fibres for paper-making is quite another question: it is clearly desirable that these should be first tested on the spot, so that the many variations to which the raw material would be subject could be taken into account. The great value of the Report lies in the recommendation of an all-India scientific service —the directions in which the service can be made of most avail will be gradually discovered as the service comes into operation. That the industrial future of India can be secured only with the aid of the scientific inquirer and by placing industry on a scientific footing is beyond ail question. Thanks are due to Prof. Thorpe and his col- 672 NATURE [JuLy 29, 1920 leagues for the able way in which they have dealt with their onerous task. Mr. Howard, Imperial economic botanist to the — Government of India, directed attention recently, | to the future of | economic botany in India and to the many com- | plex problems awaiting solution : after asking what | at the Royal Society of Arts, is the best method of getting such work done— whether we should rely on organisation or trust to. the individual—he expressed the opinion that individual action is to be preferred. But surely the competent individual should be able to influ- ence a receptive though unimaginative multitude. Increase in knowledge is of little value if it do not give us an increase of power to use our know- ledge—we know that it does. During the war, much organised team work was accomplished by scientifically trained workers under the influence of a few guiding minds. The men who are doing research work in the various schools are for the most part unconscious members of a service act- ing under the inspiration of a few leaders: there is no reason why the system should not be carried from academic life into the public service. We are alive to the faults by which a public system is likely to be affected and should be able to guard against them. Henry E. ARMSTRONG. Tycho Brahe. Tychonis Brahe Dani Opera Omnia. Edidit PL... EL Dreyer: Tomus’ vi. Pp. oes 975: (Haunie: Libraria Gyldendaliana, 1919.) Price 19 kr. R. HAGEMANN, who is bearing the ex- M pense, and Dr. Dreyer, who has under- taken the labour of ‘editing the works of Tycho Brahe, are alike to be congratulated on the ap- pearance of this elegant edition of the first book—the only one ever published—of the “ Epis- tole Astronomice.’’ The frontispiece consists of a handsome portrait of Tycho Brahe, dated 1586, reproduced from the first edition, which appeared in 1596. Here the portrait is enclosed in an arch ornamented with sixteen coats-of-arms, either, we may conjecture, his sixteen quarterings, or at least the arms of his own and fifteen kindred families. The English reader will note with special interest the arms of Rosenkrans and Gul- densteren, and we have not far to seek for bearers of those arms. In Dr. Dreyer’s “Tycho Brahe ” (1890) Jorgen Rosenkrands is frequently mentioned as a patron of Tycho. He was Governor of Jut- land, and in 1588 was made one of the Council of Regency for the young King Christian IV. of NO. 2648, VOL. 105 | Axel Guldenstern appears in twee Denmark. | letters in the present volume dated 1592, where he © is described as a kinsman of Tycho and Governor of Norway. The letters contained in the present voles range in date from 1585 to 1595. They comprise the correspondence of Tycho Brahe with Wilhelm, Landgrave of Hesse-Cassel, his son and successor Moritz, and his “mathematicus ” Rothmann. The letters are partly in Latin and partly in German, ‘but the German letters are always accompanied by a Latin translation. Their contents are well exploited in Dr. Dreyer’s “Tycho Brahe,” men- tioned above, and in his “ History of the Planetary Systems ” (1906). Perhaps the most generally interesting part of the present collection is the description of Tycho’s observatory at Hveen and of his instruments, which occupies pp. 250-95 of this volume. Tycho’s attitude to astronomy and astronomers is well illustrated by the selection of eight, whose portraits adorned the crypt of his observatory—Timocharis, Hipparchus, Ptolemy, Albategnius, Alfonso, Copernicus, Tycho Brahe, and Tychonides, with the pithy distichs in which Tycho sums up the LpOCLARRe of each (pp. 274, 275). ‘ The correspondence with Rothmann will remain famous for the clearness with which Rothmann. grasped the implications of the Copernican system, and maintained them against Tycho’s futile objec- tions, which, to men brought up to believe in a. stationary earth, appeared so cogent. It is some- what pathetic that this record of the ancient con- troversy should have appeared only a few weeks. before the triumphant vindication of a new theory which renders the difference between Copernicus and Tycho meaningless. Tycho was the first of dee astronomers to make more than occasional observations, and it was therefore natural that the work of the ancient observers, particularly Timocharis, Hipparchus, and Ptolemy, should possess a living interest for him and ‘his correspondents instead of having, as to nearly all modern astronomers, a purely anti- quarian importance. Rothmann (p. 115) made one unhappy suggestion about Ptolemy which can scarcely have been intended for publication. Cer- tainly the author can never have dreamed of the way in which it was to be extended. The sug- gestion is that the places of the fixed stars in Ptolemy were not observed by him, "but merely transcribed from Hipparchus. Rothmann shows, quite correctly, that the latitude which Ptolemy professes to have observed for Regulus is incon- sistent with the longitude and declination which he also professes to have observed; his own. observations, he says, are not inconsistent wie ~ =o lh eee Oe “ee i hy ~ a7 EL _Juty 29, 1920] _ of the Catalogue of Hipparchus, _ Ptolemy’s epoch by means of a constant’ correction _ to the star places. NATURE 673 the accuracy of Ptolemy’s latitude and longitude ; therefore it must be the declination that was in error; this, he thinks, was extrapolated from the declinations observed by Timocharis and Hippar- ehus, and he concludes that Ptolemy observed no declinations at all, but merely deduced them from Timocharis and Hipparchus. This probably sug- _ gested to Tycho Brahe the more sweeping charge, __adumbrated in his “ Progymnasmata ” ii., 151), and stated clearly in the introduction to his Catalogue (‘“ Opera,” iii., tae Opera,” 335), that the whole of Ptolemy’s Catalogue was merely a reproduction reduced to This charge has had a wide currency, but has been refuted by Laplace and Ideler, and finally by Dr. Dreyer in his paper, ~ “On the Origin of Ptolemy’s Catalogue of Stars,” Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, Ixxviii. (1918), pp. 343-49. The absurdity of Rothmann’s original charge may be shown by a computation of the position of Regulus for the epoch of Ptolemy’s tables. Ptolemy’s declination, as it happens, is correct, but his latitude is in error, and his longitude is greatly in error, doubt- less because his tables gave a false longitude to the sun, with which Regulus was compared. J. K. FoTHEerincHam. Psychological Tests in Industry. Employment Psychology: The Application of Scientific Methods to the Selection, Training, and Grading of Employees. By Dr. Henry C. Link. Pp. xii+440. (New York: The Mac- -millan Co.; London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd., 9r9.) Price 1os. 6d, net. *XPERIMENTAL psychologists in this country have always been keenly interested in re- search into individual mental differences, but to America we must turn for the first attempts to apply psychological tests to vocational selection and guidance. As might have been expected, an alternative method has arisen which claims to judge special abilities, aptitudes, and characters by the methods of phrenology, the colour of the hair and eyes, the texture of the skin, the slope of the handwriting, the squareness or round- ness of the face, the shape of the chin, etc. As Dr. Link points out, attempts have been made to transform this method into “a reliable and scientific method of character analysis. . . . This so-called science has received wide publicity and has been accepted [both in America and in this country] by many prominent and hard-headed business men. It attempts to place observation NO. 2648, VOL. 105 | on a scientific basis by assuming that certain ob- servable physical characteristics are identified with certain definite mental qualities, and by asserting as a corollary that a visual observation and measurement of the physical characteristics enable the observer to gauge a person’s mental, moral, and emotional qualities. The smattering of scien- tific phraseology in the presentation of this method is just sufficient to impress those who have only a superficial knowledge of the scientific facts involved. . The fundamental assumption on which the so-called science of observation rests is an assumption entirely unwarranted by the facts ” (pp. 240, 241). Contrast with this the methods of industrial psychology. The psychologist first “finds, by means of an experimental process, what the rele- vant activities in an occupation or an operation are.” This he does by means of tests which are tried out on workers whose ability is known and with whose work success in the tests can be com- pared and correlated. In this process he also dis- covers the standard which ought to be reached in the significant tests by those who wish to succeed at the kind of work in question. He then stand- ardises the manner in which these tests should be used, so that every applicant for a particular kind of work will be examined in exactly the same way, and his ability determined according to the same formula (p. 249). As Prof. Thorndike indicates in his introduc- tion, “Dr. Link’s book is important because it gives an honest impartial account of the use of psychological tests under working conditions in a representative industry. He has the great merit of writing as a man of science assessing his own work, not as an enthusiast eager to make a market for psychology with business men. In- deed the story of his experiments is distinctly conservative . . .” (p. x). They included the test- ing of girls and men, of clerks, stenographers, typists, and ‘“comptometrists,” of machine operators, apprentice tool-makers, etc. They show what a wealth of valuable information for voca- tional guidance they can afford, and how excellent a corrective they are to the vague, inaccurate know- ledge too often possessed by the foreman of the relative abilities of those who work under him. The tests used are fully given in an appendix to the book. The volume clearly indicates the im- portance of employment psychology, alike to the employer who “wishes to obtain the best pos- sible kind of human material,” and to Labour if it “wishes to carry out collective bargaining, if it wishes to base its claims for individuals on the sound basis of ability and training ” (p. 389). 674, NATURE | JULY 29, 1920 - inset 2 6 ° 6 ae wg ahs EP Hg fork RK sie gs eg 5 mgr agi %, Sah $x t8- Hasse oO 3 3 5 6 3. eS. aoe ee ee I -§ -14 -5 I -3 2 -3 -13 -9I5 -19 -It 680 NATURE [JuLy.29, 1920 It is very striking that the solar changes pro- duce such large and prolonged temperature effects. On the tenth and seventeenth days after the event the average temperature following solar constants of 2-00 calories differs by more than 6° F. from that following solar constants of 1-90 calories. The temperatures following minimum “solar constant” values are generally lower than the normal from the third to the nineteenth day; they are above the normal before the third day; while those following high values are above the normal from the sixth to the nineteenth day, they are below the normal before the sixth day; and those corresponding to mean “solar constant” values differ by little from the normal through the whole interval. The latter state of affairs is probably decidedly These reversals of solar variation effects with the time of the year are paralleled by reversals with geographical position, according to Clayton, — who was at first led to regard these geographical reversals as zonal. But it now seems more prob- able to him, I think, as well as to Nansen, that they are associated with the great atmospheric- action centres rather than with the earth’s zones. As these action centres change place from time to time, it seems possible that the geographical and secular reversals merge as effects of one general cause. While it may seem extraordinary at first sight that the past winter has been excep- tionally severe (at least in Eastern United States), ° though solar constant values have been steadily exceptionally high from early in October to Feb- ruary, this may be compared with the known fact that when there are many sun-spots high solar radiation and low temperatures also occur together. Unusual cloudiness or prevailing polar N as winds may well account for low temperatures associated with high radiation. Clayton’s studies have led him to a system of forecast- ing in which telegraphic reports Ni of daily solar constant values as obtained by Smithsonian CBE | observers at Calama, Chile, take a prominent part. He claims decided and _ valuable success for both temperature -and precipitation forecasts. If these pioneer results should 4 vi R be confirmed it seems _ highly Dae cs Ee ohne {|-U-GENEBAL MAW v ARS [905-l2|| desirable to establish several 93 ye 1:9'39 other solar constant observa- Te) tories in the most cloudless. 92 far-separated regions of the ! fyorg 1920 earth. By telegraphic commu- 7g UNE [JULY | AUG.|SEPT. | OCT. | NOV. | DEC. |JAN. | FEB.} MARA nication all their results would Fic. 2.—Five-day means observed at Calama, Chile, 1919-29. modified at other times of the year, for Mr. ‘Clayton finds the following correlation coefficients ‘connecting the temperature departures at Buenos ‘Aires eight to nine days after the event with the solar radiation variations observed at Calama ‘from August, 1918, to May, rgrg. . Jan. Feb, March April May June — 0749 —0°20 +0'18 +0°23 +0°33 — July_ Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. — +0°20 +0°26 —0°23 -— 0°29 — 0°33 Taking these figures with the figures given above, we are to conclude that while on the first three or four days after the event high solar radiation tends to produce high tem- peratures February, the opposite tendency governs March to September. __ oh NO. 2648, VOL. 105 | in Buenos Aires from October - to - be available for daily forecasts all over the world. The cost .of such stations fully equipped need not exceed 25,000 dollars for the most inac- cessible. The yearly cost of maintenance need not exceed 10,000 dollars. It is now merely the complete lack of funds for the purpose which withholds the Smithsonian Institution from estab- lishing them. Fig. 2 shows the march of “solar constant” results from June 1, 1919, to March 24, 1920. In no other period since 1903 has there been ob- served three consecutive months of values so high as those of the winter of 1919-20. The following rapidly. falling values accompanied the extra- ordinary solar and terrestrial phenomena of March 22, 1920:— Solar Radiation Values of March, 1920. Mean Date xrto17 18 19 20 2I 22 «BB 24 Value 1°968 1°954 1°940 17931 1°941 1°927 1°866 17905 Sete eo! = JuLy 29, 1920] 681 NATURE The Earliest Known Land Flora. By Pror. F. O. is Ree vegetable kingdom is made up of plants of most varied size, character, and habitat. Comparing those various types, the view becomes ever more insistent that dependence on water is the master-factor determining their existence. As we range their diverse forms according to prob- able sequences of descent, those which we regard as the most primitive according to their structure and mode of reproduction are those which are habitually the most dependent upon constant water supply. It is the same with the animal oy, Sa These broad results were summed up by Weismann some forty years ago in the state- ment that the birth-place of all animal and plant life lay in the sea. If this be true, it follows that all life on exposed land-surfaces has been second- ary, and derivative. Geologists tell us that from the remote past land-surfaces have stood exposed above the level of the ocean. The continents and islands may have differed from time to time in their outline and area from those of the present day. ‘But we may believe that from a very early period land- surfaces have had a continuous existence, so that life upon land may itself have been continuous from the time when living organisms first emerged from their natal waters. Such beliefs throw back to the very remote past the possible origin of life upon dry land. But still the probability re- mains that aquatic life antedated that event. These considerations lead inevitably to the questions: When was dry land first invaded from the water? What were the first land-living plants and animals like? And how did they rank as compared with modern life? Leaving zoologists to solve these questions for their own branch, we botanists are to-day in a better position than ever before to answer them with regard to plants. Though still far from being able to visualise the beginning of the story, recent discoveries have made it possible to see clearly and in detail the nature of the earliest known land flora, which is that of a period older than the Upper Devonian. During recent years fossil plants of early Devonian age have _ been found in Sweden and in Scotland in greater profusion than ever before, while the Scot- tish specimens are so well preserved that they are now almost as well known in structural detail as plants of the present day. Already in this room repeated lectures have been given on the Paleozoic flora. Many plants of the Carboni- ferous Period have been described here in micro- scopic detail, and they are. mostly referable to affinity with such living types as ferns, club-mosses and horsetails. Some, such as the Sphenophylls and Pteridosperms, represent classes which have since died out. But, speaking generally, the flora of the coal is composed of plants comparable with 1 Discourse delivered at the Royal Institution on Friday, April 30. NO. 2648, VOL. 105] branched and creeping base. Bower, F.R.S. the lower vascular plants now living. They pos- sessed stems, leaves, roots, and sporangia. Some even produced seeds like modern Gymnosperms. _ Passing back from the Carboniferous period to the Upper Devonian, the flora, though more re- stricted, may still be described in terms applicable to the living vegetation. The plants include among others the gigantic fern-like Archaeopteris hibernica, from Kiltorkan, co. Kilkenny ; the large Lycopod Bothrodendron, from the same source; and the large-leaved Pseudobornia, from Bear Island. Flat leaf-expansions are here seen, and the plants named have been referred in their general characters respectively to affinity with the ferns, club-mosses, and horsetails. But between the Upper Devonian and the strata that lie below geologists tell us that a vast period of time intervened. The evidence of the ‘plant-remains supports this. The earlier Devonian fossils so far known are meagre in number of forms. In their characters they differ more markedly from the plants of the present day than any of their successors. They were rootless, and there appears to be a complete absence of large, flattened leaf-expansions. It is upon them: that the new discoveries have shed so interesting a light. Conversely, that light is re- flected back by comparison upon the more recent forms. In fact, a new chapter has been opened in plant-morphology, and a new class of vascular plants, the Psilophytales, has been established to receive these representatives of the oldest known land flora. The study of them is leading to new interpretations of the form shown by plants of later periods, and ultimately of the present day. Until 1913 the plants of the early Devonian rocks were very imperfectly known. Their recog- nised characters were chiefly negative. There was no evidence of broad leaf-surfaces, nor was it clear whether or not they bore leaves as distinct from stems. The existence of true roots was also doubtful. The best known plants were con- structed of approximately cylindrical stalks bear- ing lateral spines. These stalks arose from a Some of them showed crozier-like curves when young, and sporangium-like bodies were sometimes found upon them. The most distinctive of these plants were grouped by Dawson in his genus Psilo- phyton, and he published a reconstruction of the species P. princeps. It was, however, the subject of adverse criticism by his contemporaries, and the validity of the genus was questioned. It was upon a field so open as this that light has now been shed. From fresh-water deposits of early Devonian age round Lake Réragen, on the frontier between Norway and Sweden, Dr. Halle collected many specimens of fossil plants. But they were mostly impressions, and showed only imperfect preservation of their microscopic 682 NATURE [ JULY 29, 1920 structure. He distinguished several genera of plants with branched cylindrical stems bearing small thorn-like appendages, and some of them distal sporangia. Many of his specimens were referred to Psilophyton princeps, and bore out in the main the reconstruction of Dawson. Halle was able to confirm the existence of a central vascular strand in Psilophyton, consisting of tracheides, a fact which ranks it with certainty among vascular plants of the land. But the most distinctive novelty which Halle discovered in the Réragen beds was a fossil which he called Sporo- gonites. It consisted of a simple stalk bearing a terminal capsule. From its form, and the char- acter of its contents, he held it to be a sporo- gonium comparable with that of the Bryophytes; but a generalised type, not referable to any exist- the new observations of early Devonian plants in Scotland was recorded. Dr. Mackie, of Elgin, — found at Rhynie, in Aberdeenshire, certain iso- lated blocks of chert containing plant remains. A little later the source of these blocks was traced to a bed of chert, older than the Upper Devonian, found in situ by the Scottish Geo- logical Survey. Its origin appears to have been this. An exposed land-surface existed there in Middle or Lower Devonian time, subject to in- tervals of inundation. It became periodically covered by vegetation. By decay of its stems and underground parts a bed of peat would be formed. The peat was then flooded, and loose sand de- posited over it. Again the vegetation was re- peated, and so successive bands were formed to some 8 ft. in thickrfess’ Then followed water with silica in solu- tion, supplied from some fumarole or geyser. The _ peat- bed was thus sealed up, and the plants preserved with as- tonishing perfection. From. this bed of chert four distinct. vascular plants have. been recognised, and described in the minutest detail by Dr- Kidston and Prof. Lang. They are all essentially similar in _ type, though _ sufficiently different to be placed in three genera, named _ respectively. Rhynia (two species), Hornea, and Astero-. xylon. Rhynia and Hornea are leafless and rootless, while Asteroxylon is also Photo] Fic, 1.—Vertical section through the protocorm of Rhynia Lignieri with rhizoids, embedded in peat (x 14). ing group of them. An alternative suggestion was that Sporogonites may represent only the upper part of a more highly developed sporo- phyte, perhaps on the line of descent of the’ Pteridophytes. Thus the presence of Sporogonites does not actually prove the existence of Bryo- phytes as we now know them in the early Devonian rocks. But nevertheless it has a peculiar interest. Hitherto there has been no certain record of the existence of any moss-like type in the Paleozoic period. The demonstration of so moss-like a sporangium as Sporogonites is certainly the most thrilling of the facts brought forward by Dr. Halle. In 1913, three years before Dr. Halle’s publica- tion of these discoveries at Réragen, the first of NO. 2648, VOL. 105] rootless, but it bears leaves of a simple type. © The plants thus clearly indicate a primitive state prevalent at that period. They conform in general features to the type of Psilo- phyton as described by Dawson, and as recognised in greater detail by Halle. But here in the Rhynie chert the structural details are so well preserved that these earliest of all known vascular plants can be examined and described almost as well as any modern living plants. Some have even. been found standing erect as in life. Through untold ages, like the legendary Knights of the Round Table, they have thus. awaited the revivifying touch of modern science. Of the four plants so far described from the Rhynie chert, Hornea Lignieri is relatively simple. From a distended and. lobed protocormous base rose the stems, which bifurcated. These bore (Dr. Kidston. JuLy 29, 1920] NATURE 683 distal sporangia, which represent their trans- formed tips. Sometimes the sporangia were them- selves forked. The protocorm was bedded in the peat, and parenchymatous, with many rhizoids (Fig. 1). The cylindrical stems stood upright from it, and were about 2.mm. in diameter. They were traversed by a simple stele with a solid core of tracheides, surrounded by phloem. The stele forked at the dichotomies of the stem, but stopped short at the base of the sterile columella, which ran upwards into the flat-topped, and apparently indehiscent, sporangium. The latter appears as a transformation of the end of the stalk, which is simply an ordinary branch of the plant. The spores are tetrahedral, as they are in all of these plants of the chert. The general aspect of Hornea ‘is such as to provoke comparison with the Bryo- phytes, notwithstanding certain strongly diver- gent characters. This may have some real ‘sig- Photo) [Dr. Kidston. Fic. 2,—Aerial stem of Rhyniz major seen in transverse section (X20). nificance in view of its small size, and relatively simple structure. Rhynia major is larger and better preserved, but still it also is structurally simple. It had a less distended rhizome, from which the robust cylindrical stems arose. These consisted, as in Hornea, of a central stele with solid xylem-core and investing phloem, surrounded by a massive cortex, of which the inner region appears to have been photosynthetic. Outside was a well-marked epidermis with stomata. These and the vascular tissue prove the aerial habit of the plant (Fig. 2). The stems ended in solitary massive sporangia, as much as 12 mm. in length, without a columella, and filled with tetrahedral spores (Fig. 3). Neither of the species described bore any appen- dages on. its stems. But Rhynia Gwynne- Vaughani, though smaller than R. major, shows a feature of morphological advance towards some- NO. 2648, VOL. 105] | ; ‘ | thing in the nature of appendages. The upright stems bifurcate as before, bearing distal sporangia similar to, but smaller than, those of R. major. But near to their base there are “hemispherical projections,” dpparently of superficial origin.. Some of these gave origin to tufts of hair, but others produced adventitious branches, which, having narrow bases, were easily detached, and served as means of vegetative propagation. Though these organs are not easily ranked with those of living plants, they are something in ad- vance of what is seen in Hornea and R. major. The sporangia are relatively small, and there is no clear evidence of their dehiscence. The largest, as it is also the most complex, of these plants is Asteroxylon Mackiet. Its base (Dr. Kidston. Fic. 3.—Sporangium of RAynia major filled with spores (X5}) Photo) consisted of branched rhizomes, which burrowed after the manner of Stigmarian rootlets, and each was traversed by a vascular strand with undiffer- entiated xylem; but curiously enough rhizoids are absent. These rhizomes passed over into upright aerial stems, which attained a diameter of as much as a centimetre, and had a complex struc- ture. They forked, and bore externally small and simple leaves. The stele had a stellate xylem very like some Lycopods. From its rays issued strands passing to the bases of the leaves, but not entering them. As in Lycopodium, more than one vertical series of leaf-traces may issue from each 684 NATURE [JuLy 29, 1920 ray of the stellate xylem, a fact that: confirms cortex of stem and rhizome often contain fungal the Lycopod comparison (Fig. 4). Longitudinal | hyphe. It is possible that in the rhizome these Photo] [Dr. Kidston. Fic. 4.—Large stem of Asteroxylon cut transversely just below a dichotomy, and showing leaves attached externally (x about 10). sections show the relations of epidermis, cortex, phloem and xylem, and the way in which the inner [Dr. Kidston. Fic. 5.—Stoma of Asteroxylon Mackiei in surface view { X 210). NO. 2648, VOL. 105 | Photo) may have been concerned in mycosliric nutrition. Higher powers demonstrate the tracheides as _ irregularly, or spirally, barred, but not scalari- _ form. An endodermis has been seen delimiting the cylindrical stele, and mesarch protoxylem is found in the xylem-rays. The leaves are paren- chymatous, the vascular strands stopping short at their bases. The epidermis has been found to bear very perfect stomata (Fig. 5). The essential points of structure of the plant are thus fully known. eae In certain blocks sporangia have been found attached to profusely dichotomising stalks of simpler structure than the main stems of Astero- xylon, and not definitely attached to them. They are associated, however, with stems of Astero- xylon, while those of Hornea. and Rhynia, from which they are structurally distinct, are absent from the blocks. The association makes it prob- able that these peculiarly forked branches and sporangia really belong to Asteroxylon. The sporangia are relatively small and pear-shaped, | and they had .a distal dehiscence. . The whole | plant of Asteroxylon was thus more. advanced in various respects than any of the other three plants of the chert. vs (To be continued.) he a ae Pg rial | _ little known.” JuLy 29, 1920] NATURE 685 Obituary. Dr. Rospert Munro. WE regret to record the death, on July 18, of | Dr. Robert Munro, the well-known Scottish archeologist. Dr. Munro was born on July 21, 1835, and was thus within three days of complet- ing his eighty-fifth year. By his death prehistoric archeology loses one of its foremost exponents in this country; but his work will not readily be forgotten. Munro was educated at Tain Royal Academy and at Edinburgh University. After practising medicine for some years at Kilmarnock, of which . town his wife was a native, his increasing interest in archeology led him to retire in 1886, in order to devote himself entirely to research in this branch of science. His name will always be asso- ciated in particular with the study of prehistoric lake and pile dwellings, a subject to which his attention was first directed in 1878, while on a visit to Zurich, when he took the opportunity of examining the prehistoric lake dwellings in the neighbourhood. Shortly after his return, the dis- covery of two canoes and wrought wood by work- men engaged in drainage work on the estate of the Duke of Portland at Locklee, Tarbolton, Ayr- shire, suggested the possibility of fruitful results to be obtained from investigations on analogous sites in Scotland. At the instigation of Mr. R. W. Cochran- Patrick, Munro undertook the _ exploration of this site, and in the two following years he investigated similar sites at Friar’s Carse, Loch- spouts, and Buston, all in the south-west of d. Accounts of these investigations were published from time to time in the collections of the Ayrshire and Wigtownshire Archeological Association, and a report on the excavation of the crannog at Friar’s Carse appeared in the Pro- ceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scot- land, of which body Munro had been elected a fellow in 1879. The results were afterwards embodied in ‘Ancient Scottish Lake Dwellings,” published in 1882, a book which, as the author said in his preface, sought “to place before the general reader a record of some remarkable dis- coveries recently made in the south-west of Scotland in a department of archeology hitherto In addition to giving the results of his own excavations, he summarised the some- what scanty accounts of previous investigators in this field in Scotland, and the work of Boyd Dawkins and others in England. After the appearance of this work, Munro’s interest turned in an increasing degree to Conti- nental prehistoric sites. Always a great lover of travel—he considered it his only form of recrea- tion—he visited most of the important sites in Europe. Papers dealing with prehistoric remains in Holland, Denmark, Italy, Carinthia, and else- where appearing in the Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland and in other publications in the early eighties, and a book NO, 2648, VOL. 105 | describing a journey in Bosnia, Herzegovina, and Dalmatia published in 1895, bear witness to the extent of his travels and investigations. The publications of the earlier years were, however, merely a by-product while he was collecting the material for his most important work, “The Lake Dwellings of Europe,” published in 1890, of which the substance had been given in his Rhind Lectures, delivered in 1888. In this book Munro made a complete survey of the subject, dealing in particular with the problems of the Swiss lake dwellings and the terramare settlements of Italy. In 1907, seventeen years after its publication, M. Salomon Reinach, in a preface to Modestov’s “Introduction a4 l’histoire romaine,” said of it: “Tl n’y a qu’un livre récent sur les stations lacustres et les terramares de I'Italie; il a été - écrit en anglais par un Ecossais.’’ A French edition appeared in 1908. The results of subsequent discoveries, and in particular. of discoveries on the terramare of Emilia, were embodied in the second part of “Paleolithic Man and Terramare_ Sites. of Europe,” published in 1912. This matter had formed the Dalrymple Lectures on Archeology in the University of Glasgow in 1911; while the first part, which summarised our knowledge of paleolithic man at that date, had been delivered as the Munro Lectures in Anthropology in 1912, being the first course after the institution of the lectureship by the University of Edinburgh. In addition to the works already mentioned, Munro was the author of several other books, including “Prehistoric Problems” (1897), “Prehistoric Scotland and its Place in European Civilisation ” (1899), “Archeology and False Antiquities ” (1905), “Prehistoric Britain” (1914), a popular summary, and a number of papers which appeared at various dates in the Proceedings of learned societies and elsewhere. In 1886 Munro’s freedom from professional duties enabled him to undertake the secretaryship of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, an office which he held until 1899. In 1893 he was president of the Anthropological Section of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, and in 1903 he delivered one of the evening discourses at the meeting of the association at Southport. This discourse was pub- lished in 1904 under the title “Man as Artist and Sportsman in the Paleolithic Period.” In 1894 he was appointed chairman of the research com- mittee instituted in that year to conduct excava- tions on the site of the lake village at Glastonbury, other members of the committee being Sir John Evans, Gen., Pitt-Rivers, and Prof. W. Boyd Dawkins. More fortunate than two of his famous colleagues, Munro lived to see the completion of this important work in 1907, and continued to act as chairman when the committee’s invéstiga- tions were turned to the Meare lake village. He was part author of the monograph describing the 686 “NATURE [Jury 29, 1926 results of the investigations at Glastonbury, which was published in 1911-12. The importance of Munro’s researches was widely recognised. He was a fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, and an honorary member of the Royal Irish Academy, of the Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland, and of the more 1m- portant anthropological and archzeological socie- ties of the Continent. Munro’s work as an archeologist was marked by a cautious reserve and a great sanity in judg- ment. Yet, on occasion, none could be quicker than he in arriving at a conclusion, which further investigation usually proved to be well within the limits of accuracy. It was characteristic of him that he rarely accepted the results of others without personal investigation, and the great mass of information which he digested and summarised in his published works had been largely tested and checked by his own observations. His thorough mastery of his subject as a practical investigator was suggested even in such a trifle as the way in which he handled a stone implement. E. N. FAavaize. _—_ IrR1isH education has sustained a severe loss by the death of the Rr. Hon. W. J. M. Srarkie, Resident Commissioner of National Education. For the past twenty-two years Dr. Starkie guided the rather cranky ship of Irish primary education through the troubled sea of clerical management. After a brilliant school career, he obtained the highest classical distinctions at Cambridge Uni- versity and Trinity College, Dublin, including the fellowship of the latter college. In 1897 he was appointed president of Queen’s College, Galway, but after a brief period of office became Resident Commissioner and ex-officio chairman of the Board of National Education. As a member of the Viceregal Commission on manual and practical instruction, he played an important part in framing the scheme of reformation of the aims and methods of Irish education, which later he was called upon to administer. Upon his shoulders rested in large measure the responsi- bility of effecting the change from a mechanical system of payment by results to an inspection system with a broader view of the functions of a school. Knowing the magnitude of the forces opposed to change, he displayed conspicuous courage in carrying far-reaching reforms to a successful issue. His address on “Recent Re- forms in Irish Education” at the Belfast meeting of the British Association in 1902 was a strenuous and courageous exposure of the weaknesses of Irish education; it aroused much bitter criticism . from the clerical managers. Dr. Starkie was also chairman of the Board of Intermediate Education, and thus occupied a unique position in Irish education, which probably owes more to him than to any one man during the last half-century. He was a brilliant essayist and one of the first Greek scholars of his time. NO. 2648, VOL. 105 | Notes. AN important statement on the development of the ~ synthetic dye industry was made by the chairman of the Colour Users’ Association at Manchester\/oh July 20. should be developed to the very utmost, one being the real necessity that existed from the com- mercial and industrial side, and the other the necessity from the point of view of national security. Only a country possessing a large dye- making plant which could alternatively be used for the production of:the various organic chemical sub- stances employed in war could hope to be in a proper position in any future struggle, for. the next war would be essentially a chemists’ war, and start on a very large scale. The Government has recog- nised that for national security it is essential that synthetic dye factories equal to those of any other possible hostile nation shall be in existence, and to further this object. the President of the Board of Trade has stated that the pledge to the synthetic _ dye industry, that the importation of synthetic dyes shall be permitted only under licence, will be given effect to in legislation as quickly as _ possible. Although the British output of dyes already exceeds the pre-war importation from Germany, there are several important dyes which are not yet manufac- tured in this country, and a licensing scheme such as is promised appears to be the only proper means of fostering the industry and of encouraging manu- facturers gradually to extend their range until the country is absolutely self-contained as regards its” production of dyes and the necessary intermediate products. Tue question of the universities and the excess profits duty was the subject of debate in the House — By the concession already pro-~ of Lords on July 21. posed by the Chancellor of the Exchequer the position is roughly this:—While the excess profits duty will be charged at 60 per cent., the State, as a matter of fact, will bear 12 per cent. of any charitable contribu- tions made by a business firm. Earl Grey, however, in the hope of inducing private benefactors to make larger subscriptions, wished the Government to show more liberality and to consider the total remission of the duty so far as it affected the universities. On behalf of the Government the Earl of Crawford could not grant the further concession, but, in the course of his reply, made an important announcement regarding university grants-in-aid. He stated that the Chan- cellor of the Exchequer was prepared to submit to Parliament an increase of the present vote of 1,000,000l. to 1,500,000l. in the Estimates for the year 1921-22, and, in addition, to consider the advisability of proposing to Parliament a further non-recurrent sum to assist the universities in meeting the grievance of those of their senior members who were precluded from profiting to the full by the benefits of the federated super-— annuation scheme of the universities. No pledge was given in either case, and both proposals are subject to the overriding necessities of national finance. t j ‘ é 4 Mr. Vernon Clay referred to two very — urgent reasons why the dye industry in England » ee ee ep See ae =H 4 JuLy 29, 1920] NATURE 687 Apparently the consideration of any supplementary ' grant within the present financial year is not con- _ templated. While it is reassuring to find that the i Chancellor of the Exchequer recognises the clamant "needs of the universities, there will be no little dis- _ appointment that provision more appropriate to the oa present needs, especially in the matter of superannua- tion, is not made. On July 21 the King received at Buckingham _ Palace the principal members of the British Empire _ Forestry Conference, which sat in London during the . _ preceding fortnight. The members included dele- gates” from Great Britain and Ireland, India, and _ the various Dominions and Colonies. Lord Lovat, presi- dent of the conference and chairman of the Forestry Commission of the United Kingdom, presented the _ delegates separately to his Majesty; and Mr. H. R. : zi Mackay, Forest Commissioner, Victoria, and repre- i sentative of the Commonwealth of Australia, read an _ address to the King, who in his reply congratulated _ the Home Forest Authority on its joining hands so _ soon -with foresters in other parts of the Empire. He referred to the work of universities and colleges and to the experience gained in the Crown woods and private plantations as having laid a foundation on which it is incumbent to build. The King pointed out the peculiar difficulty of forestry work, which demands, perhaps, more imagination, more patience, and more foresight than any other industry, and considered it an immense advantage that the experience of all parts of the Empire should be brought into a common stock and made available for all. Forestry, directed as it is to checking reckless consumption of the world’s supply of timber and to teaching and encouraging thrifty use and prudent replacement, represents a great work for the common good. The conference will result both in practical improvements in the opera- tions of the Forestry Services at home and overseas, and in a truer and wider appreciation of their value to the Empire at large. Wirn the advice and assistance of the U.S. National Research Council, a co-operative body of scientific expérts on injurious insects and plant diseases and of manufacturers of insecticides, fungicides, and general chemicals and apparatus used in fighting the enemies of field and orchard crops has just been organised under the name of the Plant Protection Institute. The purpose of the institute is to promote the general welfare by supporting and directing scientific research on the pests of crops, shade trees, and ornamental plants and on the methods of their control, and by furthering co-operation between the scientific invéstigators and the manufacturers of chemicals and appliances, especially for the sake of effecting standardisation and economy in the produc- tion and use of the means of fighting pests. Also it expects to aid in the dissemination of scientifically correct information regarding the control of injurious insects and plant diseases. Much excellent work along this line is now being done by Government and State organisations, but a further advance can be made by introducing a wider co-ordination and co-operation of. the efforts of both the scientific men and the manu- NO. 2648, VOL. 105 | facturers of control devices. It is in this general direction of co-operative work that the Plant Pro- tection Institute expects to be most active. Two general excursions, both on Saturday, August 28, have been arranged in connection with the Cardiff meeting of the British Association. One party will drive through the Wye Valley to Tintern, where lunch will be taken; thence to Llanover, where they will be the guests of Lord Treowen for tea (price of ticket 19s.). The other party will cross the Bristol Channel to Weston-super-Mare, and drive to Cheddar, Wells, and Glastonbury, returning to Cardiff by boat. in the evening (price of ticket 21s.). Owing to the difficulty of arranging transport, the local secretaries will be much obliged if members intending to join either of these excursions will kindly signify their intention of doing so as soon as possible. Both these are whole-day excursions, and it will be impossible for members to be brought back to Cardiff until rather late in the evening. Letters should be addressed to the Local Secretaries, British Association, City Hall, Cardiff. Tue eighteenth annual meeting of the general com- mittee of the Imperial Cancer Research Fund, held on July 22, of which we publish an account in another column, shows that the Fund has returned to full activity after the interruptions of the war. We are glad to note that our premier organisation for cancer research mainly concerns itself with the purely scientific aspects of the problem. - The detailed study of cell-metabolism now in progress, as foreshadowed in the Director’s report, should, if energetically pursued, lead to advances in general biology of ‘per- manent value, apart from their application to the special problems of cancer. It is gratifying to find that the Fund is again playing its part as a central organisation of international collaboration in cancer research, Tue one hundred and first annual meeting of the Société Helvétique des Sciences Naturelles will be held at Neuchatel on August 29-September 1. The following are among the papers to be presented :— ‘Les aciers au nickel dans l’horlogerie,”” C. E. Guil- laume; ‘Die Vegetation des Diluviums in der Schweiz,”? Prof. H. Brockmann-Jerosch; ‘‘ Ueber das Kropfproblem,” Prof. Hedinger; “Les fouilles de la Grotte de Cotencher,’’? Prof. A. Dubois; and ‘Die ' Gesteinsassociationen und ihre Entstehung,’’ Prof. P. Niggli. Particulars of the meeting may be obtained from Prof. O. Fuhrmann, Université, Neuchatel, or Prof. E. Piguet, rue de la Serre 2, Neuchatel. Tue Rayleigh Memorial Committee has decided that the memorial to the late Lord Rayleigh in West- minster Abbey shall take the form of a mural tablet to be erected near the memorials to Sir Humphry Davy and Dr. Thomas Young. The execution of the tablet will be entrusted to Mr. Derwent Wood. It is expected that after all expenses are met there will be a balance remaining, and this the committee pro- poses shall be used to establish a library fund at the Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge, with which Lord Rayleigh was closely associated. 688 NATURE [JuLy 29, 1920 THE autumn meeting of the Iron and Steel Insti- tute will be held at Cardiff on September 21-24, under the presidency of Dr. J. E. Stead. An influential reception committee, of which the Right Hon. the Earl of Plymouth has consented to act as chairman, _ Mr. E. Steer, vice-president of the South Wales Insti- tute of Engineers, as deputy chairman, and Mr. D. E. Roberts as honorary secretary, has been formed to carry out the necessary arrangements. Soon after the signing of the armistice in 1918 the United States Government sent a Commission to France to investigate the war developments in mining and metallurgy and to observe the methods taken to re-establish the collieries and steel works destroyed by the enemy. Mr. G. S. Rice, chief mining engineer of the Bureau of Mines, was a member of this Com- mission, and a valuable account of his observations was communicated to the Franklin Institute last December, and is published in the June issue of the Journal of the institute. The descriptions of the mines and the methods adopted in working them are confined mainly to the Pas-de-Calais district, and many views of the destroyed surface works are given. The author is of opinion that the most satisfactory way of reconstructing the mines is to cut up and remove the tangled ironwork at the top of the shafts, which are almost all badly cratered by explosives, and to reline the shafts themselves at those points where they pass through water-bearing strata and where they had in consequence been blasted by the enemy in order to drown the mines. He believes this method will be less costly than sinking new shafts. He has every confidence in the ability of the French engineers to deal successfully with the problem. In his report submitted to the joint session of the Oriental Societies at Paris Sir George Grierson describes the progress which has been made in the Linguistic Survey of India. What may be called the Cadastral Survey of these languages is now com- plete except for the Deccan and for Burma, of which a separate survey is in contemplation. The work so far done includes 179 languages and 544 dialects. The account of the so-called gipsy languages, many of which are sécret dialects, is ready for the press. That dealing with the Eranian languages contains much interesting matter, particularly the account of Ormuri, a tongue with Dardic affinities, spoken by a small tribe settled in the heart of the Afghan country. At present Sir George Grierson is engaged upon a comparative vocabulary, representing 168 words—numerals, pronouns, common nouns, and declensional and conjugational forms—giving all the equivalents in all languages which have been studied in the course of the Survey, with a few words in some non-Indian languages, such as Japanese, Chinese, Manchu, Turki, Arabic, Avesta, and Per- sian. As a supplement to the Survey a number of gramophone records illustrating the pronunciation of various Indian languages is in course of preparation, and these are being distributed to institutions where they will be available for students. The progress made in this great work is thus most important. NO. 2648, VOL. 105] AN interesting series of lectures was delivered recently at the London School of Economics and .- Political Science by Dr. B. Malinowsky, a young Polish anthropologist, who, as a member of the Robert Mond Ethnographic Expedition, spent a considerable time among the people of eastern New Guinea, in particular in the Trobriand Archipelago. Dr. Mali- nowsky’s investigations throw fresh and welcome light on primitive economics. Trade is organised by the influence of the chief, associated with a magician in charge of each department of communal activity. “Primitive economics, as exemplified by the Tro- brianders, present a picture different from, and more complex than, that usually assumed. National economy, as a system of free exchange based on untrammelled competition, where value is determined by the play of supply and demand, does not exist. But a system of production, exchange, and consumption does exist, socially organised and subject to definite customary rules. In addition to activities connected with the quest for food, there are many others, such as circular trading and ceremonial ‘enterprise, in which the natives perform organised work, controlled by their conceptions of wealth and value, and therefore dis- tinctly economic. In all these activities there is an interplay of chieftainship, kinship, and social organisa- tion. Ceremonial life, magic, myth, and tribal law control and are controlled by economic elements.”’ Anthropologists will await with interest a full account of this remarkable economic and social organisation. Part of the evidence is summarised in a paper by Dr. Malinowsky, ‘“‘Kula: The Circulating Exchange of Valuables in the Archipelagoes of Eastern New Guinea,’’ published in the July issue of Man, — Wuitst the Crocker Land Expedition explored to the north-west of Greenland, the Canadian Arctic Expedition of 1913-18 investigated the district lying east and west of the Mackenzie River. The mollusca the Canadians brought back have now been studied and described by Dr. W. H. Dall (Report Canad. Arctic Exped., 1913-18, vol. viii., part A, 1919, pp. 29, 3 plates). This collection is of special interest, because, save for a partial exploration about 1863 by Mr. R. Macfarlane, of the Hudson Bay Co., the fauna to the eastward of the Mackenzie River delta has remained entirely unknown. It was thought that probably the great outpour of fresh water from the river might have proved a barrier to the passage of marine species from the western Arctic Ocean, and that the eastward fauna would show a considerable infusion of Greenlandic forms. The result of the study of the collection proved otherwise, for of the hundred Arctic species collected over the whole area in question—a collection, therefore, far richer in numbers than that of the Crockford Expedition (see Natur for July 8, p. 593)—only five were characteris- tically Eastern Arctic. mollusca to colonise in the Bathurst region, while the open sea to the west readily gives access to the Western Arctic forms. Apparently the narrow, tortuous, ice-blocked passages which lead to the Greenland seas © are accountable for the failure of the Eastern Arctic ~ Only six new marine species — are established, and these’ are fully described and ti Me Jury 29, 1920] NATURE 689 os figured. A few fresh-water forms were met with, including a new species of Physa, which is of interest as being the most northern species of the genus. Still, it should be noted that the closely allied Aplexia hypnorum, of circumpolar distribution, occurs with it. ~The Limnzas proved extremely puzzling, and Dr. _ Dall is inclined to consider that both the form known as caperata, Say, and the vahli of Beck may be only _ boreal mutations of the well-known Limnaea palus- _ tris, Miller. Full lists of all the species collected at _ the several stations and from Pleistocene deposits are era included in this important paper. Mr. W. Wysercu has brought forward evidence, Maduding that of marine mollusca, to show that the *y coastal. limestones of the Cape Province (Trans. Geol. Soc. S. Africa, vol. xxii., p. 46, 1920) are by no means entirely due to the cementation of recent dunes. _ The well-known dune limestone seems to have been _ formed over and against a more ordinary and shelly marine limestone, which constitutes the true Bredas- _ dorp formation, and is of late Pliocene or Pleistocene age. Papers on the Crown Colony of Sierra Leone are comparatively rare. Mr. F. Dixey (Trans. Geol. Soc. S. Africa, vol. xxii., p. 112, 1920) describes evidences of Pleistocene movements of elevation, with the formation of a coastal plain along nearly the whole coast of the peninsula or Colony proper, merging on the east into low ground that extends far into the Protectorate. Parallel raised beaches show that the uplift was intermittent. The highest beach is some 300 ft. above the sea. Four photographic views accompany the paper. ae oe ames: oe gar we Tue question of the persistence of genera is raised by Dr. C. D. Walcott in describing a remarkable series of floating cyanophyceous alge from the ‘Middle Cambrian Burgess Shale of British Columbia (Smithsonian Miscell. Coll., vol. Ixvii., No. 5, 1919). Morania, one of his new genera, so closely anticipates the structure of the modern Nostoc that only a feeling that they cannot have been fully identical leads the author to propose a new generic name. The illus- trations are presumably from photographs of speci- mens coloured by hand before reproduction; but they are, to say fhe least, surprising. Mr. Louts Renour, of the Bute Museum, Rothesay, writing in the Museums Journal for April-May on various technical methods, including the mounting of wet specimens under watch-glasses and petri dishes, remarks on the difficulty of obtaining such glasses with even edges, and nicely finished plates on which to mount them. The difficulty led to the discovery that there was “‘no glass-planing plant in the whole of Great Britain.’’ If this be so, the discovery accounts for a good deal that scientific workers have had to contend with in obtaining glass apparatus (at whatever price) from British firms, “Tye Rainfall in the Island of Formosa ”’ has re- cently been issued by the Government-General of For- mosa, with a summary of meteorological observations at Taihoku and five other observatories. Since the NO. 2648, VOL. 105 | meteorological service was established in 1896 rain- fall stations have been added as available from year to year. There were only 28 at the end of 1903, and there are now 135. Every 106 square miles of Formosa has, 6n the average, one station. Most of them are attached to various Government Depart- ments. At 83 out of the 135 stations records are available for ten years or more. The average annual rainfall over the island is 2486 mm., the greatest fall, 7176 mm., being at Kashoryo, situated on a mountain slope at the head of a valley open to the north-east a few miles south of Kelung; this spot is said to be probably the most rainy in the Far East. The minimum annual rainfall for Formosa is 1050 mm. at Rochikuto, in Taichu, on the west coast. There are two rainy seasons, one during winter along the extreme north coast associated with the north-east monsoon, the other in summer on the mountain districts in South Formosa, largely due to typhoons and thunderstorms. Typhoons occasion a considerable variation in the rainfall according to their track and. proximity, the track being usually from south-east to north-west. The heaviest rainfall in twenty-four hours in Formosa is given as 1034 mm. at Funkiko on August 31, 1911, which is the same day as that of the flood in Taihoku shown in the frontispiece of the publication under notice. The heaviest of the exces- sive rains in different parts of the world, quoted for comparison, are Charra Ponjee, India, 1036 mm., June 14, 1876, and Baguio, Philippines, 1168 mm., July 14, 1911. Comprehensive tables and maps are given showing the monthly and seasonal mean rain- fall and the number of rainy days, also the five-day mean rainfall at six observatories from the results for twenty-two years, and the diurnal range, intensity? and duration of rain. | WE have received copies of the second biennial Hurter and Driffield memorial lecture delivered by Prof. Alex. Findlay before the Royal Photographic Society on May 11, and the Hurter memorial lecture recently delivered by Mr. F. F. Renwick before the Liverpool Section of the Society of Chemical Industry. Prof. Findlav discoursed on the properties of colloids in general, and especially with reference to photographic processes and materials. He says: ‘In the produc- tion of the photographic plate, . from the moment of mixing the solutions to the final stage of ripening of the emulsion, we have a complex series of changes taking place in a delicately balanced and complex colloidal system, in which coagulation, peptisation, solution, and adsorption doubtless all take part. . In the production of the latent image . it seems probable that we are again dealing with phenomena of adsorption.’’ Mr. Renwick deals with three characteristics of the latent image: (1) The possibility of physically developing an image on a fixed and washed plate; (2) the possibility of transferring and subsequently developing (both physically and chemically) latent images from the silver salt in which they are formed to another, by changing the former chemically into a less soluble silver salt; and (3) the destructibility of the latent image by the further action of light itself under certain conditions.” He gives the details of some é 690 “NATURE [JULY 29, 1920 _ ] very interesting experiments of his own, .and con- cludes that in the ‘most highly sensitive photo- graphic plates we are dealing with crystalline silver bromide in ‘which, besides gelatine, some highly un- stable form of colloidal silver exists in solid solution, and that. it is this dissolved silver which first wnder- goes change on exposure to light.”’ He finds a reasonable explanation of solarisation “by assuming a peptising action on the part of the later-formed chemical products of light action (bromine, ' hydro- bromic acid, etc.) with formation of a photohalide relatively rich in dissolved silver, but almost un- developable.’’ A new radio call signal used by the Post Office is described by Major Shaughnessy in the Electrical Review for July 16. Until recently one of the draw- backs to radio reception was that it was always neces- sary for an operator to be listening, as there was no method of making the received signals operate a loud calling device. There are many outlying small radio stations in this country in islands and lightships the number of calls on which is so small that it would not justify the expense of having an operator always in attendance. The Post Office, by using a simple valve amplifier, a Turner thermionic relay, and a retardation device in series, has successfully em- ployed the weak radio currents to ring a bell. In order to call the station a long ‘‘dash”’ of 15 seconds duration is sent. During this time a condenser at the receiving station is slowly charged through a 3-megohm resistance. After about twelve seconds the condenser is practically fully charged, so that when the signal ceases and the tongue of the relay moves back to the spacing stop the discharge of the condenser deflects a second relay, and this causes a bell to ring. This condenser device has been used by the Post Office for several years on land lines to call the operators, and is found to be very efficient. Trials of the set have proved that it is practically impossible for ‘‘jamming’’ or atmospheric disturbances to actuate the apparatus. It has been fitted on the P.O. cable ship Monarch, and even with heavy ‘jamming ’’ has proved successful up to a hundred miles. This calling device can be applied for sending the distress signal at sea known as the S.O.S. signal. It will obviously extend the use of radio communica- tion to much smaller ships than at present, as the saving of operators’ wages considerably reduces the cost of maintenance. Two recent articles in the Engineer (July 2 and 9) describe at some length the hydro-electric power works at the Great Lake, Tasmania, which is situated approximately at the geographical centre of the island at an altitude of 3350 ft. above sea-level. From the southern end of the lake the River Shannon finds an outlet some two miles west of the bed of the River Ouse, and the two streams flow in fairly parallel courses for some distance. But the fall of the River Ouse is much more rapid than that of the River Shannon, with the result that, while at a point opposite the middle of the lake the Ouse has an elevation of 120 ft. above it, a few miles south the NO. 2648, VOL. 105 | | Ouse has fallen to considerably more than 1000 fte -has been placed on the market so that the inf respeeren———— i. below the ‘Shannon. ‘A short “Connection between the two rivers at this point enables a very high head of water to be obtained. ''For the initial installation only — the water from the Great Lake catchment area has — been utilised, but it is now in contemplation to divert — the head-waters of the Ouse into the lake, and by this means a total capacity of 70,000 h.p., will be available at the turbine shafts. The dam across. the © southern end of the Great Lake, which at present impounds the water to a height of r1 ft. above the — sill, will be raised to give an effective height of 4o ft. a The existing power station at Waddamana contains — two 5000-h.p. and two 8oo00-h.p. turbines, all of the Boving type; three more 8000-h.p. machines — are under construction, and will shortly be installed. — In order to develop the total fall a second station — will be formed at a higher level, where a head of — 250 ft. is available and a serviceable capacity of — 12,000 h.p. is at present running to waste. —_— WE notice that, in consequence of the continued increased cost of production, the published price to non-fellows of the society of the Journal of the Royal — Society of Arts has been raised to 1s. Messrs. R. anv J. Beck, Lrp., 68 Cornhill, London, E.C.3, inform us that they have obtained a supply of mounted specimens of the scales of the Test Podura Lepidocyrtis curvicollis, which is recognised as being © one of the best tests of high-power microscope object- — glasses. These scales have been for long unobtain- able, and the new supply will be welcomed by many microscopists. Be ie Ba hee - THE research on automobile steels carried out the research committee of the Institution of Aut mobile Engineers has now been brought to a s ccess-_ ful conclusion. It is hoped that the report, which was approved at a meeting held on July 21, will ready for issue by about the end of August, when a ~ further announcement in regard to price, etc., will ~ be made. iff | Tue ‘Rough List ’’ (No. 359) of books on natur. history just issued by Messrs. Bernard Quarit Ltd., 11 Grafton Street, W.1, will be of inte to collectors of first and rare editions, for among’ thousand or so volumes offered for sale are man treasures. There is also a good sprinkling of ordi editions listed at low prices. Practically the w ground of natural history is covered by the logue; there are, besides, sections on mathema mineralogy, palzontology, and physics. A BULLETIN issued by the Department of Indust Madras, entitled ‘‘The Manufacture of Glue in Tropics from Tannery Refuse,” was noticed Nature of February 5 last, p. 611. The directo the Department’ now informs us that the pan tion contained in it may be widely known. pamphlet is priced at 1 rupee, and copies can be chased from the Superintendent, Government. Mount Road Branch, Madras.. | Pd 5 NATURE 691 anachronism that our calendar Our Astronomical Column. * Tue Date. or Easter.—It- seems a curious in the twentieth century should still be largely influenced’ by the lunar chronology which passed out of direct use nearly two thousand years ago. That was the most _ obvious system to employ at the dawn of astronomy, the moon’s rapid motion and the ease of locating its y position in the heavens making it far superior to the Ay sun as a time-measurer. ir, and of having events like the equinoxes in the _ and solstices occurring on variable dates, caused the LOE MMR Se System to be abandoned and a purely solar calendar substituted. _ The Passover was, of course, on a fixed date of the lunar calendar, the fourteenth day of the first month, and, owing to the close association of this feast with the events commemorated at Easter, an attempt has been made to follow the ancient system of fixing its _ date. _ shown by the fact that Christmas and other feasts That this is mainly the result of sentiment is _ are kept on fixed days of the solar year; moreover, _ the coincidence with the ancient method is not per- _ fect, since Easter is tied to one day of the week, _ which was not the case with the Passover. This fact alone may produce a deviation of six days, so that it is obvious that no serious principle could be involved in increasing the deviation to a fortnight or _ thereabouts, which is all that a fixed date demands. Many unofficial ecclesiastical pronouncements have shown that there is no strong hostility to such a change. Lord Desborough brought the matter forward in a letter to the Times on July 20, and in the House of Lords on the following day, pointing out the inconvenience felt by the a LF universities, law terms, etc., through the variable date. The Earl of Onslow did not give much hope of Government action, but this is clearly a matter for international, not merely national, ar- rangement. The Astronomical Union in its session at Brussels last July appointed a Committee on Calendar Reform, with Cardinal Mercier as chair- man, and it is understood that the date of Easter was one of the subjects of reference. The present time, when so much is in the melting-pot, would seem to be a particularly hopeful one for promoting this and similar reforms. _ASTRONOMY IN TOWN PLaNNiING.—It is a sign of awakening public interest in astronomy that a paper should be read before the. Ottawa. centre of the R.A.S. of Canada on the importance of considering practical questions of incidence of sunlight in planning out new towns. The author, Mr. H Seymour, refers to the action of sunlight on bacteria and to the importance of letting all rooms get their share of sunlight, which is best secured by making the corners of the houses point to the four cardinal points, which ‘means that the streets should run from N.E. to S.W. and from N.W. to S.E. He quotes Mr. Horace Bushnell as having put forward the same idea in 1864; but, nevertheless, the tendency has been rather to make the streets run N.-S, and E.-W., with the result that northward walls get no sunshine at all for more than half the year. In the planning of garden cities, where the houses are not contiguous, it is also important to place them so that the shadow of one house may not fall on another, or at least to minimise such incidence. The: heights: of buildings should also be so regulated that those are not in perpetual shadow. NO. 2648, VOL. 105] But as time went on the’ _ inconvenience of having a variable number of months opposite them The Empire Timber Exhibition. By ALEXANDER L. Howarp. i Be Overseas Trade Department of the Board of Trade some time ago ‘conceived the idea of organising an exhibition which should be a representa- tive collection of those timbers which form the forest’ wealth of the countries which constitute the British Empire. ‘This excellent scheme, possibly the direct outcome of the experiences of the war, was cordially and unanimously supported by the representatives of the Governments overseas. Among the many lessons learned as a result of the war none was of greater importance than the know- ledge that was brought home to us of our great dependence upon the products of the forest for the making and building up of every possible kind of offensive and defensive engine of warfare as well as for the maintenance of the daily requirements of ordinary life. From the time when the proposals of the Board of Trade were first considered every effort was made by the representatives of the different States of the Empire and by the officials at home to see that not a stone was left unturned to show conclusively what it was possible to achieve in the matter of timber pro- duction from every source. By a happy chance the date for the exhibition was fixed to coincide with that of the British Empire Forestry Conference, which brought together representatives of the Forest Services throughout the Empire, and there can be no doubt that such an exhibition must form the best possible opportunity for the forest man to gauge the value of the work upon which he is engaged. The countries of the world may be classed into three grades: one which possesses a competent scientific forest service with practical work in full operation; a second which also possesses such a forest system, but lacks the practical application of theory; and a third which possesses neither scientific nor prac- tical forestry. It is regrettable that until a very recent date the United Kingdom must have been classed in the last category, and, although much has been done in the past few years to remedy the situation, it is doubtful whether the great national importance of the subject has yet been fully realised. The Empire Timber Exhibition entailed an enormous amount of continuous hard work and _ persistent energy which eventually resulted in bringing together a collection of many hundreds of timbers from every part of the Empire, and certainly the majority of those of any commercial importance. A collection of this kind is not easy to gather together, and it is doubtful whether such an opportunity is likely to be again available for a very long time. The following are a few of the more noteworthy of the exhibits of the various countries : British East Africa.—The considerable forest re- sources of this country are practically unknown and their exploitation is yet in its infancy. The most important timber jis pencil cedar (Juniperus procera), which is slightf y harder and more brittle than the American variety (J. virginiana). So far it has not been much appreciated by British manufac- turers, although its importance may be gauged from the fact that in 1910 31,000 logs of this timber were imported into Germany from what was then German East Africa. As the majority of the lead pencils used in this country before the war were of German manufacture, the importance of this supply is obvious. The Gold Coast.—Supplies of the timbers of the Gold Coast have already been seen in this country, but this exhibit showed many which are unknown here, though, as with other countries, much confusion 692 “NATURE [ JuLy. 29; 1920 arises fromthe varying vernacular names. The various ‘species of Khaya, the African mahoganies, play the most.important-part, for this. wood, which is generally of fine texture and good quality, has been in very large demand, and extraordinary prices have been realised for it. Another valuable wood is that labelled Odum (Chlorophora excelsa), which has also been imported as Iroko, sometimes falsely termed African teak. While it is in itself of great value, and likely to be more so in the future, it possesses none of the qualities of teak with the exception of a_ superficial resemblance in colour. The wood labelled Kaku, also called Karkoo (Lophira procera), is generally known — in England as African oak; it possesses unique qualities of strength and durability, and it is to be regretted that supplies seem to be scarce. Nigeria—From Nigeria also Lophira procera is available, though here it is known as Eki; it is a_ strong wood, and is reported as being both termite- and teredo-proof. Other heavy constructional woods which resist the white ant and show good promise for the future are Sasswood (Erythrophloeum guineense), the gamboge-coloured Opepe (Sarcocephalus esculen- tus), Agboin (Piptadenia africana), and Apa (Afzelia africana). A particularly fine ebony of large size and beautifully variegated colour is that known as Kawraw (Diospyros mespiliformis). . First and fore- most amongst the woods from this region, however, are the mahoganies, which form the bulk of the supplies. This exhibit was in charge of Mr. Lauchlan. Western Australia.—The depletion of the forests in the past has reduced the volume of the timber avail- able, but their re-afforestation is now in the charge of Mr. C. E. Lane-Poole, and supplies will probably be assured for the future. One of the chief factors in the great value of the timbers of Western Australia is their durability. Jarrah (Eucalyptus diversicolor) and karri (E. marginata) sleepers, for instance, 43 in. by 9} in., on the Great Western Railway remained sound in the ground for twenty years, and appear to be good for another twenty years, while the trenail has remained in position during the whole period. It should be remembered also that a jarrah or karri sleeper 4} in. by 93 in. is better than one 5 in. by io in. of any other wood. Jarrah is also shown in the form of flooring, and provides a smooth, hard-wearing sur- facé equal to that of any other hardwood. Telegraph arms in karri were exhibited; these have been exten- sively. used and much appreciated by the G.P.O. for many years. These hardwoods take premier place for such work as piling, wharf-planking, and bridge- building, and, though more costly in their initial outlay than many timbers, prove the most economical ultimately. As a furniture wood jarrah is also excel- lent; the chairs, tables, and panelling which were exhibited illustrate its value for this purpose. Canada.—At the Canadian exhibit, which was in charge of Mr. Stokes, were shown two interesting models of wooden houses made of Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga Douglasii). Some sixty-nine timbers were shown, of which about twenty-five are of com- mercial interest, the remainder forming a valuable reserve for future use. Two of the outstanding timbers are the Sitka or silver spruce (Picea sitchensis), which might be called the aluminium of timbers, and veneer of basswood (Tilia americana), which is used in the making of safety matches. The by-products of the Canadian forests include tur- pentine, artificial silk and surgical cotton made from sulphide pulp, and the ground-wood pulp which is used in the manufacture of the paper on which the Daily Mail is printed. British Guiana.—The timbers produced from. this country, the exhibit of which was in charge of Mr. Herbert Stone, are of very great importance, and ~NO. 2648, VOL. TO5 | provide a source of supply which has never yet been properly realised. With the exception of greenheart (Nectandra Rodioei), no import into the United King. dom worth mentioning has occurred. This fact is. evidence of the lack of enterprise which this country” displays, because from Dutch Guiana (Surinam). similar woods have been known and appreciated for many years in Holland, France, and Germany. Among the practically unknown timbers which should be in demand are purpleheart (Copaifera pubiflora), the rich and brilliant colour of which stands out remarkably . even amongst the many brilliantly coloured woods of South America; mora (Dimor- phandra Mora), a wonderfully durable wood suitable for constructional work and for sleepers; wana (Nectandra Wana); brownheart (Andira inermis), (this wood, which is called Surinam teak by the Dutch, was named partridge wood by Laslett); locust (Hymenoea courbaril); and crabwood (Carapa guianensis). All these are fine durable woods suitable - for construction in buildings which are required to last for generations. Indian Empire-——-The remarkable exhibit of the timbers of the Indian Empire, both in the raw state. and manufactured into furniture and so forth, was the more noteworthy when it is remembered that prac-. tically none of these timbers of India had ever before been seen in this country. Even those who were — acquainted with the forest wealth of India have not — hitherto realised the extent of its commercial value in Europe. Amongst the exhibits were two halls and. — staircases made respectively in Indian silver grey- wood and padauk (Pterocarpus dalberaiodede a | dining-room panelled in gurjun (Dipterocarpus tur- binatus) and furnished in laurel wood, a drawing- room in sissoo (Dalbergia Sissoo), a bedroom in Indian | black walnut with panels of walnut burr (Juglans regia), and a_ billiard-room furnished entirely in padauk and panelled in laurel wood. The great possibilities of the Indian timbers were, perhaps, most strikingly shown in the railway coach built by © the Great Eastern Railway Co. The constructional portion was entirely of Indian wood, the decoration of — the first-class carriage being in Indian silver greywood and that of the third-class in padauk. These pre- sented such an _ excellent appearance that their increasing use in this direction is certain. In addition to these larger exhibits were shown chairs, mirrors, and numerous small articles. which. serve to illustrate the many and varied uses to which the woods may be put. No trouble has been spared to demonstrate the fact that for every purpose — for which wood is required the products of the Indian forests can meet the demand. Some two hundred — .small specimens showed the wide range of colour and — texture which is available. Among this large ‘col-. — lection of timbers the following are particularly worthy of the most careful attention of those in- — terested in timbers for decorative and constructional — work. Gurjun (Dipterocarpus turbinatus), a pale — brown-coloured wood with a delicate aromatic scent, is an attractive medium for panelling, and one of the best hardwoods for flooring which itis possible ~ to obtain. It is available in large sizes of superlative — quality, and at a price which brings it within the ~ range of even the most economical kinds of uses. — Padauk is a wood which is unique in its brilliant red — to maroon colour. It is exceedingly firm and durable, — stands well without shrinking or warping, and is one of the strongest woods it is possible to obtain. — During the war immense quantities of padauk — cs used for saddle-trees and gun-carriages, for which ~ purposes it is difficult to find its equal. It was also used for the felloes of some exceptionally large wheels for heavy guns for use in Russia.. The produce of a ~ a Jury 29, 1920], NATURE 693, mahogany, is likely to take an important place — of Canarjum, which. hasbeen. termed Indian in the future. It is a smooth, even-grained wood _ Haldu (Adina cordifolia) is a bright canary-coloured wood notable for the smooth and even regularity of the grain. value. Perhaps the finest carving wood hich it is possible to obtain, however, is Indian red _ pear (Bursera serrata), which possesses the above Sua. in a unique degree. Other woods which are _ red zebra-wood (Melanorrhoea usitata), Indian prima- _ vera, yellowheart (Fagraea fragrans), and the hand- ‘some striped and mottled ebony known as Andaman marblewood (Diospyros Kurzii). It becomes abun- dantly clear that the only thing necessary for these timbers of India to take the important position which _ their merits deserve is that the representatives of the _ Government in India should continue to provide _ regular and certain supplies, and to this end exten- _ sive arrangements are now being made. _ The United Kingdom.—About seventy varieties of _ timbers grown in the United Kingdom were shown, _ and these included such importations as the silver _ wattle of Australia and the black walnut (Juglans _ nigra) of America. Floorings in yew (Taxus baccata), _ cherry (Prunus Avium), and beech (Fagus sylvatica), _ amongst others, illustrated a little-known use for these _ woods. The decorative effect of English brown oak _ (Quercus Robur) was shown in various articles. Other _ exhibits, such as the gondola of an aeroplane made in : English ash (Fraxinus excelsior), called to mind the _ large part played in the war by the native timbers. . Other countries showing interesting exhibits, of _ which space forbids mention, were British Honduras, Ceylon, Fiji, Newfoundland, New South Wales, New Zealand, Union of South Africa, Tasmania, and Trinidad. The Education Act, 1918. Lonpon County Councit Drart SCHEME. ‘T BE Education Act of 1918, which among its pro- visions requires that draft schemes for giving effect to them shall be submitted by the local educa- tion authorities, has resulted in a remarkably interest- ing document just issued by the Education Committee of the London County Council, in which is set forth not only a scheme for the administration of the Act within the county, but also a most informing sum- mary of the history of education in London during the nineteenth century and of the various legislative enact- ments passed from time to time, notably those of 1870 and 1902, to increase the facilities and improve the quality of education especially for the large population immediately within its area, now amounting to up- wards of 44 millions. The report further makes clear ; present activities of the Committee with its 951 separate elementary schools, in which 695,197 pupils are enrolled, with an average attendance of 590,633, from which figures it would appear that more than 100,000 children are constantly absent. The schools are staffed by 20,000 teachers (less than one-third are men), of whom only 300 are uncertificated. In addi- tion to the ordinary. elementary schools there was ,. organised in 1910 a system of central schools to the ; number of 51, distributed more or less evenly through- out the County of London, and filled with pupils selected partly by means: of junior county scholarships at about eleven years of age with a view to an ad- vanced course of training of four years. ‘No. 2648, VOL. 105] which will be available at a very reasonable price. It is possible to carve it in any direction. it splitting—a striking quality which gives it a. notable for their decorative qualities are Indian © . The Council, as the local education..authority, is concerned -not only with the mental well-being of the ‘child, but.also with its. physical and social welfare... _Having. regard to the fact stated by Sir George New- man in a recent report, that there were more than one million children in attendance at public elementary schools in England and Wales who were unable by reason of physical or mental defects to take effective advantage of the instruction offered, no feature of the past and future work of the Council can be regarded as of greater importance than the effort to raise and maintain the standard of bodily health and intellectual. vigour of the children of London. The_ statutory medical inspection in the schools is carried out by 57 assistant medical officers and a staff of 208 nurses under the Medical Officer of Health of the county. The county is divided into five areas, each under a divisional medical officer, a superintendent of nurses, a treatment organiser, and a children’s work director. During 1919 169,200 cases of various kinds were treated, and for 1920-21 provision is to be made for 40,000 cases more. A fee of 1s. is required in each case where the parents can afford it, otherwise the treatment is free. There is special provision for anamic and sub- normal children, for those with speech defect, of whom there are about 1200. in the schools who need treatment, and for blind and deaf children, of whom there are 317 and 693 of the elementary-school class respectively, whilst there are also 659 partly blind and 117 partly deaf London children. All these measures denote a seriously important and beneficial advance upon the almost entire neglect of child-life in the nineteenth century. The provision of higher education within the county includes 23 schools provided and maintained by the authority and attended by 8702 pupils, 31 schools with 11,808 pupils aided by the authority, 47 other public secondary schools with 16,462 pupils, 40 schools conducted by religious bodies with 5170 pupils, and, lastly, 421 private schools with 27,295 pupils. The last two groups are regarded as preparatory rather than as secondary. There is thus a total of 562 schools. in the county area with 68,807 pupils under instruction, much of which, it is not un- reasonable to say in respect of the great majority of the private schools, can scarcely be efficient either in subject or in quality. The Council maintains five training colleges for teachers, one of which is a school of the University of London, and makes main- tenance grants to three recognised training colleges within its area for domestic-economy teachers. The provision of technical education within the county since the passing of the Technical Instruction Acts of 1889 and 1891 comes under review, and is marked by three periods of development. The first covers the years 1889-1904, and embraces the work of the Technical Education Board established in 1893; the second from 1904 to 1909, which followed the traditions and policy of the Board; and the third from 1909 to the present time, which has aimed at a pro- gressive delimitation of the functions of rival institu- tions and at a general endeavour to co-ordinate all forms of ‘education. In 1892 a general survey was made of the needs of London as_a preliminary to the operations of the Technical Education Board, and, as a result, the Board made direct grants in aid of polytechnics and other institutions for their maintenance and equip- ment and for the extension of their work. There were 26 technical institutions so aided in 1903, some of which were under the direct control of the Council, and grants were also made to the extent of 33,0001, in aid of science and language teaching in the secondary schools. A system of scholarships was 694 NATURE | JULY 29, 1920 established in. aid of boys and girls of ability to. obtain an education beyond the primary stages, and to assist adults in their studies in art, science, and technological subjects in day and evening institutions; and _ the Board, having regard_to the importance of educating the future leaders of industry and commerce, not only aided in the establishment of the London School of Economics, but also made. grants of 17,000]. a year in 1903-4 to institutions and schools of the University of London. This policy has been greatly developed since 1904, when the Council became the local authority for all. forms of education. Some measure of the expansion of the work undertaken in the . polytechnics may be seen on a comparison of the student-hours worked in the departments of engineer- ing, mathematics, physics, and chemistry in 1900-1 and in 1919 (November), from which it appears that the hours in I9g00-1 were. 268,344 and in 795,000. The growth of expenditure in polytechnics, technical institutes, schools of art, science, art, and commercial centres, and in ordinary evening classes is indicated by the following. figures :—In 1904 the expenditure was 369,400l., and in 1919-20 (estimated) 822,514l. Twenty-six special institutions for art, technical, and domestic subjects are now wholly maintained by the Council, and twenty-nine others are aided by annual grants. annual subsidies ranging from 4ool. to 3500l., amount- ing in the aggregate to 23,250l., whilst the block grant made to ten polytechnics and colleges in 1911-12 of 86,3811. was increased in 1919-20 to 139,950l., exclusive of 60,oo0l. in respect of war bonus and improved salary scales. In Igig-20 an equipment grant was also made to these institutions of 13,g00l. The Council in 1918 introduced a new scale of salaries for principals and other teachers in technical institutions, whereby the minimum salary for prin- cipals in the lowest group was fixed at 44ol. and the maximum in the highest group at 12501. The salaries for heads of departments range from 44ol. to 840l. (men) and from 3401. to 6401. (women), and whole-time lecturers’ salaries are fixed from 2251. to 4gol. (men) and from 18o0l. to 3401. (women). The Council works in close association with the University of London, to which it gives annual grants-in-aid, which at the present time amount to about 47,o00l. This includes provision for nineteen professorial chairs in languages and literature, mathematics, science, education, and economics. The Council also main- tains a school of the University, the London Day Training College, at an annual cost of 10,o00l., and is spending in 1919-20 about 13,o00l. in aid of. uni- versity students, mainly in London, Oxford, and Cambridge, which altogether brings up the annual expenditure in support of university education to about 70,0001. Capital grants have further been made at various times in aid of certain schools of the Uni- versity for the erection and improvement of buildings. Thus grants were made to University College and to Bedford College each of 30,0001. Land of the value of 66,7001. was also assigned at a peppercorn rent for the new building of the London School of Economics. The grant to the Imperial College of Science and Technology has been increased from: 5000l. in 1908-9 to 13,000]. in 1918-19. Many of the reforms foreshadowed by the Educa- tion Act, 1918, have already been anticipated, such, for example, as the reduction in the size of classes, the establishment of central schools, the promotion of physical training, and the provision of maintenance allowances. The raising of the school age to fourteen plus and the reduction aforesaid will necessitate the provision: of school-places for 120,000 children, 32;000 + NO. 2648, VOL. 105] 191g: Twelve polytechnics and colleges receive of which have been.already provided, and will entail the appointment of 200 new teachers each year for ten years. Nineteen per cent., or. some 14,000 children between eleven and twelve years of .age, are fitted for some -special type of school, and the Council has therefore decided to increase the number. of ‘central schools already provided from 60 to 100, and to lengthen the course in such schools to five years. Thus some. 80 per cent. of the children remain to be dealt with until they reach the limits of the compulsory age, and measures are being taken to ensure the most enlightened treatment of such children in regard to both their physical and intellectual training such as” prevails in the secondary schools, The attendance at the secondary schools in London ranges from 1-3 per 1000 in Shoreditch ‘to. 18-8 per 1000 in Lewisham. Addi- tional. accommodation. is urgently needed, and the Council proposes therefore to build four entirely new schools and to rebuild or enlarge seventeen more. It is anticipated that the new scholarship scheme of the Council and the better conditions of service will attract more candidates to the teaching profession. The report of the Board of Education for 1918 shows that in England only 150 men and 4000 women com- pleted courses of training as teachers, whereas in 1914 the corresponding figures were about 2000 men and 3600 women. ‘The annual requirements of London alone will in the near future be at least and with the view of meeting in rt this demand the Council proposes to build three new training colleges for 750 students, which proposal will involve a capital expenditure of some 600,000l. The Council aims ultimately at securing a university course for all teachers. A much enlarged scheme of main- tenance scholarships is submitted, the ultimate gross cost of which, including the cost of examinations, is , estimated to reach about 1,178,o0o0l, in 1931, made up of 730,000]. for education and 448,o0ol. for main- tenance. The day accommodation in the present polytechnics, — in the various institutes, and in schools for special trades is about 2500, and it is proposed to increase it A large amount of original research has — to 5600. been undertaken in the institutions both before and during the war in the domains of chemistry, physics, ‘and engineering, and notably in the industries of photo-engraving, lithography, and tanning. ‘This has led the Council to provide additional facilities to meet the requirements of research. Close consideration has been given to problems arising out of the powers and duties imposed by the Act in respect of adolescents engaged in employment. Provision is to be made next October for about 15,000 young persons, and an equal number will then be added to the total enrol- ment each succeeding three months: for a period of two years. The number will then be 120,000, and in 1928, when those aged from sixteen to eighteen come under the Act, the number will be doubled. Mean- while, it is proposed to establish as a first provision twenty-two day. continuation schools at a cost on capital account of 131,000l. and of 116,5001. for main- — The scheme when fully matured is estimated — tenance. to cost. for the two age-groups 14-15 and 15-16 1,000,000l. annually, and when five years later the age-group: 16-18 is dealt with the cost may be doubled. W.E.A. has The movement of adult education by the ” the full sympathy of the Council, which proposes to support it through the University of London. Pending the re-organisation of the University of 4 London, the system of annual grants, which amount — to 46,8131. to the University and non-incorporated col- leges, will remain as at present. By the Act of 1918 local education authorities may aid any investigation — for the advancement of knowledge in or in connection — London, by reason of © with an educational institution. 1200, — ‘Jury 29, 1920] NATURE 695 the large scale of its operations, offers the most pro- _ mising field in the world for research in the domain ' of education, which is the ‘‘key’’ to all original ‘in- __ vestigation, scientific or industrial, and in connection with the national movement’ for reconstruction. . It inch the study of the mental development of the _ individuals to be educated and the study of the _ teaching methods most effective in securing that end. It is therefore proposed to encourage and aid extended educational research. The total estimated expenditure (os of the Education Committee of the Council for 1920-21 is _ estimated at 11,711,379l., being for elementary educa- tion 9,351,2941. and for higher education 2,360,085]., of 5 which sum 5,514,2061. is raised from rates, or a rate of _ 2s. 5d. in the pound. A forecast is given of the addi __ tional expenditure in London arising out of ‘the re- _ quirements of the Education Act, 1918, which will in ge. J I amount to 116,oool., and gradually increase until __ in 1930-31 it is estimated that it will be 3,037,500l., of _ which sum taxation will bear half the cost, the other half being raised by an additional rate of 8d. in the _ pound on the present assessment. The report extends _ to 100 pages, and is abundantly illustrated by diagrams, maps, tables, and illustrations, of buildings. The Society of Chemical Industry. THE Society of Chemical Industry held its thirty- * ninth annual general meeting at Newcastle-upon- Tyne on July 13-16, this being the fourth occasion upon which the society has selected Newcastle as its meeting place. Appropriately enough, a. series of papers dealing with the manufacture of coke was read and discussed at the first business meeting, whilst the second was devoted to papers dealing mainly with miscellaneous metallurgical questions. Simul- taneously the Chemical Engineering Group of the socie d a conference devoted to problems con- ; with filtration and allied methods of separating liquids from solids. : Among the first day’s papers two dealt with coke- oven construction. Mr. W. A. Ward discussed **Modern By-product Coke-oven Construction ’’ from the point of view both of the best type to be adopted in different circumstances and of the details of design of the oven itself. Mr. Ward pointed out that ‘the generally accepted view that the regenerative oven is more efficient than the non-regenerative oven is not strictly correct, and that in either case ‘‘the surplus energy is the same, because the amount of heat neces- sary to coke the coal is the same. . . . The difference lies simply in the manner in which the surplus heat is made use of.’”’ He showed that it is true that the former type can perety produce a larger amount of power available for use outside the coking plant, but that this is due to the fact that the former uses the more efficient form of power generation, namely, the gas engine as compared with the steam engine. Mr. Ward remarked also that there is no reason why any one of the various types of modern coke-oven should give better results than any other. He pro- to give much useful information on details of construction; for example, he held strongly with. the advantages to be gained in most cases by compressing the coal, but advocated the use of the modern elec- trically driven top-charging machine instead of the machine making a compressed cake of coal, which is then pushed into the oven, and he gave short descrip- | tions of the modern methods for quenching, screening, | and loading the coke. - . | Mr. W. J. Rees contributed a paper on ‘* The Cor- | rosion of Coke-oven Walls,” which: he attributed mainly to the sodic chloride and sodic sulphate in the NO. 2648, VOL. 105] coal, and pointed out that hot, moist air carrying salt vapour has a highly corrosive action on fireclay bricks, much moré, in fact, than on other refractory bricks. In the salt glazing of bricks the saline vapour is allowed to come in contact with the brick only at a temperature of about 1200° C., at which the chemical action is rapid; in the coke-oven, on the contrary, the walls of the oven never attain this temperature, with the result that the salt vapour penetrates into the interior of the brick and turns it into a weak, spongy mass, easily broken away. It would appear that the best brick for ovens carbonising salty coal is a good silica brick. i Mr. Harold E. Wright, in his paper ‘‘ Coke-oven Gas for Town Supply,”’ showed that illuminating gas can be produced more economically in the coke-oven than in the gas retort, and that, wherever circurh- stances permit of its adoption, the regenerative coke- oven producing metallurgical coke can supply better and cheaper gas to the town consumer than can the ordinary process of gas manufacture. Dr. E. W. Smith, in ‘“‘ By-products from Coke-oven Gas,” dealt with a similar subject from a somewhat different point of view, but came to the same con- clusion, stating that it is only necessary to remove sulphuretted hydrogen from coke-oven gas in order to make it suitable for town supply, and that experi- ence at Birmingham has shown that the yields of by- products from coke-ovens were jus: as good as from horizontal gas retorts. Messrs. G. W. Henson and S. H. Fowles con- tributed a paper on ‘‘The More Economical Utilisa- tion of the Coke-oven and Blast-furnace Gases for Heating and Power.’’ They added numerous data and calculations to support the view which has been repeatedly put forward within recent years, that with regenerative coke-ovens built near the blast furnaces and steelworks, and with proper cleaning of the blast- furnace gases (for which they apparently prefer the Halberg-Beth method), better results are obtained in iron and -steel manufacture and a large surplus of power can be generated by means of gas engines, which can supply all the power required by a modern iron and steel! plant, whilst a considerable proportion of the coke-oven gas can be utilised in the melting furnace. They also suggest that a certain proportion of the electricity generated can be applied to the finishing of the steel manufacture in the electric fur~ nace, which they consider has no competitor as an appliance for refining steel. Amongst the metallurgical papers was one om (‘Some Properties of 60-40 Brass”? by Prof. C. H. Desch. Such brass contains two constituents, the. a solid solution containing 70 per cent. of copper and. and £ solid solution with 53-5 per cent. of copper ; this latter constituent is plastic at high temperatures, and enables the metal to be hot-rolled, worked, or- extruded. It was found in practice, however, that- such brass varied greatly in the ease with which it could be machined, and the present paper deals with. the reasons for such variation, which was traced to. differences of structure. A fine fibrous structure was- found to give the best results, and this can be obtained by using brass containing as nearly as possible 40 per: cent. of zinc, extruded at a moderate temperature in very powerful presses. Mr. W. becies: in a paper on ‘‘Chemical Sheet-. Lead,” showed the importance of using the purest possible lead in connection with acid plant, but that in case of need copper will to some extent counteract the injurious effect of antimony and bismuth. Mr. D. F. Campbell described ‘‘ Recent Develop- ments of the Electric Furnace in Great Britain,’? and’ showed the progress that had been made in this branch. 696 ‘NATURE [ JULY 29, 1920 of metallurgy: ‘‘In 1914 the quantity of energy used in electric turnaces in Britain, excluding those used for aluminium, was probably less than 6000 h.p., but on the day of the armistice the total capacity was in excess of 150,000 h.p.’’ The author held that fur- naces of more than 25 tons or above 3000-kw. capacity are not advantageous, and that the arc fur- nace has practically displaced the induction furnace. He pointed out the various existing applications of the electric furnace, and indicated the probable future development of this valuable appliance. Dr. E. F. Armstrong read a paper on “ Catalytic Chemical Reactions and the Law of Mass Action,’’ in which he reviewed the present state of our knowledge of catalytic reactions, particularly as applied to the hydrogenation of certain oils. He held that the curve of catalytic action is linear and not logarithmic, and that the latter curve has been obtained by a number of observers owing to the fact that they had been working on substances in which some poison formed part of the substance to be hydrogenated, which destroyed the catalysts and thus gave the. curve a logarithmic form. He further claimed that catalytic action is not a purely physical phenomenon, but is due to the formation of loose additive chemical com- pounds, of the existence of which he produced some evidence. At the conference of the Chemical Engineering Group the theory of filtration was discussed in two papers, ‘‘The Principles of Technical Filtration,’’ by Dr. E. -Hatschek, and ‘‘The -Design of Mechanical Filters,’? by Mr. Balfour Bramwell, whilst the filtra- | tion of gases was dealt with by Mr. J. M. Brown. Mr. E. A. Alliott contributed a paper on *‘* Recessed Plate and Plate-and-Frame Types of Filter Press: Their Construction and Use,’’ in which he compared the two types and the details of their construction; he also discussed ‘various methods of feeding, the selection of filter-cloths, and other important points in the use of filter presses, and gave data as to the results obtained in certain typical examples. Three papers dealt with centrifugal machines, namely, ‘‘The Sturgeon Automatic Self-Discharging Centrifuge for. Separating Solids from Liquids,’’ by Mr. R. A. Sturgeon; ‘‘The Sharples Super-Centrifuge,”’ by Mr. S. H. Menzies; and ‘‘A New Process for Centri- fugal Filtration,’’ by Mr. W. J. Gee.. The last-named appliance differs from most centrifugal machines in ‘that it makes use of a filtering screen, so that it does really perform a process of filtration. Dr. W. R. Ormandy in his paver, “‘ The Filtration of Colloids,” showed the effect of electro-osmotic action on colloids and suspensoids, and illustrated these by a series of experiments with a suspension of clay. Imperial Cancer Research Fund. ‘THE eighteenth annual meeting of the Imperial Cancer Research Fund was held on July 22, the Duke of Bedford presiding. Sir William Church, in moving the adoption of the report, gave a summary of the investigations during the past year; in this he stated that the Director had continued the auto- logous grafting experiments, in which by transplant- ing an animal’s own tumour to a part of its body away from the site of the primary growth an artificial secondary growth is established. The formation of secondary. growths. is the most certain evidence of the cancerous nature of.a growth. It is to be hoped, therefore, that this method will be more widely applied as a control in the experiments on the pro- duction of cancer by. chronic irritants which are being undertaken. in so many laboratories throughout the world. In these experiments the most definite proof of malignancy is essential to progress. No. 2648, VOL. 105] Dr. Cramer has examined the action of a number of inorganic substances on cancer cells. The first step in these investigations is to expose emulsions of a transplantable tumour to the reagent in the test-tube and find out by inoculating the treated emulsion into susceptible animals the amount of damage produced. Salts of cerium were found to be the most active of those tested. Manganese and uranium salts were less potent, and the other elements experimented with were without effect in strengths which could be tolerated by the experimental animals. None of these substances, however, had any influence on growing tumours—a failure probably due to the irregularity of the circulation in the tumours, which delays the access of the reagents’ to the cells, coupled with their rapid elimination by the kidneys and bowels, This is one of the difficulties constantly met with in direct therapeutic experiments on cancer. The cancer cell is so like the normal cells of the body that agencies which destroy it are also dangerous to life. Before we can plan a rational method of treatment it will be necessary to know more of the vital pro- cesses in cancer cells and the nature of the ve delicate differences between them and the normal. A beginning has been made with the study of cell- respiration. Respiration is essentially a combustion process, agi ee being taken in and carbon dioxide. given off. These are only the first and last terms, however, of a series of chemical equations, so that there is room for great variety in the intermediate stages, even if the final result should be the same. Dr. Drew has approached the problem by studying the rate of decolorisation of dilute methylene-blue solution by normal and cancer cells. With this method there is a wide difference between the two, decolorisation being much more rapid with normal | cells. Dr. Russell and Dr. Gye have suspended. the tissue emulsions in fully oxygenated defibrinated blood _and measured the rate at which oxygen is abstracted _ on incubation at body-temperature. method the differences are much less pronounced, By this second and it is found that the more rapidly growing tumours, with significant exceptions, absorb more oxygen than those which grow slowly. The investigations are being continued, and give promise of interesting light on this fundamental feature of the life of cancer cells. The Duke of Bedford, in moving a vote of thanks to the executive committee and to others who have assisted in the work of the Fund during the past year, referred to the wide range of investigation, covering such important researches as. those relating to (1) experimental induction of cancer; (2) respiration in normal tissues, which is a fresh line of research in connection with cancer; and (3) experiments on the action of chemical substances on cancer cells in the test-tube and in the body; and to the very technical investigation of the Director on grafting; and noticed with satisfaction that the Fund is again in a position to assist investigators at home and abroad with tumour material for experimental purposes. Dene | Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine. ‘THE Sir Alfred Jones Laboratories of the Liver- ~ pool School of Tropical Medicine were formally opened by Lord Leverhulme on Saturday, July 24, Sir Francis Danson, chairman of the School, presiding. | Prof. J. W. W. Stephens announced the award of | the Mary Kingsley medal to the following distin- guished scientific workers : : Dr. A. G. Bacsnawe, C.M.G., well known for his researches on sleeping sickness in Uganda. Since 1908 Dr. Bagshawe has been director of the Tropical Diseases Bureau and general editor of the Tropical ' Diseases Bulletin. This publication occupies a unique JuLy 29, 1920] NATURE 697 _ position in the world; it is of the utmost value to all _ workers in tropical medicine, and its success is due _ to the tireless devotion of its editor. ___ Dr. Anprew Batrour, C.B., C.M.G., director-in- hief of the Wellcome Bureau of Scientific Research, ondon. Dr. Balfour was director of the Wellcome ropical Research Laboratories, Khartum, from 02-13. His knowledge of the theory and practice tropical sanitation is unsurpassed. His intellectual vities also overflow into literary channels, and he ‘known as the author of novels and tales of adventure. _ Pror. R. T. Leper, helminthologist to the London thool of Tropical Medicine since 1905. Prof. Leiper established a world-wide reputation for his know- ledge of those parasitic worms that affect man, more especially in tropical lands. His recent elucidation of = part played by fresh-water snails in the transmis- sion of the Bilharzia disease of Egypt is of the greatest scientific and economic importance. _ _ Major E. E. Austin, D.S.O., assistant in the _ British Museum (Natural History)... Author of _ flumerous monographs on flies. | Especially well _ known to students of tropical medicine for his mono- graph on the tsetse-flies. _ Dr. A. L. Guittaume Bropen, director of the State _ School of ce sm Medicine, Brussels. Formerly director of the Bacteriological Laboratory at Leopold- ville, Belgian Congo. Has published numerous works on trypanosome diseases of man and domestic stock. Mrs. ALpert CHALMERs, in recognition of the work of the late Dr. A. J. Cuatmers, who succeeded Dr. as director of the Wellcome Tropical Research Laboratories, Khartum. Dr. Chalmers was joint _ author with Dr. Castellani of-a most comprehensive _ text-book of tropical medicine. _ Pror. B. Grassi, professor of comparative anatomy, niversity of Rome. Distinguished as a zoologist. yed a leading part in Italy in demonstrating the transmission of malaria by Anopheline mosquitoes. Dr. F. Mesnit, professor at the Institut Pasteur, Paris. Joint author with Prof. Laveran of the standard work on trypanosomiasis. '- Dr. Epmonp Sercent, director of the Institut Pasteur, Algeria. Dr. Sergent is the elder of two brothers greatly distinguished for their researches in tropical medicine. Dr. C. W. Stes, professor of zoology, United States Public Health and Marine Hospital Service; scientific secretary of the Rockefeller Sanitary Com- mission for the Eradication of Hookworm Disease—a ase which was responsible for widespread mental and physical deterioration in the Southern States of ca. Dr. T. Zammit, who made a fundamental observa- tion which led to the discovery that goat’s milk was the source from which man contracted undulant fever. His archzological researches on the megalithic remains of Malta are well known, and the University work by conferring on him an honorary degree. After the ceremony the laboratories were inspected _ by the large, distinguished gathering of scientific and influential people, and general admiration was ex- pressed for the completeness of the building and its equipment. The _ well-furnished library and _ the museum, which already contains ‘many interesting exhibits, attracted considerable notice, while the lighting and spaciousness of the main laboratory were also much commended. occasion. was marked by the issue of an interesting illustrated ‘‘ Historical Record,”’ tracing the progress of the School from its foundation in 1898 to the present time. NO. 2648, VOL. 105] of Oxford has recently shown its appreciation of. his. At a banquet held in the evening Sir Francis Danson appealed for a sum of 100,000l. to meet the increased cost of maintenance of the Liverpool Labora- tories and ofgthe new Sir Alfred Jones Tropical Laboratory, now in .course of erection at Sierra Leone. Sir Francis Danson himself contributed to the fund a sum of toool., in memory of his son who fell in the war. Central Headquarters for British Chemists: > * a dinner held in honour of Lord Moulton on July 21, Sir William Pope announced that a public appeal was about to be made for funds for the erection of central headquarters for British chemistry. . None of the chemical bodies has the accommodation for a meeting of more than two hundred persons, or adequate ‘library’ space. Thé Chemical Society conducts its business at Burlington House, Piccadilly, in rooms provided by the Govern- ment nearly fifty years ago, when the membership was about one-fifth of what it is to-day. The Insti- tute of Chemistry possesses a good building in Russell Square, completed during the first year of the war, but it is barely adequate for the present activities of the institute, which has to look to colleges for. hos- pitality for any general meeting of unusual interest and for lectures. The Society of Chemical Industry: and the Society of Public Analysts hold their meetings at the Chemical Society’s rooms, Neither of these bodies nor any other which is concerned with chemistry, such as the British Association of Chemical Manufacturers, the Faraday Society, the Biochemical Society, and those devoted to the various branches of technology— brewing, dyes, glass, ceramics, iron and steel, non- ferrous metals, leather, concrete, petroleum, and so forth—possesses accommodation to compare with the spacious halls and headquarters of the Institutions of the Civil, the Mechanical, and the Electrical Engineers, and of the Royal Society of Medicine. The appeal, which will be made by the Federal Council for Pure and Applied Chemistry, on which practically all the chemical interests of the country are represented, has the cordial support of Lord Moulton, who, as Director-General of Explosives Supplies, Ministry of Munitions, repeatedly acknow- ledged the services rendered during the war by these scientific, technical, and industrial bodies. The scheme, which aims at providing under one roof, so far as is practicable, a common meeting- place, librarv, and editorial facilities for technical journals, is highly desirable, and indeed imperative, as a matter of supreme importance to the welfare of the whole country in relation to questions of defence and the maintenance and development ofall branches of industry and commerce which depend on the applications of chemistry. The sum _ required for building is estimated at 250,o00l.;.a similar sum is required for establishing a chemical library and to provide for the compilation and production of works. of reference in the English language. University and Educational Intelligence. Leeps.—Owing to the unavoidable growth of the expenditure necessary for the maintenance of the efficiency of its work, the council has come to the conclusion that an increase must. be made in the scale of fees charged to students for tuition and examination. The increase has been kept as low as possible, in no case. being more than about 17} per. cent. A 698 NATURE [TuLY 2g, 1920. The council has instituted an Appointments Board for the purpose of supplying students at the end of their University career with information about vacant appointments. Mr. W. R. Grist has gbeen appointed the first secretary of the board. Mr. G. C. Steward has been appointed assistant lecturer in applied mathematics. Lonpon.—Mr. V. H. Mottram has been appointed as from September 1, 1920, to the University chair of physiology tenable at King’s College for Women Household and Social Science Department. He is at the present time head of the Animal Nutrition Laboratory at Messrs. Lever Bros. Dr. W. S. Lazarus-Barlow has been appointed to the University chair of experimental pathology at Middlesex Hospital Medical School. Since 1903 he has been director of the Cancer Research Laboratories at Middlesex Hospital. Shy © Drummond, lecturer in physiological chemistry at University College, has been appointed as from September 1, 1920, to the University reader- ship in that subject. The following doctorates have been conferred. by the Senate :—D.Sc. in Botany: Miss Kate Barratt, an internal student of.the Imperial College, Royal College of Science, for a thesis entitled ‘‘ A Contribu- tion to our Knowledge of the Vascular System of the Genus Equisetum.’? D.Sc. in Chemistry: Mr. E. E. Turner, an internal student of East London and Goldsmiths’ Colleges, for work carried out for British Dyes, Ltd., and the Ministry of Munitions. D.Sc. in Experimental Psychology: Mr. G. E. Phillips, an internal student of University College, for a thesis entitled ‘‘ Mental Fatigue.”” D.Sc. in Mathe- matics: Mr. G. B. Jeffery, an internal student of University College, for a portion of a thesis: Part ii., ‘The Motion of a Viscous Fluid,’’ and part iii., *“Whittaker’s Solution of Laplace’s Equation.’? D.Sc. in Physics: Mr. G. D. West, an internal student of East London College, for a thesis entitled ‘ The Forces Exerted on Surfaces Exposed to Radiation.” D.Sc. in Zoology: Mr. F. J. Wyeth, an internal student of King’s College, for a thesis entitled ‘‘On the Development of the Auditory Apparatus in Sphenodon punctatus.’ At the last meeting of the Senate of the University the question of the acceptance of the Government’s offer to provide a site at Bloomsbury was again under discussion. A letter was considered from the Presi- dent of the Board of Education stating that the Government was prepared to continue to -be responsible for maintenance, rates, etc., in respect of the new University headquarters buildings, and also, when the time comes for King’s College to vacate the existing premises in the Strand, to ask Parliament for authority to purchase the buildings at a fair valuation. The Senate was, however, un- able to make a similar offer in respect of the building at present occupied by the University at ~ South Kensington, which (unlike the King’s College build- ing) was not erected from funds raised by the Uni- versity. Eventually the Senate resolved :—‘‘ That, while recognising and welcoming the desire of the Government to assist the University, the Senate, in view of the important issues involved and the un- certainty as to the nature of the offer in many respects, desire time for further consideration and consultation with the Government; and that the Government be requested to keep their offer open to allow time for such further consideration.”’ The following appointments have been made at King’s College:—Dr. J. A. Hewitt, lecturer and demonstrator in physiology; Dr. O. Inchley, lecturer in pharmacology; Mr. J. E. Hadfield, lecturer in NO. 2648, VOL. 105] psychology; Mr. C, S. Salmon, lecturer in physical chemistry; Mr. H. W. Cremer, lecturer in inorganic chemistry; Mr. W. Partridge, lecturer in chemistry (Public Health); Mr. H. T. Flint, lecturer in physics; Miss C. W. M. Sheriff, assistant lecturer in mathematics; and Mr. L. D. Stamp, demonstrator in geology. Mr. J. HicHam, senior physics master at the Durham Johnston School, has been appointed lec- turer in physics and electrical engineering in the University of Manchester. te Mr. E. Rawson, head of the engineering depart- ment of the Portsmouth Municipal College, has been appointed principal of the Municipal Technical Insti- tute, West Bromwich. Mr. S. Mancuam, lecturer in botany at Armstrong College, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, has been appointed to the chair of botany at the University College of Southampton. In Pamphlet No. 8 just issued by the Bureau of Education, India, Mr. L. T. Watkins deals with ‘Libraries in Indian High Schools.’? The pamphlet gives a useful list of selected books, and provides © excellent suggestions as to the principles which should govern the choice and classification of volumes for school libraries. Its usefulness should not be limited to India; librarians of schools in the United Kingdom and in other parts of the Empire would find it well worth reading. The pamphlet is published by the Superintendent, Government Printing, Calcutta, and the price is four annas. Tue address of Sir E. Sharpey Schafer, of Edin. burgh University, on ‘‘The University Problem,” delivered at Cardiff in January last, and now issued in pamphlet form, deals with a question of grave — importance to the educational, and therefore to the social, productive, and political well-being of the nation. Sir Sharpey Schafer pleads for a wider out- look and a clearer vision of the needs of higher educa- tion of the university type. He deprecates the idea that universities must find their location in large cities, and pleads for the open air and the country- side as involving far less expense in both sites and buildings, which latter he would plan so as to be of not more than one or two stories in height. In support of his contention he cites the cases of London. and Edinburgh, to which may be added those of other cities in the North of England. The ideal environ- ment for a university, he claims, is an academia, a place for undisturbed work whence the sights and sounds of the city are excluded. He alludes to the campus surrounding many an American university, extending from a hundred acres to space to reckoned in square miles, which often constitutes one of the most beautiful features of the city in which it is situate. Why should not London with its seven million residents have as many university centres as Scotland, Sweden, Ireland, or Yorkshire with far smaller populations? The universities ought to find their. financial support in the State, since the educa- tion they give is essential to its welfare and an asset of first-rate value. no matter whence he comes. Original research should be fostered, and only teachers capable of it appointed. The pursuit of new: knowledge is essential. university teachers and the statements adduced in their support are worthy of serious attention at the present critical time. There should be no restriction — to the entrance of the genuine, well-qualified student, The © arguments set forth in furtherance of the claims of ee a OS ee ee, eee NATURE 699° q ; JuLy 29, 1920| Societies and Academies. Paris. Academy of Sciences, July 12.—M. Henri Deslandres in the chair—L. Maquenne and E. Demoussy: ‘he catalytic action of copper salts on the oxidation by air of ferrous compounds. Copper salts accelerate the _ oxidation of ferrous salts by air, even in dilutions so great as o-2 mgr. of copper per 100 c.c. of solution. ; j ‘he amount of oxidation depends on the nature of ' the acid present, and is in direct relation with the degree of hydrolytic dissociation —P. A, Dangeard : - Wacuome, plastidome; and spherome in Asparagus " verticillatus.—F. Widal, P. Abrami, and M. N. _ Tancovesco: . The possibility of promoting the hamo- _ clasic crisis by the intravenous injection. of portal blood collected during the digestive period. The action of the liver on the proteids. of incomplete dis- ‘integration arising from digestion and carried by the rtal vein. An experimental proof that the gastro- testinal mucous membrane absorbs not only amino- acids, but also compounds in which the proteolysis is incomplete. These products are. present in the portal -vein for about two hours and a half after a meal, and their injurious action upon the general circulation is ov aoa ’by the liver—H. de Chardonnet: The influence of the American rocking-chair upon the respiration.—_J. A. L. Waddell: The economical use of special alloy steels in the construction of bridges. The higher elastic limit of a special steel compared with that of an ordinary carbon steel may more than compensate for the increased price. Some detailed examples are given.—C. E. Guillaume: The anomaly of elasticity of the nickel steels: The realisation of an elinvar and its application to chronometry. The limitations of nickel steel watch-springs are discussed, and a new ternary nickel-chromium steel alloy sug- gested, containing chromium with small quantities of manganese, tungsten, and carbon equivalent to 12 per cent. of chromium. The results with springs of this material used. with a balance-wheel made of a single metal have proved extremely satisfactory. The change of temperature from 0° C. to 30° C. with a watch fitted with one of these springs was two seconds in twenty-four hours, and the rate was practically a linear function of the temperature.—G. Fubini: Pro- jectively applicable surfaces—L. E. J. Brouwer: numeration of the classes of representations of a surface on another surface.—M. Galbrun: The ap- plication of the equations of elasticity to the deforma- tions of a helical spring.—P. Chevenard: Study of the elasticity of torsion of nickel steels with a high pro- portion of chromium. A study of three series of ferro- nickels containing approximately 5, 10, and 15 per cent. of chromium, The results are given graphically in three diagrams.—E. Jouguet: Remarks on the laws of resistance of fluids.—G. Sagnac: The two simultaneous mechanics and their real connections.— M. Pauthenier: Study of the ratio of the absolute retardations in carbon bisulphide for increasing. dura- tions of charge. The appearance of electro-striction. When the duration of the charge of the Kerr con- denser much exceeds a millionth of a second, the ratio of the retardations in carbon bisulphide is no longer equal to —2. The contraction of the liquid’ under the influence of the electric field, electro-striction, com- plicates the results; when the time of change is 8-1x10-* seconds, the effect of electro-striction exactly compensates the double refraction for the vibrations perpendicular to the field.—C. Florisson : ' The’ galena-metal contact rectifier. Artificial increase of sensitiveness.—H. Weiss: The constituents formed by reciprocal penetration of zinc and copper at a temperature where one of the two metals and all ) NO. 2648, VOL. 105] 4 their alloys. are in the .solid state. . The constant tem- perature required for these experiments was secured by the use of a sulphur vapour bath under a reduced pressure, the temperature thus obtained varying only at most 1° from 410° C. Micrographic methods were used for studying the resulting alloys, and two photographs illustrating the results are reproduced.— MM, Lespieau and Garreau: The phenylpropines. The reaction between benzyl chloride and the mono- sodium derivative of acetylene failed to give benzyl- acetylene, the isomer phenylmethylacetylene being the only product. The same substance was obtained by starting with epidibromohydrin and .phenylmagnesium bromide and treating the _ resulting. compound, C.,H,*CH,*CBr:CH., with alcoholic potash. A yield of 40 per cent. of the desired. benzylacetylene was obtained by the interaction of phenylmagnesium bromide and propylene tribromide.—G. Mignonac ; The catalytic hydrogenation of nitriles: mechanism of the formation of secondary and tertiary amines.: The best explanation of the secondary reduction products arising from the reduction of benzonitrile by hydrogen in presence of nickel and working in. an anhydrous liquid is that the primary reduction product is benzaldimine, C,H,-CH!NH. This can give benzyl- amine, by direct reduction and benzalbenzylamine by condensation, and the latter compound has been isolated in quantity.—G. Zeil: The proportional con- stant relating seismic frequency with rainfall.—R. Abrard: The geological constitution of Djebel Tselfat, Western Morocco.—G. Arnaud: A bacterial disease of ivy, Hedera helix.—C,. Porcher: Milk and apthous fever. Comparisons of the quantity and quality of the milk from apthous teats of a cow when the milk is retained and drawn off.—A, Vandel: Reproduction of the Planaria and the meaning of impregnation in these animals.—M. de Laroquette: Analogies and differ- ences of biological action of the various parts of the solar spectrum.—C. Pérez: A new Cryptoniscian, Enthylacus trivinctus, an intrapalleal parasite of a Sacculina. A case of parasitism of the third degree. y —J, Dragoiu and M. Fauré-Fremiet ; Histogenesis and time of appearance of different pulmonary tissues in the sheep.—G. Bertrand and Mme, Rosenblatt: Does chloropicrin act upon soluble ferments? From ex- periments carried out with sucrase (from yeast and from Aspergillus niger), amygdalinase, urease, cata- lase, zvmase, laccase, and tyrosinase, it was found that chloropicrin exerts only a feeble inhibiting action on soluble ferments, and some other explanation must be found for its highly toxic action upon living cells. Cape Town. Royal Society of South Africa, June 16.—Dr. A. Ogg, vice-president, in the chair.—L. Péringuey: Note on a recent discovery of stone implements of Palzolithic type throwing light on the method of manufacture in South Africa. The author described a collection of Palzolithic stone implements from the Montagu Caves, and showed that the completed implement is flattened, rounded at one end and tapering to a point at the other, and being chipped to a sharp edge all the way round. From this demonstration it is now possible to pronounce that many of the implements so far known which are blunt at one part or another are unfinished or damaged specimens. Further, it is shown that a large block was chipped down in order to form a relatively small delicately worked imple- ment, and the very large chipped stones that have sometimes been found are seen to be initial stages in the manufacture.—W. A. Jolly: The reflex times in Xenopus laevis. The author described his method of measuring exactly the reflex times in the reflexes from the limbs of the South African clawed frog or toad, 7 OO NATURE -and gave a note of the times ascertained in the de- cerebrate animal.—C, Herman; Notes on _ the Platana of the Cape Peninsula. The marked differ- ence in the shoulder-girdle of the Platana of the Cape Peninsula from that described and figured by Boulenger as appertaining to Xenopus laevis was pointed out. The importance of the shoulder-girdle -as a basis for systematic classification was reterred to, and the probability of this Platana being a primi- tive form was suggested. The formation of the external nasals was described, and attention directed to the horny epidermal fold on the superior half of ‘the nasals which gives it rigidity. The synchronous contractions of the nasals and the movement of the premaxilla and maxilla’ were described and their nature was discussed. It was suggested that this occurs in all the Xenopus, and the wish was expressed that this remarkable phenomenon, now described for the first time, should be looked for in the case of water- frogs generally.—J. R. Sutton: A _ possible lunar influence upon the velocity of the wind at Kimberley (second paper). In this paper the author continues the investigation described in a previous paper under the same title. A table and a diagram are given showing the deviations of wind-speed at the times of perigee from the monthly means, arranged in hours ‘of the lunar day. The ranges of velocity deduced are somewhat greater than those previously found for the -average of all lunar distances. The noon and mid- night perigee curves are remarkable, and suggest that the wind-speed deviations attributable to the moon are largely due to the superimposition of the lunar air- tide upon the diurnal variations of wind velocity. ‘Thus no two different places could be expected to have quite the same velocity deviation curves. Books Received. Observations et Expériences faites sur les Animal- cules des Infusions. Vol. i., pp. viiit1o5. Vol. ii.,, pp. iiit122. By L. Spallanzani. (Paris: Gauthier- Villars et Cie.) 3 francs each. Mémoires sur la Respiration et la Transpiration des Animaux. By A. Lavoisier. Pp. viii+67. (Paris: Gauthier-Villars et Cie.) 3 francs. A Junior Inorganic Chemistry. By R. H. Spear. Pp. viiit+386. (London: J. and A. Churchill.) Ios. 6d, net. A Junior Inorganic Chemistry. By R. H. Spear. Part i. Pp. vi+148. (London: J. and A. Churchill.) 5s. net. } Ministry pf Finance, Egypt. Survey Department. Contribution a l’Etude des Vertébrés Miocénes de V’Egypte. By R. Fourtau. Pp. xit121+3 plates. (Cairo: Government Press.) P.T. 20. University of Iowa Studies in Natural History. Vol. viii, No. 3. Barbados-Antigua Expedition. By C. C. Nutting. Pp. 274. (Iowa City: University of Iowa.) Archimedes. By Sir T. Heath. (Pioneers of Pro- gress Series.) Pp. ii+58. (London: S.P.C.K.; New York: The Macmillan Co.) 2s. net. The Nature-Study of Plants in Theory and Practice for the Hobby-Botanist. By T. A..Dymes. Pp. Xvili+ 173. (London: S.P.C.K.; New York: The Macmillan Co.) 6s. net, Vergleichende Anatomie des Nervensystems. _ Erster Teil. : Die Leitungsbahnen im Nervensystem der Wir- bellosen Tiere. By A2..B. Drooglever Fortuyn. Pp. -Vii+370. (Haarlem: De Erven F. Bohn.) 12.50 guilders, CEuvres Complétes de Christiaan Huygens. Tome NO. 2648, VOL. 105] ‘New Series, No. 4, July.. Pp. 238. a Conseil Permanent International pour |’Exploration Treizieme. Dioptrique 1653; 1666; Fascicule -i., 1653; 1006. Pp. clxviit+432. ii, 1685-1692. . An Introduction to Chemical Engineering. Fascicu A. F. Allen. Pp. xvi+272. (London: Sir I. Pitman q Ios. 6d. net. and Sons, Ltd.) fi fran Statens Skogsférséksanstalt, Meddelanden Haft 17, Nr. 3. Markstudier I Det Nordsvenska ~ Barrskogsomradet. . Bodenstudien in der Nord- — schwedischen Nadelwaldregion. By Olof Tamm. — Pp. 49-300+4 Tavl. (Stockholm: Statens Skogs- forséksanstalt.) i The Institution of Civil Engineers. Abstracts of Papers in Scientific Transactions and Periodicals. (London.) de la Mer. Rapports et. Procés-Verbaux des Réunions. Vol. xxvi., Procés-Verbaux (1918-19 and 1919-20). Pp. vit+g2. (Copenhague: A. F. Hest et Fils.) . The Statesman’s Year Book, 1920. (57th Annual Publication.) Edited by Sir J. Scott Keltie and Dr. M. Epstein. Pp. xliv+1494. (London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd.) 20s. net. Wasp Studies Afield. By Phil Rau and Nellie Rau, — Press; London: _ Pp. xv+372. (Princeton: University Oxford University Press.) 8s. 6d. net. Darkwater: Voices from Within the Veil. W. E. Burghardt Du Bois. Constable and Co., Ltd.) tos..6d. net. Vat, The Essentials of Histology: Descriptive and Practical. By Sir E. Sharpey Schafer. 11th edition. Pp. xii+577. (London: Longmans, Green, and Co.) 14s. net. White Lead: Its Use-in- Paint. By Dr. A. H. Sabin. Pp. ix+133. (New York: J. — and Sons, Inc.; London: Chapman and Hall, Lt net. ; ‘ Tae j CONTENTS. A Chemical Service for India. By Prof. Henry E. Armstrong, FR.8. oy ik ee ; ARLE Ah, Tycho Brahe, By Dr. J. K. Fotheringham .... 672 Psychological Tests in Industry ..... Cultivation of the Vine in America. FRORNGG es) pe Our Bookshelf Letters to the Editor :— oy Genera and Species.—A. Mallock, F.R.S. . . . .- The Cluster Pine. —Dr. Michael Grabham, .. . The Training of Practical Entomologists.—Dr. A, D, kee St ee ME ey The Separation of the Isotopes of Chlorine.—Angus F. Core . ats rea j 6 &R * Nee ote Anticyclones.—R. M. Deeley... .... = . : Solar Variation and the Weather. (With Diagrams.) By Tr; cS G. Abbot: 2.245 ae Po ea * The Earliest Known Land Flora.’ (Iilustrated.) By Prof..F. O. Bower, -F.R.S.° 0:04 exhausted glass bulb contains a-straight filament of tungsten, which is rendered incandescent by a 6-volt battery.. Around the filament are arranged four narrow curved metal plates having their curved sides facing the filament and very near to it. Each of these plates is carried on a wire sealed through the glass bulb. The plates are arranged round the filament, as shown in Fig. 3. Two of these plates on opposite sides of the fila- ment, viz. 3 and 4 (see Fig. 3), are called the potential plates, and the other two the collecting plates. The collecting plates are joined together outside the bulb and connected to the positive terminal of the filament- heating battery, and a galvanometer G or telegraphic relay is inserted in that circuit. The electronic emis- sion from the filament then creates a current which flows through the galvanometer.or the relay, as in the Edison experiment. If the two other plates have a small potential difference made between them, either of constant direction or else a high-frequency alter- nating difference, this suddenly reduces the thermionic current. The potential difference of the potential plates introduces a new electric force into the field which deflects away the electrons proceeding from the filament and prevents them from reaching the collecting B C ea UUUUE (7) a Fic. 3.—Fleming four-anode valve. 1 and 2 are the collecting plates. and 4 are the potential or deflecting plates. Bis the filament-heating battery, and the central dot is the end-on view of the straight filament. G is a relay or galvanometer. plate. If, then, we connect the potential plates to the ends of a resistance of about 15,000 or 20,000 ohms, ' and include this resistance in the plate circuit of an ordinary three-electrode valve, the thermionic current of the latter flowing through the resistance will create a terminal potential difference which arrests the thermionic current of my new valve. Hence the relay does not operate. If, however, we give an extremely small negative potential to the grid of the three- electrode valve, then this reduces the thermionic cur- rent of the latter and increases that of the other valve, which again in turn causes the relay to close contact, and it may be caused thereby to ring a bell. The negative grid potential can be derived from the oscil- lations in an aerial wire as above described. In this , manner I have constructed an arrangement by which the ordinary feeble antenna oscillations can be em- ployed to ring a call-bell. The operator can then switch over the aerial to an ordinary valve receiving set and listen to the telephone. It remains to say a few words on the methods by which the thermionic valve is. employed in the reception of signals made by undamped or continuous waves. By far the best method of receiving signals NO. 2649, VOL. 105 | ' by these waves is by the so-called beat-reception. . is two sets of waves of slightly different wave-len are superimposed, no matter what sort of waves they ~ may be, the result is to produce a compound wave ~ with periodically increasing and decreasing amplitude, — These augmentations are called the beats. ee If a continuous electric wave falls on an aerial it — creates on it continuous oscillations. Suppose, then, that we generate also by some local means in the aerial wire undamped oscillations differing in fre- quency, say by 1000, from the incident waves, The result will be to produce in the aerial electrical beats — having a frequency of 1000. These act to a receiver just as do damped trains of waves with a train — frequency of tooo. They can be rectified and dé by a valve and telephone, as already explained. It is now quite easy to produce high-frequency oscillations of any required periodicity by coupling a three- — electrode valve to the aerial and then coupling the — grid and plate circuits of the valve. Sometimes a separate three-electrode valve is used to rectify and detect the beats. Capt. H. J. Round has, however, invented ingenious methods by which one and the same thermionic valve can be used simultaneously to generate and to detect the beats. a 2 We must, in the last place, glance at the uses of — the thermionic valve in connection with ordinary tele- phony with wires. When the rapidly fluctuating elec- — tric currents which are propagated when a speaker at — one end of a long line converses by telephone with — an auditor at the other flow along a hos line, two effects take place which cael against clear and audible speech transmission. First, the current generally is enfeebled as it flows, and this is ~ called the attenuation. Secondly, the different har- monic constituent currents which go to make up the — complex wave-form which corresponds to each articu- _ late sound are differently enfeebled. is The vibrations of high pitch are more enfeebled — than those of lower pitch. The first effect reduces the — loudness of the speech received, and the second its — articulate clearness or quality. The cause of the © general enfeeblement is the resistance of the line, — which fritters away the energy of the speech electric — currents. Until lately the only known method of — overcoming it was by putting sufficient copper into — the line, but this, of course, means cost. - The thermionic valve is, however, able to make a — transformer, the secondary terminals of which are — connected to the grid and filament of a valve, whilst — the plate circuit also contains a battery and a trans- former of which the secondary circuit is in connection — with the continuation of the line. Feeble telephonic — currents arriving at the valve would vary the potential — of the grid, and this, as just explained, would fluctuate in like manner, but with increased energy, the plate | current. The transformer in the plate circuit would — then re-transmit the speech current, but with exalted — amplitude. The valve can thus be used to counteract the effect of resistance on the line. In practice, how-— ever, the arrangements are a little more complicated, because a telephone line has to be used in both directions. ; ey. If our trunk telephone line system in Great Britain’ had to be laid over again, it is perfectly certain that a very great economy in copper could be made by a widespread use of the thermionic valve as a repeater and relay. It repeats so perfectly that we ma tainly say it has completely: outclassed all prev invented forms of microphonic relay: ‘ Pe ~ Avcust 5, 1920] NATURE ay : ) Obituary. Pror. J. C. F. Guyon. _ “THE death of Prof. Jean Casmir Félix Guyon, _ £ sat the end of his eighty-ninth year, removes - _ the last of three famous Paris specialists in _ genito-urinary surgery ; of these Civiale was much _ the senior, whereas Albarran (1860-1912) was _ Guyon’s brilliant pupil and succeeded him in the _ professorial chair so far back as 1896. Guyon, _ though naturally little known to the younger _ generation of British surgeons, ranks with the late Sir Henry Thompson (1820-1904), with whom _ professionally he may be compared. _ pioneers adopted and improved the eminent Ameri- Both these ean surgeon Bigelow’s practice of litholapaxy, ae x or the complete removal of all the fragments of a crushed calculus from the urinary bladder at one sitting. Guyon was recognised as a great teacher in his speciality, and for years attracted students from all parts of the world to his clinic at the Necker Hospital. ; Guyon was born on July 21, 1831, at St. Denis, in the island of Réunion, and it may be mentioned as a rather. curious coincidence that his famous - successor, Joaquin Albarran, was also born abroad, namely, in Cuba. Guyon worked first at Nantes and then at Paris, where he was interne in 1854 and prosector to the faculty in 1858. His uation thesis, on “Fibroid Tumours of the Uterus,” bears the date 1860; in 1862 he _ became surgeon to the Paris hospitals, in 1863 _ agrégé, and professor in 1877. His two chief works, “Lecons cliniques sur les maladies des voies urinaires” (1881)—which passed into a second edition in 1885, and a third in two volumes 3 in igs ‘“Lecons cliniques sur les affec- tions chirurgicales de la vessie et de la prostate” (1886)—edited by his former resident, Dr. F. P. _Guiard—embodied his teaching at the Necker Hospital, and were both translated into German | and into Russian. Though famous as a genito- urinary specialist, Guyon took a broad view of sur- gery, adopted Lister’s methods as early as 1876, and was the author of a work of 672 pages on general surgery, dealing with diagnosis and operations in general, entitled “Eléments de chirurgie clinique.’’ Although now somewhat forgotten from his great age and the interval of almost a quarter of a century since he quitted the chair of genito-urinary surgery, Guyon received the honours due to his work and position; he was a Commander of the Legion of Honour, a member of the Institute (Academy of Sciences) and of the Academy of Medicine, and on August 3, 1900, his former pupils, of whom Lucas-Championniére was the senior, presented him with a medal executed by Bottée as a mark of their affection and admira- tion. Mr. ALEXANDER JAMES MONTGOMERIE BELL, who died on July 3, aged seventy-four, was a _ fellow of the Geological Society who devoted his leisure for many years to the study of the deposits in southern England in which paleolithic flint implements occur. His researches on the gravels and associated deposits at Wolvercote, near Oxford, were especially valuable, and were de- scribed in a paper published in the Geological Society’s Journal in 1904. He regarded certain disturbed layers as “‘ice-drifts,” and emphasised the importance of distinguishing ‘‘ rainwash-drifts” from regular: deposits. From an examination of the fossil remains of plants and beetles, he con- cluded that in late Pleistocene times the climate of the Thames valley was more continental than it is at.present. It is understood that Mr. Bell left a general summary of the results of his researches in a manuscript, which we hope may be found in a form suitable for publication. Notes. ie “Dr. G. C. Simpson, F.R.S., Meteorologist to the "Government of India, has been appointed Director of , the Meteorological Office as successor to Sir Napier _ Shaw, who retires on reaching the age-limit after brilliant pioneer service. Dr. Simpson was meteoro- — ___ logist and physicist to the British Antarctic Expedi- tion, 1910-13, and served on the Indian Munitions Board from 1917 to 1919. In 1905 he was appointed y a Scientific Assistant in the Meteorological Office, and in 1906 joined the staff of the Indian Meteorological Department. He is the author of a number of papers of scientific importance, including one on the elec- tricity of rain and its origin in thunderstorms, pub- lished in the Phil. Trans, in 1909. Only last year Dr. Simpson completed an elaborate discussion of the _ meteorological work of the British Antarctic Expedi- tion, 1910-13. As successor to Sir Napier Shaw his appointment promises a continuation of progress along lines which will advance meteorological science and NO. 2649, VOL. 105] maintain the high position which the British Meteoro- logical Office now occupies through its work in recent years. Dr. L. V. Kine has been appointed Macdonald professor of physics at the Macdonald Physics Build- ing, McGill University. The chair has been held in succession by Prof. H. L. Callendar, Sir Ernest Rutherford, Dr. H. T. Barnes, Prof. H. A. Wilson, and by the present director, Dr. A. S. Eve. Prof. King was born at Toronto, Ontario, in 1886. In 1905 he graduated B.A. at McGill University with first-class honours and gold medal in mathematics and physics. He was elected scholar of Christ’s College, Cambridge, in 1906, and appointed lecturer in physics at McGill University in 1910, assistant professor in Ig12, and associate professor in 1915, when he also was awarded the D.Sc. degree of McGill University. In sors Prof. King began investigations on sub- 722 NATURE {AUGUST 5, 1920, marine. acoustics for the Electrical and Submarine Committee of the British Board of Inventions. He has been engaged for some time on important re- searches on the efficiency of fog-signal machinery and on the measurement and distribution of sound. In an illuminating article in the Times of July 29 Dr. Herbert Levinstein explains the close co-operation of the German Government and the combine of the German aniline dye manufacturers known as_ the ‘‘Interessen Gemeinschaft’’ or the ‘'I.G.,’’ which enabled the German General Staff to provide large quantities of high explosives and poison gases when the need arose after the Battle of the Marne. Until then the aniline dye factories had not been mobilised ; they had continued their ordinary vocation of manu- facturing dyes because the great accumulation of high explosives by the Germans had been expected to over- whelm the French in a short time. After the Marne, however, there was an actual shortage of munitions in Germany, and the vast resources of the dye fac- tories were then requisitioned for the production of further quantities of high explosives and of poison gases. Whilst the varied collection of dye-making plant in Germany could be immediately adapted for this purpose, the special plant erected in this country cannot so easily be utilised in the reverse direction, and it is vitally necessary that we should possess extensive plants for the manufacture of dyes compar- able with those of the ‘‘I.G.,” so that not only can the necessary provision be made for any future war, but also facilities for chemical research, which, in chemical warfare and in the dye industry, can be supported only by the industry itself, may be pro- vided to enable us to maintain a premier position. WE have now had an opportunity of examining at the London office of Messrs. Barr and Stroud, Ltd. (15 Vic- toria Street, S.W.1), the latest form of that remark- able instrument devised by Dr, E. E. Fournier d’Albe and perfected by Prof. Archibald Barr by which it is possible for a blind maan to read ordinary print by listening to sounds in a telephone receiver. The ap- paratus, which is called the optophone, was fully described by the inventor in an article in Nature of May 6 last, where the way in which, by the use of selenium cells, a series of distinctive sounds is produced as the ‘‘eye.’’ of the instrument passes over the letters was explained. To anyone who has not tested the instrument it is difficult to believe in the possibility of making the sound combinations suffi- ciently distinctive for even a trained operator, blind or otherwise, to recognise the different letters easily. A few minutes’ experimenting, however, is sufficient to dispel all such doubts. After realising the prin- ciples of the action, the present writer was, in one or two cases, actually able to name correctly the simpler letters at a first attempt, and there is no doubt that a blind person could be trained to read with the apparatus more easily than he could become expert in picking up a wireless message in Morse. The way in which the letter ‘‘w,’’ for example, is represented by beautiful little descending and ascending arpeggios sung softly in ite ’s ear, or a single harmonious chord denotes ani,” is quite fascinating. |The adjustments NO. sbi VOL. 105] ‘in the establishment of an institute for chemical re- of the apparatus, although delicate, are not beyond — the powers of a blind reader of intelligence, and we feel sure that the institutions (including St. Dunstan’: and others) which have already acquired these instru- ments will find them appreciated by the sightless 4 readers whom they train. We have not the space to — direct further attention to the numerous little mechanical details which contribute so much to the success of the instrument. It must suffice to say that — they are largely the result of long personal attention by Prof. Barr himself, who had at his disposal the unrivalled resources of the well-known firm of a a finder manufacturers. Major W. E. Simnert has retired from the direction and editorship of the Technical Review on his ap- pointment to direct the Intelligence Branch of the Ministry of Transport. Tue Harveian oration of the Royal College of Physicians will be delivered by Sir Frederick Andrewes on St. Luke’s Day, October 18; the Horace Dobell ; lecture by. Sir William Leishman. on November 2; the Bradshaw lecture by Dr. R. C. B. Wall on Novem- aa ber 4; and the FitzPatrick lectures on the History of Medicine by Dr. E. G. Browne on November 9 and 11. ACCORDING to a notice appearing in La Technique Moderne for May, a French committee is now engaged ha search as applied to industry. The idea is to create, on the model of the Pasteur Institute and the large American research institutes, a powerful scientific organisation at which all kinds of researches of: in- terest to industry may be carried out. In addition to founding the research institute at Paris, the committee intends to provide the means to make grants on a liberal scale to those workers who wish to carry out their work in private laboratories. Missions will also be sent abroad for the purpose of studyiae conditioris there. THE use of the different species of woods anc the | preference accorded to the various kinds in industry are determined mainly by experience. In France — especially no methodical investigations have hitherto been carried out on the various timbers grown in the country. This want is now to be filled by the enter- — prise of the Administration des Eaux et Foréts. A series of researches will be undertaken by that Depart- ment in consultation with the Technical Section of the Aeronautics Department, dealing with the pro- perties of native woods from the point of view of their utilisation. The first-named Department will collect samples of wood of known origin, and these will be subjected to suitable mechanical tests by the Aero- nautics Department. The results of the tests, together with the specimens, will be sent to the research stations of the Nancy Forestry School. AN important discussion on ‘‘ The Preset Positio of Vitamines in Clinical Medicine ”? was opened Prof. F. Gowland Hopkins at the eighty-eigh annual meeting of the British Medical Association Cambridge. A full report of the proceedings will found in the British Medical Journal for July 31. Prof. Hopkins said that he deplored the scepticism ee ge ae DI NATURE 723 ce ning the whole question of vitamines which has af displayed by certain members of the medical sion, and gave definite experimental evidence e effects of deficient diets. The remainder of the was devoted to the principal forms of disease h are now recognised as. associated with the nce, to a greater or less degree, of one or more e vitamines from a dietary. The diseases men- d were scurvy, beri-beri, the xerophthalmia of erimental animals, and rickets. During the dis- ssion which followed further evidence of the im- ice of vitamines in a normal diet was given by io Ss contributors. E have received ‘from Messrs. Flatters and , Oxford Road, Manchester, a catalogue of unted microscopical preparations which they are le to supply. The list is a very comprehensive one, ig from numbers of protozoa, worms, insects, and other invertebrates to vertebrate tissues and - structures. Botanical preparations, bacteria, diatoms, petrological specimens, and textile fibres are included, and the firm is also prepared to supply botanical "material and pond-life for class purposes. The prices appear very moderate. Medical Science: Abstracts and Reviews for July (vol. ii., No. 4) one of the reviews is devoted to the : "subject of diabetes, and some interesting particulars _ are given. In the years immediately preceding the ; - the deaths from diabetes remained constant, as during the four years 1916-19 they declined 444 pre-war to 202. The male sex showed a ter decline than the female, and. the percentage ity among children sank as low as in adults. . of diabetes was observed as the result of al concussion. These facts give no support to » nervous hypothesis of the causation of diabetes. It is stated that there was a similar diminution ‘in diabetes during the siege of Paris in 1870-71, and g the German occupation of Lille in the late war any of the less severe diabetic cases improved or sovered—probably as a a of the food scarcity. ‘Health Conditions in n Europe: Typhus a Serious Menace ’’ was _by Dr. Norman White (Medical Commissioner, us Commission, League of Nations) on July 15 the Surveyors’ Institution, Westminster, S.W.r. / countries considered were Latvia, Esthonia, ania, Poland, and the Ukraine. Poland, through which pass the main lines of communication with Russia, has suffered more than her smaller neigh- _A Cuapwick lecture on - in a deplorably backward condition, and soap, fuel, and other facilities for cleanliness are unobtain- able in many districts, while louse infestation among the poorer classes is almost universal. A large portion of the lecture was devoted to the considera- tion of typhus fever, the part played by the louse in the conveyance of the disease being described, _ Emphasis was laid on the danger to other countries arising from the persistence of this focus of epidemic _ disease. The essential requirements for the anti- _ typhus: campaign were outlined, and the point was NO. 2649, VOL. 105 | bours. Sanitary conditions in this portion of Europe’ made that every country in the world has a very real concern in the existing health conditions of Eastern Europe, apart from humanitarian considera- tions. Dr. W. CROoKE in the Journal of the Royal Anthro- pological Institute (vol. xlix., July-December, 1919) discusses the question of ‘‘ Nudity in India in Custom and Ritual.’? The present Hindus, like all Orientals, wear scanty clothing, but the rules of decency are generally observed. There are, or were until recently,, several degrees of habitual nudity. The earliest stage of clothing seems to have been that of bark, and this and drapery made of sedge and other leaves are still in use in parts of the country. Nudity appears in various magical rites like rain-making, while in the case of some ascetics it implies the renunciation of all family and social obligations. This condition, in the case of rites connected with magic and witchcraft, is fully illustrated, as well as the etiological legends which have been invented to explain the custom. In the Journal of the Royal Anthropological Insti- tute (vol. xlix., July-December, 1919) Mr. Harold Peake discusses ‘‘The Finnic Question and some Baltic Problems.’’ Until recent years it was generally supposed that the Finns, like the Lapps and Samoyeds, were an Asiatic people with Mongoloid affinities. On the other hand, Ripley supposes the Finns to be of the Nordic race or closely allied to them, while Ruggeri believes that Proto-Nordics, Proto-Finns, and Proto-Mediterraneans are branches of a common stock which originated on the confines of Europe and Asia. Mr. Peake’s conclusion, after a careful review of the evidence from physical anthropology and cul- ture, seems to be that towards the latter half of the third millennium a period of drought occurred in the steppe-lands of the northern hemisphere and caused the Nordic steppe-follx to disperse in various directions. It may be that to this date we must attribute the retreat to the Volga basin which resulted in the hybrid type known as the Red Finns, but the main body seems to. have crossed or passed round the plain of North Germany to Denmark, where, perhaps, they met and coalesced with the people of the kitchen-middens; they afterwards passed across the Danish islands to Sweden as the men of the passage-graves, driving before them the Mongoloid aborigines, who had now reached the stage of Arctic culture. Tue lighting of picture-galleries and museums pre- sents problems that have not yet been solved in practice, and especially is this the case with reflections from glass. In the July issue of the Museums Journal Mr, Hurst Seager sets forth the scientific principles that are necessary for success. At the recent conference of the Museums Association he gave a brilliant demonstration of their application, and an account of this appears in the August number of the journal. All museum directors should study Mr. Seager’s advice, of which the correctness has been proved by a gallery at Wanganui, N.Z. With the July number the Museums Journal opened a new volume; with the August number its price is raised to 2s. 724 NATURE [Aucust 5, 1920 WE have received from the British Association Com- mittee on Zoological . Bibliography and Publication recommendations as to the way in which an author should introduce references to previous work quoted by him. Footnotes are condemned. The committee recommends that, at all events in the case of longer articles containing many references, a “list of works | referred to,” arranged with the names of authors in alphabetical order, should be printed at the beginning or end of each ‘article. In these lists the title of the paper, name of the journal, date, number of series and volume and the pages should be given. It would then, in the text of the article, be necessary to quote only the author’s name and the date, with the addi- tion of a page-number where required. The committee also discusses additions to the rules which should be followed when introducing new genera or species in zoological publications. “In the Report of the American Museum of Natural History for 1919 President H. F. Osborn continues his vigorous beating of the educational drum. The museum, he writes, ‘“‘is actually going backward.”’ Want of space and want of funds prevent the orderly arrangement of the material already accumulated. When the dinosaur rubs shoulders with the mammoth, small wonder that newspaper science represents them as contemporaries. The harmonious development of exhibition galleries is at a standstill. African, Asiatic, Polar, and Oceanic Halls are lacking; for lack of halls of fishes, of reptiles, and of birds of the eastern hemisphere these animals are untruthfully arranged. And the remedy? Extension of the museum on the plan originally intended, partly as a memorial to Theodore Roosevelt, whose connection with zoology is a great asset for more than one museum, and partly by separating the tax rolls and assessments for educa- tional purposes from the general municipal rates and starting a direct poll-tax for education—a tax which would have a basis ten times as broad and would be more willingly paid. It must not be inferred that Dr. Osborn overlooks the research work of the museum, which is the necessary foundation of its educational activities. The team-work on fossil vertebrates accom- ‘plished under his guidance by Dr. W. D. Matthew and an accomplished staff is a brilliant witness to the contrary, and the report records a long list of re- searches and publications in various branches of science. But in New York, as in this country, it is through an appeal to the public on educational grounds that funds can most readily be raised. Science and Industry for March, the official journal of the Australian Institute of Science and Industry, contains a detailed account of the results of investiga- tions in New South Wales on the extraction of tannins from wattle-bark, which are of great import- ance to the Australian leather industry. For many years the bark used has been obtained from two species, the golden wattle of South Australia (Acacia pycnantha) and the black or green wattle (A. decur- rens) and its varieties. As a result of the gradual destruction of wattle-trees the Australian supply has been largely supplemented by wattle-bark imported from Natal, where plantations grown from Australian NO. 2649, VOL. 105 | r exerted when at the beginning of June the accumu seed have been formed. A valuable tan-bark is als yielded by the mallet (Eucalyptus occidental Western Australia. The faulty methods adopted the extraction of tannins are criticised, and an proved process is suggested. . In his presidential address to the Linnean Ssheey| of New South Wales (abstract of Proceedings, March 31, 1920) Mr. J. J. Fletcher referred to the morphology of the so-called phyllodes c istic of many of the Australian acacias. According to the definition in text-books, these are the flattened leaf- stalks of bipinnate leaves which have lost their — blades, whereas they really represent the primary _ axes of bipinnate leaves which have lost their pinnae. — Accordingly the name “euphyllode,” as implying: { something more: than merely flattened petioles, is proposed for them. The president also referred to — the recent costly visitation of drought, and pointed 1 out the need for a handbook or manual setting forth — the theoretical complementary side of the practical - ? activities of the man on the land, especially in rela- — tion to drought problems. A synopsis indicating the scope and contents of such a handbook was offered for discussion. Mr. F. DEBENHAM, who accompanied Capt. Scott on his last Antarctic expedition, puts forward (Quart. — Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. Ixxv., p. 51, 1920) an ir suggestion to explain the transfer of marine : from the sea-floor to the surface of glacier ice, and so finally to the land when glaciers melt away. A massive glacier protruding seaward may pick up such material by accreting ice along its base. Successive accretions from the freezing sea raise this lower layer until finally it comes to the surface, where ablation is active during summer. It may then be transported to some point impinged on by the ice. The interesting occurrence of sodium sulphate, as mirabilite, in the ice is held to be due to concentration of sea-water in cold sub-glacial lagoons, the water of which has furnished ice, enclosing the separated salt. The case of the Great Salt Lake of Utah, in which sodium sulphate separates when the temperature falls below about 20° F. (—7° C.), is cited as an illustration. monsoon rainfall in 1920 by Dr. Gilbert T. Walker has recently been issued. Data of importance age parts of the earth. In summing up the effects of t “he various factors it is mentioned that the prejudicial effect of snowfall from Persia to the Himalayas is lations extend over a larger area than usual. Th great excess of snow reported this year is confirme by the low temperatures in the Punjab. Heavy f fall in South Ceylon, Zanzibar, East Africa, — Seychelles is prejudicial, but data for this year shov a moderate deficit or normal conditions. A clo relationship exists between heavy rain in Java fre October to March and low barometric pressu 3 Bombay in the succeeding six months; in Jay rainfall was nearly normal and its effect is negl nee barometric pressure in Argentina and C AuGusT 5, 1920] NATURE 125 ourable condition, but this year pressure is in defect. It is stated that the conditions indicate North-West India the monsoon is likely to be , at any rate in the earlier part of the season, the rainfall of the Peninsula, North-East .and Burma the indications are not sufficiently e to justify a forecast. Italian Laboratory of Practical Optics and nics of Precision, which was founded in ice last year on the suggestion of the Minister ; ic Instruction to spread a knowledge of recent advances in instrument-making amongst those engaged in the industry in the country, has undertaken the ‘issue of a monthly Review of Optics and Mechanics ‘of Precision. The number for March and April con- ts of a little more than thirty quarto pages. The “seven are devoted to a continuation of a report Prof. L. Silberstein on the quantum theory of The improvements which Sommerfeld has uced into the theory by ascribing two degrees freedom to the electron instead of the one degree of Bohr’s theory are dealt with. Constructional optics ne * ‘ res by articles on the calculation of chromatic objectives and on objectives for aerial hy. Metrology gets an article of sixteen by Mr. V. I. N. Williams, of Armstrong, s, Manchester. There appears to be no in English which serves the same purpose 1 industries that this review does for those July issue of Science Progress contains a by Mr. S. C. Bradford of the theory of the 1 on of the atom propounded by Langmuir e June issue of the Journal of the American remical Society last year. Unlike the ‘“‘sun and ” theory which has been. so_ successfully «d by Bohr, the new theory assumes the elec- which surround the positive nucleus to be at in each shell being twice the square of the nu er of the shell counted from the nucleus. When the number of electrons is insufficient to fill a number hells, it is the outer shell which is incomplete. In outer shells there is a tendency for the electrons form groups of eight or ‘‘octets ”’ either amongst nselves or by association with the electrons of her atoms. The chemical properties of the atom end mainly on the number of electrons in the er shell not associated together in octets. The ties of hydrogen, helium, neon, lithium, carbon, trogen, oxygen, and fluorine, the similarity in the haviour of CO,, and N,O, of CO and N.,, and the lifficulties which compounds of nitrogen raise on the usual theory of valency, are all explained in a simple way by the new theory. ee In Nature of July 8 we gave an account of the _ work done recently at the National Physical Labora- tory. The appearance of the report of the laboratory the year 1919 enables us to supplement. that _ account by some information as to the progress of the institution as a Government establishment. With regard to buildings, the new control appears to ‘NO. 2649, VOL. 105] measurements of precision in the mechanics. They form shells around the nucleus, the | involve exceptional delay. Extensions contemplated in 1918 and urgently needed have been approved by the Research Department, but not yet authorised by the Treasury. In consequence, apparatus already delivered cannot be housed and utilised. The number of posts in each grade of staff has been fixed, and the conditions of service approximate to those in the Civil Service. In special cases, however, promotion by length of service may be departed from, subject to the approval of the Research Department. Industry appears to be claiming many of the staff who have by their past work added materially to the reputation of the Laboratory, and it is of the utmost importance that the most promising of the younger members of the staff should be retained by sufficiently attractive posts. The Research Department has decided that commercial testing is not in future to be a function of the Laboratory. A REPORT by Prof. J. C. McLennan on sources of helium in the British Empire has recently been issued by the Department of Mines, Canada (Bulletin No. 31). An investigation of the helium content of natural gas supplies was undertaken at the request of the Board of Invention and Research (London) in 1915, and the report embodies the results, which are now published by permission of the Admiralty. It appears that certain natural gases in Canada form the largest source of supply of helium at present known within ° the Empire. The percentage of helium present was found to range from zero in gases from the Toronto and British Columbia regions up to about 0-33 per cent. in gases from the Blackheath (Ontario) and Bow Island (Alberta) areas. Two methods were used for isolating the helium: (1) Combustion of the gas with oxygen, the resulting water and carbon dioxide being removed by suitable reagents, and the nitrogen and remaining traces of other gases by means of coco- nut charcoal cooled in liquid air; and (2) condensa- tion of the hydrocarbons and other constituents having higher boiling points than helium in a condenser im- mersed in liquid air, the residue being then purified by means of charcoal as before. Figures of the apparatus employed are given. Methods based upon these processes are indicated for the large-scale manu- facture of helium, and it is considered that com- mercial production of the gas is almost certain to be undertaken. From the Central Scientific Co., Chicago, we have received a copy of its catalogue of apparatus used in chemical, bacteriological, biological, industrial, and soil-testing laboratoriés. The catalogue is very com- plete, and it indicates the thorough manner in which American manufacturers have developed the produc- tion of scientific apparatus. Practically all the articles described are stated to be ‘‘ American made,’’ the only important item of foreign manufacture being English (Whatman) filter-paper. Among other matters of interest we note the new ‘chain ’’ analytical balance, in which the use of a rider and small weights is dispensed with. The finer weighings are obtained by varying the length of a small gold chain attached at one end to.the beam of the balance, and at the other to a vernier which slides on a graduated vertical 726 NATURE [Avcusr 5, 1920 ! column, and is operated by a milled head outside the balance-case. It is claimed that in this way the rapidity and accuracy of weighing are much increased, Amonc the papers read at the annual meeting of the British Pharmaceutical Conference recently held in Liverpool was one by Messrs. Bernard F. Howard and Oliver Chick upon ‘‘Some Recent Samples of ‘Grey’ Cinchona Bark.’? A “parcel ’’ consisting of 138 bales of South American cinchona bark received in March, 1920, and analysed by the authors, was found to contain 6-302 per cent. of total alkaloid, the bulk being, cinchonine, the figure for which was 549 per cent. The bark contained only 0-027 per cent. of quinine. Mr. E. M. Holmes, curator of the Pharmaceutical Society’s Museum, has examined the bark, and has expressed the opinion that it is the product of one, or possibly more forms of Cinchona peruviana, Howard. 'The large percentage of cin- chonine found in the bark is probably due to the elevation at which the trees grow, as this factor, and the accompanying differences of heat and moisture, are known to influence the character of the alkaloids present. Art the recent annual meeting of the British Pharma- ceutical Conference a paper entitled ‘‘ Cresineol’’ was contributed by Mr. T. Tusting Cocking, who showed that when oil of eucalyptus and ortho-cresol are mixed heat is evolved, and on cooling a mass of glistening crystals, consisting of an» equimolecular combination of cineole and ortho-cresol, is formed. This is a new compound, which has been named ‘““cresineol.’”? It may be recrystallised from various solvents, and forms beautiful white, transparent, prismatic crystals, melting at 55-2° C. and boiling at 185° C. Cresineol is volatile, and possesses a pleasant camphoraceous odour. It is not caustic in its action on the skin, and yet contains 41 per cent. of cresol. Having high germicidal pro- perties, it is likely to prove of great value as an anti- septic for both internal and external application The fact that a solid compound is formed when oil of eucalyptus and ortho-cresol are mixed can be made use of as a means of determining the amount of cineole in oil of eucalyptus. The method is based on the determination of the freezing point of a mix- ture of the oil with ortho-cresol; having observed this point, one may read off directly from a curve given: by the author the percentage of cineole con- tained in the oil, Messrs. W. HEFFER AND Sons, Ltp., Cambridge, have in the press a book by Dr. A. Harker entitled ‘*Notes on Geological Map Reading,’’ the object of which is to teach the student to visualise a geological map as in three dimensions, and to show that the questions which present themselves to the field- geologist reduce to exercises in very elementary geometry. This simplicity is gained by reckoning all slopes and dips as gradients, thus enabling trigono- metry and the protractor to be dispensed with. The amount of dip, the thickness of a formation, the throw of a fault, etc., are measured directly upon a contoured geological map by the use of the scale alone. NO. 2649, VOL. 105] Our Astronomical Column. — Tue Hitt Opservatory, SrpMouTH.—The cou of this observatory has just issued its annual report for the year ending June, 1920, and it is satisfac to note that all instruments and other equipment are in good condition and that the observatory is now in tull working order again. The chief work under- — taken consists in photographing the spectra of stars down to magnitude 5-30 and classifying them accord- ing to Sir Norman Lockyer’s scheme of increasing and decreasing temperatures. Spectra are also photo- — graphed of nebulz and other special objects. An interesting addition has recently been made to the regular work of the observatory in the form of a line of investigation suggested by Prof. W. S. Adams. Prof. Adams has found that the relative intensities of — certain lines in stellar spectra vary with the abso- — lute magnitude of the star, and thus,’ provided the © apparent magnitudes are known, a fairly simple © method is available for the determination of Tolar . parallaxes. The line intensities referred to are — measured by means of a wedge of dark glass specially — made for the purpose, the position of the wedge being — noted at which the lines are just obliterated. Some — encouraging results have been obtained from pre- — liminary work. A party of members of the British — Association visited the observatory at the close of the Bournemouth meeting. The party included several. eminent astronomers, some of whom have consented to form a research committee, intended to act as an_ advisory body on all matters connected with the research work of the observatory. \ oilbtel agen SLi am THE INFRA-RED ARC SPECTRA OF SEVEN ELEMENTS. No. 372 of the Scientific Papers of the U.S. Bureau of Standards gives the results of an investigation on the wave-lengths longer than 5500 A. in the are spectra of seven elements made by Messrs. C. C. Kiess and W. F. Meggers. The yellow, red, and infra-red regions of the arc spectrum of titanium, vanadium,’ chromium, manganese, molybdenum, tungsten, and — uranium were photographed with a large concave — grating spectrograph. The photographs were made — on plates sensitised to these spectral regions by means of pinacyanol and dicyanin dyes. The wave-lengths of more than 2500 spectral lines were measured extending from the green at 5500A. into the infra- red beyond 9700 A. So far as is known, impurity — lines and spurious lines have been eliminated from the wave-length tables. Frequency differences which were suspected of being constant have been found in eac of the spectra. ‘Those who are specially intereste in this work may obtain a copy of the paper b applying to the Bureau of Standards, Washington. New Sovar RapiATION STATION IN ARIZONA.— anonymous benefactor has given funds to the Smit sonian Institution for the establishment of a solar observing station in the Haqua Hala mo tains in the Arizona desert. The site was chosen ‘being probably the most consistently cloudless regio in the United States.” Dr. C. G. Abbot has gone 1 set up this station, which will duplicate the wor that has been done for some years at Calama, Chile it is stated that the results obtained there are 0 assistance in predicting the weather and temper in Argentina. As is well known, Dr. Abbot cons that, besidés the 11-year variation, there are irres changes: in the solar radiation from day to amounting to as much as 5 per cent., which he gests may be due either to alterations in the circu tion in the sun and consequent variation in the amo of hotter matter brought from the interior. changes in the transparency of the solar envelopes NATURE 727 i § Aveust 5, 1920] Iron-depositing Bacteria.! appeal of the monograph before us, which is me of the Professional Papers issued under the ; of the United States Geological Survey, will probably be of direct interest only to a comparatively nal section of scientific workers. Although there is h to attract the general reader, it is obvious the work was not initiated with this end in It is worthy of note and a sign of the times the data supplied by the bacteriologists should d as a serious, weapon of offence in attacking ogical problem. ny changes, due to biological influences, take ace on the earth’s surface which profoundly modify constitution of the material which is destined become the geological strata of the future. A tudy of these changes will obviously throw light on e causes which have operated in the past to bring -earth’s crust into being. We find in Mr. Harder’s by far the most comprehensive treatment ich we have yet seen of the activities of bacteria effecting chemical an in various iron com- ds which come within the scope of their influence. has undertaken the task of bringing together in form of a critical survey the salient facts of Knowledge of the iron bacteria. This subject pies the first half of the monograph, and is ed by the author with a masterly regard for tials, and in it is included the results of some is Own observations and experiments on these ‘interesting micro-organisms. It is interesting to note ‘that the same iron bacteria are found in America as in Europe, although there are slight differences in r distribution and numbers. Thus Spirophyllum wgineum appears to possess a wider distribution is the case in this country. the preface, which is written by Mr. F. L. ome, especial attention is directed to the results Mr. Harder’s inquiry into the physiology of the n bacteria. Hitherto each investigator has assumed t the results claimed by him as a result of his sarch on the physiology of some particular species ever, concludes that there are three principal groups of iron-depositing bacteria: (1) A group the members which precipitate ferric hydroxide from solutions ferrous bicarbonate. (2) A second group of iron ria that does not require ferrous bicarbonate for ital processes. (3) A third group that attacks salts of organic acids, using the organic acid les as food and Jeaving ferric hydroxide, or basic ¢ salts that gradually change to ferric hydroxide. We must confess to a scepticism as to the existence of such deep-seated differences among these organisms, and incline to the opinion that the phenomenon of on-deposition on micro-organisms shows the work- g of a simple physiological, law which operates on in the same manner. In support we would jvance the fact that Spirophyllum and Leptothrix so clésely allied that some have regarded them pleiomorphic varieties of one and the same ganism. They live in the same waters, they repro- ce alike, and are in every way similar except in external form; and yet Spirophyllum is stated to be an éxample of the first group, whilst Leptothrix is relegated to the second group. A more cogent ground or scepticism lies in the fact that other organisms, cluding some of the algz and’ the protozoa, possess _the same attraction for iron compounds. Possibly a closer investigation of the. chemico-irritability of icto-organisms will. throw. some light n° the question.. Vis : : 1 fron depositing Bacteria and their Geologic Relations.” By Edmund Harder. United States Geological Survey. Professional Paper 113. NO. 2649, VOL. 105 | good for all the iron bacteria. Mr. Harder, how-. of Education,’’ We can recommend the second half of the mono- graph to all who wish concise information from an authoritative source of the iron deposits of the world and of the factors which influence the formation and determine the mode of deposition of the iron precipita- tions that are taking place at the present day. With one exception iron is the most abundant element in the earth’s crust. Iron salts are being constantly decomposed, and the genesis of the active agents which bring about their decomposition is given in detail. A consideration of these agents brings home to us the necessity of studying the life-histories of various micro-organisms in order to understand how the present deposits came into being. To give one example. The most important of the iron deposits is ferric hydroxide, and ‘a study of the conditions of its formation centres largely round the fact that ferrous compounds are soluble in water containing CO, in excess. Now, in particular, ferrous bicarbonate percolates upwards in solution, and when it reaches the surface becomes subject to the interplay of forces, both chemical and biological, which determine its subsequent fate. We must refer the reader to the ‘work itself for more precise information regarding the manner in which this fate is determined. We are also given a very complete account of the various types of ferruginous sedimentary ores, and in each case the intervention of biological agencies, either in the primary or in the secondary réle, as factors in the determination of the final deposition is explained in a comprehensive and accurate manner. Of greatest interest of all is, we’ consider, the examination of the conditions which determine the formation of bog-iron ore. These are undoubtedly mainly of a biological nature, and deserve more con- sideration than they have hitherto received.. The interest in this ore is enhanced on account of its formation being a possible stepping-stone to the development of limanites and hzmatites, although Mr. Harder him- self has not raised the point. In his reference to the ferrous carbonate deposits he does well to speak with reticence of the factors which have brought about their formation; enough evidence, however, is advanced to give pause to those who would eliminate altogether the activities of micro-organisms from the list of active agents which have brought these deposits into being. Again, Mr. Harder makes out a clear case for the intervention of micro-organisms in the formation of some, at any rate, of the iron sulphide deposits. Sulphuretted hydrogen is evolved as a result of the decomposition of animal and vegetable matter by the saprophytic bacteria. The formation of sul- phides with iron compounds is the next step, and it is of great interest that we see the process at work at the present day in the development of the “‘ blue mud” of the ocean bottom. Both biologists and geologists will be grateful to Mr. Harder for the work which he has done in the preparation of this monograph. Davip ELLs. The Association of Technical Institutions. “FHE Association of Technical Institutions opened its summer meeting at the University of Cam- bridge on July 23; with the Marquess of Crewe, the president, in the chair. The meeting was extended over the following day, when the chairman of the council, Mr. Dan Irving, M.P., - presided. Papers. were submitted. on ‘tA National System by Principal J. C.M. Garnett (Manchester); on ‘“‘ The Necessity for Close Co-opera- tion between Technical Colleges and the Universities," by Principal C. Coles (Cardiff); on .‘‘ Continuation 728 NATURE {Aucust 5, 1920 Schools and their Relation to Technical Institutes and Colleges,’’ by Principal C. L.. Eclair-Heath (Newcastle-upon-Tyne); and on ‘‘ Local Colleges and Adult Education,’” by Principal L. Small (Bootle). The suggestions of Mr. Garnett for the establish- ment of a national system of education in England during the next ten years are embodied in a pamphlet presented to a meeting of the newly formed Federal Council of Lancashire and Cheshire Teachers’ Asso- ciations in January last. It is accompanied by an elaborate ‘‘flow’’ diagram showing graphically in colour the various types of scholastic institutions sug- gested, of which as many as sixteen are depicted, ranging from the elementary school upwards to the university, and dealing with school and univer- sity life up to the twenty-fifth year. It is declared that “it is the main business of all education to form in the mind of every person a single wide interest centred in a supreme ~ purpose,’’- and that “it is the subordinate business of education to train young people so that they shall be able to realise their central purpose in some particular form of service to their fellows. For example, the particular form of service for which technical and commercial, education prepares is that of providing the material wealth without which no community—so different in this respect from an individual—can make much pro- gress towards the fulfilment of high spiritual pur- poses.’’ The pamphlet proceeds to divide those who are to occupy the various positions in industry, com- merce, and other departments of national life into four classes: Leaders in thought and action, about 3 per cent.; skilled managers and assistants, about 17 per cent.; skilled wage-earners, about 40 per cent.; and unskilled labourers and repetition workers, about 40 per cent, The scheme suggested received the attention of a meeting, held in June last, of the headmasters of secondary schools in Lancashire, Cheshire, Cumber- land, and Westmorland, who expressed strong dis- approval of its proposals, which they thought too mechanical, and of the suggestion that there should be lower and higher secondary schools. They were not persuaded that it was desirable to prevent the indi- vidual growth and development of each school, and that whilst transference and change of grade seemed to be its keynote, the headmasters believed in elas- ticity, growth, and continuous development. The purpose of Mr. Coles’s paper is to set forth the present unsatisfactory position of technical ipstitu- tions in this country, and to propose remedies therefor in respect alike of the development of higher educa- tion in technical institutions and of the administration thereof, so as to bring them into closer relation with the work of the universities. Mr. Coles advocates the institution of faculties of technology and commerce in connection therewith, and suggests that an in- vestigation should be set up, as in 1882, into the condition of higher technological education in the United Kingdom. Mr. Small’s paper, accompanied by notes by Prin- cipal J. F. Hudson (Huddersfield), deals with local colleges and adult education. The authors advocate the development of the technical institute into ‘the local college,’’ an official term appearing for the first time in the revised regulations for continuation. technical, and art courses issued by the Board of Education in February, 1917, so that it shall include not. only the training of workers in commerce and in specific industries, but also their continued education as citizens by the introduction of humanistic studies, and to provide generally for non-vocational subjects of a literary, scientific, and recreative character, together with facilities for the study by adult workers of ques- NO. 2649, VOL. 105] “institutions of the association in connection especial tions calculated to promote a better understa of the character and problems of social life. Al with this end in view the Huddersfield Technical Co lege has entered into close relations with the York shire District Council ‘of the Workers’ Educationa ‘Association.’ ° ee Mr. Eclair-Heath in his paper declares idea of continuation schools is not new, and instance the excellent example of the Royal Dockyard School at Deptford and elsewhere. He says that r voca tional education is undesirable, and that the schools should be held apart from works. He favours mixec schools and the introduction of religious instruction, and suggests that there should be set up a system of selection whereby only suitable students should be allowed the privilege of continued education up to eighteen years of age. — cs i" Resolutions were adopted welcoming a larg development of humane studies in the constitue ae iy with adult education :—‘ That the association accep the description of the work of a ‘local college’ co; a tained in Appendix III. of the Draft Regulations of the Board of Education for continuation, technical, and art courses in England and Wales”; and “That. each local college should be the recognised centre for the organisation of educational courses for adults in its area and for the supply of qualified lecturers and clas tutors and adequate library and other faeilities.”” Ti was resolved to refer to the council the question that the Board of Education should be asked to accept as. ‘‘recognised service’’ the services of teachers en do in organisation, supervision, and inspection with the view of qualifying such persons for pension under the recent Superannuation Act, and that the Board shoulc furnish to every teacher of forty-five years of age and upwards a statement of his position as to the peri od of “recognised service ’? and “ qualifying service? a: present placed against his name for the purpose of pension. apie Pe a) Py wt The Asiatic Origin of Man.1 vgs. THE author of the speculative paper referred to below is an evangelist of the gospel of evolu- tion according to Dr. W. D. Matthew. The idea of the Asiatic origin of the dominant orders of mammals, in its source as old as Buffon, was in 1915 placed on a firm basis by. Matthew in “his . paper ‘Climate and Evolution.’’ This idea Dr. Gri Taylor now takes up and applies to the case of m Penck’s fourfold subdivision of the Ice Age is rege as applying generally, and the development of the fp historic races in Asia is presumed to occur in the successive mild periods as follows: ae | Chellian and Acheulian. Pliocene. Mousterian. Gunz-Mindel. ° Aurignacian, Solutredn, and Magdalenian. Mindel-Riss. Azilian and Neolithic. - Riss-Wiirm. Bronze-using Races. Post-Glacial, Mongolians. ' Late Post-Glacial .; Historic. The following Ice Age in each case and in Glacial times the progressive desiccation of Asia a presumed to have caused migration from the hom land to the peripheral continents. The migratio are thus fairly well timed to enable the respect races to keep their appointments in Europe, perhaps, the exception of the Chellians, Ache and Mousterians, who are too early, if we may By Dr. Griffith Taylor. ich = 1 “Climatic Cycles and Evolution.” graphical Review, Dec 1 TOTO. NATURE 729 ck’s placing of these culture stages, which, *, rests only on indirect evidence. as his criteria of evolutionary advance four Ss, mamely, (1) cephalic index, (2) orbital (3) hair section, and, in a modified degree, n colour, Dr. Griffith Taylor then attempts an s of the existing races of mankind, and, so ‘the available data permit him, shows that the primitive races, or those with low cephalic and ital indices and relatively flattened hair section erally associated with depth of skin colouring), have been thrust to the more distant parts, from a ligrant’s point of view, of the outlying continents. Closer in to the centre of distribution come races with successively higher indices, rounder, straighter r, and reduced colouring, passing through brown, =, and white to the yellow, brachycephalic, and ssively straight-haired Mongolians, who are the pment of all. So far this is Dr. W. D. elaborated. A new element is now, how- , introduced into the discussion, for an attempt is de to correlate the living with the prehistoric races. remembers Sollas’s tentative comparisons in (“Ancient Hunters’’), viz. Tasmanian with hic or Early Palzolithic, Australian with Mous- ian, Bushman with Aurignacian, and Eskimo with fagdalenian. The author now postulates direct scent for these and many other races too numerous mention here os belts of tropical rains, desert, and polar rains in Aus- . As he effectively remarks, Nature has placed alia like a blackboard, on which are recorded results of the mobile but very regular and law- g climatic zones of the southern hemisphere. brings forward evidence to show that these zones rwent an analogous migration during the : atic oscillations of the Ice age. ‘The analysis outlined above forms parts i.-iii. of ~ oo The general exposition of the argument crude, and, were it not for the exnlicitness of the Srams, would be difficult to follow. This tabu- ig ise definition of material largely sculative gives an illusory impression of the state the subject, but, if the reader is not misled by it, certainly conduces to clearness. The adroit ndling of a subject so as to distinguish fact and sitimate inference from mere speculation is the last _of the scientific writer. _ The remainder of the paper is devoted to geological _ Speculations of less interest. Part iv. is an exposi- _ tion of Chamberlin’s theory of cyclic change. Cham- berlin’s writings (1897-1901) on the subject are not, however, quoted, the principal authority relied on ing Schuchert (1914). In this section a table of nly approximate temperatures is given for the riods from the Triassic to the present. That this _type of tabulated speculation is dangerous is instanced by the fact that both zoological and botanical evidence _ show that the seh parsiecka of Europe in the Neolithic _ period was several degrees higher than it is at the _ present day, instead of 7° F. lower, as stated. _ Part v. is an estimate of geological time based on various authorities. The statement is made that “Joly quotes similar figures, indicating about ,000,000 as the time interval since the same epoch” Cambrian). It is difficult to conceive the author’s ‘motive, if any, for this implicit misrepr tation of the works cited, for it matters nota straw: to his theory whether the interval since the Cambrian is ; ro or less than 100,000,000 years, as concluded by Joly. ~~ NA 9BAQ WOT toc] Part vi. is a suggestion, on astronomical lines, of rhythmic oscillations of climate, etc. It is on a par with many former theories of the Ice age in assign- ing a cause which there is no independent evidence to show was ever operative. Papers such as this which deal in giddy speculation have for some time past been looked at askance by the more puritanically minded of our elder geologists. We are not sure that they deserve the contempt with which they are treated. In this matter, however, there is a golden mean, and we should have preferred to see the present paper made less com- prehensive, and the leading subject-matter of human migrations more thoroughly dealt with. It is of no use trying to straighten out the universe in an article. W. B. Wricut: Long-range Forecasting in Java. UBLICATION No. 5, 1919, of the Royal Observa- tory of batavia, entiuea “Atmospheric Varia- uons of Short and Long Duration in the Malay Archi- peiago and Neighbouring Kegions, and the Possibility to borecast Lhem,’’ by Ur. Uv. braak, embodies the results of a long investigation into the sequence of raintall in the equatorial regions east of the. Indian Ocean. Three kinds of variation are studied: (1) with periods of one or more years up to and including the sun-spot period, (2) secular variations, and (3) with periods less than a month, comparable with Abbot’s short-period solar tiuctuations. The variations, the period of which is intermediate between (1) and (3) above, are treated as disturbances of (1). Dr. Braak lays much stress on a three-year period, of the persistence of which he gives plausible, though not quite convincing, examples. He classifies three groups of years, of high barometer, low barometer, and transition (from high to low), but naturally finds a proportion of years not strictly true to any of these types. It is scarcely surprising that he finds in general a correlation between barometric pressure and rainfall. For the east monsoon he finds strong posi- tive correlation between high pressure and drought, and weaker between low pressure and excess of rain. - For the west monsoon he finds, with some local exceptions, excess of rain with high barometer, and deficit with low barometer. His problem is thus reduced to the intensity of the correlation and the chances of a correct forecast of the barometer variation. His next step takes into account temperature changes which may be expected to modify pressure conditions, but his result is disappointing. He obtains rules, but their application is so far a failure that they appear to break down most thoroughly in years of drought— that is, when, if correct, they would be most valuable. Turning to. secular variations, he finds no evidence of progressive change in Batavian rainfall; in fact, the only progressive change on which he lays stress is in Batavian air-temperature. Comparison with stations in India, Australia, and other places in the same quarter of the globe provides other types of change, but none agreeing with Batavia, and the question is left unsolved. There remain the short-period pressure waves. The equatorial manifestations of these he attributes to a ‘kind of surge, caused by the great disturbances in higher latitudes, exercising a sucking influence or its converse, with slight. variations of the rainfall, less than 10 per cent. of the normal, the effect of which is to compensate the pressure difference by. cooling or heating air probably above the 3000-metre level. Other variations of rainfall, humidity, and cloudi- ness he considers to be local, and, on the whole, rejects 73° NATURE [AUGUST 5, 1920 the possibility of forecasting any short-period varia- tions’ in the rainfall. Inasmuch as we are bound to regard the tropics as the first stage in the translation of solar variation into weather, it seems a pity that the result obtained in what is probably the best known region of the tropics in regard to meteorological statistics should appear so meagre and wanting in definiteness. Similar work in temperate regions may well be discouraged, but there is still an enormous mass of data W. Insects of Arctic Canada. oe insects of various orders—as well as a few spiders, mites, and centipedes—collected by members of the recent Canadian Arctic Expedition (1913-18) have been recorded and described in vol. iii. of the Report (Ottawa, 1919-20). The lists contain much information of value to students of zoological geography. Arthur Gibson) it is interesting to see varieties of such well-known British butterflies as Pievis napi, Papilio machaon, and Vanessa antiopa. Most of the Coleoptera (by J. M. Swaine, H. C. Fall, C. W. Leng, and J. D. Sherman) belong to species already known in North America, and the same remark applies to the bees described by F. W. L. Sladen, who points out that bumble-bees are ‘‘ particularly well adapted to Arctic conditions,’’ and records the capture of five nearly full-fed Bombus larvz on Melville Island (75° N. lat.) on June 21, 1916. The sawflies, described by A. G. MacGillivray, are mostly new species, and, as might have been expected, willow feeders. Among the Diptera (by C. P. Alexander, H. G. Dyar, and J. R. Malloch) there are some ‘interesting details of larvze as well as descriptions and records of. flies, which are relatively numerous in species. .The occur- rence of larvze of Oedemagena tarandi—the warble- fly of the European Reindeer—in Barren-ground Caribou at Bernard Harbour is noteworthy. Mosquitoes of a couple of species of the genus A=des were observed (and felt) in swarms. As regards wingless parasites, Prof. G. H. F. Nuttall records that head- lice (Pediculus capitis) from the.Copver Eskimo of Coronation Gulf show no varietal distinction from members of the species found elsewhere. Dr. J Folsom enumerates a dozen species cf springtails (Collembola); two onlv of these are new, but his figures of structural details, drawn carefully from Arctic specimens of common and widespread _ northern forms, will be welcome to students of this order. Go eae Earthquake Waves and the Elasticity of the Earth. D&: C. G. KNOTT delivered a lecture on ‘“ Earth- quake Waves and the Elasticity of the Earth” before the Geological Society on June 9. He pointed out that seismograph records of the earth-movements due to distant earthquakes proves that an earthquake is the source of two types of wave-motion which pass through the body of the earth, and a third type which passes round the surface of the earth. Before earth- quake records were obtained, mathematicians had shown that these three types of wave-motion existed in and over a sphere consisting of elastic solid material. Many volcanic phenomena, however, sug- gest the quite different conception of a molten interior underlying the solid crust. At first statement these NO. 2649, VOL. 105 | Among the Lepidoptera (described by © views seem to be antagonistic, but there is no diffie in reconciling them.» Whatever be the nature of material lying immediately below the accessible it must become at a certain depth a highly h fairly homogeneous substance behaving like an elasti solid, with two kinds of elasticity giving rise to what are called the compressional and distortional waves The velocities of these waves are markedly different, being at every depth nearly in the ratio of 1-8 to 1. Both increase steadily within the first thousand mi of descent towards the earth’s centre, the compre sional wave-velocity ranging from 4-5 miles per seco at the surface to 8 miles per second at depths of 1000 miles and more; the corresponding velocities of — the distortional wave are 2-5 and a velocities at depths greater than about 2500 miles. which at first increase with depth more rapidly ¥ the density, become proportional to the density, for — the velocity of propagation becomes practically steady. — About half-way down, however, the material seems to — lose its rigidity (in the elastic sense of the term), and viscosity possibly takes its place, so that the distor-~ tional wave disappears. In other words, there is a nucleus of about 1600 miles radius which cannot transmit distortional waves. This nucleus is enclosed by a shell of highly elastic material transmitting both compressional and distortional waves exactly like an_ elastic solid. — ee ae atte np eRars, : ec ie University and Educational Intelligence. ABERDEEN.—Dr: R. D. Lockhart has been appointed — a lecturer in anatomy. ee Seay), ae It has been decided to institute a full-time lecture-— ship in bacteriology in the department of pathology. he BirmMincHaM.—It has been decided that the fees _ payable by new students entering the University next : session . shall be increased by 25 per cent. he | reasons given for the increase are: (1) The great rise in the cost of administration, materials, maintenance, — taxation, and the wages of employees; and (2) he necessity for improving the payment of the academic, ~ particularly the non-professorial, staff. — th ae The Vice-Chancellor (Sir Gilbert Barling), according — to the Birmingham Post, states that “it is absolutely — necessary to increase the stipends of the staff for two — reasons: the present salaries are quite inadequate to maintain the teachers in a reasonable state of com - fort; and, secondly, because without such increas 7 they will be attracted to other places where stipe are more commensurate with their capacity an worth.’’ CampripcE.—The Balfour Memorial Fund student-_ ship will be vacant on October 1 next. Applications: are invited for it. Candidates should app fake at latest, September 15 to Prof. J. Stanley Gardiner, Zoological Laboratory, Cambridge. Re On July 29 the honorary degree of Doctor of Lav was conferred upon’ Dr. A. L. Lowell, president, of Harvard University; Prof. J. J. Abel, professor pharmacology, Johns Hopkins University; and Prof. H. Cushing. professor of surgery at Harvard versity. Oxrorp.—The fear expressed in some quarters the application by the University for a Governmer grant would check the liberality of private benefactor has proved to be groundless in at least one con- 5 GUST 5, 1920 | NATURE 731 $ instance. Mr. Walter Morrison, of Balliol has just paid to Bodley’s librarian the sum . for the capital account of the library. No conditions are annexed to the gift. This is » only benefaction for which the University is ted to Mr. Morrison, for some eight years ago ave 10,0001, to each of three funds—one for the hip in Egyptology, another for the promotion study of agriculture, and a third towards the ment of a professors’ pension fund. Cairo correspondent of the Times announces American Presbyterian Board proposes to ha university at Cairo, and has purchased a site for the building. The new University will nposed of five colleges, namely, arts, Oriental Suages, teachers, commerce, and agriculture. It ited that the first of these will be opened in OTICE is given that, provided sufficient merit be wn, an election to a fellowship in experimental ss or physical chemistry at Trinity College, in, will take place in May, 1921. Candidates submit papers or theses (published or unpub- ) on or before March 25 next. Further par- rs may be obtained from the Registrar, Trinity pe, Dublin. the occasion of the meeting of the British ssociation at Cardiff on August 24-28 the University of Wales will confer the honorary degree of D.Sc. “upon _ the following :—Dr. H. F. Osborn, president of the American Museum of Natural History, or, if _he is unable to attend, Prof. C. A. Kofoid, Univer- ity California; Prof. G. Gilson, University of otal he ech attend, e — H. Ostenfeld, ty of Copenhagen; Don Gullermo Joaquin de Madrid; and Prof. Yves-Guyot, hacia. : following subjects of wide educational interest be discussed at meetings of the Old Students’ ation of the Royal College of Science, London, € autumn :—September 14, Pre-Kensington His- if the Royal College of Science and the Univer- oblem in London, Prof. H. E. Armstrong; 12, The Proposed University of Science and logy: Can a Useful and Worthy University based on Pure and Applied Science?, Mr. J. W. Villiamson; and November 9, The Nationalisation Universities, Viscount Haldane. _R. S. Cray, principal of the Northern Poly- Institute, Holloway, London, N.7, informs us the governors are pe setobliehing in September chool of rubber technology at this Polytechnic, that the school will in future be under the orship of Dr. P. Shidrowitz, well known by his arches and publications on the chemistry and mology of rubber. There will be a day course or y to students who-have had a_ thorough ning in chemistry—preferably at one of the uni- PS ' ersit evening classes for those already in e industry. The school will be in close touch with » industry, as it will be under an advisory com- ttee composed of represent&tives of the manufac- ers, growers, dealers, rubber engineers, etc., and will, therefore, afford a sound theoretical and practical training for those proposing to ente® a rubber factory. __ Tue May issue of School Life, issued by the U.S. - Bureau of Education, shows that there has been a large ts ease in the demand for collegiate education during _the ten years between 1905-6 and 1915-16. The period shows an advance, espécially ‘in public institutions, from 258,603 in 1905-6 to 387,106 in 1915-16, being an ease in the case of men of 40-1 per cent., and in of women of 70 per cent. The number of NO. 2649, VOL. 105 | , teachers engaged has also risen from 23,950 to 31,312. The total income of these institutions has grown during this period from 62,499,931 dollars td 133,627,911 dollars, or 113 per cent., made up of students’ fees 36,133,969 dollars, productive funds 18,983,868 dollars, United States Government 6,258,931 dollars, State or city 32,204,111 dollars, private bene- factions 30,196,006 dollars, and other sources 9,850,326 dollars. The endowment fund increased from 248,430,394 dollars in 1905-6 to 425,245,270 dollars in Ig15-16, or 71-2 per cent. A further table shows that during the last three years there has been a general increase of attendance of 25 per cent. at these institutions. THE activities of the U.S. Department of the Interior (Bureau of Education) include the bi-monthly issue of a journal entitled School Life. That of May last is concerned largely with the question of the supply and remuneration of teachers, a problem apparently even more acute in America than in this country, as is instanced by the fact that on a given day in May the School Board Service Division of the Bureau of Education received 436 requests for teachers, with only seven teachers applying for posts. The chief of the Division reports that a year ago there were 14,000 registrations from teachers willing to take positions. A recent canvass of this list showed only about 4000 now available for service. The maximum average annual salary of teachers for any State is 1600 dollars, whilst the minimum is 93 dollars. The journal further deals with the payment of university teachers, and asks the question: Does it pay to be a college professor? The result of a recent inquiry circular sent out by the Bureau, to which more than two-thirds of the colleges and universities returned detailed and accurate answers, was that in privately supported institutions full professors are receiving on the average 2304 dollars per annum, while assistant professors and instructors draw salaries of about 1800 dollars and 1200 dollars respectively. The salaries of professors at State institutions average 3126 dollars, of assistant professors 2100 dollars, and of instructors 1400 dollars. There is an intfresting table comparing the salaries in 1919 of professors, assistant professors, and instructors with those of artisans and labourers, much to the advantage of the latter in some cases. Tue development. of social activities in the country districts is a problem of the first importance, and in the May issue of the Journal of the Ministry of Agriculture there is a most interesting paper entitled **Social Service in Rural Areas.’? The author, Sir Henry Rew, points out that if we are to maintain our agricultural output we must provide for the recreation of our farm labourers and their families. The conditions of village life, and, indeed, the whole psychology of the village people, have undergone great changes in the last few years. The young men returning from the Army to their native villages have found expression; the economic status of the farm- worker is improved; and, above all, there now exists a definite organisation of the farm-workers. These men are essentially a practical race; their ambitions are not restricted to increased wages; they simply make a reasonable claim that life’ shall not be merely a weary monotony of toil, but that there shall be opportunities for enjoyment—more than are afforded by the village alehouse. The demand is universal, and’ must be met without delay. In the Report of the Adult Education Committee it is suggested that every village should be provided with an_ institute under full public control. This institute should be the centre of all’ communal activity, educational, social, and recreational. ae “I Go NO NATURE Societies and Academies. SYDNEY. Royal Society of New South Wales, June 2.—Mr. James Nangle, president, in the chair.—H. G. Smith and A, R, Penfold: The manufacture of thymol, menthone, and menthol from eucalyptus oils. Work was undertaken in order to determine the molecular structure of piperitone, the peppermint ketone of eucalyptus oils. Piperitone is a menthenone with the carbonyl group in the 3 position. When oxidised with ferric chloride in the ordinary way 25 per cent. of thymol was produced. By reducing piperitone with hydrogen in the presence of a_ nickel catalyst an almost quantitative yield of menthone was obtained, which on further reduction with sodium in aqueous ether produced menthol. The abundance of piperitone obtainable from Eucalyptus dives makes this ketone probably the best source for the manufacture of thymol and menthone.—R.. H. Cambage: A new species of Queensland ironbark. This new eucalyptus comes from about 120 miles westerly from Cairns, in tropical Queensland, and furnishes a good, red timber. It was found growing on granite formation in open forest country, and resembles E. crebra in bark and timber, but differs in the shape of buds and fruits, which latter are hemispherical with exserted valves. Books Received. The Physical Chemistry of the Metals. By Prof. R. Schenck. Translated and annotated by R. S. Dean. Pp. vilit239.. (New York: J. Wiley and Sons, Inc.; London: Chapman and Hall, Ltd.) 22s. 6d. net. A Constitution for the Socialist Commonwealth of Great Britain. By Sidney and Beatrice Webb. Pp. XViii+364. (London: Longmans, Green, and Co.) 12s. 6d. net. Governors and the Governing of Prime Movers. By Prof. W. Trinks. Pp. xviiit236. (London: Con- stable and Co., Ltd.) 22s. 6d. net. The World Crisis: A Suggested Remedy. By Sir G. Paish. Pp. 30. (London: Benn Bros., Ltd.) 6d. A Manual of the Timbers of the World: Their Characteristics and Uses. By A. L. Howard. Pp. xvi+446. (London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd.) 3os. net. Dead Towns and Living Men: Being Pages from an Antiquary’s Notebook. By C. L. Woolley. Pp: vili+259. (London: Oxford University Press.) 12s. 6d. net. Le Rythme Universel. Comme base d’une Nouvelle Conception de l’Univers. By Prof.-Dr. C. oer ea Ga Pp. 48. (Genéve et Lyon: Georg & Co. Historical (Liver- Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine. Record, 18981920. Pp. viiit+103+plates. pool: University Press.) General Botany for Universities and Colleges. By Prof. H. D. Densmore. Pp. xii+459. (Boston and London: Ginn and Co.) 12s. 6d. net. Internal-Combustion Engines: Their Principles ‘and Application to Automobile, Aircraft, and Marine Purposes. Bv Lt.-Comdr. W. L. Lind. Pp. v+225. (Boston and London: Ginn and Co.) tos. net. Types and Breeds of Farm Animals. By Prof. lumb. Revised edition. Pp. viii+820. (Boston and London: Ginn and Co.) 16s. 6d. net. Geodesy: Including Astronomical Observations, Gravity Measurements, and Method of Least Squares. By Prof. G. L. Hosmer. Pp. xi+ 368. (New York: NO, 2649, VOL. 105] J. Wiley and Sons, Inc.; London: Chapman and Hall, Ltd.) 18s. 6d. net. ae Prospecting for Oil and Gas. By L. S. Pamnyity- Pp. xviit+249. (New York; J. Wiley and Sons, Inc. ; London: Chapman and Hall, Ltd.) 18s, net. ee London County Council. Education Act, 1918. — Draft Scheme of the Local Education Authority. Pp. 112. (London: L.C.C. Education Offices.) = = Free Will and Destiny. By St. G. Lane-Fox Pitt. © Pp. xix+1oo. (London: Constable and Co., Ltd.) 5s. — The Victoria History of the Counties of England. — A History of the County of Surrey. Part 1, Geology, — by G. W. Lamplugh; Paleontology, by R. Lydekker. — 6d. net. Part 2, Botany, edited by © Pp. 35-70. 35. 6d, met. Sart 4,8 Zoology. Pp. 71-226. tI2s. 6d. net. i Man, by G. Clinch. Pp. 227-54. 2s. 6d. (London: Constable and Co., Ltd.) tes La République Argentine: La Mise en Valeur du Pays. By Dr. P. Denis. Pp. 303+Vvii plates. (Paris: A. Colin.) 14 francs. A Little Book about Snowdon. By H. V. Davis. Pp. 30. (Crewe: The Author, ‘‘ Noddfa,’”’ Wistaston.) 8d. : Canada. Department of Mines. Mines Branch. Graphite. By H. Spence. Pp. ix+202+plates, — (Ottawa.) Bs | Peetickay: An Essay towards the Abolition of Pp. 96. (Cambridge: — Spelling. By Dr. W. Perrett. } W. Heffer and Sons, Ltd.) 6s. net. Atomic and Molecular Theory. By D. L. Ham mick. Pp. 82. (Winchester: P. and G. Wells.) CONTENTS. University Grants: \, 32...) i ee Tanks and Scientific Warfare. .... fs Physiology of Farm Animals . . Chemical Text-books. ByC.S. ....... 1 eh ae On An Attempt to Detect the Fizeau Effect inan Electron — Stream.—Prof. R. Whiddington...... es Plant-life in Cheddar Caves.—Lough. Pendred . . 709 The Diamagnetism of Hydrogen.—Dr. A. E. Oxley = Loss of Fragrance of Musk Plantss—Hon. Col,’ — C. J. Bond, C.M.G... .. «6 15 ie ee ee Meteorological Conditions of an Ice-cap.—R. F. T. Meteorological Influences of the Sun and the co Atlantic. By Prof. J. W. Gregory, F.R.S.. . . 715 — The Thermionic Valve,in Wireless Telegraphy and Telephony. (lJIlustrated.) By Prof. J. A: Fleming; FeR)S.° 30.0. soccer Pi actennr see st gn ts. aaa? Obituary :— Prof. J. C.F. Guyon’. 6 550. a es Notes: vas. 6 se eee Our Astronomical Column :— The Hill Observatory, Sidmouth ..... 4.4 The Infra-red Ayc Spectra of Seven Elements . . New Solar Radiation Station in Arizona. ..... Iron-depositing Bacteria. By Dr. David Ellis The Association of Technical Institutions ... The Asiatic Origin of Man. By W. B. Wright . Long-range Forecasting in Java. By W. W. B. Insects of Arctic Canada. ByG. H.C... .. Earthquake Waves and the Elasticity of the Earth University and Educational Intelligence... . Societies and Academies .......... ue Books Received ; NATURE 733 “HURSDAY, AUGUST 12, 1920. Editorial and Publishing Offices: yaa MACMILLAN & CO., LTD., [. MARTIN’S STREET, LONDON, W.C.2. ‘ : _ Advertisements and business letters should be addressed to the Publishers. Editorial communications to the Editor. | Telegraphic Address: PHUSIS, LONDON. Telephone Number : GERRARD 8830. . Progress HE word “progress” primarily signifies “a F etepping forwards ”’—forwards not in reia- | to some real or imaginary goal the arrival ich we assume to be desirable, but merely Slain” “froatwards ” as opposed to standing still, to stepping “backwards.” In the course past Abel centuries it has, however, acquired eal acy, earthly felicity, happi- even perfection—or towards the attainment happiness i in a future state of existence. measure of “progress ” thus necessarily has according to the conception of happiness— Bhepeee there have always been divergent ns, and never an accepted definition. The phers of antiquity were pessimists: they not entertain a belief in progress, but, on the ‘ary, held (with the notable exception of the Saat that we are receding from a long- golden age of happiness. notion of earthly progress was opposed Christian Church, which endeavoured to 1’s minds on a future state of rewards and hments. A belief in the distribution of these its intervention was the chief basis of the authority and power of the Church. The spirit of the Renaissance—the challenge to the g p suthority, of the ancients and of the Church, the _ emancipation of the natural man in the fields of art and of literature, and, later, in the sphere of philosophical thought—was accompanied by the development of the idea of progress. Ramus, a NO. 2650, VOL. 105] mathematician, writes in the year 1569: “In one century we have seen a greater progress in men and works of learning than our ancestors had seen in the whole course of the previous fourteen centuries.”” The French historian, Jean Bodin, about the same time, reviewing the history of the world, was the first definitely to deny the de- generation of man, and comes (as Prof. Bury tells us in the fascinating book which we have used? as the text of this article) nearer to the idea of progress than anyone before him. “ He is,” says Prof. Bury, “on the threshold.”” And then Prof. Bury proceeds to trace through the writings of successive generations of later philosophers and historians—such as Le Roy, Francis Bacon, Des- cartes, the founders of the Royal Society, and others, such as Leibnitz, Fontenelle, de Saint Pierre, Montesquieu, Voltaire, Turgot, Rousseau, Condorcet, Saint Simon, and Comte—the various forms which this idea of “progress” assumed, its expansions and restrictions, its rejection and its defence, until we come to the Great Exhibition of 1851, and, later still, to the new aspect given to the idéa of progress by the doctrine of evolution and’ the theories of Darwin and of Spencer. These chapters provide the reader with a valu- able history of an important line of human thought. But the most interesting part to many of us must be the closing pages in. which the actual state of the idea of progress as it appears -in the light of evolution-is sketched, and the ques- tions are raised, which it has not been Prof. Bury’s purpose to discuss, viz. Granted that there has ‘been progress, in what ‘does it consist? Is it likely to continue? Does the doctrine of evolu- tion, now so firmly established, lead us to sup- pose that “progress” will continue, and, if so, what will be its character? Or is it (however we define it) coming to an end? Will stagnation, or will decay and degeneration, as. some suppose, necessarily follow? Or is “progress ’” (whatever one may mean by that word) a law of human nature ? The doctrine of the gradual estaiien of the inorganic universe had already gained wide acceptance before the epoch when Darwin’s “Origin of Species ” brought man: into the area of evolution, and established. the accepted belief in the “progress” of man from an animal ancestry to the present phase of the more 1 “* The Idea of Progress: An Inquiry into its Origin and Growth.” By Prof. J. Bury. Pp. xv+377- (London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd., 1920.) Price 14s. net. BB 734 NATURE [AuGuUST 12, 1920 civilised races. It does not follow as a matter of course that such a development means the movement of man to a desirable goal. But (as Prof. Bury reminds us) Darwin, after pointing to the fact that all the living forms of life are lineal descendants of those which lived long before the Silurian epoch, argues that we may look with some confidence to a secure future of equally immeasurable length; and, further, that, as natural selection works solely by and for the good of each being, all corporeal and mental en- dowments will tend to progress towards perfec- tion. Darwin was a convinced optimist. Equally so was Spencer. According to him, change is the law of all things, and man is no exception to it. Humanity is indefinitely variable, and perfectibility is possible. All evil results from the non-adaptation of the organism to its con- ditions. In the present state of the world men suffer many evils, and this shows that their char- acters are not yet adjusted to the social state. Now the qualification requisite for the social state is that each individual shall have such desires only as may fully be satisfied without trenching upon the ability of others to obtain similar satisfaction. This qualification is not yet fulfilled, because civilised man retains some of the characteristics which were suitable for the conditions of his earlier predatory life. He needed one moral con- stitution for his primitive state; he requires quite another for his present state. The result is a process of adaptation which has been going on for a long time, and will go on for a long time to come. Civilisation represents the adaptations which have already been ‘accomplished. Progress means the successive steps of the process. (There we have the scientific definition of human progress according to the apostle of evolution.) The ulti- mate development of the ideal man by this process (says Spencer) is logically certain—as certain as any conclusion in which we place the most implicit faith: for instance, that men will all die. Pro- gress is thus held by Spencer to be not an acci- dent, but a necessity. In order that the human race should enjoy the greatest amount of happi- néss, each member of the race should possess faculties enabling him to experience the highest enjoyment of life, yet in such a way as not to diminish the power of others to receive like satisfaction. Let me say, in order to avoid misapprehension, that in what follows I am not citing Prof. Bury, but stating my own opinions and suggestions. NO. 2650, VOL, 105 | developed a degree of artistic execution and feel- It has been urged in opposition to the optimistic doctrine of Darwin and Spencer that it is a pro= minent fact of history that every great civilisation. of the past progressed to a point at which, instead of advancing further, it stood still and declined. Arrest, decadence, decay,. it is urged, have been. the rule. This, however, is but the superficial view of the historian who limits his vision to the last four or five thousand years of man’s develop- — ment. It is not confirmed when we trace man from the flint-chippers of 500,000 years ago to: the present day. | Naturalists are familiar with the phenomenon ~ of degeneration in animal descent. Higher, more i elaborate forms have sometimes given rise to simplified, dwindled lines of descent, specialised and suited to their peculiar environments. ‘The. occasional occurrence of such development in the — direction of simplification and inferiority, and | even the extinction of whole groups or branches: — of the genealogical tree of organisms, endowed ~ with highly developed structural adaptations, and_ the survival of groups of extreme simplicity of structure, does not invalidate the truth of the con- clusion as to a vast and predominating evolution —with increase of structure and capacity—of the: whole stock of animal and vegetable organisms. _ A similar line of argument applies to the long — and extended history of mankind. The conclusion adverse to the reality of the evolutional progress. of mankind which is held by — those who declare that the ancient Greeks and other products of human evolution of like age had Pi ing, of devotion to intellectual veracity and ideal justice, to which more modern civilisation has not | attained, is a fanciful exaggeration in which it — pleases some enthusiasts to indulge. But am — examination of the facts makes it abundantly clear — that the conclusion is altogether erroneous. : Another attempt to discredit the belief in pro- — gress consists in an ambiguous use of the word — “happiness” when it is declared that the teem- — ing millions of China or even the herds of sheep: — browsing on our hill-sides are “happier” than ‘ the civilised peoples of Europe and America. — Spencer’s definition of the goal of human progress: as determined by the general laws of organic — evolution should lead in this discussion either to the abandonment of the use of the vague term — “happiness,” or to a critical examination of the state of feeling which it implies, and of the caus 1s. to which they are specifically related. er NATURE 735 te for an indefinite period in the same direc- there is, it seems, in spite of the view as to permanence held both by Spencer and by yin, room for doubt and for re-examination he situation. The struggle for existence, the natural selec- @ ae of favoured variations, and their y structure from that of preceding ape-like m , and even to account for the development of man’s brain to greatly increased size and effi- ‘eiency. But a startling and most definite fact in this connection has to be considered and its sig- ificance appreciated. The fact to which I refer that since prehistoric man, some hundred thou- id years ago, attained the bodily structure which in to-day possesses, there has been no further elopment of that structure—measurable and of uch quality as separates the animals nearest to _man from one another. Yet man has shown enor- ‘mous_ “progress” since that remote epoch. The amy and the mental faculties connected with it ri ” attribute of man. And even in regard . to. ae ain there is, since the inception of the new phase of development which we have now a to consider, no increase of size, though were we able” to compare the ultimate microscopic struc- 2 of the brains of earlier and later man we ; "should almost certainly find an increased com- exity in the minute structure of the later brain. t seems to be the fact that—when once man _ had acquired and developed the power of com- E municating and receiving thought, by speech with Chis fellow-man (so as to establish, as it were, mental co-operation), and yet further of recording 4 all human thought for the common use of both _ present and future generations, by drawing and writing (to be followed by printing)—a totally new factor in human evolution came into operation of such overwhelming power and efficiency as to supersede entirely the action of natural selection of favoured bodily variations of structure in the struggle for existence. Language provided the mechanism of thought. Recorded language—pre- served and handed on from generation to genera- tion as a thing external to man’s body—became _ an ever-increasing gigantic heritage, independent _ of the mechanism of variation and of the survival NO. 2650, VOL. 105] - of favoured variations which had hitherto deter- mined, the organic evolution of man as of his an- cestry. The observation, thought, and tradition of humanity, thus independently accumulated, con- tinually revised, and extended, have given to later men that directing impulse which we call the moral sense, that still, small voice of conscience, the voice of his father-men, as well as that know- ledge and skill which we call science and art. These things are, and have been, of far greater service to man in his struggles with the destruc- tive forces of Nature and with competitors of his own race than has been his strength of limb and jaw. Yet they are not “inborn” in man. The young of mankind enter upon the world with a mind which is a blank sheet of ‘‘educable”’ quality, upon which, by the care of his elders or by the direction of his own effort, more or less of the long results of time embodied in the Great Record, the chief heritage of humanity, may be inscribed. From this point of view it becomes clear that knowledge of “that which is,” and primarily, knowledge of the Great Record, must be the most important factor in the future “ Pro- gress of Mankind.” Thus one of the greatest services which man can render to his fellows is to add to the common heritage by making new knowledge of “that which is,” whilst a no less important task is that of sifting truth from error, of establishing an unfailing devotion to veracity, and of promoting the prosperity of present and future generations of his race by facilitating, so far as lies within human power, the assimilation by all men of the chief treasures of human experience and thought. The laws of this later “progress” are not, it would seem, those of man’s earlier evolution. What they are, how this new progress is to be made more general and its continuance assured, what are the obstacles to it and how they are to be removed, are matters which have not yet been adequately studied. The infant science of psycho- logy must eventually help us to a better under- standing. Not only the reasoning intelligence, but also the driving power of emotion must be given due consideration. ‘‘ Education” not only of the youth, but also of the babe and of the adult, must become the all-commanding interest of the community. Progress will cease, to a large extent, to be a blind outcome of natural selection; it will acquire new characteristics as the conscious purpose of rational man. E. Ray LaNnKESTER. ~ 736 NATURE [AuGUST 12, 1920 ie Complex Elements in Geometry. The Theory of the Imaginary in Geometry, together with the Trigonometry of the Imagin- ary.. By Prof. J. L. S. Hatton. Pp. vii+ 215. (Cambridge: At the University Press, 1920.) Price 18s. net. HEN we interpret ¢(x, y)=0, ¥(x, y)=0 as the point-equations of two loci, we are bound to consider any values («;, i) which satisfy both equations as the co-ordinates of a point common to both curves. The simplest case is when ¢, w are polynomials with ordinary integral coefficients; here the values (aj, y;) are determin- ate, and can be calculated, either exactly or to any desired degree of approximation. Abstractly, (xi, vi) are a perfectly definite set of couples of algebraic numbers. A couple (¥%;, 4%) may be real, and then corresponds to a real point; but it may be, and often is, complex. What is the most appropriate and fruitful way, from a geometrical point of view, of interpreting these complex solu- tions of the given pair of equations? This is one of the fundamental problems of analytical geo- metry, and there are two ways in which it may be attacked. Suppose that the coefficients of ¢, w are real, complex intersections (x, 94) fall into conjugate pairs.. The usual analytical formula gives a real line as the join of two conjugate points, and we may call this a common chord of the two loci. The visible result of combining g¢=0, ~=o may be said to be a certain number of real intersections and a certain number of real lines which, from an algebraical point of view, are to be regarded as common chords. The most familiar case is that of two circles and their radical axis; and here we have a geometrical definition of the radical axis which applies whether it meets the two circles or not. We can construct ‘a definition of a common chord of two conics by ‘analogy, whether it meets them in two real or two conjugate complex points; but the procedure is artificial, and there is no obvious way of extend- ing it to higher curves. The other way is to try to find, as the image or representative of (x,y), when x,y are not both real, some definite constructible geometrical entity to which we can give the name of “point” with- out violating the axioms of projective geontetry —e.g. it must still be true that any two points determine a line, and so on. This, of course, involves an appropriate definition of a complex line. It is to von Staudt that we owe an absolutely perfect solution of this difficult problem. Its basic idea is this: Given a real conic, and a real line which does not cut it (in the ordinary sense), there NO, 2650, VOL. 105 | is on the line an elliptic involution of pairs points conjugate to the conic. With this ellip involution we can associate either of two opposite — “senses ” (or directions), and we can interpret the — involution, with either sense, as a complex point. © These complex points are distinct, and conjugate — in a sense analogous to the algebraic one. This — geometrical distinction of conjugate complex — points appears to have been the one thing with — which von Staudt had the greatest difficulty; it — must be remembered that he was trying to find a — theory applicable to three dimensions as well as to two, and that he wanted to define the line join- ing any two points in space whether real or com- plex, and this by purely projective considerations. The “join” ” of two non-conjugate complex points in space is von Staudt’s “line of the second kind,” and the most difficult to realise of all his concepts. What we may call a metrical, or Cartesian, image of a complex point (a+bi, c+di) is a seg- _ ment OP drawn from the real point (a,c) to the — real point (a+b,c+d). The conjugate point is — represented by a segment OP! = _—OP, and these _ two conjugate points are on the real line PP’. Poncelet, following that Will-o’-the-Wisp, the — “principle of continuity,” very nearly hit upon this representation; for if we consider oR IO y: |. | g x=b(b>a), we have as the intersections — (b, +i’ b%—a2), which, in this representation, are — the principal ordinates of the real hyperbola x2 —y2—a?, Prof. Hatton practically adopts this metrical definition, but in doing so, as it seems to us, in- troduces unnecessary vagueness, and occasionally — wabbles between the two points of view. He begins by an “axiom” which von Staudt breaks — up into two definitions, and, so far as we can — see, ignores it in all his algebraical ‘‘verifications.” — There is no such thing as an algebraical verifica- tion in the true theory. The algebra is taken for — granted, and we have to show that our geo- metrical definitions and postulates and axioms agree with ordinary complex algebra. In the Cartesian representation a point which we may: call (OP), or more simply (OP), corresponds to von Staudt’s representation (O ePP’) ,where O bisects _ PP’, and o is the point at infinity on the real ~ line POP’. y So long as we keep to von Staudt’s projectiv : dehaltion, the questions of such thing's as ‘‘dis tance,” “angle,” etc., do not arise, ~ Sense’ and “order” are essential, the latter especiall when we consider von Staudt’s theory of “ casts | and cross-ratios. ; It is in connection with the Cartesian imager _ AvcusT 12, 1920] NATURE 737 we are confronted with questions about dis- aces, angles, and so on. We are bound to inter- ‘the distance (5) between the points (a+ bi, and (a’+b’i, c/+d/i) as given by ¥ B= (a - a’) + (b— Os}? 4 c-—c) + (d-a’)} 2, | there are corresponding theorems about 1 the whole, we think Prof. Hatton’s book Il be most useful in suggesting ways in which he Cartesian way of regarding complex points lines) is brought into line (without sacrificing c) with the projective theory. What we may _eall the complex point (OP), meaning the involu- tion (with a definite sense) of which O is the centre, and — OP? the invariant (OQ. OQ! = — OP®), is a perfectly definite idea, and is a special case von Staudt’s representation of any complex int in the harmonic form (O PP’) or (Ow P’P) ith the initial point O. Von Staudt’s theory is purely projective, apart m the discussion of improper casts. The esian theory is bound to deal with metrical antities, such as distance and angle, and simply _ because these notions are derivative, it offers a field of research of a more complicated character. _ It may be asserted with some confidence that any pret kind, and that, if it is worth anything, Bee: be applicable to three dimensions (or more) as well 2 as to two. G. B. Matuews. = PS. __Since the above was written, I have had b.. ‘time to reflect further upon Prof. Hatton’ s book, and have read Prof. G. H. Hardy’s review of it _ in a recent number of the Mathematical Gazette. I do not wholly agree with Prof. Hardy’s attitude, because I still think that there are geometrical ‘notions not reducible to arithmetic—still less to formal logic. But I do agree with him that Prof. Hatton’s- book has no theoretical value, and, disagreeable as it is, I think it is my duty to say so, especially as I have been informed that another reviewer has praised the book in absurdly exaggerated terms. G. B. M. “Motion Study and the Manual Worker. g Motion Study for the Handicapped. By Frank B. _ Gilbreth and Dr. Lillian Moller Gilbreth. (Efficiency Books.) Pp. xvi+165. (London: George Routledge and Sons, Ltd., 1920.) Price 8s. 6d. net. G HE work of Mr. Frank B. Gilbreth upon ’ , applied motion study and fatigue study is well _ known, and the present volume describes various - extensions and additions to his previously recorded NO. 2650, VOL. 105] * real extension of von Staudt’s theory will be of a. methods, especially with the intention of assist- ing men who are handicapped by the loss of a limb or of their eyesight. In Mr. Gilbreth’s latest scheme the manual worker whose movements are being studied has a small electric light attached to the hand or other working member of the body, and thereby the path of the motions made can be determined in detail if a series of photo- graphs is taken by kinematograph. Other photo- graphs are taken with a stereoscopic camera, and by this means the path of the motion in three dimensions is ascertained. It is then possible to construct wire models showing exactly the path of a given motion, and such models are found to be very useful for instruction purposes. Series of models are exhibited at the Smithsonian Institu- tion, Washington, and elsewhere, so that skilled mechanics are able to see for themselves what are considered to be the best methods of per- forming certain motions, and to determine if they themselves fall short of the ideal. Again, Mr. Gilbreth represents on diagrams, termed “simultaneous-motion cycle charts,” the results of his studies on micro-motion. Such charts, when read downwards, present in chronological sequence the various activities performed by any member of the body, the posture taken during the action, and the time consumed. If read across, the charts give a record of all the work- ing members of the body at any one time, and they enable one to see which parts of the body are working most and which are being delayed. It is maintained that this chart system enables the workmen to visualise their efforts graphically, and thereby to lessen waste and increase efficiency. The great ingenuity of Mr. Gilbreth’s methods will be admitted by everyone, but it is more im- portant for us to determine their practical value. Mr. Gilbreth photographs champions playing base- ball, champion typists, skilled surgeons’ when operating, in addition to skilled tradesmen, and he believes that the skill shown is in every case based on one common set of fundamental principles, the principles of economy of effort and rhythm of motion. The application of this hypo- thesis to practical ends is, however, very far dis- tant. The concrete instances quoted of the em- ployment of micro-motion study in actual prac- tice are very few and not very striking, but doubt- less it will take a good deal of time before they can be adequately tested and applied. The portion of the book devoted specially to the handicapped describes several useful methods, though it strikes the uninitiated that they could have been evolved equally well without elaborate micro-motion study and motion-cycle charts. The one-armed typist is supplied with a typewriter 738 NATURE = [AuGUST 12, 1920 which has a magazine of paper lasting him a week, and he is enabled to type four copies at once by means of ribbons instead of carbon paper. The blind man is trained by visualisation, and is taught to use a cross-sectioned visualising board, on which the tools and equipment he is using are placed at fixed points. Thereby great waste of time and effort is saved. The importance of find- ing work that cripples can do, and of teaching them to do the work, is insisted on. Not only have the war cripples to be considered, but also the very numerous workers crippled as the result of industrial accidents. H. Mow, Our Bookshelf. Produits anticrypto- Engrais. | Amendements gamiques et Insecticides. Par Dr. E. Demoussy. Pp. xi+297. Paris and Liége: Ch. Béranger, 1919. Price 15 francs. Dr. Demoussy’s manual on the analysis of fer- tilisers is written for the trained chemist; it is founded on the methods laid down in 1897 by the Comité des stations agronomiques, but unofficial methods in use in the principal French laboratories are also described. After a short introduction on the laws regulating the sale of fertilisers, the author deals in the first two chapters with the collection of samples and their qualitative exam- ination. The following four chapters treat of the determination of nitrogen, phosphoric acid, potash, and manganese, the arrangement being according to the substance to be determined, and not the material in which it is found. The methods are for the most part well known in this country, and call for only a few remarks, longest section is that devoted to nitrogen. The official method for nitrates is that of Schloesing, and no mention is made of the zinc-copper couple, while for organic nitrogen the Kjeldahl and soda- lime processes are both recommended. The latter has fallen into almost complete disuse in this country, and probably few chemists here would agree with the opinion that it is the more econ- omical in time when many samples are to be examined. Where a purely chemical analysis would be of little value, as in the case of dried blood, drawings of the materials as seen under the microscope are given. The value of these would have been greatly increased if the magnifi- cation had been stated. Under the head of potash no reference is made to flue-dust; in this case the official methods would have to be slightly modified to ensure complete removal of silicic acid. The .second and third parts of the book deal with materials such as lime and with fungicides and insecticides. Tables for the calculation of results are added, and the appendix contains the French laws and regulations dealing with the sale of fertilisers. é The book is well arranged and clearly written, and its value is added to by notes on the form in which the various materials are put upon the | NO, 2650, VOL. 105 | The © market and the adulterations to which they are liable. It should prove very useful in analytical. laboratories in this country as well as in France. 2 Donatp J. MaTrHews. Flora of Jamaica: Containing Descriptions of the — Flowering Plants known from the Island. By William Fawcett and Dr. Alfred Barton Rendle. Vol. iv., Dicotyledons: Families Leguminosae to Callitrichaceae. Pp. xv+369. (London: British Museum (Natural History), 1920.) Price 255. Tue fourth volume of this admirable tropical flora has lately appeared, and contains the Dicotyledons from Leguminose to Callitrichacee (on the Englerian system). It maintains the high standard of its predecessors, and shows a great | advance upon some well-known tropical floras in. being illustrated by excellent text figures, and not by a series of separate plates, which are usually troublesome to consult. The index is also con- venient in being only a single list of both scien- tific and popular names and synonyms. Turning to the contents of the book, which have been i worked up with much care and after consulta- — tion of all the older authors and collections, — an interesting feature that may be noticed is the extraordinary generic similarity of the flora to that of other islands, even at immense distances from Jamaica. In the Leguminose, for example, the first family in the volume, 118 Jamaica species, __ or 80 per cent., belong to genera that also occur in Ceylon, 74 per cent. to genera occurring in | Formosa, and even in the case of so far distant an island as New Caledonia 63 per cent. of the — Jamaica species belong to common genera. It is clear that the islands on the whole contain the older genera, which have been able to reach them. | — Of the Jamaica genera of Leguminose 7o per cent. are cosmotropical, and only 14 per cent. are con- fined to the New World. Again, one notices that the proportion of endemic species is small in Leguminose, and larger in Euphorbiacez and some of the other families, just as in other floras. — It would appear a promising piece of work to ~ make a careful statistical study of numbers and ~ proportions of endemics in many countries, for it evidently follows definite, if perhaps recondite, laws. Butter and Cheese. By C. W. Walker Tisdale and Jean Jones. (Pitman’s Common Com- | modities and Industries.) Pp. ix+142. — (London: Sir Isaac Pitman and Sons, Ltd., — n.d.) Price 2s. 6d. net. a THE writers of this book have succeeded in giving to the general reader a very good account of the ~ essential facts in connection with, the dairying industry. As was to be expected, it was meces- sary to treat the subject on what are generally termed popular lines, but certain of the chapters are written in a particularly clear manner and’ | with full regard to the essential technical points. Not only the chief branches of the dairy indetoe | —cheese-making and butter-making—are dealt with, but also the production of milk, the methods — of analysis, and the judging of dairy produce are | = = YAUGUST 12, 1920] NATURE 739 touched upon. In connection with the production f milk it’ would have been useful to include a r the general reader has but little idea of the stem and the benefits it confers. _and preparing it for churning are fully dealt with, the chief machinery, such as the separator, the cream ripener, the regenerative heater, and 1e pasteuriser are described. Cheese-making is dealt with by taking Cheddar heese as a type, and the principies and practice the maturing and marketing of the produce. Notes on judging cheese and also butter are Ear and should prove helpful, whilst attention as directed to the advantages which have followed control cf butter in Denmark and cheese in ew Zealand. The reproach still to be heard hat a lot of home produce is not of the quality yarranted, but a great deal is being done to teach per methods, and an improvement in quality may be expected throughout the country in the ee future. Igie ’s Weather Book: For the General Reader. _ By Joseph H. Elgie. Pp. xii+251. (London: _ The Wireless Press, Ltd., 1920.) Price 5s. net. _ Tuis work is essentially for the uninitiated in weather study. The author presupposes no knowledge, and has throughout avoided ‘mathematics and formule. A rough survey is taken of elementary meteorology in a way which ‘must commend itself to all who take an interest ‘in ordinary weather changes. In the opening ‘sentences the author appeals to boy or man; he ‘might also as well appeal to the other sex, who are now taking a keen interest in all branches of The book is divided into fifteen chapters, which «separate the subject into well-recognised divisions. A weather vocabulary is given at the end which rs ‘the réader will find helpful, and in this, as well as in the general text, the latest official ‘and recog- ‘nised publications have been consulted, which is an immense advantage, as meteorology at present tis making rapid strides in its advance. __ associated, and in this respect reference is made _ to the close relationship between ‘rainfall and _ diphtheria, as shown by Sir Arthur Newsholme, ‘the disease varying inversely with the amount of _ rain. There are few points in the book with which a meteorologist could find fault, and the author certainly imparts a large amount of useful ‘knowledge. _ Selected Studies in Elementary Physics: A Hand- _-—s ibook ‘for the Wireless Student and Amateur. By E. Blake. Pp. viii+176. (London: _ Wireless Press, Ltd., 1920.) Price 5s. ‘WE have here something of a short cut to know- ‘ledge which occupies a peculiar position in scien- stific literature. Addressed to those already NO. 2050, VOL. 105] The account of the practice of milk-recording, The methods employed in separating cream_ e fully explained, as are also the essential points lat might reasonably be expected is probably ° _ Weather and health are doubtless intimately familiar with the phenomena of wireless telegraphy, it assumes some knowledge of electrical matters on the part of the reader, a little’ mathematics, but an almost complete ignorance of the physical and chemical properties of matter. We do not say that this attitude is necessarily unsound, as there must be many “‘amateurs’”’ who have tried to run in pursuit of electrical subjects before they could walk, and it is praiseworthy to endeavour to teach them to walk by a quick method, as they are not likely to possess the time or the tempera- ment to plod through more laborious courses. Granted, then, that there is a justification for pre- senting the elements of physics and chemistry in such a severely compressed form, the author dis- plays skill in dealing with his difficult task, although there are some inconsistencies in the degree of knowledge that he assumes his reader to possess. We like, among other things, the way in which the author encourages the student to think in vectors early in his career, and to keep continually in mind the dimensions of the quanti- ties that he is considering. If the reader is en- abled, by taking advantage of the guidance offered, to form scientific habits of thought which he would not have acquired otherwise, the book will be a success. The Coolidge Tube: Its Scientific Applications. Medical and Industrial. By H. Pilon. Author- ised translation. Pp. v+95. (London: ‘Bail- li¢re, Tindall, and Cox, 1920.) Price 7s. 6d. net. M. PiLon has not been so careful in selecting a translator for his little book on the Coolidge tube as he was in the original material. The French version was excellent, both from the practical point of view and the judicious selection of data bearing upon recent developments in radiography. Curiously enough, passages which in the original present no difficulty to the reader now lack that clearness which any translator should carefully preserve. We select a paragraph which explains the first figure in the text: “This rising part, denoted by e, is on account of the electrons, by traversing from one electrode to the other under the influence of a large potential difference, acquiring such a speed that on encountering gas molecules, they split up. . . .”” Again, on p. 17, in describing the radiator type of tube, we read: “The limiting power it is capable: of bearing oscil- lates between 500 and 600 watts.’ We notice that the letterpress of many of the diagrams remains in the French language. The developments of the Coolidge tube and the uses to which it may be put will doubtless necessitate a further edition by M. Pilon, and we trust that he will then give the Regtish edition more careful consideration. Techno-Chemical Receipt Book. Compiled and edited by W. T. Brannt and Dr. W. H. Wahl. Pp. xxxili+516. (London: Hodder and Stoughton, Ltd., 1919.). Price 15s. net. Tuts book contains a very large number of recipes covering an amazing field. As might be expected, 740 NATURE [AuGUST 12, 1920 many of these are of questionable value, either on account of the methods having been replaced by more up-to-date processes or because the materials specified, which were by-products of long-vanished industries, cannot now be obtained. Apart from this defect, which is inherent in all books of this type, there is no doubt that the present volume will be of great service to workers in laboratories as well as to those engaged in industry. The authors state that “the materials have been principally derived from German technical litera- ture, which is especially rich in receipts and pro- cesses which are to be relied on.’’ From the impossible nature of several of the processes, one might have guessed this: British workers are familiar with the ‘‘reliable’’ character of some German specifications. Photography and its Applications. By William Gamble. (Pitman’s Common Commodities and Industries.) Pp. xii+132. (London: Sir Isaac Pitman and Sons, Ltd., n.d.) Price 2s. 6d. net. Mr. GAMBLE, having had a lifelong experience in connection with technical photographic processes and their applications, speaks with authority on these matters. But the very limited scope afforded by so small a.volume as this, and the innumerable applications that have to be dealt with, give him only a poor opportunity of presenting the subject to his readers. into a mere catalogue of operations, and this into a mere dictionary-like mention. A little more care might well have been bestowed on the revision of the text. Working instructions are not given. We can recommend the book to those who wish to get in a small compass a general, but super- ficial, knowledge of the character of photography and its applications. The Chemists’ Year Book, 1920. Edited by F, W. Atack, assisted by L. Whinyates. Vol. i., pp. vit 422; vol. ii., pp. vii—viii + 423- 1136. (London and Manchester: Sherratt and Hughes, 1920.) SUCCEEDING editions of this handy laboratory manual are increasingly useful. The -present volumes supply the need formerly satisfied by the “Chemiker Kalender”; English chemists have now no necessity to go, outside their own country for such books. A valuable feature of “The Chemists’ Year Book” is the series of articles written by specialists, such as that on ‘ Alkaloids” by Dr. E. Hope. The tables and numerical data are very complete. ‘i Ions, Electrons, and Ionising Radiations. By Dr. J. A. Crowther. Pp. xii+276. (London: Edward Arnold, 1919.) Price 12s. 6d. net. THE subjects dealt with include gaseous conduc- tion, thermionic emission, photo-electricity, X- rays, radium rays, and the electron theory. The treatment involves a knowledge of elementary mathematics, and the work forms a useful appen- dix to the ordinary text-book of physics. A clear and very readable account is given of the ‘‘ quan- tum ” theory of radiation. NO. 2650, VOL. 105 | The short summary often passes , Letters to the Editor. ‘ [The Editor does not hold himself responsible for ! Neither — can he undertake to return, or to correspond with a the writers of, rejected manuscripts intended for — opinions expressed by his correspondents. this or any other part of Nature. No notice is taken of anonymous communications.] University Grants. Tue article on university ggants in Nature of August 5 is opportune, and does not overstate the ‘gravity of the situation. The proposed recurrent half- The annual — million is welcome, but quite inadequate. grant to the universities of the United Kingdom should be at least three millions. Be We have been rigidly economical in our expenditure. There is no question of the value of the work which has been done. Everyone agrees that vigorous and well-found universities are indispensable to the national welfare, but they are hampered at nearly every point by insufficiency of income. Large numbers of their teachers are very seriously under- paid. Many departments are undermanned. vanced studies and research are lamentably curtailed. Libraries are stinted of necessary books. : Before prices rose the universities had not the financial resources which their work required. Since the change in the value of money their position has become critical; some of them are threatened with disaster. In Leeds we have done everything in our power to raise salaries in order to meet the increé cost of living. The emergency was so grave that we decided to run a great risk. We have incurred obligations which will entail an annual deficit of 25,0001. Even this expenditure falls far short of what should be incurred if the high standard of uni- versity teaching is to be maintained permanently. It will be impossible for us to continue the present rate of expenditure unless large new grants are forth- coming. In the absence of further aid from the Government I see nothing for it but the abandon- ment of work which is now well done, indispensable, and nationally advantageous. We need an additional income of about 60,oool. a year in order to maintain the supply of teachers of the right type. The annual grant from the Government to the universities of the United Kingdom should be three times as large as what is given this year. M. E. SaDLEer. The University, Leeds, August 9. eas oe) The Carrying Power of Spores and Plant-Life in Deen Gaves. My sister and I observed a similar growth of vegeta- 2 tion to that which Mr. Lough. Pendred describes in the Cheddar Caves in Nature of August $y P: 709. We were on a knapsack-walking tour together in the Hartz Mountains in 1900, and saw this effect in the These were — beautiful, great, deep Riibeland Caves. then lit up by both oil and electric lamps placed, as in the Cheddar Caves, in recesses or on the floor so as to illuminate the stalactites and bone remains. were told that the ex-Kaiser had ordered the electric illumination, not being content with the’ previous — oil lamps, but both kinds of lighting were still there. It was very noticeable that the vegetation spread out fan-like in front of the electric lamps to a much ~ greater extent than behind them, or than near the oil lamps, and vet the electricity must have been, at — | that date, of fairly recent supply. It is true that the Ad. > — We j Avcust 12, 1920] NATURE 741 lamps are more likely to have had an indefinite ion, as they must be handled to fill, but they obably been much longer close to the situations ich we saw them. The less vegetative growth them and the shadow effect behind the electric would seem to show that it was the shorter -wayes which were requisite for this plant-life - than contact-warmth or longer heat and reddish th nggard to the transport of the spores to the } the caves, some experiments by Profs. fa McKeehan are of interest. At the Winni- Ghetting of the British Association in 1909 they a paper, followed by a discussion, on experi- published in oruary, I9I0, in which “a showed that while a ud of minute smooth paraffin spheres or mercury ets obeyed Stokes’s law, yet similar experiments & the spores of Lycoperdon, Polytricium, and Lyco- um (all nearly spherical) gave only about half terminal velocities required by mathematical ry. In Nature of January 6, gio, I offered an nation of the apparent discrepancy shown by results. By using a large-aperture microscopic ctive with oblique illumination and _ spectrum- d blue solar light, the spores can be seen, just the limits of visibility, to be coated with a mass of very fine hairs more ‘than a radius in length. pe mecuning in Stokes’s formula for the terminal velocity | Rape a _2 2 gtd a a where ; the radius, « the air viscosity, and d the density of the spores, the effective diameter comes out to be just double that of the measured diameter as seen in an ordinary microscope. This increase of effective diameter is what should be expected if a mass vt air be entangled with the spore, or a tail of . Hence the physical measurement of sedate velocity of fall confirms the microscopic ‘vation of the hirsute coating in all the three sets mg cases where spores were used. The spores are enabled to be wafted great distances, therefore, much _as are the seeds of a dandelion. No Brownian motion or rotation was observed, and this also suggests the coating of hairs. Since the spore-walls are not abso- lutel res or smooth in the sense that surface jon makes the droplets, some Brownian motion would have been expected if the external air molecules could strike directly on the spore-wall.. The air en- ta in the chevaux de frise of hairs will, however, caries down the average result of individual impacts of external air molecules by making the effect slower, and therefore the resultant average smoother. s the difficulty of wetting Lycopodium dust until it as lain on the water long enough to get water- , viz. long enough, probably, for the entangled air to be dissolved out. While the air is so entangled the effective density is more nearly one-eighth than a little above unity as measured by Profs. Zeleny and McKeehan. That this hairy coating provides these spores with a cial mechanism which enables them to be carried ‘great distances, is only to make them resemble many other wind-borne fruits, and the fact is therefore oy from general considerations. NO. 2650, VOL. 105] » verifications of Stokes’s Jaw for the fall of. ‘Yet another indication of this coating of long hairs | The method of verifying a difficult, almost ultra- microscopic, observation in botany by measuring the terminal velocity, as of a small falling body in a viscous fluid, is perhaps not common. EpitH A. SToNey. King’s College for Women, London. Gurious Formation of !ce. In Nature of December 12, Igi2, was published a letter wherein I described a curious formation of ice in the hope that some of your readers would be able to explain the cause, but there was no reply. After five years the formation occurred again in similar circumstances, and I submit a partial explanation which occurred to me on seeing this second example of the phenomenon. The ice was again formed on water in a rough hole or pond (about 2 ft. by 1 ft.) in the garden in clay soil. It was observed at 3-30 p-m. on January 13, 1918. The, “dark, sinuous lines. ”” in this case were about } in. wide, and again ran ‘‘about parallel to the major axis ”’ of the small pond. These dark lines were again due to the ridges of ice on the under-side of the ice covering the water, but were closer together than before, being about 13 in. apart. The cross-section of the ridges was again of ‘“‘dovetail’’ shape, the attachment being at the smaller end of the * dovetail.”’ The partial explanation appears to be as follows : A uniform layer of ice about 4 in. thick forms over the whole surface of the water. The water slowly leaks out of the pond. The ice sags in the middle, keeping in contact with the water over its central area, but, owing to the support of the sides of the pond, the edges do not sag, and an air-space forms under the ice round its margin. The vertical cross- section of this air-space is a long, narrow triangle lying on one long side (the free surface of the water) ; the under-side of the ice forms the other lon side, and the mud-bank of the pond the short side. At night, or at any other time when the temperature again falls below freezing point, the water at the margin (where the ice and surface of the water meet at an acute angle) freezes to the slab of ice and forms a ridge on the under-side of the ice. The water leaking slowly from the pond all the while would help the formation of the ridge. The next day, or when the temperature is again slightly above freezing, the water, continuing to leak away, allows a further slight sagging of the ice and the enlargement of the air- space, thus giving the space between the ridges of ice. The next freezing forms the second ridge, and so on. This explanation appears to account for the ridges, their spacing, and their being roughly parallel to the major axis of the pond, but it does not account for the beautifully sharp, regular, and symmetrical formation of the cross-section of the ridges. One expects an asymmetrical cross-section instead of the symmetrical ‘“‘dovetail.’’ It has been suggested to me that the “dovetail ’’ shape is due to the ridge being partly melted (where it is joined to the top slab of ice) during the period when the temperature is above freezing by the comparatively warm top surface of the water. This seems to be a possible explana- tion if the cross-section of the ridge when first formed is rectangular. I hope that with this as a basis someone will be able to complete or modify the explanation of the curious formation of ice observed. ALFRED 'S. E,. ACKERMANN. 25 Victoria Street, Westminster, London, W.1, August 3. “I 42 NATURE [AuGcusT 12, 1920 Bees and the Scarlet-Runner Bean. Darwin directed attention to the slight asymmetry in the petal growth of the scarlet-runner bean, Phasiolus multiflorus, that offered advantage to the bee for more easily reaching the nectar on that. side- of the flower where fertilisation would be helped by the visiting insect. I remember some years ago many times satisfactorily confirming the recorded fact by observation, but. this year |. am - Surprised to note quite a different practice in respect to insect visits to these flowers. The humble-bees follow the habit they have long acquired in rifling the tubular flower of the jasmine of its honey: that of gnawing a hole near the base of the corolla, through which the proboscis can reach and extract the nectar. A similar plan is now adopted with the flower of the scarlet-runner bean. The bee no longer dives into the more open side of the bloom, where it would brush against the protruding anthers and stigma in an endeavour to reach the nectaries at their base, but on alighting moves immediately to underneath the blossom and, if not already done, gnaws through the calyx and sheath of filaments close to the nectaries, which are then easily reached and emptied. The honey-bees follow, and this season I have observed no instance of an insect attempting | to reach the honey in the way the development of | ‘the flower suggests as that of reciprocal advantage. The asymmetry of the. bloom is due to the pecu-. liarly coiled shape that the carina or keel part of the papilionaceous corolla develops. This causes the stamens and pistil to take a. spiral form as_ they grow through and_ protrude together from the extremity of the enveloping carina, and exposes them between the more separated left wing and standard - petals. Though perfectly ‘adapted to self-fertilisation, the flower, by the change of. habit of the bees, would appear to lose the occasional advantage. of cross- pollination, and the injury done by the gnawing of the bloom apparently causes a diminution amount of pollen formed and a quicker fading and falling of the bloom, of fewer pods “‘setting.’’ Harrorp J. Lowe. ‘The Museum, ‘Torauay. The Gondition of Kent’s Gavern. SINCE a recent visit to Kent’s Cavern I have been wotidering if it would be possible for something to be done by which any important finds that may be made there could be brought to the notice of. those interested in ancient man. The cave now seems to be one of the sights of Torquay which any curious visitor can see, just as he visits the caves elsewhere when on a holiday. There is a well-informed man who shows the sights to visitors, and he stated to a party, of which I was one, that quite recently a jaw of a human being had been found, and that this was in the possession of a local collector. A human tooth has also been found. It seems highly desirable that the jaw should be examined by a competent authority. During the famous excavations which were made some years since a jaw was found, but ‘this was examined and described only a year or two ago; and although Prof. Keith thought that it represented the Neanderthal type in this country, I believe Dr. Duck- worth pronounced that it did not differ from modern races. If this further jaw were examined the question might be settled, and it would be of great interest if it were found that, after all, the race was actually represented in this country. Epwarpb A. Martin. 285 Holmesdale Road, South Norwood, S.E.25, July 29. NO. 2650, VOL. 105] ‘requires to be multiplied by 1-008 if we wish to com- _ The answer to the problem is evident. ‘sociation had occurred, ‘since d for I, in the. with the probable consequence | Calculation of Vapour Densities. ra Wuen determining vapour densities I believe that” many, if not most, experimenters go through three processes, viz. (x) Correct the observed volume to that at N.T.P.; (2) find the mass of hydrogen which ~ would occupy this latter volume; and (3) divide this — mass Of hydrogen into that of the substance used, whence density d on the hydrogen standard is found. — Now if we evaluate the constant R in the gas equa- — tion pv=RT, using mm. of mercury-column as units of pressure b, and taking v as the gram-molecule in litres—which on the oxygen standard at N.T.P. is 22-4 litres—we get the figure 62-36. Then, for finding density, the equation becomes — “RT “2py’ where m is the mass in grams and v is in litres. To quote an example : 0-5 gram of iodine expelled 50 c.c. of air at 17° C, and 750 mm. from V. Meyer’s apparatus. Was the temperature to which the iodine had been subjected high enough to cause dissociation ? This problem, if done by the “three processes,”’ takes some time, and gives d=119-6, which now pare it with published figures for atomic weights (119-6 x 1-008 = 120-56). Using the single equation given above, © fa 5X 82° 36 X 290 _ 20's, . 2X750X0'0S ; Slight dis- demands 126-9 | venture ‘on these remarks because R is seldom, if ever, given in the above-mentioned units. It is ex- pressed usually in such units as are suitable for — solving energy problems. This number, 62-36, is an) ‘equator ’’ of the four steps which themselves, no doubt, are valuable from an educational point of view. Readers of Nature who are te aged in science teach- | ing may find the ‘‘equator ’’ of some servite. Seki G, DURRANT, Rosetree, Marlborough, July 31. . Use of Sumner Lines in Navigation. Carr. Tizarp’s reference to my book entitled ** The Sumner Line,”’ etc. (NATURE, July 1, vol. cv., 4 552)s contains an error which should be correct His statement regarding what he calls the zenith ‘point, — ‘which spot is named by Mr. Comstock the sub- polar point,’? seems to imply that I have introduced ~ a new name not approved in the criticism that : follows. In fact, I have nowhere used the obnoxious term ‘‘sub-polar point,’? but have employed in this connection a well-known phrase, “the sub-solar — point,’’ for which I can claim no authorship. See — Young, ‘‘General Astronomy,’’ 1898 edition; Muir, ‘*Navigation,’’ 1918, et al. C. Comstock, Washburn Observatory, University of Wis- consin, Madison, July 20. | REGRET that I inadvertently wrote ‘‘sub-polar ”’ for ‘‘sub-solar’’ in my remarks on Prof. G. C, Com- — stock’s book on Sumner lines, but this lapse makes no difference really to the statement that the proper — description should be zenith point, and not sub-solar point (see p. vi of preface. and pp. 2, 3, 5, etc.). Sub-solar refers to the sun only, and does not neces- sarily include sub-stellar or sub-lunar, but zenith point is common to all. 'T. H. TEAS 23 Geneva Road, Kingston-on-Thames, August 5: AUGUST 12; 1920] NATURE 743 The Research Department, Woolwich. By Sir RoBert If, Metallurgical Branch. HE metallurgical branch of the Research De- partment had been established for some years before the war, the staff consisting of four metallurgists. As work increased, addi- tions became imperative, and before the armis- tice the scientific staff numbered thirty-seven, of whom a number were women. At the end of 1916 the branch removed into a new building 120 ft. long and 55 ft. wide, divided into laboratories well equipped hak mechanical testing of all kinds, chemical analysis, microscopy and photomicro- ROBERTSON, graphy, experimental heat-treatment, the thermal study of alloys, and _ other branches of physical metallurgy. Figs. 4 and 5 show two of these laboratories. The machine shops of the Department, on which métallurgical work made great demands, were much extended and improved. During the war the metal- lurgical branch was mainly occu- pied with a great variety of prob- lems connected with the metallic materials of warlike stores used by the Navy, Army, and Air Force. The work was carried out in close association with the Ordnance Committee and other Departments concerned. It is possible to mention here only a very few of the specific problems attacked. Before the war the manufac- ture of gun forgings was in the hands of a few armament firms of long experience, but with the great increase in output which took place from 1915 onwards a_ wider source of supply was drawn upon. The heat-treat- ment applied was not always the most suitable, and sometimes caused serious irregularity of pro- | perties throughout the forgings. Much was done to define the temperature limits appropriate to the different steels employed and to secure their application, thus eliminating those weaker tubes | which were so frequently found among those which failed by stretching, choke, or expansion. The inspection tests were improved, especially in the determination of the yield point, a matter of great importance in a highly stressed: structure such as a gun. The extreme brittleness of some gun forgings put forward for test directed attention to the occurrence of ‘“temper-brittleness” in nickel- chromium steel, and made investigation an urgent 1 Continued from p. 712. NO. 2650, VOL. 105 | } Rate, FES, necessity. Slow cooling in the furnace after tempering was identified as the main cause of this form of brittleness, which is detected by the notched-bar impact test, and was accordingly for- bidden by specification. Examination of samples representative of forgings in current supply made at the beginning of 1916 and at the end of 1918 showed that the notched-bar impact figure of the average nickel-chromium steel forging had very greatly improved, with no detriment to the other mechanical properties. The study of the notched- bar test was continued in association with the British Engineering Standards Committee, and much knowledge was gained as to its significance and conditions of application. Fic. 4.—Portion of mechanical testing laboratory. Much time has been given to the study of the elastic properties of steels and of the effect of overstrain and recovery,\a subject of importance in connection with the ‘strength of guns and their construction by methods involving the use of in- ternal pressure. Erosion, wear, and the development and exten- sion of cracks in the bore have been studied i rifle and machine-gun barrels, as well as in guns. Many questions were solved in connection with the design and manufacture of bullet envelopes and the cores of armour-piercing bullets. A method of applying the Brinell hardness test for the individual testing of H.E. shells which for one reason or another were in question as to their strength was developed, and resulted in the successful utilisation of very large numbers of shells which might otherwise have been rejected. The numerous components of ammunition and 744 NATURE [AuGuUST 12, 1920 fuzes were the subject of many investigations. As an example may be mentioned the hammer of the No. 106 fuze. This was liable to failure at a time of great output until the causes of difficulty were ascertained and sound methods of manufac- ture established. The introduction of.a simple form of heat-treatment rendered possible the use of a rapid and economical stamping method which greatly assisted supply. An investigation carried out upon brass small arm cartridge cases gave very complete informa- tion connecting the behaviour of the case in the rifle with its properties, and especially with its hardness. The hardness is chiefly dependent on the degree of cold-work received in the final draw- ing operation, and manufacturers were assisted by information as to the requisite hardness at dif- ferent parts of the case and the dimensions of the necessary tools for producing it. The measure- central core of unsound material, in brass rod used for fuzes led to an extended study of the — extrusion process, in which the flow of the hot — brass is liable to form internal defects in a re- markable and characteristic way. A method of controlling the plastic flow to produce entirely sound rod has been devised. The necessities of the war demanded that first — consideration should be given to the solution of immediate practical problems. The use of sub- stitutes and alternative methods of manufacture when supplies ran short, the easing of specifica- tions to increase output with safety, the adapta- tion and introduction of inspection tests to meet changing conditions, the examination of enemy material, the tracing of causes of failure and the discovery and application of remedies, provided a large field for investigation. Work on the funda- mental properties of metals and alloys, which is so necessary if research in ap- plied metallurgy is to continue to be fruitful, was, however, continued throughout the war, and is now _ being further developed. Radiological Branch. In the beginning of 1916 the question of the penetration of metals by X-rays was first con- sidered by the Research Depart- ment. After experiments with various types of apparatus under different conditions, it was found possible to pénetrate a block of steel half an inch in thickness and show internal flaws. The Department at once realised the possibilities in- volved in this new use of X-rays as applied to Service require- ments, and took steps with the Fic. 5.—View in microscope room. ments to ensure exact control of the hardness have been made possible by the use of a small machine designed in the Research Department shortly before the war for the determination of the hard- ness of very thin specimens. In this machine, which has proved useful in many unexpected ways, the Brinell test may be made on samples one-hundredth of an inch or even less in thickness, with balls as small as o-8 mm. in diameter. A thorough investigation of the phenomenon of ‘‘season-cracking’”’ in brass and its prevention by low-temperature annealing has had a useful application in the removal of internal stress from cartridge cases. Methods of casting brass ingots have been much improved. The long, narrow moulds formerly employed for ingots to be used in the manufac- ture of rod were productive of troublesome defects in the finished article. The occurrence of the “extrusion defect,” a NO. 2650, VOL. 105 | best apparatus available to evolve a technique for applying the new method as widely as possible, not only for detecting flaws in steel, but also for the exam- ination of various articles, such as unknown enemy ammunition, where for reasons of safety it was desirable to know the internal construction before breaking down. X-rays were also applied to many Service stores for the purpose of indi- — cating defective assembly, and for discovering — faults such as blow-holes and internal flaws in metals. As research progressed it became apparent that ~ in order to obtain the best results the whole ~ subject of radiology needed careful study so that — its methods might be modified and adapted to this _ More powerful tubes and high-power _ electrical machinery were essential, and the photo- ~ graphic side of the subject required special treat- A general scheme of research on the sub- _ ject of radiology as applied to the examination of new use. ment. Service materials was consequently undertaken, A eS, aa — 4 _ AuGuUST 12, 1920] NATUR& 745 and this included the construction, in the Depart- | view. ment, of special apparatus. and high-tension elec- trical machinery; research was also undertaken on such associated subjects as the detection of _ feeble radiation and the measurement of its in- tensity. _ Certain progress has been made, with the result _ that X-rays are being used to a much greater extent as research proceeds. X-ray examination of welds is the only method by which their sound- ness can be demonstrated, and it is now possible to penetrate more than 24 in. of steel to show internal flaws. Fig. 6 shows part of one installa- tion in the Research Department for the examina- tion of materials. Proof and Experimental Branch. All guns are tested to a pressure in excess of their working pressures, and the ballistics of all _ lots of propellants are ascertained, by firing into sand butts. Carriages, recuperators, and many small stores are also similarly proved before acceptance. Velocities are measured by means of Boulangé chronographs, and pressures by means of copper crushers in piston gauges. Flat-headed shot are used, to keep the penetration into the sand butts as low as possible. Experimental firing, which principally consists in the determination of the weights of propellant necessary to give specified ballistics under various conditions, is also undertaken, and for this pur- pose the proof butts staff work in collaboration with the internal ballistic branch, by which the preliminary calculations are made. - Considerable expansion of personnel and matériel was necessary during the war to cope with the vast amount of proof and experiments. At the armistice the staff had increased to nearly ten times its pre-war figure, and included a number of women, who were most efficiently per- forming their trying duties on the firing batteries. Internal Ballistic Branch. Starting with a staff of two in the early part of the war, the branch numbered at the armistice more than twenty members, who dealt with all problems relating to the internal ballistics of pro- pellants and the internal design of guns for all the Services. Newer and more powerful apparatus has been devised for determining the burning characteristics of explosives, and a great improve- ment has taken place in methods of analysing data. This is especially noticeable as regards the ballistic design of ordnance. The old system of calculation in use prior to the war was based on trial and error, and involved a series of laborious and lengthy operations. It had the added dis- advantage of restricting the calculator to working out this result with one definite set of initial con- ditions only, and consequently no certain predic- tions could be made as to whether the best com- bination of charge weight, propellant size, cham- ber capacity, etc., had been employed. It was thus frequently found that the finished gun was not suitable for the original purpose in NO. 2650, VOL. 105] | | Research into the thermodynamical pro- perties of propellants led to the construction of a’more accurate theory on which to base design, and, apart from the economy effected in the labour of calculation, it became possible to select with considerable accuracy the best and most econo- mical combination for any ballistic requirements. Also by an application of the calculus of varia- tions the calculator is now enabled to predict with considerable accuracy the probable deviation in the ballistics from round to round, a valuable criterion of the practical utility of a design. The application of this new theory effected con- siderable changes in design. For example, it was found that large reductions could be effected in the chamber capacities of several guns, with Fic. 6.—Portion of radiological laboratory. corresponding reductions in the charge weights, without affecting the ballistics. This modification had the result of materially increasing the life of the guns, and the reduction in charge weight effected an appreciable economy in the financial cost of each round, a serious consideration in view of the magnitude of the scale on which operations were conducted. Since the armistice the ballistic branch has been to a large extent occupied in digesting and inter- preting the data amassed during the war, the results being published in the form of R.D. Reports. A programme has been drawn up for future research, and good progress is being made in all branches of the science and its applications. 746 NATURE [AucusT 12, 1920 The Romance \ Li ARTHUR BROOK has made a welcome ~ addition to the “British Birds” Photo- graphic Series; he deals skilfully with the buzzard at home, and gives us twelve fine pictures,! During the last three or four years the buzzard has increased markedly in central Wales. It builds upon trees and in cliffs, or even amongst heather and rushes, and an inaccessible nest is Ph, “icstertandeated Rea Fic. 1.—The hen buzzard alighting at the nest. the exception rather than the rule. The one studied by Mr. Brook was on a cliff, where with some difficulty a hiding-place was built for the observer. There were two young birds about a week old, and when observations began the nest contained several mice, one frog, one mole, half a dozen castings, and a quantity of fresh leaves 1.““The Buzzard at Home.” By Arthur Brook. (‘‘ British Birds’’ Photographic Series.) Pp. 15+12 plates. (London: Witherby and Co., 1920.) Price 35. 6d. net. NO. 2650, VOL. 105 | From ‘‘ The Buzzard at Home.” of Bird Life. of the mountain ash. The cock did all the hunt- ing, usually bringing his booty to the hen, who sat on a knoll near the nest. She carried the food to the young ones in her beak or talons. Occasionally the cock brought the food to the nest himself. The hen decorated the nest daily with fresh leaves, and she also brought tufts of mountain grass on which the young ones cleaned their beaks. One day the booty in- cluded four young wild ducks, about two days old, and one of these was swallowed whole. If food is scarce the stronger of the two young buzzards will kill its weaker companion. The observer saw the young birds practising flight and playing with the food. He captured one that flew off too soon, and replaced it in the nest, whence in the afternoon of the same day it took wing successfully. The buzzard is said to be a coward, but when the cock bird discovered Mr. Brook leaving the “hide” it showed great courage, making disconcerting swoops at a high velocity, and following him closely for quite two miles. With an_ inexpensive little Kodak, and often in bad weather conditions, Miss Hilda Terras has managed to give us a score of very presentable and interesting pictures ey a cuckoo’s egg in a _ hedge- sparrow’s nest.2 She had this good luck, however, that the cuckoo was obliging enough to put the egg in question into a nest almost on the doorstep of the ob- server’s home. Only a true ama- teur—we use the word very dis- criminatingly—could have such luck. The hedge-sparrow made for the prospecting cuckoo like a little demon; nesting birds have a highly developed sense of “terri- tory,” or is there more—of home- stead? The cuckoo persisted; there was a cessation of hostilities ; at an urgent moment circum- stances were opportune; the ~ cuckoo flew on to the hedge about 2 ft. from the nest, and looked about in a nervous, cunning way. could almost swear it was saying to itself anxiously, ‘Are they looking? No—thank ~ goodness, I’ve done them at last.’ And then, without any hesitation, it hopped straight into the hedge and disappeared from view. For about 2 The Story of a Cuckoo’s Egg.” Terras. "Pp. 95. (London: The Swarthmore Press, Ltd., n.d.) 6s. net. SI efi Told and pictured by Hilda Price of various events in the history of | Yi nee i edt hci Rep AUGUST 12, 1920] NATURE 747 a minute it was there; then it came out and flew away. Burning with curiosity, I hurried into the garden, and, eagerly parting the branches of the hedge, looked into the nest—and lo and behold, there, lying in Henrietta’s dear little cup-shaped, softly lined cradle, I saw the cuckoo’s egg! One of my sisters had watched the whole affair. with me, and once more we were amazed at the positively uncanny sagacity of the bird. The whole thing seemed so extraordinarily intelligent and so mean.” The observer noticed that the cuckoo had not her egg in her bill, and concluded that it was in its mouth out of sight. But might not the cuckoo lay the egg in the nest? The hedge- sparrow laid four eggs, and when the young cuckoo was hatched the usual tragedy occurred. ‘For the first two days his shiny naked little body was dark fawny-pink in colour, but by the fourth day he had _ gone _ almost black, and his: eyes, covered over with blue-black skin, looked dispro- portionately large. From the moment that his eyes opened he _ showed signs of surprising viciousness when- ever I put my hand anywhere near the nest.” When the young cuckoo was a fortnight old, more than filling the nest, the foster-mother was seén brood- ing, ‘‘uncomfortably crouched on top of his broad and ample back. It was rather like a pigeon trying to brood a hen.” Whenever either of the foster- parents approached, the young cuckoo made a “strange little tinkling noise, just like a tiny tinkling silver The menu _ consisted of grubs, daddy-long-legs, butterflies, caterpillars, and small insects, and the number collected and consumed in a day was amazing. The _in- bell.” Fic. 2.—Hedge-sparrow feeding a young cuckoo. way. this by instinct or by art, but we know we have Miss Terras tells her story in a very attractive We do not know whether she has done From ‘‘ The Story of a Cuckoo's Egg.”’ We recommend the had a most delightful hour. book very strongly to young people and to those who would renew their youth. defatigable foster-parents continued to feed the cuckoo for more than a week after it had left the nest. Helium : Its Production and Uses.! By Pror. J. C, McLennan, F.R.S. Ss 1868 Janssen (Compt. rend., 1868, vol. Ixvii., p. 838) directed attention to the existence of certain lines hitherto unobserved in the solar spectrum, which we now know are given by the element helium. In the same yeat Frankland and Lockyer? (Proc. Roy. Soc., 1868, vol. xvii., p. 91), from their observations on these spectral lines, were led to announce the existence of an 1 From a lecture delivered before the Chemical Society on June 17. 2 See Nature for May 20, p, 361. NO. 2650, VOL. 105 | element in the sun which up to that time had not been found on the earth. To this element they gave the name “helium.” In 1882 the discovery was made by Palmieri (Gazzetta, 1882, vol. xii., p. 556) that the helium spectrum could be obtained from rocks and lavas taken from Vesuvius. In the United States of America, Hillebrand in 1890 (Bull. U.S. Geol. Survey, 1890, No. 78, p. 43) succeeded in obtaining a quantity of gas 748 NATURE [AuGUST 12, 1920 from the mineral uraninite, which from chemical and spectroscopic tests he concluded was nitrogen. This gas, we now know, was, in fact, helium. Finally, in 1895, Sir William Ramsay (Chem. News, 1895, vol. lxxi., p. 151) discovered that a gas could be obtained from the mineral cleveite. This gas he purified, and, on examining’ its spectrum, he found it to be the long-sought-for element helium. From 1895 up to the present, investigation has: shown that helium is widely diffused throughout the earth. It can be obtained from many types of rocks, minerals, and earths, and it is present in varying. amounts in practically all natural gases and spring waters. It is present, too, in the atmosphere of the earth to the extent of about four parts in one million by volume. . The gases from some springs in France have been shown to contain as much as 5 per cent. of helium. In the Western States of America, ‘especially in Texas, natural gases exist which ‘contain from 1 to 2 per cent. of helium, but within the British Empire no natural. gases which have been examined show’a helium content as high as o-5 per cent. Until the spring of 1918 not more than 3 or 4 cubic metres of helium had, in the aggregate, been collected, and its market price, though ‘variable, was about 300]. per cubic foot. ~ _. The principal characteristics of helium are : (1) Its extreme lightness. It is only twice as heavy as hydrogen, the lightest element as yet isolated. (2) Its absolute inertness. All aftempts to ‘effect combinations of helium and the rare gases, | neon, argon, krypton, and xenon, as well, with other elements have as yet failed. (3) Its close approximation to an ideal or perfect gas. It is monatomic, and is liquefiable at a temperature below that of liquid hydrogen. By causing liquid helium to evaporate in a vacuum, Onnes (Proc. K. Akad. Wetensch. ‘ Amsterdam, 1915, vol. xvili., p. 493) has suc- ceeded in reaching a temperature within 1° or 2° of the absolute zero. (4) Its. low sparking. potential. Electric dis- charges can be passed through helium more easily than through most other gases. No element has had a more romantic history than helium, and none is of greater interest to men of science than is this gas at the present time. Its formation as a disintegration product of the radio-active elements, and the identity of the nuclei of helium atoms with a-rays, give it a unique position among the elements. Intense interest has been aroused by Sir Ernest Rutherford’s recent discovery that in the nuclei of helium atoms in the form of a-rays we have a powerful and effective agent for disintegrating and simplifying the nuclei of atoms generally. This discovery points the way to still further progress. In the past helium has been considered a rare and precious gas. -To-day it is being produced in large quantities, and in view of the proposal now being put forward to use this gas in place | of hydrogen as a filling for airships, one is apt NO. 2650, VOL. 105] to consider it to be not so precious as heretofore. It may be, however, that such vast and vitally important directions will suddenly be opened up — : in which helium can be utilised that the conserva- tion of the gas, while it is still available to us, will become a matter of the first importance. Shortly after the commencement of the war in 1914, it became evident that if helium were avail- able in sufficient quantities to replace hydrogen in naval and military airships, losses in life and equipment would be very greatly lessened. The fact that helium is both non-inflammable and non-explosive, and possesses 92 per cent. of the lifting power of hydrogen, makes it a most suit- able filling for airship envelopes. By the use of helium the engines of airships can be~ placed within the envelope if desired. A further advan- tage possessed by helium over hydrogen is that the buoyancy may be increased or decreased at will by heating or cooling the gas by electric or other means, which fact may possibly lead to con- siderable modifications in the technique of airship manceuvring and navigation. Moreover, the loss of gas from diffusion through the envelope is less with. helium than with hydrogen to the extent of about 30 per cent. slab 5 BY Although there are indications that proposals had been put forward during the war by men of science in Allied.and enemy countries, as well as in the British Empire, regarding the development of supplies of helium for aeronautical purposes, it should be stated that the movement that led up to the investigation which it was my privilege to undertake was initiated by Sir Richard Threlfall. The existence in America of supplies of natural gas containing helium in varying amounts was known to him and others, and preliminary calcu- - lations as to the cost of production, transporta- tion, etc., which he made led him to believe that there was substantial ground for thinking that helium could be obtained in large quantities at a cost which would not be prohibitive. Sir Richard’s proposals were laid before the Board of Invention and Research of the British Admiralty, and in the autumn of 1915 the author was asked by that Board to determine the helium content of the supplies of natural gas in Canada, and later on of those within the Empire, to carry out a series of experiments on a semi-commercial scale with the helium supplies which were avail- able, and also to work out all technical details in connection with the production of helium in quan- tity, as well as those relating to the re-purification, on a large scale, of such supplies as might be delivered and become contaminated with air in service. The present paper aims at giving a brief account of this. investigation. Composition of the Natural Gases Investigated. — In commencing the investigation, a survey was made of all the natural gases available in larger or smaller quantities within the Empire with the | view of ascertaining their helium content. Natural gases from Ontario and Alberta, Canada, were — found to be the richest in helium, and these By —] 2s iF aed ae zy Peal “an ae =} “> 1! eI i nt eta Tig a0 dart SO hee <7 — ee ee i i a rer rs mig Rcgy ee ans dea \UGUST 12, 1920] NATURE 749 Ss, it was found, could supply from ,000 tO 12,000,000 cubic feet of helium per The following is a summary of the results d from the analyses of a number of the investigated. They include, it will be seen, few samples from outside the Empire. For a mplete account of this part of the investigation, > reader is referred to Bulletin No. 31 of the Mines Branch, Department of Mines, Canada, 0) “Ontario Gases.—The analysis made by . Ellis, Bain, and Ardagh (Report of Bureau a fines of Ontario, 1914) of the natural gases lied to the experimental station, initially set 1p D at Hamilton, Ontario (Blackheath System), is a S follows: —— a eee 80 per cent. eee eee et ieee we I2 a s found, however, on operating with this gas the percentage assigned to methane really ded a considerable proportion of gasoline, mtane, and butane as well. The helium content the gas was found to be 0-34 per cent. Iberta Gases.—Gas taken from the mains from the Bow Island supply to Calgary found to be quite free from the heavier hydro- s. At times it contained slight amounts of vapour and occasionally a trace of carbon “as well. Its approximate composition is oo) Il. +++ 0°33 percent. 0°36 per cent. ‘eee 87S yr 916 A d o'9 ” I°9 ” hee? F272 - 614 = trace trace ater vapout +: eee trace ‘trace 4s well in particular, namely, No. 25 Barnwell, ‘eage has recently been driven, and now supplies of the composition II. a re New Brunswick Gases.—Some natural gases obtained from wells struck near Moncton, New inswick, Canada, were examined, and found ie have the following composition : ha ae | Nghe ee ... 80°0 per cent. A bee, ites 12 ir Carbon dioxide... None Oxygen ... ‘he «. None n as nad .-. 12°8 per cent. elium ... 07064 Si, mC New Zealand Gases.—A series of samples e. natural gases from the Hanmer, Kotuka, q Webe:, Blairlogie, and Rotorua supplies in New Zealand was forwarded by Mr. J. S. McLaurin, _ for examination, but was found to have an insig- _ nificant helium content, the richest containing not 4 more than 0-077 per cent.’ (e) Italian 4: Pisa.—A sample of the Destsral gas brought by pipe to the city of Pisa, NO. 2650, VOL. 105 | s to the system, was found to have a product - Dominion Analyst of Wellington, New Zealand, - in Italy, was examined, and found to have the following composition : Methane ... ee ane 80'0 per cent. Ethane ... wed st Prva 3 Carbon dioxide ... bie Ph Ee: Nitrogen ... Jaa 119 i Oxygen ... we ~ eR * sé Helium ‘ None (f) Miscellaneous Analyses.—An analysis of the natural gas supply from Heathfield, Sussex, England, showed it to have a helium content of but 0-21 percent. The gas from the King Spring, Bath, England, was found to contain 0-16 per cent. of helium, and analyses of natural gases obtained from Trinidad and from Peru showed their helium content to be negligible. An interesting observa- tion was made in connection with natural gases obtained from Pitt Meadows, Fraser River Valley, and Pender Island, in the Gulf of Georgia, British Columbia. Both these gases were found to have a nitrogen content of more than 99 per cent. Preliminary Experiments, Soon after taking up the investigation, it was found, as mentioned above, that large supplies of helium were available in the natural gas fields of Southern Alberta, and that a small supply could be obtained from a gas field situated about twenty- five miles to the south-west of the city of Hamil- ton, in Ontario. In 1917 the Board of Invention and Research decided to endeavour to exploit these sources of supply, and operations were begun by setting up, as already stated, a small experimental station near the city of Hamilton. At this station efforts were directed towards constructing a machine which would efficiently and economically separate out the helium from the other constituents present in the natural gas. The carrying out of this work expeditiously was made possible through the hearty co-operation of L’Air Liquide Société of Paris and Toronto, which generously lent, free of cost, a Claude oxygen column and the necessary auxiliary liquefying equipment for the investigation. By making suitable additions to, and modifica- tions in, this oxygen rectifying column, it was ascertained that the problem of separating, on a commercial scale, the helium which was present in this crude gas to the extent of only 0-33 per | cent. was one capable of satisfactory solution. Early in 1918 it was found possible to raise the percentage of helium in the gas to 5-0 by passing it through the special rectifying column once only, and as the gas obtained in this way consisted of nitrogen and helium with a small percentage of methane, it became therefore a comparatively simple matter to obtain helium of a high degree of purity. In one particular set of experiments on this final rectification, helium of 87 per cent. purity was obtained. Experimental Station at Calgary, Alberta. In order to operate on the natural gas of the Bow Island system in Southern Alberta, an experi- 75° NATURE [AUGUST 12, 1920 mental station was established at Calgary. in the autumn of 1918, and, starting with the knowledge acquired through the preliminary operations at Hamilton, rapid progress was made in developing a rectification and purifying column, together with the requisite auxiliary equipment, which would efficiently and cheaply separate the helium from the natural gas. Development of the Rectification Column. In proceeding to develop an equipment for separating the helium from the other constituents of natural gas, three lines of attack appeared to be open, namely, (a) by producing the refrigera- tion necessary to liquefy all the gases except the helium by the cold obtainable from the natural gas itself, (b) by using external refrigeration entirely, such as that obtainable with ammonia, carbon dioxide, liquid air, liquid nitrogen, etc’, and (c) by combining methods (a) and (b). The last method had been successfully used for the production of helium by the naval authorities of the United States in the Texas field, but from the information supplied it did not appear that this process could be considered to be an eco- nomical one. The preliminary experiments at Hamilton, Ontario, made it abundantly clear that method (a) was very promising and likely to be both efficient and economical. This method was _ therefore adopted. It was evident from the start that to produce an_ efficient method the main difficulty to overcome would be _ the securing of a proper balance between the heat exchangers, the liquefier, the vaporisers, and the rectification portions of the machine. A machine was therefore designed, constructed, and . supplied with piping which possessed great flexi- bility, and, in its general scheme, followed the lines of the Claude oxygen-producing column. It is unnecessary to go into details regarding the operation of this machine. It will suffice to say that it was tested under a variety of conditions. Notes were taken of the temperatures reached at different points in the machine under equilibrium conditions when the gas was passed through it in various ways. As a result of this procedure, it was soon found what parts of the machine could be eliminated and what parts could be modified with advantage. When those changes were made which seemed desirable in the light of the ex- perience gained, it was found that a machine had been evolved which would give highly satisfactory results. In operating with this machine, it was found that helium of 87 to 90 per cent. purity could be regularly and continuously produced. Operations, The experimental machine just described was used continuously for a series of trial runs from December 1, 1919, to April 17, 1920. In making a run, about 500,000 cubic feet were passed through the machine, and from this amount up- wards of 20,000 cubic feet of the gas, containing NO. 2650, VOL. 105 | 5 to 6 per cent. of helium, were obtained. As this low-grade product was made it was stored in a large balloon, and the residual gas was passed back into the mains for use in the city of Calgary. — The 5 to 6 per cent. product was compressed to from 20 to 30 atmospheres, and then passed — through vaporisers. The amount of final product, of 87 to go per cent. purity, obtained in each run rose steadily in the course of the operations from about 300 cubic feet to more than 700 cubic feet per run. From this it will be seen that the efficiency obtained with each of the two operations was about 67 per cent. In special runs made under exceptionally good conditions a still higher efficiency was obtained. One of the curves given — in Fig. 1 shows that the purity of the high-grade final product was steadily maintained in the series — aceeeee anne LiL tt HERE 7 PICK Ean ; + ; 900 ~ 90 r + a A . t pases: aan rT TTIATITIVIS TIT mS bg ; 80 Til . :: ~ pensecn Acree Z so t 70 4 S , - He tea S -_{——— m+ + = sane X 500 Ny 1H ee sss: S 900 : S sone H aS He S +t a oeesees j ~S Ti ae 5 NE 50 5S BS 20 20 400 10 ¥ Qc aie: 3 0 (12 4# 16S ‘22 29 2 Run Number Fic. 1. of runs, and the other curve exhibits the steady increase made in the production of helium of high- — grade purity. : High-grade Purification. When it was seen that the highest purity obtain- able with the experimental machine under actual running conditions was about go per cent., steps were taken to design and construct an auxiliary piece of apparatus for raising the purity of gas up to 99 per cent. or higher. This apparatu as constructed could be used, not only for obtaining a product of high purity at the works but also for purifying helium which became cr taminated with air by use in balloons in servi Through numerous delays experienced in obtai ing delivery of tubing, liquefying equipment, e AUGUST 12, 1920] NATURE 751 s purifying apparatus has not been given any ore than a preliminary trial. From this, how- , it is quite evident that it will prove satis- pry in operation. For the purpose of carrying this scheme of high-grade purification, a d-air plant was installed by the University of onto. Motors and an electric current supply were furnished by the Hydro-Electric Commission ‘Ontario, and a special financial grant was made the Honorary Advisory Council for Scientific d Industrial Research of Canada to supplement at made by the Admiralty and the Air Board of eat Britain. ‘inal Design of Helium-extracting Apparatus. Every step in the production of high-grade lium has been carefully examined and tested. rom the experience gained, we have been able draw up specifications for a commercial plant ich will enable one to treat the whole of the tural gas of the Bow Island supply in Alberta. e unit proposed will deal with about 1600 cubic tres or 56,500 cubic feet of gas per hour at mal pressure and temperature. At the altitude Cc y, this would be equivalent to 62,200 bic feet per hour. The machine would easily ’¢ with 66,000 cubic feet per hour or 1100 cubic ~ feet per minute. Of these machines, six would deal with 9,500,000 cubic feet of gas per day, and would thus take about the average daily supply available from the field, as based on records of the average yearly consumption. In order to have sufficient machines to operate regularly to capa- city, it would probably be advisable to have eight helium columns included in the plant. The cost of a commercial plant suitable for treating the whole of the supply.of the Alberta field would probably be less than 150,000]. The amount of helium of upwards of 97 per cent. purity obtainable per year from the field would be about 10,500,000 cubic feet. This is based on the assumption of an efficiency of 80 per cent., which experience has shown is obtainable. As to operat- ing costs, our experience has shown that, allowing fer interest on the investment, a ten years’ amortisation, salaries, supplies, and running charges, helium can be produced at the Alberta field for considerably less than 101. per 1000 cubic feet. This sum does not, of course, include the cost of purchasing cylinders or of transporting them from and to the works. Neither does it include any compensation to the owners of the field for the supply of gas. (To be continued.) By _Pror. Jonn Perry, F.R.S. 'HE death of Prof. John Perry on August 4, at _ the age of seventy, leaves a blank in our scientific circle which cannot well be filled. A man original mind and original manner, a warm- hearted Protestant Irishman, impulsive and en- ! > in whatever cause he might engage, imple-minded to a degree and a thorough-going optimist, one of the most delightful of com- nions, he was of the class of lovable men and ‘popular accordingly ; he will be much missed, par- cularly at meetings of the British Association, of which he had been the general treasurer of late _ years. __ Perry was educated in Belfast, finally at _ Queen’s College, where he came _ under _ Andrews, one of the ablest and most original - men of his day; it was from Andrews that _ he imbibed his feeling for chemistry, unusual in _ the engineer and mathematician: at least, he _ learnt to appreciate the part played by the electro- __ lyte in chemical interchanges—as he once told me, _ through having fused out the bottom of __ Andrews’s platinum crucible by heating potash in _ it. Later he was an assistant to William _ Thomson (Lord Kelvin). Under the influence of _ two such men his genius could not but unfold. _ Perry began his career at Clifton College. I _ first met him at Clifton, at a dinner, where, of _ course, he out-talked everyone: I can well re- collect how he amused us and how he called Sir Walter Scott an upholsterer. He was always a voracious novel-reader and remembered what he NO. 2650, VOL. 105 | Obituary. had read in an extraordinary way. On the occa- sion of the British Association visit to Winnipeg, he often astonished his travelling companions by his local knowledge, as he identified spot after spot with Fenimore Cooper’s characters. From Clifton, Perry went to Glasgow to assist Thomson, I imagine on Andrews’s recommendation. In 1875 he went to Japan and was one of the band who gave the Japanese their first lessons in science—to be cast off when done with; like Ayrton and Divers, however, he was an ultra-enthusiastic Japanophile. In Japan he became associated with Ayrton and a constant flow of communications, mainly on electrical sub- jects, to the Royal and other societies was the consequence of the partnership. In those days what Ayrton and Perry did not know or do or claim to have done was not worth knowing, doing or claiming; no two men, in the exuberance of their youth, were ever better satisfied with them- selves. They were in remarkable contrast: en- tirely diverse yet complementary natures, each cognisant and respectful of the other’s special ability. Ayrton was the worldly, practical member of the firm, Perry the dreamer. Ayrton always had a sense of what was wanted and what would pay: he, I believe, usually set the problem; Perry worked out a solution, which Ayrton then criticised and referred back to Perry for develop- ment. In the same manner, I believe, he co- operated, during the war, with the mechanical genius of Sidney Brown—the husband of his niece —in the development of the gyrostatic compass. 7¥* NATURE [AuGUST 12, 1920 a The partnership with Ayrton was continued several years after their return to England in 1879. They were in the van of electrical progress, in some respects before their time—-as in the case of Telpherage, which they developed in associa- tion with Fleeming Jenkin. Those were wonderful days: we were just learning to know and use electricity. A little later, Perry’s house was often the scene of most stimulating debates, especially when Larmor and Lodge forgathered there with Fitzgerald, whom Perry adored. Perry’s best work was done at the Fins- bury Technical College. Ayrton and I were called on to lay the foundations of the work of the City and Guilds Institute for the Advancement of Tech- nical Education in October, 1879; we began in temporary quarters in Cowper Street, Finsbury. I found not only that plans were prepared for a separate chemical laboratory but also that steps had already been taken towards the erection of the building. I took exception to the scheme on the ground that more than a mere: knowledge of chemistry would be required of the technical chemist of the future: that he must know some- thing of the fundamentals of mathematics, | of physics—especially electricity—and of engineering —drawing in particular. My view prevailed and we set to work to excogitate a practical pro- gramme and design a building. In 1871 we roped in Perry to our aid: our trio always fought like thieves over every detail but remained as one man throughout. The outcome was the present Fins- bury Technical College and the original Finsbury scheme: I say “original” because our successors were never whole-hearted followers of our con- victions and aspirations. This much I may assert as the last of the Finsbury Mohicans—we were in advance of our time and our fate has been the usual fate of pioneers and prophets. We cut the college adrift from all external examinations. We imposed an entrance examination on applicants. Not only was the course comprehensive but also the methods were special, practical and advisedly educative rather than informative; our students were young and their period of training was short but at its close, although they did not know a great deal, they had learnt to think for them- selves and to do by themselves, so that they were mentally prepared to continue learning when left to their own devices. Now the college is to experi- ence the fate of our scheme; it is said that it will be closed next year. When established it was the most original school in the country and it has been a remarkable success. We are a strange people: we seem never to know when we have hold of a good thing and cannot long maintain a consistent policy. In abandoning Finsbury the City and Guilds Institute signs its own death- warrant; but it has long been practically defunct, the men of imagination and outlook who founded it having bred no successors. Perry did not leave Finsbury until 1896, when he became professor of mathematics and mechanics in the Royal College of Science, South Kensington. He had the advantage of being a NO. 2650, VOL. 105 | practical engineer by training; this, added to his mathematical genius and his intimate knowledge of electrical science, not forgetting his. liter proclivities, made him a man of unusual breadti q and sanity of outlook. No _ special scientific | achievement is to be associated with his name; his real interest lay in the work of education and Pi he will go down to fame as an original and con- — structive teacher who laid the foundation of a — new era. He made mathematical teaching prac- tical and taught many who could never have mastered the abstract subject to use such know- ledge and ability as they had with effect. As examiner in mathematics to the Science and Art Department he exercised a wide and beneficent i in- fluence on the teaching of this subject. His methods were not everywhere popular, but this was mainly because of the special demands their practice made on the intelligence of the teacher. As he more than once remarked to me, few really understood him. Still, the written word remains : Perry has left much on record which will be of service to a future, more appreciative generation. . . ° Pror. Perry’s love of research and restless spirit of inquiry have inspired the lives of innumerable students who came under his influence. Who can measure what the nation owes to Perry for the ~ intellectual gifts he distributed so freely to so many men? Who can measure the boundaries to | which his influence will reach through the lives and activities of his students? .The man who inspires is in time forgotten, but those whom he stimulates inspire others, so that his influence in- creases as time goes on. An engineering work like a fine bridge can be seen of all, and the — builder is applauded and rewarded. The scientific spirit is apprehended by few, and those who possess it and spend their lives in the true service of the nation by cherishing it and by passing it on to others are unknown and unrewarded by authority, but are held in respect and affection by those who receive from them what so few are able to give. Perry gave lavishly, and his students responded with enthusiastic affection. He ranged wide in the regions of science. In — Japan he and his friend and colleague Ayrton ex- perimented furiously. Paper after paper came — red-hot from their intellectual forge until even — Lord Kelvin said that the pole of scientific i ; search had shifted to Japan. a Finsbury Technical College was founded to er i something in technical education which had not been done before. Perry and his colleagues, — Ayrton and Armstrong, launched the college. They made it a pioneer in technical education. They made it world-famous. Everything which these men did was new, unorthodox, stimulating, and vastly interesting to the keen young menwho flocked from the workshop to the college to hear and often to help them. Perry was unorthodox of the unorthodox. He taught his students to — mistrust authority and to try things out id them- selves. am ¢ AUGUST 12, 1920] a NATURE 753 Perry will probably be chiefly remembered by ngineers as the man who broke through the c na defences of mathematics and taught them ithematics through what they knew of chinery. His book on “Practical Mathe- es,” originating in his Finsbury course, has translated into many languages, and many rerations in many lands will therefore benefit m Perry’s determination to teach his own dents the fundamental truths of mathematics well that they could use their knowledge as ily as they could use their mother tongue. ) continued his work as professor of mathe- tics and mechanics at the Royal College of , leaving Finsbury in 1896. In those days Seicoheshors at the Finsbury Technical College re expected to run an arduous day course, and addition an evening course as well. His relief the escape from this double duty was great. more recent years he guided the fortunes of British Association for the Advancement of ence as its general treasurer. Perry has done eet work, and his work will live after him. a ew PRoF. Aucusto Ricui, For.Mem. R.S. Pror. Aucusto RiGcut, who died suddenly on 8 at seventy years ‘of age, is said to have Nn appointed assistant to the professor of Jetty in the University of Bologna—his native —at the age of twenty-one. In 1877 he was Docente, and in 1880 was appointed ordinary professor at Padua, whence after a few ears he returned to Bologna as head of the ysics department. rhi was a skilled experimenter and an indus- trious worker. His original investigations lay fly in the domain of electricity, magnetism, light. One of his discoveries was the varia- the resistance of bismuth in a magnetic orth mi phenomenon on which an instrument for _ measuring the intensity of a field has been based. He was led to this discovery by an examination of the Hall effect in different metals in the year 1883. lis results were published in the Journal de ysique (2), 1883, p. 512, and in the Comptes vendus, vol. xcvii., p. 672, as well as in Italian; most fully in Bologna Acad. Sci. Mem., vol. v., 1883, pp. 103-26. An abstract was ‘given in NATURE, vol. xxx., p. 569. Righi’s earliest ‘papers appeared in 1873, and salt with a variety of topics, many of them con- seted with electrostatic problems and_ voltaic electricity. One of the subjects on which at one time » laid stress was the dilatation of the glass or artz of a Leyden jar, and of insulators in eneral, under electric stress—what he called galvanic dilatation”: see, for instance, omptes rendus, vol.. Ixxxviii., 1879, p. 1262. e also examined the changes of length e to magnetisation, and _ discussed _ the enomena of permanent _ steel magnets. bout 1880 Righi began a long series of re- searches on electric discharge in vacuo and in air, NO. 2650, VOL. 105] and pursued the subject in various forms to the end of his life. He was much interested in photo- electric effects, and contributed some new facts to the discharge of electrified bodies by ultra-violet light. He failed to discover electrons, but he knew that carriers of negative electricity were liberated, and took steps to observe their tra- jectory in a magnetic field, thus exhibiting the phenomenon as a variety of cathode rays. He also found that the discharge could be stopped by an electric charge of inverse sign, constant in density for a given metal. Righi was keenly interested in the work of Hertz, and corresponded with the present writer on the subject of electric waves. A special form of Hertz oscillator, known as Righi’s pattern, con- sisting of a couple of spheres with adjacent faces immersed in oil and charged at the back from two other spheres, was used by some people, and is depicted as a form appropriate to wireless tele- graphy in Mr. Marconi’s first patent, though the connection of the outer spheres to an ele- ~vated plate and to ground _ respectively—a plan efficiently introduced by Mr. Marconi for practical purposes—really converted the spherical oscillator into nothing but a series of spark gaps. It is understood that Mr:- Marconi had visited Righi’s laboratory and seen his ex- periments on Hertzian waves, but was not one of his students. Righi, in his correspondence, fre- quently expressed surprise at the novelty attri- buted to the invention in its very early days by Sir William Preece and other English officials. In the Memoirs of the Academy of Sciences of the Institute of Bologna, Righi expounded many of the new discoveries as they were being made in physics—among- others an excellent and semi- mathematical exposition of the Zeeman pheno- menon (see vol. viii., ser. 5, pp. 59-90, December, 1899). He also wrote on the equations of Hertz and their solution, in vol., ix. of the Memoirs of the same Academy, pp. 3-28 (February, 1gor); and, again, on the electromagnetic mass of elec- trons in vol. iii., ser. 6, pp. 71-84 (February, 1906). These papers show that though chiefly an experimental physicist, he had a sound grasp. of general theory, and must have had considerable influence in making known the work of British and other physicists to his countrymen. A memoir on the theory of relativity was contributed by. Righi to the Institute of Bologna so recently as April 18 last (vol. vii., ser. 7, pp. 70-82). An experimental paper of Righi’s on the pos- sible existence of magnetic rays, dated May 17, 1908, vol. v., ser. 6, of the same Memoirs, PP- 95-150, deserves mention, because of the cathode ray inquiry there described and_ the speculation based upon it. The subject is con- tinued in vol. vi., pp. 45-64, and in vol. x., pp- 79-103, also in vol. i., ser. 7, pp. 3-36, where results are described for many different gases. It is taken up again, after a discussion of the paths of electrons in magnetic fields, in vol. ii., ser..7, pp. II-4I. Righi describes further experiments in vol. iii., 754 NATURE [AucusT 12, 1920 pp. 23-42, and he has a paper on ionisation in a magnetic field in vol. iv., ser. 7, pp. 27-44. His chief work, in which he summarises these and other results, is entitled ‘I fenomeni elettro- atomici sotto l’azione del magnetismo,’’ a work which met with a very cordial reception among Italian physicists, who must, indeed, have been indebted to Righi’s activity and clearness of ex- position for much of their knowledge of contem- porary physics. Students adequately familiar with Italian—as the writer cannot claim to be—speak of Righi’s writings as marked by extraordinary clearness and simplicity of style, so that they can be read by people of average culture, at least in their non-mathematical portions. Numerous honours were conferred upon Righi, among others a 10,000 lira prize of the Accademia dei Lincei, and the Htghes medal of the Royal Society. The Royal Society also selected him as a foreign member, and he succeeded Lord Kelvin as foreign member of the Royal Academy of . Senator of the Italian Parliament. Sciences at Upsala. In 1905 he was elected a By Righi’s death Italy probably feels that she has lost her foremost physicist. He was anxious, — up to the last, for information about every new discovery, and showed himself capable of appre- ciating results in many departments of physics. He was well known by reputation in this country — as a thinker and worker of exceptional keenness ~ and width of outlook. OLIVER LopGe. A ReuTER message from Stockholm announces — the death, at seventy-seven years of age, of ApmirAL A. L. PALANDER, who was in command of Baron Nordenskiéld’s vessel, the Vega, which completed the navigation of the North-East passage from the Atlantic to the Pacific along the north coast of Asia (1878-79). Admiral Palander was an honorary corresponding member of the Royal Geographical Society and of many other scientific societies both in Sweden and abroad. Ei (A a i Notes. A MOVEMENT set on foot in the early part of last year for the founding of an institution or society the membership of which should be open to those particularly interested in problems connected with the fields of administration and organisation in relation to industrial enterprises was brought to a head at a public meeting held on April 26 last at the Central Hall, Westminster, by the appointment of a pro- visional organising committee which was instructed to prepare a draft constitution for such an institution, to be named the Institute of Industrial Administra- tion. This committee presented its feport, accom- panied by a draft constitution embodying (1) a schedule of objects, (2) the conditions of member- ship, and (3) the form of government, at a public meeting held at the above-named hall on July 15. This draft constitution was, with slight amendments, adopted on the date last mentioned, and the first board of management, consisting of eighteen mem- bers representing a variety of industries, was elected on the same occasion. The objects of the institute as set out in the draft constitution are briefly as follows :—To promote the general advancement of knowledge relative to the principles of industrial administration and their applications; to facilitate the exchange of information and ideas regarding the principles and practice of industrial administration ; to collect and publish information and proposals bearing on any aspect of industrial administration; and to co-operate with professional, industrial, or educational societies, organisations, or authorities in pursuance of these objects. The government of the institute is to be vested in an advisory council com- posed of honorary members and a board of manage- ment representing: the various classes of membership of: the institute. Mr. E, T. Elbourne was elected hon. secretary of the institute, the offices of which are temporarily located at 110 Victoria Street, West- minster, S.W.1. NO. 2650, VOL. 105 | Tue U.S. National Research Council, with head- quarters at Washington, has elected the following chairmen of its various divisions for the year beginning July 1, 1920 :—Division of Foreign Relations: George E. Hale, director, Mount Wilson Observatory, Car-_ negie Institution of Washington. Government Divi- sion: Charles D. Walcott, secretary of the Smith. sonian Institution and president of the National Academy of Sciences. Division of States Relations : John C. Merriam, professor of palzontology, Uni-. versity of California, and president-elect of the Car- negie Institution of Washington. Division of Educa-— tional. Relations: Vernon Kellogg, professor of entomology, Stanford University, and permanent secretary of the National Research Council: Division — of Industrial Relations : Harrison E. Howe. Research — Information Service: Robert M. Yerkes. Division — of Physical Sciences: Augustus Trowbridge, pro- — fessor of physics, Princeton University. Division of © Engineering : Comfort A. Adams, Lawrence professor — of engineering, Harvard University. Division of — Chemistry and Chemical Technology: Frederick G. Cottrell, director of the Bureau of Mines. Division — of Geology and Geography : E. B. Mathews, professor of mineralogy and petrography, Johns Hopkins Uni- — versity. Division of Medical Sciences: George W. McCoy, director of the U.S. Hygienic Laboratory — since 1915. Division of Biology and Agriculture: C. E. McClung, professor of zoology, University of — Pennsylvania. Division of Anthropology and Psycho- logy: Clark Wissler, curator of anthropology, American Museum of Natural History, New York. THE Department of Scientific and Industrial Research has established four Sub-Committees to assist the Radio Research Board in the investigation of certain problems in connection with the work of the Board. The constitution of the Board and its Sub-Committees is at present as follows :—Radi Research Board: Admiral of the Fleet Sir Henry E UGUST 12, 1920] NATURE 755 Jack: (chairman), Comdr. J. S. C. ‘Salmond (repre- se nting ‘the Admiralty), Lt.-Col. A. G. T. Cusins epresenting the War Office), Wing Comdr. A. D. Varrington Morris (representing the Air Ministry), Ir E. -H. Shaughnessy (representing the General Post ‘Sir J. E. Petavel (presenting the National al Laboratory), Sir Ernest Rutherford, and J. S. E. Townsend. Sub-Committee A on the ro agation of Wireless Waves: Dr. E. H. Rayner chairman), Prof. E. H. Barton, Major J. R. Erskine- ay, Prof. H. M. MacDonald, and Prof. J. W. icholson. Sub-Committee B on Atmospherics: Col. G. Lyons (chairman), Mr. A. A. Campbell Swin- 1, Prof. S. Chapman, Major H. P. T. Lefroy, Mr. ia Taylor, Mr. R. A. Watson Watt, and Mr. . R. Wilson. Sub-Committee C on Directional sss: Mr. F. E. Smith (chairman), Mr. M. P. ton, Capt. C. T. Hughes, and Capt. J. Robinson. -Committee D on Thermionic Valves: Prof. W. Richardson (chairman), Mr. E. V. Appleton, ot. S. Brydon, Capt. H. L. Crowther, Prof. C. L. escue, Mr. B. Hodgson, Prof. F. Horton, Major G. Lee, Mr. H. Morris Airey, Mr. R. L. Smith- , and Prof. R. Whiddington. THe “geen appointments have been made in ne with the Royal College of Physicians of G. Aerabani, Goulstonian lecturer, 1921; , Oliver Sharpey lecturer, 1921; Dr. A. Lumleian lecturer, 1921; Dr. R. O. Moon, ck lecturer, 1921; in ee: ae nae against loss resulting from the of a British Empire Exhibition in London ar. _ The grant is conditional on the provision sum of et, by the promoters of the aaa from the British Medical Journal that the International Congress of Comparative Patho- y will be held at Rome in the spring of 1921 under presidency of Prof. Perroncito. Communications Id be sent to the secretary, Prof. Mario Tevi la Vida, Via Palermo 58, Roma. 1 H the view of popularising scientific knowledge has recently made its appearance. The nal contains current notes on scientific matters Spain and Latin-America, general notes, and cts of important foreign scientific papers written a manner that will appeal to the popular reader age education. Each number also includes a ograph or an instalment of a monograph on @ popular scientific subject written by a leading ity. The contents conclude with a bibliography Rurrent scientific literature and meteorological formation. The weekly is published by the Observa- rio del Ebro, Tortosa. E are glad to see that the British Museum orities have begun to issue additions, naturally present conditions of publication in a less NO, 2650, VOL. 105 | and Dr. G. M. Holmes, attractive form, to the valuable series of Handbooks, such as those provided before the war for the Assyrian, Babylonian, Egyptian, and Ethnographic Galleries. The latest is an account by Sir E. A. Wallis Budge of the Egyptian ‘‘ Book of the Dead.’’ This is a vague title now commonly given to the first collection of funerary texts which the ancient Egyptian scribes composed for the benefit of the dead, consisting of spells and incantations, hymns and litanies, magical formule and names, words of power and prayers, which are found cut or painted on the walls of pyramids and tombs, and engraved on coffins, sarcophagi, and rolls of papyrus. The pamphlet, which is well supplied with illustrations, provides for the use of students and visitors to the galleries an admirable introduction to the study of the death rites and theories of the soul current among the ancient Egyptians. Unpber the title of ‘The Medical History of Ishi,”’ by Mr. Saxton T, Pope, the University of California has published in its American Archeological and Ethnological Series a remarkable study of human pathology. The subject of the monograph, Ishi, was the last Yahi Indian, who was brought to the Uni- versity Hospital after his capture in 1911, and died from tuberculosis in 1916. ‘‘We see him first as the gaunt, hunted wild man, his hair burnt short, his body lean and sinewy, but his legs strong and capable @ of great endurance. He suggests the coyote in this character.” At first civilisation agreed with him, but then came a gradual change. ‘ His energy waned, He no longer was keen to shoot at targets with a bow. His skin became darker.’? Then he contracted another cold and his malady increased. This mono- graph is supplied with full statistics of his case and excellent photographs and illustrations—most valuable for the study of the life-history of a Californian Indian, the last of his race. A REMARKABLE stone bowl now deposited in the Museo Arqueoldégico, Madrid, is described in the July issue of Man, by Mr. B. Glanvill Corney. It was obtained in 1775 at Tahiti by Maximo Rodriguez, a creole of Lima, and it was brought to that city in a Spanish ship-of-war, being finally sent to Spain in 1788. It is made of the hard, compact, black stone of which adze-blades and pestles for crushing taro and bread-fruit of the Society Islands were formed, and which was quarried only in the remote island called Maurua. It is not quite certain for what purpose this bowl was used. The local chiefs believe it to have been a sacred potion bowl, in which herbal draughts were prepared by trituration and infusion by the medico-sacerdotal functionaries. Others sup- pose that the function of the bowl was to receive viscera of victims sacrificed, and possibly it was used for some form of augury by inspection of the entrails of sacrificial victims. The bowl thus suggests interesting problems which, it may be hoped, further research will enable us to solve. THe Medical Record for March 27 contains an interesting paper by Dr. C. B. Davenport on the influence of the male on the production of twins. It is well known that twins may be biovulate or 756 NATURE uniovulate, the latter type having a single chorion, and it is found that about 1 per cent. of all human births are plural births. But in the relatives of mothers who have repeated twins “this proportion rises to 4:5 per cent., indicating the inheritance of twinning in the strain. Twinning is, however, almost equally frequent (4-2 per cent.) in the near relatives of the fathers of twins. The tendency to repetition of identical twins is even higher than when both types are considered together. Double ovulation is far commoner (frequency 5-10 per cent.) than twin births, and here the male factor comes in, for it has ‘now to be recognised that human germ-cells fre- quently contain iethal factors which arrest develop- ment at an early stage, or may even prevent more than one egg being fertilised. In relation to this is the fact that highly fecund families more frequently have twins. Human beings thus possess the biovulate type of twinning found in carnivora, herbivora, and rodentia, and also the uniovulate type found in the armadillo, which regularly produces four young of the same sex at a birth by budding from the young embryo. Tuat the Philippine hawksbill turtle (Eremochelys imbricata) is in dire need of stringent protection is evident from the account of this species given in the Philippine Journal of Science (vol. xvi., No. 2) by Mr. E. H. Taylor, of the Bureau of Science, Manila. Practically all the Philippine tortoiseshell is brought into the market by the native fishermen, who are so ‘eager to secure their prizes that they wait for days for the arrival of the female to lay her eggs on the beach. Often she is speared before a single egg is laid. Should they have patience enough to allow her to fill the ‘‘nest’’ the end is the same, for every egg is eaten. Obviously it will not be long before this source of revenue is lost for ever. Tue August number of Conquest, a magazine devoted to the popularisation of science, is a model of what such magazines should be, for not only are its contents designed to appeal to a wide circle of readers, but also every article is lucidly written and well illustrated. Taking subjects at random—for it would be difficult to make a deliberate choice—one may mention the essay by Mr. R. I. Pocock on the common animals of the sea-shore, that on wild white clover by Mr. J. J. Ward, and the article on the Davon micro-telescope by Mr. F. Talbot. Besides these are not less fascinating talks on the ships of the future by Mr. W. Horsnaill, on seaside meteorology by Mr. Joseph Elgie, and on the sands of the sea- shore by Mr. C. Carus Wilson. Tue attention of those who are interested in the campaign against rats may be directed to the second edition of Mr. M. A. C. Hinton’s pamphlet (67 pp., 2 plates and 6 text-figures) which has been recently issued by the British Museum (Natural History). This work contains an excellent summary of the characters, habits, and economic importance of rats, and of the relation of rats to the spread of disease in man and animals. In this edition additional details are given on the rate of increase of rats, and refer- ; /@rly of the binucleate cells, exhibits the synaptic k NO. 2650, VOL. 105 | -ence is made to the occurrence in the rat of Sp ——— chaeta icterohaemorrhagiae, the organism of chetal. jaundice (Weil’s disease) in man. At emphasising the urgent need for action against the large rat population of Great Britain, Mr. Hinton gives a concise account of the chief repressive measures. Barium carbonate is recommended as t safest poison, mixed in the proportion of one p: with eight parts of oatmeal, and made up with a little water into a stiff dough. Among other methods” to which attention is directed are trapping, which should be continuous and systematic, and placing i the run-ways of the rats birdlime trays with an attra tive bait in the centre—a method which has given good results in Liverpool, London, and elsewhere. __ ITALIAN biologists are to be congratulated on their enterprise in founding, in difficult cireumstances, a new biological publication, Revista di Biologia, which is published bimonthly in Rome, and is edited by — Profs. Gustavo Brunelli and Osvaldo Polimanti. The review is to be devoted largely to the considera- tion of problems of general biological interest, but its pages are also open to record the results of researches — in special subjects. Six fascicles, forming the first volume of 744 pages, have recently reached us. Prof. Brunelli contributes to the first fascicle a vigorous article on the place which science, and especially — biology, should occupy in the national life of Italy. — He points out that the future of Italy is essentially bound up with agriculture and problems of the land, and that in the economic development of the nation biology must therefore take a leading art. He pleads also for more attention to hydrobiology, and for a closer co-operation between medical practitioners and biologists—for instance, in anti-malarial measures and in social hygiene generally. Among the special articles two may be briefly referred to: the first by Prof. Pierantoni on physiological symbiosis, with — special reference to the part played by symbiotic organisms in light-production in luminous organs, and the second by Prof. Enriques on the results of experi- ments in breeding blow-flies (Calliphora erythro-— cephala), in which he shows that while some of the pairings give rise to a high proportion of living offspring, other pairings produce larvae about one- fourth of which, although kept under optimum condi- tions, cease to feed after two or three days and die. — Prof. Enriques does not consider that the explanation” of Morgan, in his important work on lethal facto: in Drosophila, holds for Calliphora. The Revist will not only fulfil its object in stimulating and couraging biological research in Italy, but will | afford workers in other countries a ready means keeping in touch with the chief lines of research Italian biologists, and we cordially wish it success. Dr. R. RucGies Gates has given (Proc. Roy. S London, B, vol. xci., 1920, pp. 216-23) a prelimina account of the meiotic phenomena in the polle mother-cells and tapetum of lettuce, in which sever matters of general bearing on cytological concepti and on problems of genetics are considered. 7 chromatin of the nuclei of the tapetal cells, parti UST 12, 1920] NATURE 757 appearances which have hitherto been only in spore mother-cells of plants and in spermatocytes and oocytes of animals. therefore. there is the unusual condition sitions between tapetal and germinal cells. *s material also affords, in the earlier stages ion of the diakinetic chromosomes, a good of chiasmatypy—the crossing-over of two of a pair of chromosomes—which has not been definitely described in plants, though it known in certain animals, e.g. in the Drosophila, in which the phenomenon has ed by Morgan and his collaborators probable basis of the crossing-over of factors. a of much interest on the meiotic omes of lettuce is the tendency for one or two ‘the bivalent chromosomes to coalesce more completely on the equatorial plate of the spindle. There,is no evidence that such chromosome pairs pass over bodily to one le of fi the spindle; rather they will both split in the 1 _way, but the manner of their previous ence will determine the nature of their dis- n—whether, for instance, the paternal halves chromosome will go to the same pole or to poles of the spindle. There is here a possible the phenomena of partial coupling and repul- altogether from the crossing-over pheno- h latter are based on relations between the ‘s of a pair of chromosomes i in their earlier stages. xvii., No. 4 (October-December, 1919), of to the Imperial Institute Mr. W. Bevan, } | Agriculture in _ Cyprus, continues his als, : - more interesting products discussed by re fodders and feeding-stuffs (including bres (including cotton and silk), drugs, and Certain minor agricultural industries are ribed. The reports of recent investigations fastitute have reference to fibres from India, the West Indies, the utilisation of New land hemp-waste, Pappea seeds from South Africa ‘source of oil, Cyprus castor-seed, and distillation with talh wood (Acacia Seyal) from the Sudan. sneral articles include an account of the present Para rubber-seed as a source of oil and ke, in which it is pointed out that the of exploitation very largely depends upon f collecting the seed on the plantations. A article deals with cassava as a source of indus- tarch and alcohol. As usual, much useful tion is recorded as notes and in the section 1 to recent progress in agriculture and the ment of natural resources. We observe that . the Prince of Wales has arranged for a n of the presents and addresses received during it to Canada to be exhibited at the Imperial . An index to vol. xvii. of the Bulletin is in this part. N many respects we pay too little attention to our st Indian Possessions. The present difficulties of _ NO. 2650, VOL. 105] communication hinder visits from our own men of science, and it. is natural that those of the neigh- bouring United States should undertake tasks that we regretfully leave undone. Thus we learn from the Report of the American Museum of Natural History that towards the end of last year Mr. H. E. Anthony, who had previously secured many interesting mam- malian remains from the caves of Cuba and Porto Rico, extended his researches to Jamaica, whence the skull of a marine mammal was the only example known. His hunt was successful, but the collections remain to be worked out. They are certain to throw light on the nature of former connection with the mainland. That we are not altogether idle may, how- ever, be gathered from the fact that a collection of fossil sea-urchins from Antigua and Anguilla, made by Prof. J. W. Gregory some years ago, was reported on by Dr. J. Lambert, of Troyes, during the war, and is now being arranged in the geological department of the British Museum. That department has also been presented by Dr. C. T. Trechmann with an excellent dried specimen of the recent crinoid Holopus, rare because it grows under ledges of reef-rock and so escapes the dredge, instructive because of its adapta- tion in form to that peculiar position. This individual comes from Barbados, on which island Dr. Trech- mann has recently spent some months investigating the raised reefs and collecting their fossils. None the less, the West Indies still present a large field for research, and British labourers are all too few. THE Agricultural News of May 29 has an article on camphor-growing in the British Empire, based on a contribution by Prof. P. Carmody, formerly Direc- tor of Agriculture in Trinidad, to the Times Trade Supplement. The chief source of commercial cam- phor is Formosa, and the Japanese monopoly has led to an enormous increase in price in recent years. Various, but so far not commercially successful, attempts have been made in camphor cultivation within the Empire, namely, in Ceylon, the Federated Malay States, Mauritius, and the West Indies; in some cases distillation tests have shown a satisfactory yield, but in Mauritius and the West Indies the prunings may yield only oil and no solid camphor. Experimenting in Trinidad, Prof. Carmody found that trees grown in the Botanic Garden made very poor growth, but when transplanted to better soil the growth was satisfactory, and a normal yield of solid camphor was obtained. It is suggested that, owing to their bushy, evergreen habit, camphor-trees might be used as a windbreak in cacao cultivation. The successful cultivation of camphor within the Empire is no longer doubtful if a few necessary pre- cautions are adopted. Seeds or seedlings from trees that vield no solid camphor must not be used; stiff clay soil must be avoided; in good average soil not more than 300 trees to the acre should be grown; and a sufficient area should be cultivated for economical distillation. When the trees are four or five years old they can be clipped, and thereafter three or four times a year. The same journal directs attention to the development of other sources of camphor, namely, rosemary in Spain, species of Artemisia, and the swamp-bay (Persea pubescens) in California. 758 NATURE [AuGusT 12, 1930 METEOROLOGICAL’ Observations made at secondary stations in Netherlands East India have recently been published for 1917. Since the publication of the previous volume a well-equipped meteorological station has been started at the aerodrome at Sockamiskin. Cloud observations have been almost wholly discon- tinued, and sunshine records are substituted; the cloud estimations (0-10) are said not to be trustworthy —which is scarcely surprising, since it is stated that the lower half of the sky was not taken into account, and that density had its say. Sunshine observations are from Jordan recorders, but the Campbell-Stokes recorder would give results more comparable with European observations. In addition to the ordinary detailed observations of rainfall, tables under the head- ing of ‘‘cloud-bursts’’ are given practically for all stations,* which show the individual instances of rain- fall of 1 mm. and more per minute, the minimum duration being five minutes. At Batavia the maxi- mum mean monthly air-pressure occurred in August, and the minimum in April. July was the warmest month and December the coldest. The mean relative humidity, saturation being expressed as_ 1000, ranged from 879 in February to 793 in August. The percentage of bright sunshine was greatest in August and least in January. By far the greatest amount of rain falls in the winter months, January being the wettest, whilst May and June are the driest months. Wind results are given at only a few stations, but the observations clearly indicate a diurnal range in direction and velocity. A more com- plete discussion of winds would be of value for aero- nautics, whilst the movement and, if practicable, the height and speed of clouds would add much to a better knowledge of the upper air. THE Bulletin de la Société d’Encouragement pour l’Industrie Nationale for March-April. gives a_ full report of the work of M. Martial Entat on the destructive effect of light on certain materials such as textiles, dopes, and rubberised fabrics. It is diffi- cult, if not impossible, in these climates to make quantitative measurements of the effect in the case of sunlight, and M. Entat accordingly used ultra-violet light from a mercury-vapour lamp in his experiments. He found that the mercury lamp was twenty times as effective as full sunlight in its destructive action on such materials. As is now well known, consider- able protection may be afforded by the use of various dyes for absorbing the ultra-violet light. M. Entat’s experiments indicate that the dyes commonly em- ployed in aviation for protecting the fabric of aircraft have a ‘coefficient of protection ’’ of from 50-75 per cent., the most efficient being the red dye from quino- line. A spectrographic measurement of the absorption of the ultra-violet light placed the various dyes in the same order as the tensile tests on the dye- protected fabrics which had been exposed to the rays. Experiments similar to those of M. Entat were carried out during the war at the Royal Aircraft Establish- ment at Farnborough. An account of the work was given by Dr. Aston to the Royal Aeronautical Society last year. NO. 2650, VOL. 105 | ; next year. No. 4 of Abstracts of Papers in Scientific Te actions and Periodicals, published as a suppleme the minutes of the Proceedings of the Institut Civil Engineers, contains a large number of abstracts taken from papers and periodicals pub outside the United Kingdom. ‘These are cla under the main headings of (1) measurement, measuring, and recording instruments; (2) engineer ing materials; (3) structures; (4) transformation transmission, and _ distribution of energy; (5 mechanical processes, appliances, and apparatus; subdivisions to each of It is not easy to produce abstracts which shall contain the information re- quired and thus obviate the necessity for those interested having to consult the original papers; we note that these abstracts are satisfactory in this respect, and therefore provide a mine of information which we trust will be available to engineers who are outside the ranks of the Institution of Civil Engineers and would gladly purchase the Abstracts. The editing is somewhat loose occasionally; thus we note on p. 16 that an acceleration has been stated “slightly more than 2 ft. per sec.” A slip of this kind would have to pay a pre at the sngetation examinations. 7 THE special requirements in derital rattagnaiiiey are met by the radiator dental type of Coolidge tube, obtainable from the British Thomson-Houston Co., Ltd. This embodies the original features of the radiator type of tube whereby a large portion of the heat generated is conducted away by a copper radiator, but, in addition, the new tube allows greater proximity of the anode to the part under exposure. The cathode- arm extends 2 in, from the bulb at right angles to the anode-arm; this method of construction secures the emission of the X-rays in a line with the axis of the anode. The cathode circuit is earthed, so that there is only one high-tension wire, which is con- nected to the part of the tube most remote from the subject under exposure; this allows a minimum distance between the dental film and the focal spot, with consequent reduction in the time of exposure, The tube is self-rectifying within the limits of i allowable energy output, and is designed for an inp not exceeding ro milliamperes at an alternative spark. gap of about 3 in. The tube being designed to run only under specified electrical conditions, the manipulations are reduced to a minimum, and the only variable left in the hands of the operator is the time for which the film is to be exposed. In dental radiography this attempt at standardisation and simplification of pro- cedure is likely to meet with considerable success. — Mr. A. THORBURN, whose sumptuous volumes, ‘British Birds’? and ‘‘A Naturalist’s Sketch Boolk,’® have been so well received, is bringing out Hire “ Messrs. Longmans and Co. a companion wor! entitled ‘British Mammals.” It will be in two volumes and contain fifty plates in colour and m: illustrations in black-and-white. ig iv is promi for the coming autumn, and vol. ii. for the Spang it etc. There are several these main headings. NATURE 759 Aveust 12, 1920] Our Astronomical Column. INTERESTING METEORITE.—Vol. lvii. of the Pro- igs of the United States National Museum con- ‘an analysis by Mr. G. P. Merrill of a meteorite was seen to fall at Cumberland Fells, Kentucky, il 9, 1919. It is stated that if the object had en seén to fall, its meteoric character would ve been suspected. It is a ‘‘meteoric breccia d of fragments of two quite dissimilar stones.” ghter-coloured portion contained 55 per cent. } 39 per cent. magnesia, 3 per cent. ferrous oxide, traces of some seventeen other compounds. The «A ng Ria which more closely resembles other ed meteors, contains 42 per cent. silica, 9 per . ferrous oxide, 28 per cent. magnesia, 12 per . iron, etc. ‘‘ Apparently the admixture of the two is of fragments took place prior to the evident : ‘ompres sion.’’ e: e author conjectures that it is evidence of the destruction of some pre-existing planet, but the sug- gestion seems more reasonable that it is an earth- born meteor expelled in a mighty eruption in long- past ages. Sir Robert Ball was a strong advocate of the terrestrial origin of meteors, and it appears tenable in cases where the relative velocity is not very high. A lunar origin was suggested by Prof. Sampson; this also is preferable to the postulate of ome purely hypothetical planet. THE Union OpsErvaTORY, JOHANNESBURG.—Circular ‘0. 47 of this observatory contains a search for proper ‘motions by the blink method on two plates taken at Paris in 1887 and 1914. The region is R.A. 18h, 35m., Bav,. Gee, 31° 10’. he plates have already been neasured at Paris, and the region is included in the wich ig10 Catalogue, so the research was in- ed as a test of the comparative efficiency of the ix method. The result shows that it is undoubtedly most rapid way of detecting all the displacements, , of course, the method is purely differential, and ute motions can be found only by using meridian vations of the reference stars on the plate. In ‘present case comparison with the Greenwich cata- e shows that the stellar background is moving per century towards 113°, so that the blink results e ed to an origin moving in this manner. It found that each of the three methods of examining _the region has revealed some motions not shown by y the constant of distilled water—a little lower = usually accepted figure, 80.—C, Zenghelis : earches on the action of gases in a very fine _ division. A continuation of experiments { in a previous paper on the same subject. a mixture of a i and carbon dioxide, ehyde and its condensation products were l. The reduction was favoured by light, y by the ultra-violet rays.—J. Cournot: The gs of electrolytic iron. The removal of from electrolytic iron by annealing can. be by heating for two hours at 950° C. or one r at 1050° C. At 850° C. or lower temperatures ) popraphic study and hardness. determinations ‘: annealing to be incomplete even after six heating —L. Guillet: Some new researches on l brasses. Studies of brasses containing cobalt, ‘omium, silver, and gold.—G, Gire: The oxidation ¥f arsenious anhydride in alkaline medium in presence ferrous sulphate.—G. Denigés: lJodic acid as a ‘ochemical reagent characteristic of gaseous am- _ A to per cent. solution of iodic acid gives eristic crystals of ammonium iodate on e to gaseous ammonia. As _ little as ligram of ammonia can be detected by _ means.—. —A, Desgrez and J. Meunier: The leration of organic matter with the view of ing its mineral constituents; application to alysis.— —A. Korczynski, \W. Mrozinski, and : New catalytic elements for the ‘trans- of diazo-compounds. Salts of cobalt and replace copper. salts in certain applica- an er’s reaction.—J. Martinet and : A new indigo colouring matter, 5-[dioxy- di ubert : "New con- ne]-2-indolindigo.—H. _ of the diabases in Western French de Puymaly: A new small green alga, leprosa.—A. Paillot: The CEénocytoides and _ Dehorne : Atypical characters in in Corethra plumicornis.—B. sence of copper in plants, and y in of vegetable origin. Copper was baeder: four materials of vegetable origin , seeds, and fruits) in amounts varying 9 = Bate milligrams per kilogram of dried —~A The last phases of the nt of. aga endodermic metamerised organs » of Anthozoa and the formation of the . Chatton : Palisporogenesis : a mode of " special to certain parasite Flagella.— ud: Young colonies of the luminous Termite. ; M Viollande and P. Vernier: Cocobacillus insec- var. malacosomae, a pathogenic bacillus of the of the caterpillar, Malacosoma castrensis. PHILADELPHIA. Philosophical Society, April 22.—Prof. . Scott, president, in the chair.—Dr. L. M. Beach-protection works.—Prof. D. W. n; Geographic aspects of the Adriatic problem. G. Mayor: The reefs of Tutuila, Samoa, in - relation to coral-reef. theories.—Prof. H. F. d: Distribution of land and water on the earth. 4 conception of the land of the earth as being a ply dissected and loosely joined together mass, its centre about half-way between the equator we poles, explains nearly all the characteristics » distribution of land and water, such as the al relation, the concentration of land about h Pole and of water about the South Pole, NO, 2650, VOL. 105 | t 793 etc.—Prof. E. ©; Kendall - Thyroxin. —Dr. S, J. Meltzer: ‘The dualistic conception of the processes of life. The dualistic conception of the life-processes may be presented as follows: Irritability is a charac- teristic property of all living tissues. Irritability means the property of the tissues to react with a change in each state to a proper stimulus. The change may consist in an excitation—an increase in activity, or an inhibition—a decrease in activity. Each and every state of life of the plain tissues or of the complex functions is a resultant from the com- bination of the two antagonistic factors, excitation and inhibition.—Dr. F. G. Blake: The relation of the Bacillus influenzae to influenza. The experiments described establish the etiological relationship of Bacillus influenzae to the type “of bronchopneumonia with which the organism has been found constantly associated in man. ‘They also prove that B. influenzae can initiate an infection of the upper respiratory tract and produce a disease that closely resembles influenza and is associated with the same com- plications as influenza. They do not prove that B. influenzae is the primary cause of influenza, how- ever, since it is impossible to determine whether the disease produced in monkeys by inoculation with B. influenzae was actually identical with pandemic influenza.—Dr. W. E. Dandy: X-rays of the brain after injection of air into the ventricles of the brain and into the spinal canal.—Prof. J. D. Prince: Celt and Slav. Slavs and Celts are strikingly similar to each other in habits of mind and expression, although far removed geographically. The Russians, Poles, Czecho-Slovaks, Serbo-Croatians, and Bulgarians, all speaking Slavonic idioms, although .racially very various, have certain marked traits in common which they all share with the Celts, viz. the Irish, Scottish, and Manx Gaels, the Armorican Bretons of France, the Welsh, still Celtic-speaking, and the Cornish, whose Celtic language is now extinct. The similarity between Slavs and Celts is twofold, viz. tempera- mental discontent and morbid jov in sorrow. As a concomitant of this discontent goes the spirit of quest after the unattainable, which is manifest in both Slavonic and Celtic trends of thought. The sun of common sense has never risen on either the Slav or the Celt, and it is doubtful whether the Slavs can exist very long without the guiding hand of strangers. The charm of the Celt and Slav is great and durable, but it is charm and not character, feeling and senti- ment rather than thought and reasoning, which dominate the east and west of Europe alike.—Prof. R. B. Dixon; A new theory of Polynesian origins. The question of the racial origins of the Polynesian peoples has long attracted the attention of anthropo- logists. Previous studies have dealt mainly with small portions of the area, and have not satisfactorily correlated the various factors characterising physical types, or the Polynesian types with those of the rest of Oceania. The present study seeks to secure more satisfactory results by including the whole of Oceania and Eastern Asia in its scope. Following a method differing from those previously emploved, a number of fundamental physical types are defined, and their distribution and that of their derivatives traced. One of these fundamental types unexpectedly proves to be Negrito, the other two most important ones being Negroid and Malavoid. The Negrito and Negroid types. being marginal in their distribution, are probably the older.—Prof. A. V. W. Jackson: The Zoroastrian doctrine of the freedom of the will. The purpose of this paper was to show the significance of the doctrine of the freedom of the will in the dualistic creed of Zoroaster more than 2500 vears ago.—Prof. M. Jastrow, jun.: The Hittite civilisa- tion. The Hittites seem to have been composed of a 794. NATURE conglomeration of various ethnic elements, and about 1500 B.C. a ‘strong Hittite empire was located in northern Asia Minor, which was powerful enough to threaten both Egypt on one side and Babylonia and Assyria on the other. These Hittites, moving along the historical highway across Asia Minor, left their rock monuments and their fortresses as traces of the power and civilisation which they developed. Their contact with Assyria appears to have been particularly close, and it is not impossible that the earliest rulers were actually Hittites. The ‘‘sons of Heth’’ asso- ciated in tradition with Abraham are Hittites, and there were Hittite generals in the army of the Jewish kings.—Prof. M. Bloomfield: The decipherment of the Hittite languages.—Prof. P. Haupt: The beginning of the Fourth Gospel. John i. 1 should be trans- lated : ‘‘ In the beginning was reason.’’ Greek “‘ logos ”’ denotes both ‘“‘word’’ and ‘‘reason.’’ Logic is the science of reasoning. According to the Stoics, reason (Greek ‘“‘logos’’) was the active principle in the formation of the universe. Books Received. Scottish National Antarctic Expedition. Report on the Scientific Results of the Voyage of S.Y. Scotia during the Years 1902, 1903, and 1904. By Dr. W. S. Bruce. Vol. vii., Zoology. Parts 1-13, Invertebrates. Pp. viiit+323+15 plates. (Edinburgh: Scottish Oceanographical Laboratory.) 50s. Le Radium. Interprétation et Enseignements de la Radioactivité. By Prof. F. Soddy. Traduit de l’Anglais par A. Lepape. Pp. iii+375. (Paris: Félix Alcan.) 4.90. francs, Tracks and Tracking : A Book for Boy Scouts, Girl Guides, and Every Lover of Woodcraft. By H. M. Batten. Pp. 95. (London and. Edinburgh: W. and R. Chambers.) 2s. net. Criticism of the Nile Projects. Submitted by the Commission of Egyptian Engineers to the Nile Pro- jects Commission, 1920. Pp. 36. (Cairo.) Zi-ka-wei Observatory Atlas of the Tracks of 620 Typhoons, 1893-1918. By Louis Froc, S.J. Pp. 4+charts. (Zi-ka-wei.) Records of the Indian Museum. Vol. xvii., June. Catalogue of Oriental and South Asiatic Nemocera. By E. Brunette. Pp. 300. (Calcutta: Zoological Survey.) 5 rupees. Records of the Indian Museum. Vol. xx., June. A Monograph of the South Asian, Papuan, Melanesian, and Australian Frogs of the Genus Rana. By Dr. G. A. Boulenger. Pp. 226. (Calcutta: Zoological Survey.) 6 rupees. Western Australia. Astrographic Catalogue, 1900-0. Perth Section, Dec. —31° to —41°. From _photo- graphs taken and measured at the Perth Observatory under the direction of H. B. Curlewis. Vol. xvii. ps 55.0 Vol. xviiii,; Pp. 107.. Vol! xix.’ Po. “tor. Moh xm Pp." 90s Vole Rp. 54. Voki gaat. Pp. 105. Vol. xxiii: “Pp. too. ‘Vol. xxiv. Pp: 7s. (Perth.) Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. Vol. lii., part 4. New Stelar Facts, and their Bear- ing on Stelar Theories for the Ferns. By Dr. J. M‘L. Thompson. (Edinburgh: R. Grant and_ Son; London: Williams and Norgate.) 5s. 6d. Monograph of the Lacertide. By Dr. G. A. Boulenger. Vol. i. Pp. x+352. . (London: British Museum (Natural Historv).) 2. Eugenics. Civics, and Ethics. Bw Sir C. Walston. Pp. 56. (Cambridge: University Press.) 4s. net. Essays on Early Ornithology and Kindred Subiects. By 7. R. McClymont: Pp. vii+35+3 plates. (London: B. Quaritch, Ltd.) 6s. NO, 2650, VOL. 105 | ~The Sugar-Beet i in America. By Prof. F. S. Harr Pp. xviiit342+xxxii plates. (New York: The Ma millan Co.; London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd.) 12 net. x British Museum (Natural History). Furnit Beetles: Their Life-History and How to Check Preventethe Damage Caused by the Worm. By C. J. Gahan. (Economic Series, No. 11.) Po. 23. 1 plate. (London: British Museum (Natural His- tory).) 6d. British Museum (Natural History). British Ant- arctic (Terra prt de agua te a 1gto. Natural His- | Vol. ii., No. 9, Mollusca. Pp. 203-32. Anatomy of "ener: By 233-5644 plates. 8s. 6d. Vol. derma (part ii.) afd Enteropneusta. derma and Enteropneusta. By Prof. E. W. MacBrid e. Pp. 83-94+2 plates. 7s. 6d. (London: British Museum (Natural History).) : The Prevention of Tetanus during the Great War — by the Use of Antitetanic Serum. By Maj.-Gen. Sir — David Bruce. Pp. 27. (London: Rica Defence | | Society.) Is. 2 Der Aufbau der Materie; drei Aufsiitze iiber moderne Atomistik und Elektronentheorie. By Max Born. Pp. v+8r. (Berlin: J. Springer.) 8.60 marks. CONTENTS. PAGE Progress! By Sir E, Ray a K.C.B., FURS Peele Ss Ole ees 733 Complex Elements in Geometry. By Prof. G. B. Mathews, F.R.S. «736: Motion Study and ‘the Manual Werke’. By H. MW es. gis. 737. Our Bookshelf | . .. «cain Be a ee 738 Letters to the Editor :— hee Grants. — Sir Michael E. Sadler: K.C.S.1I The Carrying Power of Spores and Plant-life in Deep Caves.—Edith A. Stoney * Curious Formation of Ice. Alfred S. E. -Acker- mann Bees and the Scarlet-runner Bean. —Harford 1. Lowe The Condition of Kent’s Cavern.-Edward A, Martin . Calculation of Vapour Densities. Reginald G. Durrant . Use of Sumner Lines in " Navigation. —Prof. G. ‘Cc! Comstock ; Capt. T. H. Tizard, ae » F.R.S. The Research Department, Woolwich. et trated ) By Sir Robert Robertson, K.B. ES F.R.S The Romance of Bird Life, (Illustrated.) . . Helium: Its Production and Uses, ses Diagram. By Prof. J. C. McLennan, F.R.S. Obituary :— Prof. John Perry, F.R.S.—H. E. A.; W. E. D. Prof. et Righi, For.Mem.R.S. __Sir Oliver Lodge, F.R Co oe 08 8 SCO ee ee Oe err Notes . Our Astronomical Column :— An Interesting Meteorite . , The Union Observatory, Johannesburg win tied Galactic Condensation ; Pee ys Sees The British Empire Forestry Conference Li tase tea Colloidal Electrolytes. By T. Plant Culture in Denmark . Short-period Meteorological Ww. W. B. ee ee we hE ee OI 5 Te ee ie: ee " Variations. By ee toe Ce We owe aMn ce University and Educational Intelligence... . . Societies and Academies... . Books Received ......--. moe MALGRE y? 765 Editorial and Publishing Offices: MACMILLAN & CO., LTD, MARTIN'S STREET, LONDON, W.C.2. in 1919, directing attention to nine of water-power in Scotland which loped at once so as to supply elec- t economic rates. It was no doubt a _ water was appreciated by the : in October, 1919, the terms of vere extended by the Board of Trade '* whaty, steps should be taken to fhe water resources of the country has issued a Report! dealing with the ibject of the new reference. It should ot be collected from the surface in urban ricultural areas. Water subject to organic oard of Trade. Second Interim Report of the Water-Power Resources Presented to Parliament by Command of His Majesty. ‘Cmd. 776. (London : H.M. Stationery Office, 1920.) Price 4d. NO, 2651, VOL. 105 | chemical and bacteriological means, as_ Sir Alexander Houston has demonstrated on the citizens of Greater London. But many commu- nities demand a natural and untreated supply, and this, in default of deep wells, can be obtained only from uncultivated moorlands, most of which in England and Wales have already been appro- priated. The present method of allocating supplies is for a local authority to select a suitable gathering ground and then to promote a private Bill in Parlia- ment. The proposed scheme, after being found to conform to Standing Orders, is examined in turn by a Committee of each House, the members. of which may or may not have some knowledge of water supply and of parliamentary usage. An able counsel urges the necessity and perfection of the scheme on the Committee and brings forward experts to prove that the selected area can yield enough water and no more than is required. Certain Government Departments have the right to report upon the Bill, e.g. the Ministry of Health with regard to the quality of the supply and the needs of the population, the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries with regard to land drainage and possible damage to fish, and the Board of Trade or Ministry of Transport with regard to any possible effect on navigation. If the promoters succeed in arriving at an arrangement with the public bodies and private persons who appear as opponents, their scheme is likely to be passed by the Committee without any very critical inquiry, and it may be that broad national aspects of the case are never considered at all. In Scotland there is in most cases an alternative to: the promotion of a private Bill, by obtaining a provisional Order from the Scottish Office after an inquiry by a joint Committee of both Houses of Parliament sitting in the locality, and not at Westminster. In the absence of opposition the Order is confirmed by Parliament without further examination. A multitude of public and private opponents have a locus standi with regard to a Water Bill, but the fundamental idea appears to be that opposition is a matter for individual interests, and that it is not the business of any impartial authority to ascertain the facts of any particular case in the public interest alone. Selfish opposition often makes the passage of a Water Supply Bill difficult, and in the case of water- power the difficulty is much greater, as alternative sources of power are merely a matter of price. The Report before us gives the considered cc 766 NATURE ae“ [AucustT 19, 1920 opinion of the Committee on the question of the most desirable mechanism of control for the whole water resources of the country, and it is evident that some diversity of opinion had to be reconciled in arriving at it. One member, Mr. W. A. Tait, of Edinburgh, submits a Minority Report in which he considers that all the reforms required can be secured by improving the present system, both by assimilating the law of England to that of Scotland and by making certain simplifications in procedure. He holds that there is no justification for a new central water authority. One member signs the Majority Report with a reservation in which he deprecates the creation of a Water Com- mission, on the ground that the Ministry of Health, if strengthened, can deal adequately with the matter. Another signs with the reservation that he would have preferred a Central Depart- ment to deal with all water interests. The remain- ing seventeen members found the terms of the Majority Report sufficiently comprehensive and guarded to express their views. One might imagine that the easiest way to simplify the confusion of contending water interests would be to create a Central Department for the United Kingdom to which all existing Departments should transfer their duties as regards water, and in which any additional powers which might be required should be vested. By the con- stitution of the Committee the water problem in Ireland was referred to a_ special Irish Sub- Committee, and recent events naturally confirm the policy of keeping Irish interests by them- selves. But the Committee has not found it pos- sible or expedient even to recommend the reten- tion of Great Britain as a unit, and the scheme outlined refers in its entirety to England and Wales, Scottish interests being left to the Scottish Office. It seems unfortunate, in the present state of public feeling, that a rearrangement of duties could not have been suggested which should avoid adding to the present number of officials; but, on the other hand, it is necessary to bear in mind that the Committee set itself to devise a practic- able scheme which could be got to work with the minimum disturbance of existing Departments. Viewed as a workable compromise, the plan sug- gested by the Committee has sound qualities which probably compensate its obvious theoretical deficiencies. The Committee points out that nine previous Royal Commissions and Select Committees which NO. 2651, VOL, 105] ‘and Wales should be entrusted to a body of four had considered water problems between 1866 an 1910 had concurred in recommending the creatio of a central water authority to control the alloca- tion of water, to act as an advisory body to Par. liament, and to collect information as to water resources. -Much fresh evidence was called by the Committee, and the final scheme for control — put forward in this Report is as follows. The allocation of sources of water in England Commissioners appointed by the Minister of Health, to whom their responsibility should be — direct. The chairman of the Commission should be a Civil Servant or lawyer having ripe experience of administration and legislation. The other three should be technical members, all to be paid and to devote their whole time to the work. An Inter- — departmental Committee representing the “multi- _ plicity of interests to be reconciled ’’ and including representatives of various scientific services should — be set up by statute to assist the Commissioners. In order that the Commission may perform its — duty of allocating water, its first concern is held to be to acquire all necessary information on the subject. This should be obtained from the Depart- ments already engaged in collecting such data, particularly the Ordnance Survey, the Geological Survey, and the Meteorological Office; but as these do not cover the whole ground the Commis- . sion should be empowered to set up a Hydro- metric Survey. The Commission should consult: with the Scottish and Irish authorities with a view to the compilation of all records on a uniform system. tek It is recommended that every proposal to oe water from the surface or from underground, except for private domestic use, should be submitted to — the Commission for its licence® If the Commission sees cause to withhold its consent, the promoters : can still proceed by means of a private Bill; but — if a licence is issued, they need apply only to the Department dealing with the particular use of water, and this Department should be empowered to grant an Order which, if unopposed, should — take effect without confirmation by Parliament. — Existing Departments are empowered to deal with — all uses of water except water-power, and it is — proposed to create either in the Board of Trade or under the Electricity Commissioners a new Department for the study, control, and encourage- ment of the use of water-power in Great Britai: Encouragement should include the grant of tet ‘, porary financial assistance to ‘promising power : _ Aveust 19, 1920] NATURE 797 1 ‘schemes. This subject is to have fuller treat- _ ment in the final Report of the Committee. In addition to new allocations the Water Com- _ mission should have power to revise existing allo- cations, including the compensation water already Prescribed by Act of Parliament. Another duty would be the setting- up of local Rivers Boards to ‘control individual rivers as a whole. One further safeguard is suggested, namely, appointment by the Commission of an dvisory committee, or committees, consisting of representatives of water undertakings and scien- tific institutions, consulting engineers, and other qualified persons.’’ Presumably the services of _ for the Commission “also” ask to be empowered _ “to obtain and pay for professional advice in con- nection with their investigations.’’ _ Perhaps one might be inclined to doubt whether _ the Committee has always kept clearly in mind the €ssential distinction between scientific and tech- 4 nical advice ; but in one respect at least the Report will be welcome to scientifically minded people. It _ places in the forefront of the duties of the Water Commissioners the investigation by scientific study of the actual water resources of the country _ and the strengthening of existing agencies by the creation of a hydrometric survey of rivers. One ‘ cannot help regretting that the various survey _ bodies are not united under one scientific Depart- ment, for it would be a natural development if the a _ Department of Scientific and Industrial Research were to add to the care of the Geological Survey _ that of the Ordnance Survey, the Meteorological _ Office, and the proposed Hydrometric Survey. In these matters, however, simplification comes _ slowly, and it is a great matter to find a clear statement of the truth, which is not self-evident _ to all our legislators, that one must first ascertain what our resources are before we proceed to _ distribute them. We have endeavoured to state the conclusions as briefly and simply as possible, but the Report goes into much detail and requires careful reading. : The system suggested is, we believe, as simple and efficient as it could be made, bearing in mind the initial determination to work so far as possible through existing agencies. But it is open to doubt the wisdom of that determination and to ask whether the creation of a Central Department dealing with all water questions, and with water questions only, might not, after all, be a simpler, cheaper, and more efficient solution of the problem. NO. 2651, VOL. 105 | « these Specialists are to be solicited gratuitously,’ ‘The Mathematician as Anatomist. Department of Applied Statistics, University of London, University College: Drapers’ Company Research Memoirs. Biometric Series, x.: A Study of the Long Bones of the English Skeleton. By Karl Pearson and Julia Bell. Text: Part i., The Femur. Chaps. i. to vi. Pp. v+224. Atlas: Part i., The Femur. Pp. vii+plates lix+Tables of Measurements and Observations. (Cambridge: At the Uni- versity Press, 1919.) Price, Text and Atlas, Part i., 30s. net. Department of Applied Statistics, University of London, University College: Drapers’ Company Research Memoirs. Biometric Series, xi.: A Study of the Long Bones of the English Skeleton. By Karl Pearson and Julia Bell. Text: Part i., Section ii., The Femur of Man, with special reference to other Primate Femora. Chaps. vii. to x., Appendices, Bibliography, and Indices. Pp. 225-539. Atlas: Part i., Section ii., The Femur of the Primates. Pp. vii+plates Ix-ci+Tables of Femoral Measurements of the Primates. (Cambridge: At the University Press, 1919.) Price, Text and Atlas, Part i., Section ii., 4os. net. F in the rapid increase of knowledge at the present time there is a tendency for men to limit their labours more and more to one narrow field of investigation, there is also, we are glad to note, an opposite tendency leading men who have become eminent in their own particular subject to cross professional frontiers and to carry war, seldom peace, into neighbouring or even distant specialities. In the present two great publications, devoted chiefly to the human thigh- bone, containing more than a quarter of,a million words, with tables which give the results of at least 70,000 measurements, and illustrated by 105 anatomical plates, we find Prof. Karl Pearson, the mathematician, definitely settling himself in the front bench of speculative anatomists. He cannot have expected a warm welcome in his new quarters, for there are few British anatomists who do not bear the mark of at least one of those biometrical brickbats at the throwing of which Prof. Pearson has manifested very considerable skill. They did not hurt any the less because they were meant kindly! In spite of all their scars, however, British anatomists—nay, anatomists of every country—who study these volumes will forget their past sores and be glad to welcome him to their membership for the great service he has rendered to their subject, not only in this, but also in previous memoirs. 768 NATURE {[AuGUST 19, 1920 To understand aright what has been accomplished in the memoir now under review one has to go back twenty-five years to 1895, when Prof. Pearson, then the occupant of the chair of applied mathe- matics at University College, London, showed how the mathematical theory of statistics could and should be applied to all the manifestations of life. He was the only man then in England to perceive that Francis Galton was a really great“man, and that if the knowledge relating to man and to living things was to be placed on a sound foundation, it must be laid by an application and an ampli- fication of the Galtonian methods. Anatomists had made a survey of the human body and re- corded their experience by giving accurate descrip- tions of what they had seen and broad general- isations as to what they thought. Prof. Pearson realised, as Galton had done before him, that no progress could be made in our knowledge of popu- lations, races, or species until accurate standard methods of measurements had been applied to great numbers of individuals, and hence the first task which faced him, in building up a biometrical school, was the gathering of data to which Statistical methods could be applied. Fortunately Sir George Thane, when professor of anatomy at University College, had had the foresight to store in his department great assemblages of human bones recovered from burial grounds in the East End of London—presumably remains of seven- teenth-century Londoners who: had died of the plague. This material became a treasure trove for the growing biometrical school. Prof. Pearson’s methods were applied to the skulls by the late Dr. W. R. Macdonald, and for the first time we had given to us standard data relating to the skull of the Englishman. Skulls have always been a favourite means for the study of racial characters, but Prof. Pearson wished to show that other bones had also their racial values, and by 1907 he was in a position, with the assist- ance of Miss Julia Bell, to commence his investi- gation of the thigh-bone. Prof. Pearson had in the East London collection about 800 examples of this bone—each of which was .examined, and in almost every instance measurements were made and estimates formed relating to eighty characters—in some examples to as many as a hundred—in order to establish the prevailing features of the thigh-bone of English men and women. He had to standardise old methods of making measurements and indices and to invent many new ones. In the course of his work he has brought to light many important facts which are new to anatomists. From this first phase of his investigation he was led, very naturally, to a second—to see how the English NO. 2651, VOL, 105 | thigh-bone compared with that of Continental peoples. He had to search foreign records, and { found them almost as barren of accurate details as those at home, but we cannot help noting his — leniency towards the shortcomings of anatomists — who live beyond the shores of England. Then — followed in due course a third step—a comparison — of the thigh-bone of the European with that of — other races of the world—and a fourth—a com- — parison of the thigh-bone of modern man — with that of ancient and extinct races of mankind. A fifth extension of his original aim was a com- ~ parison of the human femur with that of other members of the Primate class—the’ gorilla, the — chimpanzee, the orang (the great anthropoids), — the gibbon (or small anthropoid), the monkeys of the Old and of the New Worlds, and lastly with the lowest of Primate forms—the Lemuroids, including Tarsius. Then came a sixth exten- sion—a study and comparison of the thigh-bones _ of extinct apes and Lemuroids. Finally, on the evidence he had thus accumulated from an inten-— sive study of the thigh-bone, we have the ~ construction of a pedigree or lineage of their owners—a pedigree which gives us the conception — he has formed of man’s evolutionary history and of man’s relationship to the higher members of — the animal kingdom. By this natural sequence of inquiries the pro- fessor of mathematics has become an exponent of human phylogenetics. Setting out in 1907 with the intention of examining the femur of the Londoner, he ended in 1919 with a survey of the world of Primates. Those who have had experience in arranging the members of a group of plants or animals— — in conformity with their natural affinities—in a scheme which will express their evolutionary rela- tionships are well aware that diverse, even con- — tradictory, results are obtained, according to the — system of parts used in framing the scheme of ~ classification. If we arrange the Primates by — grouping them according to the anatomical char- — acters of their teeth, we get one result; if by their brains and nervous system, a second and — very different grouping; if by their digestive 3 system, a third; if by their reproductive system, a — fourth, and so on. All the systems have to be ui taken into account, and to some, such as the brain, much more weight must be given than to 2 others. In the most perfect scheme of classifica-_ tion there are always blemishes; the evidence of — one system will be found to contradict or be ab] variance with that of another. “a There need be no surprise at this variance of evidence; it should be so if heredity works a Mendelian way. If we confine our attention, UST 19, 1920] NATURE 769 gement. If we use the thigh-bone alone, sification of the Primates will serve to an + ape. In such an event this memoir would le, for it gives us, for the first time, sis on which a rational prophecy can be There is a case in point which is very ly dealt with by Prof. Pearson—the thigh- _Pithecanthropus. He has applied more ate and more elaborate tests to the anato- characters of this bone than has _ hitherto [ a of a man. Prof. Pearson is too man of science to deny the possibility having at the same time an almost an femur and a skull and brain which an, but he is clearly more than ‘in his scheme of classification Pithec- ; must be given a place amongst races 1man. Even when he has given us, as omised—and it is sincerely to be hoped able to carry it out—his programme of -correlationship of the thigh-bone to bones of the body and their correla- to the jaws and cranium—there will still infinitely more difficult task of stating cal terms the correlationship of one ° another, such as that of the nervous to tive system, or of the respiratory to the ive, circulatory, and other systems. For 2, it is clear, we must depend, as in the 2 the somewhat crude methods of il appreciation and analysis. have already told how the principal author monograph was led, during the latter part twelve years he devoted to a study of the ir, to ascertain what light his results shed on jlutionary histories of mankind, the anthro- | It is true that h he is perfectly aware—as when man and the find themselves the closest of allies as regards . diameters of their femoral shafts, or when the d World monkeys find themselves cheek by jowl NO, 2651, VOL. 105 | with man because of the equality of length in their femoral condyles. But on the*whole his results and deductions must be regarded as helpful and trustworthy. It so happens that the writer of this review has, these thirty years past, been collecting data from all the systems of the Primate body (see Nature, 1911, vol. Ixxxv., p- 508), and has from time to time assorted his observations to see how far a scheme of Primate © evolution could be framed which would give a coherent explanation of the distribution of anato- mical characters such as is now seen in the bodies of man, the anthropoid apes, and the monkeys of the Old and New Worlds. The results which have been reached by Prof. Pearson and the reviewer are, in the main, in harmony. The mathematical anatomist insists upon an anthropoid or troglodytic link in man’s lineage; he claims to have reinstated the great anthropoid or troglodyte as a necessary stage in man’s ancestry; but he will find that very few anatomists who have given this problem due thought have dismissed the anthropoid apes from the place given to them by Huxley. Prof. Pearson gives Tarsius a remote place in his scheme of human evolution. He is right, too, in dismissing the present-day gibbon from man’s family tree, but altogether wrong if he supposes that the hylobatian stock from which the modern gibbon (highly specialised so far as limbs are concerned) arose plays no part in man’s lineage. He is right, too, in concluding that the gibbon has no claim to be brigaded with the great anthropoids —the gorilla, chimpanzee, and orang. In their essential structure the gibbons form a separate group, one which serves to link together—or at least to bridge the gaps between—the monkeys of the Old and New Worlds and the great anthro- poids. They are the essential link between monkeys and anthropoids. The femoral characters of the gibbon give a somewhat misleading indi- cation of its true place in the phylum of the higher Primates. As a common ancestor of the human and great anthropoid group—the pre-troglodyte in man’s lineage—Prof. Pearson postulates a ‘“ Protsimio- human ” Primate form, which he believes will turn out to be more human than anthropoid, a mathe- matical deduction with which few naturalists will agree. On the other hand, certain inferences made regarding the status and relationship of early races of man in Europe, founded entirely on the characters of their thigh-bones, are particu- larly worthy of attention. There has been much speculation regarding the existence of negroids in southern Europe in late Pleistocene times, founded on the discovery of remains of two Grimaldi indi- 77° NATURE [AucustT 19, 1920 . viduals in a cave near Mentone. From a study of their skulls the reviewer came to the conclusion that they had nothing of the African negro in them, but that they were of the Cromagnon race, a conclusion which Prof. Pearson has reached independently from a study of their thigh-bones. He is uncertain of the relationship of Neanderthal and of Cromagnon man to modern races of mankind—uncertain as to whether these two types of ancient Europeans should figure as stages, or links, in the chain of modern. man’s evolution, or whether they really represent branches which have sprung from that stem. The evidence of their skulls and teeth leaves modern anatomists in little doubt as to their true relation- ships; Neanderthal man represents the terminal stage of a side branch, whereas Cromagnon man is but one of the numerous varieties of modern man. One other point is to be noted : in surveying the evolutionary evidence yielded by a single bone the same discordant array of indications is found as when all the systems of the. body are studied ; the final result has to be obtained by an exercise of judgment on the part of the classifier. It is a matter of everyday observation that no two people walk exactly alike; there is the same infinite variety in the human gait as is found in the human face. Women have their own par- ticular kind of progression; not one of us uses the right limb in exactly the same way as the left; the left foot is more frequently inturned to a greater degree than is the right. If, as medical men believe, bone-cells are peculiarly sensitive and responsive to the muscular and other stresses which are brought to bear on them, then there ought to be just that range of variation of form in the thigh-bone which this monograph demonstrates to exist. A functional explanation of the structural variation of the femur is one which Prof. Pearson is not prepared to entertain, and unfortunately medical men have as yet neg- lected, or almost neglected, the study of the living femur, and are therefore unable to say whether or not the anatomical forms of the femur are correlated to certain peculiarities of gait. The improvement in our means of examining the anatomy of the thigh-bone in the living by the aid of X-rays is likely to fill up this blank in our knowledge, and at the same time to offer a rational explanation of many puzzling features noted and estimated by Prof. Pearson and his collaborator. A study of the manner of progression of anthro- poids in their natural habitats will help to show how closely form and function are correlated. In the orang, for instance, the hind limbs are reduced to mere grasping organs; in it and in the gibbon the swinging arms are the chief organs of progres- NO. 2651, VOL, 105] sion. ° In the reviewer’s opinion all measurement and calculations should be made, so far as practicable, not only to indicate the degree and kind of racial characteristics, but also to express degrees and kinds of function. Indices should . be of such a nature as to convey to the student a precise conception of the degree and je of function. This great memoir opens up a prospect which may well appal the heart of the stoutest anatomist. Here we have two parts, running to 539 pages, each page containing on an average more than 500 words, devoted to the subject which the authors speak of as femoralogy and the special — 4 students of which are called femoralogists, with the promise of a third part. When the examination of the human skeleton is com- pleted on a corresponding scale we shall have an immense library. We may not like the pro- spect, but is there any option if our knowledge of mankind is to be based on a foundation which | will last? The reviewer does not think there is any other way, and feels sure that the time will certainly come, if it has not already come, when anatomists the world over will acknowledge the courage, industry, and prescience of the English school of biometrics and of its founder. It would be a set-back to the progress of our knowledge of © ; mankind were Prof. Pearson’s projected pro- gramme to be in any way curtailed by a lack of financial assistance. A. Keiru. The Theoretic Basis of Psychotherapy. The New Psychology and its Relation to Life. By A. G. Tansley.. Pp. 283. (London: George Allen and Unwin, Ltd., 1920.) Price ros. 6d, net. es BOUT fifteen years ago Prof. Scripture, of Yale, published his book upon “The New Psychology.” The psychology which was “new ” then was experimental psychology; now the new psychology is something very different—the study of the non-rational processes of the human mind. Most of the material of Mr. Tansley’s book con- sists in theories which are contained in the works of Prof. Freud, of Vienna; of Dr. Jung, of Zurich; and of Mr. William McDougall, who is ee just now leaving Oxford to settle at Harvard. The work of these three researchers has achieved world-wide renown; Mr. Tansley has done a good © service in presenting some important elements of them in a compact and readable form. Mr. McDougall’s books are accessible enough, but the 3 views of the two Continental savants are scat- — tered through various publications in a way which is rather baffling to the English reader. af tees, 7 : With _AuGuUST 19, 1920] NATURE 771 If acquainted with the main points at issue. _ The work of Freud and Jung deals mainly with sub-conscious, that mysterious twilight n of the mind whence spring most of our est and strongest motives. The key which id has used to unlock its secrets is sex. He s stress upon the immature sex-experience of ing children and upon the repressed sexual s of adult life which show themselves in s and in lapses of memory and behaviour. Ir this way he explains not merely the unusual phenomena of hysteria, but also the mental strains and ‘stresses which trouble the peace of ordinary ‘sane men. Dr. Jung, on the other hand, takes a wider view; he argues that not only sex, but also _ €very strong natural human interest—the desire for self-preservation, for example—may be the cause of mental conflicts and nervous disorders. His view has been strikingly confirmed by the experi- ce of the physicians who have treated the com- ted war-neuroses which are familiar to the public under the term of “shell-shock.” It is another side of the sub-conscious that has engaged the attention of Mr. McDougall. He has written upon our instinctive life and shown how ich of the experience which seems to us dis- tinctively human is really based upon tendencies at are shared with the animals below us. He has ne a great work in analysing our various in- stinets and in showing how they influence our conduct and our emotional life. ‘The main reason why the new psychology has so greatly impressed popular imagination is that most excellent results have been produced by it a The early in the treatment of nervous disorders. rkers in this field were men who were either practising physicians, or closely in touch with medicine. As soon as they formed a theory they proceeded at once to put it to the test of ‘practice. Extraordinary cures have been per- formed by working upon the assumption that the trouble in the patient is of mental origin, and that the bodily symptoms are merely the physical expression of mental strain. In psychotherapy, as in medicine generally, our knowledge of detail d of derivative facts far exceeds our knowledge . fundamental principles. We know, for ex- ample, that if the physician is able to discover the ture of a hidden mental conflict which is bling the patient, and can talk and reason th him about it, the symptoms are usually re- lieved. hres process is technically termed ‘ab- reaction,” and the real efficacy of it is attested by scores of incontestable cures. _ This being so, it is easy to explain why Mr. Tansley’s book is most satisfactory when he is | NO. 2651, VOL. 105] help of Mr. Tansley anyone can now make | dealing with such matters as the interpretation of dreams, the “rationalisations” by which men try to justify conduct which is really prompted by non- rational motives, and the great psychic complexes which correspond to the main instincts of man. And we can explain why the book is less satisfac- tory in the general theoretical chapters with which it opens. Mr. Tansley has done his best to combine “new ” psychological theories from Freud, Jung, and McDougall into a consistent whole. The result is not very clear or convincing. But perhaps in the present state of our knowledge we could scarcely look for greater success. He Industrial Research. The Organisation of Industrial Scientific Re- search. By Dr. C. FE, Kenneth Mees. Pp. ix+175. (New York and_ London: McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 1920.) ‘Price 12s. HE author of this book is a distinguished worker in the branch of science with which he is associated, and his experience as the director of a large industrial: research organisation has been such as to warrant careful consideration of his views. The book is mainly intended for manu- facturers who, while convinced of the need for research in their industries, have had no occasion to consider in detail the planning and administra- tion of a works research department. Many scientific workers will also welcome an opportunity of acquainting themselves further with the broad questions of research policy and organisation in industry, which the individual engaged on a speci- fic task often fails to see in correct perspective. The scope of the book and the sequence of chapters are admirable. Consideration is given to various types of research. laboratories, to the development of co-operative research, and particu- larly to the internal organisation and staffing of the works research laboratory, together with its relation to the other parts of the factory. Some general details are also given relating to the design and equipment of the laboratory, and a comprehensive bibliography is attached. The classification of research laboratories largely resolves itself into a list of the various agencies by which the laboratories are financially maintained. To avoid the obvious disadvantages of such a grouping, the author distinguishes between “convergent” and “divergent” labora- tories, depending on whether varied problems and phenomena converging on a common object are studied, such, for instance, as at the pottery school at Stoke-on-Trent or at the laboratory for glass technology at Sheffield, or whether a wider field is covered having no particular common 772 NATURE [AucusT 19, 1920 — feature, such as at the National Physical Labora- tory or at a laboratory serving the interests of a group of works producing many kinds of manu- factured articles. Criticising the research associations developed in this country, the author deprecates the degree of control remaining in the hands of the Research Department, the character of the personnel of the Advisory Council and its committees, and the policy of secrecy which is fostered by a research association comprising a group of manufacturers in one industry; and considers the difficulty of determining the choice of researches and the dis- posal ‘of results to be serious. Many people, how- ever, will not display any particular enthusiasm for the author’s alternative proposal, a co-opera- tive laboratory conducted by an association of users. It may be. admitted that users have a common interest, but this is less clearly defined and much more difficult to focus on one line of research than that of an association of producers. Users also have less experience in the production of the material they employ, and in industry it is highly desirable to make use of existing know- ledge as a basis for research. The author may not be aware that, in some cases at least, British re- search associations are dual in character, compris- ing both producers and consumers, this probably being an ideal combination. It is important to note that the author considers it undesirable to divorce a works research depart- ment from works problems, and the success of notable instances to the contrary should not obscure the principle. Many readers will doubtless wish that the author had gone further into detail than is the case in many chapters. The economic and social benefits of research should perhaps not have been taken for granted, and the question of the co- ordination of research and the collection and dis- tribution of scientific intelligence could have been dealt with to advantage. In general, however, the book bears the marks of experience through- out, and will well repay perusal. A. P. M. FLemine. Science and Crime. Legal Chemistry and Scientific Criminal Investiga- tion. By A. Lucas. Pp. viii+181. (London: Edward Arnold, 1920.) Price 10s. 6d. net. tee are numerous text-books on the subject of forensic medicine, but, with the excep- tion of works on toxicology, thete are very few which deal with analogous problems to the in- vestigation of which chemistry is applicable. This little book makes no pretension to being a com- NO. 2651, VOL. 105] plete treatise on forensic chemistry, and to extent its title is misleading, for it consists lar of notes on the cases which have come within author’s experience, together with a few gene remarks on the methods of dealing with exhib and presenting the evidence in such cases. As director of the Government laboratory country such as Egypt, where frauds of all I appear to be exceptionally numerous, the autl has had the advantage of applying the m C described in various journals in a great r of cases, and of noting their deficiencies, gives particulars of these cases arranged alpha- betically under the headings of the ‘fi : jects. =? As a rule, original methods have rit devised, but some of the sections give inter details of the author’s investigation in connection ~ with special subjects. For example, a igs human hair, he shows that it is doubtful whet ethe red has ever been caused by the Egyptian 1 me etl 10¢ a of embalming. Another novel point of ch mical interest is that in no instance has pitch or bitumen eo been found in the pitch-like material used in pre- _ serving human mummies, the material examined invariably consisting of resins or gums | which - have become naturally blackened by age. From the point of view of the practical checntaé if the most useful section is that dealing with the 4 examination of documents, in which questions connected with the composition of paper and inks — are dealt with at some length. In one land case it a) was found that out of 168 documents no fewer than 163 were forgeries, the frauds ranging from. simple alterations of names to the elaborate fabrication of documents by joining parts of other documents, and concealing mutilations by partly scorching ‘the paper. In this connection the ‘a author lays stress upon the importance of know- a ing the dates of changes in the methods of manu- facturing paper and the like. As carbon ink is still frequently used in feroe for title deeds of land, the author has had the exceptional opportunity of studying modern docu ments written in ink similar to that used prior Oo the invention of iron gall inks, and he gives teresting particulars of his observations. Con trary to the commonly accepted belief, the carbon inks on several of the older Arabic docume between A.D. 1677 and 1871 were partly brov and the same thing was noted on still ear manuscripts dating back to a.p. 622. Hence conclusion is drawn that it must be regard ( proved that carbon inks which were orig black may become brown with age. The questions of secret writing and its de elor ment, a Avcust 19, 1920] istry. _ tion of details of scientific methods as applied to the detection of crime, such as are given here, that it d - criminals with information in a convenient form _ for reference; but this objection applies with more - cogency to the publication of the scientific methods _ of combating the adulteration of food. ar _ into another. offensive fumes will be avoided. NATURE 773 the imitation of seal impressions, forgery of postage stamps, and the examination of handwriting are also briefly touched upon in ‘this section, whilst there is a cognate section upon _ the detection of robbery from letters and parcels Has transit. Other subjects which are discussed inciude the examination of dust and stains, the development of finger-prints, the investigation of the cause of mires and of damage to crops, and the examination of fibres, ropes, and clothing. In each case refer- ~ ences to literature on the subject are appended, and illustrative cases usually given. Regarded as a whole, the book should be wel- tomed by every chemist whose work is likely to include any problems in which legal questions are _ involved, and it might well be made the nucleus of a more comprehensive work on forensic chem- It is sometimes urged against the publica- is dangerous to provide prospective The adulterator is frequently waiting to be made ac- - quainted with the scientific drawbacks of his methods, whereas the persons who commit other forms of fraud are nearly always without scientific training and, if they were to attempt to avoid one scientific pitfall, would be almost certain to fall C2 As Mt. Our Bookshelf. Optical Projection. By Lewis Wright. Fifth edition, rewritten and brought up to date by Russell S. Wright. (In two parts.) Part i., The Projection of Lantern Slides. Pp. viii+87. (London: Longmans, Green, and Co., 1920.) _ Price 4s. 6d. net. Tuis completely revised edition of Mr. Lewis Wright’s book is very welcome. We are glad to see that the oil-lantetn, which is so handy in small class-rooms and in the huts of camps, is still re- garded as a possible projector. tioned that if this lantern is filled for each occa- sion, and set up lighted in an adjacent room, or, better still, in the school-yard, for forty minutes or so before the lecture, all risk of producing In regard to screens for such class-rooms, may we add that a square of mounted diagram-paper, which is made 5 ft. wide, gives an excellent surface, and can be kept rolled up and fixed with large drawing- pins as required? Lastly, when Mr. R. S. Wright gives suggestions as to flash- -signals, should. he even tolerate ‘the “next slide” NO, 2651, VOL. 105| the It may be men- system of com- munication with the operator? The recently intro- duced silent wave of the pointer has escaped mention in this useful treatise. A. J.-C. Elementary Agricultural Chemistry: A Handbook for Junior Agricultural Students and Farmers. By Herbert Ingle. Third edition, revised. (Griffin’s Technological Handbooks.) Pp. ix +250. (London: Charles Griffin and Co., Ltd., 1920.) Price 5s. THERE are no essential differences between this and the second edition of Mr. Ingle’s book. The volume provides an excellent introduction to its subject in a form which should be intelligible to the practical agriculturist as well as to the scien- tific student. It contains a number of interesting and useful tables, and on account of its very reasonable price it should be popular with students of agriculture. Although described on the cover as “A Practical Handbook,” it contains no account’ of experiments or methods of analysis, but these would no doubt have increased the size of the book beyond the limits desired. Luck, or Cunning, as the Main Means of Organic Modification? An Attempt to Throw Addi- tional Light upon Darwin’s Theory of Natural Selection. By Samuel Butler. Second edition, re-set, with author’s corrections and additions to index. Pp. 282. (London: A. C. Fifield, 1920.) Price 8s. 6d. net. Tuis is a reprint of the first edition pub- lished in 1886. The only important changes are in the index, which has been considerably enlarged by additions made from notes by the author in a copy of the first edition. As is an- nounced in the introduction, the book is written round Samuel Butler’s favourite theories, “the substantial identity between heredity « and memory,” and “the re-introduction of design into organic development.” Notes on Chemical Research: An Account of Certain Conditions which apply to Original Investigation. By W. P. Dreaper. Second edition. (Text-books of Chemical Research and Engineering.) Pp. gv+195. (London: J. and A. Churchill, 1920.) Price 7s. 6d. net. TueE first edition of this stimulating work was reviewed in Nature for February 6, 1913. The new edition is divided into two portions, the first dealing with the history and method of research, and the second with modern works practice. A chapter in the latter portion is given up to the consideration of the training desirable for a re- search student. An index would have been helpful. Spiritual Pluralism and Recent Philosophy. By C. A. Richardson. Pp..xxi+ 335. (Cambridge :. . At the University Press, 1919.) Price 14s, net. Tue author examines the Weber-Fechner law of sensation and shows that ‘“unperceived sense- data,’’ such as are sometimes deduced from it, are not logically admissible. He expresses spiritual © 774 NATURE [AucusT 19, 1920 pluralism as the assumption that our sense-per- ceptions are due to other ‘‘subjects of experience ”’ of a non-material nature, and akin to our own subjective self. Guided by this principle, he dis- cusses determinism and immortality, the relation of mind and body, and certain abnormal pheno- mena usually called “ spiritualistic.” Unconscious Memory. By Samuel Butler. Third edition, entirely reset; with an Introduction and Postscript by Prof. Marcus Hartog. Pp. xxxix +186. (London: A. C. Fifield, 1920.) Price 8s. 6d. net. Tue first edition of this work was reviewed in Nature for January 27, 1881. The _ second edition, noticed in Nature for November 3, 1910, contained an introduction by Prof. Marcus Hartog, giving an outline of Samuel Butler’s works and discussing their value to science. In the present edition Prof. Hartog has appended to his introduction a postscript in which he sets forth, briefly, the position of Samuel Butler’s bio- logical works in modern science. Wild Fruits and How to Know Them. By Dr. S. C. Johnson. Pp. xi+132. (London: Holden and Hardingham, Ltd., n.d.) Price 1s. net. A-BRIEF description of most of the trees and shrubs found on the English countryside is given, special attention being paid to the forms of inflorescences and fruits. Identification of specimens is greatly simplified by the large number of sketches, showing both foliage and fruit, included. The last chapter is devoted to the commoner plants and weeds which have con- spicuous fruits. Silver: Its Intimate Association with the Daily Life of Man. By Benjamin White. (Pitman’s Common Commodities and Industries.) Pp. xi +144. (London: Sir Isaac Pitman and Sons, Ltd., n.d.) . Price 2s. 6d. net. Tuis volume is more concerned with the statistics and economics of silver than with technology, although an interesting account of the extraction, purification, and utilisatiog of silver is given. There are many useful tables. An interesting chapter deals with ‘The Evolution of British Coinage.”” The book is addressed to the general reader, but contains much of service to teachers and students. The Identification of Organic Compounds, By Dr. G. B. Neave and Prof. I. M. the late Heilbron. Second edition. Pp. viii + 88. (London: Constable and Co., Ltd., 1920.) Price 4s. 6d. net. THE second edition of this useful manual has undergone practically no alteration. It is one of the best books of its kind, and contains a large amount of information in a handy and compact form. We have no doubt that it will continue to find favour among students and teachers of chemistry. NO, 2651, VOL. 105] which are Gold: Its Place in the Economy of Mankind. By Benjamin White. (Pitman’s Common Com- modities and _ Industries.) Pp. xi+1g0.) (London: Sir Isaac Pitman and Sons, Ltd., — n.d.) Price 3s. net. THE steps by which gold has acquired its high q value, and its past history with regard to pro- duction and uses, are described. The last portion of the book is devoted to a review of the gold stocks in the world and their movements before and during the Great War. A number of tables is included, showing the amount and value of gold in use in various countries; these should be of interest to students of commercial geography and economics. a: Pastimes for the Nature Lover. By. Dr, S.C. Johnson. Pp. 136. (London: Holden and. Hardingham, Ltd., n.d.) Price 1s. net. SomE of the plants and smaller animals commonly found in this country are described, and methods. of preserving them or of studying their habits, as the case may be, are given. Silkworms and Nature photography are also mentioned. book would be of use to young collectors. ‘Letters to the Editor, — [The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manuscripts intended for this or any other part of Nature. No notice is taken of anonymous communications.] University Grants. I aGREE with Sir Michael Sadler in thinking that — the article on university grants in Nature of August 5 is very opportune, and 1 concur completely in all that he says on the subject in the issue for August 12. It is not necessary for me to repeat the arguments and the statements so briefly and emphatically ex- pressed by the Vice-Chancellor of the University of Leeds, because I feel sure that everyone with a com- petent knowledge of the situation in the modern universities would agree that Sir Michael Sadler has by no means understated the gravity of the crisis with which the universities are faced. . : At Birmingham, as at Leeds, we have been rigidly economical in our expenditure. We know that we are doing work the value of which is appreciated by our students and the community of the Midlands whom we endeavour to serve. But unless large new grants are forthcoming it will be impossible for us not only to continue to meet those needs, but also to maintain the standard of work in the various depart- ments. : To what Sir Michael Sadler has said I would add only two points : (1) Unless ‘the equality with those obtaining for skilled intellectual work elsewhere, e.g. in the Government service or in the service of the great municipalities, it will be im- possible to obtain or retain the men and women with the requisite qualifications for university work; and it is from the members of the non-professorial sic ala aia ne ea eae te EEA SR ce SD The : stipends of the non-professorial a staffs of the universities are placed on something like i a ae ee OC eae att Avcust 19, 1920] NATURE 775 ‘the universities must later look for filling professorships. A decrease, therefore, in the and the quality of the non-professorial staffs universities means ultimately a decrease in the and quality of the professors throughout the ry. University teachers, particularly of profes- Status, cannot be improvised or provided at a loment’s notice. Competent professors are the result tracting the requisite ability to the service of the versities in the junior grades and providing those with the opportunities for training in ig and in research until they have reached the d expected for professorial purposes. Unless, re, the universities are properly staffed, in a fe ’* time the whole standard of teaching and of ssearch and of knowledge throughout the universities ll inevitably drop; and it is desirable to remember iat on the maintenance of the standards of the pro- essoriate the training of the non-professorial staff depends. . ous as is the situation to-day, its full meaning ill not be apparent until some years hence, and it ill then be impossible to make good what can be le good now, if we are not penny wise and pound Srade - : Park. 4 Regarding the programmes of the fadwidaal 4 sections, little can be added to the account of them ~ published in Nature of July 15. The journal of © sectional and other proceedings will be ready on ~ the first day of the meeting, but has lost its right © to the name, for it will not be published daily as hitherto. Members should therefore retain their copies throughout the meeting. Any alterations | in the sectional programmes will be shown from day to day on the notice board in the reception room. The inaugural general meeting will take place on Tuesday, August 24, in the Park Hall, a 8 p.m., when the president, Prof. W. A. Her - man, will deliver his address. On Wednesday — there will be a reception by the Lord Mayor : NATURE 781 AvcGusT 19, 1920], diff at the University College at 8 p.m. The " evening discourses by Sir R. T. Glazebrook. and r Daniel Hall will be delivered in the Park Hall 8 p-m. on Thursday and Friday respectively. ; conference of delegates of corresponding ties will be held at 2 p.m. on Wednesday and Tiday in the assembly hall of the Technical hree citizens’ lectures will be delivered in the Hall at 8 p.m. on Monday, Wednesday, and iturday, the lecturers being respectively Prof. J. oyd Williams (“Light and Life’’), Prof. A. W. ‘Kkaldy (“Present Industrial Conditions”), and Vaughan Cornish (‘‘The Geographical Posi- mn of the British Empire ”’). i of the sociation as such are not admitted to these lec- ‘es. The distribution of tickets, which are free, in the hands of the Workers’ Educational Asso- tion, and they may be obtained at. the reception fice during the meeting. programme of excursions is a varied onc. geologists are visiting Cefn On and Caer- ly on Tuesday, Penylan on Wednesday, the Barry Coast on Thursday, and Lavernock on Friday. Section E (Geography) will explore the le of Glamorgan on Wednesday, and the Taff _and Rhondda Valleys on Thursday. The engineers _ will be shown over the Bute Docks on Tuesday, _the Melingriffith Tinplate Works on Wednesday, the Dowlais Steelworks on Thursday, and _ the Great Western Colliery on Friday. Section H (Anthropology) will investigate the Roman remains Caerwent (between Newport and Chepstow) on ednesday. report also gives the result of a comparison en the drawings of faculz and the photographs calcium flocculi. A close correspondence in posi- 1 is found, so that every prominent flocculus has accompanying facula. . research is also in progress with the view of NO. 2651, VOL. 105] tracing the flow of faculz in regions of long-continued spot activity. It is anticipated that this flow will prove to be connected with the cyclonic movements that produce the magnetic field in sun-spots. THe STRUCTURE OF THE UNIVERSE.—Science for July 23 contains a lecture on this subject by Prof. W. D. MacMillan, of the University of Chicago. Prof. MacMillan dwells on the numerous analogies between the microcosm of atoms and electrons and the stellar universe. For example, he shows the close analogy between the two electrons of the hydrogen atom and the sun-Neptune system, the relation between their diameters and mutual distance being about the same. He gives the number of atoms in the solar system as 6X 10°, and the volume of the sun’s domain in the stellar universe as 20 cubic parsecs, or 6X 10°° c.c. So that, on the average, there is I atom to 10 c.c., which would put the atoms about as far apart relatively to their diameter as the stars. © It will be remembered that Prof. Eddington and others have recently made the suggestion that the annihilation of atoms through collision and the con- ‘sequent release of their stores of energy may be going on in the hottest stars, and thus add enormously to the duration of their output of light and heat. Prof. MacMillan endorses these. speculations, and adds the suggestion that the radiant heat of the stars in its passage through space may perform the converse transformation and build up matter once more from the products. of such. atomic collisions, restoring: to them the property of mass which they had lost. He claims as_a result of these agencies to have con- structed a universe that is infinite, eternal, and un- changeable. But he can scarcely claim that this con- clusion is based exclusively on known facts. Many of his postulates are doubtful, and rest on analogy only. Textile Industries and Technical Education in Canada and the United States. ROF. ALFRED F. BARKER, of the Textile Industries Department of the University of Leeds, has written an interesting report* of nearly 130 pages of text, accompanied by numerous photo- graphic illustrations, of a visit paid in the summer of 1g1g to Canada and the United States. In the course of the report he discusses, among other matters, the vast resources in water-power of Canada, which, used directly or in the development of electrical energy, render to manufacturing industry an immense ser- vice, and also education and educational institutions, housing, work and wages, and industrial enterprise as they came under his observation in both Canada and the States; and he offers interesting comparisons with the conditions which prevail in the United Kingdom. Prof. Barker is, however, chiefly concerned with the extent, variety, and progress of textile manufacture connected with the production of cotton, wool, and silk goods. He was everywhere given the. fullest facilities for his inquiries and investigations, with the result that his: observations cannot fail to be of the highest interest and value to producers and merchants engaged in these industries. Almost: all the cotton mills in the Dominion are in the. province of Quebec, attributable, Prof. Barker observes, possibly to climatic conditions, to the mani- pulative skill and cheap labour of the French Cana- dian, or to some combination of all these causes with 1 A Summer Tor (1919) through the Textile Districts of Canada and the United States.” By Prof. A. F. Barker. Pp. xi+197. (Leeds: Printed by Jowett and Sowry, Ltd., n.d.) 740 NATURE [AuGuUST 19, 1920 other causes not so much in evidence. Many of the | of education and educational institutions alike cotton mills are quite extensive in their buildings and | Canada and in the States. In the province of equipment, and almost without exception are con- | there is to be found well-equipped agricultural schoo Fic. 1.—The Arlington mills, consuming 200,0:0 Ib. of greasy wool per day. trolled by British or British Canadian managers, and agricultural research stations designed to serve some of whom received their training in Lancashire | the farming interests, whilst in Montreal, the largest textile schools or in those of the States. It is a city of Canada dominated by industry and commerce, - unique feature of Canadian mills, as distinguished there is the splendid McGill University, with its from those of Lancashire and York- ; shire, that every operation from the rT yarn to the finished cloth, even in- er A cluding the dyeing and printing, is ; A carried out in one and the same eet 4 factory, which obviously makes it ; hg A ae much more interesting to visit than that jof a similar works in this country. The woollen industry is mainly centred in Ontario, and is far less well organised than that of cotton, but the hosiery mills are in evidence in every textile district of the Dominion, and a great future lies before the industry, since the equipment and staff of workers are of the most efficient . character (Fig. 1). Referring to textile manufacture in the States, Prof. Barker remarks that fine wool yarns are now spun there which cannot be beaten in any European country, but~ that neither in Canada nor in the States did he see a fine cotton yarn ap- proaching that produced by: Lanca- shire mills. On the other hand, he visited a mill in New Jersey which produced finer and better finished Fic. 2.—Lowell Textile School. se | dress fabrics than Bradford, and in o per cent. content is reached, ‘‘and even then it js a very doubtful financial proposition.”’ For use under boilers the water should be reduced to 30-35 per cent.; for gas producers it is stated that several leading manufacturers claim successful work- ing with 60~7o per cent., but Prof. Purcell considers that the possibility of using peat with as high a moisture-content as 60 per cent. is doubtful, and quotes the Canadian authority, Haakel, in support. “If it were permissible [to use such wet peat] it would render the industry less dependent on the weather, extend the peat-winning season, and simplify the whole problem.” Prof. Purcell considers that a clear case for the extended development of the peat deposits exists from an agricultural point of view, for the reclamation of land by removal of the bog and drainage must add to the food-producing capacities of a country. But labour costs are no small difficulty, for, as Sir George Beilby points out in his introduction, the development of a bog with 20 ft. of good peat is in some respects analogous to the proposal to develop a_ coalfield of similar area containing a single seam of only 15 in. thickness. It is true that the peat bog entails only surface working, but the whole depth has to be worked and 10 tons of raw material excavated and handled for 1 ton of dry peat. Ue Past and Present Sewage Systems. OC Bae Chadwick public lectures recently delivered at Colchester by Mr. A. J. Martin deait with the. nature and treatment of sewage. Since the very earliest days there have been codes of sanitary laws, but ail Kinds of readjustments had to be made as soon as-men began to congregate in large cities. ‘these crowded conditions seem to be met most satis- factorily by the water-carriage system, by which the clean water supplied to a town returns ultimately to the sewers charged with all manner of pollution. When sewers were first laid the sewage was dis- charged straight into the rivers. The results were, of course, disastrous, and successive Royal Com- missions were set up to find a remedy. ‘he whole problem of sewage purification was obscure, and ; very little progress. was made for a whole generation. Great hopes were centred in sewage farms as a method of disposing. of the sewage, and the various local authorities hoped at the same time to reap a profit from the cheap manuring of the land. Sewage farms, however, rarely pay in a humid climate such as ours, for the land cannot deal with the huge amounts of water brought down from the sewers. Many- other methods were tried, but in all of them the investigators failed to recognise the existence of the tiny scavengers which Nature provides to deal with our waste products. ; The modern method of sewage purification was evolved after Pasteur’s discovery of the bacteria ‘which induce. fermentation, and. after the work of . Warington and of Winogradsky. on the nitrifying bacteria in the soil. The purification is carried out in two stages. The first stage is treatment in the ‘septic: tank,’’ through which the sewage passes extremely slowly. The solids sink NO, 2651, VOL. 105 | to the bottom, where they are attacked by anaert organisms flourishing there, and ultimately e liquefied or turned into gas. The second stags the process consists in the oxidation of solved polluting matter. This matter has brought into contact with a large supply spheric oxygen in the presence of certail organisms which are able to oxidise the materials. This contact may be effected soil, in a specially constructed filter, or in volume of water. When soil forms the cont purification is brought about either by “ filtra when the sewage percolates downwards: through soil, or by ‘broad irrigation,’’ when the se merely passes over the soil surface. The me chosen depends on the openness or otherwise o soil and subsoil. When suitable land is not availa artificial filters are made of broken clinker, destructe slag, ¢tc. These materials provide a home for th nitrifying bacteria. The sewage is allowed to trick slowly through, and with a good filter a fp of 80-90 per cent. is effected. When pur S allowed to take place in water, the volui the water into which the sewage flows needs to be about five hundred times greater than the volume he sewage. : BR tcc Engineers had just settled down to © sept tank and trickling filter as the standard fais some hours until purification is effected. The draw- back of this method is the great bulk of the resultant © sludge, and the problem now is to find an economical way of disposing of the sludge so that the plant-food which is contained in sewage shall not be wasted. — a até ‘a Experimental Cottage Building. IX view of the present housing difficulties, con- siderable interest has been centred in the results of the experiments in cottage building which have been carried out on the Ministry of Agriculture’s Farm Settlement at .Amesbury. . These results are - published in the Weekly Services for May 15 and 22, where we also learn that on Wednesdays for two or three months competent guides have been avail- able to show visitors the experiments actually in pro- gress. | The present scheme includes thirty-two cot- tages, sixteen of which are for comparison purposes, and are built of brick on normal lines of construction while the other sixteen are more directly experi- mental. Each cottage consists of parlour, living room, scullery, bath-wash-house, larder, fuel sto etc., on the ground floor, with three bedrooms on th upper floor. Experiments in building in chalk includ a cottage with cavity walls built of blocks made o chalk and cement, one with walls of chalk and ce rammed between: shuttering, one with walls of alone (chalk pisé), and one with walls. of chalk straw (chalk: cob) built without shuttering. Ther. also. one cottage of monolithic reinforced concrete two concrete-block-cottages with hollow walls. 1 two.cottages are being erected under contract | proprietary firms; for all the other experiment tages direct labour is employed. The experiment 2 includes a pair of timber-framed cottages faced _ AvcusT 19, 1920] NATURE 793 7 weather-boarding and two Army Futs converted permanent bungalows. With regard to the latter eriment, results show that no economy is effected using these huts. Another cottage has walls of and gravel, while two single and one pair of ages are being erected in pisé-de-terre. One of single pisé cottages is now being roofed—this is s first two-storied pisé house erected in England. sé-de-terre walls are built by ramming nearly dry 1 between movable shutters arranged as a tem- rary mould. The method was known in England century ago, but had fallen into disuse, and a large mber of investigations have been carried out to termine the best lines for its revival. All soils are not suitable for pisé work, for not only must the particles cohere firmly when rammed and dried, but also there must be no excessive shrinkage in the drying process. Calcium carbonate helps to reduce shrinkage, while organic constituents are particularly liable to shrinkage, and therefore weaken coherence _in the soil as a whole. The amount of water present in the soil at the time of use is an all-important factor. Generally speaking, this water should be between 7 per cent. and 14 per cent. of the weight the dried earth. The most. suitable method of _ shuttering and the best form of rammer have been decided, while experiments are also being made to find the most satisfactory material and method or rendering the exterior face of the wall. Pisé _ bu iz can be carried out in the winter if there is sufficient protection from severe weather, _ but consideration of the expenses involved in providing _ tarpaulins, screens, etc., makes it evident that it is _ not sound economy to undertake pisé construction _in the winter months. When building in pisé the | foundations have to be of brick or concrete; the _ pisé work may be started only at about 9 in. to 1 ft. _ above the ground-level. This is an important factor _in the consideration of the cost of pisé building, which. however. will probably prove to be a con- F se, ~ eae s, Cotton Growing. H | ey & : Empire Cotton Growing Committee of the _ = Board of Trade, which presented its first report = fa fone. Fe in the British Empire in January _ published a note on “Future Organisation,” which _ may be regarded as an appendix to the report. While it is merely indicative of the trend of the Com- _ mittee’s ideas, in that such organisation is subject to Hope 2 agp of the director and his staff, it makes the tion more definite by estimating the probable F eee upon the various branches of work con- _ As in the case of the original report, all the _ Organisation proposed is for common service, since _ the expenditure can bring no direct return, but it should, in the Committee’s opinion, indirectly bring about an increase in the cotton supplies. The Com- _ mittee concludes that in order to carry out the work _ adequately an annual sum of approximately 200,000l. ht to be assured. This amount may appear large until we remember that cotton to the value of about. __50.000,000l. is imported into this country annually. _. The note sketches the proposals Be Gace ae _ superior organisation, executive work, and the central office; for staff abroad; for supplementing staffs of agricultural departments oversea, and pioneering; for _ edueation and information; and for commercial _ handling. In the last case the setting up of semi- _ commercial experimental enterprises is excluded from ~ NO, 2651, VOL. 105] ATURE, February 26 and March 25), has now © the scope of the note. Amongst these headings the Committee proposes an initial expenditure of 20,000l. per annum upon its own research station abroad. It also proposes to provide for a staff of ninety men, including scientific workers and agricultural officers of different grades, for the purpose of supplementing - local agricultural department staffs ‘‘after full con- sultation with and on invitation by the local adminis- tration.”’ Under the heading of ‘“‘ Education” the Committee makes proposals which take the initiative in a move towards obtaining co-operation between all the plant- using industries in order to increase the facilities for training men in pure science, later to be of economic value to the various agricultural services abroad. It estimates that university staffs in this country should be increased specially for this purpose by at least four professorships, fifteen lectureships, and six adminis- trative and technical lectureships, together with a provision of twenty post-graduate studentships. The annual cost is estimated at 27,o00l., of which it is suggested that the cotton industry should contribute 12,00cl, as its share. Thermostatic Metal. HE British Thomson-Houston Co., Ltd., has sent us specimens of a new bimetallic strip for use in thermostatically controlled devices. The strip is pre- pared by the permanent union over their entire length of two metals with widely differing coefficients of expansion. The union between the two component metals is complete and durable, and the strip may be bent, twisted, or hammered without causing the separation of the metals at any point, and even on heating the bond will not be broken so long as the temperature remains below the melting point of the softer of the two metals. Owing to this _per- manency of union the metal can be formed into any desired shape, annealed after formation, and safely employed at any temperature below 500° F. The component metals do not corrode under ordinary conditions, and may be used in any reasonable situa- tion without fear of deterioration or change in overating characteristics. The amount of deflection obtained is alwavs the same in a strip of given length and thickness for a given temperature change, and consequently the strip provides a trustworthy basis for the operation of any thermostatic device. and may be emvloyed for work of high precision. The deflec- tion due to temperature change varies inversely as the thickness. directly as the square of the length, and directly as the temperature change. With a_ strip + in. long, 0-31 in. wide, and 0-03 in. thick the deflec- tion obtained for a temperature change of 100° F. is about o-<7 in. The force exerted varies as the square of the number of desrees of temperature change and as the sauare of the thickness, and directlv as the width, and is not affected bv changes of length. For a strip of the dimensions above-mentioned the force exerted for 100° F. change of temperature is about 3 02. weight, whereas for a strip of the same dimensions but o1 in. thick the force exerted is about 24 072. weight. To produce a permanent set in’a strip 4 in. long, 0-31 in. wide. and 0-02 in. thick a force of about + oz. weight would be required. The metal is manu- factured in standard sizes ranging from o-o15 in. to 0-2 in. in widths up to 6 in. and lengths up to 26 in. It can, however, generally be supplied cut to widths and lengths to suit the purchaser, and in special cases thermostatic metal parts mav be completely formed to the purchaser’s specifications. 794 NATURE [AucustT 19, 1920 University and Educational Intelligence. CAMBRIDGE.—Last week the large theatre of the School of Anatomy was. the scene of an interesting presentation to Dr. W. L. H. Duckworth, fellow of Jesus College and senior demonstrator in anatomy, on the completion of twenty-one years of devoted service to the University as lecturer in physical anthro- pology. This remarkable tribute to the esteem and affection in which he is held was the spontaneous desire of every demonstrator, assistant, and student to contribute some token of appreciation of Dr. Duckworth’s unfailing courtesy and ever-ready help. His sympathy and charm of manner have made him one of the most approachable of teachers, and en- deared him to all who have come in contact with him ~during his period of service. A fine inscribed silver salver was presented to Dr. Duckworth, together with a book containing the signatures of two hundred and twenty subscribers, by Dr. D. Reid on August 13 in the presence of the staff and students of the anatomy department. In addition to his brilliant academic qualities, Dr. Duckworth has shown great capacity for organisation, especially during the past year, when the chair of anatomy has been vacant and the entire oa of the anatomy department has devolved upon im, Tue Dr. Jessie Macgregor prize of the Royal Col- lege of Physicians, Edinburgh, has been awarded to Miss Lucy Davis Cripps for her work on tetryl. Tue following free illustrated lectures are to be delivered in the Canada Building, Crystal Palace, at 6 p.m., under the auspices of the Institution of Petroleum Technologists :—‘‘Oil Prospecting,’’ G. Howell (September. 1); ‘‘ Petroleum Refining,’’ Dr. A. E. Dunstan (September 8); *‘‘ Utilisation of Vola- tile Oils,” Dr. W. R. Ormandy (September 15); and ‘Utilisation of Heavy Oils,’’ Prof. J. S. S. Brame (September 22). _A pRospEctTus of the faculty of engineering of the University of Bristol, which is provided and main- tained by the Society of Merchant Venturers in the Merchant Venturers’ Technical College, has just reached us. Courses of study are available at the college for persons intended to engage in civil, mechanical, electrical, or automobile engineering, and particulars of these courses are given in the prospec- tus. The ordinances and regulations relating to degrees and cértificates in engineering subjects are included, and some particulars of the Bristol sandwich system of training engineers are also given. The prospectus can be obtained from the Registrar of the University, Tyndall’s Park, Bristol. _Tue Bureau of Education, Calcutta, India, has issued its Report on Education in British India for 1918-19, abundantly illustrated with photographs. The terrible epidemic of influenza which broke out at the close of the year 1918 and carried off millions of people throughout India, together with the widespread failure of the crops, caused grave dislocations in the schools and colleges, though it called forth all that was best in the life and spirit of many of these institu- tions. The number of pupils and students in the public schools and. colleges on March 31, 1918, was 7,338,663, and in private institutions 597,914—a total of 7,936,577, Or 3:25 per cent. of the total population of upwards of 241,000,000 in British India alone, which percentage is nearly one-third that of Russia, probably the most backward country in Europe. The number of pupils under instruction has’ risen from 300,000 in 1860 to nearly 8,000,000 in 1920, and the expenditure NO, 2651, VOL. 105 | of the liver. has advanced from 200,000l. to upwards of 9,000,0¢ within the same period. In 1918-19 140,000l. ~ granted for agricultural education and 60, iy technical education of a pressing nature pendin Indian Industrial Commission’s report. The s and colleges now number 162,330. One of the cipal recommendations of the Calcutta Uni Commission, viz. the transfer of intermediate to the school system, has been carried out at the College. Many developments show that the un ties are alive to the necessity of assisting in the con mercial and industrial revival. Schools of econ have been established in the Universities of M Bombay, Allahabad, and the Punjab, whilst the Benares Hindu University is opening a coll of mechanical and electrical engineering. Proposals for new universities at Rangoon and Nagpur are being completed, and sites have been acquired. A was introduced in 1919 for a unitary university at Dacca. New outlying colleges have been opened or proposed in Bombay, Bengal, and the Punjab. Many of the colleges are said to be overcrowded with youths un- fitted for an academic career, which is also borne out in the report of the Calcutta University Commission. There is immense work for education yet to be accomplished in India. estes eer Societies and Academies. a Paris. eee Academy of Sciences, July 26.—M. Henri Deslandres — in the chair.—The president announced the death of © Dr. Guyon.—G. Bigourdan: An economical means of — utilising the energy of tides.—Ch. Depéret: An attempt at the general chronological co-ordination of — Quaternary time.—L.- Maquenne and E. Demoussy; — The toxicity of iron (towards plants) and the anti-— toxic properties of copper in presence of ferrous Salts. — —F. Widal,.P. Abrami, and N. Iancovesco; The proof of digestive haemoclasia and latent hepatism, Adevelop-— ment of the method of detecting liver trouble described © in an earlier communication. After the absorption of | a glass of milk it is only necessary to determine the — fall in the arterial pressure, the lowering of the num- — ber of white corpuscles, the inversion of the leuicocytic — coefficient, and other phenomena easily determined — in the laboratory to discover the functional working Numerous examples of the application — are given, with especial reference to the disturbances — caused by the administration of arsenic compounds — in syphilitic cases.—A. Perot: Comparison of the — wave-lengths of a line of the cyanogen band in the © light of the sun and that of a terrestrial source. The ~ solar wave-length is greater than the terrestrial wave- length, their difference in relative value being (2:22+0-10).10-°. This difference is reduced by a correction for the descending movement of the ab- sorbing centres to (1-6+0-3).10-°. The figure cal- culated from Einstein’s theory of generalised rela- tivity is between the corrected and uncorrected” numbers.—A. Schaumasse: Discovery and observa-— tions of the comet 1920b (Schaumasse). This comet was discovered on July 18 at the Nice Observatory. Tt is about the 11th magnitude, and appears as a diffuse nebulosity of 2-5’ diameter. It may be the second periodic comet of Tempel.—G. Fayet : Probable identity of the 1920b comet (Schaumasse) with Tempel’s second periodic comet.—P. Chofardet: Observation of the periodic comet Tempel II. (Schaumasse) 19 made at the Observatory of Besancon with the equatorial. Three positions on July 20-21 are g! The comet was of about the 11th magnitude.— _ AvGuUST 19, 1920] NATURE 723 aveau: The isotherms in the neighbourhood of the ‘eritical state. The adiabatic expansion of saturated luids.—R. Dongier: The point-crystal or point-metal ‘auto-detector telephone receiver.—F. Michaud; The orrespondence of bodies in the solid state.—A. Pictet Pp. Castan; Glucosane. Glucosane was readily ained in a pure state by heating glucose under a essure of 15 mm. to a temperature of 150-155° C. A study of its chemical reactions leads to the con- |” clusion that it probably has a composition analogous || with ethylene oxide.—A. Mailhe; The catalytic hydra- || tion of nitriles. If a mixture of steam and benzo- _ nitrile vapour is passed over thoria at 420° C., benzoic acid oa gern by the hydrolysis of the nitrile. The _ generality of the reaction has been proved by applyin it to seven nitriles.—G. Dubois: ‘he diisoveey. of : _fossil-bearing layer in the Flanders clay at Watten (Nord). The fauna found in this layer confirms the and Flanders clay.—A. Carpentier: Some siliceous fossil plants from the neighbourhood of Sainte-Marie- _ aux-Mines (Alsace).—L. Blaringhem: The heredity - and nature of peloria in Digitalis purpurea.—R. _ Souéges: The embryogeny of the Composite. The first stages of the development of the embryo in Senecio vulgaris.—F. Chiffot: The gum-bearing _ secreting canals of the roots of the Cycadacee, and _ more particularly those of Stangeria paradoxa.—Em. _ Perrot: Biological notes on the Acacias producing . ae known as gum arabic, in the Egyptian Sudan.— . Ricome: The action of gravity on _ plants.— _L. Emberger: Cytological study of the Selaginella.— A. Guilliermond: New cytological observations on Saprolegnia.—G. Truffaut and N. Bezssonoff: Com- parative study of the microflora and the amount of nitrogen in soils partly sterilised by calcium sul- sec cab Lumiére: Are yitamines necessary to the levelopment of plants? It is generally admitted that vitamines are necessary to the growth of plants. The author, whilst admitting the accuracy of the experiments on which this view is based, considers that the experimental results have been misinter- preted. Fresh yeast, rich in vitamines and rapidly curing polyneuritic troubles in pigeons, after heating to See for one hour, completely loses all its anti- scorbutie properties, but still serves for the prepara- tion of culture fluids, giving good development of fungi. Even after heating to incipient carbonisation to 250° C. these extracts retain their fertilising pro- perties.—A. H. Roffo and P. Girard: The effects of electrical osmosis on cancerous tumours of rats.— M. Fauré-Fremiet, J. Dragoiu, and Mlle. Du Vivier de Streel: The growth of the foetal lung in the sheep and the concomitant variations in its composition.— R. Sazerac: Culture of the tubercle bacillus on a _ medium of autolvsed yeast. It has been proved that both human and bovine tubercle bacilli will grow normally on this medium, the detailed preparation of which is given. It contains, in addition to autolvsed yeast, § per cent. of common salt and 4 per cent. of glycerol.—I. Nageotte : Osteogenesis in grafts of dead bone.—A. Trillat: The influence of the presence of infinitesimal traces of nutritive substances jn air- moisture on contagion. : PHILADELPHIA. American Philosophical Society, April 23.—Dr. A. A, Noyes, vice-president, in the chair.—Dr. D. T. MacDougal: The components and colloidal behaviour of protoplasm. The living matter of plants is com- posed chiefly of mucilages and albuminous com- _ pounds in varying proportions mixed in the form of an emulsion or as a jelly. The molecules of solid _ matter are aggregated into groups, which also include NO. 2651, VOL. 105] stratigraphical identity of London clay, Cuise sands,’ a number of molecules of water. Growth consists of the absorption of additional water to these groups, witht more solid material being added at the same time, the process being termed “hydration."’ The resultant increase may be detected by determination of increased dry weight or measured as increase in length, thickness, or volume. More exact studies in growth have become possible by the establishment of the fact that mixtures of 25-50 per cent. mucilage and 50-75 per cent. albumin show the hydration re- actions of cell-masses of plants. It is also found that certain amino-compounds, such as_ histidine, glycocoll, alanine, and phenylalanine, which are known to promote growth, also increase the hydration of the ‘‘biocolloids,’’ as the above mixtures are called.— Prof. W. J. V. Osterhout: Respiration. A simple method of measuring respiration has been developed whereby determinations can be made at frequent intervals (as often as once every three minutes). The application of this method to the study of anaesthesia shows the incorrectness of the theory of Verworn, according to which anesthesia is a kind of asphyxia, due to the inhibition of respiration by the anzsthetic. —Prof. B. M. Davis: (1) The behaviour of the sul- phurea character in crosses with Oenothera biennis and with Oenothera franciscana. (2) Oenothera funifolia, a peculiar new mutant from Oenothera Lamarckiana. —Prof. G. H. Shull; A third duplication of genetic factors in shepherd’s-purse. In the third generation of a cross between a wild biotype of the common shepherd’s-purse (Bursa bursa-pastoris) from Wales and Heeger’s shepherd’s-purse (B. Heegeri) there appeared a small number of plants of unique type, having a more coriaceous texture than in the plants of either of the two original strains involved in the cross. This new type has been designated coriacea. —Prof. E, M. East: Some effects of double fertilisa- tion in maize.—Dr. T. B. Osborne: The chemistry of the cell.—Prof. G. A. Hulett: The relation of oxygen to charcoal.—Prof. C. E. Munroe: Products of detonation of T.N.T. It is known that among the products are considerable quantities of carbon monoxide, hydrogen, and some hydrocarbons, such as methane, together with free carbon in a soot-like form. Hence T.N.T. is not suitable for use in under- ground work or close places, because the gas evolved is poisonous and inflammable, and can form explosive mixtures with the atmosphere in these close places.— Prof. J. W. Harshberger: A new map of the vegeta- tion of North America.—Prof. A. G, Webster: The vibrations of rifle-barrels. (Dr. H. L. Carson, vice-president, in the chair.)—Dr, L, Witmer: Sym- posium on psychology in war and education.—Dr. J. McK. Cattell: Methods. The speaker reviewed the development of experimental and quantitative methods in psychology, and especially the transfer of its main concern from introspection to the study of individual differences in behaviour. By co-operation with other sciences it is possible for psychology to change the environment, and behaviour can be controlled more effectively by a change in the environment than by a change in the constitution of the individual.—Dr. R. M. Yerkes : Psychological examining and classifica- tion in the United States Army. The initial purpose of examining was the discovery and prompt segrega- tion or elimination of men of markedly inferior intel- ligence. The uses which were actually made of results of psychological examinations were extremely varied, and covered the classification of men to facili- tate military training, the selection of men of superior ability for training as officers or for special tasks, the segregation and special assignment of men whose intelligence was inadequate to the demands of regular military training, and, finally, the elimination of the 796 NATURE [Aucust 19, 1920 © low-grade mental defective.—Prof. R. Dodge: The relation of psychology. to special problems of the Army and Navy.—Dr. J. R. Angell; Relation of psychology to the National Research Council. The supporting scientific societies elect representatives who compose the several divisions of the Council, and these in turn, comprising, as a rule, about twenty men selected for their eminence in their particular branch of work, come together and determine the special needs and opportunities for the improvement of research in their own fields. Special attention is paid to the possibilities of bringing about effective co-operation among research men and _ research agencies. Scientific investigation has hitherto been largely individualistic, and the most pressing need at the present moment is not so much the expansion of research agencies, although this is desirable, as the more effective employment of those already in existence.-Dr. B. Ruml: Psychological methods in business and industry.—Prof. A. J. Jones: The individual in education.—Prof. R. W. Wood: In- visible light in war and peace. Hosarrt. Royal Society of Tasmania, June 8.—Mr. L. Rodway, vice-president, in the chair.—G. H. Hardy: Aus- tralian Stradiomiida. The paper included a description of new species.—H. H. Scott and C. Lord: Studies of Tasmanian mammals, living and extinct. Part ii. The paper was divided into two sections, and dealt mainly with the skeleton of Nototherium Mitchelk recently obtained from the north-west coast of Tas- mania. The first section gave a réswmé of the his- tory of the genus, and the second dealt with the osteology of the cervical vertebra. The authors desire to show that the species was one essentially adapted for aggressive warfare. at least (with the possibility of other species) are equally large and weighty, yet their cervical vertebrze show marked differences: one being an exaggeration of the standard of the modern wombat in about the same ratio of power (N. tasmanicum), while the other shows an additional power with interspinal muscles and paddings, suitable to the resisting of great shocks in the long axis of the head and vertebrae. Books Received. Symbiosis: A Socio-physiological Study’ of Evolu- tion. By H. Reinheimer. Pp. xii+295. (London: Headley Bros.) 15s. net. Ministry of Munitions. Department of Explosive Supply. Preliminary Studies for H.M. Factory, Gretna, and Study for an Installation of Phosgene Manufacture. Pp. xvi+145. (London: H.M. Stationery Office.) 15s. net. Prospector’s Field-Book and Guide in the Search for and the Easy. Determination of Ores and other Useful Minerals. By H. S. Osborn. Ninth edition, thoroughly revised and enlarged, by M. W. von Berne- witz. Pp. xiiit+364. (London: Hodder and Stough- ton.) 12s. 6d. net. The Kalahari, or Thirstland Redemption. By Prof. E. H. L. Schwarz. Pp. vi+163+xiv plates. (Cape Town: T. Maskew Miiler; Oxford: B. H. Blackwell.) 8s. 6d. net. Department of Statistics, India. Statistics of India, 1917-18. Vol. ii. (Calcutta: Government Printing Office.) 1 rupee. Botanical Survey of South Africa. Memoir No. 1: Phanerogamic Flora of the Divisions of Uitenhage NO. 2651. VOL. 105] Agricultural Pp. ix+118. ‘ Ltd.) 2s. 6d. net. They point out that - whereas the skulls of N. Mitchelli and N. tasmanicum ‘Our Astronomical Column :— and Port Elizabeth. By S. Schonland. Pp. 118 (Pretoria: Agricultural Department.) 2s. 6d. - A Manual of Dental Metallurgy. By E. A. Smith Fourth edition. Pp. xvi+285. (London: J. and A Churchill.) 12s. 6d. net. be The Bible: Its Nature and Inspiration. ee Grubb. Pp. 247.) (London: Swarthmore Manual of Psychiatry. Edited by Rosanoff. Fifth edition. Pp. xv+684. J. Wiley and Sons, Inc.; London: Hall, Ltd.) 22s. net. + ee ‘i Radiant Motherhood: A Bock for those who are — Creating the Future. By Dr. Marie C. Stopes. Pp. 246. (London: G. P. Putnam’s Sons.) 6s.’ net. 7 Relativity: The Special and the General Theory. ¥ By Prof. A. Einstein. Authorised translation by Dr. R. Lawson, Pp. xiiit+138. (London: Methuen and Co., Ltd.) 5s. net. ah Liquid Air and the Liquefaction of Gases. By Dr. T. O’Conor Sloane. Third edition. Pp, — 394. (London: Constable and Co., Ltd.) 21s. __ Airscrews in Theory and Experiment. By A. Fage. | Pp. ix+198+7 plates. (London: Constable and Co., — Ltd.) 34s. a Smithsonian Institution, United States National — Museum. Report on the Progress and Condition of — the United States National Museum for the Year ~ pel June 30, 1919. Pp. 211+7 plates. (Washing- ton. via A Principles and Practice of Aerial Navigation. By Lieut. J. E. Dumbleton. Pp. viit+172+v plates. © (London: Crosby Lockwood and Son.) 12s. 6d. net. The Outdoor Botanist: A Simple Manual for the Study of British Plants in the Field. By A. R. | Horwood. Pp, 284+20 plates. (London: T. Fisher Unwin, Ltd.) 18s. net. a f t 2 a ec i ie CONTENTS. Soe PAGE The Control of Water Resources .... . .. 765 The Mathematician as Anatomist. By Prof. A, Keith, F.R.S. ee The Theoretic Basis of Psychotherapy. By H. S.. Industrial Research. By A. P. M. Fleming,C.B.E. 771 — Science and Crime. “By C. A. M. 4° 02) ope (972 @ Our Bookshelf... ‘ Lie Letters to the Editor:— ae University Grants. —Principal C, Grant Robertson Aerial Navigation and Meteorology.—Lt.-Col, E. Gold; Prof. E. van Everdingen’ . .... Growth of Waves.—A. Mallock, F.R.S...... The Antarctic Anticyclone.—Dr. G. C. Simpson, — F.R.S Pape i a, Perea J. C.. McLennan, F.R.S. . ee L The Cardiff Meeting of the British Association . . Obituary:— : ight Sir Norman Lockyer, K.C.B., F.R.S. ..... Notes: gies Sh aes Tempel’s Comet : Stonyhurst Observations in 1919 «.. . The Structure of the Universe ......-.-. RORY Te Textile Industries and Technical Education Canada and the United States. (Illustrated.) Sunshine in the United States. ByC.H...... The Peat Resources of Ireland. ByJ.S.S.B. . Past and Present Sewage Systems gees 7 Experimental Cottage Building. ...... Sie Cotton Growing fee eee . my Ore Thermostatic Metal (i... 06) a eee University and Educational Intelligence. ... . Societies. and ‘Academies . 0. (25.0 ee Fats / Books Received’*::* .02 5 2X Beis ee Me a ie pe pee: NATURE Riri THURSDAY, AUGUST 26, 1920. Editorial and Publishing Offices: MACMILLAN & CO., LTD., ST. MARTIN’S STREET, LONDON, W.C.2. _ Advertisements and business letters should be addressed to the Publishers. _ Editorial communications to the Editor. Telegraphic Address: PHUSIS, LONDON. Telephone Number: GERRARD 8830. . The Forthcoming Census. THE Census Act of 1920 will have one great advantage over previous Acts—that it will be a permanent measure, and not, as they have been, limited to the operation of taking the one census that was at the time in contemplation. We have travelled far from the days when the numbering of the people was considered to be an offence that would provoke Divine anger, and it is quite time that the old hesitating policy of passing a new enactment and creating a new staff and machinery “every ten years, which doubtless had its origin in consideration for those superstitious scruples, should be definitely abandoned. The system had one indirect advantage while it lasted. For the eleven decenniums since 1801 the eleven separate Acts that have had to be passed have been gradu- ally strengthened and made more workable, as experience has shown what improvements it has been possible to introduce into the practice, and thus have ripened into the materials for a per- manent statute. All the same, the necessity for - organising a- scratch staff of new men every ten years, and dismissing it as soon as the census work was over, has been a great drawback to the efficiency 6f the Department, and it is to be hoped that one result of the new Act will be to enable - the Census Office so to distribute its work over the whole decennium as usefully to retain the services of an experienced and competent staff of permanent officials. Much credit is due to the successive controllers of the census for the good work they have done under all disadvantages, and it is no disparagement to them to say that they have been hampered by circumstances, The Act contemplates, but does not require, a quinquennial census. It enacts that no census shall be required to be taken in any part of Great NO. 2652, VOL. 105] Census — Britain in any year unless at the beginning of that year at least five years have elapsed since the beginning of the year in which a census was last taken in that part of Great Britain; but it leaves to the King in Council to fix the date on which each successive census is to be taken. There can be no doubt that for some statistical purposes the interval of ten years is too long, and that not infrequently in the course of that interval events arise that materially affect the applicability of averages drawn between censuses distant ten years from each other. With careful organisation a quinquennial census might be made the rule, but the Act leaves this question entirely open. It allows, however, of a special local census being made, independent of the date of the last previous census, upon the application of a local authority through the Minister of Health to his Majesty in Council for the purpose of facilitating the due performance by the authority of its statutory duties. An important provision of the Act is that which prohibits inquiry at a census into any particulars other than those specified in the schedule to the proposed enactment. These are:—Name, sex, age; occupation, profession, trade, or employ- ment; nationality, birthplace, race, language; place of abode and character of dwelling ; educa- tion; infirmity or disability; condition as to mar- riage, relation to head of family, parentage, issue; and “any other matters with respect to which it is desirable to obtain statistical information with a view to ascertaining the social or civil condition of the population.” The generality of this last item would no doubt be controlled by the ejusdem generis principle of interpretation, and there need be little fear that any Order in Council would authorise an undesirable extension of it; but care: would still: have to be taken against the use of the census for indirect or partisan motives. It may be stated as a general principle that the more you increase the number of items of in- formation that you demand, the more you dimin- ish the probability that the information you actually obtain will be accurate. A wise investi- gator, therefore, while naturally anxious to get all the sound information that he can, will care- fully distinguish between that which is essential and verifiable, and that which cannot be relied upon. Much light may be expected to be derived from the census returns upon subjects that have re- cently been prominently before the public, such as the diminution in the birth-rate, the extent to DD 798 NATURE [AucusT 26, 1920 which it has prevailed among the various strata of the community, the results of the war as affect- ing population and health, the effect of the short- age in housing on the general welfare, and other questions to which the events of the decade have given a new urgency; but in all these matters the principle we have just indicated of judging information, not by the number of details you are able to amass, but by the weight of accuracy and authenticity that they bear—non numero, sed pondere—will have to be borne in mind. The experience of the Registrar-General, backed by the enlightened enthusiasm of the Ministry of Health, will have ample exercise in these respects. The Act is intituled “An Act to make provision for the taking from time to time of a census for Great Britain or any area therein and for other- wise obtaining statistical information with respect to the population of Great Britain.” The Regis- trar-General, in addition to his formal Reports on the Census Returns, is to have power to supply local authorities and others concerned with statistical information derived from the census returns. The second branch of the title is pro- vided for by section 5, which enables him also to publish statistics of the number and condition of the population derived from other sources, and for that purpose to enter into relations with other Government Departments so as to further the supply and provide for the better co-ordination of such information. If he were enabled to enter into similar relations with other countries as well, the very excellent object of obtaining uniformity in the statistics of the several nationalities might be materially promoted. Prof. Alexander’s Gifford Lectures. Space, Time, and Deity: The Gifford Lectures at Glasgow, 1916-18. By Prof. S. Alexander. (In two volumes.) Vol. i. Pp. xvi+ 347. Vol. ii. Pp. xiii+437. (London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd., 1920.) Price 36s. net. ROF. ALEXANDER has written a book which requires more than cursory reading. It deserves careful study. For it embodies a thoroughly modern exposition of New Realism in full detail. Moreover, these two volumes are not merely the outcome of a sustained effort at accurate investigation. They are distinguished by their admirable tone and temper. The author is throughout anxious to understand and to repre- sent faithfully the views of those with whom he is in controversy. His reading of what has been written by the great thinkers of other schools has been closer and more intelligent than that of NO. 2652, VOL. 105], most New Realists, and he displays no traces of — arrogance. He has done all he could to appreciate the materials furnished, not merely by mathe- matical and physical science, but by biology and psychology; highly important fields for his inquiry. These very merits of Prof. Alexander’s method have, however, produced their drawbacks. They have driven him beyond the current conceptions of the New Realist type into others which are not always easy to reconcile with them. In the second volume, particularly, where the author is chiefly concerned with such problems as those of the nature of the tertiary qualities of reality, of value, and of deity, the treatment leaves the impression that the subject-matter passes beyond the limits which alone are for the method legitimate. None the less, the effort made to be consistent is a notable one. But under this head I must refer the reader to the book, for the only aspect of the doctrine in it with which space allows me to concern myself is its cardinal principle as applied to physical knowledge. To begin with, it is necessary to be clear as to what is peculiar to himself and his school in Prof. Alexander’s teaching. It is not sufficiently realised that to-day the New Realists comprise a variety of groups divided by differences that are of far-reach-. ing importance.- These differences relate to the nature attributed to mind. For some of the most prominent of the American New Realists mind has no characteristic at all that distinguishes it from its objective content. ring; hearing means sounds occurring; thinking means thoughts occurring. Mind is itself just a casual selection out of the field of consciousness, and has no nature distinct from that field. When we speak of a mind, the grouping arises out of relations possessed by the objective elements themselves, relations which exist quite independ- ently of our own action in perceiving. Minds are thus subordinate groups in a larger universe of being which includes them, and which would be unaltered if minds disappeared from it. Conscious- ness is thus merely a demonstrative appellation. Now for Prof. Alexander, and, I think, for most of the English New Realists, mind has a reality independent of its object. With the latter, what- ever it is, itis “compresent.”. The act of perceiving is one reality, the object perceived is another. Left to itself, the activity which we call mind reveals the object, with its relations (which may be universals) just as they exist independently of it. But the activity is a separate reality, which does not belong to the ordinary object world, but reveals itself in consciousness, in which it is said by Prof. Alexander to be “enjoyed.” Here Seeing means colours occur- -Avcust 26, 1920] NATURE | 799 we have dualism, a dualism which he gets over by referring the origin of the activity of mind and the object with which it is compresent, alike, to a final reality which is the foundation of both, an ultimate space-time continuum. This, inas- much as the flow of time enters into its very essence, is not static, but dynamic. The activity which we are conscious of (in the form, not of perception, which is of objects, but of self-enjoy- ment) is therefore in its turn dynamic, and its character is that of a conation. I am not sure that the Americans, notwith- standing their boldness, are not here on safer ground. They project everything, thought, feel- ing, and tertiary qualities, such as goodness and _ beauty, into what they call a non-mental world. Prof. Alexander is more cautious. With him the native hue of resolution is, at times at least, as he progresses in his enterprise, sicklied o’er with _ the pale cast of thought. He seems to feel that he must retain something for a mental world. Starting with space and time as having no reality apart from one another, but as mere abstractions from aspects or attributes of the foundational reality, which is space-time or motion, the “stuff of which all existents are composed,” he has to account for our actual experience. His founda- tionally existent activity breaks itself up into the ‘complexes of which we are aware, and which possess, as belonging to their nature, certain fundamental and all-pervasive features which we recognise as categories. There result also quali- ties which appear in our experience. These form “a hierarchy, the quality of each level of existence being identical with a certain complexity or col- location of elements on the next lower level. The quality performs to its equivalent lower existence the office which mind performs to its neural basis. Mind and body do but exemplify, therefore, a rela- tion which holds universally. Accordingly, time is the mind of space, and any quality the mind of its body; or, to speak more accurately, mind and any other quality are the different distinctive com- plexities of time which exist as qualities. As existents within space-time, minds enter into rela- tions of a perfectly general character with other things and with one another. These account for the familiar features of mental life; knowing free- dom, values, and the like. In the hierarchy of qualities the next higher quality to the highest attained is deity. God is the whole universe engaged in process towards the emergence of this new quality, and religion is the sentiment in us that we are drawn towards him, and caught in the movement of the world pewarce a higher hevel ‘of existence.’ I have given the general result of his inquiry as summed up in the author’s own words, those NO. 2652, VOL. 105] instant, and the instant occupies a point. used by him in concluding his final chapter. But it would be unfair to suggest that the nature of this result can be appreciated from any isolated quotation. The whole book must be read. It is admirable alike in thoroughness of method and in command of material. Still, it is obvious that the entire edifice depends for its stability on its foundation, and that the author’s conception of the ultimately real as being space-time, a continuum of point-instants or pure events entirely inde- pendent of mind, is the crucial point in his reason- ing. If he is right, it must be in terms of this existent that all else must be capable of expres- sion, and it cannot itself be expressed in terms of anything beyond itself. Of course, Prof. Alex- ander does not dispute that when we speak of space and time as of this character we are going beyond what we learn through sense, or in- tuitively, and are employing constructions of re- flection. He is quite entitled to do this if a non- mental world can include universals, as he insists, in common with all New Realists. Our simplest experience is, as he says, “full of our ideas.” The question is whether they belong to mind or to what is not mind. We shall see presently to what path this conclusion conducts. At this stage we have to put before us the author’s analysis of the relation of space to time, an analysis that seems to me altogether admirable. Space taken in abstraction from time has no dis- tinction of parts. Time in so far as it is purely temporal is a mere now. To find a continuum we must find distinguishable elements. Without space there would be no connection in time. Without time there would be no points to connect. There is therefore no instant of time apart from a position in space, and no point of space except in an instant of time. The point occurs at an The ultimate stuff of the universe is thus of the char- acter of point-instants or pure events, and it is so that we get our continuum. The correspond- ence is, however, not a one-to-one, but a many- one, correspondence. For one point may occur at more than one instant, and one instant may, analogously, occupy several points. Prof. Alexander thinks that he is here in full accord with Minkowski’s well-known conception of an absolute world of four dimensions, of which ordinary geometry omits the fourth, the time element. When he wrote his book Einstein’s doctrine of relativity was only fully known in its first form, the ‘“‘special” theory, and Prof. Alex- ander believes that his view of the character of the space-time continuum has left him free to accept the so-called principle of relativity in this form. 800 NATURE [| AuGusT 26, 1920 4 For it suggests really no more than the unification of the observations of two sets of observers who may be observing an absolute world in space-time, by means of formulas of transformation in which the observations of observers with one system of co-ordinates can be rendered in terms of the co- ordinates of observers with a different system, ‘It may be, he says, that the formulas are not really independent, inasmuch as they are ultimately numerical, and numbers may be wholly dependent on an absolute space and time system. Thus it would be an absolutely identical set of relations which was observed from the two systems of reference, moving rectilinearly with a relative velo- city which remained uniform. But can this be accepted in the fresh light cast by the general theory of relativity, of which the special theory is now shown. by Einstein to be a mere special case? Here metaphysicians have to look over a fence into ground at present mainly occupied by the mathematician. But not exclu- sively so occupied. The ground is in truth a borderland where mathematics and epistemology trench on each other, and the fence is not of barbed wire. We are, indeed, compelled to try to do the best we can with unfamiliar topics if we would get at the truth about the nature of reality. The relativity doctrine now extends to ac- celerating motion. It has also, apparently, been demonstrated that a principle of equivalence ob- tains according to which any changes which an observer takes to be due to what he supposes to be attraction within a gravitational field would be perceived by him in precisely the same way if the observer’s system of reference were moving with the acceleration which was characteristic of the gravitation at the observer’s point of observa- tion. The combination of these principles gives us relativity of measurement in actual experience without restriction. is, in addition, here based, not on a supposed elementary law of gravitational force, whatever that means, which would leave'us in metaphysical perplexities about action at a distance, but on elementary laws of the motion of bodies relatively to each other in a so-called gravitational field. There is no decision either for or against Euclidean geometry as a possible special case. But there is a decision that space, as a physical thing with unvarying geometrical properties, is to be banished, just for the same sort of reasons as the ether was banished before it. Only observ- able things are to be recognised as real in the new system of modern physicists. It is therefore asserted by Einstein that, all motions and accelerations being relative to the system of reference of the observer, neither space NO. 2652, VOL. 105 | The gravitational principle- nor time has physically independent objectivi They are not measurable in themselves. mean only the framework in which the minds the observers arrange physical events, accoré to the conditions under which observation tak place. We may choose such frameworks as please, but in point of fact we naturally so that the application of our method is the . that appears best adapted to the character of what — we observe. The standard used will give their ; physical significances to our “geodetic lines. mS 4 The apparent order in space and time has no ~ independent existence. It manifests itself only in 4 the events that present themselves as so ordered. But the revolution in conception does not stop — here. As so-called “gravitational fields” are everywhere present, the old special theory of rela~ tivity is nowhere an accurate account of hae a 4 mena. The velocity of light, for instance, cannot — really be constant under all conditions. It is the — things we observe in space and time that give to these their definite structure, and the relations in them of the things depend on the system of + 3 servation. To get at the fundamental law of the change which takes place in the space-time con- tinuum we must look for the principle which governs the motion of a point in it as of the form of a differential law for the motion of such a point, not merely i in a straight line in the Euclid- ean sense, but in a geodetic line which will be relative to any possible form of motion and ac- celeration in a gravitational field. If we can reach such a differential law under the aspect of an equation sufficiently elastic in its variables, we shall be able to fit into it mathematical expressions based on actual observation which give the “gravi- tational potentials ’’ required for the application of the law. The form of the differential equation which expresses the law must therefore be such as to be applicable whatever may be the four co- ordinates of reference of the observer of motion in any conceivable gravitational field. The. prin- ciple of equivalence necessitates this, and we get as the result a science of motion depending on the relativity of every kind of motion. All that is required is that the co-ordinates which are the variables in the equation of motion of a point- mass moving uniformly and rectilinearly should be so expressed as to be capable of transforma- tion into the co-ordinates, whatever their shape, of any system of reference which moves in any path and has any accelerated motion whatsoever. This appears to have been done completely. The result is intelligible to the epistemologist who can even do no more than look across the boundary fence. The mathematical details and scaffolding he may be wholly unable to appreciate. tl Soca ie 4 kk cahie _ physicists. Avcust 26, 1920] NATURE 801 . 4 But not the less does he feel compelled to take off his hat reverently before the shades of Gauss _ and Riemann, and before those who have been able to wield the mighty sword with which these _ great thinkers cut the knots that held physicists back from the unrestricted calculus of to-day, purified as it now is from the old assumptions. Now the importance of this thorough-going application of the principle of the relativity of the character of the point-event continuum to the observer is obvious. It means relativity in signifi- eance for intelligence. As Prof. Eddington has recently remarked in a notable article in Mind, the intervention of mind in the laws of Nature is more far-reaching than is usually supposed by He develops this conclusion in a fashion which is impressive. Freundlich and Schick in their recent books insist on the same thesis. But what does the word “mind” mean when used thus? Not a substance in space-time, as Prof. Alexander would have it. To start with, such an assumption would involve either the rejec- tion of the modern doctrine of relativity as the school of Einstein has put it forward as dependent on interpretation, or something tending towards solipsism. Nor can mind mean substance in J nother aspect, that in which Berkeley and the ntalists have sought to display it. Few com- ent students of the history of thought look on philosophy as shut up to such a view, the view which New Realism seeks to bind into the “ego- centric predicament. i There is another interpretation of the meaning of, mind in which it signifies neither any of these things nor yet an Absolute Mind apart from that of man, but just our own experience interpreted as being in every stage relative in its presentation, and not so merely in the relation of measurement. For Einstein’s doctrine seems to be only a frag- ment of a yet larger and even more striking view - of reality. Relativity is surely not to be confined to judgments based on the co-ordinates we employ in measurement. It may equally arise in other instances from the uncritical applications of con- ceptions concerned with quality as much as with quantity. From such a point of view reality, including human experience, is what it is only because we are ever unconsciously, under the influence of practical ends to be attained, limiting our systems of reference, interpreted in even a wider sense than that of Einstein. These may be limiting ends imposed on us by the mere fact that we are human beings with a particular position in Nature. The relativity of knowledge will thus assume the form of. relativity of the real to general points of view, and will result in a prin- ciple of degrees extending through all knowledge NO. 2652, VOL. 105] and reality alike, which fall short of ideal comple- tion. It is an old principle, as old as Greek thought. If it is true, it solves many problems and gets rid of the distinction between mental and non-mental, between idealism and realism, be- tween mind and its object. For it accepts the “that,’’ and confines the legitimate problem to the “what.’’ It also gets rid of the perplexing idea of an Absolute Mind as something to be con- ceived as apart from us while working in us. The idea and the method, recurring as they do in ancient and modern philosophy, are worth study by those who feel the stimulus of the new atmosphere which Einstein has provided. They may find a convenient analogue to the special principle of relativity in Kant’s “Critique of Pure Reason,’’ with its investigation of the general con- ditions which are required in order to render any individual experience possible. If they seek for an analogue to Einstein’s general principle, ‘they may look either in the ‘“‘ Metaphysics” of Aristotle or in the “ Logic ” of Hegel. The greatest thinkers have presented resembling conclusions in varying language. This path is one that is not easy to tread. It is as hard to enter on as is that of the meta- physician who has to try to understand the mean- ing for philosophy of the absolute differential equations which Einstein employs. Prof. Alexander, however, knows the direction, if he does not now look that way. And it may be that the difficulties with which the new principle of general physical relativity seems to threaten New Realism, with its non-mental and static reality, may lead him, with his openness of mind, to consider once again whether he should not wend his steps afresh towards the wicket-gate for a further pilgrimage. But whatever the direc- tion in which he is looking, his new book is full of stimulating material, even as it stands. Hapane. Principles and Practice of Surveying. Surveying. By W. Norman Thomas. Pp. viii + 536. (With Answers.) (London : Edward Arnold, 1920.) Price 31s. 6d. net. LL British surveyors will give the heartiest welcome to this excellent book. We have become accustomed to American and German survey literature, and have relied too much upon it. The author has gone far to relieve us of this necessity. He succeeds admirably in emphasising the importance of a due appreciation of the errors involved, and his mathematical investigations and notes on the accuracy of each method are clear and convincing. 802 NATURE [Aucust 26, 1920 The matter sequence is curious. We start with chain surveying and do not reach triangulation until p. 377. Surveys for purely engineering ends are often limited in extent, but none the less each method has suffered from being considered on its own merits and not as part of a whole. Geodesy and topographical surveying are barely mentioned. We start with the field work, plotting, and area computing of chain surveys. The subject is clearly put, and the investigations of errors and of the accuracy of linear measurement are particu- larly valuable. It is curious to find reference in this chapter to British war maps, which owed none of their characteristics to chaining. The chapter on optics and on magnetism is welcome, though it might with advantage have gone further. After a description of instruments of minor im- portance and of the vernier and micrometer micro- scope, the author deals with theodolites, omitting mention, unfortunately, of Messrs. Watts and Co.’s latest patterns, which embody many im- provements. Adjustments are fully described, and are followed by a few pages on the accuracy of angular measurements and on geodetic results. Having already dealt with linear measurement, the author confines his description of traverses mostly to angular measurement by compass, dial, or theodolite. The investigation of errors of closure is valuable and includes an interesting mathe- matical analysis of Bowditch’s rule. The surveyor who traverses between stations of an existing tri- angulation will find little help, however, for the problems which then arise are prac- tically ignored. Two _ consecutive chapters deal with levels, levelling, contouring, trigono- metrical levelling, and various relative and abso- lute methods of determining altitude. Mention is made of the Zeiss patterns of level in use on the Ordnance Survey, but there is no mention of the “water level ” for contouring purposes. As usual, the student will have no excuse for failing to understand the relative values of different levelling methods. There is a brief mention of precise levelling generally, including a note on the new geodetic levelling of Great Britain. Tacheometry is thoroughly dealt with, the optics and attainable results being lucidly described, and leads on to range-finders, with special reference to the “ Barr and Stroud.” The chapter on plane-tabling is not so convincing as the rest, and is all too short. The plane-table has been used with success in climates as difficult as our own, and is an indis- pensable method of survey. Chapters on curve ranging, eastiwork calcula- tions, and hydrographic surveying contain well- arranged information rarely to be met with else- where. It is: under hydrographic surveying, NO. 2652, VOL. 105] curiously enough, that one: finds a description of — instrumental resection. As a subject it deserves — more attention than it gets, and should not be — confined to a solution from three points. Tri- angulation and base measurement are well dealt with and illustrated by historical references. The experienced surveyor will find little fresh informa- tion on astronomical surveying (except an inter- esting note on Driencourt’s prismatic astrolabe), but will relish the simple and yet thorough bid in which the theory is put. The concluding chapter, on photogrammetry, deals with the photo-theodolite and contains a brief reference to stereophotogrammetry and to aero- plane photography. The get-up, printing, and paper are a pleasure to see. All surveyors should possess a copy of this book. is 2 WInTERBOTHAM. Australian Hardwoods, The Hardwoods of Australia and their Economics. By Richard T. Baker. (Technological Museum, New South Wales : Technical Education Series, No. 23.) Pp. xvi+522+plates. (Sydney: The Technological Museum, 1919.) HE author states in the preface to this work that his object is to make known to Austra- lians and the world generally the diversity of the hardwoods with which Nature has endowed the vast Australian continent. Such a book can scarcely have been introduced at a more opportune time, when the problem of how to provide sufficient timber for the world’s growing needs has become increasingly acute since the war. It is a remark- able fact that, while Australia has probably the largest variety of hardwoods in the world, cover- ing hundreds of thousands of square miles, the number of species they represent is comparatively few—probably less than 500. Moreover, nearly half of these belong to the genus Eucalyptus, which covers at least two-thirds of the whole surface, and supplies the bulk of hardwoods re- quired for commercial purposes. The book is divided into three main sections. Part i. deals with the physical properties of timber, colour, grain, taste, odour, structure, weight, durability, combustibility, and other features. The author emphasises the great aid afforded by colour in the identification of Austra- lian woods, and the fine series of chromatic plates: scattered through the volume, illustrating the newly planed surface of all the important timbers, shows in a very striking manner the great beauty’ and variety of these woods. The writer of this” notice has had an opportunity of comparing a number of these plates with specimens in the- Avoust 26, 1920] NATURE 803 fine collection of Australian woods at the Im- perial Institute, and can vouch for their accuracy as,regards both colour and delineation. .Every timber has a distinct colour, though at times this is far from easy to describe in the absence of any standard colour nomenclature; in such cases coloured plates are a great help. Some of the colour terms seem to be used in a rather loose sense. The author employs eight types—(1) dark red, (2) red, (3) pink, (4) grey, (5) chocolate, (6) yellow, (7) pale, (8) white—but on comparing some of the plates we find it hard to draw the line between the types pink and pale, while some of the timbers described under the heading of white would be more correctly termed buff- coloured. The illustrations in black-and-white showing wood anatomy should also be a material aid to identification. In part ii. we have a description of each species in botanical sequence, followed by a list of timbers arranged in grades of hardness. Part iii. contains -technical articles on (i) the determination of specific timbers; (ii) nomenclature; (iii) the seasoning of timber ; (iv) the preservation of timbers, conclud- ing with an account of the economic uses of the woods. The book contains a vast amount of information useful to both foresters and students. The typographical arrangement is somewhat open to criticism. The use of unnecessarily large types for specific names and authorities, with a wide margin, entails a great waste of space, and makes the book rather cumbersome. On the other hand, the systematic portion of the work might with advantage have been in larger type. These minor defects, however, do not’ detract from the general excellence of the book. Mr. Baker is to be congratulated upon a valu- ‘able addition to the literature of Australian forestry, which should bring home to Australians the importance of preserving these many valuable woods from the extinction which threatens them by a_ well-devised and vigorous scheme of re- afforestation. A, Bi J. The Columbian Tradition. The Columbian Tradition on the Discovery of America and of the Part Played therein by the Astronomer Toscanelli: A Memoir addressed to the Profs. Hermann Wagner, of the University of Gottingen, and Carlo Errera, of Bologna. By Henry Vignaud. Pp. 62. (Oxford: At the Clarendon Press, 1920.) Price 3s. 6d. net. N various publications, especially in his ‘“ His- | toire de la Grande Entreprise de Christophe Colomb ” (Paris, 1911, 2 vols.), Mr. Vignaud has endeavoured to upset the traditional view of the NO. 2652, VOL. 105] discovery of America. According to that view, Columbus set out in 1492, not to discover un- known lands, but to reach the eastern parts of Asia by sailing westward across the Atlantic, having already in 1474 been encouraged to do so by the well-known astronomer Toscanelli of Flor- ence. In this pamphlet Mr. Vignaud has again summed up the results of his studies and defended them against the attacks of his two principal opponents. All we know about Columbus and the object of his first voyage comes from himself or his son or his blind admirer, Las Casas, and not one of these is a trustworthy witness, as the exposure of various falsehoods told about the family and early history of Columbus has proved. No trace exists of Columbus ever having spoken of going to Eastern Asia before he returned from his great discovery; but that idea is spoken of in a letter to the “Catholic Kings,” which Las Casas placed as a preface to the log-book of the first voyage. This letter is, however, neither found nor alluded to elsewhere, and bears no date. In the log-book Columbus says that his sole object is las Indias, but that book was edited by Las Casas, and in the days when he wrote, this expression only meant the Antilles and neighbouring lands, and never the East Indies. Columbus, when leaving Palos, did not sail straight across the Atlantic, as would have been natural if his goal had been “Cipangu” (Japan), or “Cathay” (China); he first went down to the Canaries and then sailed straight westward along the 28th parallel. At 700 or 750 leagues west of the Canaries he fully expected to find land, and was greatly disturbed when none was seen, so that he must have had some private reason to believe that there were islands near that spot; and the discovery of these would seem to have been the sole object of the voyage. It has been objected to this that Columbus (according to Las Casas) carried with him credential letters for the ‘“Great Khan.” But it is known that his partner, Pinzon, had some idea of going in search of Cipangu. Mr. Vignaud suggests that it was to secure the indispensable co-operation of Pinzon that Columbus included the visit to Cipangu in his plan, but that when he only found land much further west than he had expected, he believed that what he had found was Cipangu, a belief which he kept to his dying day. With regard to the alleged letter and map of 1474, attributed to Toscanelli, these were never alluded to by Columbus himself; and the copy of the letter found at Seville in 1871 was probably not written by him, but by his brother. The in- formation in the letter (the map is lost) is such 804 NATURE. [AucustT 26, 1920 as a distinguished savant would have scorned to supply, while it is quite in accordance with Columbus’s own geographical ideas derived from the antiquated “Imago Mundi” of Cardinal d’Ailly. The letter was probably fabricated by the family of Columbus after his death to disprove the rumour that he owed his success, not to his studies in cosmography, but to some information about unknown islands privately obtained. The true glory of Columbus is that he found what he went out to find—a New World. J: b.c8. ae Our Bookshelf. Electricity: Its Production and Applications. By Reg. E. Neale. (Pitman’s Common Commodi- ties and Industries.) Pp. viii+ 136. (London: Sir Isaac Pitman and Sons, Ltd., n.d.) Price as, 6d; net. Tue author addresses himself to the general reader who desires to understand something of the way in which electricity is produced and is utilised in present-day industries. The generation, distribution, and storage of electric power are first explained briefly, and then the author passes on to deal successively with lighting, heating, electric driving of machinery, traction, haulage, etc. Further chapters skim lightly over the lead- ing features of electrochemistry, electrometal- lurgy, electric welding and cutting, telegraphy and telephony, and medical applications. So large a field can be covered in a little volume like this only by limitation to the barest essentials, but it is remarkable how complete and accurate is the information given. The reader is, however, hurried on unpleasantly fast, and is never allowed to pause where his interest is aroused. We are not as a rule over-fond of “tabloid” education, but the ubiquitous use of electricity in industry and daily life makes it desirable for everyone to know something of its nature and scope. It will be an advantage to many to have at their dis- posal so well compiled a summary of the subject rather than to rely on the loose statements too often made in conversation and in the non-tech- nical Press. The Nature-study of Plants in Theory and Prac- tice for the Hobby-Botanist. By T. A. Dymes. Pp... xviiit+173. (London: S.P.C.K.; New York: The Macmillan Co., 1920.) Price 6s, net. Tue first part of this book is devoted to an ex- planation of the meaning of the phenomena of plant life. and its interdependent functions. Wherever possible, comparisons are drawn with human life, and, in consequence, chapters are given curious | titles, such as ‘‘Marriage” and “Settling Down for Life.” The second portion of the book is a detailed account of the life- history of the Herb Robert and its relatives. Tables are appended showing the separation. of the sexes in time, the mode of pollination, and the method of seed dispersal of British species of. NO. 2652, VOL. 105] Cranesbills and Storksbills. study. cee) Eugenics, Civics, and Ethics: A Lecture achiviesa ae to the Summer School of Eugenics, Civies, and Ethics on August 8, 1919, inthe Arts School, By ee Charles Walston (Wald- — ; Cambridge. stein). Pp. 56. ., (Cambridge: At the Universi Press, 1920.) Price 4s. net. b is A stRONG plea is made in this lecture for the - organisation and development of the study pe ethics, or, as the author prefers to call it, etho- logy. The interdependence of eugenics and ‘civics, | 7 : and the foundation of both in ethics, are discussed, and warning is given against striving to produce the perfect physical specimen of man without due — consideration of character and mental attributes. Towards the end of the lecture the progressive nature of ethical codes is made clear, and great stress is laid on the importance of the establish- ment of our ideal of the perfect man and the teaching of such practical ethics in both baeteias and homes. A Second Book of School Celebrations, yr. F. H. Hayward. Pp. 133. (London: P. S. King and Son, Ltd., 1920.) Price 5s. net. — “A First Book of ScHoot CELEBRATIONS ” was reviewed in Nature for August 5. The new volume contains a further series of oebras tions dealing with the military conflicts in Pales- — tine, toleration, Alfred the Great, Pasteur and Lister, Sir Philip Sidney, G. F. Watts, Empire | Day, political parties, school leaving day, work, and five of a new type, termed by the author “homage celebrations,” which deal with the artist, the martyr, the musician, Ireland, and Poland. © Stories for the Nature Hour. Compiled by Ada M. Skinner and Eleanor L. Skinner. — Pp. 253. (London: George G. Harrap and Co., Ltd., 1920.) Price 5s. net. A NUMBER of short stories from the pens of many — authors have been collected in this volume. Hans Andersen, Ruskin, and Charles Lamb are repre- sented, and the compilers themselves have sup- plied eight legends. The book should be useful to the teacher giving lessons on natural history subjects to small children, and should also make interesting reading for older children. A Manual of Elementary Zoology. By L. A. Borradaile. Third edition. Pp. xviii+616+ xxi plates. (London: Henry Frowde, and Hodder and Stoughton, 1920.) Price 18s. THE last edition of. this work was reviewed in Nature for April 3, 1919. The only important change made in the new edition is the inclusion of twenty-one large plates, most of which are particularly valuable for laboratory work. Plate xii, showing various breeds of British sheep, is crude, and seems unworthy of a place in a book which is otherwise remarkable for its clear dia- grams and realistic illustrations. The book should be a a stimulus to tntetigent and intensive Nature-_ ~ By Dr. x AucustT 26, 1920] NATURE 805 Le Radium: Interprétation et Enseignement de !a _ Radioactivité. Par Prof. Fr. Soddy. Traduit - de l’Anglais par A. Lepape. (Nouvelle Col- lection scientifique.) Pp. iii+375. (Paris: Félix Alcan, 1919.) Price 4.90 francs. | Tue third edition of Prof. Soddy’s book, ‘‘The Interpretation of Radium,” which was reviewed in Nature for February 20, 1913, is the original from which this translation was made. The trans- lator has added an appendix in which the work of the period 1914-19 is described, and consequent modifications of theory are indicated. Grasses and Rushes and How to Identify Them. By J. H. Crabtree. Pp. 64. (London: The Epworth Press, n.d.) Price 1s. 9d. net. Tuis little book is a catalogue of all the grasses and rushes of the English countryside. A brief description, accompanied by an_ illustration, is given of each plant mentioned. The book should _ be of value to both farmers and students. — Experiments with Plants. A First School-book of Science. By J. B. Philip. Pp. 205. (Oxford: At the Clarendon Press, 1919.) Price 3s. net. Most of this book is devoted to the experimental study of the elementary physiology of seeds and plants. An account of the reproductive process is included, and the elementary physics and chemistry of soils are briefly indicated. In the appendices a sketch is given of the scientific prin- ciples which are necessary to a study of botany. % An index would have been a useful addition to the Aluminium: Its Manufacture, Manipulation, and Marketing. By G. Mortimer. (Pitman’s Common Commodities and Industries.) Pp. viii +152. (London: Sir Isaac Pitman and Sons, Ltd., n.d.) Price 2s. 6d. net. Tuis interesting book gives a particularly good account of the numerous applications which alu- ‘minium now finds in modern industry. The technical processes for the extraction of aluminium and its adaptation, both in the pure state and in the form of alloys, to industry are carefully and fully described. The book is well illustrated, and cannot fail to be of interest to chemists, engineers, and the general reader. Chemical Theory and Calculations: An Elemen- tary Text-Book. By Prof. F. J. Wilson and Prof. I. M. Heilbron. Second edition. Pp. vii +144. (London: Constable and Co., Ltd., 1920.) Price 4s. 6d. net. Tus is an admirable collection of problems cover- ing a wide range, and including many of an advanced character. A pleasing feature is the brief but lucid account of chemical-theory, includ- ing a short section on atomic numbers. The book should prove of great service to teachers and to students preparing for degree examinations. — It is distinctly better than most books on chemical arithmetic; since it aims: at a higher standard. NO. 2652, VOL. 105 | Letters to the Editor. {The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed by his correspondents, Neither can be undertake to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manuscripts intended for this or any other part of Nature. No notice is taken of anonymous communications.] University Grants. I am glad to see that the very urgent necessity for the provision of increased University grants which was so ably stated in your leading article of August 5 has led to the position in Leeds and Birmingham being brought torward so clearly by Sir Muchael Sadler and Principal Grant Robertson in Nature of ‘August 12 and Ig. There can be no doubt that every university in the country is feeling the need of largely increased financial assistance, without which it will be impossible to carry on efficiently, if at all, depart- ments such as those of science, which must always be a source of large expenditure and financial loss to any umiversity. it is probably generally true that the higher the efficiency of a department, the greater is its cost of maintenance, and, consequently, the greater the financial loss to the university. Therefore, so long as reasonable economy in administration is practised, the expenditure of money on a successful department should be welcomed and encouraged, and every effort made to provide funds so that its work may have free scope and not be hampered in any way. Only under conditions of proper equipment as regards both staff and material and freedom from financial worry can a department be expected to develop to its fullest extent and to produce knowledge. f In the Times of August 18 Prof. Soddy and I directed attention to the critical condition of science at Oxford, and pointed out that there is actually no proper accommodation here even for the teaching of physical and inorganic chemistry. The antiquated buildings which are now used for. the purpose are quite out of date, besides being far too small to cope with the large number of students who are presenting themselves for the honours degree. The case of organic chemistry is also very serious because, although the laboratory which was built four years ago, largely owing to the generosity of Dr. C, W. Dyson. Perrins, is modern and well-equipped, it is far too small. A new extension is in course of construction, but the funds necessary to pay for it are not ayailable, and must be borrowed, and there is, moreover, no adequate endowment to provide for upkeep when the buildings are completed. A similar state of things is to be found in connection with the new chair of biochemistry recently endowed through the generosity of Mr. Edward Whitley. There are no laboratories associated with this chair, and in the meantime accommodation must be provided in the already over- crowded physiological laboratories. A careful estimate of the cost of urgently required new buildings shows that at least 250,000l,. as well as an endowment bringing in 10,00ol. per annum, must be forthcoming if the study of chemistry is to be placed on a firm basis in this University. ; I have dealt more particularly with chemistry because it is generally admitted that the most pressing néed in this University is that chemistry shall’ be placed on such a footing that teaching and research may be done under conditions very different from those which prevail at the present time., But the other branches of physical science are also urgently in’ need of financial assistance, partly for» new’ build. $06 NATURE [Aveust 26, 1920 ings and partly to provide funds sufficient to maintain | and work them. There are clearly only two sources from which the very large sums required by the universities can be obtained, and those are (1) Treasury grants and (2) private benefactions. You have pointed out that the proposed Treasury grant of 1,500,000l. included in the Estimates for 1921-22 is quite inadequate, and it is obvious that this must be the case. It is, therefore, to be hoped that careful inquiry into the needs of the universities by the Treasury will result in this sum being sub- stantially augmented. With regard to private bene- faction, I think we may look forward with confidence to very liberal response in the near future from generous individuals, and more particularly from wealthy firms interested in the progress of science and education. The action of Messrs. Brunner, Mond, and Co. in setting aside 100,000l. as_a contribution to the universities is an example which will certainly he followed by other firms who’ owe much of their success to the work of chemists, engineers, and others sent to them from the universities. If it were to become a recognised practice for firms who can afford to do so to set aside yearly some com- paratively small sum as a contribution to the uni- versities, the combined effort would go far to solve the difficulties in which we find ourselves at the present time. W. H. PERKIN. The University Museum, Oxford, August 22. Use of Sumner Lines in Navigation. May I venture .to point out, in the interests of navigational science, that although the article by Capt. Tizard in Nature of July 1 under the above title is an admirably clear and concise account of the application of Sumner lines in navigation at the date given in his examples, it is scarcely descriptive of the best practice of to-day? Of the two methods of drawing the lines described by Capt. Tizard, the first, or ‘original Sumner method,’’ is now merely of academic interest, and is seldom practised outside schools and examination- rooms. Its defects are, first, that each sight has to be worked out twice (once for each of the two assumed latitudes), and, secondly, that it is inapplicable to sights taken near the meridian. It may also be remarked that unless the two assumed latitudes. are very close together, the true circle of position may differ considerably from the straight line joining the two points found on the Mercator chart. The second method described by Capt. usually known as the ‘ Tizard, ‘chronometer method,’’ is still used to some extent. It avoids the double working out of each sight, but gives good results only for observations taken on large bearings; it is inapplicable to sights taken near the meridian. For observations near the meridian phat is cailed the ‘“‘ex-meridian method ’’ may be used to draw the position-lines. In this method the longitude is assumed, and the sight is worked out as a latitude observation; the position-line is then drawn, at right angles to the bearing, through the point where the meridian of the assumed longitude is cut by the parallel of the observed latitude. This method gives good results for sights near the meridian, but fails on large bearings. combination of the last two methods is some- times employed, the sights near the meridian being worked out by the ‘‘ex-meridian method,’’ and those on large bearings by the ‘‘chronometer method.”’ This combined procedure has been advocated by several writers, especially by Capt. Blackburne, who NO. 2652, VOL. 105 | undertook the, immense labour of computing; tables” 5 specially adapted for the purpose. The main objec- | tion to it is that the procedure is not uniform) for all — sights. A much better method of drawing the Sumner ijk 5: than any of the above, and one which seems destined to replace all others, being now in extensive use. navigators of all nations and recognised - as the standard method in the Royal Navy, is known as the — . tion.’”’ It consists in assuming a dead-reck Marcq Saint-Hilaire method, or the ‘‘new cong position in both latitude and. longitude, a finding how much the observed zenith-distance of ay heavenly body differs from that calculated on the assumption that the dead-reckoning position was cor- rect. The difference between the observed and ecal- culated zenith-distances is laid off from the assumed position in a direction to or from the observed object (according as the observed zenith-distance is less or greater than the calculated one), and the position-line is then drawn through the point so found at ri it angles to the bearing. The great advantage of thi method is that it is perfectly general; it gives equally good results whatever the bearing of the object sighted. Though called the ‘“‘new navigation,” the Marcq Saint-Hilaire method of drawing the Sumner lines is by no means a recent invention, having been used: in the ‘French Navy for more than forty years. Its advantages were advocated so long a ago as 1888 by that indefatigable worker for the advancement of navigation, the Rev. William Hall, R.N., and have since been frequently pointed out by other Eng- lish writers on navigation. Its superiority over all other methods for drawing the Sumner lines or position-lines being indubitable, there is a difficulty in understanding its comparative neglect by British navigators up to recent times. One reason, no doubt, is conservatism; the British seaman usually prefers to use time-honoured methods with — which he is familiar rather than to adopt new-fangled notions, and fears to risk his ship by the possibility of making a mistake in a process with which he has not been made acquainted during his early training. Another reason which operated powerfully until within the last twenty years or so was the absence of any tables for facilitating the calculation of alti- tudes comparable in scope with the tables of Davis and Burdwood, which so greatly reduction of sights by the Bydie cn method.” This last difficulty was removed by the publication of the excellent ‘‘ Altitude Tables ”’ a my namesake, the Rev. F. Ball, M.A., of the Royal Navy, and at the present time it is just as simple a matter to work out sights by the ‘‘new navigation,’’ with the aid of these tables, as it was to work the old ‘*‘ chronometer method ’’ with the help of Burdwood and Davis. Until within the last decade it was seldom worth while to attempt to fix a. ship’s position at sea within a mile or two, because so long as the longi- tude, whether found by Sumner lines or by any other method, was dependent entirely on the Greenwich time as found by the transport of chronometers over long distances, it was usually impossible to be sure of the longitude within that amount, no matter how accurately star observations were made. This diffi- culty affected the hydrographic surveyor as well as the navigator; and, indeed, it provides the explanation why so many charted longitudes—down the Red Sea, for instance—are in error by a mile or more. But nowadays, when wireless time-signals enable the error of a ship’s chronometer to be found daily with an accuracy of a few tenths of a second anywhere on the seas, there is no reason why the longitude should little | helped in the rapid —— ee Se | Lee MES ae eS ee .AucusT 26, 1920] NATURE 807 ever be uncertain by so much as the tenth of a mile, provided only that sights can be taken with a corre- ‘sponding degree of accuracy. Thus the advent of wireless idlegraphy, by removing at one stroke the ‘most serious of all pre-existing limitations to pre- cision in the results, has made it worth while. to improve the methods of position-finding at sea. Simultaneously progress has been made in the con- struction of charts and instruments adapted for navigation, giving to the navigator another stimulus towards attaining that refinement of method by which alone he may hope to steer his ship from port to port not only in safety, but also with that economy of time and fuel which is demanded by modern competition. As regards the number of position-lines required to determine a ship’s position, it is obvious that if only two sights are taken, no matter how favourable the angle at which the position-lines cut each other, the position found will be correct only if the observa- tions are free from instrumental and other errors, and if dip and refraction are correctly allowed for. With only two sights a large unknown centring error in the sextant employed, or abnormal refraction, or a mistake in one of the sights, may render the position found quite false, and there is no means of detecting the error. If the two sights are not simultaneous or nearly so, there will, of course, be an added un- certainty in the position due to the difficulty in accurately éstimating the ship’s run in the interval. If three sights are taken constant errors can be eliminated, but accidental errors cannot be readily detécted. If four sights are taken, however, as nearly as possible simultaneously, on bearings differing by approximately 90°, not only will a constant error of even two or three minutes in the measured altitudes, or in the allowance for dip, be without influence on the accuracy of the result, but if a mistake has been made in one of the sights the fact can readily be detected. This is a powerful argument for making the astronomical determination of a ship’s position : , whenever possible, on at least four Sumner lines or position-lines deduced from observations of four stars differing by approximately 90° in bearing. It can easily be proved geometrically that when the altitudes of three or more stars have been equally accurately observed, the most probable position is the centre of that circle which most nearly touches all the position-lines, and in which the directions of the stars from the points of contact are either all towards or all away from the centre; also, that the radius of the circle gives the amount of any constant error in the observed altitudes, whether due to errors of the sextant employed or to error in the assumed dip of the horizon or refraction. If with more than three sights no circle can be drawn satisfying the condition of approximately touching all the position-lines, while at the same time having the star-directions from the points of contact pointing either all towards or all away from its centre, then it is certain that a mistake has occurred in one or more of the observa- tions; either an altitude or a time has been wrongly recorded or one of the stars wrongly identified, or else there has been a mistake in the calculation for one or more of the sights. The importance of considering the directions of the stars, as well as the position-lines themselves, is well illustrated by reference to the first of the examples given by Capt. Tizard. If the non-inter- section of the three position-lines in his Fig. 1 is due to a constant error in all the altitudes, caused either by instrumental error or by error in the tabular allowance for dip or refraction (as will usually be the case in sights taken by a practised observer), then NO, 2652, VOL. 105] the true position is not, as might at first be thought, within the little triangle formed by the crossing of the lines, but outside it; and the true longitude is not 145° 4’, as Capt. Tizard concludes, but 145° 5’. For, as will be seen by Fig. 1, on which I have indicated the star-directions by arrows, no other circle than the one shown can be described so as to touch all three position-lines, while the three star-directions from the points of contact point either all towards or all away from its centre. So great is the importance of accuracy in the fixing of the ship’s position at sea in modern navigation, and so well is the “new navigation’’ with four position-lines crossing at about go° adapted to secure -this accuracy, that at the recent Intérnational Hydro- graphic Conference in London it was proposed by an eminent authority, Comdr. Alessio, of the Royal Italian Navy, that it would be desirable for the con- ference to prescribe as a fundamental rule of naviga- tion that ‘‘the normal astronomical determination of a ship at sea must be made with the method of four Sumner lines by observing four stars the position- lines of which cut at approximately go0°.’’ It was decided that the prescribing of rules for navigation did not fall within the scope of the 1919 Conference, 145° 10’ N 9 us So) and ; ye c ‘ 1’ 40’ y pint n° 40’ 5 s Ie § 8 tron 11°##' S. os 145 6 E. 11°50’ eae 11°50’ xs Wea > 145° 10’ FIG. 1. and consequently the matter was not further dis- cussed. But there can be no doubt that if navigators of all nations could be persuaded to follow so excel- lent a rule as that suggested by Comdr. Alessio, it would add greatly to the safety of shipping. The method is so simple, and affords such security against error, that if it were once systematically taught in schools of navigation and included in the Board of Trade requirements for masters’ certificates, it would probably by its own merits displace all other processes for fixing positions at sea under normal conditions. It would, of course, still be advisable to retain the ordinary meridian or ex-meridian sights for latitude and the morning or afternoon sights for longitude as a stand-by against the possibility of clouds or fog interfering with the twilight observations of stars, but whenever the suggested rule could possibly be followed it could be trusted to give far more accurate results than any observations of the sun. A word may perhaps be added as to the manner of calculating the altitudes in the ‘‘new navigation.’ Comdr. Alessio (Report of the International Hydro- graphic Conference, London, 1919, p. 230) recom- mends logarithmic calculation with five-place tables, 808 NATURE / [Aucusr 26, 1920 using a formula which permits of a ready check. This only takes about five minutes for each sight, and is, no doubt, the best way; in fact, it is the only safe way where a very considerable degree of precision is aimed at. But most navigators prefer to avoid computation so far as possible by the use of tables, and in ordinary circumstances the altitude tables used in the Royal Navy will give sufficiently accurate results. The great defect of the tabular method is that one has to round off the dead- reckoning latitude to the nearest degree for the assumed position in order to enter the tables, and consequently the position-lines may extend over so great a distance on the chart that their curvature cannot properly be neglected. With logarithmic calculation, on the other hand, the actual dead- reckoning position can be taken as the assumed position, and the position-lines will then be so short that their curvature can be neglected without any per- ceptible loss of accuracy. ; It may not be out of place to remark in conclusion that the utility of the Sumner line or position-line principle is not confined to position-fixing with a seytant at sea. I have shown in two recently pub- lished papers (‘Notes on the Working of the New Navigation,’’ Cairo, 1918, and ‘‘The Prismatic Astro- labe,’? Geographical Journal, July; 1919, p. 37) that the ‘“‘new navigation ’’ is capable of useful applica- tion on land in conjunction with theodolite observa- tions and wireless time-signals, and that determina- tions of geographical position of very considerable accuracy may be made in this way. The method has since been put into practice by Dr. Hamilton Rice on exploratory land surveys in South America, (see the Geographical Journal for July, p. 59) with ‘satisfac- tory results. Joun’ Batt. Survey of Egypt, Cairo, July 24. Relativity and Hyperbolic Space. OBSERVATION. tells us that while gravitation dominates the history of a lump of matter moving in the vast ocean of free zther, it has practically no effect on the history of a pulse of light in similar circumstances. . Since last mail I have investigated the bearings of space being hyperbolic on light-rays. The central-projection map of the space, used before, in which r=tanh ©, where 7 is the radius vector of the map and Re the radius vector in the space, will be called a gnomonic map; planes are. mapped as planes. If the projection used be given by r=2 tanh 40, the map will be called stereographic ; small regions are mapped in correct shape, spheres and: planes as spheres, and the two sheets of a pseudo-sphere as two spheres intersecting and ‘making equal angles with the sphere. repre- senting the median plane, in a circle lying on the absolute, r=2. (A pseudo-sphere is the locus of a point at a given distance from a given plane, called its median plane. The characteristic of the map- sphere which represents a plane is that, it cuts the absolute r=2 orthogonally.) A point (x, y, 2) on the gnomonic map becomes [x/(1+47r’), y/(1+4,1’), z/(1+4r’)] on the stereographic map, The behaviour of a ray of light is fully described by saying that its path on the gnomonic map may be’ put in the form x*/a?+y?=1, where a is less than 1, and that the eccentric angle is t/R, where t is co-ordinate time. This ellipse really represents the two branches of a pseudo-circle; the ray goes out -to infinity (in the space) along one branch and returns®| ° along the other, the complete circuit having the period 27R. The median line of the pseudo-circle NO. 2652, VOL. 105 | ‘advisable to call them both ‘anticyclones. passes through the origin—that is, through the. a observer. If from a given point rays start in all directions ; ‘ : For a finite time before ¢ attains the value of a quarter-period, 4¢R, there will be a definite wave-front.- this front will form the single sheet of a true sphere the centre of which recedes to infinity, whereupon front develops the two sheets of a oeudo-epheee aie =) one proceeding in the same direction as before, and the other, together with the median plane, returning _ from infinity, having been reflected back by the absolute. just reached the origin, and the reflected chasing both the other sheet and the median plane — back on the way to infinity. In the next quarter- period these motions are reversed in order of time, in — direction of motion, and in position relative to the origin. At the time t=7R the front has contracted down to a point focus situated on the opposite side of the origin from the radiant point at a pe po : equal to that of the point. At the time t=2r original circumstances recur, and everything is about to be repeated. A ray always moves normal to th front, although the centre of the true sphere the median plane of the pseudo-sphere themselves move from and to infinity in a finite time. A All these motions can be exactly imitated in’ Let, at a given point in such a — Euclidean space. space, the velocity of light be 1+7r7/4R?, the same in all directions, and let the sphere r=2R be a perfect reflector. Then light will in this medium behave exactly as does the light in the stereographic map (when the scale of that map is increased in the ratio of R to 1). Indeed, this seems the easiest method to get the differential equatidn of the path of a point in the hyperbolic space, for which f dt is stationary. — I may remark, however, that when the equation is obtained, later work is much simplified by changing the dependent to a form corresponding to th gnomonic map. igo arate cig eee In the stereographic map the rays after an even number of reflections, by the absolute, form a syste of coaxial circles through the radiant point aud Geek point on the opposite side of the origin which is Inverse to the sphere r=2. (For radiant point let o=x—a=y=z. Then for the second point mentioned it is meant that o=x+4/a=y=s. Ordinary inverse point would be o=x-—4/a=y=z.) After an odd number of reflections they are similarly related to the focus mentioned above. cutting these coaxial circles orthogonally. =~ Ce Avex. McAutay. University of Tasmania, June to. ett The Antarctic Anticyclone. ce In Nature for August 5 Mr. R. F. T. Grdtigier remarks: ‘‘The same conditions, i.e. the surface out- flow and the central descent of ‘air, exist in Prof. Hobbs’s polar ice-cap anticyclone; the only difference is the physical origin.” uae pte ( oh In the case of the ice-cap there are other differences as well; the temperature is lower in the case of an ice-cap than in an anticyclone. The ice-cap conditions which ‘resemble those of an anticyclone are, as Mr. Granger says, ‘surface outflow and the central descent of air.’”” The differences are low temperature, low pressure, and different physical origin. My suggestion was that these differences made it in- Be es ; . M. DEE Ley. Tintagel, Kew Gardens Road,’ Surrey, Yaa ; August 18) 7 2: eet Sie By the time t=47R the median plane has rt a Ee Te EN The fronts are the spheres: Avucust 26, 1920} NATURE 809 A Method of Reaching Extreme Altitudes. By Ropert H. Gopparp, Professor of Physics, Clark College, Worcester, Mass. BE is the purpose of the present article to state ‘the general principles and possibilities of the method of reaching great altitudes with multiple charge rockets, from which the exploded gases are ejected with high efficiency. Fundamental Principle. The basic idea of the method, briefly stated in general terms, is this: Given a mass of explosive material of as great energy content as possible, what height can be reached if a large fraction of this material is shot downwards, on exploding, with as high a speed as possible? It is evident, intuitively, that the height will be great if the fraction of material that remains is small and the velocity of ejection of the gases is high. _A theoretical treatment of the subject shows that, provided the speed of ejection of the gases is high, and the proportion of propellant is large, . the initial masses necessary to raise a given mass | to great heights are surprisingly small, but are | enormously large if these conditions are not satisfied. _ Principles to be Applied in Practice. (1). In order to apply practically the general principle above stated, there are three conditions that must be realised experimentally: First, the gases produced by the explosion must be ejected ‘downwards with the greatest efficiency possible. This requirement must be met by burning the explosive in a strong combustion chamber, to which a tapered nozzle is attached, in order to obtain the work of expansion of the gases. The apparatus used in the first experiments is shown in Fig. 1, in which P is the charge of dense smokeless powder, and B is the wadding. Three steel plugs were used, to vary the size of the powder chamber. The velocity of the gases highest velocity being nearly 8000 ft.-sec., pro- duced by the chamber shown in Fig. 2, whereas Fic, 2.—Chamber by which ejec ed gases were given a velocity of nearly 8000 ft. per sec. for ordinary rockets the velocity is but 1000 ft.- sec. Incidentally, the energy of motion of the gases in the case under discus- sion is more than 64 per cent. of the heat energy of the powder, whereas for ordinary rockets the efficiency thus defined is but 2 per cent. An interesting way of empha- iW mo || 1m XN @) Fic. 1.—Chamber used in early experiments. was measured by supporting the chamber in a ballistic pendulum, and observing the motion of the recoil. It was found, by experiment, that the energy of motion of the ejected gases as compared with the heat energy of the powder could be increased very greatly over that for ordinary rockets, the NO, 2652, VOL. 105 | B 5 ® @p— W = sising the magnitude of the velo- city, 8000 ft.-sec., is to compare it with the “velocity of escape,” or the “parabolic velocity” of planets. This welocity of escape is the velo- city a body would require, pro- jected upwards from a planet, in order to escape to infinity, and is a perfectly definite velocity, depending only upon the mass and diameter of the planet. For the moon the velocity is 1-5 miles per second, and for the planet Mars 3-0 miles per second. Thus if the chamber shown in Fig. 2 were placed upon the surface of the moon $10 NATURE [AucusT 26, 1920 and fired, most of the gases would escape from the moon’s attraction. The highest velocity gases would without doubt (since 8000 ft.-sec. is only the average velocity) escape from Mars, if the planet had no atmosphere. It should be remarked that, as shown by exper!i- mental results, the best form of nozzle has not yet been made, so that even 8000 ft.-sec. can be exceeded by further research. (2) The heavy chamber, as mentioned above, while permitting high velocities of the ejected gases to be obtained, would be an actual disad- vantage if a single charge were to be fired, %. LOS, oa Fic. 3.—Chamber held in a support to test influence of air upon the propulsion_of-a rocket. because of the large weight. It is necessary, then, that some means should be employed whereby charges may be fed successively into the same combustion chamber. If this is done it is evident that most of the rocket can consist of propellant, which is one of the conditions necessary for the attainment of great altitudes. (3) When the magazine containing the charges just mentioned is nearly empty, it is easily seen that the propellant is no longer a large fraction of the entire mass of the apparatus. Hence, in order that the fraction shall remain large, it is NO, 2652, VOL. 105] necessary that one or more rockets, really copies in miniature of the larger primary rocket, should be used if the most extreme altitudes are to be reached, in order that the above fraction will, at no time during the ascent, . become small. Summary of Results to Date. The theoretical work, done at Princeton University in 1912, was not followed by experi- mental tests until 1915, at Clark University. The work has since been continued at Clark Uni- versity, in the magnetic laboratory at the Worcester Polytechnic Institute, and at the Fic. 4.—Pipe into which chamber was fired to a tank exhausted to alow pressure, the gases ‘moving in a circular path until st spped by friction. Mount Wilson Observatory in California—for the greater part of the time under a grant from the Smithsonian Institution. The results of this work have shown, first, that most of the heat energy of even so powerful a propellant as dense _ nitroglycerine smokeless powder can be converted into kinetic energy of the ejected gases. They have demonstrated, secondly, that a multiple charge rocket can be made which will fire several charges in succession, is light and simple, and travels straight. In order to demonstrate whether or not the rocket depended for propulsion upon the presence AucustT 26, 1920] NATURE Sri . é . . | of air, a large number of experiments were per- formed in which the chamber, Fig. 1, was held in a support, Fig. 3, and fired in a 3-in. pipe, P, on a large tank, Fig. 4, exhausted to a low pressure. These experiments demonstrated that the presence of the air was not necessary for reaction and that the recoil is produced by re- action from the high-velocity gases that are ejected. The operation of the jet in vacuo need not appear mysterious if one thinks of the ejected gases as a charge of fine shot moving with a very high velocity. Obviously the chamber will react, or “kick,” when this charge is fired, a ‘ing lid % =" ' @ a; bs é 4 Fic: 5.—Tank in which the gases struck a coil of w.re-fencing. exactly as a shot-gun “kicks” when firing a charge of ordinary shot. The gases were prevented from rebounding from the bottom of the tank, Fig. 4, by the form of the tank, the gases moving in a circular path until stopped by friction. Another tank, Fig. 5, was also. used, in which rebound was prevented by the gases striking a large coil ‘of 4-in. mesh wire-fencing. The results with both tanks agreed down to the lowest pressure employed, 0-5 mm. of mercury, which is’ probably the pressure that exists at a height of thirty miles. NO. 2652, VOL. 105 | _ The figures given in the Smithsonian publica- tion regarding the initial masses necessary to propel 1 lb. to various heights, such as 12-3 Ib. for 430 miles, and 438 lb. for an “infinite” altitude (for the most favourable conditions, in so far as they are set forth in that publication), do not assume a larger velocity of ejection of the gases than has been obtained experimentally, but do assume a greater lightness than has so far been obtained. No attempt has, however, been made to reduce any part of the apparatus to the minimum weight possible, and it is believed that with further research such lightness as is assumed is realisable. At the present time, the work that is being done is the developing of a rocket, of small size, for employing a large number of cartridges,. or charges, and this is being done on the remainder of the original grant from the Smithsonian Institution. Application of. the Method. The most important of the immediate applica- tions of the method is in the providing of a simple and, when sufficiently developed, inexpensive means of obtaining meteorological data at the 10-kilometre level. It is well recognised that this is the most important level for studying pressure, temperature, humidity, and wind velocity; and any means of sending recording instruments rapidly into this region, and of obtaining data soon after the ascent has been made, is certain to be of value in weather forecasting. At greater elevations the study of temperature, pressure, wind velocity, and composition of the atmosphere is of scientific importance, and also the study of the aurora, during the day as well as at night, and the radiations from the sun that are otherwise absorbed by the atmosphere. A further application of much general interest is the possibility of sending a mass beyond the predominating gravitational field of the earth. Concerning the possibility of demonstrating this point by hitting the moon with a rocket, it can be said, apart from the questions of aiming and of correcting the flight, that the ignition of but a few pounds of flash powder should be visible in a powerful telescope, provided, of course, that the conditions of ignition were substantially the same as those in certaim experiments described in a recent Smithsonian publication, in which 1/20 of a grain fired in vacuo was observed at a distance of 2} miles. Regarding these questions, as well as others which naturally follow, the writer believes that detailed discussion, before one has checked up matters completely by experiment, is unwise, for this merely precipitates a flood of useless argu- ment, to which reply, in some form, must be made. The ideal method, which unfortunately is not always possible, is to solve a problem completely, as was done with the tests of the jet iw vacuo, and then to state the results. $12 NATURE [AuGusT 26, 1920 New Aspects in the Assessment of Physical Fitness. By Dr. F. G. Hopson, Department of Pathology, University of Oxford. A Physician in a great city seems to.be the mere plaything of Fortune; his degree of reputation ts for — the most part casual; they that employ him know not h¥s excellence; they that reject him know not hts deficience.—SAMUEL JOHNSON. HESS words might, with truth, have been written of Dr. John Hutchinson, one time physician to the Brompton Hospital for Diseases — of the Chest. His earlier years devoted to the study of engineering, he later turned. to medicine, and carried with him into his profession that enthusiasm for the accurate expression of scien- tific data which must have been engendered by his early training. In 1846 he published a paper “On the Capacity of the Lungs and on the Re- spiratory Functions” (1)!, in which he showed that he possessed the inspiration which is ever the mark of true genius, combined with the ability for accurate observation and-the patient collection of data. He made the earliest investigations into the physiological effects of ‘forced breathing” ; by means of a mercurial manometer he examined “expiratory force”; but interest lies for the special ends of the present subject in the exten- sive series of observations which he made upon the “vital capacity’? of more than 3000 persons covering a wide range of body size, occupation, and mode of life. Dr. Hutchinson claimed that he had shown that “vital capacity” increases in simple arithmetical progression with increasing height, and believed that he had disproved any relationship between “vital capacity” and body weight, trunk length, or circumference of the chest. The fact that his conclusions might be open to criticism, and that the fundamental principles underlying his investi- gation might yet have eluded his grasp, was present in his mind, and he concluded his treatise with the following remarkable sentences, which could well be taken as a model by any scientific worker :— The matter of this communication is founded upon a vast number of facts—immutable truths which are infinitely beyond my comprehension. The deductions which I have ventured to draw therefrom I wish to advance with modesty, because time, with its muta- tions, may so unfold science as to crush these deduc- tions and demonstrate them as unsound. Nevertheless, the facts themselves can never alter nor deviate in their bearing upon respiration, one of the most important functions of the animal economy. This prediction has, with the passage of time, been fulfilled. Prof. G. Dreyer, of Oxford University, has made an extensive re-investigation of the whole subject, drawing upon Hutchinson’s data as well as upon his own records. In a brilliant analysis Fic figures in brackets refer to the Bibliography at the end of the article. 2 The term ‘‘ vital capacity ” is used to indicate the maximum amount of air the individual is able to expel from his lungs, by voluntary effort; after | the deepest possible inspiration. NO, 2652, VOL. 105] of this considerable body of observations, he ie conclusively proved the existence of physiological laws which escaped the mind of the pioneer Hutchinson... On practically every point do these reached by laws refute the conclusions Hutchinson. Prof. Dreyer (2) has shown that definite rela- tionships do exist between “vital capacity” and body surface, body weight, trunk length, and — the circumference of the chest, while no true re- lationship can be traced when “vital capacity” is regarded as a simple function of the standing | height, as claimed by Hutchinson. : Aveust 26, 1920| NAIURE 827 — political and economic interest. At present she has no place in the reconstructed Europe, and a complete political re-orientation will be necessary if she is to emerge successfully from her present trials. The pre-war frontier of Italy in the east is un- satisfactory, because it assigns to Austria the essentially Italian region of the Lower Isonzo. But beyond that region and a position on the neighbouring highlands for strategic purposes, Italy has no claim except what she’ can establish on ethnic grounds. The so-called “Wilson line’? meets her requirements fairly well. Economic Science and Statistics. Dr. J. H. Clapham’s presidential address to Section F contains a comparison and contrast between the econo- mic condition of Western Europe after the Napoleonic wars and its economic condition to-day. Figures for the total losses of France and for the debt accumu- lated by Great Britain during the former period go to ove that if warfare in those days lacked intensity, it made up in duration. As in 1918, France was short of men, and her means of communication had suf- fered; her rapid recovery illustrates the essential dif- ference between the two periods: a hundred years ago few men were demobilised in either France or Ger- many, and these were readily absorbed in an et a community. In 1816 the harvest was bad, and Western Europe approached starvation; the situation was saved only by the excellent harvest of the fol- lowing year. Economic organisation was primitive, but elastic. A modern parallel is Serbia, which has improved wonderfully since the bountiful har- vest of 1919. Germany suffered rather longer owing to the lack of a strong central Government; the States which have risen from the wreckage of the Austro- Hungarian Empire are now in a similar plight. | Great ‘Britain was partly industrial, and recovery was delayed by mi agement of supplies, taxation, and de- mobilisation. Stocks of Colonial goods had accumu- lated with which home markets were flooded, and a commercial and industrial crisis followed. A similar situation exists now in the United States; she is a. creditor nation with a big export trade, but she will not it indiscriminate exchange. Modern financial $ are tide off such a crisis as followed the Napoleonic wars. The central problem is: When will the inability of war-damaged countries to pay for the material they require to restart their industries be felt by the nations supplying them? If trade balances are adjusted, the post-war slump will become a slow decline; otherwise, a crisis must occur when inter- national obligations cannot be met. Another feature ‘of the situation in the early part of the nineteenth century was the rapid growth in population observed everywhere. Official figures indicate the possibility of a repetition of this phenomenon. Engineering. u Prof. C. F. Jenkin in his presidential address ‘to Section G suggests that the time has come for an extensive revision of the theory of the strength of materials as used by engineers. The mathematical theory needs to be extended to cover anisotropic materials, such as timber, and to enable concentrations of stress such as occur at all changes of section to be calculated. Our knowledge of the physical properties of materials requires to be ex- tended so that their suitability for all engineering purposes may be known. The need for the wider theory and for more research into the properties of materials is illustrated by examples of the problems which occurred in aeroplane construction during the war. The first material dealt with by the Air Service was timber. How was the strength of such NO; 2652, VOL. 105] material to be calculated? It was shown that the components of the tensile stress in three principal directions must not exceed the tensile strengths in those directions. Curves limiting the stress at any angle to the grain have been drawn for spruce, ash, walnut, and mahogany. For plywood, “split-off”’ veneers were recommended in place of “cut-off” wood. The method used for the determination of Young’s modulus for wood neglects the effect of shear, and is therefore inaccurate. As an example of an isotropic substance steel is discussed. Fatigue limit is suggested as a measure of strength; in samples examined it was found to be slightly less than half the ultimate strength. Research is necessary to deter- mine the effects of the speed of testing, rest and heat treatment, and pnevious testing. For this improved methods are required; Stromeyer’s method would be useful if modified for commercial use. Present methods of testing in torsion are unsatisfactory, and knowledge of the internal mechanism of fatigue failure is required. For members of structures sub- jected to steady loads a proof-load specification which limits the permanent set to } per cent. or 4 per cent. is suggested. If fatigue limit is the basis for engine- strength calculation, the distribution of stresses in irregularly shaped parts of the machine must be inves- tigated. Prof. Coker’s optical method has been applied to this end, but A. A. Griffith’s calculations on the effects of grooves and polishing have not been tested. Wood and steel are the only materials about which trustworthy data have been collected. Anthropology. Prof. Karl Pearson in his presidential address to Section H urges the importance of anthropology, ‘ the true study of mankind.’’ Science should be studied, not for itself, but for the sake of man. For this reason there is no use for the collection of measurements of height, span, size of head, etc. The important char- acteristics are the psycho-physical and psycho-physio- logical factors, reaction-time, mental age, and pulse- tracing. Body measurement has no connection with ‘‘vigorimetry ’’ and psychometry, for no pure “‘ line ”’ ‘in man has been traced: Moreover, present methods are entirely qualitative; they must be made quantita- tive. Three things are urged as essential to the recognition of anthropology as a useful science. First, folk-psychology as well as individual psychology should "be studied as a means to determine race efficiency, For this purpose, the ancestry of man must be investi- gated in order that we may know which is likely to have the greater influence on his future, Nature or nurture. Secondly, institutes for the study of anthro- pology ought to be established in at least three of our universities. There the workers would be in touch with allied sciences, they would have a wide field open for measurements, and would be able to teach as well as to research on the subject. In this way men could be fitted for important ‘‘ extra-State’’ work as diplomatic agents, traders, etc., in foreign lands. Another section of the work should be devoted to a study of the population at large; the schools, the factories, and the prisons must all be investigated, so that the present wasteful organisation of society may be remedied. When its value to the State has been proved, anthropology can ask for adequate support as its right. The third point urged is the adoption of a new technique. Logical accuracy and mathematical exactness must be introduced; training should start with anthropometry in its broadest sense, advancing later to ethnology, sociology, prehistory, and the evolution of man.: Only by devotion to problems of real use can anthropology achieve her true position as ‘““Queen of the Sciences.’’ Cc - NATURE [AuGcusT 26, 1920. Physiology. Mr, Joseph Barcroft in his presidential address to Section I deals particularly with anoxemia—by de- rivation a deficient quantity of oxygen in the blood— which is used to cover a larger field embracing all those conditions in which the supply of oxygen to the tissues is inadequate. The statement has been made that anoxemia not only stops, but also wrecks, the machine. An inquiry into this statement cannot be. made’ without first specifying whether the anoxemia is sudden and profound, as in drowning, poisoning with mine-gas, etc., or is of long duration but trivial in degree. In the former case the stop- page of the machine may be almost complete, as in the case of persons rendered unconscious by carbon monoxide, by stoppage of the cerebral circulation, or by attaining an altitude in the air at which the oxygen pressure is too low. In such cases the permanent damage to the machinery is very slight. On the other hand, mild anoxzmia continued over weeks and months, as in sufferers from -gas-poisoning, shallow respiration, and deficient ventilation of portions of the lung, is stated by Haldane, Meakins, and Priestley to produce far-reaching effects on the central nervous system. Anoxzemia may be classified as consisting of three categories. They are tabulated as follows, with examples : ANOX2MIA. Types I, Anoxic II. Anzmic III. Stagnant Character- | Too little oxygen | Too little oxy- | Arterial blood nor- istics pressure and too hemoglobin, but mal in oxygena- much _ reduced normal oxygen tion, but blood- hemoglobin in pressure in arte- flow too slow arterial © blood, rial blood, which | . which is too dark is bright unless in colour discoloured by some abnormal pigment Examples | Mountain sickness, | Anemia Shock ‘ . 4 pneumonia, etc. | CO poisoning Back pressure st ities Methzmoglobin poisoning For a given deficiency of oxygen carried to the tissue in unit time the first type is the most serious, and the last least so. The anoxic type is measured by the per- centage saturation of the arterial blood; the anzmic by the quantity of oxyhzmoglobin in it; and the stagnant by the ‘‘minute volume.’’ Botany. Miss E. R. Saunders in her presidential address to Section K deals with the subject of Heredity. In the brief historical’ introduction attention is directed to the fundamental opposition between the earlier statistical methods of representing the here- ditary process and the Mendelian conception which has its foundation in the act of sexual reproduction. Various complex relations which have proved capable of elucidation through the application of Mendelian principles are illustrated, and evidence is adduced in proof of the applicability of these principles to the case of specific hybrids. Certain cases are described where the unit for which the Mendelian factor stands appears to be a particular state of physiological equili- brium, and where lack of conformity of phenotypic appearance to genotypic. constitution can be readily induced by a change in environmental conditions. The assumptions and difficulties involved in the explana-” tions offered by the reduplication theory and the - chromosome view respectively are discussed, together with the bearing of the evidence to date upon the - question whether the same end-result, viz. segrega- NO. 2652, VOL. 105]: ra application of psychology to the problems of | logy. The science of e art is, in’ fact, a science,’ then, and not till ‘his tenure of the office of Controller of Horticulture -in the Ministry of Agriculture. ‘creative capacity is required, and it may be left consideration of our imports, of the reduced. tion, may not be effected by a different mechanis or at a different phase of the life-cycle, in. differe types. As a practical outcome greater co-operati is pleaded for between cytologists, physiologis chemists, and breeders in attacking genetical prob Educational Science. _ Sir Robert Blair in his’ presidential address Section L directs attention to two of the aspects of present educational activities. The first of the address is devoted to a general statement lines of advance and the success obtained — tion. The president, however, desires that ed should become ee more than applied - ucation ‘‘must be built not out of the speculations of theorists or from deductions of psychologists, but by direct, def hoc inquiries concentrated upon the problenis of class-room by teachers themselves. When by own researches teachers have demonstrated tha will the public allow them the moral, soci economic status which it accords to other p sions.’ The second part of the address consists appeal to all voluntary effort to associate directly with the work of the local education auth Sir Robert Blair thinks that our system of ed: will become national only when such national tions as the public schools, the endowed gr. schools, and the universities have joined forces with the local education authorities and take a direct share in the solution of their problems. He 2 of association which will retain all the advantages the older traditions. ey _ Agriculture. Prof. F. W. Keeble’s presidential Section M is devoted to the subject of intensiv tivation. Commencing with a review of the w by horticulturists during the war, it passes consider the prospects of success of any large ¢ ment of intensive cultivation” which may be taken. It insists on the great need for organis research, education, and administration, and de the organisation which the author established In this connection the important question of the relation of the “expert” — and the “administrator” is considered, and the c clusion reached that ‘if the work of a Governmen office is to be and remain purely administrative, n sure and safe and able hands of the trained adn trator; but if the work is to be creative it must | under the direction of minds turned, as only research can turn them, in the direction of creativeness.’’ The under fruit, and-of the continuous rise in the standard of living throughout the world suggests that the acreage under fruit might be increased by a good many thousand acres without fear. of over-production. After illustrating by a series of striking examples the effect which the practice of intensive cultivation has — on bringing about the colonisation of the countryside, — the address reaches the conclusion that it is the duty — of the State to help the intensive cultivator to hold his own against -world-competition by - perfecting the organisation of horticulture, and, above all, by pro- — viding a thorough and practical system of horticultural education. - The measure of success which intensive cultivation will achieve will depend.ultimately on the — quality. and kind of- education which the cultivators are able to obtain. fat ie a ee ee ee eo AucustT 26, 1920] NATURE 829 ee (Continued from p. 812.) s a” is to be taken as the normal weight of the animal, if we are to determine its surface from its weight? This fundamental question has hitherto defied solu- tion, but is now brought into the realms of exact science, since the. work of Prof. animals and man definite relationships exist between the trunk length, chest circumference, and body weight of individuals in health, while no accurate relationship, as has long been realised by those familiar with the subject, can be traced between standing height and body weight. The value of these measurements is enhanced by the fact that, as anatomical data, they will be practically immune from change in diseases which may be accompanied by a loss of weight, and, further, that as they bear a constant relation to the body weight, so must they bear a constant relation to the surface area of that animal. The relationships which have definitely been » shown to exist between “vital capacity,’’ body weight, trunk length, and the circumference of the chest can be expressed by the following formule (8) :— wr ; ‘ <= =K,, where the power x is approximately (i) ¥.C: $, though more accurately 0-72 ; n (ii) yanks where the power is approximately 2, though more accurately in males 2.26, in - females 2-3; : n (iii) CM =Ky where the power x is approximately 2, though more accurately in males 1-97, in females 2-54; while the relationships between body weight, _ trunk length, and circumference of the chest, respectively, can be expressed as follows :— n iv) ht =K,, where the power z is approximately bs though more accurately in males 0.319, in emales 0-313; ™ (Vv . 1912): Pw 2G ea (6) Idem: Proc. Roy. Soc., B, vol. Ixxxvi., 1912, : Sot ; ; @) Walker, Ainley E. W.: ‘‘The Growth of the Body in Man; the Relationship between the Body Weight and Body Length.’’ Proc. Roy. Soc., B, vol. Ixxxix., I915, p. 157. oe (8) Dreyer, G., and Hanson, G. F.: ‘‘ The Assess ment of Physical Fitness ’’ (Cassell and Co.). (9) Burrell, L. S. T., and Dreyer, G.: “The Vital Capacity Constants applied to the. Study of iy Tuberculosis.’? Lancet, June 5, 1920. The British Association at Cardiff. G hake eighty-eighth annual meeting of the British Association opened at Cardiff on Tues- day morning, in the very unfortunate circum- stances of a general strike of tramwaymen and some other sections of the city workmen. It is to be feared that as, unfortunately, paragraphs about this found their way into the Sunday newspapers, this local trouble has had the effect of diminishing the attendance at the meeting. - Members and in- tending members might have rested assured that the city of Cardiff would-rise to the occasion. The local secretaries immediately arranged a British Association motor service for the use of members, but it appears that no inconvenience was felt by those who are attending the meeting, and most of the services have now been with- drawn. It is not possible at the moment of writing to give exact figures of the membership, but it ex- ceeded 1200 on Tuesday morning, so that a fair average meeting was even then certain, in spite of the strike. The weather, always inclined to be wet in this part of the country, and particularly atrocious during the present summer, has taken a turn.for the better, and the visitors have had the opportunity of seeing the sun in Cardiff, when the residents had almost forgotten its existence. The citizens’ lecture on “Light and Life,” by Prof. J. Lloyd Williams, of University College, Aberystwyth, in the Park Hall, on Monday even- ing, attracted a large audience, notwithstanding that many of those: present had to face a long walk home. At the inaugural general meeting on Tuesday evening, when Prof. Herdman delivered the illu- minating address published in full elsewhere in this issue, the retiring president, Sir Charles Parsons, read a message which the council had sent to the King offering, at this meeting in Wales, the grateful congratulations of the Asso- ciation for the inspiring work done for the Empire NO. 2652, VOL. 105] by the Prince of Wales during his Avetetiaee tour. Sir Charles Parsons read also messages of — condolence sent to relatives of Prof. J. Perry and — Sir Norman Lockyer at the loss sustained by the — recent deaths of these two distinguished repre- — sentatives of British science—one of whom was general treasurer of the Association from 1904 until his death, while the other was presideme in Pe 1903-4. ag At the meeting of the general committee on Tuesday, the report. of the council was adopted . nominating Sir Edward Thorpe as president of the Association for the meeting next year in Edin! burgh, and Sir Charles Parsons as a perma- ; nent trustee, in succession to the late mou 2 Rayleigh. . The whole of the presidential addresses are this year published in volume form under the title “The Advancement of Science, 1920,” at the price of 6s., or 4s. 6d. to members at the meeting. The — volume makes a valuable record of the progress and position of many departments of science, and of authoritative conclusions concerning them. — Whilst the meeting is not likely to rank as a “record,” the members present are very keen, and everything possible to ensure its success is being done by the city authorities and local Press. The palatial apartments of the City Hall are — being used for the reception room and other offices, whilst in the University College and Tech- nical College near by all the sections are provided — with excellent accommodation. The Park Hall, : in which the president’s address, the evening dis- courses, and the citizens’ lectures are delivered, has a seating capacity of well above 2000, and everyone present has an uninterrupted view and hearing. =< The numerous sectional and the two general 3 excursions have not been interfered with by the strike, as they rely chiefly on road or railway — transport. Ry Vice i i Pe ae eee ad baleat fyi oh a = st Raat ae ~ es 4 ¥ 5 . 3 3 “ Z _Aucusrt 26, 1920] NATURE $31 Sir Norman Lockyer’s Contributions to Astrophysics. By Pror. A. Fow er, F.R.S. Y the death of Sir Norman Lockyer the science of astrophysics has lost the ener- gising and stimulating influence of the last of the great pioneers whose labours opened the way to so vast an extension of our knowledge of the universe. The science of celestial chemistry and “sine had its real beginning in 1859, when *s famous experiment on the reversal of . spectral lines furnished the key to the interpreta- tion of the dark lines of the solar spectrum, and thence to the determination of the composition of the sun and stars. During the earlier years the outstanding features in the development of the new science were the brilliant investigations of Huggins on the spectra of stars and nebulz, and those of Rutherfurd and Secchi on the spectro- scopic classification of the stars. Curiously enough, the sun had received but little attention during this period, and Lockyer was practically entering a virgin field when, in 1866, he attached as spectroscope to the modest 6-in. equa- torial of his private observatory, and observed the s ‘um of a sun-spot independently of the rest of the solar surface. Simple as it may now seem, is p -of “taking the sun to bits,” as Sir Norman used to call it, was an advance of funda- mental importance. It not only gave an imme- diate and decisive answer to the question as to the cause of the darkness of sun-spots which was then under vigorous discussion in England and France, but also very soon led to the famous discovery of the method of observing solar prominences without an eclipse, with which Lockyer’s name, in conjunction with that of Janssen, will for ever be associated. The story of this epoch-making observation has been told too often to need repeti- tion, but it should not be forgotten that the prin- ciple of the method had been clearly recognised 3 two years before he succeeded in obtaining a spectroscope suitable for the purpose in view. Those who have become familiar with the beau- tiful solar phenomena presented by this method of observation will best understand the enthusiasm and delight with which Lockyer continued his observations whenever the sun was visible. On the first day of observation—October 20, 1868— he had identified the C and F lines of hydrogen, and a yellow line near D, in the spectra of the prominences, and on November 5 he discovered that the prominences were but local upheavals of an envelope entirely surrounding the photosphere, to which he gave the name of the chromosphere, as being the region in which most of the variously coloured effects are seen during total eclipses of the sun. The peculiarities of the bright F line at once suggested to his fertile mind that the spectroscope might disclose the physical state, as well as the chemical composition of the chromo- NO. 2652, VOL. 105] | | sphere and prominences, through the medium of laboratory experiments, and from this beginning the close association of the laboratory with the observatory became the dominant note in his life’s work. His first experiments were made in col- laboration with his friend Frankland, and it was shown that the widening of the F line at the base of the chromosphere was to be accounted for by an increase of pressure. These experiments further demonstrated that the yellow line of the chromosphere, which had been named Ds, was quite distinct from hydrogen, and the then un- known gas to which it was to be attributed was given the now well-known name of helium. Up to the year 1873, however, Lockyer’s work was carried on almost entirely in his private observa- tory, and in the laboratory which he had estab- lished in his house at Hampstead. He not only continued his solar observations with conspicuous success, but also commenced his well-known “ Re- searches on Spectrum Analysis in Connection with the Spectrum of the Sun,” in which he developed experimental methods which afterwards became common practice. On his transfer to South Kensington, with which his connection continued for forty years, the facilities at Lockyer’s disposal for re- search were at first very meagre, but additions to equipment and staff were made from time to time, and in the later years the observatories and laboratories were well adapted for their special purposes. Lockyer’s dream of becoming director of a permanent astrophysical observatory, com- parable with those established by Governments in other countries, however, was never realised, and his work throughout was carried on in temporary buildings, and for the greater part of the time with modest grants in aid from year to year. In 1912, on the transfer of the Solar Physics Observatory to the control of the University of Cambridge, Lockyer, in spite of his weight of years, courageously set about the erection of a new observatory at Sidmouth, and continued his work on stellar spectra almost to the close of his life. It is a lamentable fact that much of his time and energy was almost continually taken up with a struggle to obtain adequate means to carry on his researches. The contributions to astrophysics made by Lockyer during nearly sixty years of strenuous endeavour in its various fields of investigation form the subject-matter of more than 200 papers and memoirs, and it is only possible here to refer to some of the larger questions in which he was specially interested. His work, both in the labora- tory and in the observatory, was largely guided by bold speculations, which he was usually careful to regard as working hypotheses, and from time to time the main points were brought together C4 O32 NATURE [AucusT 26, 1920 in appropriate sequence in the form of books, among which are “The Chemistry of the Sun” (1887 7), “The Meteoritic Hypothesis” (1890), and ‘“Tnorgastic Evolution ” (1900). His observations and his views on their significance were thus made widely known, and the trend of his work could be the more readily followed. It was especially his desire to impress upon chemists and physicists the importance of the sun and stars as a means of investigating the behaviour of matter at. high temperatures, and as possibly throwing light upon the nature of atoms and molecules. Among the researches which have had the most potent influence, and have led to very definite advances, were those which dealt with the changes in the spectrum of the same element under dif- ferent conditions of experiment. Lockyer was early led by his solar observations to a compara- tive study of the flame, arc, and spark spectra of some of the metallic elements, and one of his first successes was to show that some of the lines most characteristic of solar prominences, other than those of hydrogen and helium, were produced only under high temperature conditions, while some of those prominently affected in sun-spots were produced at a low temperature. With these and other observations as a basis he put forward, in 1873, his well-known dissociation hypothesis, which became the subject of much discussion. The hypothesis supposed that at successively higher temperatures the “molecular groupings ” which existed at lower stages were broken up into finer forms of matter, or possibly into new elements, producing different spectral lines, and on this view it was shown that a multitude of solar observations which had seemed to be wholly inex- plicabie on the ground of previous laboratory ex- perience became easy of explanation. Thus his view of the construction of the solar atmosphere was that if we could observe a section of it we should see it divided into a number of layers, each with its appropriate spectrum, and the spectrum would be simpler the nearer the layer was to the photosphere. The metallic elements, instead of existing as such in a reversing layer, were con- sidered to be entirely broken up in the vicinity of the photosphere, and their germs distributed throughout the atmosphere, the molecular group- ings becoming more complex as they became further removed from the source of heat. The theory doubtless calls for some re-statement in the light of modern views as to the structure of atoms and the origin of spectra, but it was a valuable guide to observation, and Lockyer anticipated the conclusion reached by St. John in recent years, that the complete absorption of any one element in the solar spectrum is the integration of lines special to various levels in the solar atmosphere. Lockyer himself seems to have been convinced that the ultimate products of dissociation were hydrogen and helium; but although this is so closely in accord with recent work on the structure of atomic nuclei, it does not seem probable that the phenomena studied by ‘Lockyer were directly NO. 2652, VOL. 105] related to those iaventivaten by Rutherford. The © writer well remembers numerous attempts to pro duce the lines of hydrogen or of helium by th passage of powerful condensed discharges between metallic electrodes, all of which, however, were unsuccessful. a Work on the varying spectra of the elements was vigorously resumed by Lockyer in connection - with the interpretation of the photographs of the _ chromospheric spectrum which had been taken a under his direction during the solar eclipses of 1893 and 1896, and of a series of photographs of | stellar spectra which he had commenced at K sington about 1890. Several elements were. ‘in- vestigated over a long range of spectrum, and numerous additional lines were found to be in- tensified on passing from the are to the spark > spectrum, or which only appeared in the spark. These were designated “enhanced lines,” and the work at once led to the definite assignment of origins to many chromospheric and stellar lines which had previously resisted explanation. But — this was not all; the enhanced lines were shown ~ to belong to a special class which were only fully — developed at high temperatures, so that they gave — valuable evidence of physical conditions in the — atmospheres of the sun and stars as well as of — their chemical constitutions. It would scarcely be too much to claim that this further work on enhanced lines introduced a new principle into — astronomical spectroscopy, inasmuch as it justi- fied the chemical identification of celestial spectra which could not be completely reproduced in the*) laboratory. The only assumption it was necessary to make was that the series of changes indicated . TP tA ee 2 j . =" Peer Preiloe) eee et ei) be aa, ott Fai eee in the flame, arc, and spark would be continued if still more powerful means of excitation were — available, so that at sufficiently high temperatures — 2 the enhanced lines would be the sole survivors. “4 In accordance with his views on dissociation, and ~ for. convenience of reference, the enhanced lines _ were designated “ proto-metallic” lines, and — attributed to ‘‘proto-metals,” which were rée- garded as simplified forms of the anes which | yielded the arc lines. Apart from any special views as to the cause of their appearance, however, the discovery of en- hanced lines has proved to be of the first import- ance in astrophysical inquiries, and the tables of such lines which were compiled at South Kensing- ton have been much utilised by astronomers — throughout the world. Among other applications, ‘fed as Lockyer was the first to show, the interpreta- tion of the spectra of new stars in their early stages is almost entirely dependent upon a know- ~ ledge of the enhanced lines of iron, titanium, and other elements. In collaboration with his assist- ants, Lockyer showed later that enhanced lines” were also developed under the action of strong” E electrical discharges in non-metallic elements, in- cluding silicon, carbon, sulphur, and nitrogen, and the lines observed in these experiments have — also led to important celestial identifications. There can be little doubt sores the continuation Of $7 -Avcust. 26, 1920| NATURE 833 these Reeetizations, as in Fowler’s experiments on helium and oxygen, and Merton’s further work on carbon, will yield results of high value in the _ interpretation of the spectra of stars at the highest stages of temperature, and possibly also of the +See __ Another of the chief subjects which attracted re er during a great part of his life was the (sélasdification of stellar spectra, and the order of celestial evolution which might be inferred. He pee at first mainly dependent upon stellar observa- tions made by others, but he soon saw the neces- _ sity for first-hand data, and, following Pickering’s _ remarkable success with the objective prism, “he adopted this form of instrument in most of his ‘work at Kensington, and afterwards at Sid- mouth. He early adopted the suggestion made by Tait that in nebule and comets the luminosity may be due to solids heated by impact, as well as to heated gas generated by the impacts, and Pras Loaf developed it into his h ” The fundamental idea is that all self- lous i: cklestial: bodies are composed either of swarms. of meteorites, or of masses of meteoritic _ vapour produced by heat, the heat being developed _ by condensation due to “gravity, and the vapour _ being finally condensed into a solid globe. The classification of stellar spectra which he based upon this theory has undergone modifications: in detail, chiefly in the direction of subdivision and | Ppp complete definition of the criteria for the ous stellar groups; but the essential idea has ained unchanged throughout. In common with other astronomers, Lockyer adopted the view that the ‘spectroscopic differences between the various lasses of stars are mainly due to differences of ee. but, unlike most of them, he in- it in place of a single line of evolu- om ec: hot (white) to cool (red) stars the pro- gression: must be from cool to hot stars and back Boat to cool stars. That is, in accordance with cory of condensing swarms of meteorites or ae of gas, the classification made a distinc- tion between stars of increasing temperature and those which are on the down-grade towards the extinction of luminosity. of the earlier evidence for the separation of the stars on the two branches of the “ tempera- ture curve” which Lockyer pictured may be of doubtful validity, but the valuable photographic data accumulated later, in combination with laboratory researches, placed his classification on a much firmer basis. It was found, for example, that when stars at any given stage of tempera- ture were brought together by reference to the relative intensities of enhanced and arc lines, they were definitely divisible into two groups, showing “that the spectra were dependent in part upon physical conditions other than those imposed by température alone. This difference was attributed to differences in the state of condensation, one group being less condensed than the other, and therefore to be considered as being in an. earlier stage of evolution, notwithstanding equality of temperature. The Harvard classification, which NO. 2652, VOL. 105] regards this difference. “meteoritic | has been adopted by most. astronomers, is along one line of temperature only, and accordingly dis- It is clearly of great importance, however, that the difference should be taken into account in questions relating to stellar distribution and other matters connected with the structure of the sidereal universe, and it was a source of profound regret to Lockyer that greater attention was not given to it. In the case of the helium stars, however, Lockyer’s classifica- tion has received substantial corroboration from a discussion by Herassimovitch of their radial velocities and absolute magnitudes, in which the catalogues of Lockyer were utilised. Among the results it was shown that the stars which Lockyer had located on the ascending branch of the tem- perature curve were brighter than those on the descending branch, and, assuming the average masses to be equal, it would follow that the former were of greater volume and lower density than the latter, in accordance with Lockyer’s hypothesis. The theory of stellar evolution put forward a few years ago by Prof. H. N. Russell resembles that of Lockyer in its main outlines, though based mainly on deductions as to the densities and abso- lute magnitudes of the stars. The criteria are thus somewhat different in the two cases, but there can be little doubt that in one form or other the recognition of an ascending, as well as of a descending, line of stellar temperatures will take an important place in the astronomy: cf the future. The observation of total eclipses of the sun also. occupied much of Lockyer’s attention. He per- sonally took part in nine eclipse expeditions, and was responsible for several others in which the observations were undertaken by his assistants. On several occasions, when H.M. ships were de- tailed to assist the expeditions, his exceptional organising ability enabled him effectively to utilise the services of officers and men so as to cover the widest possible range of observations. The out- standing feature of his work in this connection, however, was the introduction and use, first of a visual spectroscope without slit or collimator, and afterwards, when photographic methods could be adopted, of the prismatic camera. With instru- ments of this type he was able clearly to differ- entiate between the coronal and chromospheric radiations, and, besides detecting several new coronal lines, he obtained splendid records of the “flash” spectrum. He was thus able to determine the various heights to which the different vapours extended, and he identified a multitude of the bright lines with enhanced lines which he had so diligently investigated in the laboratory. Lockyer would have been the last to claim that his work was wholly free from errors, but it was almost invariably of a stimulating character, and has played a leading part in the development of the science of astrophysics practically from its very beginning. Much of his work will have an endur- . ing place in the history of the science to which he devoted his great gifts. 834 NATURE [AucustT 26, 1920 Notes. Tue triennial prize competition for the best original contribution to the scientific advance or _ the technical progress of electricity, known as the Fonda- tion George Montefiore Prize, and administered by a committee of the Association of Electrical Engineers from the Montefiore Technical Institute. of Liége, which had lapsed during the war, is now to be revived, and the competition which would have been held in 1917 is now announced for 1921. The prize . will amount to 20,000 francs. Competitors must send in their work by April 30, 1921, and all particulars can be obtained from the Secretary, Fondation George Montefiore, rue Saint-Gilles 31, Liége, Belgium. Contributions may be in English or French, and if successful are published in French in the Bulletin de . l’Association des Ingénieurs Electriciens sortis de l'Institut Technique Montefiore. Neta ReskarcH LABORATORY was organised in 1908 under the directership of Dr. Edward P. Hyde as the physical laboratory of the National Electric Lamp Association. The name was changed to Nela Re- search Laboratory in 1913, when the National Elec- tric Lamp Association became the National Lamp Works of the General Electric Co. For some years the laboratory was devoted exclusively to the develop- ment of those sciences on which the art of lighting has its foundation, but in 1914 the functions of the labora- tory were extended by the addition of a small section of applied science which had an immediate practical objective. The section of applied science is now being largely extended as a separate laboratory of applied science under the immediate direction of Mr. M. Luckiesh, who becomes director of applied science, and a new building is being constructed to house this branch of the work. Dr. Ernest Fox Nichols, for- merly president of Dartmouth. College, and more recently professor of physics at Yale University, has accepted an invitation to assume the immediate direc- tion of the laboratory of pure science under the title of _ director of pure science. The work. of this labora- tory, which will be continued in the present building, will be somewhat further extended under the new organisation. The !aboratory of pure science and the laboratory of applied science will together constitute the Nela Research Laboratories, and will be co- ordinated under the general direction of Dr. Hyde, who becomes director of research. THE Public Health Department of the Ports- mouth Town Council, having evidently investigated thoroughly the scientific evidence submitted to it an the practicability of preventing the infection of venereal disease by the use of a disinfectant imme- diately after exposure to risk, has recently issued two descriptive leaflets giving the information neces- sary to carry out the disinfectant process effectually. We understand that about a dozen other Health Departments are taking, or about to take, similar measures. The leaflets, entitled ‘‘ What Every Man should Know,’’ embody in clear words the ascertained knowledge on this ‘matter which has been acquired. by observation and experiment, and contain a succinct NO, 2652, VOL. 105 | ‘occurring in times of influenza prevalence, and useful summing-up of the multiform evi venereal disease. The council states that come to the conclusion that, in view of the te effects of this disease on national and f. life, it is its bounden duty to make public a ledge of the means by which this scourge ce: prevented. These leaflets pay due regard to h social and scientific aspects of the much-di subject of prompt self-disinfection after incut risk of infection. The Portsmouth Public Department deserves to be congratulated on its in this seriously important matter of sanitation. —_s ‘‘EpIpEMIC stupors”’ are often referred to records (seventeenth and eighteenth centu this country encephalitis lethargica made its ance immediately before and during the epidemic of 1918-19. It is of interest, theref record the occurrence of the same disease in at the end of 1919 during an epidemic of — A full description of the outbreak, consi: t! seventeen cases, is given by Capts. Malone and in the Indian Journal of Medical Research | No. 3). _ In the Journal of the Royal Society of Arts (vol No. 3533, August, 1920) we have a report of George Birdwood memorial lecture on ‘‘ The Power of Hinduism ’”’ by Sir Valentine Chirol Valentine admits that he writes ‘‘not as a st but merely as a layman.’’ He has, however, diligent student, and his wide knowledge of porary politics and his experience of personal many of the most important sites where archi investigation is being conducted by Sir John have enabled him to construct a graphic picture historical development of India in relation” Hinduism. ‘This lecture is thus of considerable portance, and it is rendered more attractive by picturesqueness of the author’s style. He not followed so completely the trend of moc studies as to grasp the fact that the survival Hinduism, in spite of the rise of Buddhism and tf cataclysm of the Mohammedan invasion, is due to 1 amorphous character, its eclectism, and its capac for adapting itself to novel conditions. But w these reservations the lecture gives an admirab account of the development of Hinduism. ae Tue character of the prehistoric culture of the people of the Malay Peninsula has as yet received inadequate attention, but much good work is being Z done in continuation of that summarised in “ The Pagan Races” by Messrs. Skeat and Blagden. Thus we find in the Journal of the Federated Malay Sta Museum (vol. ix., part 1, January, 1920) an excellent account by Mr. I. H. N. Evans of the exploration | a rock shelter in the Batu Kurau Parish, Perak, y a description of the flint-weapon industry. In recent times the influence of Islam has been — | of the indigenous animistic beliefs. In this co tion, in the same issue of the journal, Mr. Winstedt refers to some curious analogies bety the local customs and those of.the Brahmans of So ’ es ee ee this year. TIT, Fite patter aa PSTAE coats t Dan mo - Aucust 26, 1920] NATURE 835 ‘India, ‘which point to the widespread influence of Hinduism in the peninsula prior to the establishment of Islam as the dominant faith. Mr. Henry Batrour has reprinted his interesting presidential address from the Proceedings of the Somersetshire Archzological and Natural History Society (vol. Ixv., 1919, pp- xxiii sqq.). He claims connection with Somersetshire on the ground that his ‘late colleague, Sir E. B. Tylor, was a Somersetshire man by birth, and that Mr. H. St. G. Gray, now curator of the Taunton Museum, was his own assistant at Oxford. In his address Mr. Balfour crosses the county border to Rushmore and Cranborne Chase, on the border of Wilts and Dorset, the home of a great archeologist and ethnologist, Col. Pitt Rivers. He closes his review of this notable man with the remark that ‘he has left his own record of diligent and broad-minded research, and the example afforded by his enthusiasm, characteristically tempered with caution, should have the effect both of stimulating and of restraining the work not only of this genera- tion, but of generations to come.” Tue Quarterly Summary for July issued by the : Royal Botanic Society of London contains notes on some plants of interest in the gardens. The gigantic floating leaves of the Victoria regia water-lily are now + ft. in diameter, and, as each new leaf at this time of year exceeds its predecessor, it seems likely that they will reach the maximum of 8} ft. by the end of August. As the sunlight becomes less the new leaves st smaller, until the plant dies down in October. One of the earliest accounts of this remarkable tropical American water-lily was that given by Lindley in the Proceedings of the society in 1839 (vol. i.). The plant was discovered by Robert Schomburgk, the traveller, on the River Bernice, in Guiana, and the detailed description which he sent home was sufficient to en- able Lindley to recognise it as a distinct genus of water-lilies, which was, by permission, dedicated to the young Queen. Efforts to grow the plant at Kew were at first unsuccessful, but in 1849 some fifty plants were successfully raised from seed and dis- tributed to various gardens. The fine specimen grow- ing at Kew is one of the most popular attractions of the Royal Gardens. Another jnteresting plant in the same tank at the Botanic Gardens is the Lotus, Nelumbium spectosum, which has flowered profusely Its large salver-shaped leaves and tall pink flowers rising from the water present a striking ap- pearance. The plant was held in esteem by many ancient peoples in the East; in Egypt paintings of it decorate the temples, and it is still associated with temples in India, where the long, fleshy roots are eaten as well as the oval, nut-like seeds. The society has also been making experimental growths of the soya bean, with the view of ascer- taining the most suitable variety for cultivation in this country. Amonc the recently issued reports of the Canadian Arctic Expedition, 1913-18, are two on the Crustacea, which form part of vol. vii. An account of the marine Copepoda is given by Prof. Arthur Willey (in NO, 2652, VOL. 105 | tion on August 1, 1872. Part K) and of the Cladocera by Dr. Chancey Juday (in Part H). Cladocera have been examined previously from Greenland and from Alaska, but not from the intervening region of Arctic America, Seven fresh- water and two marine species are recorded, all of which are well known and have a wide geographical range. The fresh-water species belong to the genera Daphnia (pulex and longispina), Bosmina, Eurycercus, Alona, Chydorus, and Polyphemus, and the marine species to Podon and Evadne respectively. The common Daphnia pulex is also recorded from Polaris Bay, Greenland, about 82° N. latitude, where it was collected by the United States North Polar Expedi- This seems to be the most northerly record for any of the Cladocera. The material of this species from Polaris Bay consists of ° several hundred specimens, the great majority being females with ephippia. The specimens of Daphnia pulex in the various catches of the Canadian Expedi- tion show that the winter eggs in the ephippia prob- ably hatch during the latter half of June; that females bearing parthenogenetic or summer eggs appear about the first week in July; and that males and ephippial females make their appearance in late July and in August. The season is therefore a reiatively short one. A NOTEWORTHY contribution to the study of that fascinating group of insects, the parasitic aculeate Hymenoptera, is made by Prof. W. M. Wheeler in the Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society (vol. lviii., 1919, No. 1). Prof. Wheeler gives a compre- hensive summary of the subject, citing and criticising a long array of literature, and discussing the evolution of the parasitic habit. He is disposed to regard the aculeate parasites as originating directly or indirectly from the insects which serve as their hosts. ‘The object of the parasite is to secure the provisions accumulated by the host for its own progeny. This involves a destruction of the egg or young larva of the host.” But a higher specialisation is reached by the social insects which foster the host-brood so that their own young may be reared and fed. ANATOMICAL details of some morphological import- ance are elucidated by Prof. G. H. Carpenter and Mr. F. J. S. Poliard in a recent paper (Proc. R. Irish Acad., B, vol. xxxiv., No. 4) on the presence of lateral spiracles in the larvz of warble-flies (Hypo- derma). Six pairs of these vestigial structures, sug- gesting a primitive peripneustic condition of the respiratory system, are recognisable in the ripe warble-maggot, connected with the outer lateral trachee by fine, thread-like, solidified air-tubes. Dr. E. H. Pascor, of the Geological Survey of India, revived at a meeting of the Geological Society of London in March, 1919, in a new form the question of the relations of the Indus, the Brahma- putra, and the Ganges (Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol, Ixxv., p. 138, 1920). He traces back the now divided system to a river, the Indobrahm, the head- waters of which were in, or soon cut back into, the Brahmaputra region of Assam, while the mouth was in the Indus region of the Arabian Sea. This river 836 NATURE |AucusT 26, 19996 originated in the beginning of the Siwalik epoch, when the depression at the foot of the Himalayas ceased to be the scene of conflicting lagoon and terrestrial conditions, and became finally silted up. The great river was guided along this depression westward, while a’ contemporaneous river ran on the Tibetan side of the range, of which the alluvium re- mains from Pemakoi, north-east of the Bay of Bengal, to Gilgit, north of the great Indus bend. This river joined the Oxus, or reached the Arabian Sea by an independent course. It is urged that the Indobrahm captured the upper waters of the northern river by cutting back into them along its tributaries at suc- cessive points in the recesses of the range from which the Indus now runs south-westward. The speakers in the discussion of the paper, including Mr. R. D. Oldham, approved the main geographical con- tentions, but laid more stress than the author. on earth-movements in determining the diversions and the courses of the tributaries through the hills. SIMULTANEOUSLY with the investigations of Dr. Pascoe, Dr. G. E. Pilgrim, of the Geological Survev of India, put forward his suggestion of a great Pliocene . river running on the south side of the Himalayas from Assam to the Indus course. Dr. Pilgrim’s paper and maps (Journ. Asiatic Soc. of Bengal, vol. xv., p. 81, 1919) appeared, indeed, before the printing of Dr. Pascoe’s work, and, as that author points out, the argument based on the direction from which the tributaries meet their primaries in the mountain-belt originated with Dr. Pilgrim. The two papers. should be read together, and they form a great addition to our conceptions of the past geography of India. Dr. Pilgrim gives prominence to earth-movements as prometing the dislocation of the Assam-Punjab or Siwalik River. His maps of Western Asia in Eocene, Miocene, and Pliocene times are highly useful. THE “ Fossils from the Miura Peninsula and its Immediate North ”’ form the subject of an important memoir by Prof. M. Yokoyama (Journ. Coll. Sci., Tokyo Imp. Univ., vol. xxxix., art. 6, pp. 193, 20 pls.). The geological forester of the peninsula are in part undoubtedly Pliocene, and in part either Pliocene -or Pleistocene; those of the plain are divisible into an upper, sub-aerial. and a lower marine series several hundred feet in thickness. The sub-aerial. series is made up of a brown loam, an altered volcanic ash, wholly devoid of stratification and organic remains. The marine series, which the author names -the Musashino formation, is divisible into an upper and a lower series. In the upper, remains of Elephas namadicus, Fale. and Caut., are not uncommon, and are perhaps the most important of the fossil confents. The Lower Musashino beds are provisionally divided by the author into six zones. From the whole series, 232 species of Mollusca and 6 of Brachiopoda’ are recorded, 91 of the former and:2 of the latter’ being described as new; the whole are well illustrated, but the nomenclature, as, alas! ‘too generally the casé in papers of this. class, ‘lags ‘behind. the times. ~The nurhber of forms not known to be living i is 88, or about NO, 2652, VOL. 105 | 37 per cent. as the whole teiiva: and 7 species not yet been found in Japanese waters. The aut therefore classes these Musashino beds as Pliocen about the same age as the English Red Crag of bourne=Austelien of the Netherlands. THE Geologische Reichsanstalt of Viennajt was able in Imperial times to spread the in of a great school of geology over Polish, vanian, and Dalmatian lands, has -been force adopt, from the opening of 1920, the restricted Geologische Staatsanstalt. Dr. Emil director, retires after long and honourab: recognising in the ‘‘ geschickte Diplomatie Eduard von England’? the prime cause restriction of his official field. The Verh for 1919 indicate many changes on the’ workers whose names are familiar hav aliens through territorial readjustments. | hope that. their common: science will — federal spirit shown in the last publica Reichsanstalt. Many of the papers deal » tain structure. Dr. F. Heritsch claims that # povery: of tabulate corals in the supposed the mass has been imported by overfoldi may be prepared for continued criticism, i Ampferer, who becomes one of the Chefgeo ) also a Bergrat, contributes a paper | in pee t on tectonic features when a region a cesses of crust-folding. come a new and enlarged edition of | p brand’s ‘‘ Analysis of Silicate and Carbonate (Bull. 7oo, U.S. Geological Survey, 19) accurate methods described are obviously _ in the analysis of potassium silicates and for commercial use, as well as in the crimination of types of natural rock. The i of the estimation of small quantities: of _u commonly overlooked constjtuents is here out. At the same time this may be quite un n in many cases of ordinary practice, and f system of ‘condensed analysis” is — described in the re pages. fig 8 AN interesting exaraple of the applications | palzontology is afforded by Messrs. F. L. Kitchin and J. ore who ‘show (Geol. Magazine, vol. lvi pp. 4, 52, and 100, 1920) that a mass of Gault < Cenomanian strata at Shenley, near Leighton zard, 250 yards long and 150 yards wide, has inverted on Lower Greensand. The fossils p the clue, being in inverse succession to those undisturbed beds of the neighbourhood. As a t pushed by ice, this presents some pee with famous block described by Mr. R. G. Carru the ‘heart of Caithness (NatTuRE, vol: “testaix : in’ which a quarry has been opened Ry rigs Ws j AvucusT 26, 1920] NATURE’ 837 4 Tue occurrence of barytes in the upper parts of _ fodes containing metallic sulphides is probably well recognised, and postulates an infiltration of barium chloride upwards during the formation of the lode or downwards to meet the sulphates that are in solu- _ tion. Mr. H. W. Greenwood suggests (Proc. Liver- pool Geol, Soc., vol. xii., part 4, P- 355, 1920) that _ the barytes which is common in the English Triassic strata, and mainly found in the upper beds, was derived from overlying Jurassic strata. The r “source: of an exceptional quantity of barium in the s ic seas is not indicated. Might it not have fg “been brought into the Triassic pan-deposits from the denudation of our Armorican lode-formations ? IN a fainersl “Review of the Reptilian Fauna of ‘the Karroo System” (Trans. Geol. Soc. S. Africa, we xxii, p. 13, 1920) Mr. S. H. Haughton concludes eh - the preservation of complete skeletons of Pareia- eh -saurians in the beds south of Prince Albert Road station was determined by a rapid deposition of fine mu or silt. In the discussion on this paper (Proc. bic + p. xii.) Dr. van Hoepen supported, by his _ pers ‘observaticns on the skeletons of various “genera, the view of entombment in swampy lakes rather than, as Mr. Watson had suggested, in wind- _ borne sand. Dr. du Toit stated that he was un- * willing to 1 return to the old supposition of a general - Karro in Lower Beaufort times, but he pic- THE ironed summer has so far experienced some t: disturbing weather anomalies, the abnormal features : being chiefly the. persistent low temperatures and the | ent heavy rains. Some improvement has been rally experienced during the present month owing iter prevalence of anticyclonic conditions. bance, however, traversed the north of Ire- 1 the southern portion of Scotland on the la d ok 1 night of August 17 and the early part of August 18. r ai wee area followed a track fairly due east, and / cep accompanied by a heavy downpour 1 and the surrounding neighbourhood. The We at te for the twenty-four hours to ne , and in twelve hours the fall < AG Leith the fall. in twenty- 2 yous. hours was 2-84 in., and at Renfrew 2-80 in. A _ subsidiary disturbance occasioned heavy rain in the south - ‘of England, and at’ Falmouth the fall was (2-21 in. between 8 ‘a.m. and 7 p.m. on August 18. Very cool northerly winds spread over the country in the rear of these disturbances. On the morning of _- August 20 frost’ occurred on the ground. in the open in Scotland and‘in parts of England, whilst in places the thermometer in the screen fell to 36°. At Green- wich the exposed thermometer registered 33° and in the shade 41°, which was only 3° above the lowest figure reached in August since 1841, 38°. being recorded in 1864,.when the exposed thermometer fell to 27°. At _ Kew it was the coldest August night since 1891,- and _ at Falmouth it was as cold as any time in August _ during the last half-century. NO, 2652, VOL. 105 | RE oe AMONG recent pamphiets issued officially by the Meteorological Office under the heading of Profes- sional Notes is one by Mr. J. S. Dines entitled ‘*Methods of Computation for Pilot-balloon Ascents.” Without claiming to be exhaustive, this gives some account of, at any rate, the better-known methods of determining wind velocities at different heights. Part i. deals with the most practised single-theodolite ascents, and nine methods are described, including those in general use by the military Meteorological Services of France, Italy, and the United States, partly graphical and partly depending upon a special slide- rule, The ideal method for open-air work discards the graphical method so far as possible. Part ii., dealing with double-theodolite ascents, gives six methods of dealing with these, including, as does part i., the Meteorological Office method, which depends entirely on the slide-rule. Part iii., on balloon-tail, gives two graphical methods besides the Meteorological Office slide-rule plan. Perhaps more interesting than any of these is the appendix dealing with various methods of obtaining velocities at heights when cloud-sheets pre- vent the observation of pilot-balloons, The smoke from anti-aircraft shells set to explode at a given height can be observed through a comparatively small break in the cloud, and even when the cloud-sheet is quite unbroken the position of bomb-bursts can be deter- mined by sound-ranging from the ground or by observation from an aeroplane. Ir was scarcely likely that proposals so far-reaching in effect and importance as those put forward by the - Egyptian Ministry of Public Works for the extensive development of the cultivable area of the valley of the Nile by the construction of a dam and other irriga- tion works should escape a large measure of hostile criticism, and we have on several occasions alluded to the attacks made by Sir William Willcocks on the validity and trustworthiness of the data on which the scheme is founded. These attacks, it will be recalled, led to the appointment of a Special Inter- national Commission of Inquiry, which has had the projects under review. We have now received a copy of a brochure issued by an independent Commission of Native Egyptian Engineers, who take up an atti- tude of strong and uncompromising opposition to the official proposals on the «grounds that there are obvious inconsistencies in the fundamental calcula- tions, and an evident tendency on the part’ of the Technical Adviser to the Egyptian Government to ‘“‘adapt” his data to the requirements of the case. The objectors state that they fear that any attempt to cut off or decrease the supply of water and silt to Egypt from the Blue Nile will be fraught with disas- trous consequences, and they set out their arguments in a series of sixteen criticisms of the official scheme. An addendum by Dr. Mahgoub Sabitt, professor. of medical jurisprudence and toxicology at the.Egyptian University, advances reasons for considering the con- struction of. the proposed dam likely to prove detri- mental to public health: A protest is also entered .against the alleged secrecy in which the proposals -were prepared and formulated, and finally a call is made for a mixed committee of native and foreign NATURE [AucustT 26, 1920 © engineers, “free from all bias,’’ to investigate the matter thoroughly on account of its vital importance to the welfare of the whole country. THe paper by W. L. Cheney on the measurement of hysteresis values when using high magnetising forces, which has just been published by the U.S. Bureau of Standards (Paper No. 383), will be of in- terest to all engaged in magnetic research. When employing ordinary methods it is extremely difficult to get the accurate values of the remanent induction and the coercive force owing to what has-been called mag- netic viscosity. This probably also slightly affects the author’s results. His method is a modification of the isthmus method, and consists essentially of a du Bois electromagnet with flat pole-pieces separated by an air- gap and pierced coaxially so that a rod may be inserted. The magnetic force and the induction are measured by suitable coaxial test coils. Magnetic forces up to 2500 gausses were employed. Quenching eutectoid steel (0-85 per cent. carbon) in oil lowered the remanent induction, but considerably increased the coercive force. Experiments were made on the K.S. magnet steel prepared by Prof. Honda, and the high coercive force of 200 gausses was obtained when the specimen had been magnetised with 800 gausses. AN uncommon piece of work is described in Engineering for August 13 in the form of a long wooden jib for a derrick crane designed and con- structed for the Admiralty during the war by the Imber Court Engineering Works, Thames Ditton, Surrey. The crane, with a 50-ft. post, had to be capable of raising a 3-ton load up to a platform 100 ft. high. The jib was 135 ft. long from the centre of the bottom pin to the centre of the rope- wheel, and the wooden construction adopted resulted in a jib being produced of one-third the weight and having a higher factor of safety than steel would have given. Including the rope-wheel and end casings, the jib complete weighed only 2 tons 13 cwt. The jib was built up of four corner-posts, each post being made of nine laminations of Oregon pine glued together with waterproof glue. The jib was divided into panels by struts, also of Oregon pine, and each panel had diagonal bracing, both longitudinal and transverse; these bracings were composed of stranded piano-wire. The struts were fixed to the corner-posts by welded steel clamping boxes, to which the diagonal braces were also connected by means of bolts on which -the wire was wound. The bolt-heads were formed with teeth, with which two spring pawls engaged, so that turning the bolt tightened the wires and slacking back was prevented by the pawls. Tue concluding volume—the sixth—of the Scientific Papers of the late Lord Rayleigh is to be published by the Cambridge University Press in the spring of next year. It will range over the period 1911-20. Among the other forthcoming publications of the Cam- bridge University Press is ‘‘ The Spectrum of Nova - Geminorum II.,” by F. J. M. Stratton. It will con- stitute vol. iv., part i., of the Annals of the Solar Physics Observatory, and is promised for the end of the present year. NU, 2652, VOL. 105 | Our Astronomical Column. DIscOvVERY OF A Nova In CyGnus.—Mr. W for meteors. The object when discerned on Augu: was of about 33 magnitude, and its rough posit: was in R.A. 19h. 56m. and declination 533° N. formed a little triangle with the stars y and d~ Cygni. On referring to star-charts, etc., Mr. 1 quite failed to identify the object in question, an therefore concluded it to be a new star. os The position of the nova in the Milky Way is in accordance with past experience, for nearly all past — { nove have been in the Milky Way or on its borders. — Mr. Denning saw the present object again « August 21 in the openings between swiftly passing clouds, and it appeared of about the same brights as on the previous night, but only hurried glimpse were obtainable. oy “On August 22 the brightness was estimated=2-8 mag., and on August 23, 2:2 mag., so that its light is increasing. ge PARALLAX OF THE B-type Star Boss 1517.—Mr. J. Voiate recently announced a large parallax and proper motion for this star. Mr. A. J. Roy: showed alee ever, that the true proper motion in R.A. was only one-tenth of Mr. Vodte’s value, being —o-023"; tha in declination is +o-129”. Mr. ‘Votte hae pecan ds | the parallax with this value, and finds 0-048”, which — is in | good accord with Kapteyn’s hypothetical vah 0:033". i The star is one of the nearest of the B stars, bei at about the same distance as Achernar. Its chie interest lies in its surprisingly low absolute magni- tude for a B-type star, its apparent visual epg being 5-9. According to Mr. R. E. Wilson, of D. O. Mills Observatory, the radial velocity is +102 km./sec., or +83 corrected for the sun’s motion The position for 1910 is R.A. 6h. om. 59°436s., south — decl. 32° 10’ 10-91". . ae PUBLICATIONS OF THE ASTRONOMICAL LABORATORY AT GRONINGEN, No. 29.—This is a further instalment of Prof. J. C. Kapteyn’s valuable researches on tf stellar system. He summarises the large amount of new material that has become available since he first took up the subject, and. shows that the time is — appropriate for a fresh investigation of the secular parallaxes of stars of different magnitudes and spec- tral classes. The secular parallax is defined as the angle subtended at the star by the unforeshortened annual motion of the.sun. Assuming its speed to be — 193 km./sec., then annual parallax=sec. par. X0-243. The following values are found for the variation of parallax with galactic latitude: From latitude go° to 40°, parallax=1-17 of mean; from 40° to 20°, 0:96 of mean; and from 20° to 0°, 0-87 of mean. ps Many investigators have found discordant values of — the declination of the solar apex as derived from stars — of different magnitudes. Prof. Kapteyn is inclined to attribute this to imperfect elimination of magni- tude equation in declination from the catalogues — mtr Pele since he makes the discordance’ very © small. te cI Prof. Kapteyn emphasises the importance of — separating stars of different spectral type in these investigations. In view of the great © range of absolute magnitude according to type, — he says that the grouping of all types is like — making a_ single statistical investigation of the — much risk. AucustT 26, 1920] whole animal kingdom, from the elephant to the flea, instead of dividing them into species. The following table gives the mean secular paral- laxes for different magnitudes and spectral types, the former being visual on the Harvard scale : Mag. Bstars stars Fstars G stars Kstars M stars To 0138 0253 os59t 0627 0362 0-172 2-0 ©0921 O170 0392 0-422 0241 0-116 30 00622 O115 0267 0-285 0163 0:0786 40 00422 00780 0182 O192 O110 0:0537 ia 00285 0:0526 0123 129 0:0749 0:0361 a 00192 0°:0355 00827 0:0876 0-0506 0:0244 td 00130 0:0240 0:0560 0:0599 0:0342 00163 0 0:0087 00161 0:0379 00403 0:0231 00108 GO 00059 ©0109 00254 00271 0:0156 0-0073 The small values near the end of the final column show that these distant M stars are giants nearly equivalent to the B stars in absolute magnitude. On the other hand, the M stars mentioned on page vii. _as being 174 magnitudes fainter than the B stars are dwarfs. Universities, Research, and Brain Waste i Bie is the subject of a presidential address by _ Prof. J. C. Fields to the Royal Canadian Insti- tute, Toronto, on November 8, 1919. It contains a review of the relations which must subsist between universities and research and between research and the progress of the world in civilisation, and it opens up sO many aspects of these questions which are debatable that for that very reason it ought to be read extensively. Though, on the whole, Prof. Fields’s views are consolatory to us in the Mother Country, they also show how much has yet to be done in England, as in other countries, to prevent or reduce the waste of potential brain power in the generations to come. Conditions are now greatly improved whereby the educational net is able to select out of the masses of population the individuals whose mental qualities deserve and, in the interest of the community, require due cultivation, but for the full benefit we must wait a generation or two. It is premature to make comparisons between the different races and nations in respect to intellectual ee it it- seems to be incontestable that the ans have for generations been distinguished by sect for learning and intellectual achievement, th ans and this is illustrated by the way in which during the ir highly trained men were preserved from too The Allies, on the other hand, took no a. care to protect and preserve such men as oseley, who was allowed to sacrifice his life in Gallipoli. Such waste is, as Prof. Fields says, a tragedy of the first order. But there is similar waste going on every day in the neglect to give every boy of promise an open road to the university and the right kind of teaching when he gets there. t is a question open to discussion whether the opportunity to do research lies only in a university career. The successive great discoverers at the Royal Institution in London, from Davy and Faraday onwards, and men like Joule, who was a brewer, and others unconnected with educational institutions, rise at once to mind. But it certainly is true that in the universities the example, the methods, and the spirit of research should be found associated with the teaching in every faculty and in every department. Prof. Fields was severe on the constitution and government of the American universities, but while it appears to be true that most of the professors there NO. 2652, VOL. 105] NATURE 839 are overworked and that the standard of attainment among the graduates is inferior to those of the uni- versities of Europe, the work that has been done at Johns Hopkins, Baltimore, and Harvard Universities must not be forgotten. Probably the next generation on both sides of the Atlantic will profit by the inter- change of visits by representatives of the higher educa- tional institutions and by the opportunities for ex- change of students, both graduate and undergraduate. It is probable also that there is still great ignorance, especially among the masses of the people in all countries, of the fact that the most potent factor in bringing the world out of barbarism to its present better condition of life has been science. ‘‘Is it not,”’ Prof. Fields says, ‘‘of the first importance that every boy and girl should be made aware of this fact? ” With that object in view modern history requires to be taught by teachers better qualified than in the past. The Sun as a Weather Prophet. OMe forty years ago Prof. Langley, while engaged on his early bolometric work on the sun, grasped the principle that, inasmuch as solar radiation is the governing factor in world meteorology, it should ulti- mately become possible to forecast weather changes, sa soon as sufhcient information had been obtained in regard to the mechanism of the radiation effect, by continuous observation of the intensity of radiation. Gradual improvement in instruments and methods has enabled his successors to state positively that the so- called ‘‘ solar constant’’ is subject to variations of long and short period, and of late years determined attempts have been made, chiefly by the Smithsonian observers, to trace the meteorological changes that may fairly be attributed to these variations. It is clear that there are, from time to time, disturbing factors of apparently terrestrial origin—for instance, the erup- tion of Mount Katmai, in Alaska, in 1912, brought a promising summer to an abrupt and chilly close in mid-July; but it is becoming more and more probable that the Smithsonian investigation is on the right lines, and will give definite aid to forecasting, at any rate in tropical and sub-tropical regions. Publication No. 2544 of the Smithsonian Miscel- laneous Collections (vol. Ixxi., No. 3) is devoted to a full statement of the case as regards Argentina, Chile, and Brazil in connection with regular observations of solar radiation at the new solar observatory at Calama, in Chile. Clear evidence is provided by the tempera- tures found at Buenos Aires that high values of solar radiation are followed. by maximum values of tempera- ture at an interval of nearly eleven days. The in- terval is not the same for lower maxima of radiation, and the amount of lag appears to be connected with the latitude of outbreaks on the sun, but more remains to be explained than the solar rotation. will cover. The lag-is also not. the same for all stations considered. Twenty such were chosen in the countries | mentioned, and differences are noted in the intensities as well as in the intervals, and also between the effect of longer and shorter waves. The observations do not cover every day, so that the correlation. is probably not so good as it would be if complete data could be provided. The change due to a variation of 1 per cent. in the solar radiation appears to range between 02° C. and o-8° C. in the tropics; in. the temperate zones the effect, though less direct, is greater, even exceeding 2°.C. at some stations. Having. thus obtained satisfactory evidence that, with the exception of the diurnal and annual varia- 840 NATURE. [AucustT 26, 1920 tions due to thé rotation and revolution of the earth, | all weather changes are caused chiefly by variation | of solar radiation, the next step. was clearly to bring it into practice for forecasting. This has now been done for Central Argentina with promising results, but the ideal of daily measures of solar radiation is not yet attainable, because more stations are required, Even. at Calama, which is nearly cloudless, good observations are not always possible on account of haze. The concluding paragraph of the report states: ‘‘The ideal arrangement for this solar work would | be to carry it on in co-operation with the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory. If the work at several widely separated observatories could be directed by one capable institution, so that the methods could be uniform and the results comparable, and then if it could be collected and weighted at the central office before cabling to the various weather surfaces of the world, probably a complete and reliable day-to-day record of the solar changes could be obtained which would be of the greatest value to practical meteoro- logy. If the Smithsonian Institution is unable or un- willing to do this work, then it is hoped that observa- tories will be established by several countries and some direct method of exchange instituted.” W.W.B.. : Cotton Industry Research. 2 HE British Cotton Industry Research Association, which was incorporated in June, 1919, has just issued its first annual report. The association is com- prised of 1408 individual members representative of all branches of the cotton industry, and its council in- cludes not only members of the great: firms engaged in the industry, but also those representing the various associations of operatives. The association has appointed as its director of research Dr. A. W. Crossley, who took up his duties last Easter. A large mansion some five miles from the Manchester Exchange, stand- ing in 133 acres of ground, has_ been, bought for the purposes of the association, to which it is proposed to add extensive buildings, for which it is intended to raise a special fund of 250,o00l., to accommodate the various departments of chemistry, physics, colloids, botany, and technology, and _ to appoint as heads of these departments highly qualified men of science. In order to bring to the notice of the members all available information of work done in the past, Dr. J. C. Withers, of London, has been appointed to direct the abstracting and indexing of scientific and technical matters in connection with the Records Bureau, and the council, in co-operation with the Textile Institute, has arranged for the publica- tion of abstracts from English and foreign papers dealing with matters relevant to the textile industries. It is proposed to establish an extensive library of standard scientific works of reference and of scientific and technical journals. A scheme of education falls within the scope of the association, and already cer- tain Oldham and other mills have arranged to. provide scholarships in some branch of science for students who are desirous of becoming members of the staff of. the association. The plan of research is intended to cover the. qualities of the cotton cuticle and the influence thereon of different reagents employed in mercerisation, bleaching, etc.; the effect of reagents on the strength: and elasticity of the fibre, yarn, and fabric: the character of the change due to mercerisa- tion; the nature of. tendering in the various types of fibre; the variation in the phvsical properties of sized NO. 2652, VOL. 105 | : _ the devising of methods for obtaining exact in | Industry Research Association. = yarn with change in the colloid properties of material used; the action of the dyeing process, w critical regard to the established purity of materi the nature of the dye solution, and the cher change in the latter during the dyeing process; fir tion as to the length of staple, the behaviour of under stress and strain, the degree of variati counts and in the diameter of yarn, relative the degree of resistance of yarn to weaving fri etc. Arrangements have been made for co-op with the Empire Cotton-Growing Committee of Trade), and in co-operation therewith Research Association has made a grant of for 1919-20 to a student of botany at Oxforc in aid of botanical research in the subject a cotton-growing. The joint committee has likew arranged for two other students to take up like in the ensuing session. ‘The income of the ciation is derived from a call upon the mem the extent of about goool. and a Governmen from the Department of Scientific and Indust Xe. search of 7oool. The Department has shown th: greatest interest and given all possible help in t furtherance of the objects of the British Ce r 4 Sugar Cultivation in India. THE existing world-shortage of sugar lends s interest to all experimental work dir towards any advance in the quantity and qua this essential crop. Sugar-growing and its im; ment are attracting an increasing amount of attentior in India, the area under sugar-cane having risen from _ 2,184,801 acres in 1909-10 to 2,808,204 acres in 1917-18, while in addition the date-palm and palmyra- palm occupied 184,412 acres in the latter period (‘‘Agric. Statistics for India,’’ ‘1917-18, vol. i.). More than half the sugar-cane is grown in the United Provinces, chiefly Agra, and the Punjab accounts about one-fifth. Palm-sugar, on the other hand is ('# chiefly associated with Madras, Bengal, and Upper ‘ Burma, little being produced elsewhere. The output of sugar for 1918-19 was 2,337,000 tons (Report on Progress of Agriculture in India for 1918-19), but, as this was insufficient to meet home requirements, a — large quantity had to be imported. Before the war — India was able to produce a surplus of sugar for export, but as this can no longer be done the Govern-— ment is investigating the possibility of reore ee and developing the sugar industry of the country, : a strong committee has been appointed to determine future policy in this direction. Dr. Barber, who has Baa worked much on the problem, considers that a case has been made out for the foundation of an Imperial Sugar Bureau, of which the ‘‘ whole duty will be to col- lect and collate the results obtained in various direc- tions, and thus be in a position. to assist the isolated efforts in different parts of the country with sound — advice, based on experience gained by a general survey — of the work done in India now and in the past and that accomplished in ‘other countries ’’ (Annual Report — of the Board of Scientific Advice for India, 1918-19). — Throughout India much work is. being done on _ the improvement of the sugar-cane and on the selec- tion and. breeding of varieties suitable for different — conditions and localities. At the cane-breeding station at Coimbatore, under the direction of Dr. Barber, a — large number of hybrids have been raised and are under observation, some of the seedlings proving very — resistant to red rot:and smut, two of the most serious © es ee ee eT > Te ee Se _Avcust 26, 1920| NATURE 841 diseases of sugar-cane. As a result of this work it has been possible to pass out a number of seedlings for further testing on a large scale in different places. The trial of new varieties is also carried out in Madras and the United Provinces, for the old ones which have hitherto been grown are rapidly losing favour with the cultivators, and it is necessary to find new and improved varieties to.replace them. - When m canes are used it is necessary constantly to renew the stock from the country of origin. Soil and climate have a marked effect on the canes, and varieties that are markedly superior in one area often _ deteriorate rapidly in quality if transferred elsewhere, - often of doubtful value for another area. ud, consequently, experience gained from _ experi- | work in one part of the cane-growing tract is This fact makes a strong argument for an increase in the number of sugar research stations in order that the most suitable stocks may be determined for the various localities. Newly broken up land. does not give very satisfac- tory results, but it should be left for at.least a year before planting. If a proper rotation of crops is used, an increase of as much as 5 tons of cane per acre ean be obtained. Manurial experiments in Assam _ have shown that the use of phosphatic fertilisers gives an av increase of 2-3 tons per acre, and in Pusa it is found that rape-cake, farmyard manure, and nitrate of soda can all be utilised with profit. In Madras it is estimated that careful manuring will raise the crop from 25 to 30 tons per acre, which is 2 probably the limit for that particular climate. ' vent fermentation. manufacture of sugar would pav. wrt from the actual selection and cultivation, cial attention is being devoted to the handling of 2 sugar-cane in order to avoid damage and deteriora- tion. Canes are often stored by windrowing, and hs wag over a period of several months show that his does not lead to any appreciable decrease in the quality or amount of sugar obtainable from equal weights of the original and the windrowed cane, but that after a certain time has elapsed deterioration ets in. Experiments suggest that this deterioration is not dependent upon the length of storage, but that the falling off of the quality is probably due to a seasonal rather than a biological factor. _ Special methods have been devised at Coimbatore (Agric. Journ., India. xv., part ii.) for the transport of cane for short distances and overseas. In the latter case it is advised-that the pieces of cane be pickled in Bordeaux mixture for a short time in order to avoid the introduction of disease from one locality to another. Charcoal-dust, teak sawdust, and wood- shavings all make satisfactory packing materials. _ Attention is now being directed to the use of the eae as a sugar producer (Agric. Journ., India, xv., part i.). Toddy is made in Bihar from the sweet juice of this palm, but as less than 10 per cent. of the trees are tapped it is probable that the The. process of tapping needs special care to obtain the best results. The tins of the flowering stalks are cut off after the male and female inflorescences have been squeezed or otherwise injured to irritate them into producing a good flow of sweet sav. The insides of the collecting pots are coated with lime to preserve the juice and pre- The crude sugar obtained from this juice contains, lime. which is removed by passing a current of carbon dioxide throursh the sugar solution until all the lime is precipitated. and a cheap white sugar can then he prepared. Jt is suerested that as the production of sugar from the wild date-palm has so far been satisfactorv. it would be well worth while to give the palmyra-palm industrv a fea*r trial. 2 a W. E. BRreENcHLFY. NO. 2652, VOL. 105] University and Educational Intelligence. LiverPooL.—The title of emeritus professor of engineering has been conferred upon Prof. H. S. Hele- Shaw. Mr. R. S.. GLennig, of the Battersea Polytechnic, has been appointed chief lecturer in pharmaceutics at the Royal Technical College, Glasgow. Tue Treasury has made to the University College at Swansea a grant of s5o000l. in a lump sum towards expenses, and also an annual grant ot another 5oool. REFERENCE has already been made in these columns to the establishment of a new Department of Aero- nautics at the Imperial College at South Kensington. This addition to the work of the college was initiated by the generous action of Sir Basil Zaharoff, who endowed the University of London chair of aviation known as the Zaharoff chair, tenable at the college, to which Sir Richard Glazebrook was appointed with the duty of directing the new department. A comprehen- sive scheme of instruction and training, mainly post- graduate in character, has been arranged for next session, beginning in October, including special sec- tions in aeronautical engineering, meteorology, and navigation, and with the valuable co-operation of the Air Ministry the services of a distinguished staff of experts have been engaged. Apart from the director with his great experience of this work at the National Physical Laboratory, Sir Napier Shaw will be pro- fessor of meteorology and Mr. Leonard Bairstow pro- fessor of aerodynamics; Mr. A. J. Sutton Pippard will deal with the structure and strength of aircraft, and Mr. A. T. Evans with aircraft engines. Courses of lectures will also be given dealing respectively with airships and with navigation, while arrangements are in hand for special instruction in air-cooled engines, high-compression engines, dopes, instruments, wire- less telegraphy, and similar subjects. Subject to certain necessary restrictions, it has also been arranged that students of the department will carry out part of their practical training in one or other of the Government establishments concerned with aero- nautics. Tue Bureau of Education at Washington has just issued a Bulletin (No. 11) giving statistics relating to school systems in the United States for the year 1917-18. The bulletin is concerned with elementary and secondary education only, and is an elaborate document covering 153 pages octavo, accompanied by 62 tables of statistics and by 49 maps and diagrams illustrative of the various aspects and conditions of primary and higher education, other than university and professional, in the several States. From the figures set forth it would appear that the total popula- tion of the States has increased from 38-2 millions in 1870 to 105-4 millions in 1918, and that the children of school age between five and eighteen have increased from 12 to 27-2 millions, and the school enrolment from nearly 7 to nearly 21 millions; whilst the pupils in the high schools, who numbered 80,000 in 1871, were about 1,700,000 in 1918. The number of teachers employed was 650,709, being 105,194 men and 545,515 women, whose average salary in 1918 wa; 635 dollars, as compared with 189 dollars in 1870. The percentage of scholars enrolled of school age between five and eighteen was 75 in 1o18 and <7 in 1870, largelv due to better teaching and super- vision, a more suitable course of studv, transportation of pupils, and improved economic and general condi- 842 NATURE [AucusT 26, 1920. tions. The total value of school buildings, sites, and equipment is stated to be of the vast total of nearly 2,000,000,000 dollars. The school dollar income is spent as follows: 3-3 cents on general control, 58-2 on instruction, 15:5 on new buildings and grounds, and 23 miscellaneous. The average length of the school year is stated to be 160 days, though the cities usually provide a school term of nine months. More than 6,000,000 children attend school, on an average, less than five months in each year. Great diversity exists throughout the States, due to climatic conditions, the scattered nature of ‘much of the population, racial differences, and varying educational legislation, which largely accounts for the striking differences which prevail. The bulletin is well worthy the close atten- tion of educational authorities in this country. Societies and Academies. LONDON. Physical Society, June 25.—Sir W. H. Bragg, presi- dent, in the chair.—Dr. J. H. Vincent: The origin of the elements. The atomic weights are regarded as the weighted mean values of the atomic weights of the isotopes of the elements; but it is assumed that, as a rule, the atomic weight is near that of some one isotope. Figures and tables are drawn up showing how this accounts for the values of a large number of atomic weights, if one also assumes that the weights and positions in the periodic table of any isotope are conditioned by laws similar to those hold- ing in the recognised radio-active families. The elements are all supposed to be derived from parent elements by processes known to occur in actively radiating families, but their radio-activity is not, in general, detectable by the usual means owing to the velocity of expulsion of the particles being low. The possibility of the reversibility of some radio-active pro- cesses is regarded favourably. The various difficulties in connection with the views advocated are dis- cussed, and some suggestions for experiments made. Finally, the theory is used to explain the so-called laws of the atomic weights of elements of low atomic weight, and the shape of the curve obtained when the atomic weights are plotted against Moseley’s numbers.—W. H. Wilson and Miss T. D. Epps: The construction of thermo-couples by electro-deposition. The method, which was devised to overcome the diffi- culty of making satisfactory soldered joints between the elements of thermopiles having a large number of closely packed junctions, consists in using a con- tinuous wire of one of the elements and coating those parts of it which have to form the other element with an electrolytic deposit of another metal. If the con- ductivity of the latter is considerably greater than that of the former, and a fairly thick sheath is deposited, a thermo-couple is produced which is not appreciably impaired in efficiency by the short-circuiting effect of the core. Constantan wires coated with either copper or silver sheaths were found to be suitable for most purposes.—J. Guild ; The use of vacuum arcs for inter- ferometry. The paper discusses the relative merits of short and long mercury arcs for this work, and points out that the defect of the former is due to the broadening of the spectrum lines consequent on the high vapour pressure within the lamp. It is shown that by attaching a condensing bulb to the lamp, so. as to prevent excessive rise of vapour pressure, the short lamp can be made practically as good as the long one as regards sharpness of lines, while still being of much greater intrinsic brightness.—S. Butter- worth: The maintenance of a vibrating system by means of a triode valve. This paper gives a mathe- matical analysis of the arrangement, previously NO. 2652, VOL. 105 | * described by Eccles, whereby the ‘vibrations of — tuning-fork are maintained by means of a triode. PHILADELPHIA. American Philosophical Society, April 24.—Dr. G. Ee Hale, vice-president, in the chair.—Prof. E, — Brown: The problem of the evolution of the s system.—W, H. Wright: Certain aspects of rece! spectroscopic observations of the gaseous nebule which appear to establish the relationship betwee them and the stars. The paper summarises in 1 technical terms the evidence afforded by a study « the stellar condensations in the planetary or smz gaseous nebulae which are shown to be ect: scopically identical with stars of the Wolf-Rayet grou (Pickering’s Class O). A brief account is given ¢ some of the present-day conceptions of stellar tion for the purpose of indicating the somewha critical nature with respect to these ideas of the relationship indicated.—Prof. E. P. Adams; The E stein theory. The extension of the principle of rela- tivity and the resulting revision of the concepts 0: space and time led to Einstein’s interpretation of — gravitation as a property of space itself when modified by the presence of matter.—Dr. L. A. Bauer: The results of geophysical observations during the solar eclipse of May 29, 1919, and their bearing upon the Einstein deflection of light. The present paper gives the results of a special study of the cause of the — non-radial effects of the light deflections observed by the British expedition at Sobral, Brazil. It is shown ~ that these non-radial. effects may completely _ accounted for by incomplete elimination of differential refraction effects in the earth’s atmosphere. The same cause may apparently also explain why the ~ observed radial deflections of light exceeded, on the — average, by about 14 per cent. the amounts predicted on the basis of the Einstein law of gravitation— Prof. J. B. Whitehead: The high-voltage corona in air. The paper describes the nature of the corona — and recent studies of the laws governing its ey ance in high-voltage circuits. Its influence as a limit- — ing factor in long-distance transmission occurs through deterioration of insulation and a leakage loss of power between the high-voltage lines. The appearance of corona on a clean round wire is very irae a flamers 5 and may be used for the measurement of high alter- — nating voltages to a degree of accuracy not heretofore — possible.—Prof, D. C. Miller; The velocity of ex- plosive sounds. Most of the experiments were made — in connection with 1o-in. and 12-in, rifles, though a few were made with 6-in. and 8-in. guns. The amount of powder charge and the value of the in- ternal pressure developed in the gun are taken into account. The sounds were received by means of specially constructed carbon-granule microphones, — those for use near the gun being of unusually rugged construction, while others were of a very sensitive type. The records were made by a specially con- structed moving-film camera in connection with a string-galvanometer capable of recording from six — stations simultaneously, of the type used by the U.S. Army for sound-ranging. Meteorological observations ee were made by special observers in the distant stations and on the field near the guns at the time of the — experiments, and continuous records were made at the Proving Ground Headquarters and at the United — States Weather Bureau Station. These observations : covered temperature, barometric height, humidity, wind velocity, and wind direction. Measurements — were also made of the velocity of the sound at a series of stations located on a dine at right angles to the line of fire and on a line at 45° to one side of the line of fire. Heretofore there has been a general — id Te eT See ee Des aia atal J Ree Aucust 26, 1920] _ NATURE 843 _ impression that explosive sounds travel much farther _ than do ordinary sounds, the velocity being, perhaps, / rf Ron _ several times the normal velocity. ‘hese experiments show conclusively that the velocity at a distance of too ft. from a 1o-in. gun is about 1240 ft. per second, or 22 per cent. above normal; at 200 ft. from the gun the velocity is only about 5 per cent. above normal. For all distances above 500 ft. from the n the velocity of the explosive sound from the rgest-sized gun is practically normal.—Dr. H. C. Hayes: The U.S. Navy MV-type of hydrophone as an aid and safeguard to navigation.—Dr. A. E. Kennelly; The transient process of establishing a steady alternating electric current on a long line from tory. measurements on an artificial line. It is known that the current and voltage do not build up steadily and continuously, but advance by little jumps which occur at regular short intervals of time, accom- panying successive reflections of electromagnetic waves from one end of the line to the other. There is pre- ‘sented in this paper a number of observations which have been secured photographically of. the rise of voltage and current on a long artificial electric power transmission line in the laboratory, and have com- sd the observed rates of growth with those which are indicated by theory with a fairly satisfactory ent—N. W. Akimoff: The strephoscope.— Prof. R. S. Dugan: New features in the eclipsing variable UCephei. (Prof. W. B. Scott, presi- dent, in the chair.)—Prof. E. N. Harvey: Animal luminescence and stimulation. The production of light by animals is due to the burning or oxidation of a substance called luciferin in the presence of an enzyme or catalyst called luciferase. Light produc- ly animals differs from light produced by com- bustion in that the oxidation product of luciferin, oxyluciferin, can be easily reduced to luciferin, which 1 again oxidise with light production. The reaction is reversible, and appears to be of this nature: luciferin+O —oxyluciferin+H,O. The difference be- tween luciferin and oxyluciferin lies probably in this: that the luciferin possesses two atoms of hydrogen, which is removed to form H,O when the luciferin is oxidised. The H, must be added to re-form luci- ferin. Not only is it most efficient so far as the radiation (being all light) it produces is concerned, it is also most economical so far as its chemical pro- cesses are concerned. The above reactions can be demonstrated in a test-tube with a mixture of oxy- luciferin, luciferase, and ammonium sulphide. The ammonium sulphide is probably represented in living cells by reducing enzymes or reductases. If. such a test-tube is allowed to stand, oxyluciferin is reduced to luciferin, which will luminesce only at the surface of the fluid in the test-tube in contact with air. When the tube is agitated so as to dissolve more oxygen of the air, the liquid glows throughout. Even a gentle knock or ‘stimulus ”’ to the tube is sufficient to cause enough oxygen to dissolve to give a momen- tary flash of light which is strikingly similar to the flash of light given by luminous animals themselves on stimulation. This suegests that when we agitate a luminous animal, or when the luminous gland-cells of a firefly are stimulated through nerves, with the resultant flash of light, in each case the stimulus acts by increasing the permeability of the surface-laver of the cells to oxygen. This then upsets an equilibrium involving the luciferin, luciferase, oxvluciferin, oxygen, and reductase within the cell, with the production of light and the formation of more oxyluciferin. So long as the luminous ¢ell is resting and unstimu- lated. the tendency is for reduction processes to occur and luciferin to be formed. . It must be pointed out that not all sorts of stimulation can be explained in NO, 2652, VOL. 105] this way, as the stimulation of muscles or nerve-fibres may take place in the complete absence of oxygen.— Prof. G. H, Parker: The phosphorescence of Renilla. During the day Renilla cannot be excited to phos- phoresce, but at night on stimulation it can be made to glow with a beautiful golden-green light. The light is produced in wave-like ripples that spread out from the spot stimulated and run over the upper surface of the animal. They travel at a relatively slow rate that agrees with that at which the nervous impulses of the animal travel. Hence it is concluded that the phosphorescence of Renilla is under the con- trol of the nerve-net of the animal, which apparently pervades the whole colony.—Prof. W. M. Wheeler and I. W. Bailey: Feeding habits of Pseudomyrmine ants. Examination of the mouth of the larva reveals a singu- lar hitherto undescribed organ, evidently used for reduc- ing the food-pellet to such a finely divided state that it can, when acted upon by the digestive juices of the - stomach, yield a certain amount of nutriment which the worker-ant could not extract from it while it was in the infrabuccal pocket. This larval organ may be called the trophorhinium. In all Pseudomyrmine larve, and in many larve of the other sub-families, except the Doryline and Cerapachyinz, the tropho- rhinium is beautifully developed, although in many ants (Ponerinez) it must be used for comminuting parts of insects given directly to the larve by the workers. In its development the trophorhinium bears a strange resemblance to the stridulatory organs of the petiole and post-petiole of many adult ants.—Dr. A. E, Ortmann: Correlation of shape and station in fresh-water mussels. It has been found that for certain species more swollen specimens are found down-stream in the larger rivers and more compressed specimens more up-stream, and that in the inter- mediate stretches of a’ river these extremes are con- nected by gradual transitions.—Prof. H. F. Osborn: Evolution principles deduced from a study of ‘the even-toed Ungulates known as Titanotheres.—Prof. W. B. Scott: The Astropotheria.—B. F. Howell, jun. : The Middle Cambrian beds at Manuels, Newfound- land, and their relations. These beds are of special scientific interest because they contain large numbers of unusually well-preserved fossils, which prove that the creatures that swarmed in the waters then cover- ing much of what is now New England, south-eastern Canada, and south-eastern Newfoundland were of practically the same sort as those living in the seas which at the same period washed over many parts of Scandinavia and the British Isles. North America has probably been joined to Eurove in this way several times in the geological past, so that the animals living in the coastal waters could spread from one hemi- sohere to the other.—Prof. W. H. Hobbs: (1) The Michigan meteor of November 26. 1919. (2) The Slacial anticvclone and the blizzard in relation to the domed surface of continental glaciers. Rome. Reale Accademia dei Lincei, March 7.—A. R6iti, vice- president, in the chair.—Q. Majorana: Gravitation, viii—O. Chisini: Analytic representation of the fold of a surface by a series of fractional powers of two variables.—U. Cisotti: Integration of the equation of wave-motion in a deep canal, ii. The equation of the free surface is determined.—O. Onicescu: New- tonian fields in the neighbourhood of a given vectorial field. An application of Levi-Civita’s notion of harmonics in the neighbourhood of an assigned funce- tion. The author deduces the lamellar and solenoidal magnetisation which gives rise to a given magnetic field, and applies the result to deal with the existence and unique nature of the magnetisation in soft iron. 844: NATURE [Aucust 26, 1920 —L. Tonelli: Researches on primitive functions, iii. Every Boy’s Book of Geology. By Dr.-A.'E. Tr —V. Sabatini; Leucitic lavas of the volcano of Roc- | man and. W. P. Westell. Pp. 315. | (Londe camonfina. ‘This deals mainly with the composition | R.T.S.). 6s. net- Pe. ie of the spurs, and particularly with the. presence of leucite.—B. Peyrouel: A parasite of the lupin, Blepharospora terrestris. In December, 1919, plants of lupin were received infected with this parasite from Pantano and Pratolongo, near the Lake of Regillo. It appears to kill the plants, completely destroying the tubercles of the roots. The question is raised as to whether the parasite is of American origin, but the author considers it probably an in- digenous type that has recently become destructive.— T. Levi-Civita: Harmonics in the neighbourhood of an assigned function. The problem is reduced to the determination of the Newtonian function having the given function as its density.—R. Perotti: Nitrogen of the cyanic group in manures. A contribution ‘to the determination of the mechanism of action of cyanic nitrogen in vegetable nutrition and the condi- tions for its utilisation.—M. Ascoli and A. Fagiuoli: Sub-epidermic pharmacodynamic experiences, ii. The action of pituitrin is discussed. The limit of reactivity in einai Meh ects fluctuates about a dilution of 500. —L, Cattolica: Obituary notice of G. Dalla Vedova, professor of geography in the University of Rome.— Sig. Baglioni: The life and work of the late Luigi Luciani, professor of pathology at Parma from 1875 to 1880, and afterwards professor of physiology at Siena, Florence, and Rome in succession. March 21.—F. D’Ovidio, president, in the chair.— Q. Majorana: Gravitation, ix. Gravitation may be partly absorbed by matter, and this absorption may give rise to heat. Bodies will then have two kinds of mass, apparent and real, and the real density of the sun .will then be three times its apparent or astronomical density. An experimental test is being arranged at Turin for studying the action of too quintals of lead on a small central mass.—O. Chisini: Contact of curves of diramation for an algebraic function of two variables.—M. De Angelis : Crystalline forms of nitrodichloroacetanilide. This sub- stance is dimorphic, modifications @ and 8 both being, monoclinic and prismatic, the former with a:b:c= I-1507 : 1: 1-1348 and B=66° 23’, the lattér with the values 1-5792: 1: 1-0952 and 62° 23-5’. The second form is decidedly unstable, and when: left in the mother-solution, or even dried, it transforms: in :time into an aggregate of crystals of the stable phase.— R.- Perotti: Measure of the ammoniating power of soils. The best conditions for employing the method of solutions are 10 c.c. solution of: peptone of 1-5 per cent. in test-tubes, adding 5 c.c. of a mixture formed: of 50 grams of earth in 500 grams of water; cultiva- tion. for four days in a thermostat at 20°-25° C., and determination of ammonia by distillation on oxide of magnesia.—M. Ascoli and. A. Fagiuoli: Sub-epidermic pharmacodynamic experiences, iii. Certain alkaloids, such as atropine, pilocarpine, muscarine, physo- stigmine, morphine, eserine, nicotine, cocaine, and scopolamine, which offer a cutaneous reaction of cedematogenous type, are referred to. ~ Books Received. The Theory of Electric Cables and Networks. By Dr. A. Russell. Second edition... Pp. x+348. (London: Constable and Co., Ltd.) 24s. net. Wild Creatures of Garden and Hedgerow. By Frances Pitt. Pp. ix+285. (London: Constable and Co., Ltd.) i2s. net. a : NO, 2652, VOL. 105] - Varrier-Jones. . Societies and. Academies. « «5 6. csc cu ees ac The .Fall of the Birth-Rate. By G. Uday Yule Pp. 43. (Cambridge: At the University Press.) net. Kritik der Abstammungslehre. By Prof. ;, Rein Pp. v+133. (Leipzig: J..A. Barth.) 13 marks, History of the Theory of Numbers. By Prof. Dickson. Vol. ii., Diophantine Analysis. Pp. 803. -(Washington: Carnegie Institution.) An Introduction to the Study of Hypnotism: Experimental and Therapeutic. By Dr. H. E. V ing- field. Second edition. Pp. viiit195. (London: Ba liére, Tindall, and Cox.) 7s. 6d. net. Industrial Colonies and Village Settlements for Consumptive. By Sir German Woodhead and P, Pp. xit+t151. (Cambridge: At University Press.) 10s. 6d, net. (ot eee ~ A Handbook of Physics and Chemistry: By H. E. Corbin and A. M. Stewart. Fifth edition. Pp. viii+ 496. (London: J. and A. Churchill.) 15s. net. c the bier 2 ar CONTENTS. The Forthcoming Censls .- >. : .j22 eee ; Prof. Alexander’s Gifford Lectures. Hon. Viscount Haldane’ Principles and Practice of Surveying, H.. S. Wintérbotham |)... 3) eee “oe ae Australian Hardwoods, By A. B.J. ....... The Columbian Tradition. By J. L. E. D. Our Bookshelf .... * ype aE ge “wiceeire beaaagle Letters to the Editor :— es University Grants.—Prof, W. H. Perkin, F.R.S. . Use of Sumner Lines in Navigation. (With Diagram.) —Dr, John Ball “1 PAGE 797 Bythe Right OO 8 BR OS ai ae ee MGADIRY ro) Sie ee reins ge eae The Antarctic Anticyclone.—R. M. Deeley . ; A Method of Reaching Extreme Altitudes. (///us- — - trated.) By Prof. Robert H. Goddard . mi New Aspects in the Assessment of Physical — Fitness. By Dr. F. G. Hobson .:.:. 1°... 4) 8g & Oceanography and the Sea-Fisheries. Presidential Address to the British Association. By Prof. W. A. Herdman, C.B.E., D.Se., S¢.D., LL.D., ree, aes Fae Hh ee te yee eo cs) Fo ee cr Summaries of Addresses of Presidents of Sections — of the British Association ........... The British Association at Cardiff, By R.V.S. . Sir Norman Lockyer’s Contributions to Astro-. physics. By Prof. A. Fowler, F.R.S. ...... Note$g, checks, ho 8 fools ah eee Our Astronomical Column :— . Discovery of a Nova in Cygnus. . 6) ae et CSRae . PYM Mie ie Stee eo Cotton Industry Research ...,.:.. see Mea Sugar Cultivation in India. By Dr. W. E. Brenchley University and Educational Intelligence .. . . Books Received ...:..: oan . 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