NATURE A WEEKLY ILLUSTRATED JOURNAL OF SCIENCE VOLUME XV. NOVEMBER 1876 to APRIL 1877 "7^ the solid ground Of Nature trusts I he mind which builds for t? jr. "— Words '.VORTH MACMILLAN AND CO. 1877 Q i LONDON R. CLAY. SONS, AND TAYLOR, PRINTERS, BREAD STREET HILL, QUEEN VICTORIA STREET ^^fe' i Nature, Mav lo, 1877] INDEX Abbay (Rev. R,), Patenas or Grass Lands of the Mountaiaous Kegion of Ceylon, 398 ; Lowest Temperature, 471 Abbott (Dr. Chas. C), Pre-Glaciil Man in America,, 274 Abel (Prof. F.R.S.), Chemistry and Telegraphy, 321 Abercromby (Ralph), Is Meteorology a Science? 510 Abney (Capt. F.R.S ) " Instruction in Photography," 253 ; On the Photographic Innag", 543 Abraham (Phin. S. ), "Stone Ri/ers," 431 Absorption Bands, M. Lippich on, 209 Absorption of Light in the Blood, 362 Absorption of Organic Matter by Plants, 108 •' Accipitres of Canada," Vennor's, 546 "Acoustics, Light, and Heat," by William Lees, Dr. W. 11. Stone, 352 Ac'inophrys, 108 Adams (Prof. A. Leith), Sense of Hearing in Eird«, 33 j; Gigantic Land Tortoises, 347 Aeronauts. French Schools ot, 383 Afiica : Piaggia's Exploration of, 89 ; Exploration of Central, 188 ; Antinori's Exploration o', 188; Portuguese Exploration of, 208; Cameron s "Across Africa," 277; The Berlia African Society, 283 ; Stanley's Exploration of, 480 ; Hydro- graphy of W. Central Africa, 517 ; v. Bary's Expedition, 540 Agassiz (Prof.), the Challenger Collections, 256 Agriculture, French National School of, 128 Agriculture in the United States, 525 Air, Heated, 283 Airy (Sir G. B., F.R.S. ), Ancient Solar Eclipses, 115; Solar Physics at the Present Time, 196 Aldis(W. Steadman), Owens College, Manchester, 509 Alga: : a New Parasitic Green, 416 ; of the Gulf of Finland, 459 ; of the Kara Sea, 461 Algeria, Sirocco in, 89 Algoid Swarm Spores, 15, 178 Alpenverein, German and Austrian, 68 Alpine Club, the Swiss, 383 Alpine Flowers, Corcct-ons of, 150 America, Traces of Pre-Glacial Man in, 274, 295 American Geographical Society, 345 American Journal of Science and Arts, 267, 286, 385, 541 Americanist?, Con ;ress of, at Luxemburg, 208 Ampere, Bust of, 69 Amphibia, Carboniferous, in Nova Scotia, 264 Amyl, Nitrite of, Dr. B. W, Richardson, F.R.S., 24 Anaesthetics, New Alcoholic, 209 "Andes and the Amazon," James Orton, 154 Aneroid Barome'er, Improvement in, 460 Aniline in Photographs, 207 Animals, Colours of, 1 6 Antarctic, The Conditions 'of the, Sir Wyville Thomson, F.R.S., 104, 120 Antedated and Undated Books, 17 Antedon Rosaceus (Comatula rosacea), 7, 58, 158, 159, 197, 366 Antimony Pentachloride, action of, on certain Organic Sub- stances, 282 " An'ihracen," Auerbach's, 507 Anthropological Society at St. Petersburg, 363 Anthropology : Beitrage zur Anthropologic und Urgeschichte Bayerns, 89 ; Society at Munich, 89; Prof. Virchow on the present position of, 149 ; Paris School of, 149 j Anthropo- logical Institute, 131, 151, 171, ^8, 307, 327, 3S7, 42.J, 483, 523, 543 Ants, Sir John Lubbock on, 386 ; Mr McCook on, 439 Apatite and Nephehn, 384 Aquirium, proposed, at Birmingham, 170 "Archaeological Frauds," 150 Archer (S.), MimeHc Habits of B4ts, 313 Arcbiv fiir Anthropologic, no Archiv fiir mikroskopische Anatomic, iil Archives des Sciences Physiques et Naturelles, 542 Arctic Expedition, English: i, 11, 68; Capt. Nares' Report, 24 ; Prof. Osborne Reynolds on, 87 ; Medals commemorative of, 89; Dr. Petermann's Map of the, 109; Wordsworth Donnis- thorpe, 116; Dr. Pe^erminn on the, 148; Natural History and Geological Results of the, 432 ; Sir George Nares on the, 480 ; the Blue-Book on, 505 Arctic Expedition, Payer's Narrative of the Austrian, 62, 81 Arctic Expedition, the German, 148 Arctic Exploration, 51 ; German Society for, 17 ; by Bxlloons 148 ; Capt. Howgate's Method of attaininT; the North Pole, 284, 365 Arctic Seas, Tides of the, 562 " Are We Dryinj Up ? " 6, 217 Argyll (Duke o', F.R.S.), Holly-Berries and Rare Birds, 273 ; Hibernation of Birds, 527 Asphronemus olfax, 265 Astronomxal Bibliographies, 455 Astronomical Clock, a New, Sir William Thomson, F.R.S., 227 Astronomical Column, 14, 48, 65, 86, 107, J25, 146, 166, 186, 206, 243, 262, 281, 303, 323, 342, 361, 381, 414, 437, 457, 478, 500, 519, 531, 549 "Astronomical Myths," John F. Blake, 351 Astronomical Socie'y. See Royal Astronomy, Sidereal, Knobel's Catalogue of the Literature of, 48 Atkins (Edward), " Elements of Algebra, " 115 Atlmtic: Meteorology of the, 49 ; Temperature of the Northern part of the, 107; Physics of the, 263; Atlantic Ridge and the Distribution of Fossil Plants, 1 58 ; Atlantic Soundings, J. J. Wild, 377 Atmosphere of the Rocky Mountains, Dr. Henry Draper, 354 Atmospheric Currents, 294, 374, 450, 510 Atmospheric and Ocean Currents, 333 Atmosoheric Pressure in Russia, 457 Auerba':h (G.), " Anthracen," 507 Auroric Lights, G. H. Kinahan, 334 Australia, Drought in, 523 Austrian Arctic Expedition, Payer's Narrative o'', 62, Si Austrian Novara Expedition, Report on the, 261 Backhouse (T. W.), Spectrum of the New Star in Cygnus, 295 Baer (Karl Ernst von), Obituary Notice of, 138 Baer Medal, Award for 1877, 363 Bain (Alexander), Obituary Notice of, 218 Bakarganj, Beveridge's District of, 135 Ball Lightning. 539 Balloons: Large, at the Paris Exhibition, 501 ; Apparatus for Steeling, no; Sale of French, 266; for Meteorological Pur- poses, 458 Ballot (Dr. Buys), on a Mode of Investigating Storms and Cyclones, 216 ; the Physics of the Atlantic Ocean, 263 Baltic Provinces, Geological Map of, 70 Barkley (H. C), "Between the Danube and the Black Sea," 134 Barometer, South Polar Depression of the, 157, 198, 253 Barometers: of Southern Russia, 49; Variations^ of, J. AUaa Broun, F.R S., 151 ; Distribution of, in France,;S38 Barometric Range at High and Low Levels, 187, 275 Barometric Pressure, Experiments on, 502 Barth (Baron), Death of, 325, 344 Bashkirs, Anthropological Sketch of the, 382 IV INDEX [Nature, May lO, 187' Basking Shark, Prof. Henry J. Giglioli, 273 ; Prof. E. Percival Wright, 292 Basques, the. Rev. A. H. Sayce, 394 Batrachians, the Development of, without Metamorphosis, 491 ; Non- Amphibious, Rev. Georp;e Henslow, 548 Bats, Mimetic Habits of, S. Archer, 313 ; Protective Mimicry among, G. E. Dobson, 354 Bauer's " Philological Introduction to Greek and Latin," 74 Baxendell (Mr.), the Protection of Buildings from Lightning, 88 Bayeux Tapestry, the Comet of the, 126 Bears, Polar, Fight between two, 70 Beaver in Siberia, 265 Beckesheim (M.),, Experiments with Nitro-Glycerine, 71 Beer: Pasteur's Etudes sur la Biere, 213, 249 Bees : Toads eating, 502 ; Origin of the Flving Powers of, 559 Beetles, Blistering, as a Cure for Hydrophobia, 264 Belcher (Admiral Sir Edward), death of, 461 Belfast, Working Men's Institute, 128 Belgium : Geographical Society, 128 ; Geological Maps of, 304; Geological Society, 304 ; Education in, 326 ; Hurricane in, 253 Bellynck (Pro*".), Death of, 304 Belt (Thomas), Pre-Glacial Man in America, 295 Bengal, Cyclone Wave in, 261 Beni, Prof. James Orton's Exploration of the River, 17 Bennett (A. VV.), European Polygalas, 5 Berkeley (Rev. M. J.), the Fungus Disease of India, 21 Berlin: Gorilla in, 51, 208; Additions to the Ethnological Museum, 89, 304; Anthropological Society, 169, 304, 364; Ethnological Objects at the Royal Museum, 208; Geographical Society, 345 ; Chemical Society, 211, 327, 367, 422 Berliner Astronomisches Jahrbuch, 362 Bemardin (Prof), Classification of Jecules, 209 Bernese Alps, Orography of, 188 Bessel's Treatises, 414 Bethnal Green Museum, 18 Bettany (G. T.), on the Primary Elements of the Skull, 127 Beveiidge (H.), the District of Bakarganj, 135 Bianconi (Prof), Experiments on Ice, 69 " Bibliographia Caucasica et Transcaucasica," 71 Biela's Comet in 1805, 479 Binary Stars, 186, 414, 500 ; y Centauri, 303 ; o Centauri, 510 Biological Notes, 15, 65, 108, 127,167, 263, 324, 414, 438, 458, 558 Biology, Prof. Huxley's Lecture on the Study of, 219 Birds : Palmen on the Migration of, 465 ; Sense of Hearing in. Prof. A. Leith Adams, 334 ; can they Count ? 345 ; Hibernation of, 465, 527 ; of Celebes, 559 ; Bird's Eggs, 502 ; Birds and Insects, Sense of Hearing in, 254, 292, 354 Birmingham (J.), the Suspected Intra-Mercurial Planet, 509; Occultaiion of Kappa Geminorum, 509 Bischofsheim Transit Instrument, 16 Bisons, the American, 167 Black Burgh Tumulus, Brighton, 131 " Black Drop," M. Ch. Andre on the, 285 Blake (John F.), "Astronomical Myths," 351 Blake and Tate's " Yorkshire Lias," 1 13 Blood, Absorption of Light in the, 362 Body-change, Relation of, to Temperature, 324 Bolide at Cierey, 69 Boltzmann (M,), on Gas Molecules, 306 Bombay, Meteorology of, 482 Bonney (Rev, T. G.), the Age of the Rocks of Chamwood Forest, 97, 137 Boomerang, the, 312, 510 Borelly's Comet, 431, 549 Boring, Deep, at Kheinfelden, 128 Boron and its Specific He=t, 283 Bosanquet (R. H. M.), the Hindoo Divisim of the Octave, 420 Boston (U.S.), Natural History Society, 192, 388 Botanic Gardens : Calcutta, 71 ; Brisbane, 190 Botanical Geography of Russia, 459 Bottomley (J. T., M.A.), " Dynamics," 467 Bowerbank (Dr. John Scott, F.R.S.), Death of, 481 Boxwood, the Supply of Russian, 345 Bradford Scientific Association, 560 Brahe (Tycho), Notice o*", 405 ; his Portrait, 530 Brain, the Functions of the. Dr. David Ferrier, F.R.S., 73, 93; \ Action of the, 264 Braun (Alexander), Obituary Notice of. 490 Brazil, Geology in, 149 Bremen geographische Gesellschaft, 246 Bressa (Dr. C. A.), Prize instituted by, 207 Brighton Aquarium, 365 Brighton, Black Burgh Tumulus, 131 Brisbane Botanic Gardens, 190 Bristol, University College, 459 British Guiana, C. Barrington Brown's Camp Life in, 311 " British Manufacturing Industries," 54, 96, 445 British Museum : Semitic Remains in the, 247 ; the Estimafe: on the, 382 Broca's Stereograph, 558 Bronze, Steel, 522 Broun (J. Allan, F.R.S.), Variations of the Barometer, 151 B>-crcuallia elata. Supposed Self-Fertilisation of, 24 Brown (Rev. G.), Exploration of Polynesia, 246 Brown (C. Barrington), Canoe and Camp Life in Britisli Guiana, 311 Brussels Observatory, New Instruments for, 304 Buchan (Alexander), Greenwich as a Meteorological Observa- tory, 450, 528 Buckland (Frank) on the Breeding of the Salmon, 375 Bulletin de 1' Academic Imperiale des Sciences de St. Peters- bo urg, 20 Bulletin des Sciences Mathematiques et Astronomiques, 332 Burial-Ground near Rauschenbure, Discovery of, 51 Burrows and Colton, " Concise Instructions in the Art of Re- touching," 156 Butterflies of America, Edward's Work on the, 70 Caesium and Rubidium, Atomic Weights of, 282 Calabria, Natural History of, 541 Calcutta, Report of the Royal Botanic Gardens, 71 California, Glacial Drift in, A. R. Wallace, 274 Cambridge, Natural Science Club, 70 ; Philosophical Society, 87, 132, 151, 444, 5?3 ; Natural Science Scholarships and Exhi- bitions, 70, 89, 322, 325 ; Lectures in Science at, 325, 540 Cambridge, Mass., U.S. : Science at, 432 ; Observatory, 201 Camelidse, the evolution of the, 168 Cameron (Commander V. L.), "Across Africa," 277; Lecture at the Sorbonne, 305 Campbell (Lord George), * Log Letters from the Challenger" 290 Canada : the Emigrant and Sportsman in, John J. Rowan, 216 ; Catalogue of the Minerals of, 272 Caucasica and Transcaucasica, Bibliography of, 71 "Canoe and Camp Life in Brit. Guiana," Barrington Brown, 311 Cape Astronomical Results, 1871-1873, 478 Capercailzie in Northumberland, W. Topley, 7 Carbon Dioxide in Minerals, Variations of, 167 Carboniferous System of Northumberland, 189 Carboniferous Amphibia, in Nova Scotia, 264 Carnivorous Water-Beetles, Respiratory Functions of, 91 Carob, the, in Madras, 419 Carrick (Alick), " The Secret of the Circle," 155 Carruthers (Mr.) on Evolution and the Vegetable Kingdom, 467 Cast-iron, 529 Caterpillar : J. A. Osborne, 7 ; Commensalism among, 264 Cayley's Elliptic Functions, C. W. Merrifield, F.R.S., 252 Celebes, Birds of, 559 Celts, Discovery of, in Gurnet Bay, 128 Cerebellum, the Functions of the, 438 Cetus, Red Star in, 281 Ceylon, Patenas of, 398, 548 Chad Basin, Races and Tribes of the, 550 Challenger QoW^cSAOXis : Sir C. Wyville Thomson, F.R.S., 254 ; Prof. Agassis on the, 256; Henry H. Higgins, 274 C/iallen^er Expedition: Lord George Campbell's "Log Spry's "Cruise of the Challenger," 290 Challenger Soundings and the " Lost Atlantis," 553 Chappell (Wm., F.S.A.), Just Intonation, 196, 430 Chamwood Forest, Rocks of, 7«, 97, ii6, 137, 470, 548 Chekanoffsky (M.), Death of, 50 Chemical Notes, 167, 282, 362, 520 Chemical Society : 72, 91, 210, 286, 327, 367, 420, 463, 523, 563 ; Goldsmith's Company's Grant to, 16 ; Research Fund, 88 ; Dinner, 459 Chemistry : Hofmann's Lecture on Liebig, 193 ; Eltoft's Com- bined Note-book and Lecture Notes, 195 ; the Article in the Encyclopaedia Britannica, 269 ; Vacher's Primer of, 527 Chemistry and Telegraphy, Prof. Abel, F.R.S., 321 Chester Society of Natural History, 461 Chevreul (M.), Dinner to, 87 Chlorine, Aciion of, on Peroxydes, 2S3 'Log Letters;" Nature, May lo, 1877] INDEX Christie (\V. H. M. ), Centralisation of Spectroscopy, 489 Chronometers, Ships', Parkinson and Frodsham, 470 Chytridium with True Reproduction, 458 Cinchona Cultivation in India, George K'ug', 446 Circle, Books on Squaring the, 155 " Clang," the Vowel, 441 Clarke (Col. A. R.), Just Intonation, 253, 353 Clavalina Szaboi, Dr. von Hantken's Foraminifera of, 115 Climate, the Cause of Changes of, 17 Climates : Former, D. Pidgeon, 275 ; Investigation of, T. Ste- venson, 556 Climbing Plants, Tendrils of, 558 Clock : Public, in Paris, 169 ; a New Astronomical Sir Wm. Thomson, F.R.S.. 227 Clocks, Pneumatic Tu'.^e applied to Regulating, 418 Clouds, Measurement of the Height of, 313, 431 Clyde, the River, 99 Coal-fields of Nova Scotia, 462, 488 Coffee Cultivation in Coorg, 418 Coffee-leaves as a Substitute for Tea, 540 Coloenis Julia in Texas, Dr. L. Ileiligbrodt, 339 Colorado, the Upper, Prof. A'. Geikie, F.R.S., 337 Colour-blindness, no, 346 Colours of Animals, 16 Colours, Accidental or Subjective, 384 Colton and Burrows, " Concise Instructions in the Art of Re- touching," 156 Comber (Thomas), Evolution and the Vegetable Kingdom, 467 ; Morphology of Seliginella, 548 Combus'ion, Influence of Pressure on, 167 Comets: The Fourth of 1857, 15; the Comet of the Bayeux Tapestry, 126; Periodical Comets in 1877, 186. 206; De Vico's, of Stiort Period, 206 ; of 1812, 323 ; the New Comet, 342, 361, 381; Borelly's, 431; D'Arrest's, 457; Biela's Comet in 1805, 479; of 1873 (Tempel), 520; Winnecke's, 520, 53t, 549 Commensalism among Caterpillars, 264 Compass-Plant, 298 Compisses at the Tiflis Observatory, 109 Conte (Prof. Joseph Le), Hog-Wallows, or Prairie Mound*, 530 Coorg, Coffee Cultivation in, 418 Copeland (Ralph), the New Star in Cygnus, 315, 361 Coral, Pink, Discovery of a Bed of, 128 Coral : Growth of, 418 ; Coralean Rocks of England, 347 Cordoba, Observations at the Observatory, 531 Comu (Prof. A.), the Spectrum of the New Star, 158 Cosmos, 127 Ciianiology, Prof. Virchow on Bulgarian, 364 Cretinism in Austria, 384 Crocuses, Yellow, A. G. Renshaw, 530 Crookes' ( Wm., F.R.S.), Experiments with the Radiometer, 224, 299 ; "Translation of Auerbach's Anthracen," 507 Crustaceans, Eyeless, 559 Cryptogamic Flora of Russia, 459 Crystals, Prof. Maskelyne, F.R.S., on, 523 Crystallised Nitro-glycerine, Experiments with, 71 '* Crystallography, Groth's, 372 Cuckoo and Swallows at Menton, Douglas A. Spalding, 528 Cumberland Scientific and Literary Societies, 129 Cumiuing's (Linnaeus) "Theory of Electricity," 526, 549 Cunningham (R. O.), Hearing in Insects and Birds, 293 Cyclones: of October 31, 1876, 89, 126; at Backergunge, 68; at Chitlagong, 69 ; Storm Waves of, 261, 311 ; Polar, 312 Cyclones and Storms, on a Mode of investigating. Dr. Buys Ballot, 216 Cygnus, a new Star in, 146, 166, 186, 206, 295, 303, 315, 361 Czchovicz (Prof), Influence of Electricity on Certain Spectra, 70 Czerny (Dr. Francis), the Action of the Winds in determining the P'orm of the Earth, 239 D'AIbertis's Expedition to New Guinea, 165, 452 Dale (T. Nelson), the Rhoetic Strata in the Southern Tyrol, 4 Damorseau's Tables of Jupi'.er's Satellites, 414 " Danube and the Black Sea," Barkley's, 134 D'Arrest's Comet, 457 Darwin (Charles, F.R.S.), Sexual Selection in Relation to Monkeys, 18 ; " Geological Observations," 289 ; " The Effects of Cross- and Self-Fertilisation in the Vegetable Kingdom," Prof. Dyer, 329 ; Testimonial to, 356, 410 Darwin (Francis), Hygroscopic Seeds, 374 Darwin (G. H.), Influence of Geological Changes on the Earth'f Axis of Rotation, 360 Darwin'sche Theorien und ihre Stellung zur Philosophie, Re ligion und Moral, 176 Davenport Academy of Natural Sciences, 247 Davis (Capt J. E.), Death of, 325 Dawkins (Prof. Boyd, F.R.S.) on .Museums, 129 De Notaris (Guiseppe), Notice of, 561 I )eas (James), the River Clyde, 99 Deep-Sea Manganiferous Muds, E. T. Ilardman, 57 Deep-Sea Muds, John Murray, 319, 340 Deer, Persian, 66 Definiteness and Accuracy, Prof. P. G. Tait, 77 De Mosenthaland Harting, "Ostriches and Ostrich Farming, "176 Denmark, Geographical Society, 128, 188 Denning (Wm. F.), Radiant Points of Shooting Stars, 15S, 217 ; Meteor of January 7, 1877, 335 Dental Anatomy, Tomes's Manual of, t6i Descent Theory, Weismann's Researches on the, 451 Deutsche geologische Gesellschaft, 208 De Vico's Comet of Short Period, 206 Dewar (Prof. James), Physiological Action of Light, 433, 453 Dioncea mtiscipula, Contractions of the Leaf of, 379 Diseases Germina'ed in Hospitals, 15 Disinfectants, Report of Russian Committee on, 16 Diurnal Barometric Range at High and Low Levels, 187 Dobson (G. E.), Protective Mimicry among Bats, 354 Dodge (Col.), "The Hunting Grounds of ttieGreat vVest," 194 Dobson (Dr. Anton), Proposed Zoological Stations in Heligo- land and Kiel, 57 Donnelly (Major), the London Industrial University, 519 Donnisthorpe (Wordsworth), the Arctic Expedition, 116 Double Stars : 14, 470 ; Variable Components of, 303 ; Lord Lindsay's List of, 381 Douse (T. Le M.), " Grimm's Law," Rev. A. H. Sayce, 309 Draper (Prof. H.), Photographs of the Spectra of Venus and a Lyroe, 218; Atmosphere of the Rocky Mountains, 354 Drew's " Northern Barrier of India," 396 Drosera rotiindifolia. Abnormal Growtti of, 18 Drummond (James), Death of, 208 Dreyer (J. L. E.), Tycho Brahe's Portrait, 530 Dumont (Andre), Geological Maps of Belgium, 304 Duncan (Wm. S.), Mind and Matter, 78, 295 Dun Echt Observatory Publications, 381 Duplex Telegraphy, an Account of, 180 Dupre (Dr. A.), Estimation of Urea of Means of Ilypobromite, 399 Dutch Society of Sciences, Gold Medal of, 207 Dutch Guiana, W. G. Palgrave, 311 Dyer (Prof. Thiselton), Darwin on Fertilisation, 329 ; Mor- phology of " Selaginella," 489 " Dynamics," Bottomley's, 467 Dynamo- Magnetic Phenomena, 72 Earth : the Solidity of the, W. M. Williams, 5 ; Internal Fluidity of the. Prof. H. Hennessey, 78; Population of, 127; Actioa of the Winds in Determining the Form of, 239 Earth's Axis of Rotation : Influence of Geological Change on the, G. H. Darwin, 360 ; Possible Displacements of, 443 Earthquakes : at Irkutsk, 18 ; in Germany, 18 ; in ttie Canton of Neuchatel, 189; in Sweden, 461 ; at Oban, 561 East Anglia, Geology of, 130 Eaton (H. S.), Greenwich as a Meteorological Observatory, 489 Echidna, a new Species of, 66 Eclipses: the Nineveh of B.C. 763, 65; Sir G. B. AiryJ on Ancient Solar, 115; Ancient Solar, i86; Solar, of Stiiclas- tad, 1030, 206; Solar, of 1567, 342; Total Solar, 457 Edinburgh : Royal Society, 109, 192 ; Royal Physical Society, 422 ; Observatory, Deep Soil Thermometers at, 521 Edward (Thomas, A.L.S.), Life of, by Samuel Smiles, 349, 439 ; Testimonial to, 479 Edwardes (Rev. D.), Holly-Berries, 295 Edwards' Butterflies of America, 70 Eel, the, 324 ; Electric, 414, 501 Effendi (Emin), Travels ^i, in Africa, 169 Egypt, Educational and Scientific Institutions in, 364 Electric Motor Pendulum, Dr. Paget Higgs, 98 Electric Light in Paris, 284 Electricil Phenomenon, Prof. George Forbes, 450 Electricity : Influence of, on certain Spectra, 70 ; Cumming's Introduction to the Theory of, 526, 549 VI INDEX [Nature, May lo, 1877 Electro-Capillary Phenomena, Dr. Paget Higg, 7 r Elettricista, 441 Ellery (Robt. L. J.), Southern Double Stars, 470 Elliptic Functions, Cayley's, 252 Ellis (Alex. J., F.R.S.), Recently proposed Improvements in Musical Intonation, 475 Eltoft (Thomas), "Combined Note-book and Lecture Notes for Chemical Students," 195 Embryology : The Progress of, 6$ ; Packard's Life- Histories of Animals, 271 " Encylopsedia Britannica," vol. v., 269 Endogens, Re-arrangement of the Order of, 108 lintomological Society, 92, 210, 421, 483 Entomology of the Polar Regions, 208 Epigomethys Cultellus, 66 " Equine Anatomy," J. H. Steele, 310 Esthonia, The Post-Glacial period in, 88 Ethnology, Museum at Berlin, 89 Etna, Observatory on, 262, 312 Euganeen Mountains, Dr. Reyer on the, 447 Europe, the Weather of, 538 Evolution in Geology, 285 Evolution in the Netherlands, 410 Evolution and the Vegetable Kingdom, 467 Ewing (J. A.), Sumner's Method at Sea, 22 Examinations in Science, W. Baptiste Scoones, 137 Explosions, Velocity of Sound-waves in, 266 Eyeless Crustaceans, 559 Fairbairn (Sir Wm., F.R.S.),Lireof, by Dr. Wm. Pole, F.R.S., 370 ; Statue of, 416 ; Scholarship in Memory of, 416 Falkland Islands, 359 Faraday, Foley's Statue of, 70 Faraday Lecture for 1875, 193 Fawcett (Thomas), Minimum Thermometers, 97 Fermentation, Charles Graham, 213, 249 Ferrier (David, M.D., F.R.S.), "The Functions of the B'ain," G. H. Lewes, 73, 93 Fertihsation, Darwin on. Prof. Thiselton Dyer, 329 Fertilisation of Flowers by Insect-, XV., Dr. Hermann Miiller, 317 ; XVI., 473 ; Thomas Meehan, 138 ; by Birds, 416 Fertilisation of i'lants, 168 fisheries, vSea, and the British Association, 23, 55 Fishes : New Species, 66 ; of the Aralo-Caspio-Euxine Region, 66; Fresh-water, of India, 150 ; Nest-bui;ding, 265 Fitzgerald (G. F.), the Rotation of the Plane of Polarisation of Light, 306 Fixed Stars, the Spectra o^, 344 Flints, Pro''. Hughes on, 132 Floods and Storms, 263 Floods in Russia, 266 Floods in Switzerland and. South-Eastern France, 418 Flora of New Guinea, 438 Flower (Prof. W. IL), "Osteology of the Mammalia," 96 ; Mu- seum Specimens for Teaching Purposes, 144, 184, 204 F"Iowers, Fertilisation of, 138, 178, 237, 317, 473 Fluorescence: M, Lallemand on, 209; M. Lommel on, 441 Fogs, the Nature of, 305 Fog-Signals, Prof. Henry on, 129 Fonvielle (W. de), Exploration of Arctic Regions by Balloons, 14S Foraminifera, 461 Foraminifera of Clavulina Szaboi, Dr. von Hantken, 115 Forbes (David, F.R.S.), Death of, 127 ; Obituary Notice of, 139 Forbes (Prof. George), Electrical Phenomenon, 450 Forbes (W. A.), Mr. Wallace on the Distribution of Passerine Birds, 58 Force, Newton on, P. T. Main, 8 "Force," on the Word, 96 Forests, Influence of, on Ozone, 188 Form of the Earth, Action of Winds in Dete mining the, 239 Forster (Prof), Scientific Lectures, 167 Fossil Plants : the Atlantic Ridge and the Distribution of, 158 ; from Greenland and Spitzbergen, 208 ■Foster (Dr. Michael, F.R.S.), "Elementary Physiology," 53 ; Mr. Trotter on University Refo»m, 428 France, University of, 479 Frankland (E., F. R.S.), Transport of Solid and Liquid Particles in Sewer Gases, 385 Frankland (F. W.), the Simplest Continuous Mamfoldness of Two Dimensions and of Finite Extent, 515 Freeman (A.), Tints and Polarisation of Moonlight in Eclipse, 398 French Accent, A. H. Keane, 396 French Anthropological Society, 41S French Geographical Society, no, 365 French Guiana, Exploration of, 149 Freshwater Fishes of India, 150 Friswell (R. J.). Eltoft's Combined Note-book and lecture Notes for the Use of Chemical Students, 195 Fritz (Prof. H.), the Geographical Distribution of Hail, 17 Fungus Disease of India, by Lewis and Cunningham, 21 Gaffron (Ed.), Collections of Alpine Flowers, 150 Gallaway (Charles), L^ngmynd Rocks, 313 Gallium, Physical Properties of, 362 Galton's Whistles, Dr. Lawson Tait, 294 Galton (F., F.R.S.), Typical Laws of Heredity, 492, 512, 532 Gamgee (Prof. Arthur, F.R.S.), Photo-Chemical Processes in the Retina, 296, 477 Gardner (H. Dent), Principles of Time-Measuring Appa- ratus, 9 Gardner (J. S.), Tropica! Forests of Hampshire, 229, 258, 279 Garrod (Prof A. H., F.R.S. ), Lectures on the Human Form, 460 Gas-Synthesis in Plants, M. Merget on, 71 Gas Molecules, M. Boltzmann on, 306 Gases : Specific Heat of, 282 ; Solution of Gases in Iron, Steel, and Manganese, 362 Gasteropods, Natural Selection in, 168; the Ei&bryology of, 65 Gauss (Carl Friedrich), Statue to, 324, 363 ; Notice of, by R. Tucker, M.A., 533 Gazelle Expcditon, Collections o'', 283 Geikie (Prof. A., F.R.S.), The Upper Colorado, 337 Geikie (James, F.R.S.), The Movement of the Soil- cap, 397 Gelatine in Relation to Nutrition, 168 ; Manufacture of, 344 Geneva: P'aculty of Medicine at, 51 ; Climate of, 152, 187; Physical and Nat. Hist. Society, 152, 192, 423, 464, 484, 564 Geographical Curiosities, 233 Geographical Society, See Royal Geological Society, 130, 151, 192,287, 347.366, 387,443,482,5/13 Geological Survey of Ohio, 485 Geologists' Association, 211 Geology : Indian, 98 ; Geology in Brazil, 149 ; Evolu ion in Geology, 285 ; Miniature Physical Geology, 410 ; Geology of the Lake Country, J. C. Ward, 545 Geometrid Moths of the United States, Dr. A. S. Packard, 75 Germ Theory, Dr. Maclagan on the, 446, 5 1 1 German African Society, 522 German Arctic Expedition, 148 German Chemical Society, 211, 327, 367, 422 German Naturalists, Meeting at Ilambu'-g, 149 German Universities, Statistics of, 51 Germany, Science in, 45 1 Gessi (M.), Exploration of the Nile, 68 Giglioli (Prof. Henry J.), the Basking Shark, 273 Gill (Mr.), Expedition to Measure the Paralhx of Mars, 539 Gisard (M.) on Marine Mosses, 15 Glacial Drift in California, A. R. Wallace, 274 Glacial Period, the Existence of Man during, 87 Glaciation of the Shetland Isles, John Home, 139 G'aciers, Prof Bianconi on, 69 { ilasgow. Proposed Chair of I'nysiology a*^, 326 GIass, Imperviousness of, 523 (jokcha. Fauna of Lake, 438 Gold Mines in Australia, 382 Goldsmiths' Company, Gift to the Chemical Society's Research Fund, 88 Gordon (Cok), Exploration of the Nile, 68 Gorilli : in the Berlin Aquiriuna, 51, 208 ; the Anatomy of the, 127 ; the Braia of the, G. D. Thane, 142 Giittingen Academy of Sciences, 308 Government Grants in Aid of Scie ice, 369, 398 Graham (Charles), Fermentation, 213, 249 Graham's Chemical and Physical Researches, W. Chandler Roberts, F.R.S., 153 Gray (Prof. Asa), Sel -Fertilisatioa of P'iowers, 24 Green (Prof. A, IL), the Rocks of Charnwood Forest, 97 Greenland and Spitzbergen, Fossil Plants from, 208 Greenwich as a Meteorological Station, 450, 489, 528 Grenfeld (J. G.), Supersaturated Solutions, 138 " Grimm's Law," T. Le M. Douse, Rev. A. H. Sayce, 309 Groth (P.), " Krystallographie," 372 Nature, May lo, 1877] INDEX Vll Grove (Sir William, F.R.S.), on the Radiometer, 435 Guiana, Dutch, W. G. Palerave, 311 Giinther (Dr. A. F.R.S. ), Gigantic Land Tortoises, 327 Gurnet Bay, Discovery of Celts in, 128 Hanrlem, Gold Medal of the Dutch Society of Sciences, 207 Haggerston Entomological Society, 69 Hail, Prof. 11. Fritz on the Geographical Distribution of, 17 Hailstones in India, 538 ; Hailstones and Raindrops, Forma- tion of, Prof. Osborne Reynolds, 163 Hair and Eyes, Statistics of the Colour of, 346 Halipbysema, New Forms of, 439 Halo Round Shadow, Amulph Malloch, 375 Hamberg (Dr.), his Meteorological Tour, 17 Hamburg, Meeting of German Naturalises aN 149 Hampshire, the Tropical Forests of, J. Starkie Gardner, 229, 258, 279 Hansen's Lunar Tables, Ncwcomb's Corrections of, 166 Ifpnrken (Max von), "Die Fauna der Clavulina SzaLoi Schichten," 115 Hardman (E. T.), Deep-sea Manganiferous Muds, 57 Harris (Mr.), Challenge to Mathematician';, 117 Harrison (W. Jerome), Rocks of Charnwood Forest, 97 Harvard University, Science at, 432 Harting's "While's Selborne," 128 Haughton (Prof, F.R.S.), Notes on Physical Geology, 542; the Tides of the Arctic Seas, 562 ITayden (Dr. F. V.), Survey of the United States, 335 Hfaring, Sense o'^, in Birds arid Insects, G. J. Romanes, 177; 292 ; R. M'Lachlan, 254 ; Prof. A. Leith Adams, 334 Heated Air, 283 Heelis (E. ), Patenas of Ceylon, 548 Heer (Prof.), "The Primeval World of Switzerland," 140 Heiligbrodt (Dr. L.), Coloenis Juli;i in Texas, 399 Ilein (Dr. Isidor), the Sensation of Sound, ro8 Heligoland and Kiel, Proposed Zoological Stations in, 57 Helmholtz (Prof.), Notice of, IjyProf Clc»rk Maxwell, F.R.S., 3S9 Ilelsingfors, Ethnological Museum at, 418 Hennessy (Prof. H.), the Internal Fluidity of the Earth, 78 Henry (Prof.), on Fog-Signnls, 129 Henslo'v (Rev. George), Non-Amphibious l>a!rachians, 548 Heredity Typical Laws of, Francis Gallon, F.R.S., 492, 512, 532 Ileughlin (Theodor von), Death of, 67 Hibernation of Birds, 465, 527 lliggins (II. II.), Squirrels, 1 17; the 6V/(7//c';/^w- Collections, 274 IIif,'gs (Dr. Paget), J-lectro-Capillary Phenomena, 7; Electric Motor Pendulum, 98 Ilil'er (M.), Pock Lymph, 15 Histology, Dr. Rutherford's Outlines of, 4 Hofmann (A. W., F.R.S.), the Life Work of L'ebig in Experi- mental and Philosophic Chemistry, 193 Ilofmeister (Prof. Wilhelm, F. B.), Death of, 2S4 Hog WalloM's, or Piairie Mounds, 431, 530 Holdswortli (E. W. I!.), Sei Fisheries, 23, 135, 198 Holly Berries, Scarcity of, 266; and Rare Birdi, Duke of Argyll, 273. 295 Iloncydew in Plants, 324 Hopkins Univerfity, 501 Ilorck (Ilerr v. Horn von der) and the Sioux Indians, 245 Ho-ne (John), Glaciation of the Shetland Isles, 139 Howga*e(Capt.), Method of Attaining the North Pole, 284, 365 Hewitt (A. W.), the Boomerang, 312 Huggins (Wm., F.R.S.), Photographic Spectra oi Stars, 171 Hughes (Prof.), Existence of Man during the Glacial Period, 87 Hull (Prof. E., F.R.S.), Rocks of Charnwood Forest, 78, u5 Hughes (W. R.), Antedon Rosaceus [Comatula rosacea), 7, 158 Humbert (AlVi.), Eyeless Crustaceans, 559 Hummocky Moraine Drift, G. II. Kinahan, 379 Hunterian Lectures at the Royal College of Surgeons, 383 Hurricane in Belgium and Holland, 343 Huxley (Prof. T. II., F.R.S ), on the Study of Biology, 219 ; Number of Speci'ss of Insects 275 Hydrogen, Absorption of, by Organic Substances under the In- fluence of the Silent Discharge, 520 Hydrography in France, 284 Hydrography of West Central Africa, 517 Hydrophobia, Wistering Beetles a Cure for, 264 HygioscOj.)ic Seeds, Francis Darwin, 374 Hypobromite, Estimation of Urea by, Dr. A. Dupr^, 399 J;V, the, 69 Ice, Prof. Bianconi's Experiments on, 69 Ilmenium, the Metal, 520 India : Fungus Disease of, 21 ; Freshwater Fishes of, 150 ; the Northern I3arriers of, 396 ; Proposed Museum for, 459 ; Hail- stones in, 538 ; Geology of, 98 " Indian jNIiscellany," Munsell's, 265 Indians : N. American, 194 Industrial University, London, 519 Ingleby (Dr. C. M.), Rooks Buildmgat Christmas, 217 ; Meteor, 375 Insects : Our Insect Foes, 84 ; Insecticides and Phylloxera, 200 ; Numbfr of Species of, 275 ; Fertilisation of Flowers by, Dr. PI. Miillfr, XV. 317, XVI. 473 ; Sense of Hearing in Insects and Birds, 254, 292, 354 ; on the Relation between Insects and Flowers, Dr. II. Midler, 178 Institute of Civil Engineers, 131, 151, 327, 348, 484 Intonation, Just, 159, 196, 253, 291, 353, 430 Intra-Mercurial Planet Question, 14, 68, 282, 437, 442, 457, 509 Iron and Steel Institute, Dr. Siemen's Presidential Address, 462 Irtysh and Obi, Exploration of, 207 Italian Meteorological Society, Proposed, 363 Jahrbuch der k. k. geologischen Reichsanstalt zu Wien, 210 Jahresbericht iiber die Fortschritte der Chemie, 247 James (Dr.), Death of, 67 Janson College, Paris, 265 Janssen (M.), Planets between Mercury and the Sun, 171 Jardin des PI antes, Paris, 50 Jelinek (Dr. Carl), Death of, 16 ; Obituary Notice of, omonosoff, Memorial to, at Moscow, 383 London Industrial University, 5 19 Longmynd Rocks, Charles Gallaway, 313 " Lost Atlantis " and the Challenger Soundings, 553 Lowe (E. J., F.R.S.), Parhelia and Parase-enje seen on March 20, 1877, 508 Lowest Temperature, Rev. R. Abbay, 471 Lubbock (Sir John, F.R S), McLennan's "Primitive Mar- riage," 133 ; The Southern Tendencies of PeninsuUs, 273 ; on Ants, 386 Lucas (Louis A.), Death of, 127 Luminous Flame", the Theory of, 521 Lund, the Climate of, 187 Lyra, a. Spectrum of the Star, 307 M'Laclilan (Robert), Sense of Hearing in Birds and Inserts, 254 ; Number of Species of Insects, 275 Maclagan (Dr. T.), "The Germ Theory Applied t> the Ex- planation of the Phenomena of Disease," 446 511 Maclay (Dr.), Journey through the Malay Peninsula, 169 McLennan (J. F.), Studies in Ancient History, comprising a Reprint of " Primitive Marriage," .Sir J. Lubbock, F.R. S, 133 MacMunn (Dr. C. A.), Method for Measuring Spectra, 18 McNab (Prof. W. R.), Sexuality in Plants, 5ti McNeill (Sir John), Hibernation of Birds, 527 Madrid, Free University in, 68 Main (P. T.), Newton on Force, 8 ; on the Word " Force," 96 Malloch (Arnulph), Measurement of the Height of Clouds, 313 ; Halo round Shadow, 375 Mamma, the Development of the, 66 Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society, 151, 192, 248, 484, 523, 544 Manitoba, the Climate of, 49 Manganiferous Muds, the Deep-sea, E. T. Hardman, 57 Manifoldness of Two Dimensions, the Simplest Continuous, F. W. Frankland, 515 Mantchuria, Russian, Geography of, 209 Manucodia, the Windpipe in, 127 Manufacturing, British, Industries, 54, 445 Marine Mosses, M. Gisard on, 15 Marine Sounder, New Form of, 383 " Mariotte's Law," Prjf. Mendeleeff's Researches on, 69, 455, 498 Marriage, Primitive, McLennan's, 133 Mars, the Opposition of, 147, 519; Expedition to Measure the Parallax of, 533 Marseilles, Geographical Society at, 440 Mathematical Science, the Present State of, Prof. H. T. S. Smith, F.R.S., 79 Mathematical Society : 90, 191, 267, 347, 463, 563 ; Proceedings of, 527 Mauritius, Meteorology of, 458 Maxwell (Prof, Clerk, F.R.S.), the Protection of Buildings from Lightning, 88 ; Notice of Prof, Hermann L. F, Helm- holtz {with Portrait), 389 Meat, Frozen, from Brazil, 128 Medical Microscopical Society, 388 Meehan (Thomas), Self-Fertilisation in Flowers, 13S Meek (F. B.), Death of, 245, 363 Melbourne Observatory, 244 Melos, the Obsidian Cutlers of. Rev, Gerald S. Davies, 332 Memoria della Societi degli Spettroscopisti Italiani, 171, 419 Mendeleeff (Prof.), Researches on Mariotte's Law, 69, 455, 498 Menton, Swallows and Cuckoo at, Douglas A. Spalding, 488, 528 Mercury Rheostat, a New, 325 Merget (M.), Gas Synthesis in Plants, 71 Merlon Island, the Flora of, ill Merrifield (C. W., F.R.S.), Cayley's Elliptic Functions, 252 Metalloids, Researches on the Spectra of, 401, 447 Metals, Pitch of Sounds given by, 481 ; Ilmemum anl Neptu- nium, 520 Meteorites: Structure and Origin of, H. C. Sot^y, F. R. S. 495 ; H. N. Moseley, 547 Meteorology : Meteorological Note=;, 49, 107, 126, 186, 244, 263, 342, 343, 457, 538 ; Continental, 17 ; Fall of Tempera- ture in October, 1876, 50 ; Prof. Balfoor Stewart on Meteoro- logical Research, 76 ; Great Storm of Wind at Sydney, 107; the Sudden Cold in November, 1876, no; Meteorological Society, III, 210, 287, 421, 504; Observatory on Monte Cavo, 126; on Pic du Midi, 147; in France, 149; Climate of Geneva, 152 ; Stations at Hautes-Alpes, 190 ; Report of Meteorological Commission, 363 ; Proposed Italian Meteoro- logical Society, 363 ; Report on the Government Meteorolo- gical Grant, 399, 425, 448 ; Greenwich as a Meteorological Station, Alex, Buchan, 450 ; Exploring Balloons for Meteoro- logical Purposes, 458 ; Meteorology of Mauritius 458 ; Meteorology in France, 460 ; Meteorology of the Bomoay Presidency, 482 ; Greenwich as a Meteorological Observa- tory, 489, 528 ; Is Meteorology a Science? 510 Meteors: 59, 79, 178, 207, 275, 375, 399, 451, 460, 471, 549 ; The November, 48 ; Telescopic, 125; at Blackwater, 170; of January 7, 1877, 244, 295, 335 Metric Standard of Length, Alloy of Platinum and Iridiasn for, W. Chandler Roberts, F.R.S., 336 Meyer (C. J. A.), Sense of Hearing In Birds and In-ects, 354 Miansaroff (M. ), " Bibliographia Caucasica et Transcaucasica," 71 Microscopical Investigation of Sands and Clays, H, C. Sorby, F.R.S., 356 Microscopical Society. See Royal Migration of Birds, Palmen on the, 465 Millett (F. W.), "Towering" of Birds, 158 Mimicry, Protective, among Bats, G. E. Dobson, 354 Miniature Physical Geology, C. Lloyd Morgan, 410 Mind and Matter : Wm. S. Duncan, 78, 295 ; J. L. Tapper 217. 374 Mlneralogical Society, 483 Minerals of Canada, Catalogue of, 272 Minimum Thermometers, Thomas Fawcett, 97 Minor Planets, 166, 303, 342 Missouri, Annual Report on the Insects of, 84 Mitchell's " Sidereal Messenger," 49 Mitchell (W. S.), " Lost Atlantis " and the Challenger Sound- ings, 553 Mock Suns, 384 Mohr (Eduard), Exploration of Africa, 18; Death of, 325 Molecular Volumes of Sulphates and Selenates, 521 Molluccan and Papuan Islands, 69 Mollusca, Development of, 559 Mongolia, Exploration of, 149 Monkeys, Sexual Selection in Relation to, Charles Dar.vin, F.R.S., 18 Monotreme, New, from New Guinea, 257 Monro (C. J.), Postulates and Axioms, 353 Monte Cavo, Meteorological Observatory on, 126 Moonlight, Tints and Polarisation of. In Eclipse, 398 Moraine Drift, Hummocky, G. H, Kinahan, 379 Morgan (C. Lloyd), Miniature Physical Geology, 410 Morphologisches Jahrbuch, in, 191, 385, 419 Morphology of "Selaglnella," 489, 548 Morren (Prof, E.), "La Digestion Vegetale, 373 Moseley (H. N.), Peripatus N. Zealandur, 96 ; l"lora of Marlon's Island, III ; Structure and Origin of Meteorites, 547 "Mosses of Europe," Schlmper's, 3 Mosses, Marine, M. Gisard on, 15 Moths, Geometrld, of the United States, Dr, A. S. Packard, 75 Motion of Projectiles, the Resistance of the Air to the, 60 Mott (A. J.), Meteor, 399 Mouillefert (Prof.), Piiylloxera Insecticide, 200 Muds, Deep-Sea, John Murray, 319, 340 Mulrhead (Dr. Henry), Sense of Hearing in Insects and Birds, 294 ; Proposed Gift to Glasgow University, 326 Nature, May 10, 1877] INDEX. IX Muller (Dr. Hermann), On the Relation between Flowers and Insects, 178 ; Fertilisation of Flowers by Insects, XV., 317 ; XVI., 473 Munich, Anthropological Society, 89 Murphv (J. J.), " Are we Drying Up?" 6 ; South Polar De- pression of the Barometer, 198 ; Polar Cyclones — Etna Observatory, 312 ; Atmospheric Currents, 374, 510 Murray (Capt. Digby), Ocean and Atmospheric Currents, 76, 294, 333 Murray (John), Deep-Sea Muds, 319, 340 Museum, a Local, 61, 344 Museum Specimens for Teaching Purposes, Prof. Flower, F.R.S., 144, 184, 204 Museums, 276 ; Prof. Boyd Dawkins on, 129 Mushrooms and Toadstools, Worthington G. Smith, 134 Musical Association, 59 Musical Intonation, Recently Proposed Improvements in, Alex- ander J. Ellis, 475 Muslin and Tungstate of Soda, 460 Mycenae, Dr. Schliemann's Discoveiies at, 173, 471 Myopia, 366 N-Tchtigal (Dr. Gustav), Exploration of Africa, 417 . Nansouty (Gen.), Meteorological Observatory on the Pic du Midi, 147 Nares (Sir George), Report of the Arctic Expedition, 24 ; at the Geographical Society, 147 ; on the Arctic Expedition, 480 Natural History Museum, Kensington, 382 Natural Selection, Unusual Case of, 168 "Natiireen," 326 Naturforscher, Der, 130, 191, 385, 441, 542 Nautical Almanac for 1880, 107 Naval College, Greenwich, 512 Navigation, Sir Wm. Thomson on, 403 Nebulae of Orion, Rev. T. R. Robinson, 292 Nebulae — What are They? 550 Nebulous Star in the Pleiades, Lord Rosse, 397 Negretti's Reversible Thermometers, 116 Nepal, History of, 488 Nephelin and Apatite, 384 Neptune, the Mass of, 107 Neptunium, the Metal, 520 Nepveu (M.), on Diseases Germinated in Hospitals, 15 Nerve and Muscle Current, Influence of Temperature on, 415 Nest-building Fish, 265 Netheilands Zoological Association, 169 Netherlands : Evolution in the, 410 ; Arctic Expeditioi, 522 Neucbatel, Lake, Lake-dwellings on, 188 Neuchatel, the Canton of. Earthquake in, 189 New Guinea: Exploration of, 90. 109; Dr. Maclay's E>p1ora- tion of, 149 ; D'Albertis's Expedition up the Fly River, 165, 452 ; New Monotreme from, 257 ; Flora of, 438 ''New Lands within the Arctic Circle," L'eut Payer, 62, 81 New South Wales, Science in, 150 New Yoik Aquarium, Journal of, 150 Newcomb's Corrections of Hansen's Lunar Tables, 166 Newton on Force, P. T. Main, 8 Newton (Prof. A., F.R.S.), Sea Fisheries, 55, 156 Nichols (Arthur), the Boomerang, 510 Nile, Exploration of the, 68 Nineveh Solar Eclipse of B.C. 763, 65 Nitrite of Amyl, Dr. B. W. Richardson, F.R.S., 24 Nitro-Glycerine, Experiments with, 71 Nordensicjold's Expedition to the Jenissei, 123, 461 North Pole, Capt. Howgate's Method of attaining the, 284 North Sea, Zoological Station in the, 117 North Sea Expedition, the Norwegian, 412, 435 Northampton Naturalists' Society, 481 Northumberland, Carboniferous System of, 189 Norway, Snowstorm in, 284 Norwegian Atlantic Expedition, 49 Norwegian North Sea Expedition of 1876, 41-2, 435 Nossi Be, Volcanic Lakes of, 417 Nova Scotia : Carboniferous Amphibia in, 264 ; the Coal-fields of, 462, 488 vara. Report on the Austrian, Expedition, 261 br (Fredk. A.), Exploration of the West India Islands, 267 31, Wild Dogs on the, 415 3I and Irtjsb, E plora'ion 0'', 207 Observatories : Paris, 69 ; Cambridge, U.S., 201 ; Melbourne, 244 ; the Vilna, 245 ; Proposed Observatory on Etna, 262 ; Brussels, 304 ; Dun Echt, 381 ; Kiel, 438 ; Edinburgh, 521 ; Cordoba, 531 ; Washington U.S. Naval, 549 "Observatory," The, 550 Obsidian Cutlers of Melos, Rev, Gerald S. Davies, 332 Ocean Currents: Capt Digby Murray, 76; Rev. W. Clement Ley, 157, 198 ; and Temperatures in the South Pacific, 237 ; and Atmospheric Currents, 333 Octave, the Hindoo Division ot the, 423 Ohio, Geological Survey of, 485 Omotepe, Island of. Antiquities from, 502 Ophite of Pando, 190 Oratorical Utterance, the Rate of, 266 Orchids, some Curious, 357 Orion, Nebula of Rev. T. R. Robinson, 292 Orton (Dr. James), Exploration of the River Beni, 17; 'the Andes and the Amazon, 154 Osborne (J. A.), Caterpillars, 7 Oscillations of Tides, 343 Osprey in Captivity, 481 * " Ostriches and Ostrich Farming," 176 Our Insect Foes, 84 Owens College, Manchester, 509 Oxford, Science at, 430, 437 Ozone, Influence of Forests on, 1 88 Packard (Dr. A. S.), Geometrid Moths of the Unitel States, 75; Life Historips of Animals, 271 Page (F. J. M.), on Dwtiosa rmiscipula, 379 Palgrave(W. G.), Dutch Guiana, 311 Palladium and Carbon, 522 Palmen on the Migration of Birds, 465 Pandora, Return of the, 18, 50 Papadakis (Prof. J.), Death of, 325 Papuan and Moluccan Islands, Bir's of, 69 ; Papuan Plants, 264 ; Papuan Skull, Remarkable, 549 Paradise Bird, the Windpipe in, 127 Parhelia and Paraselenae seen on March 20, 1877, E. J. Lowe, F.R.S., 508 Paris: Academy of Sciences, 20, 52, 72,92, 112, 132, 152, 172, 211, 248, 268, 287, 308, 328, 348, 368, 388, 424, 444, 464, 484, 504, 524, 544, 564; Ventilation i.f the Hall, 169 ; Anni- versary of, 560. Anthropological Soce'y, 128 ; Geographical Society, 68 , International Exhibition, 87 ; the Janson C)llege, 265; Medical Conference, 169; Observatory, 69 ; School of Anthropology, 149 Parker (Prof.), On the Primary Elements of the Skull, 127 Parkinson and Frod.sham, Ship's Chronometers, 470 Parthenogenesis in a Phanerogam, 559 Pascal Hexagram, a Ne-v View of ttie, 463 PaFserine Birds, Mr. Wallace on the D stribudon of, 58 Pasteur (M. L. ), " il^tudes sur la B:ere," 213, 249 ; andjoubert (M.), the Spon*^aneous Generation Qaesuon, 313 Pa'enas of Ceylon, Rev. R. Abbay, 398 ; E. Heeh-^, 548 Patent Laws : Administration of the, 22 ; Petition against, 266 Pau, Sirocco a*-, 49 Payer (Lieut.), "New Lands within the Arctic Circl"," 62, 81 Pendulum, Electric Motor, Dr. Paget Hif7gs, 98 Peninsulas, the Southern Tendencies of, Sir John Lublock, F.R.S., 273 Pennington (Rooke), Museum at Castleton, 150 Pennsylvania, Petroleum Works in, 209 Fdri/atus, 66, 96 Perceval (Cecil H. Sp.), Meteor, 79 Perry (Rev. S. J., F.R.S.), Lo we, t Temperature, 399, 471 Persian Deer, 66 Ptschei's " Races of Man," A. R. Wallace, 174 Petermann's M)tthedun;^en, 17, 326, 365, 383, 417, 502, 540 Petermann (Dr.), the English Arctic Expediaon, 109, 148 Petersburg, Society of Naturalists, 442 Petrie (W. M. F.), Measurement of the Height of Clouds, 431 Petroleum Works in Pennsylvania, 209 Phaloenidse of the United States, Dr. A. S. Packard, 75 Phanerogam, Parthenogenesis in a, 559 Philadelphia Exhibition, Geology at, 87 Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences, 172 Philol gy, Greek and Latin, Rev. A. II. Sayce, 74 Phuno-TeUgraphv, 305 Phospho.us rentafiu-ride, 521 INDEX [Nature, May lo, i8; rhoto-Chemical Processes in the Retina, Prof. Gamgee, F.R.S., 477 rhotographic Image, Capt. Abney on the, 543 Photographs, Aniline in, 207 Photography of Tones, 1 70 Photography, Abney's Instruction in, 253 Phylloxera : in Madeira, 190 ; and Insecticides, 200 Physical Geology, Notes on,R ev. Prof. Haughton, F.R.S., 542 Physical Society, 91, 131, 171, 210, 307, 347, 421, 483, 543, 564 Physics of the Atlantic Ocean, 263 Physiology, Dr. M. Foster's Elementary, 53 Piaggia (Signor), Exploration of Africa, 89 Pic du Midi, Meteorological Observations on, 147 Pidgeon (D.), Former Climates, 275 Planets: Minor, 166, 303 ; a New, 342 ; Intra-Mercurial Planet (?), 171, 282, 437, 442, 457, 509; the Opposition of Mars in 1892. 519 Plant (Jam"s). Rocks of Charnwood Forest, 548 Plantamour (Prof ), Climate of Geneva, 152 Plants : the Absorption of Organic Matter by, 108 ; Self-Fcr- tilisa'ion of, 168 ; Sexuality in, Prof. W. R. McNab, 511 Plans, Remarkable. I. The C^mpasj Plant, 298 ; II. Some Curious Orchids, 357 Pleiades : the Nebula in the, 244, 397 Plesiosaurus, a Fine Specimen of, 52 Pliocene Equ dae, lialian, 559 Plammer (J. I. ), Greenwich as a Meteorological Observatory, 528 Pock Lympb, M. Hiller on, 15 PoggendorfT (Prof. J. C), 304, 314 Poggendorff's Annalen der Physik und Chetnie, 130, 170, 171, 191, 210, 344, 382, 385, 419, 540, 541 Polar Bears, Fight between Two, 70 Polar Cyclones, 312 Polariscope Objects, W. Spottiswoo3e, F.R. S., 275 Polarisation of Light, the Rotation of the Plane of, 306 Pole (Dr. W., F.R.S.), " Life of Sir Wm. Fairbairn, F.R.S.," 370 Polygalas, European, 5 Polynesia, Explorr^tion of, 246 Population of the Earth, 127 Post-Glacial Period in Esthonia, 88 Postulates and Axioms, C. J. Monro, 353 Potassium Tri-iodide, 362 Potato Disease, 263 Pouchet, Statue to, 246 Prairie Mounds, or Hog- Wallows, Prof. Joseph le Cont?, 530 Precessional Motion of a Liquid, Sir Wm. Thomson, F.R. S., 297 Pre-Glacial Man in Amenca, Traces of, 274, 295 Pressure on Combustion, Influence of, 167 Price (Major Sir R. Lambert), the Two Americas, 396 " Primaeval World of Switzerland," Prof. Heer's, 140 Primitive Agriculture, Miss Buckland on, 387 Primitive Marriage, McLennan's, 133 Professors in the Universities of France and Germany, 16 Projectiles, the Resistance of the Air to the Motion o*^, 60 Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science, 34^ Rabbits : Tape- Worms of, G. J. Romanes, 275, 375 ; R, D. Turner, 335 Radiant Points of Shooting Stars, 158, 217 Radiometers : 169, 420, 521, 522 ; Prof. Wartipann on, 51 ; Re- searches on. Prof. Paul Volpicelli, lOi ; Experiments with the, Wm. Crookes, F.R.S., 224, 299; and Thermo-Multi- plier, 384 ; Sir William Grove on the, 435 Raindrops and Hailstones, Formation of. Prof. Osborne Rey- nolds, 163 Rammelsberg Mountain, 208 Rauschenburg, Discovery of Ancient Burial- Ground near, 51 Reale Istituto Lombard!, 385, 419, 542 Red Star in Cetus, 281 Regulus, the Occultation of, 342 Reichert und Du Bois Reymond's Archiv, 1 1 1 Renshaw (A. G.), Yellow Crocuses, 530 Retina, KUhne's Researches on Photo- Chemical Processes in the. Prof. Arthur Gamgee, 296, 477 Retouching, Instructions in the Art of, Burrows and Colton, 156 Revue des Sciences Naturelles, 419 llevue Geographique, 52 Reyer (Dr. Ed.), on the Euganeen Mountains, 447 Reynolds (Pcof. Osborne), on the Arctic Expedition, 87 ; Riir drops and Hailstones, 163 ; Vortex Motion in Fluids, 347 Rhsetlc Strata in the Southern Tyrol, T. Nelson Dale, 4 Rheinfelden, Deep Boring a*-, 128 Rheostat, a New Mercury, 325 Rhinoceroses, Examination of the Fodder Remains of, 109 Rhizopods, New Freh- water, 108 Richardson (Dr. B. W., F.R.S.), Nitrite of Amyl, 24 Ridout (R. H.), Sensitive Flame Apparatus for Ordinary Ga Pressure, 119 Rivers, Stone, Phin. S. Abraham, 431 Roberts (W. Chandler, F.R.S.), Graham's Chemical and Physi cal Researches, 153 ; Alloy of Platinum and Iridium for New Metric System of Length, 336 Robinson (Rev. T. R.), Nebulae of Oiion, 292 Rock Crystals for Normal Scientific Apparatus, 305 Rocks of Charnwood Forest, the Age of the, 78, 97, 470, 548 Rocky Mountains, Atmosphere of the. Dr. H. Draper, 354 Rodier (E.), Algoid Swarm-spores 178 Romanes (G. f. ), "Towering" of Grouse, Partridges, &c., 1 16 Sense of Hearing in Birds and Insects, 177, 292 ; Tap' worms of Rabbits, 275, 375 Rome, R. Accademia dei Lincei, 308, 348, 444 Rooks Building at Christmas, C. M. Ingieby, 217 Roots, Respiration of, 559 Roscoe and Schorlemmer's New Treatise on Chemistry, 168 Rosenberg (E., M D. ), Use of the S^^ectroscope in Us Applies tion to Medicine, 547 Rosse (Earl of). Nebulous Star in the Pleiades, 397 Routledge (R.), " Science in Sport made Phi'.osoptiy in Earnest, 134 Rowan (J. J.), " The Em-grant and Sportsman in Canada," 21 Royal Astronomical Soc^e^y, 90, 286, 366, 442, 563 Royal Geographical Society, 68, no, 147, 440 Royal Irish Acat^emy, Pioceedings o', 345 Royal Microscopical Society, 72, 151, 247, 348, 443, 543 Royal School of Mines Magazine, 311 Royal Society, 171, 306, 327, 385, 420, 482, 503, 542, 562 Award of Medals, 50 ; New Fellows, 560 Rubidium and Caesium, Atomic Weight of, 282 Rundell (W. W.), Diurnal Barometric Range at 'High an( Low Levels, 275 Russia : Barometers of Southern, 49 ; Meeting at Warsaw c Russian Naturalists, 69, 70; Statistics of Russian Universi ties, 129 ; Floods in, 266 ; Mean Atmospheric Pressure, 457 Cryptogamic Flora of, 459 ; Botanical Geography of, 459 Russian Lapland, 382 "Rust" in Sugar Canes, 189 Rutherford (W., M.D., F.R.S.), "Outlines of Practical Histo logy," 4 St. David's, Pre Cambrian Rocks of, 151 St. Petersburg : Chemical Society, 190 ; Academy of Science 284 ; Anthropological Society at, 363 ; Aquarium at, 363 Geographical Society, 461 Salmon, a Problem in the Natural History of the, 375 ; Salm ardurus, 438 Salpae, Coloration of Water by, 188 Samoan Language, Dictionary o*", 207 Sanderson (Dr. J. Burdon, F.R.S ), on Dionoea muscijmla, 379 Government Grants to Science, 398 Sands and Clays, Microscopical Investigation of, H. C. Sorby. F.R.S., 356 Sars (Prof. G. D.), Norwegian North Sea Expedition of 1876 412, 435 Saturn, the Rotation of, on his Axis, 243 Sayce (Rev. A. H.), Bauer's " Philol og'cal Introduction t< Greek and Latin for Students," 74; Grimm's Law, 309 ; th( Basques, 394 Schimper's "Mosses of Europe," 3 Schliemann's (Dr.), Discoveries at Mycenae, 173, 471 Schmid (von Rudolf), die Darwua'sche Ttieorien uad ihre Stel- lung zur Philosophic, Religion und Moral, 1 76 Schmidt (Prof. Fr. ), Tertiary Formations on the Northern Shore: of the Pacific, 88 ; Post-Gla:ial Period in Esthonia, 88 School of Mines Magazine, 311 Schriftender physikalisch-oekonomischen Gesellschaft zu Konig;- ^ berg, 90 Schuster ('Dr. Arthur), Researches on the Spectra of Metalloids, 401, 447; "Cumming's Introduction to the Theory of E'ec- tricity," 526 ure. May lo, 1877] INDEX XI :ience in Sport made Philosophy in Earnest," R. Routledge, :nce : Examinations in, W. Biptiate Scoones, 137; Govem- ent Grants in Aid of, 369 ntific Apparatus, Loan Collection of, 188, 207, 459, 490 ntific Club, 364 KNTiFic Worthies. X. Prof. Hermann I.. F. Ilelmholtz oith Portrait), 389 Iter (P. E., F.R.S.), Meteor, 178 ones (W. Biptiste), Examinations in Science, 137 ttish Meteorological Society, 363 Fisheries, 23, 55, 135, 156, 176, 198 % Fur, Introduction into Lake Superior, 147 chi (P'ather), New Star in Cygnus, 315 ; List ot Coloured Stars, 55 ; Typical Division of Stars, 430 ; Bjrelly's Comet, 431 eiches" ot the Swiss Lake*, 91 le, Height of the, in 1876, 343 ilaginella," Morphology ot, Prof. Thiselton Dyer, 489 ; 'hos. Comber, 548 iltic Remains in the British Museum, 247 sation of Sound, 108 se of Hearing in Birds and Insects, 177, 292, 354 sitive Flame Apparatus for Ordinary Gas Pressure, R. H. Lidout, 119 :le Cave Exploration, 479 nal Selection in Relation to Monkeys, Charles Darwin, •.R.S., 18 uality in Plants, Prof. W. R. McNab, 511 ^er Gases, Dr. Frankland on the Transport of Solid and liquid Particles in, 385 xlow. Halo round, Arnulph Malloch, 375 rk, Basking, Prof. Henry J. G'g'ioli, 273 ; Pro*". E. Perceval Vright, 292 (J.), a Local Museum, 61 !tland Isles, G'aciation of, John Home, 139 p's Chronometers, Parkinson and FrodshanS, 470 )oting Stars, Radiant Points of, 158, 217 eria, Exploration of, 265, 417 ; the Beaver in, 265 dall (J. D.) on Foraminifera, 461 ereal Astronomy, Knobel's Catalogue of the Literature of, 48 idereal Messenger," Ormond Stone, 198 mens (Dr. C. W., F.R.S ), Presidential Address at the Iron nd Steel Institute, 462 ux Indians, Skulls of the, 245 hon Recorder and Automatic Curb Sender, Sir Wm. Thom- on's, 10 1 3CC0S, at Pau, 49 ; in Algsria, 89 ill, the Primary Elements of the, 127 ee (Alfred, F.R.S. ), Death of, 284 iles (Samuel), " Life of a Scottish Naturalist," 349 ith (Alexander J.), "The Impossible Problem," 155 ith (Prof. H. J. S., F.R.S.), The Present State ot Mathe- natical Science, 79 yth (Prof. Piazzi), Solar Physics at the Present Time, 157, !I7 ; Centralism in Spectroscopy, 449, 508 ■ith (Worthingfon G.), Mushrooms and Toadstools, 134 ikes Devouring each other, 399 )wstorm in Norway, 284 1-Cap, the Movement of the. Sir C. W3rville Thomson, R-S., 359; James Geikie, F.R.S., 397 at Eclipses : the Nineveh, of B.C. 763, 65 ; of 1239 and 1241, 16; Ancient, 115, 186; of Stiklastad, 1030, 206; of 1567, 42 ; Total, 457 ar Physics at the Present Time, Prof. Piazzi Smyth, 157, !I7; SirG. B. Airy, F.R.S., 196 ar Radiation, Caloric Intensity of, 384 ar Spectrum, Prof. C. A. Young on the, 98 ar Spots, Early Observations on, 549 utions. Supersaturated, J. G. Grenfell, 138 by (H. C, F.R.S.), Microscopical Investigation of Sands nd Clays, 356 ; Structure and Origin of Meteorites, 495 md, the Sensation of, 108 md Waves in Explosions, Velocity of, 266 ith African Museum, 377 ith Pacific, Temperatures and Ocean Currents in the, 237 ith Polar Depression of the Barometer, 157, 198, 253 ithem Double Stars, 470 ithern Tendencies of Peninsulas, Sir J. Lubbock, F.R.S., 275 ilding (D, A.), Swallows and Cuckoo at Menton, 488, 528 jctra : Dr. MacMunn's Method for Measuring, 18 ; Influence f Electricity on Certain, 70 ; Dr. Higgin on Uie Photographic Spectra of Stars, 171 ; Dr. N. v. Konkoly on the Spectra of Fixed Stars. 344 ; Researches on the Spectra of Metalloids, 401, 447 ; Prof. A. Cornu on the Spectrum of the New Star, 158 ; Spectrum of the Star a Lyroe, 307 Sphenodon (Cwntkert), 66 Spicer (W. W.), the Tasmanians, 178 Sponges, Early Development of, 414 ; a New Sponge, 415 Spontaneous Generation Question, 302, 313, 380 Spottiswoode (W., F.R.S), Polariscope Objects, 275; Strati- fied Discharges, 482 Spry (W. J. J.), " The Cruise of H.M.S. Challenger," 290 Spectroscopy, Centralisation of, 449, 489. 508 Spectroscope, Rosenberg's Application of, to Medicine, 547 Squirrels, Henry H. Higgins 117 Stanford's Physical Geography Wall Maps, 480 Stanley (H. M. ), Exploration of Africa, 440, 480 S^ars : fi Doradiis, 14 ; Uranus, 48 ; the Distance of the, 86 ; Change of Colour in, 107 ; New Double, 107 ; Binary Star t\ Cassiopese, 107 ; The Mass of Neptune, 107 ; A New Star in Cygnus, 146, 166, 186, 206, 303, 315, 361 ; The Spectrum of the New Star in Cygnus, 158, 295 ; Radiant Points of Shooting, 158,217; Remarkable Star Spectrum, 166; Dr. Huggins on the Photographic Spectra of Stars, 171 ; Binary Stars, 186, 303, 500; Variable Stars, 244, 281, 414, 478, 549 ; The New Star of 1604, 262 ; Red Star in Cetus 281 ; Double Stars, 24, 303 ; Spectrum of the Star o Lyrse, 307 ; Father Secchi's List of Coloured S:ars, 365 ; Nebulous Star in the Pleiades, 397; Typical Division of Stars, 430; 65 Ophiuchi, 438 ; Strange Star in Serpens, 451 Steam-Boat, New Fast, 209 Stebbing ( Rev. T. R. R ), Antedon rosaceus (Comatula rosacea), 58 ; Pronunciation of the word Antedon, 366 Steele's "Equine Anatomy," 310 Steine (Dr.), Photography of Tones, 170 Stereograph, Broca"s, 558 Stevenson (Thos ), Prof B. Stewart on Meteorological Research, 76 ; on the Investigation of Climates, 556 Stewart (Prof. Bilfour, F.R.S.), on Meteorological Research, 76 Sticklebacks, Irish, 91 Stockholm: Proposed Scientifi: College at, 283; Acidemy of Sciences, 367 "Stone Rivers," Phin. S. Abraham, 431 Stone (Ormond), "The Sidereal Messenger," 198 Stone (Dr. W. H), The Musical Asssciation, 59 Storms, 126, 186, 263, 311, 538 Storms and Cyclones, On a Mode of Investigating, Dr. Bays Ballot, 216 Stratified Discharges, W. Spottiswoode, F.R.S., 482 Sturgeon's Method of Protecting Buildingj from Lightning, 88 Sugar Canes, "Rust " in, 189 Sulphates and S2lenates, Molecular Volumes of, 521 Sumatra, Exploration of, 284 Sumner's Method at Sea, J. A. Ewing, 22 Superior, Lake, Introduction of Seals into, 147 Supersaturated Solutions, J. G. Gren''ell, 138 Sim, Annular Eclipse of, 1737, 500 Sun-spots, Prof. Langley on, 90 ; Sun-spots and Weather, 263 Sutton's " Volumetric Analysis, 67 Swallows and Cuckoo at Menton, D. A. Spalding, 48S, 528 Swarm-Spores, Algoid, E. Rodier, 178 Swedish Anthropological Society, 305 Switzerland : Prof. Heer's Primaeval World of, 140 ; Carto- graphy in, 365 Sydney, Great Storm of Wind at, 107 Sylvester (Prof,), On Edu:ation, 501 Tait (Dr. Lawson), Galton's Whistles, 294 Tait (Prof. P. G.), Definiteness and Accuracy, 77 Tape-worm of Rabbits, 275, 335, 375 Tasmanians, the, W. W. Spicer, 178 Tate and Blake's " Yorkshire Lias," 113 Tea, Theine in, 167 ; Tea Plants, Blight in, 419 Teeth, Tomes' Anatomy of the, i6i Telegraphic Engineers, The Society of, 199, 388 Telegraphy, Duplex, an Account of, 180 Telegraphy and Chemistry, Prof. Abel, F. R.S., 321 Telescopic Meteors, 125 Telluride of Gold, 418 Temperature, Relations of Body-change to, 324 Temperature, Low, 244 ; Lowest, 399, 471 ; Underground, Report of the British Association Committee on, 240 Xll jyjDEX \Satnrf, May lo, I Temi^^^eratures and Ocean Currents in the South Pacific, 237 Tendrils of Climbing Plants, 558 Tertiary Formations of the Northern Shores of the Pacific, sb Thane (G. D.), the Brain of the Gorilla, 142 Theobald ( W. ), Tropical Forests of Hampshire, 530 Thermo-Chemical Researche;', 167 Thermometers, Minimum, Thomas Fawcett, 97 Thermo-multiplier and Radiometer, 384 Thielmann's "Journey in the Caucasus," 547 Thomson (John M.), Ilofmann's Life-work of Liebig inExjieri- mental and Philosophic Chemistry, 193 Thomson (Sir Wm., F.R.S.), the Siphon Recorder and Auto- matic Curb Sender, loi ; a New Astronomical Clock, 227 ; the Precessional Motion of a Liquid, 297 ; on Navigation, 403 Thomson (Sir C. Wyville, F.R.S.), the Conditions of the Antarctic, 104, 120 ; the Challenger QqW^qUxoxs.^, 254; the Movement of the Soil-cap, 359 Thunderstorm in Central Europe, 263 Tides, Oscillations of, 343 Time-Measuring Apparatus, H. Dent Gardner on the Principles of, 9 Titicaca, Lake, Exploration of, 67 Toads Eating Bees, 502 Toadstools and Mushrooms, Worthington G. Smith, 134 Tomes (C. S.), "Manual of Dental Anatomy," 161 Tones, Photography of, 1 70 Topley (W.), Capercailzie in Northumberland, 7 Tortoises, Gigantic Land, Prof. A. Leith Adams, 347 ; Dr. A. Giinther on, 327 "Towering" of Birds, 1 16, 158, 177, 199, 217, 292, 440 Tropical Forests of Hampshire, VV. Theobald, 530 Transit of Venus, Photographs of, 265 ; Medal to Commemo- rate, 344 Traquair's Monograph on British Carboniferous Ganoids, 489 Trees, Amount of Water in, 324 Tropical Forests of Hampshn-e, J. S. Gardner, 229, 258, 279 Trotter (Coutts), " Some Questions of University Reform," Dr, Michael Foster, F.R.S., 428 Tucker (R.), Carl Friedrich Gauss, 535 Tungstate of Soda and Muslin Dresses, 460, 489 Tuning Forks, Phenomena connected with, 285 Turkestan, Flora of, 416 Two Dimensions, the Simplest Continuous Manifoldness of, F. W. Frankland, 515 Tjndall (Prof. F.R.S. ), Spontaneous Generation, 302 Undated and Antedated Books, 17 Underground Temperature, Report oi the British Association Committee on, 240 United States. See also New York, Philadelphia, &c. ; Annual Report on the Insects of, 84 ; Geological Collections !vt the Philadelphia Exhibition, 87; New York Aquarium, 150; Geographical Survey of, 189 ; Cambridge Observatory, 201 ; Vertebrates of the Northern, 216; Dr. Hayden's Geological and Geographical Suivey, 335 ; Science at Cambridge, Mass., 432 ; Agriculture in the, 525 Universities Bill, 391 University College, London, 69 ; Legacy to, 521 University Reform, Mr. Coutts Trotter on, 428 Upper Colorado, Prof. A. Geikie, F.R.S. , 337 Upsala, 400th Anniversary of the University of, 245 Ural Mountains, Traces of Glaciers in the, 306 Uranu=, Heischel's First Glimpse of, 48 " Uranophotometer," M. Wild's, 170 Urea, Estimation of, by Hypobromile, Dr. A. Dupre, 399 Vacher (Arthur), "Primer of Cliemiiitry," 527 Variable Components of Double Stars, 303 Variable Stars, 244, 281, 381, 414, 478, 549 Vennor's " Accipitres of Canada," 546 Venus: Transit of, 1882, 48; Photographs of the Spectra of Venus and a Lyrae, Prof. \\. Draper, M.D., 218; Photo- graphs of the Transit of, 265 Verhandlungen der k.k. zoologisch brtmischen Gese'lschafl Wien, 130 Verhandlungen des naturhistorif'fhen Vcreins dcr prcussisc Rheinlande und Westfalens, 286, 385 Vertebrates of the Northern United States, Dr. Jordan, 216 Vesuviu!=, Threatened Eruption of Mount, 246 Vienna: Academy of Science, 112, 192, 368, 423, 444, 5 L R. Geological Institution, 212 ; Geological Society, 4 Vienna Refractor, the Crown-Gla?s Lens for, 16 Vilna Observatory, Destruction o^, 241; Virchow (Prof), Address on Anthropology, 149 ; Cranio' 0^ Bulgaria, 364 ; on Diluvial Remains found near Weimar, -'3 Vision, some Phenomena connected with, 307 Vogel (H.), the New Star in Cvgnus, 315 Volcanic Phenomena during 1875, 557 Volpicelli (Prof. Paul), Researches on the Radiometer, loi Voltaic Electricity, Prize for Improvemen's in, 304 Vortex Motion in Fluids, Prof. Osborne Reynolds, 347 Wade (Charles H.), Science at Oxford, 430 Wallace's " Geographical Distribution of Animals," 5, 24 Wallace (A. R.), on the Distribution of Pa'Jserine Birds, \ Peschel's "Races of Man," 174 ; Glacial Drift in Califori 274 ; " Hog-Wallows " of California, 431 Ward (J. C ), Geology of the Lake Country, 545 Warsaw : Meeting of Russian Naturalists at, 69, 70 ; Zoolog Museum, 70 Washington, United States Nayal Observatory, 549 Walters (J. Hopkins), " Towering " of Birds, 177 Walterhausen (Dr. von), Death of, 16 Water, in Trees, Amount of, 324 ; Methods of Decomposing, Water-Beetles, Carnivorous, Respiratory Functions of, 91 Weather and Sun-spots, 263 Weather of Europe, 538 Weather Maps : Accelerated Transmission of, 107 ; a I' Daily, 244 ; International, 343 Weismann's Researches on the Descent Theory, 45 1 West India Islands, Explorations of, 267 Westminster Aquarium, 501 Weyprecht (Lieut.), Scheme for Arctic Exploration, 2 White (Dr. F. Buchanan), Sense of Hearing in Insects Birds, 292 Wiedemann (Prof. Dr. G.), Editor of Poggendorff 's Annalen, Wild (J. J.), Atlantic Soundings, 377 Wilkes (Admiral), Death of, 382 Williams (Matthew W.), Tungstate of Soda, 489 Williams (W. Mattieu), the Solidity of the Earth, 5 Wind, Great, at Sydney, 107 Winnecke's Comet, 520, 531 Wojeikoff (Dr. A.), Meteorological Tour Round the World, Wolves in Russia, 363 Wood (W. H.), the Meteor of January 7, 295 Woodpecker, the, 415 Wright (Pi-of. E. Percival), Basking Shark, 292 Wyndham (T. Heathcote G.), Death of, 67 "Year Book of Facts, 1877," 291 Yellow Crocuses, A. G. Renshaw, 530 Yorkshire College of Science, 325, 479, 539 Yorkshire Lias, the, Tate and Blake, 113 Yorkshire Naturalists' Union, 539 Young (Prof. C. A.) on the Solar Spectrum, 98 Zeitschrift fiir Biologie, 247 Zeitschrift fiir Krystallographie und Mineralog'e, 168 Zeitschrift fiir wissenschaftliche Zoologie, 191, 419 Zodiacal Light, 324 Zoological Gardens, Additions, 18, 52, 71, 90, no, 129, 170, 190, 210, 247, 267, 286, 306, 326, 346, 366, 384, , 441, 461, 481, 503, 523, 541, 562 Zoological Society, 72, in, 150, 247, 286, 347, 387, 443, 5< Zoological Station on the North Sea, 117 Zoological Stations, Dr. Anton Dohrn on, 57 A WEEKLY ILLUSTRATED JOURNAL OF SCIENCE " To th; solid ground Of Nature ii-usts the mind which builds for aye." — Wordsworth THURSDAY, NOVEMBER 2, 1876 THE ARCTIC EXPEDITION IT is pleasing to be able to begin our fifteenth volume with congratulations to the officers and men of a British Arctic Expedition on their safe return. On another page we give a summary of the results obtained so far as these can yet be known. It will be seen that substantial additions have been made to our knowledge in many directions, and that the expedition must be pronounced a success. True, the Pole has not been reached, but this, in the consideration of all but the mere lovers of sensation, is a small matter ; our explorers have done the next best thing to reaching it, they have proved that the Pole was impracticable this year from the quarter whence success was most to be expected. It is evident from the few hints which have already been published, that when all the tale is told, it will be quite as thrilling, and full of dangers and bravery, as any previous narrative of Arctic exploration. So far as the conduct of the expedition is concerned, it seems to have been all that could be wished ; the original programme was, on the whole, closely stuck to, and the desperately hard and dangerous work was done in the most systematic and economical way at present possible. Everybody seems to have behaved admirably ; there seems to have been no fault whatever to find with anyone ; and so much has Capt. Nares endeared himself to officers and men, that he earned for himself the common title of " the father " of the expedition. It was hardly to be expected that an expedition, on such an errand, and with such unprecedented dangers to face as this one has had, would return without casualties ; they have left four of their comrades behind them. Of these one only died as the result of frost bite, the three others succumbing to that most dreaded of all Arctic foes, scurvy. No similar expedition ever left any country so well provided with everything that could be thought of conducive to sustenance and protection. There was an ample supply of fresh provisions of all kinds, sufficient medical staff", and all precautions were evidently taken Vol. XV.— No. 366 throughout the long winter to keep everyone employed, and cheerful, and duly exercised. Yet, in all the sledge- parties, scurvy broke out with a virulence and to an extent not experienced, we believe, in any recent Arctic expedition. The cause of this outbreak will no doubt give much food for thought for some time to come, some thinking that the unusual length and intensity of the dark- ness may have had something to do with it. The darkness seems to have been m.uch more intense, and certainly was longer-continued than ever before experienced, and such a condition, not to mention its effect on the spirits of the men, must necessarily, one would think, exercise some deleterious physical influence on the body. This is a point deserving of careful consideration ; meantime we cannot but admire the way in which officers and men of these sledge-parties did their work in spite of physical weakness and terrible suffering ; it would, however, have been surprising had the record been otherwise. No men could have exerted themselves more to ac- complish the popular, but really minor, object of their expedition, and none could have been more honourably baffled. The ice was met with off" Cape Sabine in 78° 41' N., and from that time till the Aleri was compelled to take up her quarters in 82* 2/, it was a constant battle with ice of a thickness never before met with. The ice was from 100 to 150 and even 200 feet thick, resembhng more a pell-mell assem- blage of icebergs than the usual floes ; to have been nipped between the masses of such ice would certainly have been fatal. Commander Markham in his daring attempt to carry out the instructions of the expedi- tion by penetrating as far to the north as possible, found the ice piled in such rough and hilly hummocks that progress was only possible at the rate of a mile a day, and he wisely returned after reaching 83° 20' N., the highest authentic latitude yet attained. Capt, Parry's long and weary journey, which reminds one to a certain extent of that of Commander Markham, was only as far as 82° 45' ; the Austro-Hungarian expedition of 1872-4 reached 82° 5', though they saw as far as 83°; while Hall with the Polaris sailed without let or hindrance in 1872 over the same ground as the Alert and Discovery for 700 miles to 82° 16' N. in the short space of one week. NATURE \Nov. 2, 1876 Any such frightful ice-barrier as that reported, and, let us add, admirably photographed, by our expedition was not seen by Hall and his men ; and indeed it has been stated that had it not been for the scruples of the second in command, Buddington, Hall would have pushed still further northwards, all on board, except Buddington, who had no heart in the work, agreeing that the undertaking was perfectly practicable. Meyer, in his evidence before the U.S. Commission, declared that if 82° 16' could have been passed, there was nothing to hinder a ship reaching 85° or 86° " or even farther. Had poor Hall not met with an untimely death, the attempt would certainly have been made in the following summer. This terrible ice-barrier, then, before which our expedition has wisely returned, does not appear to be a constant phenomenon so far south, for Hall's observations have been generally accepted as perfectly trustworthy. May there not have been some cause at work in the high north to push the thick-ribbed ice south to the northern entrance of Robeson Channel ? This seems to have been an unusually severe season in the north ; icebergs were met with in abundance a week or two ago far south in the Atlantic, and last week we reported the wreck of a whole fleet of whalers in the Behring Straits region. If the latter casualty has been produced by ice, it would seem to show that some cause has been at work this season to render it unusually unfavourable for Arctic work. It is perhaps worth noting here, at least, that 1871 was a maximum, while 1876 is a minimum, sun-spot year. The temperature was undoubtedly the coldest on record, neither the Polaris northeAustro-Hungarian expedition experiencing anything like it, namely, 104° of frost. There was no stint of animal life in the region in which the Polaris wintered, and as far north as the expedition penetrated, it was ob- served, while the Austro-Hungarian expedition found the cliffs swarming with life at their farthest north point. The dearth of animal life is a noticeable feature in the results of our expedition ; it ceased altogether at a short distance to the north of the Alert's quarters. The pre- vailing wind during the sojourn oi th^ Polaris ■wa.s from the north-east ; this year it is stated scarcely any easterly wind was noticed, but a strong current and drift set constantly in from the west along the north coast of America. We mention these points simply to suggest that the conditions met with by our gallant expedition can hardly without further observations be regarded as the normal ones. Round the Pole doubtless there must be a permanent barrier of impenetrable floe-bergs, for it would be ridicu- lous to suppose that 150 feet thick ice of thousands of square miles in extent is melted and re-formed every year. But is it possible that usually this barrier lies further north than our expedition found it ? As to positive discoveries, an unprecedentedly rich collec- tion of observations in all departments have been obtained. It will be seen from our map that positive additions have been made to Arctic geography. "With the exception of Hayes Inlet, all the coast from Cape Farewell to the northern end of Robeson Channel is now laid down, and considerable advances have been made west along the American, and east along the North Greenland coast, in the former case to 86° 30' W,, and in the latter to 48° 33' W. President Land does not exist, no land having been seen north of Cape Columbia in 83° 7' N. It was a pity thatPeter- mann Fjord was blocked up with ice, otherwise it might have been ascertained whether or not it divides. Green- land in two, as has been conjectured. There is little doubt, at any rate, that Greenland is an island, and that it does not extend right across to Wrangell Land as Peter- mann conjectured. For the more important scientific observations we must wait some little time, but we have reason to believe they are abundant and of the highest value. The drift of the current along the North American coast it will be seen, is from the west, and it is possible it may come right across from Behring Straits. A magnificen series of tidal observations has been obtained, entirely con- firmatcry of the conclusions that Bessels came to, viz., that the tides in the north of Smith's Sound come from the Pacific. It would be interesting now to know what lies between Parry Islands and ths n°wly discovered coast, and whether currents have an unobstructed passage from Behring Straits across the Polar Sea. The magnetic observations entirely endorse the theory on which the charts have been constructed ; and had it not been for a change of officers and an accident to the clock, the pen- dulum observations for determining the figure of the earth would have been completed and of the greatest interest. Capt. Feilden, the naturalist, whose exertions are beyond all praise, obtained admirable results in his depart- ment. We may be permitted to say'that we think Capt. Nares has acted gracefully and generously in his selection of names for the lands discovered ; the most northern point discovered now bears the name of Cape Columbia. It was in keeping with this disposition to recognise Ame- rica's claims to remembrance that Capt. Nares paid a deserved tribute to the brave Hall by affixing to his no longer lonely grave a brass tablet containing a suitable inscription. Altogether we have every reason to be satisfied with the conduct and results of the expedition, and thankful that these results have been obtained with so little loss. It might have been otherwise, for the Discovery was within a minute of being crushed by an iceberg, and had it not been for an accident to the Alert's screw, she would certainly have pushed further north and got into a position from which it would have been impossible to extricate her. Many lessons with regard to future Arctic work are to be learned from the experiences of this latest expedi- tion. We would also remind our readers of the plan advocated by Weyprecht, and recommended by a German Government Commission, to establish at suitable points all round the Polar region a series of permanent stations from which the Arctic citadel can be slowly but surely sapped. The recommendations of the German Govern- ment Commission we consider so important, that although we published them at the time, we think it appropriate to reproduce them here in the present connection, and the admirable scientific spirit in which the subject is ap- proached is worthy of note. " I. The exploration of the Arctic regions is of great importance for all branches of science. The Commission recommends for such exploration the establishment of fixed observing stations. From the principal station, and supported by it, are to be made exploring expeditions by sea and by land. "2. The Commission is of opinion that the region Nov. 2, 1876] NATL RE which should be explored by organised German Arctic explorers, is the great inlet to the higher Arctic regions situated between the eastern shore of Greenland and the western shore of Spitzbergen. " Considering the results of the second German Arctic expedition, a principal station should be established on the eastern shore of Greenland, and, at least, two secondary stations, fitted out for ^^/-;«rt«^«/ investiga- tion of different scientific questions, at Jan Mayen and on the western shore of Spitzbergen. For certain scientific researches the principal station should establish temporary stations. "3. It appears very desirable, and, so far as scientific preparations are concerned, possible, to commence these Arctic explorations in the year 1877. " 4. The Commission is convinced that an exploration of the Arctic regions, based on such principles, will furnish valuable results, even if limited to the region between Greenland and Spitzbergen ; but it is also of opinion than an exhaustive solution of the problems to be solved can only be expected when the exploration is extended over the whole Arctic zone, and when other countries lake their share in the undertaking. " The Commission recommends, therefore, that the principles adopted for the German undertaking should be communicated to the Governments of the States which take interest in Arctic inquiry, in order to establish, if possible, a complete circle of observing stations in the Arctic zones." But to come to any final decision on the subject at present, as have some of the daily papers, is premature, more especially as we have only mere hints of the work of the latest expedition before us. It is evident, how- ever, that three courses are open to us : we may rest on our oars and comfort ourselves with the belief that no more can be done ; we may make another dash, blind to a certain extent it must be with our present knowledge ; or, accepting the recommendation of the German Com- mission, a united and continuous sap may be com- menced. But in order to come to a wise decision, men of science must long ponder over the enormous mass of new facts collected by the expedition, and not until this has been done can any opinion worth the stating be possibly arrived at. Here we would have ended had it not been for the lamentable tone assumed by our leading newspaper in an article on the expedition in Tuesday's issue. It will be remembered that from the first, for some unaccountable reason, the Times set its face against the expedition, and prophesied that no good could come of it ; now it utters a lonely shout of triumph at the supposed success of its prophecy. For the Times appears to be so ill-informed as to beheve that the main, if not the sole, object of the expedition was to reach the Pole ; if it failed in doing this, then, in the eyes of the Times, it was a complete failure. But this is sheer ignorance, real or assumed, on the part of the Times ; for no informed person ever dreamt that the only object of the well-equipped expedi- tion was to gratify unintelligent curiosity and craving after sensation. The printed instructions of the expedi- tion were essentially : " Reach the Pole if you can, but at any rate, in the light of the latest scientific know- ledge, make all possible observations on the multifarious phenomena which can be seen to advantage alone in the Arctic regions." These instructions have been faithfully carried out and with complete success. Every effort was made to reach the Pole, and when the results are published it will be seen that no expedition ever brought home a richer harvest. Whether these results are worth the suffering and the sacrifice of life which the expedition experienced, is a question which will be answered in accordance with one's idea of what is worth running the risk of life for. In spite of the scream of the Times, and although no new market has been opened, the people of this country will simply feel proud, and be ennobled by the thought, that the latest deed of heroism has been done by Englishmen— that " the ancient spirit is not dead." The nation desired the expedition, scientific bodies and scientific men counselled it and worked for it. Government, only after long consideration, willing and liberally granted funds ; and out of the volunteers, officers and men, who, well knowing all the risks that would be run, eagerly offered themselves for the service, a dozen similar expe- ditions could have been equipped. Under these circum- stances the Timei article is simply an impertinence. SCHIMPEKS "MOSSES OF EUROPE'' Synopsis Muscorum Europaorum. Auctore W. P. Schimper. Vol. I. — Introductio, pp. 13S. Vol. IT. — Specierum descriptio, pp. 886. Edit. 2. Stuttgartias, 1876. (London : Williams and Norgate.) THIS long expected work has at last made its appear- ance, and all students of bryology will be grateful to possess such a vast storehouse of carefully arranged descriptive matter to help them in the determination of species ; no easy task at any time, and sometimes one of difficulty and trouble even to an expert. The first edition appeared in i860, and we must frankly admit that we experienced some feelings of disappoint- ment, on finding that almost the entire nomenclature and arrangement are identical with those of that edition ; nay, in some respects we must look upon the classification as retrograde, for while in his classical work on the Sphag- naceas. Prof. Schimper strongly insists on the elevation of this family to the rank of a class equivalent to those of Mosses and Hepaticas, we here find him placing them along with Andreaa and Archidium, as an appendage to the mosses, under the title of BryiN/E anomaly ; surely a most unphilosophical mode of dealing with them, since the three genera have nothing else in common but the large saccate calyplra, which had already led Hampe to separate them as a section — Saccomiiria. The Cleistocarpous order heads the series, though the author half apologises for still retaining it " as being con- venient for beginners, and because the position of some of them among the Stegocarpi is uncertain." Several of our best bryologists, however, have long felt that the soli- tary character of possessing a capsule without a separable lid, is not sufficient to outweigh all other points of struc- ture and habit, especially when it also necessitates keep- ing up two parallel series of forms in widely separated families, e.g , Phascacece and Pottiacece. We would venture to differ from our author, and consider that Archidium is a near ally of Pleuridium, and that the absence of a colu- mella is not so momentous a character as to require the separation of these genera to the extreme ends of the system ; while Andrecea as to its vegetative organs is essentially Grimmiaceous, but in its fruit standing apart NATURE [Nov. 2, 1 and thus representing a most distinct natural family, imitating as it were the Hepatic^ by its quadrifid capsule, but not having any real affinity with that group. About 200 new species are described in the present edition, many of them only known in a barren state, and in several instances misgivings are expressed by the author as to their stability. We may glance at some of these en passant. Ephemerum has one new species, E. Rutheanum, and we surmise our Sussex plant {E. inter- medium, Wils., E. ienuine7've, Lindb.) is also distinct. The Eibhemeracece really seem to merit the rank of a natural family rather allied to TricJiostomacea than to FunariacecB, for which the diminutive size, permanent protonema, and leaf structure would supply the chief characters. In Weissiacea we find Ancsctangium, a genus which has exercised the minds of most bryologists as to its systematic position, but which perhaps is as happily settled here as is possible. Gyroweisia, Hymenostomton, Oreoweisia, and Rhabdoweisia, standing as sections of Weisia in the previous edition, are now raised to the rank of genera. In Dicranacea we have also 'a new genus — Metzleria — which appears to be very close to Dicranodontitim, and Catnpylopus now includes twelve species, while those of Fissideus number no less than nineteen. LeptotricJium, Hampe, is still retained as a genus, though its author has himself replaced it by the much older name, Ditriclmm, Timm. Didymodon and Trichostotnum receive considerable additions, chiefly, however, only known in a barren state, as is also the genus Geheebia, established to receive Tortula gigantea. We pass next to the great genus 0)'tJiot}-icliwn,\n'^\C\f:^ we find no less than forty-two species ; so uniform are these in habit and foliage, that they have hitherto proved a most troublesome group to deal with, nor do we find that the nine sections into which it is divided help us readily to determine the species. In no genus of mosses do we require so full a series of speci- mens, for we must have the capsule with its calyptra, and with and without the lid, in order satisfactorily to deter- mine them, and we fear that more species have been esta- blished than will eventually prove tenable. Bryum is another genus receiving a large accession of species — no less than thirty-four new ones — and Zieria is still maintained, though used long ago by Sir J. E. Smith for a genus of RutacecB, and therefore altered by Prof. Lindberg to Plagiobryum, which must certainly be adopted. In the Addenda v/e also find a new genus, Merceya, founded on the Eucalypta ligulata of Spruce, but strictly we should say that this name must give place to Scopelophila, Mitten. Another new genus, Anacoha, is also established for Gly pilocarpus Webbii. Among Pleurocarpous mosses, Myurclla Careyana does not find a place, although recorded as found in Europe. Thuidiuin_ decipiens, De Not., the author states ,he has not seen, yet it was distributed in Rabenhorst's Bryo- theca under both No. 1,141 and 1,182. It has no relation to the genus Thuyidiu7n, is erroneously described as monoicous, and indeed can only be regarded as one of the many forms of Hypnum commntatum. Of the great tribe Hypnca thirty-six new species are described. In the Bryin^ anomaly we find Sphagnum now numbering twenty species, grouped in six sections ac ing to Schliephacke's arrangement. These we fancj have to be somewhat reduced, as it now appears t certain that in this family at least, a dioicous and m- cous condition of the inflorescence may occur in same species. Neglect of the work of other writers and especial papers in the various botanical journals of this and i countries is the principal shortcoming of the work b us, and probably the author has not had time propei consult them ; in every other respect the Synopsis r tains the high character it had already acquired, fc description of species could be more accurate and p taking, while the paper and printing are superior tc ordinary run of foreign books. It will thus be seen that Schimper's Synopsis still continue to be the standard work on the moss< Europe, and fitly comes to us trom an author whose i has been identified with the study of these intere plants for the past forty years. OUR BOOK SHELF Outlines of Practical Histology. By William Ru ford, M.D., F.R.S. Second Edition. (J. an( Churchill, 1876.) When, a year ago, we reviewed this work upon its appearance, it consisted of but seventy-two pages, contained four illustrations ; the second edition ( pies very nearly two hundred pages, and is illust with sixty- three woodcuts. The enlargement gives author an opportunity of entering with conside greater detail into his subject, and he is able to intro much new matter. Among the most important addi we may mention a chapter on the optical principles which the microscope is constructed, including imme lenses, and an instrument manufactured by Mr. Swi London, which is apparently as good as those of c nental celebrity. The histological sections may be practically, to be re-written, for to almost every 01 added matter of great value, essential to all but the m commencer. Among these we notice paragraphs the effects of gases on the blood, the enumeration ol discs, the " prickle " cells of the epidermis, lymphatic the diaphragm, coverings of hair, structure of the n and of the cerebral convolutions. In the fourth pa the work, which is devoted to general considera regarding histological methods, the application of vap and gases to tissues is explained, as are the hot stag the microscope, with its heating apparatus and the n chamber of Dallinger and Drysdale. The author's m tome is figured, as is the apparatus necessary for injec tissues by the pressure-bottle. All the figures are cellently drawn, and very lucid, and so greatly has book increased in value, instructive as it was before, we feel quite justified in recommending those who poj the first edition to purchase the second, and those are studying the first principles of practical histolog obtain it without fail. A Study of the Rhcetic Strata of the Val di Ledro in Southern Tyrol. By T. Nelson Dale, jun., Memb( the Geological Society of France. Pp. 69, with 1 and Sections. (Paterson, New Jersey, 1876.) On the western side of the Lago di Garda is situat tract of Secondary rocks which has been comparati little explored by geologists. Lying as it does exactly i the Austro- Italian frontier, this area has neither I described by Stoppani and the Italian geologists, nor it received full justice fro in the officers of the Vie W. 2, 1876] NATURE tolos^ische Reichsanstalt j and under these circumstances f. Zittel of Munich has pointed it out to the author of present paper as a promising field of study. Mr. >ale's work will certainly be of considerable use to future ■xplorers of the district, though not carried out in sufficient »tail to warrant, in his own case, any very important jeneralisations. Indeed, the memoir consists almost wholly le »f transcriptions of notes and rough drawings of sections •elating to a number of different localities which are indi- ated by reference to a key-map. The author's general Conclusions, so far as they go, are shown in a very clear 1 useful table, from which it appears that at this point Jie Alps, the Jurassic and Rhaetic strata (including in iK former the Tithonian) have a united thickness of from 000 to 7,000 feet. Vast as is the estimate, no one ac- juainted with this or the surrounding districts will be r.clined to regard it as excessive. Mr. Dale has evidently made good use of his oppor- -ities, so far as they have gone, and has given us in this ncmoir the results of a piece of well-directed observation. : '.\'e hope to have further details from his pen concerning the ^iame interesting region. The list of errata, which is rather _ long for a memoir of the proportions of the present, does pot by any means exhaust the whole of the printer's errors. We are tempted to fear that Mr. Dale is not sufficiently ,j :areful in keeping so distinct from one another, as behoves "^ 1 working geologist, his notes relating to various subjects ; For, by some strange chance a stray page of a sermon seems :o have fallen into the hands of the compositor and to irs have been set up by him at the end of the author's gcolo- iK logical notes. J. W. J. tdi \\ LETTERS TO THE EDITOR •\The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed '*jj by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake to return, or to correspond with the xvriters of rejected manuscripts. No notice is taken 0/ anonymous communications.'] "Geographical Distribution of Animals" T FIND that Mr. Wallace in his new work on the " Geogra- al Distribution of Animals " when stating the limits of his ->lon sub-region (vol. i. p. 327), gives among mammals the genus Tut>aia and among birds "a species of J/v/«//4^«/ ^OV. 2^ 1876] NATURE 13 npcnetrable ice on every side. No harbour being ob- linable, the ship was secured as far north as possible, iside a sheltering barrier of grounded ice, close to the nd, and there she passed the winter ; during her stay of even months no navigable channel of water permitting irther advance to the northward ever presented itself. /e believe that had an accident not happened to the lew of the Alert she would have endeavoured to push ill further north; but the current round the corner of le land was so great she could not make headway. It fortunate that the accident happened, for had Kone much further she would probably have got mmed in the frightful ice-masses that it would have impossible to get her out again. In lieu of finding , ' open Polar sea," the ice was of most unusual age nd thickness, resembling in a marked degree, both in ) -arance and formation, low floating icebergs rather ordinary salt-water ice. It has now been termed "Sea of Ancient Ice" — the Palaeocrystic Sea j ui a stranded mass of ice broken away from an c tloe has been named a floe-berg. Whereas ordinary - usually from 2 feet to 10 feet in thickness, that in 1 'olar Sea, in consequence of having so few outlets , hich to escape to the southward in any appreciable it'ty, gradually increases in age and thickness until it casures from 80 feet to 120 feet, floating with its surface . th.e lowest part 15 feet above the water-line. In some Iiccs the ice is spoken of as reaching a thickness of from iO to 200 feet, and the general impression among the licers of the expedition seems to have been that the ice f this " Palffocrystic Sea " is the accumulation of many J us, if not of centuries, that the sea is never free of it !il never open, and that piogress to the Pole through it r over it is impossible with our present resources. It is tcresting to note that the Aurora Borealis was not dis- nct in these latitudes, the latitude being supposed to be >T high ; this is consistent with the observations of the 'o/aris expedition. Dr. Bessels rarely finding the colours riliiant enough to give a spectrum. When it was seen that further advance with the ships as impossible, all the energies of officers and men ere directed to sledge- work. Sledge -parties were nt out northward, eastward, and westward, depots wing been established at intervals in the two former icctions last autumn ready for the parties to be sent It during the spring of this year. Although the two ships were only seventy miles from ich other, it was impossible for any communication to pass tween them till last March, whtn a party from the Alert icceeded in reaching the Discovery and relieving those 1 board the latter of any doubt as to the fate of their Hows. Otving to the high latitude of both ships the inter was unusually long and dark, the sun having been sent 142 days, and the cold was more intense than had 'er been experienced by any previous expedition. All le old and a few new expedients were resoited to to lieve the unimaginable monotony of such a position, id apparently with great success. The lowest tempera- re observed was 104"^ below freezing, Fahr., at least )° below the minimum observed by the Polaris expedi- 3n, and the mean temperature for thirteen consecutive lys was 91° of frost ; the mercury was frozen forty- seven lys during the winter. As soon as the sun appeared in the spring of this year ;tive preparations were made for sledge-exploratton, and f the beginning of April each ship was left with only If-a-dozen officers and men whose duties kept them on lard. After that date sledges were continually arriving id departing, carrying forward provisions to be placed depot, ready for the return of the advanced parties. Capt. Stephenson, besides looking after his own divi- on, visited the Alert, and also made t>vo trips across all's Basin to Greenland, and Capt. Nares started off se the rest, with Capt. Feilden, naturalist to the Expedi- tion, immediately all the provision depots were complete along the line of route, and the safety of the travellers insured. When at Polaris Bay Capt. Stephenson hoisted the American ensign and fired a salute as a brass tablet, which he and Capt. Nares had prepared in England, was fixed on Hall's grave. The plate bore the following inscription :— " Sacred to the memory of Captain C. F. Hall, of the US. ship Polaris, who sacrificed his life in the advancement of science on November 8, 1871. This tablet has been erected by the British Polar Expedition of 1875, who, following in his footsteps, have profited by his experience." A party, headed by Commander Markham and Lieut. Parr, made a most gallant and determined attempt to push northwards by means of sledges. They were absent 72 days from the ship ; and on May 12 succeeded in planting the British flag in lat. 83'' 20' 26" N., within about 400 miles of the Pole. From this position there was no appearanre of land to the northward, but, curiously enough, the depth of water was found to be only 70 fathoms. Owing to the extraordinary nature of the pressed-up ice, a roadway had to be formed by pickaxes for nearly half the distance travelled before any advance could be safely made, even with light loads ; this rendered it always necessary to drag the sledge loads forward by instalments, and there- fore to journey over the same road several times. The advance was consequently very slow, and only averaged about \\ mile daily — in fact, much the same rate attained by Sir Edward Parry in his somewhat similar attempt during the summer of 1827. Although the distance made good was only seventy-three miles from the ship, 276 miles were travelled over to accomplish it. It is quite impossible for any body of men ever to excel the praise- worthy perseverance displayed by this gallant party in their arduous struggle over the roughest and most mono- tonous road imagmable. Their journey, considering the ever-recurring difficulties, has eclipsed all former ones. The result of their severe labour is held to prove the impracticability of travelling over the Polar Sea to any great distance from land, and also that Baron von Wrangell was perfectly correct in his expressed opinion that before the North Pole can be reached it is first necessary to discover a continuous coast line leading towards it. In addition to the despatch of the northern travellers, the coast line to the westward of the Alert's position was traced for a distance of 220 miles by a party under the command of Lieut. Aldrich ; the extreme position reached was in lat. 82° 10' N., long. 86° 30' W., the coast line being continuous from the Alert's winter quarters. The most northern land. Cape Columbia, is in lat. 83° 7' N., long. 70° 30' W. The coast of Greenland was explored by travelling parties from the Discovery, under the com- mand of Lieutenants Beaumont and Rawson ; they suc- ceeded in reaching a position in lat. 82° 18' N., long. 50° 40' W., seventy miles north-east of Repulse Harbour. The land extended as far as lat. 82° 54' N., long. 48° 33' W., but very misty weather prevented its character being determined with exactness. The coast is much cut up into fjords and land was seen to the north east, pro- bably reaching to 83°. Lieut. Archer, with a party from the Discovery, explored Lady Franklin Sound, proving that it terminates at a distance of sixty-five miles from the mouth, with loity mountains and glacier-filled valleys to tne westward. Lieut. Fuliordand Dr. Coppinger explored Petermann Fjord, finding it blocked up with a low glacier, which extends across from shore to shore. With the exception ot Hayes Sound the coast line of Smith Sound has now been explored from north to south. President Land, marked in recent maps in about 84° N., is proved to have no existence, though Lieut. Aldrich, when engaged in pioneering the way for the main P' Eridani also deserves close attention from the astrom in the other hemisphere. There must be a great change angle since the epoch of the last-pubhshed measures, position (i877*o) is in R.A. ih. 35m. 7s., N.P.D. 146° 49'. The Intra-Mercurial Planet Question. — If in general formula obtained by M. Leverrier, and given in week's Nature, we put k = — i, the solution, which gives the sidereal period as referred to the node 27 '964 days semi- major o'iSo, and synodical period 30'282 days, accords \ Stark's observation on October 9, 1819, one of the most defi upon record, besides representing, as well as the solution 1 k ~ o, the five data upon which M. Leverrier has reliec deducing the formula. In this case we have — V - 285076 + 12° •873724/- io°-8 cos V. Stark's observation was published in his ' ' Meteorologisc Jahrbuch," 1820. Under date, October 9, 1819, he says "At the same time there appeared, at a distance of 12' from the southern limb of the sun, and 4' 58" from the eas limb, a black, well-defined nuclear spot, which was perfe round and of the size of Mercury. At 4h. 37m. this nuc spot was no longer present, and I found also later on the 9th well as on the 12th, when the sun next came out, no trace of spot." The observation was probably made about noor Augsburg, which was one of Stark's usual hours for examii the sun's disk — corresponding to October 8, at 23h. i6m. Gn wich time. For this time the above formula gives v = it 'OV. 2, 1876J NATURE 15 id the earth's heliocentric longitude being I5°'3, the inferior injunction of the assumed intra- Mercurial body with the sun rould have occurred on the morning of Stark's observation. The Fourth Comet of 1857.— The best determined period revolution of a comet, exceeding in length the period of the *Comet which appears to be associated with the August stream of meteors, is that of the fourth comet of 1857, discovered by Prof. C. H. F. Peters at Albany, U.S., on July 18, by Dien, at Paris, on the 27th, and by Habicht at Gotha, and Donati at Florence on the 30th of the same month. It was observed with the great refractor at the observatory of Harvard College till October 21. These dates include an interval of from about one month before to two months after the perihelion passage, or an arc on the orbit of 145°. A very complete discussion of the observations was made by Dr. Axel Moller, whose masterly investigations relating to the motitn of Faye's comet have led to such accurate prediction of its apparent track in the heavens at recent returns ; the period he assigns is 2347 years. A similarly rigorous calculation led Dr. Hans Lind to a revolution of 243-05 years, and there are ellipses of nearly the same length of period by other computers. If we examine the path of this comet through the planetary system we soon discover that it passes near to the orbit of Venus. Employing the elements of Axel Moller, a strict calculation shows that in heliocentric ecliptical longitude 24° 54', the dis- tance between the two orbits is less than 0*023 of the earth's mean distance from the sun. I: may therefore be reasonably concluded that it is to an actual near approach of the comet to Venus about this point that the present form of orbit is due. The comet's perihelion distance is 0747, the aphelion distance 75 -SS- BIOLOGICAL NOTES Pock-Lymph. — The efficacy of pock-lymph has been attributed by several observers to the presence of small organisms of the nature of Micococcus. M. Hiller has recently studied this subject (Ccntralblatt fur d. Med. Wiss. ), and from 6,840 separate inocula- tions, he finds that the degree of activity of the lymph and the proportion of micrococci present do not correspond ; on the one hand, the development of the organisms was often at its greatest when the action of the lymph was falling off, and on the other, lymph was often active, though no bacteria were per- ceptible in it. Fresh diluted lymph having been put in vertical tubes in a freezing mixture, and slowly thawed after freezing, the upper half gave on inoculation, 41-4 per cent, positive results, the lower half, 63-8 per cent. It appears from this that the poison is associated with the solid? constituents more than with the liquid. Boiled lymph was, without exception, inoperative. The addition of i to 4I per cent, carbolic acid merely weakened the contagiousness of pock-lymph, while addition of glycerine left it unaltered. Strong dilutions weakened the action, while condensations exalted it ; with evaporation, the percentage of favourable cases was increased about a half. In coagulated parts produced in the lymph, the active element was present in great quantity. Perfectly dried lymph is [also active in high degree ; hence we may infer that the communication of pox may occur by means of the crust and scurf of pustules which are rubbed off and float in the air. Inoculation with the blood of persons that were successfully inoculated proved inoperative ; so also were the fresh contents of the bladders, seven days after inocu- lation. It is inferred that the cow-pox ferment is not contained in the blood, or not in the active state ; and that very probably, also, the blood is not itself the seat of fermentation and repro- duction of the poison. Algoid Swarm-Spores.— If vessels of water containing alg£e are placed in a room where they are lighted only on one side, swarm-spores are generally found to collect at the side turned towards the window, more rarely on the oppo- site side. If they are present in considerable number, they often become arranged in peculiar cloudy forms ; network, rays, tree-like branched figures, &c. The phenomenon has been frequently studied, and has been always regarded as an action of light, causing the living swarm-spores to move towards it or withdraw from it. After a long investigation of the pheno- mena, M. Sachs has come to a different conclusion. He con- siders that these groupings of zoospores are not phenomena of life, inasmuch as quite a similar process is found to occur with emulsions of oil in alcohol diluted with water ; also that the light either does not at all participate in the action, or does so only indirectly, for all the phenomena may be reproduced in dark- ness. The accumulation of spores and the cloud-like figures are rather due to currents produced by differences of temperature in the water. M. Sachs's experiments are described in Flora, 1876, No. 16. Diseases Germinated in Hospitals. -Several observers have remarked on the presence of globules of pus and micro- scopic algse in the air and on the walls of hospitals. Some interesting facts of this order have recently been communi- cated to the French Societe de Biologic, by M. Nepveu of the laboratory of La Pitic. A square metre of the wall of a surgery-ward, having been washed, after two years without washing, the liquid pressed from the sponge (about 30 gr. ) was examined immediately after. It was Somewhat dark throughout and contained micrococcus in very great quantity (fifty to sixty in the field of the microscope), some micro-bacteria, a small number of epithelial cells, a few globules of pus, some red globules, and lastly a few irregular dark masses and ovoid bodies of unknown nature. The experiment was made with all necessary precautions ; the sponge employed was new, and carefully washed in water that was newly distilled. Facts like those referred to make it easy to comprehend how the germs of a large number of diseases occur in the air of hospitals, and how the latter may readily become centres of infection. The same con- ditions, though in less degree, may sometimes be met with in private life. Marine Mosses. — M, Gisard lately showed to an audience at the Congress of learned societies at the Sorbonne, specimens of marine mosses growing on a madrepore placed in an aquarium, since January, 1872. They produce every year, in spring, phe- nomena of fructification, consisting of urns of a superb nacreous colour, growing at the ends of beautiful green filaments, then be- coming detached and rising to the surface of the water. He cited the following fact as showingthevitality of certain marine plants. On May 13, 1875, a parcel of alga; which had been taken from an aquarium and dried several months in the sun, was placed in sea-water, and developed a magnificent green plant of ribbon form. In February and March, 1876, there were formed on the border of the ribbon sparse filaments carrying rounded urns of variegated colour, which became detached, and rose to the sur- face, giving rise to green plants. Notes from St. Petersburg.— At the last meeting, Oc- tober 18, of the Zoological Section of the St. Petersburg Society of Naturalists, Prof. Wagner gave some information as to his recent researches made in the Solovetsky Bay of the White Sea. The special aim of them was to throw some light on the causes which determine the use in certain organisms, as for instance the hydroids, of two different modes of reproduction, sometimes by gemmation, and sometimes with the help of special organs. Without coming to any decided conclusions (the researches having to be continued) M. Wagner pointed out, as one possible cause of this difference, the influence of different nutrition which generally so greatly influences the reproductive functions. M. i6 NATURE \Nov. 2. 1876 Cherniaffsky, who has been many years engaged in the study of the fauna of the Black Sea, and now studies especially the in. fluence of the media on organic forms, reported upon his nume- rous collections of animals from various depths, and traced in them the slow variations which animals of the same species undergo at different depths, and the appearance of new species with the increase of depth ; the labours of M. Cherniaffsky promise to be of great interest when published in full. Colours of Animals.— At the last meeting of the St. Petersburg Entomologists' Society, October 16, M. Porchin- sky reported upon some results on the exploration of a scientific party engaged last summer upon the exploration of the Caucasus. The southern limit of the region explored was the Steppe of Erivan, a plain covered with sand, with some patches of vari- ously coloured clays appearing in the low hills. A remarkable feature of the animal inhabitants of the Steppe, insects and reptiles, and especially of the lizards, is the most perfect coinci- dence of their colouring with the colouring of the Steppe. The same thing was observed also in the Steppe of Elizabethpol. Interesting collections of the fauna made by the party were produced at the meeting. NOTES Dr. Carl Jelinek, the eminent and accomplished meteo- rologist, died at Vienna on October 19, after a protracted illness. The death is announced, on the i6th ult., of Dr. von Waltershausen, Professsor of Mineralogy and Geology at Gbttingen, where he was born in 1809. While young he tra- velled much, especially in Sicily and Iceland, making large mineralogical collections, which he presented to the university. He is specially known for his researches in connection with volcanic phenomena. During his later years he was engaged in a large work on the topography and orography of Etna. Prof. H. J. S. Smith's valedictory address to the London Mathematical Society, on the 9th inst., will touch upon various points affecting the present state and prospects of pure mathe- matics. The popular German poet and mineralogist. Prof von Kobell, has just celebrated, in Munich, the fiftieth anniversary of the day on which he was appointed extraordinary professor of mineralogy in that city. Dr. Rontgen has been appointed extraordinary Professor of Physics in Strasburg University. Dr. Carpenter, F.R.S., Secretary to the Gilchrist trust, has, for the special benefit of the Primary Teachers of the Metro- polis, arranged for a course of lectures to be given by Dr. Richardson, F.R.S., at St. Thomas Charterhouse Schools, on Human Physiology, and its application to daily life. The course will be opened on Friday, November 3, by Dr. Carpenter, delivering an address on a Sound Mind in a Sound Body. William Clarke Miller, B.A. Lond., vice-principal of Huddersfield College, has been elected Registrar of the General Medical Council of Education in the place of Dr. Erasmus Hawkins, resigned. The new Registrar has been long known as an able mathematician. It is stated by the Medical Press and Circular that the Gold- smith's Company has voted a sum of 1,000/. to the Chemical Society to aid in the formation of the fund to be devoted to the promotion of original research in the science of chemistry. M. Waddington, the mtelHgent Minister of Public Instruc- tion in France, has come to a most liberal decision on behalf of the Paris Observatory. According to the standing financial rules used in France, no adjudicator of works executed in the public interest is entitled to be paid except when his task has been completed and received. As an exception, M. Leverrier is authorised to pay in advance to the opticians and philosophical instrument makers a sum amounting to one-third of the total value. The Bischofsheim transit instrument, which has been so long delayed by the red-tapeism of the Finance Department, is almost finished, and observations will very shortly be inaugurated in the new pavillion which has been built on an improved scheme for its reception. M. Feil, the glass-worker of Paris, has just finished the cast- ing of the crown-glass lens for the great Vienna refractor. The diameter is 28 inches and the weight 112 pounds. It will be sent immediately to Mr. Howard Grubb, of Dublin, who already possesses the flint lens. The course of lectures at the Sorbonne for candidates for the licence and pupils of the Normal Schools was opened a few days since. In former years the lecturers were confined to merely elementary subjects relating to mechanics, classics, astronomy, differential and integral calculus. But this year M. Bonnet lec- tures on the recent discoveries in high geometry, and M. Puiseux on a subject which has been largely discussed by men of science in England, the figure that the earth must have taken 0 wing to its fluidity. With exception of the schools of Paris, which rank among the first in the world, most of the faculties of sciences and lettres in France (says M. Grad in La Nattire) have only five pro- fessors. Now there were a hundred and thirty-five at the University of Berlin, seventy at the University of Konigsberg, against three hundred and forty-eight in all the faculties of the fifteen academical divisions of France in 1870. The faculty of sciences and that of lettres of Strasburg, more favoured than others, had then thirteen professors, against thirty-six in the faculty of philosophy and sciences of the present University. The University at present has a total of eighty professors distri- buted among the five faculties of theology, law, medicine, {)hilo- sophy, and natural and mathematical sciences. This year Prussia devotes to the maintenance of its nine universities 6,577,397 marks, of which 4,820,841 marks are furnished from the State Treasury. With regard to population, the expenditure per head of inhabitants is 070 fr. in Alsace-Lorraine, o'i2 fr, in France, 0*33 fr. in Prussia. A committee appointed by the Russian Government at the St. Petersburg Medical Academy to investigate various proposed antiseptics and disinfectants, have arrived at the following con- clusions : — I. Carbolic acid is the most efficient means against the development of ammoniacal gas, putrescence, and develop- ment of lower organisms in organic matter under decoaiposition, and it is therefore the best antiseptic, 2. Vitriol, salts of zinc, and charcoal, are the best nieans for deodorising matter under putrefaction. 3. The powders of Prof. Kittary, besides the pro- perties they share in common with other carbolic disinfectants, deserve attention because of the isolated state of phenol in them and their contents of quick-lime, which absorbs moisture— the principal condition of each kind of putrefaction — as also some part of the gases. 6. Chloride of lime and permanganate of pot- ash quickly destroys the lower organisms in putrid liquids. 7. The disinfectants certainly retard the putrid processes in organic bodies, but their influence is only temporary, as a means of puri- fying air in dwellings their influence is very small if not totally nil, because of the very small degree of concentration of their ingredients that can be used without injuring the health of in- habitants . 9. For uninhabited buildings the best disinfectants are nitrous acid and chlorine. Nov. 2, 1876] NATURE 17 Refirring to our recent correspondence on "Antedated Books," a correspondent calls attention to another evil practice that has of late years crept into the publishing trade, namely, that of publishing books without any date at all. Our corre- spondent mentions two firms that sin extensively in this respect ; j)ut there are several others, especially in what is known as the 'number trade," who of vialice prepense publish undated books, ^uch books are generally of small literary or scien'.ific value, it circulate among a class who are generally unable to test their value. Of course the purpose of issuing undated books is evident ; works half a century old may be palmed off on the unknowing as the genuine product of the current year. We understand that Dr. A. Wojeikoff, of St. Petersbui-g, has arrived at Singapore from Batavia on his way to Japan, on what may be truly characterised as a meteorological tour, at his own expense, over the whole civilised world. The tour was begun upwards of seven years ago, when the greater part of Europe was visited, and after a return to and brief residence in Russia, was again resumed through the United States, extending as far as Manitoba, and thence southwards through South America, and onwards to the East India Islands. Those who have had the pleasure of meeting him know that this tour means a large amount of meteorological work, in the prosecution of which he has made prolonged sojourns in different regions with the view of familiarising himself practically with their meteorology and with the steps which have been taken towards its investigation. The training which this able meteorologist is giving himself well deservei our warmest commendation. As being somewhat analogous to the above, it may be notified that Dr. Hamberg, meteorological assistant to Prof. H. Hilde- brandsson, of Upsal University, is at present engaged on a year's tour through Europe for the purpose of familiarising himself with the systems of meteorological research pursued in different countries, funds for the purpose having been provided by the Upsal University. This is real professional education, and deserves to be carried out more extensively and in a more Catholic spirit than has yet been done by our British Uni- versities. We have received from Prof. Dove the Monatliche Mittd fiir Druck, Temperatur, Feuckligkeii, und Niederschldgeund filnjtdgige Warmemittel for 1875. In addition to the usual meteoro- logical results, this admirable annual serial gives the five-day means of temperature for the year and their departure from the means of the twenty years ending 1867, and the same for ten Austrian, thirteen Swiss, and twenty-four Italian stations, thus presenting in a clear manner the temperature conditions of Ger- many, and their relations to those of immediately surrounding regions during 1875. The results of the observations made at the Forest-stations of Bavaria and additional rain returns are also given, together with a most valuable rhumS of the monthly amounts of rainfall observed at all stations in Germany during the past five years, and monthly and annual averages of rainfall calculated from all the past observations at each place as are available. The latitude, longitude, and height of the Austrian, Swiss, and Italian stations are stated, and we very earnestly hope that, with next issue. Prof. Dove will be able to give the data for his stations in Germany, the want of which is felt to be a serious omission in nearly all discussions of German meteo- rology. In a paper in this month's Petermann's Mittheilu/tqen Prof. H. Fritz treats of the Geographical Distribution of Hail. He refers to our comparative ignorance of the origin and peculiarities of the appearance of hail, of the want of [long series of observa- tions on the subject, and in those that do exist of the frequent confounding of hail and graupel — the balls of true hail having an icy structure, whereas the balls of graupel are only small pellets of snow. The latter he shows falls in all latitudes and at all heights ; while hail is mainly confined to middle latitudes. In high latitudes and in tropical valleys, hail is a rare phenomenon. Prof. Fritz brings 'together for com- parison observations on the subject made in various quarters of the globe, the statistics being, as might be expected, fullest in the case of Europe. The following are some of his conclusions from these data : — He infers that hail occurs whenever the moisture of the atmosphere is precipitated in very great quantity as rain or snow, and that hail phenomena correspond to the amount of this excess of precipitation. With increase in latitude and in height the fall of graupel increases and that of hail decreases, while hailstones of large size are most frequent towards the equator. But since in the low lands of the tropics hail is little known, the regions of the most frequent and especially most destructive hailstorms belong to the middle latitudes, while in high and low latitudes hail-falls of large stones are exceptional It appears then that no region in which an excessive rainfall occurs is secure against hailstorms, if only the height of fall is sufficient to allow of the formation of hail. In high latitudes and in high table-lands the vertical distances to the atmospheric strata with temperature below zero are small, and therefore more snow and graupel will fall than hail, while in middle and low latitudes this distance, especially in summer, is great enough to allow of the formation of large hailstones. North and south of the zone of calms the hail-fall becomes more frequent and reaches its maximum between 40° and 60° of latitude. The currents of the atmosphere and the formation of the land-masses have also an influence on the distribution of hail. A satisfactory solution of the hail question can, however, only be obtained by complete series of observations, the details for each station being given separately, and the distinction between true hail and graupel being attended to. The German Society for Arctic Exploration (Bremen) has just heard from Drs. Finsch and Brehm. They speak of the most difficult part of their journey from the Ob to the Kara Sea through a hitherto quite unknown region, which they performed partly in boat, partly by reindeer, and partly on foot, over the Tundras. The knowledge obtained by the expedition in this region is an important contribution to the geography of West. Siberia. The collections with reference to the ethnology of the Samoyeds and Ostiaks are especially valuable, as also the specimens of birds and fishes. The travellers expected to be home by the beginning of this month. Prof. James Orton, of Vassar College, U.S., has nearly completed his preparations for the exploration of the river Beni, a little known tributary of the Madeira River, the largest affluent of the Amazon. Prof. Orton sums up the special objects of the survey as follows : i. To solve some of the most interesting and important geographical problems of the day. 2. To search for the traces of the ancient military roads, probably built by the Inca Yupanqui when he invaded that region. 3. To open up the trade of the eastern slope of the Andes with the United States. In Prof. Orton's opinion, the search for the source of the Nile, while of not greater interest than that of the Beni, is of very much less commercial value. In a paper on " The Climate Controversy," published in the two last numbers of the Geological Magazine, Mr. Searles V. Wood, jun., discusses the possible cause of the latest changes of climate experienced by the earth. The aim of Mr. Wood is less to advocate some special solution of the question than to insist on the difficulties which beset all the theories hitherto offered as a solution, and which are (i) a decrease in the original heat of our planet ; (2) changes in the obliquity of the ecliptic ; (3) the combined effect of the precession of the equinoxes and of the excentricity of the earth's orbit ; (4) changes in distribution i8 NATURE \Nov. 2, 1876 of land and water ; (5) changes in the position of the earth's axis ; (6) a variation in the amount of heat radiated by the sun ; and (7) various temperatures of those regions of space through which the solar system has moved. Discussing each of them, Mr. Wood deals at greater length with the theory advocated by Mr. CroII, arriving at the conclusion that, although the influence of geographical conditions and currents is a powerful agent in modifying climate, nevertheless the cause of the Glacial period must have been a cosmical one ; that the cold of this period seems to have fallen upon the earth while its axis was in its present position ; and that nothing has yet been found to raise a doubt as to the glaciation of the northern and southern hemi- spheres having been synchronous. Mr. Wood inclines to admit that it is to the sixth suggested cause, a diminution in the heat emitted by the sun, that the probabilities incline. The discus- sion of the geological facts connected with the latest changes of climate is the main attraction of the paper of Mr. Wood. Capt. Allen Young's Arctic ship Pandora is back again, all well. It will be remembered Capt, Young went out to endeavour to communicate with the Arctic expedition, which he met on its road home. Two shocks of earthquake were felt at Irkutsk and its neigh- bourhood, on August 31 at 10 p.m., and on September 4 at 1.30 A.M. Both extended over a large region, and the last was rather strong at Irkutsk. Two earthquakes are reported as having occurred in Germany on October 14, the one near Kehl at 11 a.m., and the other at Schopfheim between 8.30 and 9 P.M. The former extended over Strasburg, Kehl, Kork, Auerheim, Zierolshofen, Leutesheim, Linz, Diersheim, Rhein-Bischofsheim ; the direction was appa- rently in a south-west-north-east direction. There were ihrte or four shocks lasting about four seconds. The other earthquake was to the north of Schopfheim, at Neuenweg and Gresgen, and was of shorter duration than the former ; the direction was apparently north-south. The African explorer, Eduard Mohr, writes to Dr. Nach- tigal, under data August 28, of his arrival at St. Paul de Loanda. Within eight days he was to proceed to Malange, on the eastern limit of Angola, which he was to make his base of operations for an exploring journey to the northern interior. In the Geological Section of the Helve'.ic Society of Sciences, besides many interesting smaller communications, the following larger contributions to geological science were made : — The results of a thorough exploration of the earlier geological his- tory of the Black Forest and of the Vosges, by Prof. Sand- berger ; the results of explorations in the Argovian Jura, by Prof. Muhlberg ; the results of explorations by M. Moesch in the Bernese Alps, accompanied by a map of the mass of the Faulhorn and of its neighbourhood ; a map on the scale of 1:250,000 of the glacial deposits of Switzerland, with full par- ticulars as to the former extension of glaciers, their depths, slopes, &c. , made by Prof. Favre ; and a very detailed map, on a scale of 1:5,000, of the glacier of the Rhone, with all its moraines, moulins, crevices, &c., constructed by M. Gosset, at the charge of the Swiss Alpine Club. At the same meeting Prof. Sandberger presented his work " Land- und Susswasser- Conchy lien der Vorwelt." The terres- trial and fresh-water molluscs are described here in these geolo- gical succession, beginning from the oldest formations. Being very abundant in the Tertiary deposits, they have, as is known, much contributed to settle the classification of these deposits. At the conversazione of the Chester Society of Natural Science held last month, Mr. Cioss exhibited some specimens of Drosera rotundifoUa which had been grown in Mr. Siddall's fern case, and which presented characters differing greatly from those of the typical plant. The axis had elongated considerably and bore a number of alternate leaves, quite green, with aborted tentacles, and several of them showing buds produced on the mid-rib. Some of the old leaves of the original plants placed in the case for preservation also exhibited the phenomenon last named. We have received from Dr. C. A. MacMunn an account of the method he proposes for measuring and] comparing different spectra with the spectrum microscope. In order to overcome the difficulties due to the difference in the dispersion of different prisms, he proposes to look upon the distance between the Fraunhofer lines b and E as equal to 100, and to express the position of all bands in relation to this scale. We, however, think that it is very desirable not to multiply the already too numerous arbitrary scales of this kind, and would strongly advise him and all others who are studying this subject, to ex- press their results in terms of wave lengths, since, as Mr. Sorby has argued, that system alone has a true physical basis. The Bethnal Green Museum is becoming just now a great centre of attraction to the multitudes from the numerous'interest- ing collections illustrative of art and science now deposited together. The former speak to the eye for themselves, although the Secretary of the Department has taken care to provide admir- able historical and descriptive cheap catalogues. But the scientific and industrial collections require more carefully prepared aids for study, and these are now being furnished by the Department in illustrated manuals, published at a cheap price, written by eminent authors, and on these no expense has been spared to make them thoroughly practical and useful treatises upon the subjects on which they treat. Messrs. Chapman and Hall, we are informed will publish immediately for the Council of Edu- cation and Department of Science, three of these works— "Food, its Chemical Constituents and Uses," by Mr. A. W. Chunt, F.C.S., Professor at the Royal Agricultural CoUci^r, Cirencester; " Economic Entomology," by Mr. Andrew Mur- ray, F.L. S., and "Animal Products, their Preparation, Com- merce, and Uses," by Mr. P. L. Simmonds. The additions to the Zoological Society's Gardens during the past week include a Cape Hyrax {Hyrax capensis) from South Africa, presented by Mr. J. M. Thornton; an Ocelot {FelisJ>at' dalis) from Honduras, presented by Mr. H. Fielding ; two Norwegian Lemmings {Lemmus norvegicus) from Norway, pre- sented by Mr. W. Duppa Crotch ; a Common Hangnest {Icterus vulgaris) from South America, prestnied by Mr. J, T, Levett ; an Alrican Cobra [Naia haje) from South Africa, presented by the Rev. G. H. R. Fisk ; a Vervet Monkey ( Cercopithecus lalandii) from South Africa, deposited ; two Indian Cobras [Naia tripti- dians) from India, received in exchange ; a Merlin {Hypotriorchu ccsalon), European, purchased. SEXUAL SELECTION IN RELATION TO MONKEYS TN the discussion on Sexual Selection in my "Descent ot ■*■ Man," no case interested and perplexed me so much as the brightly- coloured hinder ends and adjoming parts ot certain moc- keys. As these parts are more brightly coloured in one sex than the other, and as they become more brilliant during the season of love, I concluded that the colours had been gained as a sexual attraction. I was well aware that I thus laid myselt open to ridicule ; though in fact it is not more surprising that a monkey should display his bright-red hinder end than that a peacock should display his magnificent tail. I had, however, at that time no evidence of monkeys exhib.ting this part of their bodies during their courtship ; and such display in the case ot birds affords the best evidence that the ornaments of the males are of service to them by attracting or exciting the females. I have lately Nov. 2, 1876] NATURE 10 read an article by Job. von Fischer, of Gotha, published in Der Zoolos;ische Garten, April, 1876, on the expression of monkeys under various emotions, which is well worthy of study by any one interested in the subject, and which shows that the author is a careful and acute observer. In this article there is an account of the behaviour of a young male mandrill when he first beheld himself in a looking-glass, and it is added, that after a time he turned round and T>resented his red hinder end to the glass. Accordin<;ly I wrote to Herr J. von Fischer to ask what he sup- posed was the meaning of this strange action, and he has sent me two long letters full of new and curious detail?, which will, I hope, be hereafter published. He says that he was himself at first perplexed by the above action, and was thus led carefully to observe several individuals of various other species of mon- keys , which he has long kept in his house. He finds that not only the mandrill (Cynccephahts Diormov) but the drill (C letico- fhaus) ard three other kinds of baboons (C haniadryas, sphinx, and bahoiiin), also Cynopithecns nign; and Afacacus rhesus and nevustrinus, turn this part of their bodies, which in all these species is more or less brightly coloured, to him when they are pleased, and to other persons as a sort of greeting. He took ^ pains to cure a Macacus rhesus, which he had kept for five years, of this indecorous habit, and at last succeeded. These monkeys are particularly apt to act in this manner, grinning at the same time, when first introduced to a new monkey, but often also to their old monkey friends ; and after this mutual display they begin to play together. The young mandrill ceased spon- taneously after a time to act in this manner towards his master, von Fischer, but continued to do so towards persons who were strangers and to new monkeys. A young Cynopithecns niger never acted, excepting on one occasion, in this way towards his master, but frequently towards strangers, and continues to do so up to the present time. From these facts von Fischer concludes that the monkeys which behaved in this manner before a look- ing-glass (viz., the mandrill, drill, Cynopithecns niger, Macacus rhesus, and nemestrmus) acted as if their reflection were anew ac- quaintance. The mandrill and drill, which have their hinder ends especially ornamented, display it even whilst quite young, more frequently and more ostentatiously than do the other kinds. Next in order comes Cynocephalus hamadryas, whilst the other species act in this manner seldomer. The individuals, however, of the same species, vary in this respect, and some which were very shy never displayed their hinder ends. It deserves especial attention that von Fischer has never seen any species purposely exhibit the hinder part of its body, if not at all coloured. This remark applies to many individuals of Macacus cynomolgus and Cercocebus radiatits (which is closely allied to M. rhesus), to three species of Cercopithecus and several American monkeys. The habit of turning the hinder ends as a greeting to an old friend or new acquaintance, which seems to us so odd, is not really more so than the habits of many savages, for instance that of rubbing their bellies with their hands, or rubbing noses to- gether. The habit with the mandrill and drill seems to be instinctive or inherited, as it was followed by very young animals ; but it is modified or guided, like so many other instincts, by observation, for von Fischer says that they take pains to make their display fully, and if made before !wo observers, they turn to him who seems to pay the most atten- tion. With respect to the origin of the habit, von Fischer remarks that his monkeys like to have their naked hinder ends patted or stroked, and that they then grunt with pleasure. They often ftlso turn this part of their bodies to other monkeys to have bits of dirt picked off, and so no doubt it would be with respect to thorns. But the habit with adult animals is connected to a •-•ertain extent with sexual feelings, for von Fischer watched through a glass door a female Cynopithecus niger, and she during several days, " umdrehte und dem Mannchen mit gur- gelnden Tonen die stark gerothete Sitzflache zeigte, was ich friiher nie an diesem Thier bemerkt hatte. Beim Anblick dieses Gegenstandes erregte sich das Mannchen sichtlich, denn es polterte heftig an den St'aben, ebenfalls gurgelnde Laute aus- stossend." As all the monkeys which have the hinder parts of their bodies more or less bright coloured live, accord- ing to von Fischer, in open rocky places, he thinks that these colours serve to render one sex conspicuous at a distance to the other ; but as monkeys are such gregarious animals, I should have thought that there was no need for the sexes to recognise each other at a distance. It seems to me more pro- bable that the bright colours, whether on the face or hinder end, or, as in the mandrill, on both, serve as a sexual ornament and attraction. Anyhow, as we now know that monkeys have the habit of turning their hinder ends towards other monkeys, it ceases to be at all surprising that it should liavebeen this part of their bodies which has been more or less decorated. The fact that it is only the monkeys thus characterised which, as far a? at present known, act in this manner as a greeting towards other monkeys, renders it doubtful whether the habit was first acquired from some independent cause, and that afterwards the parts in question were coloured as a sexual ornament ; or whether the colouring and the habit of turning round were first acquired through variation and sexual selection, and that afterwards the habit was retained as a sign of pleasure or as a greeting, through the principle of inherited association. This principle apparently comes into play on many occasions : thus it is generally admitted that the songs of birds serve mainly as an attraction during the season of love, and that the leks, or great congregations of the black grouse, are connected with their courtship ; but the liabit of singing has been retained by some birds when they feel happy, for instance by the common robin, and the habit of congregating has been retained by the black grouse, during other seasons of the year. I beg leave to refer to one other point in relation to sexual selection. It has been objected that this form of selection, as far as the ornaments of the males are concerned, implies that all the females within the same district must possess and exercise exactly the same taste. It should, however, be observed in the first place, that although the range of variation of a species may be very large, it is by no means indefinite. I have elsewhere given a good instance of this fact in the pigeon, of which there are at least a hundred varieties differing widely in their colours, and at least a score of varieties of the fowl diflering in the same manner ; but the range of colour in these two species is extremely distinct. Therefore the females of natural species cannot have an unlimited scope for their taste. In the second place, I presume that no supporter of the principle of sexual selection believes that the females select particular points of beauty in the males ; they are merely excited or attracted in a greater degree by one male than by another, and this seems often to depend, especially with birds, on brilliant colouring. Even man, excepting perhaps an artist, does not analyse the slight differences in the features of the woman whom he may admire, on which her beauty depends. The male mandrill has not only the hinder end of his body, but his face gorgeously coloured and marked with oblique ridges, a yellow beard, and other orna- ments. We may infer from what we see of the variation of animals under domestication, that the above several ornaments of the mandrill were gradually acquired by one individual vary- ing a little in one way, and another individual in another way. The males which were the handsomest or the most attractive in any manner to the females would pair oftenest, and would leave rather more offspring than other males. The offspring of the former, although variously intercrossed, would either inherit the peculiarities of their fathers, or transmit an increased tendency to vary in the same manner. Consequently the whole body of males inhabiting the sam.e country, would tend from the effects of constant intercrossing to become modified almost uniformly, but sometimes a little more in one character and sometimes in another, though at an extremely slow rate ; all ultimately being thus rendered more attractive to the females. The process is like that which I have called unconscious selection by man, and of which I have given several instances. In one country the inhabitants value a fleet or light dog or horse, and in another country a heavier and more powerful one ; in neither country is there any selection of the individual animals with lighter or stronger bodies and limbs ; nevertheless after a considerable lapse of time the individuals are found to have been modified in the desired manner almost uniformly, though differently in each country. In two absolutely distinct countries inhabited by the same species, the individuals of which can never during long ages have intermigrated and intercrossed, and where, moreover, the variations will probably not have been identically the same, sexual selection might cause the males to differ. Nor does the belief appear to me altogether fanciful that two sets of females, surrounded by a very different environment, would be apt to acquire somewhat different tastes with respect to form, sound, or colour. However this may be, I have given in my " Descent of Man" instances of closely-allied birds inhabiting distinct countries, of which the young and the females cannot be distin- guished, whilst the adult males differ considerably, and this may be attributed with much probability to the action of sexual selec- tion. Charles Darwin 20 NATURE [Nov. 2, 187 SCIENTIFIC SERIALS Thk Bulletin deV Academic Inipinale des Sciences de St. Piter s- hoursr, t. xxii., No. I, contains the following papers of scientific interest : — On the absorption of carbonic acid by sulphuric acid and its mixtures with water, by J. Setschenow. — On tartronamic acid, by N. Menschutkin. — On ethyl- and methylsuccinimid, by the same. — On the geologicil age of the North-Caucasian Jura coal sandstones, and on natural saltpetre occurring in the same in the valley of Kuban, by H. Abich. — On diethyl-methyl- acetic acid, a new isomeric variety of oenanthylic acid, by M. E. Idanow. — On the formation of budi in Equisetum, by Prof. A. Famintzin. — Observations made at the astronomical observa- tory of the Academie des Sciences de St. Petersbourg, by A. Sawitch. Jotirnal de Physique, September. — M. Andre here investigates the subject of diffraction in optical instruments and its influence on astronomical observations. He shows that the diameter of Venus and Mercury during transit must always be less than in ordinary conditions of observation, and less by day than by night, with an instrument of the same aperture ; also that it is less, the smaller the aperture of the instrument, the variation being equal to the difference of constants of instrumental diffraction of the instruments employed. — It is known that sulphur affects two incompatible crystalline forms, the right octahedron with rectan- gular base, and the symmetrical oblique prism. M. Gernez specifies the circumstances in which they are produced without intervention of any solvent. — M. Egoroff gives a description, with figure, of his differential electro-actinometer, an instrument for determining the co-efficients of absorption of ultra-violet rays by different substances. — M. Lecoq de Boisbaudran describes the physical properties of gallium. Inter alia, even a few degrees under its point of fusion + 29°'5, it is hard and remarkably tena- cious for a metal so fusible ; it can be cut, however, with a knife. It crystallises with great facility. The spectrum got by passing the spark in a saline solution, has two violet lines, the brighter with wave length 417-0, the other 403"i. In gas flame the former is hardly observable. The density is 47 ; the equivalent, not yet quite fixed, seems to be near the number deduced from the posi- tion of gallium between iodium and aluminium. Sitzungsberichte der naturwissensch. Gesellsch, Isis in Dresden, July to December, 1875. — In this number will be found an interesting account of the Auckland Islands, by M. Hermann Krone, of the German Transit Expedition. The copper-bearing strata of Lake Superior, a potato exhibition at Altenburg, in October, Dr. Dohrn's zoological station at Naples, and an in- stance of lightning with a clear sky, are among other subjects treated ; there are also a few archaeological papers. SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES Paris Academy of Sciences, October 23. — Vice- Admiral Paris in the chair. — The following papers were read : — Theorems relating to systems of three segments forming a constant length, by M. Chasles. — Remarks on a critique of Dr. Boue on the theory of trombes, by M. Faye. The gyration of the base of a trorabe is generally too rapid to be perceived ; but on reaching the ground or the sea, a quantity of dust or of water-droplets is raised by the escaping air, and passes obliquely before the trombe, with a perceptible slow movement. The spectator may by mistake attribute this motion to the trombe itself, and conclude that the tronibe pumps the water {e.g.) up to the clouds. The trombe's motion is really a descending gyratory one. — On the order of appearance of the first vessels in the aerial organs of Anagallis arvensis, by M. Trecul. — Report to the Academy on the works of M. Francis Gamier, naval lieutenant. M. Gamier died about three years ago. His travels in China have had important results. The Minister of Public Instruction, on the recommendation of the Academy, has appointed an annual pension of 1,200 francs to be given to his widow.— Note on electric effluves, by M. Boillot. To obtain the dark effliives the conducting tubes for the electricity should be sufficiently apart to prevent any phosphorescent glow in the darkness. M. Boillot describes some modifications of his apparatus. — On determination of the depth of the sea by means of the batho- meter, and without use of a sounding line, by Dr. C. W. Siemens. — On the industrial applications of phosphuret of copper and phosphorised bronze, by MM. de Ruolz, Montchal, and De Fontenay. Of two bells presented to the Academy, one made with phosphuret of copper in proportion of ^^ gave sounds much superior in acuteness, intensity, and timbre, to those of the other bell, which was of an ordinary bronze (78 copper, 2 tin). Its composition was also more homogeneous. By reducin the proportion of phosphorus to a few thousandths, red coppi may be cast in sand without its physical properties being sei sibly altered as regards industrial use. A bronze alloy wit the proportion of xxrVij- of phosphorus, sustains friction wel and can be indefinitely recast without appreciable loss indu trially. — On .the cure of hypertrophic elongation of the neck ( the uterus by igneous utero- vaginal myotomy, by M. Abeille.- On the industrial preparation of nitro-glycerine, by MM. Boutn and Faucher. (This note was in a sealed packet, deposited : August, 1872. ) In the ordinary manufacture the reaction liberati much heat, which tends to decompose the nitro-glycerine formei The authors first make sulpho-glyceric acid treating glycerine j 30° with three times its weight of sulphuric acid at 66°; an sulpho-nitric acid by mixing equal weights of sulphuric acid ; 66° and nitric acid at 48°. Then these two acids are unitec giving a mixture like this : glycerine, lOO ; nitric acid, 280 ; su phuric acid, 600. The rise of temperature is then limited to ic or 15°. iThe reaction is finished in about twenty- four hour The nitro-glycerine forms in a distinct layer above the acid from which it can be separated by decantation. — Report on e; periments made, in several communes of Charente, with a vie to destruction of phylloxera, by M. Boutin. To succeed we with sulpho-carbonate of potassium, alone or with water, or wit coal-tarred sulphur carbonate, the operations should be done i October, November, or even December (if not too cold), the again from March till the end of May. — On a general propos tion of the theory of conies, by M. Halphen. — On the effects < eddies observed in water-courses, by M. Bouquet de la Gry( If there be poured into a glass vessel first a dense liquid lil aniline, then water, then oil, and the upper liquids be pi in rotation with paddles, a central depression forms at th surface of the oil ; a cone of the liquid descends in the centr while a protuberance of niline rises from the bottom, similar action of the eddies in rivers accounts for the raising an removal of sand, and the form assumed by the river's bee And the movement of liquid threads in a river-bend may be con pared to that in the vessel, taking as centre the successive poin of the convex bank, and as border the concave part. There ai vortices with horizontal axes also. The author thinks that b suitable dams, &c. , the vis viva of the water might be utilise for deepening the channel. — On the laws of vibratory motion ( tuning-forks, byM. Mercadier. The duration of the period of vibn tory motion increases or diminishes with the amplitude. This vari; tion, even for considerable amplitudes of i cm., is very small, an extends only to the fourth figure. If a certain limit, which ma be fixed at 4 mm., be not excised ed, the duration of the perio may be regarded as constant. — On the electrical apparatus of th torpedo, by M. Rouget. A histological description CONTENTS pac The Arctic Expedition Schimper's " Mo sks of Europe ' ...... .... Our Book Shelf : — Rutherford's 'Outlines of Practical Histology " .... . . Dale's " Study of the Rhastic Strata of the Val di Ledro in the Southern Tyrol " Letters to the Eoitoe : — " Geographical Distribution of Animals." — V. Ball European Polygalas. — Alfred W. Ben.vett, F.L.S The Solidity of the Earth.— W. Mattieu Williams Are We Drying Up ? — Joseph John Murphy Antedon rosaceus (Comatula rosacea) — W. K. Hughes, F.L.S. Caterpillars. — |. A. Osborne Electro-Capillary Phenomena — Dr. P. Higgs The Capercailzie in Northumberland. By W. Topley .... Newton on Force. By P. T. Main Principles of Time-Measuring Apparatus, IV. By H. Dent Gardner (With Illustrations) The Results OF the Arctic Expedition (fFzV/i ;7f a/) ..... 1 Our Astronomical Column : — /i Doradus .., j Southern Double-Stars . . i The Intra-Mercurial Planet Question i The Fourth Comet of 1857 i Biological Notes : — Pock-Lymph , j Algoid jwarm Spores j Diseases Germinated in Hospitals i Marine Mosses . . . . i Notes from St. Petersburg 1 Colours of Animals i Notes 1 Sexual Selection in Relation to Monkeys. By Charles Darwin, F.R.S 1 Scientific Serials 2 Societies and Academies 2 NA TURE 21 THURSDAY, NOVEMBER 9, 1876 FUNGUS DISEASE OF INDIA Functus Disease of India : a Report of Observations.. F. R. Lewis, M.B., and D. D. Cunningham, M.B. Icutta : Government Printing Office, 1875.) W questions are more perplexing than the relations of fungi to different diseases to which the animal jrld is subject. On the one hand the most exaggerated id ill-founded theories have been put forth, which have nded to cause the most senseless alarm, while on the her hand their agency has been altogether denied, or if all allowed, restricted to subjects already in a depressed ate of health, and therefore as merely availing themselves a fitting nidus for their development. The truth pro- ibly lies between the two extremes, and if the analogy of le vegetable kingdom be allowed to have any weight, it is ifficult, after what we know of the propagation of the otato-murrain by means of zoospores in perfectly ealthy individuals, to deny the possibility of infec- ion without a previous morbid state. The advocates, ideed, of these views, at once cut off all argument the assertion that the potato-plant, by reason of ong propagation by means of tubers, has become ssentially unhealthy, but the same might be asserted if members of the animal kingdom subject to disease, s indeed is the case with that to which silkworms all victims, by reason of inoculation with the spores of 3otrytis bassiana. The real point, however, is whether even n unhealthy subjects, fungi merely find a proper nidus for heir growth, or whether they may induce disease in these subjects, and no question in pathology can be conceived )f greater importance. It at least seems quite certain that a gangrenous state of wounds may arise from the iccess of fungoid germs from the air, and that proper Means to prevent their access, or to destroy their vitality, ire effectual. The work, therefore, which bears the title given above, is of unusual interest, relating as it does to one of the most formidable maladies to which the human frame is subject, and it demands very patient observation, as the authors have not only paid the greatest attention to questions of the kind, having had a special preparation for such investigations before entering upon their study, but, what is unfortunately of too great rarity amongst persons who have written on such subjects, are tho- roughly acquainted with the nature of that part of the vegetable kingdom which is called in question. It is not necessary here to describe the peculiar features of the disease, which would take us far beyond our limits, farther than to state that it appears under three different forms, in one of which black sclerotioid bodies of various sizes, from a grain of sand to a small walnut, excavate hollows in the bones, or are ejected with various sanious matters from the wounds, and it is to this form that the observations have a special relation. In the article in the hitellectual Observer, Nov. 1862, by the writer of this notice, which was founded on observations communicated by Dr. H. J. Carter, it is stated that the figure d, p. 256, represents the natural state of the red fungus, Chionyphe Carteri, springing from particles of the black fungus ■ Vol. XV.— No. 367 scattered over rice paste. It should seem, however, that there is some doubt about this as our authois deny that the Chionyphe * has ever been raised from the black fungus. It is at least certain that all attempts of our authors to raise it from the Sclerotioid mass have failed, and it is supposed that the Chionyphe was an accidental growth from mace- rated specimens of fragments of either the black or pink form of the disease. It is doubtful whether any great weight can be laid on the pink colour. Nothing is more common in this country than for pink spots to occur on paste or decaying fungi, and these pink gelatinous specks are capable of propagation, as is also the case with the bright blue specks which occur in similar situations, as I have myself proved, and of which I preserve specimens. The so-called blood-rain belongs to the same category. Un- fortunately it has not yet been proved that these bodies arc capable of development into higher forms. The real point is whether these sclerotioid bodies are really of a fungoid nature at all, a point which is worthy of mature consideration. And here our authors very properly call attention to the fungoid forms which appear in the myeline of Virchow. The observations are so important that it is well to give them textually :— A development of myeline is especially prone to occur where portions of the fatty matter, roe- like masses, &c., freshly removed from an alcoholic prepa- ration, are subjected to the action of liquor potassse. The multifarious and highly complex forms of tubes, filaments, globules, and cysts, which may frequently be observed to become developed, shooting out and, as it were, growing from the globules and aggregations of fatty matter, are wonderful, and such that they could hardly be believed to owe their origin to any such process or material, were not their development distinctly traceable through all its stages. " From the extremely organised nature of their appear- ance they are, as the accompanying figure will show, peculiarly liable to be mistaken for fungal growths, espe- cially by those who are unused to the practical study of such bodies and to the various appearances presented by complex oily bodies, and it is necessary that very great caution should be exercised in the interpretations of such phenomena." This is clearly of the utmost importance, and cannot be too thoughtfully considered. The calcospherites of Prof. Harting, the concretions of Mr. Raines, and the curious specimens of dentine exhibited at Norwich, in 1868, so similar to cellular tissue as to deceive the most instructed who were not acquainted with their orgin, belong to the same class of bodies. We are not surprised, then, after these considerations, the futile attempts to raise the Chionyphe from the Sclerotioid bodies, and the mode of origin of the fungus in other cases, that our authors have arrived at the conclu- sion that the Fungus-foot of India is not due to any fungus growth. The roe-like bodies which occur in the pale variety of the disease are shown to be fat in various modified forms ; the pink particles were determined to be pigmented con- cretions, while the black masses consist of degenerated tissues mixed to a greater or less extent with black pig- I The genus Chionyphe, it should be observed, does not grow on snow, but on wheat, or other vegetables that have been buried under snow. 22 NA TURE [Nov. 9, 18; ment and fungoid filaments. These fungoid filaments would not be coaxed by any treatment into the develop- ment of fruit, and their nature, therefore, must still remain doubtful. Our authors conclude that it is more reasonable to infer that localised spots in the tissues undergo a de- generative change into a substance peculiarly adapted to the development of filamentous growths, the origin of which, in situations where no spore could penetrate, must remain matter of perplexity. M. J. Berkeley THE ADMINISTRATION OF PATENT LAWS IN ENGLAND Abstract of Reported Cases relating to Letters Patent for Inventions. By T. M. Goodeve, M.A. Barrister-at- Law, and Lecturer on Applied Mechanics at the Royal School of Mines. (London: Henry Sweet, 1876.) THE subject of the Patent Laws of this country which is now upon its trial, is one which largely affects the interests of scientific men in almost every branch of research, for in a great majority of cases a patent is the only channel through which the inventor of a good thing, which may confer inestimable benefits upon mankind, has any chance of being remunerated. There is, at the present time, great diversity of opinion upon the question whether the Patent Laws should exist at all or be abolished, and there is also a diversity of opinion among men of science whether a scientific invention designed for scientific purposes ought to be patented, or freely given to the world. It is universally admitted, however, that some mode of rewarding the individual whose ingenuity and perseverance have enabled him to discover a new invention ought to be in existence ; but, until some better system than that of patents is esta- blished the laws must be dealt with as they are. With regard to purely scientific inventions it is impossible to draw a hard and fast line between those useful alone to science and others upon which large commercial indus- tries may be built. It often happens in the course of scientific research that an idea is struck upon, which, while aiding the immediate inquiry, is at the same time the solution of some great commercial problem, out of which fortunes may be made. The history of the science of Chemistry alone abounds with innumerable instances of the truth of this, and assuredly the original inventor ought to share in benefits derived from what could not have existed apart from, his discovery. The principle of patents is in itself good, because it pro- vides that the reward of the inventor is regulated by and is proportionate to the utility of the thing invented, and to the amount of benefit derived from it by the community ; and, at the same time, that reward is at the expense of that portion of the public who use the invention, and not, as in alternative schemes, at the cost of the public at large. The carrying of that principle into practice, how- ever, is beset with so many difficulties, and the adminis- tration of the laws relating to it is so very defective, that a patent which is worth anything, can only be maintained at the cost of endless litigation, which often swamps all possible profits, and with a few exceptions lands the inventor in a large sum out of pocket. Much of this would be saved if inventors had a mc accurate knowledge of the Patent Laws, and knew son thing of the principles upon which they are administer in the tribunals of the land. Many a patent is taken c for an invention which is legally disqualified from bei the subject-matter of a patent, and every day letters patent are being granted for things which have be invented and patented over and over again. They i never refused on this ground, and the mischief is r discovered until the expenses of an action at law ha been incurred. Prof. Goodeve's work, though not a treatise on t Law of Patents, gives to the reader a remarkably clc insight into that law and its administration, by enabli him to understand the reasons which must guide a coi or jury in their decisions upon patent cases. From the vast medley of reported cases scatter throughout the archives of the Courts, the author h made a selection of abstracts chosen with great jud ment on account of the characteristic nature of the pri ciples involved, and, by the omission of all mati extraneous to those principles, has put forward the re points at issue in a very prominent and instruct! manner. In each case the essential pleadings are giv< and the inventions are described as nearly as possible the language of the specification. The claims are stat( with the evidence adduced in their support at the tri and both the direction of the judge and the finding the jury are given in a clear and condensed form. Many of the cases quoted in Prof Goodeve's bo involve points of high scientific interest ; and, apart fro its obvious value as a work of legal reference, it will found to be a useful handbook to the inventor, and n without some considerable interest to the general scie tific reader. C. W. C LETTERS TO THE EDITOR \Thc Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expres. by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake to retm or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manuscrip No notice is taken of anonymous conmiunications^ Sumner's Method at Sea In Nature for August 24 you were good enough review, in very favourable terms, Sir William Tliomso recently published book of tables for facilitating Sumner's A thod of navigation. Since then you republished an attack that method by the Astronomer Royal, which he made in 1 form of a letter to Prof. Stokes, after Sir William Thomson \. communicated to the Royal Society the plan upon which his tab are based. Will you allow me, as one who took an active p in preparing Sir W. Thomson's book for publication, and w has had a good deal of practical experience of his method, endeavour to reply shortly to the criticisms of the Astronon Royal ? In publishing Sir G. B. Airy's letter, Prof. Stokes appendec note which was really a complete answer to the objecti< brought forward, and this was further enforced by remarks me by Sir W. Thomson in a second communication to the Ro Society (/Vi'f., June, 1871). As, however, the subject was 1 briefly treated in these communications, and the Astronon Royal's letter has been republished at his own request, it n not perhaps be useless to go into the question in somewl greater detail. After stating the geometrical conditions under which the Su ner line, or locus of the ship's position is obtained from a sini observation of altitude and time, the Astronomer Royal poi: out the very obvious truth that the accuracy of the position of t line depends on the accuracy with which Greenwich time can Nov. 9, 1876] NATURE reckoned from the ship's chronometers ; that the Sumner line will have been drav\'n east or west of its true position according as the chronometer is slow or fast. He then adds : — "And the question now presents itself, which uncertainty is the greater — the uncertainty of latitude, which it is the real object of this problem to remedy ? or the uncertainty of the chrono- metric longitude, which must be used in attempting to find the remedy ? I do not doubt the reply of every practical navigator, that the chronometric longitude is far more uncertain than the latitude ; and if it be so, the whole method falls to the ground." Now this passage can only mean that Sumner's Method, while correcting one uncertainty which exists in the ordinary plan of working out rights, introduces another and a greater uncertainty, and so does more harm than good. Unless it means this, the question which uncertainty is the greater is completely beside the point. The statement, however, is wrong in both particu- lai's. Sumner's Method does not remove uncertainty as to lati- tude, it only limits and defines that uncertainty to the extent which the data allow, and it introduces no new uncertainty whatever. Every other method ot working out an observation of altitude and chronometer time gives results which are uncer- tain as to longitude for just the same reason and to just the same extent as are those given by Sumner. The ordinary usage, for which Sir W. Thomson desires to sub- stitute Sumner's Method, and with which he contrasts it in showing the superiority of the latter, is to estimate, by dead- reckoning or otherwise, the latitude, and then to compound this information with that derivable from the observation so as to obtain a knowledge of the longitude, and thus be able to say that the ship is at such and such a point. Now this operation is mathematically equivalent to drawing separately the Sumner line for the observation, and an east and west line through the esti- mated latitude, and then taking as the position of the ship the point in which these two lines meet. The result obtained is precisely the same in both cases, but the second plan has the great advantage that each piece of information is exhibited on the chart independently of the other, so that either may be made use of before the other is acquired. As Prof Stokes says, " it is hard to suppose that the mere substitution of a graphical for a purely numerical process could lead a navigator to forget that he is dependent upon his chronometer." That Sumner's Method supplies a means of exhibiting for each observation ^'•precisely what that observation gives, neither more nor less " (to use Prof. Stokes' words), is its chief though not its only claim to adoption. The ordinary practice of navigators produces, indeed, results which have a greater show of precision, but the show is fallacious, for the data are not there to warrant it ; in Prof. Huxley's forcible phrase, it is a grinding of wheat-flour from peascods. The question in a word is this : Shall we prefer the ordinary usage, which quietly ignores two causes of uncertainty, to a method which, while it necessarily leaves one of these still untouched, keeps the other constantly in view, and limits it as far as the case admits? J. A. Ewing Sea Fisheries and the British Association Prof. Newton has kindly sent me a copy of his address to the Biological Section of the British Association at their recent meeting at Glasgow. It contains much interesting matter, and like the addresses delivered by others to the same body informer years, was no doubt listened to with the respect aue to the scientific attainments of the author. It is with very great regret, therefore, that I feel it necessary to dispute the accuracy of some of Prof. Newton's ideas, and to point out that my friend made a very important mistake when, towards the close of his address, he spoke of "the falling off in our sea fisheries," and of the Royal Commission of 1863, to which I was secretary, having been appointed "to seek a remedy for it." It wa^ not ascertained then that there was any falling off in our sea fisheries, nor is such known to be the case at the present time. I say this advisedly, because Prof. Newton was evidently not speaking of unsuccessful fishing in any one year owing to that frequent cause of failure — bad weather — but of a general decrease in the supply of sea fish. The Royal Sea Fisheries Commission to wliich he refers, was appointed in 1863, in consequence of the clamour of the line fishermen of Sunderland and of the adjacent coasts against the North Sea trawlers, who, it was alleged, were doing their best to ruin the fisheries by the wholesale destruction of spawn and young fish : but who, it appeared, after full inquiry had been made by the Commission, had committed the great crime' of landino; large quantities of fish in the local markets, and of underselling the local fishermen. The object of the gentleman who represented the coaiplaints of the Sunderland fishermen toParliament was spe- cially to inquire into the effects of beam-trawling, and the Commis- sion when at work was popularly known as the " 'I'rawling Com- mission ; " but the Government, finding a great deal of interest taken in the fisheries generally, thought it desirable to extend the inquiry into the state of all the sea fisheries around the United Kingdom, and it consequently became the most com- prehensive investigation of the subject that had ever been made. The following were the points the Commissioners were in structed to inquire into, as stated in the Commission : — " I. Whether the supply of fish from the sea fisheries is in- creasing, stationary, or diminishing. " 2. Whether any of the methods of catching fish in use involves a wasteful destruction of fish or spawn, and, if so, whether it is probable that any legislative restriction upon such method ol fishing would result in an increase in the supply of fish. "3. Whether any existing legislative restrictions operate in- juriously upon any of such fisheries." The conclusion arrived at on the first point by the Commis- sioners— and I would call Prof. Newton's special attention to it — is thus stated in their report : — " The total supply of fish obtained upon the coasts of the United Kingdom has not diminished of late years, but has in- creased ; and it admits of further augmentation to an extent the limits of which are not indicated by any evidence we have been able to obtain." It is desirable to call attention to the important fact that the abcve conclusion arrived at by the Commissioners was not based on newspaper reports — the coamon foundation of the frequent alarms about the sea fisheries — but on careful and laborious exa- mination of the fishermen in their own towns and villages, ol fishmongers, fishing boat builders, market and railway returns, and every kind of evidence that could be obtained which bore or the question of the supply of sea fish, and the condition of those persons who were dependent on it for their livelihood. On the second point of the inquiry the conclusion was thai any legislative restrictions on the methods of fishing would result in a decrease in the supply of fish. And on the third point, the Commissioners stated that they found the existing regulations complicated, confused, and un- satisfactory ; many regulations, even of late date, were nevei enforced ; many would be extremely injurious to the interests oi the fishermen and of the community if they were enforced ; and with respect to these and others, the highest legal authorities were unable to decide where, and in what precise sense, thej were operative. As Prof Newton started under the false impression that the Commissioners were appointed in order to seek some remedy foi a falling off in our sea fisheries, it is not, perhaps, surprising thai he did not clearly apprehend the meaning of their conclusions, although I should have thought that anyone reading them with ordinary care could havdiy fail to do so. He says : " That Commission reported in effect that there was nothing to be done with our sea fisheries but to leave them alone." There is a despairing tone about this which would be very depressing if ar examination of the Report did not result in showing that the Commissioners deprecated any interference with our sea fisheries for the simple reason that their produce was not falling off, bul was increasing. They recommended, however, the removal ol all vexatious and useless restrictions, and they advised a strict enforcement of such regulations as would prevent the interference in particular cases of one kind of fishing with another kind, and as would conduce generally to the maintenance of order on the fishing grounds. Such are the facts of the case ; and I cannot help thinking that if Prof. Newton had given a little more attention to the subject before he delivered his address to the British Association, he would scarcely have expressed himself in the terms in which he did on that occasion. Such statemse, opened sufficiently to admit of the slow progress of the ship until we gained the land in company with the Dis- covery, and secured the ships in a convenient harbour, named after Lieut. Payer, the successful and energetic Arctic traveller, two miles to the southward of Cape Sabine. A depot of 240 rations was established on the southernmost of the islets in a convenient position for travelling parties, a cairn being built on the summit of the highest and outer one, and a notice of our movements deposited there. The pack in the offing consisted of floes from 5 to d feet thick, with occasionally much older and heavier floes 10 to 12 feet thick intermixed with it, but all was verj much decayed and honeycombed ; still it could not be treated with the same impunity as the ice in the middle passage through Baffin's Bay. I may here draw attention to the deceptive impressions inexperienced people naturally receive when from a lofty look-out station they observe a sea unbordered by ice The distance from Littleton Island to Cape Sabine is only twenty-five miles. On a clear evening, from ar altitude of 700 feet, with the land and horizon distinctly visible, no ice was in sight from the first-named place, and the prospects of the expedition as to attaining a highei latitude without trouble appeared to be precisely the same as when I looked over a boundless sea from the summit of one of the Carey Islands lOO miles to the southward, and yet the ships were twenty-four hours after- wards locked up by ice in a harbour near Cape Sabine, From Littleton Island the inexperienced observer would conclude that there was an open Polar Sea ; from out present position he would as certainly conclude that hi; farther progress was for ever stayed, and that the soonei he looked for winter quarters the better. The ships were detained at Payer Harbour for three days watching for an opening in the ice, getting undei weigh whenever there appeared the slightest chance ol proceeding onwards, but on each occasion being unable to pass Cape Sabine, were forced to return. Their resting- place proved to be an excellent station, well protected against the entrance of heavy floes, possessing a lofty look-out, and deep navigable channels to the north and south through which to proceed to sea immediately the ice opened with a favourable westerly wind. Being ad- TV. 9, 1876] NATURE 27 itageously situated near a prominent Cape, where the 1 currents run with increased velocity, it is however >ject to squally winds ; but in icy seas during; the mer, when awaiting the opening of the ice, they are er an advantage than otherwise, striving as they do the sea currents, which is to be the chief worker in oving the impediments to a vessel's advance, arly in the morning of August 4, after several hours ght south-westerly winds, the main pack, while re- ining perfectly close and impenetrable to the north- d, moved off from the land to a sufficient distance to ble the ships to pass to the westward round Cape ine. In the hope of finding a passage on the western of the island, of which Capes Victoria and Albert the prominent eastern points, sail was immediately de, and we succeeded, with only one short detention, dvancing twenty miles along the southern shores of yes Sound, and securing the ships in a snug harbour, the neighbourhood the sportsmen discovered a richly egetated valley with numerous traces of musk-oxen and other game. Two glaciers coming from nearly opposite directions, which, instead of uniting in their downward direction, abut the one against the other, and maintain a constant warfare for the mastery, a never-ending grapple For victory, suggested the name of Twin Glacier Valley for the locality. The ice in the sound was one season old, and decaying so swiftly that if not drifted away it would in a week's time present no impediment to the advance of a steam vessel. On August 5 the strong tides and a south-westerly wind opened a channel to the north-west, and we gained a few miles in advance ; but not wishing to expend much coal, were finally stopped in the light pack. After re- maining sufficiently long to determine that the flood tide still came from the eastward, although the ebb or east running tide was apparently the stronger of the two, I pushed the ship through the pack towards the shore, and with Capt. Stephenson ascended a hill 1,500 feet high. From this station, the appearance of the land giving no prospect of a channel to the northward, and, moreover, the westerly wind having set in in strength, which we expected would open a passage to the eastward of Cape Albert, we decided to bear up and return to the entrance of the Sound; accordingly the ships made a quick run under sail to Cape Albert, arriving off which the wind died away leaving the ice loosely packed. A clear space of water being visible along the shore of the mainland to the northward, and the coast between Cape Victoria and Cape Albert affording no protection, I ran the two ships into the pack under steam, with the hope of forcing our way through, but before midnight they were hopelessly beset ; and the floe, to which the ships were secured at a distance of ico yards apart, drifting rapidly towards an iceberg. Both ships were at once prepared for a severe nip, the rudders and screws being unshipped. At first the Discovery was apparently in the most dangerous position, but the floe in which we were sealed up by wheeling round, while it relieved Capt. Stephenson from any immediate apprehension, brought the Alert directly in the path of the advancing mass, which was steadily tearing its way through the intermediate surface ice. When only 100 yards distant the iceberg, by turning slightly, presented a broader front to the approaching ice, which then accumulated in advance of it to such an extent as to fill up the angle, and form, as it were, a point or bow of pressed-up ice, sufficiently strong to itself divide and split up the floe, and act as a buffer in advance of the berg ; and this it did in our case most successfully, our floe breaking up into numerous pieces. The ship herself escaped with a very light nip, and, sliding past the side without accident, was finally secured in the water space left m the wake of the iceberg by the faster drift of the surface ice. The next twenty-four hours were spent in a constant struggle towards the shore through the pack, which for- tunately consisted of ice seldom more than 4 feet in thickness, with occasional pieces up to 12 feet thick, formed by the over-riding and piling up of ordinary floes, and then cemented together by a winter's frost ; the worn down round-topped ice hummocks on these were from 6 to 8 feet above the water-line. The icebergs, evidently derived from inferior glaciers, were from 20 to 40 feet in height above water, and 100 yards in diameter. Owing to the unsteady wind and the variable tidal currents we were unable to remain for long in any one pool of water — either the iceberg turned round and carried us with it to the exposed side, before we could change the position of the hawsers by which we were secured ; or the pack ice, which was readily acted upon by the wind, drifting back the opposite way with any change, closed up the water space. Securing the ships in a dock in rotten ice in the presence of so many icebergs, was not advisable, and also would have carried the ships deeper into the pack to the southward. There was, therefore, no alternative before me but to get up full steam and dodge about as best we could, taking instant advantage of every change in our favour. The ships were seldom separated for long, and now as on all other occasions, they mutually assisted each other. The Discovery was handled by Capt. Stephenson and her officers in the most masterly and daring manner, combined with great judgment, quali- ties essential in arctic navigation. She, as well as the Alert^ ran not a few hairbreadth escapes. Once in par- ticular when in following us through a closing channel between an iceberg and heavy floe-piece, before getting quite past the danger she was caught and nipped against the berg, and had it not been for a fortunate tongue of projecting ice would certainly have had all her boats on the exposed side ground away from her. Fortunately, the moving ice pushed her clear, much in the same manner as it had done the Alert the previous day. Having less beam than the Alert, and a finer bow, with the very great advantage of an overhanging stem, the Discovery is better adapted for forcing her way through a pack. It will be difficult ever to efface from my mind the determined manner in which, when the bluff- bowed leading ship had become imbedded in the ice, which by her impetus against it had accumulated round and sunk under her bows, and a great quantity by floating to the surface again in her wake, had helplessly inclosed her abaft, the Discovery was handled, when advancing to our rescue ; having backed some distance astern, for the double purpose of allowing the debris ice from a former blow to float away and for the vessel to attain distance sufficient for the accumulation of momentum with which to strike a second, coming ahead at her utmost speed she would force her way into the ice burying her bows in it as far aft as the foremast, the commanding officer on the bowsprit, carefully conning the ship to an inch, for had the ice not been struck fairly it would have caused her to cannon off it against ourselves with much havoc to the two. From the moment of the first impact the overhang- ing stem necessarily caused the ship's bow to rise 3 or 4 feet as she advanced from 12 to 20 feet into the solid floe and imbedded herself before the force of the blow was expended, and as the ship's way was stopped, the over- hanging weight, by settling down, crushed the ice down still further ahead. Frequently on these occasions her jib-boom was within touching distance of the Alerfs boats ! But after a little experience had been gained, such confidence had we in each other that there was not the slightest swerving in any one. Floes up to 4 feet in thickness, and in a soft state, that is melting, not freezing, may be charged with advantage, thicker or harder ice had better be left alone. It speaks well for our chrono- meters, and the manner in which they are secured, that their rates were little effected by the frequent concussions on this and on many after occasions. 28 NATURE \Nov. 9, 18 By 8 A.M. on the morning of the 8th we had succeeded in reaching the land water off Cape Victoria, having sus- tained no more serious damage during this severe trial than sprung rudder heads, consequent on the frequent necessity of going full speed astern ; all heartily glad to be out of the pack ice, The two islands marked on the chart, on the authority of Dr. Hayes, as existing in the entrance of Hayes Sound are, as originally represented by the present Admiral Inglefield, in reality joined ; the three capes named by the latter, north of Cape Sabine, are very prominent headlands, and readily sighted from a sh'p's deck from any position north of Littleton Island. There is no sign of an inlet along the very slightly in- dented coast line between his Cape Camperdown and Cape Albert. His Princess Marie Bay is the inlet north of the land in the middle of the sound, but whether that be an island or a peninsula remains to be determined ; and his Cape Victoria is evidently one of the headlands on the present Grinnell Land. It is necessarily an unthankful office to find fault with our predecessors ; but navigators cannot be too careful how they remove from the chart names given by the original discoverers, merely because during a gale of wind a bearing or an estimated distance is a trifle wrong ; and when the corrector or improver is also himself consider- ably wrong, and in fact produces a more unreliable chart than the first one, he deserves blame. The names given to the headlands undoubtedly discovered by Admiral Inglefield should not have been altered by Doctors Kane and Hayes, each of whom published very misleading delineations of the same coast. It is as yet uncertain whether Hayes Sound is a channel or not. The flood tide coming from the eastward, the apparent continuity of the western hills, and the absence of berg pieces or heavy ice high up the sound, would lead to the supposition that it was closed ; but considering the general configuration of the neighbouring land and the fact that the ebb or east running tidal current was stronger than that during the flood — but this the westerly wind might have occasioned — and the numerous Esquimaux remains which are usually found in channels, there seems no reason why we may not reasonably expect the exist- ence of a narrow opening leading to a western sea. The very decayed state of the ice would be the natural result either from strong tidal currents in a long fiord or the increased strength of the ebb tide occasioned by an easterly set from the Polar Sea. On passing what is called on the chart Cape Victoria, Commander Markham landed to ascertain the state of the ice, but a very thick fog and snowstorm coming on he was obliged to return. The ships were secured to the floe in Prmcess Marie opening which consisted of the last season's ice which had not cleared out : it was very much decayed but sufficiently strong to prevent our forcing our way through it — and in fact when pressing in with the flood time it became so coiiipact that at one time the ship was in danger of being driven on shore. At high water it opened and we succeeded in crossing the bay and securing the ships to the land ice in Franklin Pierce Bay on the southern shore of Grinnell Land. On the morning of August 9, after depositing a record in a small cairn erected on a spur of the limestone hills, 200 feet above the sea, on the west side of the bay, one and a half miles east from Cape Harrison, we gained three miles of easting ; but, being unable to round Cape Prescott, were compelled to make the ships fast to an ex- tensive floe extending from that cape to Norman Lockyer Island, which stopped all further progress. Franklin Pierce Bay, which is about three miles broad and two and a half deep, and in which we found an unbroken smooth floe of one season's ice, is protected from any heavy pres- sure by Norman Lockyer Ibland and the "Walrus Shoal, situated one mile further to the eastward ; it is therefore a fit position for winter quarters. But, as far as we could judge during our short stay, there is veiy little game ) curable in the neighbourhood. The shoal was so nai in consequence of the numerous ancient remains Esquimaux found on the island, who, by the numbei bones found lying about, had evidently subsisted pri pally on these animals. At present this neighbourh may be considered as the northern limit of their m\\ tion, only a very few having been seen farther to the no The comparatively sluggish tidal motion at the entra denotes that the coast lies out of the main run of stream, and if so, Princess Marie opening will probe prove to be merely a deep inlet. In the extended b< of Smith's Sound the southerly current and the t streams run in a direct line between Cape Frazer Cape Isabella, producing eddies and accumulating ice in any open water space on either side of that cou August being proverbially a calm month in the Ar seas, and the western mountains protecting the c( from winds blowing off the shore, the ice is inclinec hug the land, and, except during strong westerly wind large amount of patience must be exercised by any striving to advance to the northward. The pack in offing in the main channel consisted principally of floes which did not clear out of the sound during previous season, mixed with light one-season ice, fori in Kennedy Channel and its numerous bays, and in Hi Basin. Amorns;st these were scattered numerous icebt discharged from the Humboldt Glacier, and the smaller ones on the eastern shores, and here and thei heavy blue-topped hummocky floe of ancient ice fi the Arctic basin, but of unknown thickness. By scarcity of these the main drift of the northern ic( apparently in some other direction. During the fortnight we were delayed in this nei bourhood, in the middle of August and the height the Arctic summer, a constant watch was kept on pack, and as oftt n as possible from high elevations, fi which we were able to distinguish even the eastern shi with its glacier and heavy barrier of fringing icebe Although small openings were seen occasionally, I satisfied that north of Cape Sabine it was at no t navigable to the smallest extent, and that any ve; which endeavoured to force a passage through the mic ice here, where it is drifting steadily to>vards an c narrowing opening, as many have succeeded in doing the more open sea of Baffin's Bay, would decidedly beset in the pack and be carried with it to the soi ward. We were delayed near Walrus Shoal for three di unable to move more than a mile in any direction, u August 12, when, during a calm, the ice set off sh with the ebb tide, and allowed us without much troi to steam past Cape Hawks, and between it and Washi ton Irving (or Sphinx) Island — a very conspicuous la mark — but here the ice prevented any further movemi the flood tide closing in the channel by which we ': advanced. A large depot of 3,600 rations of provisi was landed on the northern side of Cape Schott, an notice of our progress deposited in a cairn on the sum of Washington Irving Island. Two cairns were foi there, but they contained no documents, and were m too old to have been built by Dr. Hayes in 1866, the c time any traveller has journeyed past the position. On the western shore of Dobbin Bay there is no she obtainable, and the tides run with much greater rapi< than off the coast farther to the westward. During next ebb tide, August 13, after blasting a passage throi a neck of ice, I succeeded in conducting the ships to eastern shore, and docking them in an extensive floe f miles north-west of Cape Hilgard. A mile north of position was an island, having a channel half a r broad between it and the eastern shore of the t named Prince Imperial Island. The land ice which ] not broken out this season extended from the island i Tov. 9, 1876] NATURE 29 isterly direction across the bay. Several small icebergs ;re frozen in at the head of the bay, where there are ime large discharging glaciers named after the Empress ;ijgenie. The land, as far as our explorations went, was iry bare of game, and not well vegetated. A floe of It season's ice was observed in the bay, between Cape [ilgard and Cape Louis Napoleon, but off each of those dlands the piled-up ice foot denoted very heavy recent issure from the eastward. 'On the evening of August 15, after considerable labour, succeeded in blasting and clearing away a barrier lich separated the ships from a water channel leading syond Cape Louis Napoleon, but so narrow was the lannel that, notwithstanding the extreme care of Capt. Stephenson, the Discovery took the ground for a few minutes whilst steaming between the ice and the shallow shore. By 8 a.m. of the 16th Ave had advanced to within five miles of Cape Frazer, but here we again met with a block. Calm weather and spring tides caused much and constant movement in the ice, the main tendency being to drift to the southward at the rate of about five miles a day. The character of the pack had changed considerably, few icebergs were seen that were not aground, and the floes consisted principally of old hummocky pieces pressed together, of from 12 to 20 feet in thickness, the surface being studded over with worn-down hummocks of a blue bottle-glass colour, which denotes great age. In such ice it was impossible to cut into dock on account of the time it would occupy, even had we been provided with saws of sufficient length. Our only possible safety lay in keep- ing close in shore of grounded icebergs, but in doing so the two ships were obliged to separate. The Alert secur- ing to one, and the Discovery forcing herself in between three smaller ones farther in shore. On the two following days, during which the ice con- tinued to drift to the southward and westward, the con- stant movement of the heavy floes, nipping together with great force, like the closing of a gigantic pair of scissors, between which, if once caught, the ships would have been instantaneously crushed, caused much anxiety, and neces- sitated constant watchfulness and much labour on the part of the officers and crew ; and all were much dis- tressed at losing three or four miles of the ground pre- viously gained. The rudders and screws were constantly being shipped and unshipped, the midship boats were obliged to be turned inboard, on account of the ice touching their keels, and steam, when not in use, was always kept ready at twenty minutes' notice. Beyond wrenching the rudder-head, no serious damage occurred. On the igth, the highest spring tide, the ice near us became more open ; and from a high station on Mount Joy I saw that we could at least regain our lost station, and might get further north. Knowmg that this was our last chance during the present tides, and until the strong westerly winds set in, and the pack having opened for the first time, I risked boring my way into the pack for two miles, and by doing so entered a channel round Cape Frazer which had long been considered as one of the most difficult milestones to pass on our passage north. By 9 P.M., after a few hours' delay during the flood tide which brought the ice inshore again, we were fairly in Kennedy Channel, secured to a floe off Cape John Barrow ; only two days later in the year than when the Resolute was blown out of winter-quarters at Melville Island, in 1S53, and with a fortnight of the navi>;able season still before us. Between Scoresby Bay and Dobbin Bay there is no protection obtainable except inside grounded ice- bergs ; none of the shallow bays are deep enough to shelter a ship from the pressure of heavy ice. Soon after midnight the ice moved off shore, opening a ^passage, and again allowed us to proceed, the water spaces becoming more frequent and larger as we ad- vanced northward. Passing the mouth of a large bay about ten miles deep, after making a very tortuous course through the ice and many narrow escapes of being driven to the southward again in the pack, we reached what we supposed to be Cape Collinson, the second of two capes to the north of the large bay, which must be intended to be represented on the chart as Scoresby Bay. But as Cape Frazer is placed eight miles and Scoresby Bay twenty miles too far north, and the re it of the western land very incorrectly delineated on the charts, it is difficult to say where we arrived, and yet for the pre- sent it is necessary for me to describe the advance of the expedition by reference to the published charts. I shall therefore continue to do so with an occasional necessary reference to our correct latitude. Between Cape Collinson and Cape McClintock, the north point of Scoresby Bay, is a slight indentation in the coast from half to three-quarters of a mile in depth, but affording no protection. North of Cape Collinson the land trends slightly to the westward, and about three miles north of the Cape turns sharp to the west, forming Richardson Bay, which is much deeper than represented, probably four miles broad and six deep. A heavy ice- berg firmly aground two miles from the land in the shal- low bay north of Cape Collinson, which had evidently never moved this season, prevented a compact floe from floating off shore. The same iceberg caught all the ice that streamed down the west coast and round Richardson Bay, guiding it out towards the south-east, away from Cape Collinson, off which, and between it and the iceberg, was navigable water. In this pool the two ships were secured, watching for an opportunity to get north, and during the forced delay employing our energies in trying, by blasting, to unlock the land ice from the berg, and let it drift south, with the hope of releasing the ice to the northward ; but perhaps it is fortunate we did not succeed, as by doing so, if the ice in the offing had not opened at the same time, our principal protection might have been lost, the iceberg itself being too small to form a pool under its lee sufficiently large for both ships, even had it been for one. A depot of provisions was landed at Cape Collinson for our future travellers bound to the southward along the coast. The current was observed to run with greater rapidity to the southward than in the broader part of Smith's Sound. During each flood-tide about five miles of ice drifted past us ; for four hours of the ebb it remained stationary ; thus about ten miles of ice drifted south daily, adding to the accumulation in the basin of Smith's Sound, unless, as is probable, it is carried as quickly into Baffin's Bay through the southern entrance. On the north side of each point on this shore the ice had piled up a wall-like barrier from 20 to 30 feet high, but elsewhere there was not much display of pressure. On the morning of August 21, the water channels in the middle of the straits looking very inviting, we made a start at the top of high water, but were led by the ice so much out from the land that I returned to our friendly protecting floe and iceberg until the next tide, first en- deavouring to clear the nip of one against the other by ramming ; but finding that it would cost too much in coal and shake of the ship to clear it completely, and too much powder to blast it away, I gave up the attempt, after con- sultation with Capt. Stephenson, and considering that the constant open channels in the offing denoted more water farther off. The two ships started again at 9 P.M., just before low water, and after a troublesome passage through about three miles of close heavy floe pieces, we passed into open leads of water, extending to the north-east up the straits. A bitter northerly wind, accompanied with mist and snow, freshening at the same time, carried the ice with great rapidity to the southward, and obliged us to beat to windward under steam and fore and aft sails, tacking frequently to avoid the heaviest streams of ice. After this snowstorm the land remained covered with snow for the season. 30 NATURE \Nov. 9, i; By noon of the 22nd, after buffeting against a strong breeze, we succeeded in weathering the northern head- land of the largest bay on the west coast, named on the latest charts Carl Ritter Bay, but agreeing by latitude and relative position with the neighbouring land on the north part of Richardson Bay, In this part of the channel there was very little ice, but three or four miles further north a heavy pack extended across towards Crozier Island, and obliged us to proceed in that direction. In the evening, the wind lulling, I took in the fore and aft sails, and steered through the most open channels to the northward, passing to the westward of Franklin Island, and at midnight we were abeam of Hans Island, with per- fectly clear water between us and the eastern land ; but streams of ice prevented our approaching the western shore. No deep inlet answering to the Carl Ritter Bay of the charts exists in its given latitude. Steaming to the northward, I endeavoured to close the western shore south of Cape Cracroft, but the ice prevented our doing so, and forced me to bear up to the eastward for Cape Bryant, passing which I found the pack extending across from Cape Morton and Joe Island to Cape Lieber, with a south-westerly wind constantly adding to it by driving more ice to the northward through Kennedy Ciiannel. The Discovery then landed a depot of 240 rations at Cape Morton for use of any travelling party exploring Petermann Fiord, and the ships beat back to Bessels Bay, in the entrance of which we obtained a sheltered anchorage to the north of Hannah Island. On the 24th, the south-west wind still continuing, which I knew would open the ice on the western shore of Hall's Basin, I ascended Cape Morton. At an altitude of 2,000 feet it was perfectly calm, with a clear sky. The prominent capes of the channel were clearly visible — Cape Union seventy miles distant, and Cape Sumner fifty miles, the one locking in beyond the other to within five degrees. All the west coast of Kennedy Channel, up to Cape Lieber and Lady Franklin Sound, was clear of ice, with navigable water through the ice streams in the middle of the channel far to the northward. From Joe Island to the north, and east to Polaris Bay, the ice was clearly packed, but between Cape Lupton and Beechey was more open. Hurrying to the boat the ships were signalled to get under way, and we ran quickly to the northward across the channel under sail. Five miles north of Cape Lieber the pack obliged me to enter Lady FrankHn Sound, on the northern shore of which an indentation in the land gave promise of protection. On a nearer approach we discovered a large and well-protected harbour inside an island immediately west of Cape BelJot, against which the pack ice of the channel rested. Here the ships were secured close to the shore on the morning of August 25. On entering the harbour we had the satisfaction of sighting a herd of nine musk-oxen, all of which were killed ; our joy at the good luck of the sportsmen and ourselves being greatly increased by the news that the vegetation was considerably richer than that of any part of the coast visited by us north of Port Foulke, the Elysium of the Arctic regions. Finding that the harbour was suitable in every way for winter quarters, and the abundance of the spare Arctic vegetation in the neigh- bourhood giving every promise of game being procurable I here decided to leave the Disi.overy, and to push forward with the Alert alone. Owing to our high northern position, although the sun was still above the horizon at midnight, its altitude at noon was too low to affect the temperature much, conse- quently, after August 20 the temperature of the air re- mained steadily below freezing point for the winter, and the young ice was forming at midday much earlier than it does in more southern latitudes. Notwithstanding this, Arctic navigation depends so much upon the wind, that I considered that the transient Arctic season of twenty days' duration was still at its height. The ice in Robeson Channel was well broken up, moving up and down strait with the change of tide, and only waiting for a v to open a passage along shore. Having strengthened my crew by embarking Li Wyatt Rawson and seven men belonging to the Discoz forming one travelling sledge party, on the morninj August 26 the two ships forming the expedition, officers and crews of which had worked so harmonio and successfully together, separated ; those embarkin one, if the published charts and the statements of predecessors proved correct, having the cheering feeli of in all human probability successfully completing chief task assigned us, but the others, although elatei the prospects of their comrades and partaking gener in the inspiriting feelings, having a desperate figh conquer the sensation of being left behind to play v they could not but consider a secondary part in general programme. On arriving at the entrance of the harbour the n pack was found to have closed in against the shore completely filled up Lady Franklin Sound, some si floes streaming rapidly into Discovery Bay. In em vouring to keep the ship clear of these, she touc the ground at the top of high water and hung there half an hour, when, fortunately, by lowering the bi and hghtening the ship a little, she floated again witl damage. During the afternoon, at lovv water, the p; which, apparently uninfluenced by wind, had been mo) to the southward the whole day, but fastest during flood tide, drifted slightly off ttie land. Immediate vantage was taken of the welcome opening which enat us to proceed north, but on reaching Point Murchi: the pack extending completely across the strait, prever all farther progress ; there was therefore nothing fo but to return to " Discovery Harbour," where the ; was again secured at the entrance ready to advance the first opportunity. On the 27th we experienced very light north-east wii The ice in the channel continued to move to the soi ward, except during the height of the ebb tide, whe was either stationary or set slowly northward, but sufficiently so to open a navigable passage, although before high water it appeared so ready to move thz was induced to recall the skating parties to the ship keep the steam up. On the 28th the ice was decide more open, and we were just about to move at 11 7\ the commencement of the north running tide, whe thick fog enveloped us, and, hiding everything at n than twenty yards distance, effectually prevented moving. Later in the afternoon it cleared off, but it now low water, and on trying to move the ship I fo: that, although afloat, she was within a basin, surroun on all sides by a raised embankment of mud, so, with tantalising prospect of an open channel before us, we v forced to remain until the rising water enabled lightened ship to pass over the obstacle. Hoisting up boats and signalling a final "good-bye " to the Discov. we succeeded in advancing to within a mile of C Beechey, fifteen miles north-east of Discovery Bay, wl in a tussle with a he ivy floe- piece, the rudder-hea which had been badly sprung some days before — becc so injured that the rudder was nearly useless ; at the si time the pack was sighted pressing tight in against the c on the northern side ; I therefore secured the ship in; some grounded ice and shifted the rudder. While wail at this part of the coast the sportsmen were fortur enough to capture three more musk-oxen, a very welcc addition to our supply of fresh meat. On the 29th the pack remained closed in to the noi ward of Cape Beechey until noon, when, at about the t of high water, from the suaimit of the cape, I observe opening. The ship was immediately signalled to advai and, picking up my boat on the way, we succeeded reaching Lincoln Bay, but not without having to run Tov. 9, 1876] NATURE w Ifexciting and rather anxious neck-and-neck race with a Iheavy floe, which setting in towards the beetling pre- Jcipitous chffs of Cape Frederick VII., forming the south point of the bay, threatened to prevent our progress. At I the entrance of Lincoln Bay, which otherwise is much exposed, some very heavy floe-bergs were aground on a mk, and they must to a great extent keep heavy ice from »rcing its way into the bay during a south-easterly wind, which direction the bay is perfectly open. The head the bay, which appeared from the distance to be well Egetated, was filled with pack ice consisting of numerous lall floe pieces less than a quarter of a mile in diameter, "intermixed with "rubble," or "boulder" ice, now all cemented so firmly together with this season's frost that we had great difficulty in clearing away a dock for the ship. On the 30th a depot of provisions of 1,000 rations, for the use of travelling parties, was landed on the north shore of the bay. Soon after high water, the ice having opened out considerably, we proceeded to the northward ; but, in doing so, some large floe pieces of unusually heavy ice obliged me, much to my regret, to stand out some three miles from the lard, thereby risking the ship being beset in the pack which I was most anxious and careful to avoid happening. On all occasions of viewing the ice in 'lobeson Channel, since it was first seen from Cape Morton, I had invariably noticed lanes of water stretching south-east and north-west across the channel from about Cape Lupton on the Greenland shore, to Cape Frederick VII. on the west side, due probably to this being the narrowest part or neck of the channel, and the ice jamming across the narrowing space north and south of it, accord- tig to the direction of pressure. Consequently, when at 3 r.M. the ice prevented any farther advance, observing many pools of water near us, and having two hours of the north-running tide favoured by a light air still due, instead of returning to the safety of Lincoln Bay, I waited at the edge of the pack, in the hope of its opening. But in this I was disappointed, for at 4 P.M., having just sufficient warning to enable me to pick cut the safest-looking place near us, that is, to get as far away as possible from the heavy ice, it completely encircled the ship, and she was hopelessly beset in a very heavy pack, consisting of old floes of 80 feet in thickness, and from one to four miles in diameter, the intervals between them filled with broken- up ice of all sizes, from the blue-ice rounded hummocks which were sufficiently high above the water-line to lift the quarter boats bodily as they passed underneath, whilst ;;rirding their way along the ship's side, down to the r mailer pieces which the previous nipping together of the heavy floes had rounded and polished like the boulders and pebbles in a rapid river. Intermixed with the pack, fortunately for us, was a vast collection of soft pats of sludge-ice formed during the last snowfall : this, if squeezed together before it is properly hardened into ice, orms into plate-like masses with raised edges, each piece, whenever moved, assisting to round its neighbour. Since meeting the ice off Cape Sabine I had noticed a gradual tut considerable change taking place in the appearance and formation of the floes. The heaviest that we first encountered were not more than eight or ten feet in thickness. Off Cape Frazer were a Jew more ancient pieces, estimated at the time as being twenty feet thick, but we now know that that was far short of the correct measure. But up to the present time, when the main pack consisted of heavy ice, I had failed to realize that, instead of approaching a region favoured with open water and a warm climate, we were gradually nearing a sea where the ice was of a totally different formation to what we had ever before experienced, and that few Arctic navigators had me', and only one battled with success- fully ; that in reality we must be approaching the same sea which gives birth to the ice met with on the coast of America by Collinson and McClure, and which the latter in 1 85 1, succeeded in navigating through in a sailing vessel for upwards of 100 miles, during his memorable and perilous passage along the north-west coast of Banks Land, from Prince Alfred Cape to the Bay of Mercy, but there sealed up his ship for ever ; which Sir Edward Parry iiiet with in the same channel in 1820, but with the more difficult task before him of navigating against stream and prevailing wind, was forced to own conquered even him and his experienced companions ; which, passing on- wards to the eastward down McClintock Channel, beset, and never afterwards released, the ErcbusTiwA Terror under Sir John Franklin and Captain Crozier ; and which, inter- mixed with light Spitzbergen ice, is constantly streaming to the southward along the eastern shore of Greenland, and there destroyed the Hansa cf the German Arctic Expedition. As our only hope of pushing north against the general set of the current, to say nothing of the extreme hazard of remaining in such a pack, consisted in regaining the shore, both boilers were lighted and full steam kept ready, in order to take immediate advantage of any opportunity that might occur. During the night, at the top of high water, the pack, which previously had been drifting in a compact body to the southward, eased a little near the edge of the large and deep floating floes, in consequence of a difference in the force of the surface and under-current ; but before we were able to clrar away a space of water at the stern sufficiently large to enable the rudder to be shipped, the ice closed, and obliged us to dismantle again. At the full height of the ebb current the pack again tried its best to open, but with th? same result. Fully expecting a change at low water, with much labour a working space was cleared under the stern, but owing to the spare rudder being very badly balanced we nearly lost our opportunity. At last, with the same rr. omen- tary slacking of the ice pressure as occurred at the top of high water, with a greater pressure of steam than had been exerted even during the official steam trial, the ship commenced to move ; when, by advancing and retreating, a water space was gradually formed in which the ship could gain momentum, and at last we pushed our way bodily into ice not quite so close, and succeeded most providentially in reaching the shore in Lincoln Bay. Had we been delayed another five minutes the ship would have been caught in the pack during the heavy gale which set in from the south-west the same evening, and continued for two days ; and which, in fact, by forcing the pack to the north-east, out of the Robeson Channel, enabled the ship to pass Cape Union without any trouble. During the late struggle, as well as on many previous occasions, it was noticeable how futile the efforts of the crew were to clear away the ice on the bow or quarter which impeded the movement of the ship, compared to the enormous power exerted by the ship when able to ram her way between the pieces even at ordinary speed. Thus steamers are enabled to penetrate through a broken- up pack which the old voyagers, with their sailing vessels, necessarily deemed impassable. At the same time there is a limit to the risks which are advisable to be run ; no ship has yet been built which could withstand a real nip between two pieces of heavy ice. On the afternoon of August 31, shortly after the ship was secured in her former position to the firm ice in Lincoln Bay, the wind gradually freshened from the south-west, blowing slightly off the land, accompanied with a snow- storm and a threatening appearance of the weather. So far as we could dstinguish through the snow, the main pack was driven by the gale to the northward up the channel, but knowing that it would take some hours to produce a navigable passage past Cape Union, I waited until the morning of September i, when with steam at hand ready if requisite, we passed up the straits, running before a strong gale 9^ knots an hour, between 32 NATURE [Nov. 9, 1 8 the western shore and the pack, which was driving quickly to the northward, at about three miles distance from the land. By noon, having carried Her Majesty's ship into latitude 82° 24' N., a higher latitude than any vessel had ever before attained, the ensign was hoisted at the peak. On hauling to the westward at the northern entrance of Robeson Channel, we lost the wind under the lee of the land, and were obliged to furl sails and proceed under steam ; at the same time the breadth of the navigable water channel was much contracted, until off Cape Sheridan the ice was observed to be touching the shore. In Robeson Channel proper, except where the cliffs rise precipitously from the sea, and afford no ledge or step on which the ice can lodge, the shore line is fronted at a few paces distance by a nearly continuous ragged-topped ice wall from fifteen to thirty-five feet high. It is broken only opposite the larger ravines, where the soil carried down by the summer flood has, by accumulating, shallowed the water sufficiently to catch up the drifting ice as it passes, and form a line of more isolated ice hummocks. Here the continuity of the ice wall is occasionally broken. But on leaving Robeson Channel, immediately the land trends to the westward, the coast line loses its steep character, and the heavy ice is stranded at a distance of 100 to 200 yards from the shore, forming a fringe of detached masses of ice from 20 feet to upwards of 60 feet in height above water, aground in from eight to twelve fathoms water, and except where the coast is shallow extending close into the beach line. The average measurement of the ice in thickness as it floated is 80 feet, and it always breaks from the salt water floe of which it originally formed a part in pieces of slightly greater dimensions in horizontal measurements. On finding the ice close in at Cape Sheridan, having made good 25 miles of northing since leaving Lincoln Bay in the morning, my only alternative was to secure the ship inside this protecting barrier of ice, where she was accordingly placed during the afternoon, and a depot of provisions of 2,000 rations established for the use of travelling parties. The weather remained thick until the evening, when 1 obtained a good view from a station about 300 feet above the sea level. The coast line continued to the north-west for about thirty miles, form- ing a large bay bounded by the United States' range of mountains — Mounts Marie and Julia and Cape Joseph Henry, named by the late Capt. Hall, are so conspicuous that it was impossible to mistake their identity although more than thirty degrees out in bearing on the chart. No land was to be seen to the northward although our wishes leading to the thought, we still hoped that the heavy clouds in that direction might hide it from our view. But considering the character and movement of the ice I was reluctantly forced to admit that it gave convincing proof that none existed within a reasonable distance, and that we had arrived on the shore of the Arctic Ocean finding it exactly the opposite to an " Open Polar Sea." The pack ice extended close in to Cape Sheridan and the shore to the westward of it, a pool of water being noticed on the east or lee side of each projecting point in the bay which the intervening ice effectually prevented our think- ing of reaching. To the eastward the channel by which we had advanced was completely blocked by the return of the ice, and the ship, although fairly protected, was thoroughly embayed by the pack. The last snowfall had covered the land completely to a depth of from 6 to 12 inches and the low sloping hills formed anything but a cheering landscape. During the night the wind again freshened considerably from the south-west, and in a squall carried away the hawsers by which we were secured and obliged me to let go a bower anchor ; this faUing on gravel did not bring the ship up until she had drifted half a cable's length out- side the barrier of " floe-bergs " from which the pack was slowly retreating towards the north-east. The gale con- tinued all night and drove the pack two miles off shore, but its constant motion to the eastward kept it tight against Point Sheridan and cut us off from all chance advancing. I was much struck at the time by the i tinacity with which the pack kept its ground during t severe gale, and could not help fearing that there wo be little chance of its opening out sufficiently to allow to advance much farther this year ; but knowing well occasional inexphcable uncertainty in its movements still hoped for the best. On the morning of September 2 the wind sudde shifted from south-west to north-west, bringing the p; rapidly in towards the land, and causing the ship to sw broadside on to the heavy stranded ice ; fortunately, barometer having indicated the probability of a chai occurring, steam had beea kept ready, and after a ci siderable amount of manoeuvring the anchor was weigh Our protected dock was so small, and the entrance tc so narrow and encumbered with ice, that it was vi extreme difficulty, much labour, and no trifling expense broken hawsers, that the ship was hauled in stern fc most, with the united force of the wind and flood t pressing at right angles to the course. It was a r question whether the ice or the ship would be in fi and my anxiety was much relieved when, as the wh northern pack reached the outside of our friendly fl bergs, I saw the ship's bow swing clear inside into safi and the pack, instead of doing us an injury, considera strengthen our protecting outwork by forcing new pie on shore ; at the same time, we could not help foresee that by so doing our chance of advancing when we wisi was proportionately lessened. The danger we had narrowly escaped from was forcibly represented to us as the pack, with irresistible force, swept past us to eastward at the rate of a mile an hour, and constat added to the accumulated masses outside. The projecting point of a heavy floe would first groi in from ten to twelve fathoms of water ; then the ou mass, continuing its course, unable to stop its progre would tear itself away from its cast-off portion. 1 pressure, however, still continuing, the severed piece \ forced, and frequently by the parent mass itself, up steeply inclined shore, rising slowly and majestically < of the water 10 or 12 teet above its old line of flotati and remaining usually nearly upright. The motion \ entirely different to that produced when two ordin floes some 4 or 6 feet thick met together ; then, broken edges of the two pieces of ice, each striving the mastery, are readily upheaved and continually over with a noisy crash. Here, the enormous presst raising pieces, frequently 30,000 tons in weight, in cc parative silence, displays itself with becoming solemr and grandeur. What occurs when two 80-foot floes m we cannot say ; but the result, as far as a ship is c cerneJ, floating as the ice does higher out of the wa than herself, would be much the same as the clos together of the two sides of a dry dock on the confir vessel. For the next three days we experienced light weste winds ; the ice remained close in to the coast, movi generally to the south-eastward, but occasionally stoppi and closing up towards the north-west during the e tide. During the flood, pools of water, half a mile lo by a quarter broad, frequently formed on the south-e side of the larger floes, but they were always complet isolated from each other by several miles of heavy i Although a few large floes could be distinguished in 1 offing, the pack within five miles of the land usually c( sisted of floes of less than a mile in diameter, with a v( large proportion of rubble ice evidently broken off 1 large floes as they forced their way past the points land to the north-west of us, the whole forming as rou a road for sledge travelling as could well be imagined. At this period, although all regular navigation was e dently at an end, I was naturally most anxious to m( the ship from her exposed position before the setting fov. 9, 1876] NATURE 33 winter, but the quickly advancing season warned me Jthat no movement should be made without a reasonable probability of attaining a sheltered position. Accordingly, Commander Albert Hastings Markham and Lieut. Pelham Aldrirh started on September 5 to look at a bay seen from our hill station about eight miles distant from us to the westward. They reported that it was a well-sheltered harbour, thickly coated with this season's ice, but that the continuous wall formed by the grounded floe bergs across the entrance to it would effectually prevent our entering. After this report, with the temperature remaining steady ctween + 20° and + 10°, and the barrier of grounded ice, which, although protecting, effectually imprisoned us, having increased in breadth to seaward for 200 yards, each heavy piece being compactly cemented in amongst its neighbours by the lighter broken up rubble ice, which was carried in by the tidal current, and frozen into posi- tion by the low temperature, I decided to commence landing such provisions and stores as were hampering the decks of the ship, and which would not be required during the winter, should we fortunately be able to move into safer quarters. On September 6, 7, and 8, we experienced a heavy fall of snow, which, bearing down the young ice by its accu- mulated weight, allowed the water to percolate upwards, and render the floe very wet and unfavourable for travel- ling on. But not expecting any decided movement of the ice during the neap tides, and having secured the ship with a bower anchor and cable to the shore, and landed an ample depot for the support of any travelling party in the event of accident to the ship, which at the time did not appear improbable, Lieut. Pelham Aldrich, accom- panied by Capt. Feilden, R.A., and Dr. Edward L, Moss, started on a pioneering journey towards the north, and Lieut. Wyatt Rawson towards the south. The latter returned after two days' absence, having found the cape three miles from the ship, forming the entrance to Robeson Channel, impassable by land, on account of the steepness of the cliffs ; and by sea, in consequence of the continual movement of the broken pack, which prevented him venturing on it, even with a boat. Lieut. Aldrich's party returned after an absence of four days. He had succeeded in establishing a depot of provisions, and ex- ploring the coast line for a distance of twenty miles to the north-west. The travelling was found to be unusually heavy, owing to the very rough state of the ice, and the deep snow, with its sticky wet foundation of sludge ; indeed, so bad was it that although only laden with half weights, all three sledges broke down. The young ice in the few patches met with was too weak and treacherous to admit of heavy sledg.-s journeying over it ; one sledge broke through, and was only recovered with much diffi- culty. On September 10 a westerly wind blowing off shore, irce 4, combined with the ebb tide, opened for the first line since our arrival here, a narrow channel between the rounded ice and the pack extending for half a mile eyond Cape Sheridan, but trending out to seaward. On the nth, the same wind continuing, the channel widened out until it was a mile broad, and extended for six miles to the westward, ending two miles distant from the shore. As this offered an opportunity of advancing a large depot of travelling provisions and boats by water. Commander Markham started with a strong party, having first to launch the boats across the heavier barrier of ice within which the ship was sealed up, apparently frozen in for the season. The sky being fairly clear, this was the first day on which we were able to pronounce decidedly concerning the northern land reported to exist by the Polaris. After a constant watch, and carefully noting the movement of the darkened patches, I was now with much reluctance forced to admit that no land existed to the northward for a very considerable distance. As seen through the light haze the dark reflection of the sky above the detached pools of water in the offing, in strong contrast by the side of the light reflected from the close ice, which in a great measure is similar to the bright glare reflected from a large sand flat, creates a very decided appearance of land when there is a mirage ; indeed, sufficiently so as to deceive many of us when so anxiously expecting and hoping to see it. We, therefore, cease to wond r at the cnsual look-out men from the Polaris being mistaken, but the more experienced on board should not have allowed themselves to be so readily misled. During the 13th and 14th the wind from the south- west gradually freshened, until on the latter day it was blowing a very strong gale, force 10 in the squalls, and evidently extending over the whole extent of Kennedy Channel ; for the swell from the open water which it had produced on the weather shore extended round Cape Rawson, and reaching our position broke up all the light ice formed this season, and drove it out to sea, the large grounded floe-bergs alone remaining, with clear passages between them, through which we could have readily passed if requisite ; but the main pack to the westward, although the channel leading to seaward had extended to between ten and twelve miles distance from us, still remained fast to the shore at a distance of about six miles from the ship. The ship was secured by a bower cable, stem to the shore, one side resting against a large floe-berg, and bumping slightly against it with the swell. During the evening it was blowing furiously, with a blinding snow- drift, and whilst I was thinking of the uncomfortable state of the travellers in the tents in such a gale, I observed Commander Markham arrive abreast the ship. Although we were within 1 20 yards of the shore, it was only by double manning the oars of the cutter that during an opportune lull I was able to establish a hauling line between the ship and the shore, and so communicate with him ; when it appeared that, having one man disabled from exhaustion, he had decided to push on for the ship to obtain assistance. With the help of the fresh men forming the cutter's crew, Capt. Markham and myself had the satisfaction of seeing the sledge party all on board before midnight, and the frozen man's life saved ; but the sledge crew, who had so gallantly faced the storm, were a!l much exhausted, and m fact did not recover themselves for several days. On the morning of the 15th the wind lulled consider- ably, and the remainder of Commander Markham's party, under the command of Lieut. Parr, returned, having passed anything but a pleasant time in their tents during the gale. On ascending our look-out hill I observed that the ice to the westward between the land and the channel in the pack had drifted to seaward, leaving a clear road by which we could advance to a place of shelter. Making a signal to the ship, steam was immediately got ready and the rudder shipped, but on lowering the screw we found it impossible to enter the shaft. Whilst raising it again to clear away the ice, a very thick snowstorm came on with a blinding mist, which, hiding everything from view, prevented our moving. Before midnight the storm was blowing as furiously as ever. On the morning of the i6th, the gale still keeping the main pack clear of the shore, the weather cleared again, and another attempt was made to ship the screw, but without success, on account of the accumulated ice. While endeavouring to clear it the wind gradually shifted round to the north-west, and we had the mortification of seeing the pack rapidly nearing the land. By 2 P.M. it had reached the shore ice, and effectually closed us in for the winter. It never left the shore to the north-westward of our position afterwards, although a large space of clear water remained to the eastward between us and Robeson Channel, so long as the wind lasted from the eastward. 34 NATURE [Nov. 9, I may here add that on examining the coast-hne after- wards, both during the autumn and the following spring, I am firmly persuaded that our forced detention during the late gale was most providential. There was no bay on the coast open enough to receive the ship, and the ice at the entrance of each was far too thick for us to cut or force our way through before the main pack had closed in. Off the open coast where we were forced to pass our winter, the heavy nature of the ice constituted our safety ; grounding in twelve fathoms, it was impossible that it could hurt the ship. At first I was rather anxious lest any lighter ice might be forced in, and that then the ship might be driven by it on shore, but as time advanced and nothing but ice of the same thick character made its appearance, I became more reconciled to our position. It ultimately proved to be the best sheltered position on the coast from which a ready means of retreat was likely to be offered. In all other parts, the beach, either by being too steep, allowed the heavy ice to force its way close up on to the shore, or where shallower, left a suf- ficiently large space of water in which smaller and more dangerous ice-blocks were able to drift about before they grounded in about the same depth of water as that in which the ship floated. During the following week preparations were made for the autumn sledging, each man being fully employed fitting his travelling clothing and preparing the equipment of the sledges. As soon as the shore ice was sufficiently strong, Commander A. H. Markham, with Lieutenants A. A. C. Parr and W. H. May under his orders, started on September 25 with three sledges to establish a depot of provisions as far in advance to the north-westward as possible. Lieut. P. Aldrich left four days previously with two lightly-equipped dog sledges to pioneer the road round Cape Joseph Henry for the larger party. He re- turned on board on October 5, after an absence of thir- teen days, having been accompanied by Adam Ayles, A.B. On September 27, from the summit of a mountain 2,000 feet high, situated in lat. 82° 48' N., somewhat further north than the most northern latitude attained by our gallant predecessor. Sir Edward Parry, in his cele- brated boat jcurncy towards the North Pole, he discovered land extending to the north-westward for a distance of sixty miles to lat. 83° 7', with lofty mountains in the inte- rior to the southward. No land was sighted to the northward. On October 14, two days after the sun had left us for its long winter's absence. Commander Markham's party returned after a journey of nineteen days, having, with very severe labour, succeeded in placing a depot of pro- visions in lat. 82° 44' N., and ^n tracing the coast-line nearly two wWts further north, thus reaching the exact latitude attained by Sir Edward Parry. Being anxious to inform Capt. Stephenson of our position, and the good prospects before his travelling parties in the following spring in exploring the north-west coast of Greenland, I despatched Lieut. Rawson again to attempt to open com- munication between the two vessels, although I had grave doubts of his succeeding. He was absent from October 2 to October 12, returning unsuccessful on the latter day, having found his road again stopped by unsafe ice within a distance of nine miles of the ship. The broken masses of pressed-up ice resting against the cliffs, in many places more than 30 feet high, and the accumu- lated deep snow-drifts in the valleys caused very laborious and slow travelling. During these autumn sledging journeys, with the tem- perature ranging between 15° above and 22° below zero, the heavy labour, hardships, and discomforts inseparable from Arctic travelling, caused by the wet soft snow, weak ice, and water spaces, which obliged the sledges to be dragged over the hills, combined with constant strong winds and misty weather, were, if anything, much greater than those usually experienced. Out of the nortl party of twenty-one men and three officers, no less t seven men and one officer returned to the ship b: frostbitten, three of these so severely as to render an tation necessary, the patients being confined to their 1 for the greater part of the winter. The sledges with their cargoes on four occasions b: through the ice, and individual men frequently ; these, becoming wet through, were made to change t clothing, and so escaped any bad consequences. frost-bites are to be attributed entirely to the wet sli state of some of the ice that had to be crossed. I happened that heavy snow fell on twelve conseci days, forming a layer of lightly compressed snow at ' 2 feet thick, which in the snow-drifts collected into ri( more than double that depth. The thin ice, not b sufficiently strong to support this additional we became borne down and allowed the water to through. This being protected from the cold tempen of the air by its blanket-like covering, remained unfn although the temperature was upwards of 40° below freezing-point ; consequently whenever the traveller: experienced as they were at the time, were forced to their sledges over a road of this nature, their feet be( wet and afterwards frost-bitten a considerable time b they discovered it (when the tent was pitched ir evening), by which time the mischief had attained an advanced stage as to defy all restoration of the c lation. The tent equipment became so saturated frozen moisture that on arrival on board it weighed than double .what it did when dry before starting ; so anxious were all to escape another sleepless nig the stiffly frozen blanket bags, that on the last el forced march was made by the northern party thi the heavy snow to the ship, in which the powers of ei ance of all engaged were tried to the utmost. A] travellers returned in wonderful spirits and full of j Nothing could exceed the determined perseverance which each obstacle to the advance of the party overcome, or the cheerfulness with which each made of the numerous unavoidable hardships they had u gone The sledges proved to be too rigid ; the upi breaking necessitated frequent stoppages for repairs by taking out the metal pins connecting them to the \ bearer?, and depending upon the hide lashings, they wards stood the unusually heavy Avork admirably. On no one day while the northern party were trav this season could they have obtained snow of suft consistency to enable them to build snow house shelter by night. Lieut. Rawson, finding harder sn the southern ravines, was able to construct a snow '. on one occasion. The advantageous results of the av travelling, in addition to the advance of provisioi future use, were; first, a considerable gain in expei in Arctic sledging, and secondly, by our greater fortune in finding continuous land over or near to travel, we succeeded in wresting from Sir E( Parry and his companions their gallantly-achievec tinction of having advanced the British flag to the h northern latitude. I have grouped the names of h and his followers together on the chart in the latiti which they attained in 1827. On the return of th veiling parties, the sun having bidden us farewell, ] rations were made for the winter ; the ship was h over, all the provisions and stores which could witl the weather, and for which room could not be found hatches, were deposited on shore, and the habitabh cleared as much as possible. By carefully coverir; the engine-room hatches with a thick layer of sno cold, throughout the winter, was kept from penet downwards into the lower part of the ship. The t rature of the holds and engine-room, without the fires, always remaining above -\- 28*5, the temperal the surrounding water, and the fire-pumps whic Nov. 9, 1876] NATURE 35 their suction pipes more than six feet below the water-line, remained serviceable to the last. The long Arctic winter, with its unparalleled intensity and duration of darkness produced by an absence of sun- light for 142 days, was passed by each individual on board with much cheerfulness and contentment. Owing to the sameness in the daily routine, which, when looking into futurity, is thought to entail a long duration of dreary monotony, the time, in reality, passed with great rapidity, and in January, when the first glimmering increase in the midday twilight began to lengthen sensibly day by day, the want of light was scarcely noticed by any one ; and not until the sun actually returned on March i did we in any way realise the intense darkness we must have experienced for so long a period. The manifold ordinary duties of the ship — to which were added the constai)t repair of the snow embankment, which, in consequence ot our being frozen in close to a stranded piece of ice, was thrown down every springtide — kept the ship's company fully employed, ana gave them plenty of exer- cise during the day. On five evenings in the week a school, formed on the lower deck under Commander Markham and several of the officers, was well attended, each Thursday being devoted to lectures, songs in cha- racter, and readings, with occasional theatrical represen- tations ; the whole so admirably arranged and conducted by Commander Markham as to keep up the pleased interest of all for the whole period. The ventilation of the ship received the unceasing attention of Dr. Thomas Colan and myself, and owing to the large extra space amidships, left Httle or nothing to be desired in that respect. The health of the officers and crew, with only one exception, was most excellent, and the habitable deck as dry as is possible in these regions, in a ship without an extraordinary expenditure of coal. With the arrival of the new year preparations for the spring travelling campaign commenced, the dogs being exercised daily under the superintendence of Mr. George Le Clere Iigerton, Sub-Lieutenant, as soon as there was sufficient light. The pack in the offing remained in motion until the first week in November, when it gradually settled itself into position for the winter, the last pool of water being seen on the i6th of the month off Cape Rawson at the entrance to Robeson Channel. No move- ment, whatever occurred in the ice during the winter, except the formation of a tidal crack outside the grounded ice, which opened 2 or 3 feet during the spring tides. Although we had frequent evidence of strong winds pre- vailing in Robeson Channel, the weather at our winter quarters was remarkably calm ; indeed we may be said to have wintered on the border of a Pacific Sea. The prevailing wind was from the westward ; we never experi- enced any easterly winds ; it always blew off the land. Had it not been for the intervening calms, the persistent westerly winds might have been well called a trade wind. On only two days were we prevented by the wmd and accompanying snow-drift from taking exercise outside the ship. This quiet state of the atmosphere was productive of the severest cold ever experienced in the Arctic regions. Early in March, during a long continuance of cold weather, the Alert registered a minimum of 737 below zero; the Discovery, 2X the same time, 70*5 below zero. In 1850 the North Star, at Wolsenholme Sound, in lat. 76° 30' N., recorded 69 "5 below zero. The Alert's minimum tem- perature for twenty-four hturs was 7031 below zero, the Discovery s minimum temperature for twenty- four hours was 670 below zero ; Dr. Kane's, at Rensselaer Harbour, in lat. 78° 37' N. in 1854, 58 01 below zero. Previously the longest continuance of cold weather recorded, that by Sir Edward Belcher at Nonhumberland Sound, in lat. 76° 52' N., in 1853, was a mean temperature for ten consecutive days of 48 9 below zero. The Discovery expeiienced a mean temperature for seven consecutive days of 58*17 ditto. The Alert experienced a mean temperature for thirteen days of 58*9 ditto ; and for five days and nine hours of 66*29. During February mercury remained frozen for fifteen consecutive days ; a south-westerly gale, lasting four days, then brought warmer weather ; imme- diately the wind fell cold weather returned, and the mercury remained frozen for a further period of fifteen days. After the heavy snow-fall in the autumn previously alluded to, very little fell, and much trouble was experi- enced in obtaining sufficient for embanking the ship, it being necessary to drag some from the shore for that purpose. Owing to the small quantity which fell during the winter, estimated at from 6 to 8 inches, the summits of the coast hills were uncovered by the wind and re- mained so until May and the early part of June, when we again experienced a heavy snow-fall, estimated at a mean thickness of i foot. In the valleys and on the shores having an eastern aspect, the snow which fell remained light, and, unless snow-shoes were used, caused very heavy travelling. In the unprotected valleys and on the weather coasts the snow was sufficiently compact to afibrd fair travelling, much the same as that experienced in southern latitudes, where the more variable winds harden the snow everywhere. Light flashes of aurora were occasionally seen on various bearings, but most commonly passing through the zenith. None were of sufficient brilliancy to call for notice. The phenomena may be said to have been insig- nificant in the extreme, and, as far as we could discover, were totally unconnected with any magnetic or electric disturbance. During the winter Commander Albert H. Markham and Lieut. George A. Giffard employed themselves with much diligence and perseverance at the magnetic ob- servatory, situated on shore, in a series of large and lofty snow houses, which were connected together with a covered snow gallery. Weekly observations were made with Barrow's dip circle for determining the incHnation, and by means of Lloyd's needles for the total (relative) force. Occasionally these observations were repeated on the same day. The absolute horizontal intensity was obtained once every three weeks, and a series of hourly differential observations were obtained with the portable declination magnetometer on several consecutive days in the months of December, January, and February. At various places between Disco and the Alert's winter quarters, whenever opportunities offered, observations for inclination and total force were taken with Mr. Fox's instrument, observations for determining the absolute declination were also taken when opportunities occurred. Lieut. Pelham Aldrich superintended the meteorological observations, also observations with Sir C. Wheatstone's polariscope, and Lieut. Alfred A. C. Parr, notwithstanding the severe season, obtained a good series of astronomical observations, also observations with the spectroscope and Sir William Thomson's portable electrometer. I have not hitherto alluded to the services of Capt. Feilden, Paymaster, R.A., Naturalist to the Expedition, preferring that the report on the numerous scientific sub- jects to which he has directed his attention should emanate from himself ; I will merely state here that not one moment has been lost by this indefatigable collector and observer. He has, moreover, by his genial disposi- tion and ready help on all occasions, won the friendship of all, and I feel confident that their Lordships will highly appreciate his valuable services. I am only doing him justice when I state that he has been to this expedi- tic n what Sabine was to that under the command of Sir Edward Parry. Dr. Edward Moss, a highly skilled and talented ob- server, in addition to his medical duties, kept himself fuUj employed in many branches of natural science ; his in- vestigations embraced studies of the floe- bergs and floes 36 NATURE \Nov, 9, Nov. 9, 1876] NATURE |r principally chlorine estimations, specific gravity estima- tions by Buchanan's method, and microscopy of dust strata ; the chlorine and specific gravity estimations, and the microscopy of winter sea water ; examination of air precipitates ; estimation of carbonic acid and watery vapour in air ; some experiments on the brittleness of iron at low temperatures. The vicinity of our winter quarters proved to be un- favoured by game. On our first arrival a few ducks were seen and five shot, and during the winter and spring three hares were shot in the neighbourhood of the ship. This completes our list up to the end of May. In March, a wolf suddenly made his appearance, and the same day the tracks of three musk-oxen or reindeer were seen wiihin two miles of the ship, but they had evidently only paid us a flying visit. In July six musk-oxen were shot, the only ones seen in our neighbourhood. The travelling parties were only slightly more fortunate in obtaining game. In June a few ptarmigan, ducks, and geese were shot and used by the sick. In July and August they obtained a ration of fresh meat daily. In March and the beginning of April about two dozen ptarmigan passed the ship, tlying towards the north-west in pairs ; finding no vegetation uncovered by snow in our neighbourhood, they flew on seeking better feeding grounds ; they were nearly all shot subsequently by the outlying parties near Cape Joseph Henry. In the middle of May snow-buntings and knots arrived. A number of the young of the latter were killed in July, but no nests or eggs were found. Early in June ducks and geese passed in small flocks of about a dozen, flying towards the north-west, but owing to a heavy fall of snow, lasting three days, which covered the land more completely than at any other time during our stay, at least half the number returned to the southward, not pleased with their prospects so far north. Two dozen small trout were caught during the autumn and summer in lakes from which they could not possibly escape to the sea. The total game list for the neighbourhood of the Alert's winter quarters, is as follows : — 9 i. X 7 13 67 3 Q be Q 12 5 1 Q V •0 V §0 9 i 1 xo 1 1 I t s (X In Winter Quarters ... By Short Service Sledging Parties ... 6 3 •r. t..i 6 30 70 >7 - 9 10 - I 3 On March i the sun returned after its long absence. The sledging season being now near at hand, I pre- pared orders for Capt. Stephenson to employ the whole force at his disposal in exploration of the neighbouring shore and the north coast of Greenland, instead cf sending a party to communicate with Smith's Sound, as I con- sidered that a sledge party employed on that duty this season would be peiformirg unnecessary work, and that in the event of their Lordships communicating with Littleton Island, and finding that I had not visited it, they would understand that the expctiition was well placed for exploration far north, and that all was going on satis- f.ictorily. March 4 was the day fixed for the dog-sledge to start to open communication with the Discovery, should the weather be favourable, but the severe cold which we then experienced prevented their starting. The temperature remained unusually low until the 12th, when it rose to - 35°, and the weather being fine and settled, Mr. George Le Clere Egerton, Sub- Lieutenant, started ii charge of the dog-sledge, accompanied by Lieut. Wyat Rawson, belonging to the Discovery, whom I wished ti consult with Capt. .Stephenson concerning the exploratioi of the Greenland coast, and Christian Petersen, inter preter. As I knew that this journey was sure to entai very severe labour, Frederick, the Esquimaux dog-drivei not being a strong man, was left on board. Four day afterwards, the temperature having risen considerably ii the interval, with a strong wind from the southward, th party returned in consequence of the severe illness c Petersen. He was taken ill on the second march witl cramp in the stomach ; and afterwards nothing could kec] him warm. The tent being very cold, the two officer burrowed out a snow hut, and succeeded in raising t' temperature inside to + 7°, but the patient still r mained in an unsatisfactory condition, and it was only b depriving themselves of all their own warm clothing, ani at the expense of the heat of their own bodies, that the succeeded, after great persistence, in restoring the circu lation in his extremities to some extent. The followin day, Petersen being no better, they wisely determined t return with him immediately to the ship. During thi journey of sixteen miles, both Mr. Egerton and Litu Rawson behaved most heroically, and, although fr( quently very seriously frost-bitten themselves, succeede in keeping life in the invalid until they arrived on boar( He was badly frost-bitten in the feet, both of which ha subsequently to be amputated. Notwithstanding the pr< fessional ability and incessant watchful care of D: Thomas Golan, he never recovered from the severe shoe his system had received on this occasion, and eventual! expired from exhaustion three months afterwards. H leaves a wife and family living in Copenhagen, who trust will receive a pension. On March 20, with fine weather and a temperatur of 30° below zero, Mr. Egerton and Lieut. Rawsor having partially recovered from their most praiseworth exertions when attending Petersen, again started for th Discovery, accompanied by two seamen, which they sue ceeded in reaching on the sixth cay, after a very har scramble over the rough ice in Robeson Channel, am along the steep snow slopes formed at the foot c f th precipitous coast cUffs. No water was met with beyoni that formed in the tidal crack, close to the shore. Th temperature throughout the journey ranged from - 42° to — 24°. During the latter part of March thi sledge crews were fully employed preparing their provi sions, and equipping the sledges for the spring journey: Long walks were taken for exercise, and a depot of pre visions was placed a few miles to the southward for thi use of the Greenland division. On April 3 the seven sledges and crews, numberin] fifty-three officers and men, started on their journeys will as bright prospects before them as any former Arcti travellers — everyone in apparently the best possibl health, and, while knowing the severe labour and hard ships they would have to undergo, all cheerlul, an( determined to do their utmost. A finer body of picke men than the crews of the three extended sledge piriie was never previously collected together. Commander Albert H. Markham, seconded by Lieul Alfred A. C. Parr, with two boats equipped for an absenc of seventy days, was to force his way to the northwari over the ice, starting off from the land near Cape Josepl Henry. Three sledge crews, under the respective commands 0 Dr. Edward Moss, who in addition to his duties a Medical Officer to the division, volunteered to assum executive charge, and Mr. George White, Engineer, als a volunteer, accompanied them as far as their provision would allow. Lieut. Pelham Aldrich, assisted by a slcdg crew under the commandof Lieut George A. Gitfard, was t explore the shores of Grant Land towards the north an* 38 NATURE [Nov, 9, 1871 west, along the coast line he had discovered in the previous autumn. In regard to the first of these two journeys, that under- taken over the ice towards the north, it is my duty to its Commander and his followers to state that, knowing the extremely rough road over which they would be obliged to travel, I had little hope that they would reach a high latitude, for their daily progress with light or heavy sledges must necessarily be very slow. I thought it best, nevertheless, to make the experiment, to prove whether or not the Pole could be reached by a direct course over the ice without continuous land along which to travel. Having such willing and determined leaders as Com- mander Markham and Lieut. Parr, and the pick of the ship's company, who themselves were all chosen men out of numbers at hand, I sent them forth with full confidence that whatever was possible they would perform. In organising this party, nothing was known of the movements of the Polar ice. I was even in doubt whether it was not always in motion in the offing, conse- quently I decided that boats must be carried of sufficient capacity for navigation, and not merely for ferrying pur- poses. This necessitated very heavyweights being dragged. It was also necessary that the party should carry a heavy load of provisions, or, owing to our clear weather and lofty look-out station, we had previously ascertained that no land existed within a distance of fifty miles of Cape Joseph Henry. When a sledge party have to drag a boat even with only a few days' provisions, and over a smooth floe, double trips are necessary over the same road daily, in the same manner as Sir Edward Parry was compelled to journey in 1827, consequently, the utmost limit that could be transported in this way with two trips on level ice was chosen, and this provided the party for an absence from the land for sixty-three days. The plan usually resorted to of reducing the weights carried by the advance party by providing a chain of supporting sledges is not applicable when each assisting sledge requires a boat capable of carrying its crew. On the day following the departure of our travelling parties, Mr. Egerton and Lieut. Kawson returned from the Discovery after a rough journey, with a tempe- rature ranging between 44° and 15° below zero, but all in good health and spirits, and beyond sore noses and tips of fingers from frost-bites, were none the worse for their cold journey. The news from the Discovery was most cheering with the exception that, although they had succeeded in obtain- ing upwards of thirty musk-oxen, one man was in the sick list with a bad attack of scurvy. With this exception the crew of the Discovery had passed a very comfortable winter, plenty of cheerful work leading to and inducing constant employment of mind and body, coupled with a fair share of mirthful relaxation and a frequent meal of fresh meat, I refer you. Sir, to Capt. Stephenson's full report for a detail of his proceedings. His crew were preparing for the exploration of Lady Franklin Sound and the coast of Greenland, On April 8 the first supporting sledge returned from Commander Markham's and Lieut, Aldrich's parties. As usual on the first starting several of the travellers were much distressed by the severe and unaccustomed work, and the cold weather preventing sleep at night, but were gradually improving. One man who had been ailing slightly during the last month was sent back, and one of the crew of the supporting sledge returned with a frost- bite, the only serious case during the season, although the travellers, on two days out of the six that this party were away, experienced a temperature of — 46°. On April 10 Lieut. Wyatt Rawson and Sub-Lieut. George Le Clere Egerton, having somewhat recovered after their cold journey to the Discovery, equipped with light sledges, started to ascertain the nature of the ice in Robeson Channel, and to mark a convenient road acros it for the heavier exploring sledges coming north from th Discovery under the command of Lieut. Lewis A. Beaumont. On April 24 the second division of the supportin sledges returned, reporting the main parties to have settle steadily down to their work, and with the exception of on marine suffering from debility who was sent back, all wer in good health and capital spirits. The temperature ha fortunately risen to about — 26 degrees. The very col weather had tried the party much, and there had bee numerous light cases of frost-bites, which but for the pn sence and care of Dr. Moss might have proved seriou: The appearance of the ice within six miles of the land wa anything but cheenng to the northern party, but the looked forward with hope that the floes would get larg{ and less broken up as they advanced. Ench sledg carried extra tea in lieu of the usual midday allowance < spirits. Both men and officers were unanimous in favoi of the change, and willingly put up with the misery ( standing still in the cold with cold feet during the Ion halt needed for the purpose of boiling the water, and a agreed that they worked better after the tea lunch tha during the forenoon. On the i6th Lieut. Lewis A. Beaumont and Dr. Richai W. Coppinger arrived from the Discovery, having bee ten days performing a travelling distance of seventy-si miles with light sledges, so broken up and difficult w£ the nature of the ice in Robeson Channel. They brougt news that the ice was continuous and afforded fair trave ling across Hall's Basin, and that the depot of provisior at Polaris Bay was in good condition and fit for use. The; circumstances enabled me to arrange for Lieut. Beaumoi to proceed with lightly laden sledges along the Greenlan coast to the eastward, and after completing his journey 1 fall back on the Polaris depot before June 15, by whic time two boats would be carried across the straits froi the Discovery, ready for his retreat should the ice ha\ broken up. On the 18th Lieut. Rawson and Mr, Egerton returne( having succeeded in crossing the channel without findin more than the usual difficulties amongst the heavy hun mocks, which they had now become so accustomed t They had landed on the Greenland coast north of th position marked as Repulse Harbour, which proves to t only a slight indentation in the coast line, having a fresi water lake inshore t f it, which from, an inland view migl readily be mistaken for a harbour. On April 20 Lieut. Beaumont, accompanied by Lieu Rawson and Dr, Coppinger, started for his Greenlan exploration, the few days' rest having materially benefite his men, who may be said to have started from the Di. covery unexperienced in Arctic sledgmg, that ship havin had no autumn travellmg in consequence of the ice r( maining in motion until a very late period of the season, On April 23 Capt, Stephenson and Mr, Thomas Mitchel assistant-paymaster in cliarge, arrived from the Discover and I had the advantage of consulting with the form< unreservedly concerning the prospects of our numerot travellers then scattered over the neighbouring shorei the two ships remaining tenanted only by officers and few invalids. Arrangements were made for the exph ration of Peiermann's Fiord, and should the season pro\ favourable, for the examination of the ice-cap south ( Bessels Bay. On April 30 Capt. Stephenson returned t the Discovery. Until the latter end of May sledge parties were coi tinually arriving or departing, carrying forward depots ( provisions for the use of the distant parties on their returi In carrying out these duties I was much indebted to D Edward L. Moss, who again volunteered to command sleage, and I the more readily availed myself of his sei vices knowing that it would afford him a wider field fc continuing his scientific studies. Mr, James Woottoi Nov. 9, 1876] NATURE 39 engineer, also assisted me materially as commander of a sledge party. On May 3 Lieut. Giflfard returned with news from Lieut. Pelham Aldrich up to April 25, his twenty-second day out from the ship. He reported that all his crew were well and cheerful, but that the soft snow was causing very heavy and slow travelling. Up to this time all had gone well with the expedition. The two ships had advanced as far north as was possible; they were admirably placed for exploration and other purposes ; and the sledge crews, formed of men in full liealth and strength, had obtained a fair start on their journeys under as favourable circumstances as possible. On May 3 Dr. Thomas Colan reported that five men had scorbutic symptoms ; however, as each case had some predisposing cause, I was not alarmed until on the 8th the three ice quartermasters and two able seamen return- ing from slsdge service were attacked, and by June 8 fourteen of the crew of the Alert and three men belonging to the Discovery who happened to be on board, forming the majority of the number of men then present, had been or were under the doctor's care for the same wasting dis- order. Capt, Stephenson also reported that four more of his crew had been attacked. Although many of the sledge crews formerly employed on Arctic research had been attacked by this disease some had totally escaped ; therefore, considering the ample equipment and carefully prepared provisions with which the A/ertand Discovery were provided, its outbreak was most inexplicable and unlooked-for. It was, however, most encouraging to learn from the report of former expe- ditions how transient the attacks had usually proved, and how readily the patients recovered with rest, the advance of summer, and a change to a more generous diet. On May 9, by the return of Lieut. May and Mr. Egerton from Greenland, whither they had carried suppHes and succeeded in discovering a practicable overland route im- mediately east of Cape Brevort fit for the use of the returning sledges should the ice break up, I received news of Lieut. Beaumont's party up to May 4, when he was within two miles of Cape Stanton. From their place of crossing the Straits they found that the coast line for nearly the entire distance to Cape Stanton was formed either by precipitous cliffs or very steep snow slopes, the bases of which receive the direct and unchecked pressure of the northern pack as it drifts from the north-westward and strikes against that part of the coast nearly at right angles. The floe- bergs, at their maximum sizes, were pressed high up one over the other against the steep shore; the chaos outside was something indescribable, and the travelling the worst that can possibly be imagined, seven days being occupied in moving forward only twenty miles. Being quite uncertain when such a road might become impassable by the ice breaking up in May as it did in 1872, a depot of provisions, sufficient for a return journey by land, was wisely left, but Lieut. Beaumont's journey was thus shortened cpnsiderably. As nearly every south-westerly wind we experienced at Floeberg Beach changed its direction to north-west before it blew itself out, the coast of Greenland north of Cape Brevort must necessarily be a very wild one as regards ice-pressure, and a most uncertain coast for navi- gation. A vessel once caught in the pack-ice off that shore, if not crushed at once, runs a great risk of being carried by it to the eastward round the northern coast, as pointed out by Admiral Sir George Back, Kt., F.R.S. During the first week in May the temperature rising to zero enabled me to remove the snow from over the sky- lights and bull's-eyes and let in light between decks, but owing to there being no skylight over the lower deck it still remained very dark. I would here remark, Sir, how very important it is that Arctic ships should, if possible, be fitted with a large skylight above the ship's company's living deck. On May 24 Lieut. Giffard returned on board, after depositing Lieut. Pelham Aldrich's last dep6t of pro- visions, he and his crew having performed their im- portant work well and expeditiously ; but I am sorry to add that he brought Dr. Colan two more invalids. The attack occurring on his outward journey, as it was of vital importance that he pushed on, Lieut. Giffard was necessarily obliged to leave them in a snow hut for five days, one man taking care of the other as best he could until the party returned. Lieut. Giffard acted with great judgment,^decision, and consideration on this oc- casion, and the two invalids recovered before the ship broke out of winter quarters. On June i Mr. Crawford Conybeare arrived with news from the Discovery up to May 22. Lieut. Archer had completed his examination of the opening in the land west of Lady Franklin Sound, proving it to be a deep fiord terminating in mountainous land, with glacier- covered valleys in the interior. Lieut. Reginald B. Fulford, with the men returned from Lieut. Archer's party, then transported two boats across Hall's Basin to assist Lieut. Beaumont in his return later in the season. Capt. Stephenson, accom- panied by Mr. Henry C. Hart, naturalist, overtook this party on the 12th at Polaris Bay. On the following day, the American flag being hoisted, a brass tablet pre- pared in England was erected at the foot of Capt. Hall's grave with due solemnity. It bore the following inscrip- tion : — "Sacred to the Memory of Captain C. F. Hall, of the U.S. Ship Polaris, who sacrificed his Life in the advancement of Science, on the 8th November, 1871. " This Tablet has been erected by the British Polar Expedition of 1875, who, following in his footsteps, have profited by his experience." Dr. Coppinger, when returning from assisting Lieuten- ant Beaumont, had visited Capt. Hall's Cairn at Cape Brevort, and the boat depot in Newman's Bay, and con- veyed the few articles of any value to the Discovery. The boat itself, with the exception of one hole easily repair- able, was in a serviceable condition. Capt. Stephenson returned to the Discovery on May 18, leaving Lieut. Fulford and Dr. Coppinger on the Greenland shore to explore Petermann Fiord. Mr. Crawford Conybeare having reported that the travelling along shore in Robeson Channel was fast becoming impracticable in consequence of the ice being in motion near the shore, his party were kept on board the Alert. On the evening of June 8, Lieut. A. A. C. Parr arrived on board, most unexpectedly, with the distressing intelli- gence that nearly the whole of the crew belonging to the northern division of sledges were attacked with scurvy, and in want of immediate assistance. Commander Markham, and the few men who were able to keep on their feet, had succeeded in conveying the invalids to the neighbourhood of Cape Joseph Henry, thirty miles distant from the ship, but each day was rapidly adding to the intensity of the disease, and, while lessening the powers of those still able to work, adding to the number of the sick, and consequently, alarmingly increasing the weight which had to be dragged on the sledges. Under these circumstances, Lieut. Parr, with his usual brave determination, and knowing exactly his own powers, nobly volunteered to bring me the news, and so obtain relief for his companions. Starting with only an alpenstock, and a small allowance of provisions, he completed his long solitary walk, over a very rough icy road, deeply covered with newly fallen snow, within twenty-four hours. Arrangements were immediately made to proceed to 40 NATURE [Nov. 9, i87< Commander Markham's assistance ; and with the help of the officers, who at once all volunteered to drag the sledges, I was able by midnight to proceed with two strong parties, Messrs. Egerton. Conybeare, Wootton, and White, the officers who could be best spared from the ship, taking tbeir places at the drag ropes, Lieut. W. H. May and Dr. E. Moss pushing on ahead with the dog- sledge laden with appropriate medical stores. By making a forced march the two latter, with James Self, A. B., reached Commander Markham's camp within fifty hours of the departure of Lieut. Pcirr, although they were, I deeply regret to sta^e, unfortunately too late to save the life of George Porter, Gunner R.M.A., who only a few hours previously had expired and been buried in the floe. Their arrival had a most exhilarating effect on the stricken party, who were gallantly continuing their journey as best they could. Early on the following day the relief party joined them, when the hope and trust which had never deserted these determined men was quickened to the utmost, even the invalids losing the depression of spirits always induced by the insidious disease that had attacked them, and which in their case was much intensified by the recent loss of their comrade. Early on the morning of the 14th, owing to the skill and incessant attention of Dr. E. Moss and the assistance of the dog sledge conducted by Lieut. May and James Self, A.B., who, with a most praiseworthy disregard of their own rest, were constantly on the move. Commander Markham and I had the satisfaction of reaching the ship without further loss of life ; and after a general expres- sion of thanksgivmg to God for his watchful care over the lives of the survivors, of placing them under the skilful charge of Dr. T. Colan, Fleet- Surgeon. Of the original seventeen members composing the party, only five— the two officers and three of the men, John Radmore, chief carpenter's mate, Thomas Joliffe, first-class petty officer, and William Maskell, A.B. — were able to drag the sledges alongside. Three others, Edward Laurence, captain forecastle, George Winston, A.B., and Daniel Harley, captain foretop, manfully kept on their feet to the last, submitting to extreme pain and fatigue rather than, by riding on the sledge, increase the weight their enfeebled companions had to drag, and were just able to walk on board the ship without assist- ance. The remaining eight, after a long struggle, had been forced to succumb to the disease, and were carried on the sledges. Out of the whole number, the two officers alone escaped the attack of scurvy. Atter a few days' rest and attention, John Radmore, chief carpenter's mate, returned to his duty, and three of the others were able to attend on their sick comrades : but Thomas JoUffe, who had most manfully resisted the disease while actively employed, when his legs became cramped from resting on his return on board, was one of the most lingering cases. These men gradually recovered, and were all out of the sick list before the ship was free of the ice during the passage home. In journeying to the northward, the route, after leaving the coast, seldom lay over smooth ice ; the somewhat level floes or fields, although standmg at a mean height of 6 feet above the neighbouring ice, were small, usually less than a mile across. Their surfaces were thickly studded over with rounded blue-topped ice humps, of a mean height above the general level of from 10 to 20 feet, lying sometimes in ranges, but more frequently separated at a distance of from 100 to 200 yards apart, the depressions between being filled with snow deeply scored into ridges by the wind, the whole composition being well comparable to a suddenly frozen oceanic sea. Separating these floes, as it were, by a broadened-out hedge, lay a vast collection of debris of the previous summers, broken up pack-ice, which had been re-frozen during the winter into one chaotic rugged mass of angular blocks of various heights up to 40 and 50 feet, and every possible shape, leaving little, if any, choice of a road over, through, or roun about them. Among these was a continuous series ( steep- sided snow drifts sloping down from the highe altitude of the pressed-up ice vmtil lost in the general lev( at a distance of about 100 yards. The prevailing win during the previous winter having been from the wes ward, and the sledges' course Ijeing due north, the; " sastrugi," instead of rendering the road smoother, e they frequently do in travelling along a coast line, whe advantage can be taken of their long smooth tops, had 1 be encountered nearly at right angles. The whole forme the roughest line of way imaginable, without the slighte prospect of ever improving. The journey was consi quently an incessant battle to overcome ever recurriii obstacles, each hard-won success stimulating them for tl next struggle. A passage had always to be cut throug the squeezed-up ice with pickaxes, an extra one beir carried for the purpose, and an incline picked out of tl perpendicular side of the high floes or roadway built u before ttie sledges, generally one at a time, could I brought on. Instead of advancing with a steady wal the usual means of progression, more than half of eac day, was expended by the whole party facing the sled^ and puUing it forward a few feet at a time. Under the: circumstances, the distance attained, short as it may I considered by some, was truly marvellous. The excellent conduct of the crews and the spirit di played by them, combined with the work performe( indicated in a striking manner the sense of confidence i the leaders which they enjoyed, and points unmistakab to the watchful care taken of themselves and to tl general good guidance of the party. No two officers could have conducted this arduoi journey with greater ability or courage than Command( Albert H. Markham and his very able second in cor mand, Lieut. A. C. Chase Parr, and I trust that the Lordships will notice their services by some mark > approval. The services of Thomas Rawlings and Edwai Laurence, ist class petty' officers, filling the highly ir portant positions of captains of the sledges, was beyor all praise. In addition to their general cheerfulness ai good humour, to their care and skill must be attribute the safe return of the sledges, on- which the lives of tl party depended, uninjured, and in as serviceable a sta as when they left the ship, notwithstanding the hea> nature of the road, which on all former occasions not on repulsed the travellers altogether, but drove them ba( with broken-up equipment. To such men as these, ai the sledge crews generally, it is difficult to find any rewai which can in the least compensate them for the mann in which they have manfully met the extreme privatioi and continuous labour necessarily undergone, Durir this memorable journey to penetrate towards the nori over the heavy Polar oceanic ice, without the assistant of continuous land along which to travel, in which h; been displayed in its highest state the pluck and courageoi determination of the British seaman to steadily persever day after day, against apparently insurmountable dif culties, their spirits rising as the oppositions increase Commander Markham and Lieut. Parr and their bra' associates succeeded in advancing the National Flag lat. 83° 20' 26" N., leaving a distance of 400 miles still be travelled over before the North Pole is reached. In order to attain this position, although a direct di tancef of only seventy-three miles from the ship w; accomplished, the total distance travelled was 276 mil on the outward, and 245 miles on the homeward journe Their severe labour and exertions which certainly a never be surpassed, coupled with the experience gaine by Sir Edward Parry in the summer of 1827, proves th a lengthened journey over the Polar pack ice with a sled| party provided with a navigable boat is, in consequenc of the rough nature of the road over which the party h; to travel, impracticable at any season of the year ; ar Nov. 9, 1876] NATURE 41 further, as the sledges were necessarily advanced each stage singly, we are enabled to estimate the exact rate of progression which may be expected should anyone con- sider it desirable to push forward with light sledges with- out any additional means of returning later in the season in the event of the ice breaking up in his rear. The maximum rate of advance in this way was at the rate of 2| miles a day, the mean being at the rate of i^ miles a day. It may be necessary here to state that the much to be deplored outbreak of scurvy, which certainly shortened the journey to the extent of some ten or twenty miles, in no way affects the conclusions to be derived from it. When the first two men who were attacked complained of sore legs, the disorder so commonly experienced by travellers in all countries, and particularly those employed to drag Arctic sledges, the loss of their services at the drag ropes was fully balanced by one of the two boats being left behind, thus, the daily distance accomplished during the first twenty-five days of the outward journey was not materially altered, and it was only during the latter fourteen days, that owing to the gradual break- down of three more of the crew, the rate of advance was necessarily much retarded. The previous rate, however, had been so slow that the party gallantly continued their advance to the utmost limit of their provisions, confident that with the help of the manual labour of the officers, who from the first took their places at the drag ropes and pickaxes and worked as hard as the men, they could readily return to the land along the road on which they had expended so much labour in somewhat levelling during their outward journey. The scurvy by this time having with very few excep- tions, attacked the whole ship's company, I was somewhat anxious concerning the health of Lieut. Aldrich's men returning from their western journey ; particularly when I observed that the cairn erected over his depot of pro- visions, thirty miles to the north-west, remained untouched on the day appointed for his arrival there ; accordingly I sent Lieut. May with the dog sledge, and three strong men to meet him. On June 20 the two parties joined company at the depot and signalled their arrival to the ship. Lieut. Aldrich had crossed the land only just in time, for on the following day a gale of wind from the south- ward commenced bringing warmer weather, and the thaw set in with such rapidity that the snow valleys on the land were rendered impassable for sledges for the remainder of the season. Lieut. May met the party on the very last day, when most of them were able to travel, having suc- ceeded in reaching, after a very severe journey most courageously borne, the same position to which Com- mander Markham's party had returned without assist- ance ; but there the same blight that attacked the northern party, and against which the western division had long been struggling, gained on them so quickly that, with the exception of Lieut. Aldrich and Adam Ayles (P. O., 2nd class), the whole crew were placed hors de combat, James Doidge(ist class P.O.) and David Mitchell (A.B.) still gallantly struggling along by the side of the sledge, the other four invalids, having held out until the last moment, were obliged to be carried. Under these circum- stances the arrival of Lieut. May with relief was most providential. With their assistance Lieut. Aldrich suc- ceeded in reaching the Alert on the morning of the 26th, when, after again publicly returning thanks to Almighty God for his watchful care over the lives of the party, they were placed under Dr. Colan's charge, the officer being the only one not attacked by scurvy. Notwithstanding a bad start, owing to the necessity of crossing the land with heavily laden sledges, Lieut. Aldrich with great energy succeeded in exploring the coastline to the westward for a distance of 220 miles from the position of the Alert. Trending first to the north-westward for ninety miles to Cape Columbia, the extreme northern cape in lat. 83° 7' N., and long. 70" 30' W., the coast extends to the west for sixty miles to long. 79" o' W. and then gradually trends round to the south- ward to lat. 82° 16' N. and long. 85" 33' W., the extreme position attained. No land or appearance of land was seen at any time to the northward or westward, and owing to the continued heavy nature of the ice. I conclude that no land can possibly exist within an attainable distance from this coast. Although most of the party sufferec] more or less during the outward journey, the attack was supposed to be merely transient, and it was not until they were returning home when the scorbutic symptoms oi sore gums first made their appearance, that the real nature of the disease was in the least suspected. To these men equal praise is due as to their comrades em- ployed in the northern division for the endurance and intrepidity with which each individual performed his respective duty. Crippled nearly as badly, they if possible suffered more severely ; for being so distant from reliel none could be carried without imperilling all, and each was obliged to remain toiling at the drag ropes making forced marches. It is to Lieut. Aldrich's judicious care and energy during the long and anxious homeward march, seconded by the spirited example of Joseph Good, acting chief boatswain's mate, captain of the sledge, himself one of the most en- feebled of the party, that they owe their lives. Lieut Aldrich's services on this, as on all other occasions during the three years he has been under my command, calls foi my unqualified admiration ; he is a talentt-d and zealouj officer, and in every way deserving of their Lordships consideration. Again, Sir, I have to bring to your notice the valuable services of Lieut. May and James Self, A.B. ; the thaw having set in, it was principally due to their incessant labour that the party arrived on board before the rapidlj advancing disease had further developed itself. With regard to the outbreak of scurvy, which attacked the crew of the Discovery as well as ourselves, when the sledge crews started early in April, a finer body of men in apparently perfect health it would have been difficult to pick anywhere, and I trusted that, owing to the excel- lent condition of our provisions, we were secure from any attack, but I must now conclude that disease was even then lurking among us, and that the heavy labour ol sledge travelling intensified and brought it out, as has been the case in nearly all former journeys when the tra- vellers have been unable to procure large supplies ol game, and were unprovided with lime juice. It attacked first the weakly men, afterwards the strong men who were predisposed for it, and most severely of all those who were employed on the longest and most trying journeys. Had there been no sledging work I believ< that the disease would not have betrayed its presence amongst us, and had the officers been called upon froji the first to perform as severe daily labour as their men ] think that they would have been equally attacked. On July 9, fifteen days after the return of the last sledge party, thirty-six of the crew of the ship had been, anc twenty-four were, under treatment for scurvy. This large number of patients, most of them requiring constant anc special attention, necessarily taxed to the utmost the ser- vices of Dr. Thomas Colan, Fleet Surgeon, and his able second. Dr. Ed. Moss, Surgeon. Nothing could exceec their indefatigable patience and care. The deprivatior of necessary rest and exercise cheerfully submitted to b) Dr. Colan, upon whom the chief responsibility fell, con siderably impaired his own health, following as it did sc closely on his long anxious watch by the bedside of Nei Petersen. In order to preserve the continuity of the narrative, 1 will here report the result of Lieut. Beaumont's explora tion on the Greenland coast, but which I only learnt some time afterwards. 42 NATURE \Nov. 9, 1876 On August 6, while the Alert was imprisoned by the ice twenty miles north of Discovery Harbour, during her passage down Robeson Channel, Lieut. Rawson and two men arrived with letters from Capt. Stephenson contain- ing the distressing intelligence that scurvy had attacked the Greenland Division of sledges with as much severity as it had visited the travellers from the Alert, and that Lieut. Beaumont was then at Polaris Bay recruiting his men. I must refer you. Sir, to Capt, Stephenson's letters and to Lieut. Lewis A. Beaumont's report for a full detail of the proceeding of this party, but I may here mention the chief points. I have already reported their move- ments up to May 5, when Dr. Coppinger : left them ; Lieut. Beaumont with two sledge crews journeying to the north-eastward along the north coast of Greenland, all apparently in good health. A very few days after, James J. Hand, A.B., who had passed the winter on board of the Alert, showed symptoms of scurvy. As soon as the nature of the disease was decided, Lieut. Beaumont de- termined to send Lieut. Rawson with three men and the invalid back to Polaris Bay, and to continue the explora- tion with reduced numbers. Lieut. Wyatt Rawson parted company on his return on May 1 1 ; but owing to two more of his crew breaking down, leaving only himself and one man strong enough to drag the sledge on which lay the principal sufferer, and to look after the other two, he only succeeded in reaching the depot on June 3, James J. Hand unhappily dying from the extreme fatigue a few hours after the arrival of the party at Polaris Bay. Out of the other men forming the sledge crew, who had all passed the winter on board the Alert, only one of them — Elijah Rayner, Gunner, R.M.A. — escaped the in- sidious disease ; George Bryant, ist class petty officer and captain of the sledge, and Michael Regan, A.B., were both attacked, the former, although in a, very bad state, manfully refused to the last to be carried on the sledge, knowing that his extra weight would endanger the lives of all. I cannot praise Lieut= Rawson's conduct on this occa- sion too highly ; it is entirely due to his genial but firm command of his party, inspiriting as he did his crippled band, who relied with the utmost confidence on him, that they succeeded in reaching the depot. His return being totally unexpected, no relief was thought of, nor, indeed, were there any men to send. On June 7 Lieut. Fulford and Dr. Coppinger, with Hans and the dog-sledge, re- turned to Polaris Bay depot from the exploration of Petermann Fiord ; and, with the help of some fresh seal meat and the professional skill and care of Dr. Cop- pinger, the malady was checked and the sick men gradu- ally regained strength. Lieut. Beaumont, continuing his journey on May 21, succeeded in reaching lat. 82° 18' N., long. 50° 40' W., discovered land, apparently an island, but, owing to the nature of the ice, probably a continuation of the Green- land coast, extending to lat. 82° 54' N,, long. 48° 33' W. By this time two more of the crew showed symptoms of scurvy, and soon after the return journey was commenced the whole party were attacked, until at last Lieut. Beau- mont, Alexander Gray, sergeant-quartermaster captain of the sledge, and Frank Jones, stoker, were alone able to drag, the other four men having to be carried forward on the sledge in detachments, which necessitated always double and most frequently treble journeys over the rough and disheartening icy road ; nevertheless, the gal- lant band struggled manfully onwards, thankful if they made one mile a day, but never losing heart ; but Lieut. Beaumont's anxiety being intense lest relief should arrive too late to save the lives of the worst cases. Not arriving at Polaris Bay on the day expected, Lieut. Wyatt Raw- son and Dr. Richard W. Coppinger, with Hans and the dog-sledge, started on June 22 to look for them, the two parties providentially meeting in Newman's Bay, twenty miles from the depot. The following day Frank Jones being unable to drag any longer, walked ; leaving the three officers and Alexander Gray to drag the four in- valids, the dogs carrying on the provisions and equipage. On the 27th Alexander Gray was obliged to give in, and the officers had to drag the sledge by themselves. Gray and Jones hobbling along as best they could. On the 28th, being within a day's march of the depot with the dogs, the two worst cases were sent on in charge of Dr. Coppinger, and arrived at the end of the march, but I regret to state that Charles W. Paul, A.B., who joined the expedition from the Valorous at Disco, at the last moment, died shortly after their arrival. The remainder of the party, helped by Hans and the dogs, arrived at the depot on July i, and it being impossible to cross the strait and return to the Discovery before the invabds were re- cruited, at once settled themselves down for a month's stay, those able to get about shooting game for the suf- ferers with such success that they obtained a daily ration of fresh meat. It was entirely due, under Providence, to the timely assistance dispatched by Lieut. Rawson, who, as senior ofificer at Polaris Bay, when there was not time to cross Hall's Basin and inform Capt. S'ephenson of his apprehensions, acted promptly on his own authority and went to the relief of Lieut. Beaumont's party, that more casualties did not occur. After such details it is scarcely necessary for me to allude to the services of Lieut. Beaumont. The command of the Greenland sledges, entailing as it did the crossing and recrossing of Robeson Channel — which in 1872 re- mained in motion all the season — required even greater care and judgment than is always necessary in the leader of an Arctic sledge party. My confidence in Lieut. Beau- mont, as expressed in my original orders to him, was fully borne out by his careful conduct of the party throughout this trying and most harassing march. He is a most judicious, determined, and intelligent leader, and as such I bring his services to the notice of their Lordships. Capt. Stephenson by personal inspection having satis- fied himself that the resources of the Polaris depot wera siifficient and appropriate for the subsistence of the men detached to the Greenland shore, although naturally anxious at their non-arrival on board the Discovery, was not alarmed for their safety. On July 12 Lieut. Fulford, with two men and the dog-sledge, were dispatched across Hall's Basin to Discovery Bay, and arrived there on the third day, having found the ice in motion oa the west side of the channel, and experiencing much difficulty in effect- ing a landing. On the receipt of the news Capt. Stephen- son instantly started with a relief party, carr}ing medical comforts, and arrived at Polaris Bay oa the 19th. On the following day the ice was in motion on both sides of the channel. On the 29th Capt. Stephenson, with Lieut. Rawson, Hans, and four able men, with two invalids who could walk, started with the dingy for Discovery Bay, and after a very wet journey they landed on the west shore on August 2, Lieut. Beaumont and Dr. Coppinger, with five strong men, being left for a few days longer in order to give the other two invalids further time to recruit. The whole party ultimately re-crossed the Strait, and arrived at Discovery Bay on August 14, having been absent from their ship 120 days, several of the party who had wintered on board of the Alert having been absent since August 26 the previous year. Great praise is due to Dr. Richard W. Coppinger for his skilful treatment of the disease ; living as he and the party did for from six to eight weeks in tents on an Arctic shore without extra resources or medicine?, except at the last, it is much to his credit that on their arrival on board the Discovery all the patients were able to perform their ship duties. All speak in the highest terms of Hans the Esquimaux, who was untiring in his exertions with the dog-sledge, and in procuring game— it was owing to his patient skill in shootmg seal that Dr. Coppinger was able to regulate the diet somewhat to his satisfaction. Lieut. Regmald B. Fulford, and Dr. Richard W. Cop- Nov. 9, 1876] NA TV RE M pinger cleared up all doubt about the nature of Peter- mann Fiord, having reached at a distance of nineteen miles from the entrance, the precipitous cliff of a glacier which stretched across the Fiord. On considering the result of the spring sledging opera- tions, I concluded that, owing to the absence of land trending to the northward and the Polar pack not being navigable, no ship could be carried north on either side of Smith's Sound beyond the position we had already- attained ; and also that from any maintainable position in Smith's Sound it was impossible to advance nearer the pole by sledges. The only object, therefore, to be gained by the Expedition remaining in the vicinity for another season, would be to extend the exploration of the shores of Grant Land to the south-westward, and Greenland to the north-east or eastward, but as with the whole resources of the expedition I could not hope to advance more than about fifty miles beyond the positions already attained on those coasts, and moreover, although the crew were r-.pidly recovering from the di.sease which had attacked ihem, they would certainly be unfit for employment on extended sledge parties next year, I decided that the Expedition should return to England as soon as the ice broke up and released the ship. It was with the very };reatest regret I felt it my duty to give up the very inter- esting further examination of the northern coast of Green- land. Although pools of water formed along the tidal crack in the ice early in June, the thaw did not regularly set in before the last week of the month. On July i water in the ravines comn^enced to run, after that date the thaw was very rapid both on shore and on the ice, but no decided motion took place before the 20th. On the 23rd, with a strong south-west wind, the pack was driven a mile away from the shore, but, as in the autumn, no navigable channel made to seaward or along the land to the west- ward of Cape Sheridan. On the 26th a record was left in a cairn erected on shore detailing the work performed by the expedition, and of my intention to proceed to the southward. On the 31st, after considerable labour to clear away a passage through the barrier of floe-bergs which had so well protected us during the winter, we suc- ceeded during a strong south west wind, which drove the pack out to sea, in rounding Cape Rawson and entering Robeson Channel on our return voyajje. After a ten miles run along shore, through a fairly open channel between the pack and the cliffy ice foot bordering the coast, we were stopped by a heavy floe one-and-a-half miles in diameter nipping against the land four miles north of Cape Union, and there being no other protection attainable, the ship was secured in a small indentation among a group of grounded floe-bergs lining the shore off a shallow part of the coast. The ice in the offing drifted north and south with the tides in a nearly compact mass, that near the shore alone being loose, but in no way navi- gable. Early in the morning of August i, the heavy floe which had stopped us the previous day commenced to move, and was soon travelling to the northward with the whole strength of the tide at the rate of one-and-a-half miles an hour, scraping along the ice foot as it advanced towards the ship in a rathtr alarming manner. Steam being for- tunately ready we cast off, and succeeded in passing between it and the shore, as after a severe wrench against a projecting point close ahead of us, a channel was opened by its rebound, as it coach-wheeled round the north point of the floe, turned m towards the land close to the position which we had vacated a few moments before. The difference between an ordinary floe and Polar Sea ice was here exemplified completely ; the former com- posed of ice about 6 feet in thickness, on meeting with an obstruction is torn in pieces as it presses past it; the latter being some 80 or ico feet ihick, quietly hfts any impediment away out A its course, and takes no further notice of it. Such was the case on this occcasion : th« Polar floe, which we only escaped by a few yards, or nipping against the heavy breastwork of isolated floe-bergi lining the coast, some of them 40 feet high and mauN thousand tons in weight, which had lately formed oui protection from the smaller ice pieces, tilted them ovei one after another, and forced them higher up the land slope, like a giant at play, without receiving the slightes' harm itself, not a piece breaking away. It was most pro vidential, that by its twisting round the Alert \\s.% enable<3 to escape out of the trap in which she was inclosed. Steering onward, so close to the shore ice-cliff — fron 20 to 40 feet high, and having ten to twenty fathoms watei alongside it — that" the quarter-boats touched on scvera occasions, we reached within two miles of Cape Union but in consequence of the pack remaining close in at th( cape, both during the flood and ebb tides, the ship wa: again brought to a stop. Fortunately we were able t( secure her abreast of a large water-course, the stream o which had been powerful enough to undermine the ice cliff to such an extent as to allow fifty yards of it to breal away and float off to sea ; this left just sufficient space ii which to secure the ship alongside the beach in such < manner that in the event of a nip taking place she wouh merely be forced on the shore before the floe itsel grounded. Here we were delayed for twenty-four hour with the boats from the exposed side lowered down am moored in-shore for safety. At half flood, the south-running tide, a narrow lead 0 water formed round the cape ; steam was got up imme diately, but owing to delay in shipping the rudder con sequent on the tide running towards the bow carrying i under the ship's bottom, the ice closed in again before could get round ; it also cut us off from our friendly littL haven, and I was therefore obliged to secure the ship durini the north-running tide in a slight indentation in the higl cliffy ice-foot. Fortunately being within half-a-mile 0 Cape Union, the run of the ice, as it passed to the north ward round the Cape, kept at about twenty yards fror the land until after it had passed our position ; only th lighter ice pieces scraping their way along the ship's side As we would be exposed to the whole pressure of th ice duiing the south-going tide, at 4 P.M., low water, i being calm and no prospect of a westerly wind to open 1 navigable passage, I cast off and bored a short distanc into the pack with the purpose of allowing the ship t drift round the Cape with the flood or south-going tide The ice carried her with it about a quarter of a mil distant from the land, with no navigable water in sighl the whole pack moving steadily together without nippin; to any great extent. As we passed we noticed that th front of the ice-foot was perfectly smooth, and woul afford no protection whatever if we were obliged to leav the pack. As the tide slackened we succeeded with grea trouble in steaming out of the pack just as the ice com menced to set to the northward with great rapidity. A it remained slack for some twenty yards from the beach we were able to proceed slowly to the southward, close t^ the ice-foot ; the midship boats being turned in-board but the quarter-boats which could not be protected, beinj in constant peril of a squeeze. The water channc widened considerably as we approached Lincoln Bay and we crossed it without any trouble, and arrived with in five miles of Cape Beechey before the tide turned, t run south again, when I secured the ship alongside ; heavy polar floe-piece, with the hope of again driftinj south ; but finding that the lighter pieces of ice wer drifting faster and gradually inclosing us, I was obligei to cast off, and with much trouble succeeded in reachinj the north side of Cape Beechey, before the north runnin; tide made at noon, August 3. After two hours waiting there being plenty of water space to the northward, ; channel opened and allowed us to get round the Cape Here the cliffy ice-foot comes to an end with the precipi 44 NATURE \Nov. 9, 1876 tous land. South of the Cape the land slopes down to the shore line, and is fronted by a breast-work of broken off floe-bergs similar, but somewhat smaller, than those lining the shore of the Polar Sea ; among these the ship was secured in three fathoms water within twenty yards of the shore, a mile south of the Cape, and considering our much more exposed position during the winter, I thought the ship secure. During August 4 the weather was overcast with snow squalls from the south-west, with a low barometer but not much wind. As the ice had closed in and locked the ship up completely, the sportsmen visited the lakes where three musk-oxen had been shot the previous summer. A number of geese were found all unable to fly ; the old ones moulting were nearly featherless, and the young ones not yet having grown theirs ; consequently fifty-seven were captured, a very welcome supply for the invalids, of whom we had ten still remaining. The ice remaining close, and being only twenty miles from the Discovery, Mr. Egerton, with a seaman for a companion, was sent to her on August 5 with orders for her to prepare for sea. They had a rough and troublesome walk over the hills, but arrived the same evening. During our detention in this position, the pack in the offing drifted up and down the strait with the tide, the wind having the effect of increasing the speed of the current, and the duration of its flow both towards the north and the south. Although the ice generally was of a considerably lighter character than that in the Polar Sea, or at the northern entrance of Robeson Channel, a number of heavy Polar floes passed us, driven to the southward by the northerly wind, and set into Lady Franklin Sound and Archer Fiord rather than down Kennedy Channel. In fact, that Sound may be considered as a pocket receiving all the heavy ice driven south through Robeson Channel, and retaining it until the prevailing westerly winds carry it to to the northward again, and clear out the Sound ready to be re-filled when the north wind returns. It is only during seasons when northerly winds prevail considerably over the westerly ones, that the heavy Polar ice is carried south in large quantities into Smith's Sound and Baffin's Bay. On August 6 the wind increased considerably from the north until it blew a gale. During the height of the flood or south-going tide a succession of heavy floe pieces passed us drifting down the strait, toying with our barrier of outlying protections, and turning one large one com- pletely topsy-turvy. It was firmly aground in twelve fathoms water on an off-lying shoal some 200 yards from the main line of the floe-bergs, and on this and the previous days had been of great service in keeping the line of the drifting pack at a safe distance from us ; but on this occasion the point of a large floe which was drift- ing south close in shore brought the weight of the whole pack on the doomed mass. As it received the pressure the floe-berg was reared up in the air to its full height of at least 60 feet above water, and turning a complete somer- sault, fell over on its back with a tremendous splash, breaking into a number of pieces with a great commotion and raising a wave sufficiently to roll the ship consider- ably. Our protecting floe-berg carried away, the ice moved in, forcing t he lighter floe-bergs one after the other, as they became exposed farther in-shore, and at last nipped the ship shghtly. This evening Lieut. Rawson and two seamen arrived from the Discovery with news of the Greenland division of sledges. On the morning of August 7, with the wind blowing slightly off the land, the ice eased off shore, and cleared the nip round the ship, but did not allow me to move to a more sheltered posi- tion. In the afternoon, a temporary opening occurring, steam was raised and the rudder shipped, but owing to some of the ropes fouling, the latter was not ready before the ice closed in and imprisoned us again. During the night the wind increased considerably, and with the south running tide the ice was being carried past us at the rate of two miles an hour. Owing to several heavy pieces grounding outside our line of barrier ice, the inner edge of the pack was guided more towards our position, and at last two heavy pieces wedged themselves against the ship, the inner one grounding alongside the ship after forcing her very close to the shore, and nipping her to such an extent that the ship was raised bodily 3 feet. As the tide rose the lighter ice in-shore gradually forced its way under the ship's bottom an i relieved the pressure somewhat ; so that after four hours she was only raised about 6 inches above her usual draught of water. As there was nofi no hope of releasing the ship, except by cutting down the heavy piece of ice which was aground outside us, all hands were set to work with pickaxes to lighten it. On August 10, after three days' work, the ice having been sufficiently reduced, floated at the top of high water, and released the ship ; the main pick moving off shore at the same time, we advanced five miles, and on the following day, after much trouble, succeeded in join- mg company with the Discovery. Sending all my sick men to the Discovery, the Alert was secured at the en- trance of the harbour ready to start for Polaris Bay to relieve Lieut. Beaumont immediately the ice permitted me to cross ; but his arrival on August 14, as before stated, fortunately rendered this passage unnecessary. The Dis- covery having embarked her coals and provisions, both ships were now ready to continue their voyage to the southward, but although water was observed in Kennedy Channel, the whole of Lady Franklin Sound remained filled with the ice brought to the southward by the late northerly gale. While waiting, ready to start, each of the ships tailed on shore at nearly low water, but floated again without damage. We were delayed here with calm weather and con- sequent little motion in the ice until August 20, when, a chance offering, we pushed our way through the pack, which, gradually opening as we advanced, led us into comparatively open water off Cape Lieber, where a strong south-westerly wind had been blow- ing for several days but had not been able to force its way across the ice in Hall's Basin. As we neared Cape Lawrence, the ice, which had been getting closer as we advanced south, became so close that we must either return north, run into the pack, or secure the ships to some of the grounded floe-bergs or icebergs. I chose the latter, and entering the bay immediately south of the cape, we followed the coast until we found ourselves in a large inner basin perfectly land-locked, and I made the ships fast with perfect confidence, although with the spring flood-tide the ice was floating sluggishly in and gradually filling up the bay. It happened, unfortunately, that at the very top of high-water a rather insignificant-looking piece of ice pressed against the ship, when the floe- berg in-shore of us, and against which the ship was resting, having floated with the spring tide, allowed itself to be pressed in-shore,- and suddenly we found the ship aground forward with deep water under the stern. Before any means could be taken to release her from this position the tide had fallen 14 feet at low water, leaving the fore foot and keel bare as far aft as the fore channels, the ship lying over on her bilge at an angle of twenty-two degrees. As the tide rose, the ship was lightened, the cables hauled aft, and the anchors lowered on to suitable pieces of ice. One of these was then hauled astern to a proper position, when by blowing up the ice the anchor was laid out with great ease. At high water the ship was hauled off with- out having received any mjury. On August 22 a south- west wind opened a passage ^again, of which immediate advantage was taken, and we proceeded to the southward as far as Cape Collinson with only the ordinary troubles in ice navigation, dunng thick snow-storms, misty weather, and strong head winds. Oil the cape, owing to the Alert being obliged to back astern to escape a nip, the two Nov. 9, 1876] NA TURE 45 ships fouled for a few moments, and the Discovery lost a boat's davit, but by smart and skilful management saved the boat. I may here add that such has been the skill displayed by the officers of the watches of the Alert and Discovery, although the two ships have frequently been necessarily within touching distance of each other, and of the ice-cliffs and bergs, this is the only accident of conse- quence which occurred during the voyage. The ice closing in ahead, the two ships were made fast inside some grounded icebergs in Joiner Bay, one mile north of Cape McClintock. In Rawlings Bay, south of Cape Lawrence, icebergs are found for the first time on coming from the northward. All to the northward may be considered as floe-bergs. Few even of the initiated can distinguish one from the other, so like are they ; and certainly any stranger would be deceived, the floe-bergs being frequently larger than the icebergs. The ice-foot is also totally different, being formed by the pressure of lighter ice, it does not project into such deep water ; consequently, whereas we could secure the ship alongside the ice-foot in Robeson Channel with confidence of her not grounding, in Kennedy Channel and all parts to the South of it there is only one fathom water alongside the icy cliff at low water. .Starting again in the evening, as an increasing south- west wind gradually opened the ice to the southward, we crossed Scoresby Bay, which, extending from fifteen to twenty miles in a south-west direction, was perfectly clear of ice, the fresh breeze blowing down it raising a sea which caused the ships to pitch slightly, and materially stopped their speed through the water. Approaching Cape Frazer, the wind was blowing a whole gale, and I was forced to expend much coal in reaching Maury Bay immediately north of it, and in which the two ships were anchored among a lot of grounded ice, but the squalls off the land rendered it anything but a safe or comfortable position. We were delayed three days rounding Cape Frazer and Cape Hayes, the turning point of the channel, and consequently a troublesome piece of navigation. On the 25th, a'ter twice being driven back into Maury Bay, we succeeded in securing the ships inside some grounded icebergs near Cape Louis Napoleon, the same in all pro- bability that sheltered us when bound to the northward the previous spring. Much has been said concerning the expected difficulty of passing Cape Frazer, on account of the two flood tides, one coming south from the Polar Sea, and the other north from the Atlantic, being supposed to meet there, and by so doing collect a quantity of ice in the neigh- bourhood. Were ice navigation dependent on tidal cur- rents alone, then at the position of slack water, where there is a minimum ebb and flow, a vast quantity of ice might be collected by the two flood tides, but on the other hand there would be an equal chance of the two tides carrying it away in opposite directions ; however, as wind is of far greater importance than tidal movement, the case need not be considered. The two tides do meet at Cape Frazer, the actual position varying a few miles north or south according to the prevailing wind, and also the ice is certainly accumulated immediately about and south of the cape in great abundance. But this is owing to the ending of Kennedy Channel, and the strait widening considerably at that place into Smith's Sound proper. While many causes tend to keep narrow channels clear, enlarged seas with narrow outlets are naturally encum- bered with ice. I found no greater danger or trouble in passing Cape Frazer than in navigating elsewhere, except from what is caused by that cape being the turning point of the coast line, where no one wind blowing up or down the strait is able to clear away the ice on the north and south sides of the cape at the same time. Struggling slowly and patiently along, gaining about one mile a day by moving forward from the protection of one stranded iceberg to that of another, as slight movements in the ice during the calm weather allowed, and although obliged to enter the pack occasionally, always keeping as near the shore as prudent, we rounded Cape Louis Napoleon, and on the 29th arrived at Prince Imperial Island, in Dobbin Bay, every- one heartily thankful to be out of the pack, clear of the straggling icebergs, and for the ships to be secured to fixed ice once more. During the previous week we had experienced much misty weather with a heavy fall of snow, measuring five inches, which changed the whole aspect of the land by reclothing the richly-tinted stratified mountains with their winter garb, from which they had only been free for a short seven weeks ; afterwards the snow only melted slightly in the low-lying valleys. A northerly wind now set in, not strong enough to effect the movements of the ice materially, but sufficiently so to clear the atmo- sphere and lower the temperature considerably below freezing-point ; after this date the young sea-ice formed continually day and night. As the mist cleared away it disclosed a fine panorama of lofty snow-clad mountains with glacier-filled valleys intervening ; one large one ex- tending to the shore discharges numerous icebergs into Dobbin Bay. This, the largest discharging glacier on the west shore of Smith Sound, was named after the Empress Eugenie, who, besides taking a personal interest in the expedition by her thoughtful present of a number of homely but most useful articles, added considerably to the comfort and amusement of each individual. On September i we crossed Dobbin Bay and succeeded in securing the ships to an iceberg aground only a quarter of a mile from the depot of provisions left by us the pre- vious spring a few miles north of Cape Hawices, but such was the thickness of the newly-formed ice that boat work was nearly out of the question ; by working in the cracks opened by the ebb tide some of the provisions were em- barked, but there is still a boat and a large quantity of biscuit left on shore there. The same reason prevented my landing on Washington Irving Island and visiting our own cairn until the third day, when the spring tide having opened a water passage I found that our notice had not been visited since we left it. The two old cairns erected by former travellers were again visited ; the lichens which had spread from stone to stone provin:? that they are undoubtedly of very ancient date. They were pro- bably erected to mark the farthest north point reached by one < f our enterprising and gallant predecessors who never returned home. On September 3 a lane of water opening along shore to the westward of Cape Hawks, every exertion was made to reach it, but owing to the newly made ice, which by cementing together a number of loose pieces of old ice formed a barrier between us and the water, we only suc- ceef'ed, after long perseverance, in ramming our way through it at a lar^^e expenditure of coal. Alter rounding the Cape, the pack by drifting away from the land had left unfrozen water and numerous detached small floes, which forced us to make a very serpentine course, and occasionally to pa^s within thirty yards or the \o^ ice- foot on the shore, fortunately always findmg dt ep wat r. The outer pack, consisting of heavy ice, was closely cemented together by this year's frost ; it contained fewer icebergs than we observed last year. We succeeded in reaching Allman Bay, half-way be- tween Cape Hawks and Franklin Pierce Bay, but here the water ended, and the new ice was so strong that 1 thought it better to wait for the chance of an opening instead of forcing our way through it with full steam, On the following day, no sign of an opening occurring, and wishing to get to a more sheltered position on the western side of the bay, the Discovery being better adapted for the work than the Alert, led the way under full steam forcing a canal through the ice, which was i to 3 inches thick. She was jevera 46 NATURE {Nov, 9, i87( times completely stopped, until with all hands running from side to side on the upper deck and rolling the ship, she cleared herself and obtained headway again. At the head of AUman Bay we found a long valley leading down from the lofty hills far back in the interior filled with a gigantic glacier, probably extending eastward nearly to Dobbin Bay. It was named after Mr. Evans, the Pre- sident of the Geological Society. In the Bay the temperature of the surface water was 32°, whereas since the frost had set in we had not met with any above 30, On testing it was found to be nearly fresh, which fully accounted for the increased thickness of the newly formed ice. We afterwards found the same phenomenon in the neighbourhood of each glacier stream that we passed, proving that the water under the glaciers being cut off from the increasing cold remains unfrozen, and running after the temperature of the air is considerably below freezing point. The ice prevented our further movement until Septem- ber 6. Early on the 7th, after one halt to allow the ice to open, we reached Norman Lockyer Island, with water channels for a third of the way across Princess Marie Bay. The season was now getting so late that one false step would probably entail our passing another winter in these seas without any adequate result being derived ; therefore before attempting to cross the bay I walked to the summit of the island with Capt. Stephenson, and from there we had the cheering prospect of seeing a large space of open water some twenty miles distant from us which we knew would extend to the entrance of Smith's Sound, with only a few troublesome-looking nips between us and it. Making a signal to the ships we hurried on board, and with the exception of one nip which cost us an hour to clear away with all hands on the ice, and the Discovery charging -at it repeatedly with full steam, we succeeded in getting two-thirds of the distance across the Bay ; but there we were stopped by three extensive Paleo- crystic floes which tozzled in between some grounded bergs, and Cape Victoria prevented the ice from drifting out of Princess Marie Bay. The open water was now in sight from the mast-head, but the supply of coal was getting so low that if we did not succeed in releasing the ships the allowance for the second winter would have to be much reduced. On the 9th, as the ice moved at the change of tides, we advanced about a mile. On the morning of the loth, observing that the heavy ice was likely to pass clear of the icebergs which imprisoned it, steam was got up ready, and five minutes after the channel was opened we passed through and found ourselves clear of Cape Victoria. After this there was only one serious obstacle to our advance. Owing to the very calm weather the new ice had now frozen so strong that full steam was always necessary, particularly so wherever we had to force our way through ice where scattered pieces of old ice had been re-frozen closely together. At our last barrier of this kind, after the Alert had repeatedly charged the nip with full steam and considerable speed on, with no result, the Discovery ranged up alongside, and there being a narrow piece of heavy ice which would prevent the two ships actually touching, we made a charge together, and suc- ceeded in forcing the bairier and gaining the open water beyond. From here the water channel permitted me to make a clear run for Cape Sabine, the ice opening as we advanced until none was in sight from the mast-head. On passing the entrance of Hayes Sound a considerable quantity of ice was observed some distance inside it. In comparing the voyage of the Polaris and that of the Alert and Discovery, I believe that a vessel might have passed up the channel with equal fortune as the Polaris without encountering ice during the south-west gale we experienced in the middle of September, 1875. The heavy sea which on that occasion was produced in Robeson Channel indicated that there was a considerable stretch of clear water to the southward. The difficulty would be the choice of a starting point so late in the season aftei the frost has set in. If carefully navigated, a vessel, al though kept ready to make a start, ought by that time tc be secured in a sheltered position fit for winter quarters and, therefore, would most probably be unable to reach th( channel of open water when it formed. If incautious, sh( would be as helpless in the pack. The best starting point; are Port Foulke and Port Payer, at the entrance of Smith'; Sound. The Polaris quick passage north was entirel) due to her leaving the entrance of Smith Sound at ar opportune moment late in the season ; had she left at any other time she would have experienced the same trouble in getting north in 1871 as in returning south the follow- ing year. There was as much in the channel in 1871 as in 1872 — 75 — 76. To the latitude of Polaris or Discovery Bay, if no accident happens to the ship, the passage may probably be made with perseverance most years by start- ing early in the season, but it will at all times be a most dangerous one. In Robeson Channel the difficulties are greatly in- creased, and the passage may be said to depend as much on a fortunate combination of circumstances as on skilful navigation. The present expedition was 25 days in going and returning between Cape Sabine and Discovery Bay, the distance being 250 miles ; 7 days in proceeding from Discovery Bay to the Arctic Sea, and 12 days in return- ing, the distance being 76 miles. Sail was only used once on the passage north, the distance run being 20 miles, it was never used during the passage south. It is, therefore, totally out of the question a saihng vessel ever making the voyage ; nevertheless, as full steam was only necessary on two occasions, a power- ful steamer is not necessary. When the ice is decidedly closing no power at present available is of the slightest use ; when it is opening, easy speed generally carries the ship along as fast as the ice clears away in advance of her ; it is rarely that a quick dash forward is necessary. In a very exceptional season a ship might be carried nearer towards Cape Joseph Henry than Floeberg Beach on the west shore, and probably into Newman Bay on the east shore of the entrance to Robeson Channel ; but from the experiences we have gained I most confidently report that no vessel will ever round the promontory of Cape Joseph Henry, or pass beyond Cape Brevoort in navigable water. Every observation indicates that the last few years have been mild at the settlements on the west coast of Greenland, and open seasons with regard to the ice in Baffin's Bay ; little or none having been met with north of Cape York in July and August. The settlement at the Whale Fish Islands has been temporarily withdrawn, owing to the thin state of the ice rendering the fishing dangerous ; and the temperature of the water as we pro- ceeded south, through Baffin's Bay, was so high that navigation could scarcely be interrupted off Disco before the end of the year ; indeed, the Inspector intended to be absent in an open boat in the month of November. With a maximum body of water the ice formed on it in one winter will be considerably lighter or thinner than it would be, had a quantity of ice been left floating about on its surface ready to be re-frozen thicker, and cemented with the new ice into one floe during the coming winter. Thus, one open season certainly leads to another ; and unless fortuitous circumstances occur, such as continuous south-west gales, during the summer months, the season of 1877 must be a very open one in Baffin's Bay. North of Smith's Sound the season is probably entirely different to that of Baffin's Bay, for the same northerly winds that carry the ice to the southward towards Davis Straits, must fill up Smith's Sound with heavy Polar ice and pro- duce a cold season. Southerly winds which keep the ice north in the Bay would as certainly clear out the channels to the northward, empty the ice into the Polar Sea, and produce a milder season than usual. .Nov. 9, 1876] NATURE 47 From Hayes Sound to Cape Beechey, in lat. 81° 52' N., where Robeson Channel is only thirteen miles across, numerous Esquimaux remains stud the whole line of the west shore of Smith's Sound. To the southward of Cape Beechy the coast line affords fair travelling, to the north- ward the precipitous cliffs cut off all further advance, except durintj the depth of winter, when the ice in the channel is stationary. A very careful exammation was made of the coast north of Cape Union, and I can report with confidence that Esquimaux have never had a per- manent settlement on that shore. All the facts collected by our numerous observers lead me to conclude that the wanderers crossed Robeson Channel from Cape Beechey to Cape Lupton, where tne Polaris Expedition discovered their traces. The few pieces of drift wood, all of the fir or pine species, that have been obtained on the shores of the Polar Sea have evidently drifced to the position in which they were found from the westward. One piece was ob- tained lying on the surface of the sea ice itself, two miles distant from the land, the rest were found on the shore at dirierent heights above the sea level up to 1 50 feet ; the former was perfectly fresh with the bark on ; the latter in all stages of decay, usually imbedded in the mud of dry ancient lakes evidently formed by the rising of the land, and of very great age. Besides these evidences of the rising of the land, the clearly defined smoothing of the rocks at all the prominent capes, from the present ice level up to 300 and 400 feet until the marks are lost in the gradually decomposing rocks, caused by the pressure of the bordering ice-foot and the grounding ice as it is forced against the land by the drifting pack, and the numerous sea-shell beds and mud deposits at high eleva- tions were most noticeable. At FJocberg Beach the salt-water ice formed during the winter attained its maximum thickness of 75^ inches early in June. In a fresh-water lake at the same date the ice was 79^ inches thick, with 12 feet depth of water at a temperature of 32° below it. 1 his proves decidedly that the deep lakes do not freeze to the bottom during the winter. The lowest temperature registered by a thermo- meter buried 2 feet in the ground beyond the influence of any sudden variation was 13 degrees below zero ; 59 degrees warmer than the air at the time. It rose gradu- ally as the summer advanced, and at the end of July had risen to 29 5°. By that time the ravines had nearly stopped running, and the weather was becoming gradually colder. The sun's rays were most powerful on June 13 and 21, when a thermometer, with a blackened bulb in vacuo, registered + 128 and + 129 degrees, the tempera- ture of the earth's surface at the time being + 27 and of the air -+- 34 degrees. The coldest temperature of the sea-water during the wmter was 28'25°, the same at all depths. On several occasions the Casella reversible thermometer showed that the temperature of the surface water, south of Robeson Channel, was colder than that of the underlying stratum, the difference amounting on one occasion to i^ degrees Fahrenheit. At Floeberg Beach the time of high water full and change, loh. 44m. ; spring rise, 3ft, oin. ; neap rise, i!t. 7^in. ; neap range, ott. 5in. As I had deposited a notice of our proceedings at Norman Lockyer Island and intended calling at Cape Isabella I ran past our station near Cape Sabine without visiting it ; observing that the cairn was intact and ap- peared to be in the same state as we left it. Payer Har- bour and the neighbourhood was clear of ice. We arrived off Cape Isabella on September 9, the weather still remaining calm. On landing, a small mail of letters and newspapers which had been left by the Pandora was found at the depot, the dates informing us that the visit was made this year, but beyond a notice stating that if possible a duplicate box of newspapers would be landed at Cape Sabine, we found no record ot her previous or intended movements. Concluding that the remainder of our mail was left at Disco, and being short of coal, and the weather very calm, I pushed on towards the Carey Islands, without losing time by visiting Littleton Island on the opposite side of the strait. A southerly wind springing up, the ships were put under sail. Beating to the southward, we fetched into Whale Sound on the nth without meeting any ice since leaving Smith's Sound. The wind having freshened into a gale I anchored in Bardin Bay on the evening of the 12th, where we observed some Esquimaux on shore, but the weather continuing very bad, I, unfortunately for them, put off communicating until the following day. On the same nij^ht the wind shifted suddenly and forced us to get under weigh, when the misty weather and a dark night prevented my landing at their settlement. The rock a-wash off Cape Powlet, the east point of the entrance on which the Esquimaux village stands, is very dangerous. There is no good anchorage obtainable outside of Tyndall Glacier ; we were obliged to anchor in twenty-three fathoms in a position exposed to the northward, the Dis- covery making fast astern of the Alert. During the 13th and 14th we worked to the southward towards Wolstenholm Island with calm and light airs from the west, which prevented my reaching the Carey Islands except at a large expenditure of our rapidly dimi- nishing stock of coal ; the heavy swell left from the late southerly gale would also have prevented our landing ; accordingly our letters, left there the previous year by the Pandora, were obliged to be sacrificed. From Wolstenholm Sound a south-easterly wind enabled us to fetch across to Cape Byam Martin at the entrance of Lancaster Sound, where we arrived on the i6th, having seen no field ice, and the temperature of the sea-water ranging from 31 to 34 degrees. Steaming to the eastward on the 1 8th, we met another south-east wind, which car- ried us into the south part of Melville Bay, and we pro- ceeded south along the Greenland shore. I preferred recrossing Baffin's Bay rather than by standing to the southward risk getting in-shore of the middle ice on the west side. On the 20th Cape Shackleton was sighted, and on the 25th we arrived at Disco, having had per- sistent head winds since we left the entrance of Smith's Sound on the loth. Only one light stream of ice was fallen in with all this part of the voyage. Here Mr. Krarup Smith, Inspector of North Greenland, most con- siderately allowed us to take 30 tons of coal out of his small store, and informed me that there were 20 tons more at my disposal if I would visit Egedrsminde ; and in order to give the Expedition the full benefit of his presence in obtaining supplies, Mr. Krarup Smith accom- panied the ship to that port. Nothing could exceed his kindness to us during our stay. Finding that several of the inhabitants of Egedesminde were attacked with scurvy, I made the Governor a present of lime-juice for general use. From Mr. Smith we learnt that all our letters, with the exception of the few left at Cape Isabella, had been deposited at Littleton Island. Only a few letters were received at Cape Isabella, therefore a large mail of private and official correspondence has been lost. After coaling and preparing the ships for sea we left Egedesminde on October 2. On October 4 the two ships recrossed the Arctic Circle, exactly fifteen months from the time of crossing it on the outward voyage. Experi- encing contrary winds, slow progress was made to the southward. As the weather became warmer and damper a few men were attacked with rheumatism and colds. On the 1 2th, during a very severe gale, in which the ships were hove to under a close-reefed main topsail and storm staysail, the Alert's rudder head, sprung when the ship was in the ice, worked adrift from the irons with which it had been repaired, the lower part of the rudder being sound. As I had neglected to have the rudder 4B MATUkE \Nov. 9. pendants shackled on before leaving port, it was with no little difficulty that make-shift rudder pendants were im- provised ; but by their means the ship has been steered across the Atlantic, the sails being trimmed to bring as little strain as possible on the rudder. The Discovery was lost sight of during a heavy gale on the 19th. Dur- ing the passage, southerly winds prevailed. The spare rudder, itself badly sprung, has been repaired, and is in serviceable condition ; when it is shifted the Alert will be ready to proceed to Portsmouth. Captain Stephenson, before parting company, was ordered to rendezvous at Queenstown. In conclusion, it is my pleasing duty to inform you for the information of their Lordships, that one and all under my command have done their duty well and nobly, the utmost cordiality prevailing throughout the members of the Expedition from first to last. Capt. Stephenson has been a most valuable colleague, and I am much indebted to him for his friendly advice, and ready help on all occasions. The executive officers have each been mentioned in the detailed reports of Capt. Stephenson and myself ; their conduct when taxed to the utmost, under difficult and most distressing circumstances, is beyond all praise. Much as the attack of scurvy which visited us is to be regretted, it proved how valuable were the services of Fleet-Surgeon Thomas Colan, M.D., and Staff-Surgeon Belgrave Ninnis, M.D,, who were so ably assisted by Surgeons Edward Lawton Moss, M.D., and Richard William Coppinger, M.D. These officers are each of great talent and high character, and have fully borne out the confidence imposed in them by the Medical Director- General ; any reward that it is in the t^ ower of their Lordships to bestow on these gentlemen could not be given to more careful or zealous officers. Lieuts. Lewis Anthony Beaumont and William Henry May, who voluntarily undertook the navigating duties in their respective ships, have performed that work most ably. Lieuts. May and Robert Hugh Archer have charted the coast line from the entrance of Smith's Sound to the northward with great exactness ; these officers have earned their Lordships' commendation. The Expedition is much indebted to Mr. Thomas Mitchell, Assistant Paymaster-in- charge ; the departure of the Assistant Paymaster of the Alert has much in- creased his work, as the only officer of his rank in the Expedition. In order the more readily to assist me, he performed a sledge journey in the early season from the Discovery to the A lert, and has since then divided his time between the two ships. He is a steady and trust- worthy officer, and as such I recommend him for pro- motion. Mr. Mitchell and Mr. George White, Engineer, have made a most valuable collection of photographs of subjects connected with Arctic life and scenes. The Engineers of the two ships have always most zealously assisted, like everyone else, in the general work, and fully occupied their spare time for the benefit of the Expedition. Messrs. James Wootton and Daniel Cartmel deserve great praise for the invariable excellent order in which the engines under their charge have been kept, and for the careful economy of the coal supply, a vital point in Arctic exploration. Messrs. George White and Matthew Richard Miller are each careful and talented officers, I most confidently recommend the claims of these four gentlemen, who were voluntarily employed with the sup- port sledges, to the favourable consideration of their Lordships. The two ships' companies have conducted themselves in the most praiseworthy manner throughout ; they are specially commendable for their resolute perseverance during the trying sledge journeys which have been already reported. Their good conduct and zeal entitles them to the most favourable consideration of their Lordships list of men specially deserving of and fit for advancei to higher rates will shortly be forwarded. OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN The November Meteors. — The earth will arrive a descending node of the first comet of 1866 (Tempel), ii track of which the meteors of the November period are fou travel, early on the evening of the 13th inst. The comet its approaching the point of nearest approximation to the or Uranus, which planet, however, is always far removed froti comet during the present revolution. The distance fron earth on November 13 is 19 "06, and from the sun iS'ii mean distance of the earth from the sun being taken as u and were we able to reach the comet with our telescopes it \ then be found rather more than one degree to the west o tares. The obvious existence of more than one point of exc( condensation in this stream of meteors, necessitates a strict a at each return of the earth to the nodal point, if we are to : at a clear knowledge of the law of distribution along the ( and as was remarked by M. Lever rier, " cela permetti comprendre ces questions dans une theorie plus precise." Herschel's First Glimpse of Uranus.— Ilerschel's observation for position of this planet on the night of disco March 13, 1781, was made at loh. 30m. M.T. at Bath, whi found it 2' 48" distant from a star which he calls a. For who are curious in such matters it may be stated that the ta place of Uranus at this time is in right ascension 5h. 35 m. 4I and north polar distance 66° 27' 3", whence it appears that schel's first comparison was made with the star Argel; Z. -i- 24°, No. 1067, estimated 9"5m. ; the difference ol minute of arc, between the observed distance and that com] on reducing the star to March, 1781, being probably dc error of position in the " Durchmusterung." The log-disi of Uranus from the earth was l"2774. The Transit of Venus, 1882. — Prof. Bruhns has ( lated the results of a new calculation of the circumstances o transit, made from Leverrier's tables of sun and planet, o method adopted by Hansen for the transit of 1874. The suits, allowing for small . differences in the semi-diameter ployed, are quite in accordance with those previously publ by Hind, Puisseux, &c. Prof. Bruhns hopes to issue a ch the limiting curves in this transit, founded upon this new putation, before the end of the present year. Mr. Knobel's Catalogue of the Literature of i real Astronomy. —One of those exceedingly usefulj monotonous and laborious performances which exhibit th zeal of the worker, occupies a large portion of the suppleme number of the " Monthly Notices " of the Royal Astrono Society. It consists of a list of references to books, papers, bearing upon the following subjects connected with stellar nomy : — I. Double Stars, and the investigation of the orl Binary Systems ; 2. Variable Stars ; 3. Red Stars ; 4. N and Clusters ; 5. Proper Motions ; 6. Parallaxes of Stai Stellar Spectra ; and, in the formation of this list, Mr. Knobel has had the advantage of the valuable library ( Royal Society, which is known to be remarkably rich in sci( transactions, &c. , in addition to the library of the Royal j nomical Society, to which numerous and important add have been made of late years. In such a work it migl perhaps be difficult for any one who has interested himsel particular branch of sidereal astronomy to suggest some ad which he would like to have seen incorporated. For ins' if a calculator of double-star orbits be looking up measu a Centauri, he will find no reference to the valuable mei by Mr. E, B. Powell, at Madras, under his name. Xov. 9, 1876] NATURE 49 Mr. Knobel's statement that with one exception he has " per- ally examined ' every paper or book to which reference is de," will afford an idea of the expend'ture of time and trouble nvolved in the production of his catalogue. By the way, the = >ne exception refers to the " Sidereal Messenger," issued by the late Prof. O. M. Mitchell, while director of the Observatory at Cincinnati, which Mr. Knobel says is "not in the British ^' ^useum nor the libraries of the Royal Society and the Royal '* ' tronomical Society." The writer is able to testify to a circum- ce from his own experience, which may throw some light on rarity of this periodical in our scientific libraries. He was of a favoured few in this country to whom Prof. Mitchell the "Sidereal Messenger." It arrived through the post in or more numbers at a time, but the postal arrangements with United States not being then on the liberal footing of the ent day, and Prof. Mitchell unluckily enveloping his journal a a stiff" cover, heavy letter-postage was demanded for the suc- ■^ essive deliveries. The demand increased on each occasion, -^ intil the presentation of one, which would have left but small ^ hange out of a sovereign, closed the writer's knowledge of the -idereal Messenger," and he has some recollection that the pre- ■ I^lumian Piofessor of Astronomy informed him at the time ' ' iiat his own receipt of the paper terminated about the same epoch, ,nd for a similar reason. If this be a mistake, perhaps the ;, leriodical to its termination may be found in the library of the .ambridge Observatory. No. 4 contains the author's early sures of the companion of Antares, which he detected at ,..:cinnati, in 1845, with measures of »j Coronce and one or two , [ther double stars of no particular interest. The "Sidereal T'-ssenger " was not continued for any length of time. METEOROLOGICAL NOTES LiMATEOF Manitoba.— In the jfoumal oi i\\Q Austrian corological Society for October i, there appears a valuable _ )aper on this subject by Dr. A. Wojeikoff, based on obser- ■ations made for a period of about five years at Winnipeg, the ,^ apital of this province of Canada. The results, a monthly ' ;^ esutit^ of which accompanies the paper, show a mean atmo- !^ pheric pressure about three-tenths ;of an inch less in summer '^^ han in winter, and in consequence of the position of Manitoba ^ vith reference to the diminished pressure in the interior of the :] ontinent at this season, N. and N.W. winds prevail there ' 9 per cent, less, and N.E. E., S., and W. winds 26 per cent. ''_l aore in summer than in winter. Leaving out September, the ■ ' ainfall of which appears to be exceptional. May and June are he two rainiest months, and next to these come April and July, ';'• he rainfall of Winnipeg being in these respects closely analogous '• 0 that of the prairie region of the Western States. The rain- * all for the year is only 22 inches. The'greatest amount of cloud '' nd the greatest relative humidity occur in November. The •• lean annual temperature is 34''-o, the coldest month January, * leing C^, and the warmest July, 66° 7. The winter tempe- ' ature is thus as cold as that of Archangel, but the summer ' emperature as warm as that of Paris. The high summer tem- •^ lerature and generous rainfall from April to July, the rainfall - ising from i -85 inches in April to 3-58 inches in June, mark the • limate of Manitoba as admirably suited for the successful culti- in of wheat-, barley, potatoes, turnips and other agricultural acts of temperate regions. Dr. Wojeikoff draws an interest- ng comparison between the climates of the prairies of Manitoba * nd Minnesota on the one hand, and the Steppes of Western ! jiberia on the other, and shows that the seasonal distribution of "emperature of Winnipeg is all but identical with j that of ji schim, and that of St. Paul with Saratow. An important a:t limatic difference must, however, be kept in view, viz., the "i ummer rains are several weeks earlier in Manitoba than in ■ai Liberia. Sirocco at Pau.— In the same number M. Piche, Secretary of the Meteorological Commission of the Lower Pyrenees, com- municates a short notice of a sirocco which occurred in that part of France on September i, 1874, during which the temper- ature rose at Biarritz to l0l°-3, and the humidity fell to 38, the humidity falling still lower, or to 33, at Eaux-Bonnes. The extraordinary heat and dryness of the sirocco, which came from the south and south-east are attributed by M. Piche to the course it had pursued, that course being from Africa, across the Pyrenees, and thence down on Pau, this wind being thus quite analogous to the fohn of the Alps. The sirocco of the Lower Pyrenees being merely the in-draught towards a low atmospheric pressure accom- panying a great storm which is advancing from the west, it follows that as soon as the wind veers to W. or to N.W., and conse- quently no longer crosses the Pyrenees before reaching Pau, it may be expected that the air will become instantly saturated with moisture, and rain begin to fall. This is just what takes place, and the" connection between the sirocco and Atlantic storms is well recognised, and finds expression in the weather-prognostic current at Pau, "The drier the air the nearer the rain." The Norwegian Atlantic Expedition.— Prof. Mohn communicates to the Bulletin International an interesting note on the Norwegian scientific cruise of last summer. The hourly meteorological observations will not 'only be discussed with a view to ascertain the diurnal periods during the summer months, but also be compared with simultaneous observations made on land with the view of tracing the connection which subsists between the weather and its changes on sea and land respectively In addition to the observations usually made on board the navy of Norway, the humidity of the air, the evaporation from sea- water, the velocity of the wind, and the rainfall were observed. The zoological collection is rich and varied, many of the species found are new to science, and will necessitate the establishment of new genera. A valuable collection has been made of speci- mens of the sea-bottom taken at each sounding, of sea-water from the bottom and the surface, and of the rocks and minerals of Faro and Westmanna Island. The stormy character of the weather prevented magnetic observations being made on board, but such observations were very carefully made at Huso, in Sognefiord, Reykjavik, and Namsos in Norway. The expense of the cruise, inclusive of the instruments and apparatus, has been 165,000 francs — an expenditure which can only be regarded as liberal for such a country as Norway — and it is intimated to be the intention of the Norwegian Government to resume the pro- secution of the researches in the next two years, extending them in the direction of Jan Magen and Spitzbergen. Barometers of Southern Russia. — M. Moritz, the eminent director of the Tiflis Observatory, makes an important communi- cation to the Bulletin International of October 26, regarding the barometers of the stations in the south of Prussia. Prof. Wild, in the Annals of the Central Physical Observatory of St. Peters- burg for 1874, states that the barometer at Tiflis is 0*028 inch lower than that at Nicolaieff. The determination of the true difference of the readings of these two barometers is of more importance than appears at first sight, because the barometers of all the Russian stations on the borders of the Black Sea have their errors determined by that of the barometer at Nicolaieff, or as it is technically phrased, are controlled by it, whereas all the barometers of the Caucasian Stations are controlled by that of Tiflis. Now these southern Russian Stations, taken as a whole, can supply data, unique of its kind, towards the solution of such questions of general meteorology as concerns the influence of large sheets of water and lofty mountain ranges on the state of the atmosphere and its movements, if only we be quite certain that the barometric readings at the numerous stations over the region are comparable with each other. During the past summer M, Moritz has made a careful comparison of the Tiflis 50 NATURE [Nov. 9, and Nicolaieff barometers, by means of two barometers which he carried from Tiflis to Nicolaieff, and back again to Tiflis, with the result that the difference between the two barometers by which so many barometers are controlled, is only a tenth part of the difference as given by Prof. Wild, or the difference instead of being 0-028 inch, is only 0-003 ii^ch. The comparison of station barometers is a laborious and delicate operation. If the instrument be a Board of Trade barometer, having an air-trap, any air lodged in it renders the comparison worthless ; if not furnished with an air-trap, any air admitted into the tube vitiates the comparison ; and if care be not taken in ha nging the barometers or in timing the observations so as to secure that each attached thermometer truly gives the temperature of the whole instrument with its contained mercury, the comparison is not satisfactory. The Fall of Temperature in End of October. — The weather maps of Europe of October 27 and following days show remarkable changes in the distribution of the atmo- spheric pressure and changes of temperature consequent thereon. On the 27 th pressures were much higher in the east than in the west of the continent, accompanied with south winds and tempe- ratures considerably above the average of the season in Great Britain ; in other words the meteorological conditions were analogous to those described in a recent number of Nature (vol. xiv. p. 536), as characterising the warm weather from October 4 to 7. On the 28th, however, barometers began to fall in the extreme north of Norway. This depression and a general lowering of the barometer was propagated southwards over Eastern Europe, while at the same time barometers rose to a considerable height over Western Europe. The necessary result, as regards the British Islands, of this altered distribution of pressure was a change of wind from south to north and a fall of temperature from about 5° above the average on October 27 and 28, to about 5° below it on October 31 and November i. In addition to the interest of this illustration from its bearing on the importance of a knowledge of the weather in the extreme north of Europe in connection with weather forecasts for Great Britain, it is also interesting as a type of those meteorological conditions to which some of our severe winter weather is due. Indeed, some of our severest winter storms of wind and snow have occurred with barometric depressions which have advanced from the Arctic Sea southwards over Europe ; and they are peculiarly severe in these islands when the centre of the depres- sion takes a course more to westward than that of last week, or when it passes to the south-eastward over the North Sea or over Denmark. NOTES We publish this week the complete Report of Capt. Nares on the Arctic Expedition, along with a new map showing in detail the various geographical discoveries made by the expedition, our map of last week being necessarily very general. We congratu- late the Admiralty on the rapidity of the publication, and arejglad to be able thus to place on permanent record the general report of the Commander of the expedition, both as to its work and its re- sults. As we said last week, these results will be fully appreciated only when the various scientific reports are published. Of course various schemes havebeen proposed to accomplish the minor object in attempting to attain which our fearless men were baffled — the attainment of the Pole. A correspondent writes to us suggesting the use of a balloon to be inflated at the coal-bed in Discovery Bay, and crossing right over the Pole, about 1,000 miles, obtain a bird's-eye view of what is below. A correspondent in one of the daily papers advocates the use of steam, and that something like a tramway should be made to the Pole, the floe-bergs being tunnelled if necessary. Another of our correspondents endeavours to show that the ice-masses met with must have been pushed over rom the Siberian coast, though this seems somew: consistent with the fact of the destruction of the I Strait whaling fleet by ice. But what do all these j ideas point to but the adoption of Weyprecht's schen vocated by the German Government, and curiously only now finding its way into the daily papers, as son before quite unknown here, though we pubKshed detail a year ago. If we are not mistaken we shal to thank both the successes and the failures of this dition for opening up a new era in Arctic exploration, following promotions for services rendered in con with the Arctic Expedition have been made : — Comi A. H. Markham to be Captain ; Lieutenants Pelham A L. A. Beaumont, and A. A. C. Parr to be Commanders Lieutenant C. J. M. Conybeare to be Lieutenant ; Staff- S B. Ninnis, M.D., to be Fleet Surgeon ; Surgeons E. L. M.D., and R. W. Coppinger, M.D., to be Staff Sui Engineers D. Cartmel and James Wootton, to be Ch; gineers; Assistant Paymaster Thomas Mitchell to b master. As we announced last week, Capt. Allen Young has v with the Pandora. He was so beset with ice in about ' that he was able to accomplish little, though he man£ deposit the letters and despatches which he took out expedition. Capt. Young found some Eskimo at th latitude of 77° 12' N., who conducted themselves ver They offered Capt. Young's party everything they ha when asked what they would like to receive, the chief \ to the ship and selected a 15-foot ash oar and some gimlet wanted the oar for spear shafts, and the gimlets to bore iv bone in order to cut it. Some other uselul presents wer them, and they gave in exchange some narwhal's horns mens of their pot stone cooking kettles, and of the iron used for striking fire. Capt. Adams, the well-known m; the whaler Arctic, has brought home with him to Dun Eskimo "Chief" named Alnack, thirty-eight years ol has for years begged to be taken to England. His ol coming to Dundee is that he may get during the winter, ledge that might be of much importance to the tribe ol he is chief. We hope he will take more kindly to our and habits than previous Eskimo visitors. The following is the award of medals for the present 3 the Council of the Royal Society : — The Copley Medal t Claude Bernard, For. Mem. R.S., for his numerous cc tions to the science of physiology; a Royal Medal to Mr. A Froude, F.R.S., for his researches, both theoretical and mental, on the behaviour of ships, their oscillations, thei: ance, and their propulsion ; a Royal Medal to Sir C. "^ Thomson, F.R.S., for his successful direction of the s( investigations carried on by H. M.S. Challenger ; the R Medal to Mr. Pierre Jules Cesar Janssen, For. Mem. R his numerous and important researches in the radiati absorption of light, carried on chiefly by means of the J scope. The medals will be presented at the anniversary i of the Society on the 30th inst. It is hoped that the two < Frenchmen named in the foregoing list will be able to ap person on the day appointed. The store-houses, workshops, and studies of zoolog) Jardin des Plantes, Paris, have been recently removed to and most commodious building in the rue Buffon, when is ample space for scientific work of every kind. Plar likewise been made for the erection of a large new bull front of the " Galerie," in order to give more space exhibition of the general collection of zoology. Russian newspapers announce the death of M. Chekai who, exiled in Siberia, has spent more than ten years Nov. 9, 1876] NATURE {geological exploration of the country, and recently returned from liis travels on the Olenek and the shores of the Polar Sea, to St. Petersburg, where he was engaged at the Academy in the description of his immense collections. He was found on October 10 dead in his room, and it is suppo-edthathe poisoned himself. Ti!E Academy of Geneva, whose foundation goes back to the ixteeiithcentury, to the time of Calvin and Beza, has for more iian three centuries maintained a renown and a value far exceeding the dimensions of the small republic which glories in its prosperity. Five years ago, in consequence of the erection of large buildings for its use and of concomitant legislative deci- sions, it assumed the title of University, the National Council having decreed the creation of a Faculty of Medicine as an ad- dition to those of ancient standing. Until now this new faculty existed only on paper, the buildings intended to receive it not iiving been erected. They have been recently finished ; the pro- •ssors have been chosen from the native medical men, to whom lave been added some eminent foreigners — Professors Schiff, of i-lorence, Zahn, of Strasburg, and Laskowski, of Paris. An laugural ceremony took place on October 26, when addresses ..ore given by the President of the Council of State, the Rector f the University, and the Dean of the new Faculty. There are iready fifty students, and the organisation of the new classes has cen made on a scale entirely satisfactory. The Norddeutsche Allgemeim Zeitung %i2Xts, that Capt. Kielsen, of the John Maria, Tromsoe, has reached 8iJ^° N. lat. between Novaya Zemlya and Spiizbergen, and found the sea free of ice. He discovered an island with a mountain 500 feet high, which he called White Island. He supposes that the ice-wall round the Pole was, at least this year, at a higher latitude, and that the Gulf Stream generally follows this direction. The following statistics with regard to the number of students attending German universities during the summer term of this year ai^e taken from the just published University Calendar for 1876-7. Berlin — number of students, matriculated and unmatri- culated — 3,666, of teachers 193. The corresponding numbers in Leipzig were 2,803 and ^55 5 Munich, 1,158 and 114; Breslau, 1,122 and 108 ; Goctingen, 1,059 and 119 ; Tiibingen, 1,025 ^"<1 S6 ; Wiirzburg, 990 and 66 ; Halle, 902 and 96 ; Heidelberg, -95 and no; Bonn, 785 and 100 ; Strasburg, 700 and 94; ^onigsberg, 611 and 82; GreifswaJd, 507 and 60; Jena, 503 ad 77 ; Marburg, 445 and 69 ; Erlangen, 422 and 55 ; Miinster, [5 and 29 ; Giessen, 343 and 59 ; Freiburg, 290 and 54 ; Kiel, 23 and 65 ; and Rostock, 141 and 36. Of universities outside ie German Empire, Vienna had 3,581 students and 247 teachers ; jrpat, 844 and 65 ; Graz, 804 and 88 ; Innsbruck, 570 and 67 ; Piirich, 355 and 78 ; Bern, 351 and 74; and Basel, 239 and 64. It is proposed by the Council of the Trades' Guild of Learn- Jlg, in conjunction with the Committee of the National Health jciety, to organise a course of twenty lectures on the " Laws Health," to be delivered by W. H. Corfield, Professor of lygiene and Public Health in University College, London, in ||e large room of the Society of Arts, John Street, Adelphi, .C, on consecutive Saturdays, commencing November li, at JO P.M., excepting the following dates : — December I (Friday), lebruary i (Thursday), March I (Thursday). There will be an ^terval of four weeks at Christmas, and three weeks at Easter. ertificates will be awarded to those who satisfy the examiner id who have attended not [less than fifteen lectures out of renty. Mr. McMann writes that on p. 18, vol. xv. in, our notice of his method of comparing spectrum maps, E should have been G. 'he distance between B and G is not assumed equal to 1 00, he tes, but is assumed equal to i, and is divided into 100 equal ^■|he ^^Kates wt In a letter addressed to Dr. Andrews, Prof. Wartmann, of Geneva, states, with reference to the communication on Radi. ometers to Nature of Oct 19, that Prof. Frankland reproduces precisely the conclusions which Prof. Wartmann gave at one of the conferences at South Kensington in the month of last May. The results were published in No. 222 (June 15) of the Archives des Sciences Physiques et Natur tiles. In the first note which Prof. Wartmann published {Archives, No. 219, March 15) he said (p. 315) that by making two calorific sources act simultaneously on the opposite faces of the same disc, we obtain an equilibrium when the intensity of the pressures is in the inverse ratio of the absorb- ing power of each face. The experiments, which he made in spring, during very favourable nights, on the nullity of the action of the lunar light, completed the demonstration. It is the calo- rific radiation which is the cause of the movements of the radi- ometer. At the recent meeting of the German Association of Natu- ralists and Physicians, Dr. Hermes described some interesting characteristics of the young gorilla in the Berlin aquarium. He nods and claps his hands to visitors ; wakes up like a man and stretches himself. His keeper must always be beside him and eat with him. He eats what his keeper eats ; they share dinner and supper. The keeper must remain by him till he goes to sleep, his sleep lasting eight hours. His easy life has increased his weight in a few months from thirty:one to thirty-seven pounds. For some weeks he had inflammation of the lungs, when his old friend Dr. Falkenstein was fetched, who treated him with quinine and Ems water, which made him better. When Dr. Hermes left the gorilla on the previous Sunday the latter showed the doctor his tongue, clapped his hands, and squeezed the hand of the doctor as an indication, the latter believed, of his recovery. In fact the gorilla is now one of the most popular inhabitants of the Prussian capital. For Pungu, as the gorilla is called, a large glass palace has been erected in the Berlin Aquarium in connection with the palm-house. The Kdlnische Zeitung of November 4, reports on the dis- covery of an ancient burial ground, during some excavations made near Rauschenburg on the Cologne-Minden Railway. It appears that a number of antiquities were found, and while the vases amongst them, as well as a number of objects found in these vases are of undoubtedly Roman origin, it is doubted that the people buried there, and whose skeletons were found, were of Roman nationality. It is believed at present that they were Teutons of the third or fourth century who lived in friendly intercourse with the neighbouring Romans, and had obtained from them the objects mentioned. A definite opinion would be premature until the whole of the ground is excavated, and a scientific investigation has been made of all that is found. Amongst the objects discovered recently, we may mention a well- preserved vase of terra sigillata. On its floor there is still a small remainder of the linen containing the bone-ashes ; the vase is 20 cm. broad, and 12 cm. high ; it shows an ornament which is of decidedly Roman origin. Amongst the bone ashes in its interior there were two bronze nails, several molten pieces of bronze, and remains of a beautifully ornamented ivory comb. Another vase, quite full of bone ashes, and roughly worked of coarse clay, consists of two parts almost equal, of which the lower one is 25 cm. broad, and 16 cm. high, while the upper one is 27 cm. broad, and 18 cm. high. Amongst the bone ashes it contained were found several molten pieces of bronze, the remains of a burnt ivory comb, and a piece of some handsome ornamental object made of bone. Round this urn several smaller vessels were placed ; they were of ordinary gray clay, two of them of somewhat finer black clay. One of them was empty, another one contained ten little pieces of clay, about 3 cm. thick, and perforated, all of different shapes, they had very likely been worn as beads on a string round the neck. There was ako a little tablet of bronze in this vessel. One of 52 NATURE {Nov. 9, i8; the black vessels seems to have served for incense, the other one may have served the same purpose, but being shaped like a three- armed Roman lamp, it is probable that it served as support for three lamps. Of the different pieces of undoubtedly Roman vases that were found besides the above, one shows the figure of a hare, and another that of a running hound— both in reliet. A WISH, which was expressed last year at the International Geographical Congress held at Paris, will be realised in January next. From that date a monthly geographical review will be published there, at the Librairie of Ernest Thonin, and edited by Ludovic Drapeyron, Professor at the Lycee Charlemagne, and member of the Academie. This Revue Geographique will contain reports of all work done in connection with geography ; the investigation of the various methods now employed in teaching geography, as well as topography, will : form some of the principal subjects of the Revue. Besides theoretical original papers, it will publish the latest reports of the different travels of discovei-y going on in various parts of our globe, criticism on new geographical works, biographies of celebrated geographers, &c. The Revue Geographique is not to be the organ of petty party- spirit, but of all those who see in geographical science one of the principal means of breaking the reign of empty rhetorics and scholastics. Besides geographersl and, geologists, the editor invites for co-operation the representatives of all historic sciences in the widest sense of the term — palceontologists and ethno- graphers, as well as* archaeologists — all those, therefore, who by the application of geography in historic^^research, wish to open new fields for social science in general. The University of Zurich has announced that in future, like the German universities, it will grant the doctor's degree only after an oral and written examination. Mr. Bryce M. Wright, of Great Russell Street, has pro- cured one of the finest and most complete specimens known of the Plesiosaurus from the Lias of Whitby, which is open to the inspection of the public until the I2th inst. The neck is 64 feet long, and the entire animal nearly 17 feet. The whole of the vertebra from the head to the tip of the tail are complete without the slightest break, which gives some idea of the entirety and preservation of the animal. It was procured from the cliff in which it was found in about twenty pieces, but after three weeks' incessant work Mr. Bryce Wright has mounted it in such a manner that one could scarcely believe a bone had been disturbed. Mr, Bryce Wright, has, we believe, secured this specimen for a foreign institution. The additions to the Zoological Society's Gardens during the past week include a Puma {Felis concolor) from Santa Fe, pre- sented by Miss Brassey ; two Wild Swine {Sus scrofa) from Cuba, presented by Mr. J. Alfonso de Aldama; a Persian Gazelle {Gazella subgutterosd) from Persia, presented by Mr. T, Fowler; two Senegal Touracous {Corythaix persa) from West Africa, a Sun Bittern {Eurypyga helias) from South America, a Scarlet Ibis {Ibis rubra) from Para, a Ring-necked Parrakeet {Falceornis torquata) ixova India, two Black Tortoises {Testudo carbonaria), a Common Boa (Boa constrictor) from Panama, a Sulphur-breasted Toucan [Ramphastos carittatus) from Carta- gena, deposited ; an Andean GQOSQ'^(Bernicia melanoptera) from Chili, purchased. SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES Paris Academy of Sciences, October 30. — Vice-Admiral Paris in the chair. — The following papers were read :— Letter of Mr. Hind communicated by M. Leverrier, on the intra-Mercurial planet. — Study of the organs of reproduction in ephemera, by M. Joly. — On a new electric lamp devised by M. Sabloschkoff", by M. Denayrouze, The carbons are fixed parallel, and the short interval between them is occujjied by an insulating sub- stance which disappears along with them (as the wax of a candle disappears from the wick). Various insulating substances are used, sand, glass, mortar, lac, &c. The simplest and cheap is a sand of pounded glass. — On the distribution of magneti on the surface of magnets, by MM. Treve and Durassier. 1 more a steel is carburetted, the more is the magnetism ci densed towards its extremities ; the less carburetted, the mon magnetism spread out equally over its surface. The authors having a series of steels prepared by hardening with cold wal and they seek to formulate a simple law e:-tablishing the relat between the coercitive force and the proportion of carbon. — the deterioration of vineyards of Cote-d'Or, by M. du Men; — M. Wery submitted an apparatus for ventilating apj ments and mines, or increasing the draught of chimneys. — ' the rotatory polarisation of quartz, by MM. Soret and Saras They extend their observations to the ultra-violet rays mi refrangible than the line N, and also make more precise measu ments. The results are tabulated.- — On the laws of vibrate motion of diapasons, by M, Mercadier. The number of vib tions of a prismatic diapason is proportional to its thickness a inversely as the square of its length. The isochronism of vib tions is not absolutely rigorous ; the duration of the period depei on the amplitude and the temperature. In using a diapason chronograph or interrupter, the instrument will not give suits quite identical unless you operate at the same tem] rature and give the vibrations the same amplitude. If (a; generally the case) one does not need complete identity and lai amplitudes, then provided an amplitude of 2 to 3 mm. be 1 exceeded, and one operate at temperatures little different, one certain to have the same number of periods per second to nea o'oooi. — Chemical reactions of gallium, by M. Lecoq de Be baudran. Inter alia, further experiment confirms the opinic that oxide of gallium is more soluble than alumina in ammon Carbonate of soda only precipitates indium after gallium. Ch ride of gaUium is very soluble and deliquescent. A slightly ai solution of it dried at a mild heat, gives needles or crystalli lamellse, which act strongly on polarised light. Sulphate of g Hum isnot deliquescent. — On terephtalic aldehyde, by M. Grimai — On the simultaneous formation of two trioxyanthraquinones a the synthesis of anew isomer of purpurine, by M. Rosenstiehl. On the electric apparatus of the torpedo (third part), by \ Rouget. In the electric discs, besides ramifications of ner fibres and the reticulated nervous plate, one finds only vess and cell-elements, fibrillae and membranes belonging all to t connective tissues. M, Rouget offers a theory as to the 11 chanism by which the nervous elements produce electrical effec — On the phenomena of division of the cellular nucleus, by '. Balbiani. — Variations ot the electric state of muscles in tetan produced by passage of a continuous current, studied by me£ of the induced contraction, by MM. Moral and Toussaint. such tetanus the induced contractions (shocks, isolated or as: ciated into a tetanus of short duration) are to be regarded accidents, though the comparison of the two traces (inducer a induced) indicates but imperfectly the cause of these acciden The electric state of the muscle is sensibly uniform during 1 whole duration of the contraction. — On some parts relating nutrition of the embryo in the egg of the hen. The blastode derives its elements from the yolk, whereas at the beginning incubation, and at least till the time of complete closure of t amnion, the embryo is developed at the cost of the albumen. On the influence of poisoning by; the bulbous agaric on glycjen by M. Ore, — On the employment of picric acid in treatment wounds, by M. Curie, CONTENTS P/ Fungus Disease in India. By Rev. M. J. Kerkelkv The Administration of Patent Laws in England Letters to the Editor : — Sumner's Method at Sea. — J. A. Ewing Sea-Fisheries and the British Association. — E. W. H. Holds- worth Mr. Wallace and his Reviewers. — Alfred R. Wallace .... Self-fertilisation of Plants. — Prof. Asa Gray Nitrite ot Amyl.— Dr. B. W. Rtchardson, F.R.S. Captain Nares's Report {With Map) Our Astronomical Column :— The November Meteors . Herscnel's First Glimpse of Uranus The Transit of Venus, 1882 Mr. Knobel's Catalogue of the Literature of Sidereil Astronomy . Meteorological Notes : — Climate of Manitoba ... .'^irocco at Pau The Norwegian Atlantic Expedition Barometers of Southern Russia The Fall of Temperature in End of October Notes Societies and Academies NA TURE 53 THURSDAY, NOVEMBER i6, 1876 FOSTER'S ''ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY A Course of Elementmy Practical Physiology. By M. Foster, M.D., F.R.S., Fellow of and Prxlector in Trinity College, Cambridge, assisted by J. N. Langley, B.A., St. John's College, Cambridge. (London : Mac- millan and Co., 1876.) I X this little book Dr. Foster gives us the results of his .perience in teaching physiology practically to students. AS may be readily understood, such teaching is attended with much greater difficulties than those encountered in the experimental teaching of chemistry or of physics- difficulties which arise partly out of the complexity of the phenomena to be demonstrated, partly from the circum- stance that experiments in which living processes are concerned cannot be repeated so frequently as would be desirable. Dr. Foster has himself been remarkably suc- cessful in overcoming these difficulties. The evidence of that success is to be found in the number of men whose names are already known as efficient workers in physi- ology, who owe to his teaching their first introduction to scientific research. On this ground, even more than on tliat of his long experience as a teacher, his opinion on the question of method is more worthy of attention than that of any other person. The book is entitled "A Hand- book of Practical Physiology." Our readers are probably not aware that during the last half-dozen years that term has acquired a special meaning. Under the term Practi- cal Physiology all students of medicine are now required by the examining Boards to go through a course of laboratory instruction, for which accordingly arrange- ments are made in all medical schools. In very many instances the instruction is purely technical and anatomi- cal. All that is attempted is to teach the student " how to work with the microscope," which means for the most part how to prepare tissues for microscopical examina- tion. The acquirement of this art, although, it need not be said, of great value to the physiologist, is not the end and purpose of physiological teaching. The physiologist interests himself only in what is living, and when he uses the microscope, concerns himself with the anatomical structure of a part or organ, only in relation to its living properties. The handbook contains no description of the micro- scope, and the subject of microscopical manipulation is dealt with in an appendix. In this respect it differs from most previously published works on histology. Never- theless it is as good an introduction to that subject as the beginner in animal physiology can take in hand. The plan of study laid down is anatomical, but in carrying it out, the principle is acted upon that it is desirable from ae first to give meaning and interest to the otherwise dry '-tails of anatomy, by combining the study of the func- ion of every part with that of its structure. Histological work, says Dr. Foster in his preface, " unless it be salted with the salt either of physiological or of morphological ideas, is apt to degenerate into a learned trifling of the very worst description." To avoid this evil, of which the feebleness of English microscopy is the best evidence. Dr. Foster encourages the student, as soon as he has Vol. XV.— No. 368 learnt the anatomy and histology of a part, to pass at once to its physiology, " so that by learning what is known concerning its action, he may form an opinion of the real importance of its structural details." Let us now see how the principle is carried out. The book comprises twenty-nine lessons. The first is en- titled, " Dissection of a Rabbit and of a Dog." The purpose of this introductory lesson is to make the student acquainted with the general construction of the body of the mammalian animal as a whole, a sort of knowledge which students of human anatomy are often strangely wanting in. Then follow two lessons on the blood. In the first, the student learns all that relates to the structural elements of the circulating fluid ; but even here the instruction given is of such a nature that he cannot fail to be impressed, provided that he is capable of being impressed by observation, with the fact that he has to do, not with dead forms, but with living organisms. In the second lesson on the blood, the chemi- cal constituents of the liquor sanguinis are dealt with, particularly those which are concerned in the process of coagulation. Here necessarily, the microscope.and scalpel are for the moment replaced by methods and instruments borrowed from the chemical laboratory, but they are re- sumed in lessons four and five for the study of cartilage, bone, teeth, and the connective tissues. In the next series of lessons on contractile tissues, structure and function are again mixed. The student, as soon as he knows what cilia and muscular fibres are like, at once proceeds to find out for himself, though according to a prescribed order, how they work. He familiarises himself in succession with the effects of the voltaic current, of single induction shocks, and faradization on living muscle, then pro- ceeds to the more minute examination of the mechanical phenomena of muscular contraction, and finally, as in the previous study of the blood, investigates the same phenomena in their chemical relations. In the same style and on the same principle each suc- cessive subject is dealt with. "The animal body is regarded," to quote the author's words, " as a collection of fundamental tissues, each having a conspicuous pro- perty or properties." Each lesson has appended to it a list of subjects for demonstration by the teacher, these consisting either of microscopical structures requiring very high powers for their exhibition, or of experiments which the student would be unable to perform for himself. Among these last only such are comprised as are in their nature painless. There can be no doubt that the book is admirably adapted for its immediate purpose, namely, for the instruc- tion of natural science students at Cambridge. In order to judge of its general utility the question must be asked whether it is adapted to the requirements of the much larger class of students who learn physiology with a view to the study of medicine. The answer to this question must depend on the class of medical students contemplated. Students of medicine may be divided into three categories, the first comprising those who come up with the avowed intention of acquir- ing no more than the minimum of cram exacted of them by the Examining Boards, and who at the end of their time are as incompetent for practice as they are destitute of knowledge. The second, and by far the largest class, 54 NATURE {Nov. 1 6, 187 made up of men who, while they desire to acquire by assiduous reading as much so-called medical science as is thought necessary for them to possess, rightly regard it as their principal duty to devote their energies during their brief period of study to the attainment of skill and experience in the arts of medicine and surgery. But besides these, there is a smaller class of men who not only have time for real study, but possess the necessary pre- vious education in which their fellows are in general so de- plorably wanting, and whose motive for work is something higher than that of preparing themselves for examination. To medical students of this last class the lessons are per- fectly adapted. Nor can we conceive that a better course could be followed by a young man intending to fit him- self for the higher career of the medical profession, than that laid down by Dr. Foster, namely, that he should at a very early period, i.e.., while he is still engaged in the study of the more exact branches of natural science, first work through the course of elementary biology laid down for him in the well-known lessons of Professor Huxley ; then that he should devote a considerable proportion of his time during a subsequent year to becoming conver- sant with the structures and processes peculiar to the bodies of the higher animals, under the guidance of a teacher who must be a real physiologist— all this being accomplished before he begins his proper medical studies, i.e., before he begins to study the details of human descriptive anatomy. Strange as it may seem, it is not yet sufficiently recog- nised by those who are concerned in medical education that the men on whom the community dep ends for enlighten- ment on the great questions of the preservation of health and the prevention of disease, ought to be practically familiar with all that is known concerning living processes. The remark is frequently made that even to the consult- ing physician or to the officer of health, physiology and pathology are of relatively little value. Surely this must be a mistake. It may be readily admitted that the ordi- nary practitioner needs only familiarity with the charac- teristics of human ailments and the prescribed methods of treatment and skill in the handling of sick people, and may well content himself with as much of the elements of scientific knowledge as he can learn from manuals and lectures ; but surely the education of those who are in- tended to be advisers of the public in relation to health and disease should have some more solid foundation. There can be no question that these men ought to be prepared for their higher functions and responsibilities by such a course of preliminary work in physiology as will enable them, if so be that nature has fitted them for it, to enter with some hope of success on those most difficult of all biological investigations which relate to the nature and causes of diseases. BRITISH MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES British Manufacturing Industries. Edited by G. Phillips Bevan, F.G.S. " Salt, Preservation of Food, Bread, and Biscuits," by J. J. Manley, M.A. ; " Sugar Refining," by C. Haughton Gill ; " Butter and Cheese," by Morgan Evans ; "Brewing, Distilling," by T. A. Pooley, B.Sc, F.C.S. (London : Edward Stanford, 1876.) T^HE preface states that in these volumes, of which the -L present is one, " the facts are gathered together and presented in as readable a form as is compatible with accu- racy and a freedom from superficiality ; and though th( do not lay claim to being a technical guide to each industr the names of the contributors are a sufficient guaranti that they are a reliable and standard work of reference.' This editorial explanation fairly describes the scope the articles contributed by their respective writers to th volume ; since, while not pretending to be a technic guide to each industry, they must prove of great value all desiring to obtain a getieral knowledge of the pr cesses described. The common fault of encyclopsedi: of this kind is to devote much space to detailed explan tions of manufacturing processes and of the machine: employed. To the ordinary reader all such elaborate detai are useless, since his object is to obtain information upc the general principles upon which the various process are based ; and to the manufacturer practically engag( in any process they are equally useless, since no matt how carefully written, they can teach him nothin because, as a matter of course, he is in advance of tl processes described with so much detail. The first article is an interesting account of " Sail where found, and how manufactured from the cru( deposit. Some valuable statistics are given as to tl quantity produced in and exported from England. The next article on the " Preservation of Food " by tl same contributor deals with a subject of increasing ir portance. Though there has been an important increas of late years, in the amount of green crops, and in lar laid down to grass in the United Kingdom, yet tl consumption of beef and mutton has so spread amoi the working classes, as to render the increased produ tion vastly inadequate to the ever-increasing demand, has become in consequence a matter of the highest ir portance to discover means by which animal food mayl imported from America, Australia, and other countri where it is abundant. The chief processes hitherto employed for the prese vation of meat are classified by the author under tl heads of Drying, Action of Cold, Chemical Reagents, ar Exclusion of Air. The drying process has certainly n proved a success. " Charqui," so much praised a few yea since, is but a poor substitute for fresh animal food. The value of ice in preserving meat in cold countries so well established, that it naturally presents itself as convenient agent. Hitherto, however, as regards gre distances, it has failed. This has arisen from tv causes : in the first place the temperature of melting i( is not low enough to prevent change even on ship boarc this difficulty will doubtless be overcome by the emplo ment of machines, by which a temperature lower than p° < can be maintained at sea. Another difficulty has aris< from the fact that moat kept at the temperature of meltii ice is very prone to change so soon as removed from tl ice-tanks to be distributed throughout the countr Doubtless in time these and other difficulties will be r moved, and our large cities, at least, be supplied wii regular arrivals of fresh uncooked meat from Soul America and our colonies. The use of chemical reagents has hitherto prov< inefficient, but we cannot agree with Mr. Manley *' that is hardly likely that the use of chemicals will solve tl question of meat preservation." A patent has lately bee granted by which oxygen-absorbing reagents are so su Nov. 1 6, 1876] NATURE 5! cessfuUy applied as to give some hope that this or some other chemical process will aid us in this important question. The author gives some useful details and statistics regarding the " tinned meat " process. This well-known method depends upon the exclusion of air by the substi- tution of steam, and in the consequent destruction of organic germs. So far as mere preservation is concerned, it has undoubledly proved a great success, and has already been of some benefit to us ; but the long cooking process hitherto employed to expel the air has so de- stroyed the texture of the meat as to have rendered its use unpopular in spite of the efforts of enthusiasts to force the over-cooked product upon an unwilling public. So soon as the very primitive plan of heating the tins in a bath of chloride of calcium for three or four hours be replaced by one exhausting the air and replacing it by steam at a high temperature successively, and occupying no more than half an hour, then will the tinned meat pro- cess prove a real success, and possess many advantages over all others. Mr. Manley has done good service by his description of what has been attempted, and though he suggests but little himself, he may induce some of his readers to experiment upon a matter of such national importance. The paper on " Sugar Refining " is one of the best contributions in the series, written by one not only an able chemist but also a thoroughly practical .«;ugar refiner. As a clear, accurate, and scientific exposi- tion of an important industry it serves as an example of what such contributions should be. Its only fault is that it is somewhat too brief. After the usual historical account of the industry, the author explains the more important properties of sugar, and shows how these are made use of in the various stages of extraction and purification from the cane and the beet. The author has not considered it within his province to refer to the serious injury to our sugar manufacturers by the heavy export premiums paid by the French nation on all high class products exported to this country. Doubt- less so soon as the French financiers have completely extinguished the manufacture of loaf and other high class sugars in England, they will then remove the export pre- miums, being full well assured that the memory of the ruined English sugar refiners will for a long time at least deter our capitalists from competing with French re- fineries. Though the " beet " produces one-third of the total amount of sugar grown, and has proved of such value to agriculture on the Continent, yet hitherto the growth of beets for sugar manufacturing purposes has not proved a success in our own country. Nor indeed is it likely to prove remunerative so long as it pays better to grow beef and mutton. In concluding this brief notice we cannot refrain from once more praising the author's valuable — though brief— contribution. Mr. Evans contributes a short article on dairy produce. He gives some interesting information upon the factory system of cheese-making introduced with so much success into England within the last few years. It is to be re- gretted that Mr. Evans has given no information upon the mode of preparing the French, Italian, and Swiss cheeses so much appreciated by connoisseurs. The article on " Brewing and Distilling " is a useful contribution on two important industries, by OQe evi dently well acquainted with them. Some valuabl statistics are given, showing the vast developmen which has taken place in the production of alco holic beverages in the United Kingdom. Accord ing to the author, on March 31, 1873, there wer 31,010 brewers, 144,425 dealers and retailers of beei The income derived from beer in 1873 amounted t 8,027,408/., a sum which fully explains the hesitation of th present Government to please the agricultural interest b; the removal of the malt-tax. In addition to these thirt thousand brewers, of whom, however, only some thre thousand are licensed common brewers — there are, i appears, 318 distillers and rectifiers, producing 30,644,751 gallons of spirit, yielding a revenue of 14,895,769/, ; th number of licences issued in 1875 to persons dealing ii and retailing spirits was 138,845. The author calculate that in the brewing and distilling industries, and in thos originated and sustained by them, there is a capital c two hundred millions invested. Without following Si Wilfrid Lawson in all his statements, one cannot but viev an annual consumption of twenty-eight to thirty million of gallons of spirit as a most'serious feature in our socia life. Those interested in this matter and desirous of obtain ing a general knowledge of the technical processes, wil with advantage consult Mr. Pooley's articles. In con eluding this notice of the volume before us we mus congratulate the publisher and the editor on their succes in obtaining the aid of writers so well acquainted wit] their respective subjects. LETTERS TO THE EDITOR [The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expresset by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake to return or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manuscripts No tiotice is taken of anonymous communications^ Sea Fisheries Mr Holdsworth, at the close of his animadversion (Nature, vol. xv. p. 23) on the address I recently deliverec in the Biological Section of the British Association at Glas- London : Spon. ^ Paris : Gauthier-Viilars. i6, 1876] NATURE 61 s admis, dans les limites des vitesses de 510"" k (i673-ii8of.s.) la resistance de I'air proportionelle rre de la vitesse ; dans les limites des vitesses de ^ c\ 280"-^ (11 80-920 f.s.) nous I'avons admise propor- ionelle k la sixihne puissance de la vitesse, et nousavons xprimd, a partir de la vitesse de 280"" (920 f.s.) jusqu'- ux petites vitesses, la resistance de I'air par un binome lont le premier terme est proportionel k la deuxi^me missance de la vitesse et le second k la quatri^me puis- ance de la vitesse," &c, (pp. vi., vii.). So that Mr. Bash- orth employs one single law, the cubic, and makes his oefficient vary to suit the velocity, while General dayevski varies his law of resistance according to the elocity. But in neither case does the law of resistance .dmit of direct integration. Mr. Bashforth supplies this lefect by extensive tables calculated by quadratures, and :ranting the cubic law, the results are exact. General riayevski's integrations are approximations, and requite xtensive tables also. But there is no dispute as to the mount of resistance encountered by elongated shot in noving through the air. For General Mayevski observes : Aussi pour completer les donndes se rapportant aux trojectiles de forts calibres, nous avons profit^ des ableaux des vitesses decroissantes deduites par M. Bash- Drth de ses experiences faites en 1868 au moyen de son hronographe ; ces tableaux comprennent les vitesses de 18™^ ii 283""^ (1700-930 f.s.), qui correspondent aux trajets ie 305 en 305 metres des projectiles oblongs de 178""", 03""", et 229""" (7, 8, and 9 inches), et qui sont obtenues lOur le cas oil le mouvement des projectiles peut etre onsiddre comme rectiligne. Nous avons calculd d'aprfes ss rdsultats inserds dans ces tableaux les valeurs de la dsistance correspondantes k differentes vitesses " (p. 38). Projectiles Oblongs. Bouches k feu. de 4' 203™" , de 4I . de 12I de 24! de 203™" ... de 203'""> angl. , de 229"'"' angl de 203"^ angl. de I78""'- angl. , de 12! de 4I de 229'""' angl de 4I , de 203""" ... . de 203""" angl. , de 24' de 178'°'" angl. Vitesses ms. 172 207 239 247 266 282 287 291 300 302 304 307 316 3«7 319 320 320 322 Valeurs de p'. 00151 00137 o'oi48 0*0170 o'oi6o o'oi63 o°oi84 o'o247 00230 0'02l8 0'022I o'oisS 0030s o"0259 o'oi74 o 0277 o'o299 00270 1 Bouches a feu. Vitesses V. ms. C. de 203"" ... 329 C. de 203"™ angl. 332 ,C. de 229™"" angl. 334 C. de 4I 337 :C. de 178™" angl. 340 ,C. de 203"™ angl- 345 C. de 229"'" angl. 355 C. de 178™'" angl. 358 C. de2o3'"'» ... 360 C. de 203"™ angl. 360 C. de4l 401 C de203°"=> ... 409 C. de 203™m angl 419 C. de 229™'" angl. 420 C. de 203""" angl. 460 C.de 203""" angl. 508 C. de 178"™ angl. 512 Valeurs de a'. ©•0338 0*0327 00332 o'034i 00334 00354 00364 o'0382 0*0384 00393 0*0450 004 30 °0433 00427 0*0449 0*0440 0*0443 It ought to be stated that Hutton's results for spherical hot are very good indeed for velocities above i2oofs., vhile Didion's results, intended to correct Hutton's, were lot quite so good. They both failed for lower velocities. ;t would be interesting to have the resistance of the air to )rojectiles determined for velocities below 900 f.s. But rery considerable difficulties would be met with if the xperiments were conducted in the usual manner, for the bhronograph is most effective when there is a rapid varia- ion of velocity. In the middle of the range the screens would have to be raised to a considerable height. It would be found difficult to fire shots through them all. [f the shot were fired at low initial velocities from the Drdinary rifled gun, there might be considerable doubts respecting the steadiness of the shot. Reference must be made to the collection of scientific tnemoirs on ballistics by the Comte de St. Robert pub- lished in 1872,* although they do not supply any new jexperimental data. » Turin : Vincent Bora. As it is found impossible to integrate the equations of motion of shot for the simple laws of resistance, of square cube, &c., it appears almost hopeless to search for an expression of the complicated law now known to hold good through a considerable range of velocities. These results would serve as tests of any theory of the resistance of the air ; and if any theoretical investigations did satisfy these conditions, then we should have an expres- sion for the resistance of the air to the shot, but it is almost certain that it would be too complicated to be of practical use. B. A LOCAL MUSEUM HTHE population of the parish of Morton, 1871, was -^ 2,099 — the chief village, Thornhill, containing about one half of the population of the parish. The parish is situated on both banks of the Nith in the North of Dumfriesshire, Scotland. Yet sparse as is the popula- tion, and remote from the great commercial centres as is the district, it is supplied with a museum which well might grace a place of far more wealth and consequence. The building was erected by Thomas B. Grierson, and the collections in the museum were formed by him. The Duke of Buccleuch granted the land on which to build, together with stone. The memorial stone was laid with masonic honours in June 1869. The building, which was from the design of a local architect, is an oblong, consisting of a ground floor and gallery. The gallery is very appro- priately supported by six oaks, as brought from the forest, being among the last of the natural woods of Nithsdale. The debris excavated for the foundation has been well utilised by forming a large mound in the surrounding garden, which is faced on all sides by an excellent col- lection of the minerals and curious stones of the district, and forms a suitable habitat for hardy plants. The garden contains a great variety of flowering plants, of shrubs, trees, and cryptogamous vegetation, and is laid out with considerable art. Large objects, which do not suffer waste by atmospheric causes, such as stone crosses and querns, are placed at intervals in the walks. Great prominence has been given in the collections inside the building to objects which illustrate the history of the country. These include some valuable relics belonging to the Covenanters of the seventeenth century, and to the poet Burns. The collections illustrative of the unpolished and polished stone-period are very valuable. Some beautifully wrought cells and stone-hammers have been yielded by this part of Nithsdale. The bronze and iron collections are very fair. Among the quadrupeds is a skull of the ancient ox which roamed wild less than a century ago in Drumlanrig Parks, and which belong to the same variety as those at Chillingham and Hamilton Palace, which are supposed to be the sole survivors of the ancient Caledonian Urus. Among fish there is an interesting collection, which was the gift of the late Mr. Shaw, illustrative of the natural history of the salmon, and which shows that animal in its various different stages. The late Mr. Shaw threw great light on the development of the salmon, and destroyed some popular delusions concerning it. He was a keeper in the district under the Duke of Buccleuch. The abnormal form of animals are very various, many opportunities having occurred to fill the cases devoted to these from the pastoral and agricultural district around. In the collec- tion of fossils due prominence is given to those belonging to the strata of the south of Scotland, and the industrial departments contain specimens of the manufactures of the country. The museum is free to the public on Saturday, and open for a small sum during the week. School children are admitted along with their teachers gratui- tously on application. The proprietor. Dr. Grierson, is most indefatigable in his attentions and explanations to all willing to learn from his collection of objects. The 62 NATURE {Nov, 1 6, i87( number of persons who have been admitted for the first time since the museum was opened, July 1872, is about 4,000. There is a society in connection with the museum which meets monthly, having for its object original research. Papers have been contributed, amongst others, by Dr. Grierson, Dr. Sharp of the London Entomo- logical Society, and Mr. Shaw, schoolmaster. Dr. Sharf gave an exhaustive account of the Colorado beetle, and Mr. Shaw illustrated, by means of large diagrams, Darwin Lubbock, and Miiller's discoveries on the fertilisation ol flowers by insects. J. ShaW Tynron, Thornhill THE AUSTRIAN ARCTIC EXPEDITION^ NO doubt most of our readers have some acquaintance with the story of the memorable Austro-Hungarian Arctic Expedition in the Te^etthoff wn^tx the leadership of Lieutenants Payer and Weyprecht. We have at various times since the return of the expedition, upwards of two years ago, given details of the adventures of the party and of the results obtained ; in vol. x. p. 524, we publishei a map showing the geographical discoveries which ha( been made. In the work named below all who hav heard anything of the expedition or who take an interes in Arctic exploration will be glad to have a complet history of its doings from the artistic and graphic pen 0 one of its commanders, Lieut. Payer. We venture ti think that Payer's narrative is likely to take its plac The Austrian Flag Planted at Cape Fligely. among the classics of Arctic exploration ; the skill with which he has told the story of an expedition so full of strange and unexpected events, the enthusiasm and inte- rest which mark every page, its pathos and humour, the value of the information it contains, and the attraction of its numerous illustrations, are sure to make it a permanent favourite with old and young, and constitute it an autho- rity on Arctic matters generally. The Tegetlhoff, a screw steamer, expressly built for the purpose of this expedition, of 220 tons burden, fitted out for two years and a half, left Bremerhaven June 13, 1872, and Trom-oc about a month later, for the purpose of exploring the Arctic Seas in the Novaya Zemlya region. The vessel was equipped mainly at the expense of the ' " New Lands within the Arctic Circle. Narrative of the Discoveries of the Austrian Ship Tcgctthoff in the Years 1872-1874." By Julius Payer, one of the Commanders of the Expedition. Maps and numerous Illustrations. Twovols. (London; Macmillaa and Co , 1876,) Austrian Count Wilczek, and, including officers and mer had only twent) -four souls on board. The ultimate de: tination of the expedition was not rigidly defined ; the might make their exit by Behring Straits, or winter o the Siberian coast, or on any lands which they might b fortunate enough to discover. The first ice was met wit in about 74° N., near the coast of Spitzbergen, and remained with the ship more or less till the end. Onl the year before, in a preliminary reconnaissance in a sma sailing vessel, the Isbjbrn, by Count Wilczek, the se between Spitzbergen and Novaya Zemlya was found t be almost free of ice, and with a properly-equipped stean: vessel there seemed to be no obstacle to pushing nortl wards indefinitely. In 1872 things wore a very differer aspect. The ice was entered in 74° N., and it require careful navigation to reach Cape Nassau, near which th Tegetthoff was overtaken by Count Wilczek in th Nov. 1 6, 1876] NATURE 63 Isbjbrn, who had thoughtfully followed to establish a depot for the exploring ship in the north of Novcaya Zemlya. The two ships parted company on August 20, and a few hours after the Teoctthoff' was beset by the ice in lat. 76° 22' N., long. 63° 3' E., and she never afterwards got out. Completely at the mercy of the moving ice- field, the ship drifted slowly in a general north-east direc- tion durin;,' the winter, till somewhat north of 79° she turned westward in the middle of February, 1873. Though generally westward, the course was somewhat erratic. During the spring and summer of 1873, every effort was of course made to free the ship from her helpless position, in which appaicntly nothing could be done to carry out the object of the expedition. To be imprisoned thus for another winter appeared utterly intolerable, but all the efforts made failed, and by August everyone felt resigned to the inevitable. In August the ship took a turn towards the north, and on the 30th of that month the whole aspect of things suddenly brightened for the ice-bound explorers by the unmistakable sight of new lands. When in 79° 43' N. and 59'' 33' E., new life was awakened in every breast by the sight of the mountains and glaciers of what is now known as Kaiser Franz-Josef's Land. Thus, then, when hope was lowest, the expedition drifted into success. ,It was too late that season to explore the new-found land, and it can easily be imagined how impatient all were for the advent of spring, to enable them to commence to gather the fruits of their lucky find. Lieut. Payer strongly advocates autumn as the best season for sledging, but as they could not run the risk of another winter in the ice, the sledge journeys were commenced early in March, and by the beginning of May Lieut, Payer had made The Aurora during the Ice Pressure. three separate expeditions into Franz-Josef Lan^l. In the first expedition, a .short one, he explored Wilczek Island, the most southerly, and the south part of Hall Island. In the second journey he went right northwards, 160 miles, as far as he could go with sledges, to Cape Fligely, 82° 5', making several subsidiary trips right and left of Austria Sound, on which he travelled, and which separates the two main divisions of Franz-Josef Land into Wilczek Land and Zichy Land. Finally a third short expedition was made to the north-west to M'Clin- tock Island, and on May 20, 1874, all necessary prepara- tions having been made, the good ship TegettJioff was abandoned. No other course was open to the com- manders, if they did not want to run the risk of perishing along with their greatly enfeebled crew. By sledging and boating, a painful, wearisome, and slow progress SQuthward5 was i^ade, sq slow that in two months they were only nine miles from the ship, with a rapidly dimi- nishing stock of provisions, though tobacco and water seem to have been the greatest wants ; Payer says you could not have then done a man a greater favour than ask him to a pipe and a glass of water. Fortunately the open water was met vvith in about 78" N,, and with little diffi- culty the wearied party rowed and sailed southwards along the west coast of Novaya Zemly4, until finally rescued, on August 24, by a Russian fishing-vessel at Cape Britwin. On September 3, all except poor Krisch, the engineer, who died of consumption and was buried on Wilczek Island, reached Vaiclo, not much the worse of their extraordinary experiences. This bald outline of the course of the expedition can give one no idea of the intense interest which the detailed narrative assumes in the pages of Lieut. Payer. With the hand of a true artist, with pen and pencil, he sketchesi 64 NATURE [Nov. 1 6, 1876 the life of the apparently forlorn party from day to day, with such clearness, and force, and sympathy that the reader becomes familiar with the peculiarities of each individual, and feels towards him in the end like an old acquaintance. The ways and characteristics of the very dogs, Jubinal and Sumbu and Pekel, and the rest, are sketched in a manner that would dehght the heart of the author of " Rab and his Friends." While the work only pretends to be a general account of the expedition, it contains much of scientific value. Most of the scientific remits yet remain to be published, though from time to time papers by Weyprecht, Hofer, and others appear in Pttermann's Mittheilungen^ containing elaborate discus- sions of the various scientific observations ; we published some account also of the scientific results in three articles in Nature, vol. xi. p. 366, et seq. Of Franz- Josef Land itself the author, by drawings, descriptions, and map, conveys a satisfactory idea. It is evidently an archipelago of about the size of Spitzbergen, stretching fi cm about 80° to at least 83° N. lat, but how far from east to west is not ascertained. Running north and south, on each side of Austria Sound, are two main stretches of land, Wilczek and Zichy Lands, broken up, the latter especially, by many deep fiords, and with many islands in the channel between them. Payer got as far north as Cape FJigely, in 82° 5' N., and from that saw land stretch- ing northwards to 83°, Petermann Land, and another coast-line far to the west, King Oscar Land. The land, as might be expected, is a barren one, with mountains 2,000 to 5,000 feet high, and glaciers of such size, as argues that the country must have very considerable breadth. In many parts, and as far north as Payer went, animal life, bears and seals, and thousands of Arctic birds in great variety, abound ; during the whole time of the expedition's sojourn fresh meat of some kind was seldom lacking. At Cape Fligely open water was met with, but it was only an extensive ice-hole or "polynia ; " the idea of an "open Polar Sea" Lieut. Payer does not for one moment entertain. Distinct recent traces of foxes and even of hares were seen in some places, but no actual specimens were met with. Under the summer-sun, Lieut. Payer is of opinion, numerous streams will rush down the mountain sides, and some of jthe valleys be clothed with verdure. But for most of the year there is nothing but barrenness and ice and snow ; the land is, of course, uninhabitable, and no trace of human beings was discovered. The islands are evidently volcanic, and reminded Lieut. Payer geologically of the rocks of North- east Greenland. Brown coal was found and coarse-grained dolerite abounds. But for details as to the appearance, the geology, the fauna, and flora, and other characteristics of Franz-Josef Land, we must refer the reader to the work itself. It would certainly be interesting to know more of this discovery, and perhaps means may yet be found to gratify a justifiable curiosity. The discovery of this group of islands greatly favours the theory of those who maintain that the Arctic basin is mainly an archipelago, and after all, our own expedition has found nothing that seriously weakens the theory. From a scientific point of view the first chapter is probably one of the most important in the work. Lieut. Payer has evidently made a thorough study of ice in all its phases, both by means of direct observation (and both in the Novaya Zemlya seas and on East Greenland he has had ample opportunities for this) and. by extensive reading of the works of previous explorers. In' this first chapter are given the results of this investigation, the characteristics of ice of all kinds — field-ice, pack-ice, hummocks, icebergs, and other forms— in a more syste- matic and thorough manner than we remember to have seen before. Many popular delusions he demolishes, and writes with an accuracy and fulness that must be satis- factory to those who have had no opportunity of studying ice-forms for themselves. Icebergs, he tells us, with long, sharp-pointed peaks, like those exhibited in numerous illustrations, have no real existence. It is only fragments of field-ice, raised up by pressure, exposed to the action of waves and the process of evaporation, which are trans- formed into fantastic shapes. Icebergs are of a pyramidal or tabular shape, and in time they are usually rounded off into irregular cones. Altogether this chapter on ice is exceedingly instructive. The masses or thickness of floe- ice depends, he shows, not on age alone, but on several influences, pressure being one ; so that the enormously thick ice met with by our own expedition does not need to be regarded as a remnant of the last glacial epoch, but due probably to unusual pressure, and the heaping of one mass upon another. The year 1871, we have said, was in the Spitzbergen seas ^a great contrast to 1872, while 1874 again was as open as 1871. One of the most interesting, and in some ways instructive passages in the work, is where Lieut. Payer describes the fearful pressure to which the ship was subjected as she drifted northwards. For months these poor men had nightly to rush from their bunks on to deck ready to abandon the ship, which they expected to see every moment crushed to splinters. Payer's descriptions of the appearance and the agonising noises accompanying the ice-pressure are most impressive. The ice was comparatively smooth when first the ship entered it, but shortly the party were startled, when forced to rush on deck by the dreadful sounds which awakened them, by seeing the whole field crushed together, broken up, the pieces piled on the top of each other and lying at all sorts of angles, not unlike, indeed, the description given by Capt. Nares of the " Palteocrystic ice.'^ Is not this, possi- bly, one more proof that the sea to the north of Robeson Channel was in an exceptional condition last spring ? That we are almost entirely ignorant of the laws that regulate the movements of the ice in these regions is evident ; no two successive years are alike, and the condition of one part cannot be inferred from that of another. In that very June, 1872, when the Tegettho^ was beset so far south on the No.vaya Zemyla side, the Polaris pushed north with ease to 82° 16' by the Smith Sound route, and could have gone further ; and this year, when our own ships have had a life-and-death struggle with pala^ocrystic ice, whalers have been cruising and making easy discoveries between 81° and 82° N., on the Spitzbergen side. If any satisfactory results are to be obtained concerning these Arctic regions, is it not evident that the only means to obtain them is by the establishment of permanent stations all round 1 This is the conclusion to which Lieut. Weyprecht, one of the commanders of this expedition, has been driven. By the by, we would irecommend Payer's description of the results of ice-pressure to geologists who desire to have a forcible illustration of the results of pressure in changing the configuration of a surface. In these introductory chapters the author gives many valuable directions as to the equipment and conduct of Arctic expeditions, and, it may not be amiss to state, expresses his complete approval of M'Clintock's method of constructing and fitting sledges. We recently referred to the suggestion of the use that might be made of ballooning in Arctic exploration ; Lieut. Payer thinks that valuable results might be obtained by means of a captive balloon. As to the Gulf Stream, he gives little ground for believing that it extends much beyond Spitzbergen ; indeed he thinks that the wind was the main cause of the drift of the ship ; though Baron von Wiillersdorf, who has discussed some of the results of the expedition, thinks it probable that there exists a sea-current in the seas between Novaya Zemlya and Franz- Josef Land ; that at any rate its existence cannot positively be denied, although the prevailing winds may produce similar phenomena. He also thinks there is a great probability that the ocean stretches far to the north and east beyond the eastern end of Novaya Zemlya. The crew of this expedition was a mixed one — German, Nov. 1 6, 1876] NATURE 6i. Sclavonic, Italian, Norwegian, and English being spoken, though all orders were given in Italian. It was well selected, and the ships equipped according to the most approved directions, but still scurvy broke out, though apparently not to so serious an extent as in the case of the Alert and Discovery. Fresh meat was abundant, and everything known to prevent or counteract the disease, but it broke out in both winters, the men improving during spring. Payer is distinctly of opinion that a judicious use of alcohol is a preventive, but evidently the 1 oal cause of this scourge of Arctic explorers has yet to 1)0 found out. The lowest temperature met with was a little over 40° R., though the general temperature was much milder. No one suffered seriously from frost bites, though they were common. The single death was due to consumption. The conduct of the expedition by its two leaders, and tlie behaviour of officers and men, were all that could be wished. Observations in meteorology and magnetism, on the Aurora (of which there were many magnificent dis- plays), geology, biology, and other departments of science v^cre regularly and carefully made, and will no doubt ;jradually find their way into the general body of scien- titic knowledge and deductions. Unfortunately, many of the specimens, geological and zoological, had to be left behind with the ship. On the whole, this expedition is one of the most satisfactory in its conduct and results of all that have gone out to gather knowledge in these in- hospitable regions, and Lieut. Payer has written its story in a style not surpassed in fascinating interest and scien- tific value by any of those old narratives that are still the delight of all who love to read of the adventures of daring men. The translator has had a hard task before him in putting the narrative into English dress, but he has succeeded, we think, completely ; while retaining an un- mistakable German flavour, the English version is tho- roughly idiomatic and readable. OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN The Nineveh Solar Eclipse of b.c. 763. — In the Rev. A. H. Sayce's notice of the discoveries of the late Mr. George Smith amongst the Assyrian inscriptions in the British Museum (Nature, vol. xiv. p. 421), reference is trade to a solar eclipse in the month Sivan, which has been fixed to the year B.C. 763, June 15 (not in May, as printed in the notice quoted). The following are elements of this important eclipse — which has so direct a bearing upon the Assyrian chronology of the perio.^ — deduced upon the same system of calculation adopted for oth-r ancient eclipses previously alluded to in this column : — Greenwich MeanTim« of Conjunction in R. A., r>.c. 763, Jane i\, at igh. 9m. 25s. ■•• 73 9 43 39 56 2 34 ... 23 10 10 N. ... 22 53 4N. 0S4N. o 17 N. 60 9 o 9 16 24 IS 25 The sidereal time at Greenwich noon was 4h. 57m. 47s., and the equation of time 8m. 4s, additive to mean time. Hence the middle of the eclipse fell at igh. 8m. 52s., and the following would be points in the line of central and total phase : — Longitude ... 35 H E- Latitude ... 30 59 N. ... 40 2 „ ... 32 58^^ ... 43 35 E- - ••• 34 19 N. Sir George Airy places the Pyramid of Nimrud in long. 43° 20' 8" E., and lat. 36° '6' i". Calculating directly for this R.A Moon's hourly motion in R.A. Sun's „ „ „ Moon's declination Sun's „ Moon's hourly motion in decl. Sun's ,, „ ,, Moon's horizontal parallax Sun's ,, ,, Moon's true semi-diameter Sun's „ „ point from the preceding elements we find a very large partial eclipse — h. m. Beginning June 15 at 7 52 a.m., local M.T. Ending ,, „ 10 23 ,, ,, Greatest phase at gh. 8m. A.M., magnitude of eclipse 0987. The breadth of the zone of totality in the longitude of Nim- rud measured upon the meridian was 2° 5', whence it appears that this point is distant by calculation about 50' outside th« northern linait, but at this remote period a very small alteration in the value of the moon's secular acceleration employed would suffice to bring Nimrud within the total eclipse, and it has 'oeen inferred that the eclipse was probably total at the station of the Assyrian Court, from the circumstance of the inscription referring to the phenomenon being underlined in the Assyrian Canon or register of annual archons at Nineveh, although there is no in- terruption in the official order of the Eponymes. The discovery of the record of this eclipse was first announced by Sir Henry Rawlinson, in May, 1867. The Comet of 1652. — This comet, which was observed for about three weeks only, is stated by Hevelius and Comiers to have equalled the moon in apparent magnitude, a fact pointing to a near approach to the earth. At present we have only the elements given by Halley in his " Synopsis Astronomiar Come- ticse," which were calculated upon the observations of Hevelius, extending from December 20, 1652, to the 8th of the following month, published in the scarce volume of his " Machina Ccelestis." From this orbit the following positions and dis- tances result : — i2h. G.M.T. R.A. Decl. Distance from the Earth. 1652, Dec. 12 ,. . 124 43 .. . -59 18 ... 0-2275 16 .. . 96 19 .. 43 42 ... 0-1515 18 . . 81 52 .. 27 2 ... 0-1308 ; 20 .. . 69 50 .. .-62 ... 0-1314 1653, Jan. 8 .. . 3328 .. . +48 50 ... 0-5627 So that the comet's least distance from the earth was about 0*13 of the earth's mean distance from the sun, and the real diameter of the cometic nebulosity rather less than iio,ooe miles. The Brightness of Jupiter's Satellites. — In connection with a recent reference in this column to M. Prosper Henry's direct comparison of the brightness of Jupiter's satellites with that of Uranus, it may be mentioned that Dr. Engelmann of Leipsic, in his memoir "Uber die Helligkeitverhaltnisse der Jupiterstrabanten," taking the star 132 Tauri as 5-3 in magni. tude found the respective magnitudes of the satellites m. m. m. m. 1 5-52 II 5-70 III 5'32 IV 6-28 While a reduction of light-comparisons by Prof. Auwers between November, 1858, and May, i860, gave 1 6-;3 II 6-59 III 587 IV. 6-76 BIOLOGICAL NOTES The Progress of Embryology.— The value of Dr. Dohm's Zoological Station at Naples has never been more conclusively demonstrated than by the publication, in a recent number (July, 1876) of the Archtv fiir mikroskopische Anatomie, of a series of researches by Dr. Bobretzky, of Kiew, on the development of certain forms of Gastropods. The systematic search for embryonic forms which is carried on under Dr. Dohm's superintendence has enabled Dr. Bobretzky to pub- lish a memoir of great value, illustrated by a hundred figures. His skill and success have been previously attested by his excellent researches on the development of the crustacean genera, Astacus, Palsemon, and Oniscus ; and he has now passed with equal good fortune into the Gastropod group, dealing with 66 NATURE \_Nov. 1 6, 1876 the genera Nassa, Natica, and Fusus. These investigations are of special interest because, according to Prof. Ray Lankester, they are the first in which the method of cutting sections has been employed' in the examination of these minute eggs and embryos. To have carried the conquests of embryology to such an extent is no slight achievement. Histologists are VftW aware that the estimate formed of structures by viewing them as trans- parent objects' is liable to be erroneous, even in favourable cir- cumstances ; much more so when the objects have an appreciable thickness and are more or less opaque. In all cases it is desir- able to obtain, if possible, confirmatory evidence by means of sections cut through hardened specimens ; but the labour and manipulative skill required are much greater than in viewing bodies as transparent objects. At the same time Dr. Bobretzky's results convey an instructive warning to those who are tempted to generalise. Nothing is more common, or more detrimental, than for a series of generalisations to be founded on a new set of observations more or less limited in their range. By the con. tinual discovery of fresh variations in the mode in which the ova of aquatic animals are segmented, and acquire their embryonic layers, it is to be hoped that students are being led to see that nothing but summaries of observed facts are of real value at present. Dr. Bobretzky seems to have made it evident that in the genus Nassa the three primary embryonic layers are all esta- blished during the segmentation of the ovum, and as a direct result of that process ; and this is certainly a surprise. Again, a definite relation has been made out in certain 'cases between the orifice of the earliest invagination of cells and the permanent mouth of the animal. It is to be regretted, however, that Dr. Bobretzky throws doubt on Prof. Lankester's observations on some genera of fresh-water Gastropods, in which facts [of a dif- ferent character were discovered. However, the latter investi- gator has been stimulated to examine the development of the common Paludina vivipara anew, and has published an account of it in'^the Quarterly journal of Microscopical Science for Octo- ber last ; his previous assertions appear to be very definitely confirmed, notwithstanding that the method of sections has not been adopted : the embryos, it may be stated, are amongst the most transparent in the Gastropod class. Although it must be a disappointment to ardent theorists to find that they are so far from a satisfactory goal, it may encourage young workers when it is seen that the field for independent investigation is practically unlimited, even in embryology. In invertebrates, at least, it appears that the development of every genus should be studied^ and that new facts bearing on evolution, on the distribution of life, on the influence of external conditions, on the warping, so to speak, of the direct process of development by temporary influences' acting during embryonic life, will reward all diligent work in this fruitful field. New Species of Echidna. — A very remarkable zoological discovery is announced from Genoa. Among the collections recently received by the Marquis G. Doria for the Museo Civico of that city from Mr. Bruyu, of Ternate, is a specimen of a new and large species of Echidtia^ from the Arfak Mountains of New Guinea. As the only two Ornithodelphs hitherto known are exclusively confined to Australia, it is difficult to over-estimate the importance, as regards geographical zoology, of the existence of a third member of this peculiar group of mammals in the adjoining land of New Guinea. Sphenodon Guentheri.— At a recent meeting of the Wellington Philosophical Society (New Zealand) Dr. Buller described a second species of Lizard (if Dr. Giinther will allow us to call it so) of the genus Sphenodon (sive Hatieria). Sphenodon guentheri, as Dr. Buller proposes to designate this new form, "after the greatest of living herpetologists," is from the Brother Islands, whilst the original ^S". punctatus appear to be confined to the Karewa Island, in the Bay of Plenty. A New Fish.— Dr. W. Peters has lately communicated to the Royal Academy of Science of Berlin the description of a new fish of the order Leptocardii. Of this most peculiar group of " Inverte- brated Vertebrates," but one genus — the Aniphioxus branchio- stoma — has yet been recognised, though several more or less doubtful species of the genus from various parts of the world have been described. Dr. Peters has received from Australia several examples of a well-marked, though closely-allied, form which he names Epigomethys cultellus, and which differs from Branchiosto7}ia in having a high dorsal fin and in wanting the caudal and anal fins. These minute rarities were dredged up near Peale Island, in Moreton Bay, in eight fathoms water. A New Peripatus. — A paper on Peripatus, by Capt. F. W. Hutton, Director of the Otago Museum, which will be found to be a valuable supplement to that by Mr. H. Moseley, in the Transactions of the Royal Society, has been published in the current number of the Annals and Magazine of Natural History. The author describes a new species, which he names Peripatus novce-Zealandice, peculiar in being hermaphro- dite. These strange animals, between i and 2 inches in length, are found in the West Indies, Chili, the Cape of Good Hope, and New Zealand. They have relations with worms and with the tracheate Articulata, and habits much hke those of the wood- louse. The Persian Deer. — In the same number of the same journal. Dr. N. Severtzoff has also an interesting communication on the affinities of the Persian Deer {Cervus maral), in which he shows that this species is identical with the Wapiti [C. cana- densis) of Canada, that from the warmer locality [changing colour in the summer, that from the colder not doing so. The author very reasonably suggests that the name C. wapiti or C. maral yjovXA. be preferable to C. canadensis, now the distribution of the species has been shown to be so general. Fishes of the Aralo-Caspio-Euxine Basin. — The re- sults arrived at by Prof. Kessler, after many years' study of the fishes of the Aralo-Caspio-Euxine region (which includes these three interior seas with their affluents) are as follows : — The number of described species is about 280, out of which 80 are marine, 100 fresh- water, and 40 brackish water species ; 20 in- habit various waters, and 40 are migratory. 150 species belong exclusively to the region, and 10 have spread out into neighbour- ing regions at comparatively recent times. Out of the 120 other species, about 25 have a wide range of distribution, about 80 have migrated into the Black Sea from the Mediterranean, and about 15 fresh- water species have penetrated into the Aralo- Caspio-Euxine region from the north. Out of the 160 species limited exclusively to this region, 45 were found in the Black Sea, 54 in the Caspian, and 26 in Lake Aral. There are but 6 species which inhabit simultaneously the three basins of the three interior seas, 4 species which are common to the Caspian and Aral basins, and 25 to those of the Black Sea and the Caspian. The most characteristic families of fishes in the region are the Gobioidecc and the Acipenseridce, the former being repre- sented by r j less than 50 species, out of which 40 do not extend over other regions ; the genus Benthophilus of this family, which numbers here six or seven species, has no representatives abroad ; and the genus Scaphirynchus, represented in the Amu and Syr- darya by three species, is known to have but one more species inhabiting the Mississippi. Development of the Mamma. — Among the important his- tological investigations which have appeared quite recently in one by Mr. C. Creighton, M.B., in the current number of the y^«r«^/ of Anatomy and Physiology, on the development of the mamma, and of the mammary function, in which the view generally re- ceived that the mamma is a complex extension downwards of the ectoderm or surface of the skin, is combated in favour of the? Nov. 1 6, 1876] NATURE 67 )unt originally given by Goodsir, that the essential secreting I cture of the breast develops from a matrix tissue at numerous tiered centres, which are the same from which the surrounding i.ii originates, and that the ducts arise out of the same matrix tissue by direct aggregation of the embryonic cells along prede- iuined lines. It is shown that in neither genus of Monotremata s the mamma possess a duct-system, it simply being a follicular ! gland. In the Cetacea these follicles open into a median un- branched simple duct. In the Marsupials and all other animals the ducts are branched, which causes the organ to be racemose. It may be noted tliat it was during the prr secution of this inves- tigation that Mr. Creighton was led to the correct determination of the nature of the coagulation-appearances found in mucus and other albuminous fluids. NOTES We regret to announce the death, at Stuttgart, on the 5th inst., of the celebrated traveller and zoologist, Theodor von Heuglin. He was only fifty-two years of age, having been born in 1824, at Ilirschlanden, near Leonberg, in Suabia. Von Heuglin had received a comprehensive education and had well prepared himself for his greater travels, by numerous visits to different European countries and by wide study. In 1850 he made a protracted stay in Egyjit in order to study oriental languages, manners, and customs. After some visits to the interior of 'Arabia as well as the east coast of the Red Sea, he became secretary to Dr. Reitz, the Austrian Consul at Khartoum, and in that capacity visited the Upper Nile districts and Abyssinia. When Dr. Reitz had succumbed to the climate, von Heuglin returned to Khartoum, and succeeded him in the consulate. As consul he visited the White Nile, and eventually returned to Germany in 1856. Here he published bis excellent "Travels in North-East Africa" (Gotha : Justus Pertlie«, 1857), which had been preceded (in 1855) by his "Systematic Review of the Birds of Africa." He again paid a visit to the Red Sea, and in i860 took the lead of the expedition which was to find Vogel's traces, proceeding from the last; Sleudner, Kieselbach, Hansal, Schubert, and Mun- zingtr were members of this expedition, which, although acquiring valuable information about the Gallas districts, failed in its prin- cipal object. In 1862 von Heuglin returned to Khartoum with Steudner, and in 1S63 made a fresh attempt to trace the course of the White Nile. The results of these travels were published iti Petermann's Mittheibm^en (1860-64). His merits were par- ticularly great in ornithology ; his drawings are true to nature, his descriptions exact, detailed, and extremely attractive. Also in Aictic regions von Heuglin gave proof of greit intelligence arid courage ; he was almost more successful as an Arctic ex- plorer in 1870 and 1871 than as an African traveller. His work on northern landscapes and animals (published by Westermann, at Brunswicl<) is one of the most attractive and handsomest records of travels yet published, and is highly esteemed by all who are interested in Arctic exploits. His death was a sadly unexpected one, a slight cough developed into inflammation of the lungs, to which he succumbed m the course of a few days. We deeply regret that we have to record the death of Mr. T. Heathcote G. Wyndham. Few among the younger men de- voting their life to the pursuit of scientific knowledge and to the teaching of science have formed for themselves a higher ideal of the training a man of science should impose on himself before venturing on original work, or on giving instruction to others. As a commoner of Oriel he took a first class in natural science in 1866, was Burdett-Coutts Scholar in 1867, and was afttrwards elected Fellow of Merton. He undertook at Merton the duty of a lecturer in natural science, and the thoughtful care he took in his teaching was not only gratefully spoken of by many of the v^ergraduates, but frequently referred to in conversation by those who knew him. The branch of natural science which seemed gradually to have presented itself more prominently to his mind for his own especial study was the chemical side of mineralogy. But although for years he fitted himself for this work in all ways he thought requisite, sparing no pains in ac- quiring collateral knowledge that might bear on his subject, and though he had done original research which many other men would from time to time have thrown off in isolated papers, be held back from appearing in print. A paper on Idocrase and Garnet and one on Vesuvius are, so far as we know, all he pub- lished. But there is a prospect that some of his work will be preserved, as in conjunction with Mr, Gurney he had in hand a small work on chemicil mineralogy. Although he had not yet achieved work to make his name marked in the world of science, yet those who knew him lament the loss of a scholar and a gentleman, and the lament is in no way softened by the unhappy circumstances attending his death. The published results of the exploration of Lake Titicaca by Messrs. Alexander Agasiiz and S. W. Garman, has just reached us. The expedition was undertaken during the early months of last year, Mr. Agassiz writes on the hydrography of the lake, describing the peculiarly uniform temperature at all depths, the potability of the water, the scarcity of the fish — six species only — and its 'previous 'greater extent. Mr. J, A. Allen gives a list of the mammals and birds collected, with field-notes by Mr. Garman, Of mammals only ten species were obtained, none new, four being Llamas. Of birds sixty-nine species were col- lected, includinganew Falcinellus{ridoimyi), andaGallinule [Gal- tinulagarmani) closely resembling G. galeata. It is noted that many of the species had been but a short time before obtained by Messrs. Bartlett, Whitely, Hauxwell, and Jelski, and described by Messrs. Sclater and Salvin, Cabanis and others. Mr. W. Faxon describes the Crustacea, all excepting a species of Cypris, belonging to one amphipodous gexias AHonhcstes, of which seven new fresh- water species are added to the one or two already known. Mr. Agassiz gives a valuable hydrographical map of the lake, and records the presence of corals closely allied to genera living in the West Indies at the height of 2,900 feet above the level of the sea. Messrs. Churchill have just published a third edition of Mr. Sutton's " Systematic Handbook of Volumetric Analysis," in which the author has embodied "all such novelties and modifications as experiment have proved to be worthy of notice." We have to announce with great regret the death of another martyr to science. In a letter, dated September 15, the Rev. S. McFarlane writes from Somerset, Cape York : "We have just heard of the massacre of Dr. James and his partner, a Swede, at Yule Island by the natives of New Guinea. They had gone in their large boat to the east side of Hall Sound to shoot birds of Paradise, when they were attacked by three canoes, and both white men were killed. The native crew managed to get away in the boat, and brought the sad news here. " Dr. James was a young American who had been collecting objects of natural history in Yule Island and on the opposite shores of New Guinea. His first collections arrived in this country about a fortnight ago, having been sent over by his friend. Dr. Alfred Roberts, of Sydney, to whose liberality the expedition wa? greatly indebted. The excellent way in which the specimens are preserved and the careful notes given by the collector show that Dr. James was enthusiastic in his work, and it is melancholy to think that so promising a scientific career has been thus prematurely cut short. A description of the collection of birds formed by the late tra- veller will be given by Mr. Bowdler Sharpe at an early meeting of the Linnean Society, in continuation of the articles on the 68 NATURE \_Nov. i6, 1876 avifauna of New Guinea, commenced during the last session of the Society. The Forty-seventh Session of the' Royal Geographical Society was opened on Monday evening by the delivery of the presiden- tial address by Sir Rutherford Alcock. He referred to the satis- factory state of the Society, which now numbers 3,199 members, and to the valuable work it had done since its foundation for the cause of geographical research. He also referred with complete satisfaction to the work accomplished by the Arctic expedition, the leaders of which had done the only thing that could have been done under the circumstances. Sir Rutherford then spoke of the work of Cameron in Africa, the Challenger Expe- dition, Russian Exploration, the Oriental Congress, and on variovs other topics. He referred to the fact that geography and explo- ration have no V assumed a much more scientific aspect than ever they had before ; no traveller can gain distinction by mere topo- graphical detail and descriptive power ; his exploration must be conducted on a thoroughly scientific basis. To spread a know- ledge of this aspect of geography, lectures are to be given during the winter by General Strachey on the general subject of " Geo- graphy in its Scientific Aspect," Dr. Carpenter on " The Physical Geography of the Ocaan," and Mr. "Wallace on "The Influence of Geographical Conditions on the Comparative Antiquity of Continents, as indicated by the Distribution of Living and Extinct Animals." After the President's a Idress, Sir R. Douglas Forsyth read a paper on "The Buried Cities of the Gobi Desert." The Lords of the Admiralty have addressed a letter to the Commander-in-Chief at Portsmouth, in which they request Admiral Elliott to express to Capt. Nares their lordships' warm approval of the conduct of all engaged in the Arctic Expedition. While they deeply commiserate the sufferings of the officers and men, and deplore the loss of life, they cannot but feel that their bearing and conduct have been in all respects worthy of British seamen. Their lordships approve the sound judgment displayed by Capt. Nares in at once, on the return of his sledge parties, determining to endeavour to extricate the ships and return to England, and they observe that his skill and energy in carr3'ing out this determination, ably seconded as he was by Capt. Stephenson, were of the highest order. Capt. Nares proudly records that to uphold British honour and Christian duty to the death was the pre eminent determination of all under his command. A SPECIAL Arctic meeting will be held under the auspices of the Royal Geographical Society at St. James's Hall on December 12, when papers on the various results of the English Arctic Expedition will be read by Captains Nares, Markham, and Feilden. American observatories have been very diligent in the search for the supposed " Intra-Mercurial Planet," no less than nine having given their whole time to the search on October 2, 3, 10, and 11, viz., those of Dartmouth Col- lege, Harvard College, Cincinnati, Glasgow (Mo.), Washington, Albany, the Coast Survey in San Francisco, Ann Arbor, and the Observatory of Dr. Peters, besides others that have made no report. It is exceedingly creditable to the United States that they contain so many observatories, many of them national ones, in which astronomical observations are so diligently pursued. The Free Spanish University we referred to in vol. xiv. p. 132, has been opened in Madrid, under the name of Free Insti- tution of Education, for Government will not allow the assump- tion of the title University. Only 1,000 guineas have been sub- scribed, many of the shareholders being well-known Englishmen, among them Prof. Tyndall. The Institution is held at present in one storey of a large house, and has already seventy- three students, besides eight or nine ladies ; the fees are very low. We hope this attempt to establish a university where unrestricted instruction can be given, will prosper, and that the professors, ai: men of high standing, will soon be able to have a building ol their own. The library of the late Adolphe Brongniart is to be sold bj auction in Paris on December 4, and following days. The clas sified catalogue, arranged by M. DeyroUe, occupies 240 pp. 8vo. Copies may be obtained through M. DeyroUe, 23, Rue de la Monnaie. The Kolnische Zeitung of November 9 reports on a meetinj of the Rhenish section of the German and Austrian Alpenverein, held at Cologne on November 4. It appears that the Verein, the head-quarters of which are at Frankfurt-on-the- Maine, coU' sists of sixty sections and numbers over 6,000 members. Daiinj 1875 over 2,000/. were expended for the construction of huts anc roads in the Alps, and the Verein now owns about twenty-foui houses in different parts of the mountains ; it has also appointee a special commission for the supervision of guides and huts. Altogether the Verein is thriving, and we may look for important scientific results from its labours. It is stated that M. Gessi has discovered a large branch of th( Nile, 200 yards wide, with a good current, diverging from the White Nile, 100 miles south of Duffle. It is stated by th< natives that it runs in an unobstructed stream into the Nih again, and, if so, water communication may possibly be estab lished between Lake Albert Nyarza and Khartoum. Col, Gordon has discovered a large lake fifty miles in length betweer Urondogam and Mrooli, a little north of Victoria Nyanza (it 1° N. lat), from which issues the main branch of the Nile, called Victoria Nile, running from the Victoria to the Albcri Lake, together with a branch river which must either join the Sobat river or the Asua river. The Italian geographical journal. Cosmos, for October con- tains a continuation of the papers on New Guinea, which it ha; made a specialty. The present contribution consists of furthei letters from Dr. Beccarl and extracts from the Challenges reports. To the November number of Pctermann's Mittheilungen^ Lieut. Weyprecht contributes No. 7 of his " Bilder aus den hohen Norden," under the title of "The Walrus-Hunter." He describes in a graphic and interesting manner the yearlj quest of the walrus- fishers in the Spitzbergen Seas, which is becoming more and more difficult and dangerous on account 0: the increasing scarcity of the animal. The Geographical Society of Paris has received news from the Brazza-Marche expedition, now exploring the Ogove, the large stream which falls into the South Atlantic in the French Africar settlement of Gaboon. It was discovered by the explorers that, after running north to the first degree of S. lat., the O^^oive turn; abruptly southwards into quite unexplored regions. MM. Brazza and Marche had lost almost all their goods destined to conciliate the African tribes and to pay for their labour. But the Socletji sent to them a large number of small objects which will enable them to proceed towards the sources of the river. It is sup- posed that, owing to the immense volume of its water, it is an outlet for some of the large lakes of the yet untrodden region. A TET.EGRAM fiom Calcutta states that the district of Backer, gunge was ravaged by a cyclone on the 1st inst. Thousands ol native houses were destroyed. The town of Dowlutkhan was submerged by a storm-wave, which swept away all the buildings of the place. Five thousand persons are believed to have perished. Backergunge is a British district in the Bengal pre- sidency, near the mouth of the Ganges, lying between lat. 22° 2' — 23° 13'., long. 89° 49' — 91°, and has an area of about 3,794 Nov. 16, 1876I NATURE 69 square miles. A severe cyclone has also been experienced at Chittagong. TiiK Kolnische Zeitungoi November 11 reports on a disas- trous gale and snowstorm which raged with terrific force in the neighbourhood of Stockholm on the 5th inst. Over fifty vessels stranded near Kalmar, and all railway lines to the south and to Norway were completely snowed up, and traffic upon them interrupted. The latter had not yet been resumed on the 8lh inst. A MAGNIFICENT bolide was observed on Sunday night, November 5, at nine ^o'clock, at Clerey (Aube), in France. Numerous sparks were visible and an explosion was heard, although very feeble, owing to the immense distance at which it had taken place. The French Minister of the Interior has authorised the Mu- nicipal Council of Lyons to dedicate a bust to Ampere, the inventor of electro-magnets. This memorial will be placed in the museum where are gathered the memorials of the illustrious men who were born in the city. The transit-room in which the Bischofsheim instrument is to be placed is being fitted up at the Paris Observatory. The work is almost finished. M. Leverrier has asked the Minister of Public Instruction to appoint an administrative commission in order to better regulate the part which the Observatory is to take in the 1878 Exhibition. The new number of the Ibis, now in the press, will conclude the third series and the eighteenth volume of this ornithological periodical, which has been carried on by the British Ornitholo- gists' Union with the greatest energy since its institution as the organ of that body in 1859. A fourth series, under the joint editorship of Messrs. Salvin and Sclater, will be commenced next year. Count T. Sala'adori, of the Royal Zoological Museum of Turin, is engaged on a general account of the birds of the Papuan and Molluccan Islands, based principally on the large collections recently formed by the Italian naturalists Beccari and D'Albertis in those countriej. The work will be published, when completed, in the Annals of the Museo Civico di Storia Naturale of Genoa, to which institution the above-named collec- tions have been transmitted. On Thursday and Friday last week the Haggerstone Ento- mological Society held its annual exhibition at its place of meeting. No. 10, Brownlow Street, Dalston. It was only in 1857 that a few working men interested in insect-collecting liscussed, in West Wickham Wood, the desirability of an east- nd club for mutual assistance. A club was formed and now lumbers a hundred members. The subscription is but a penny i-week, but with this a reference library has been accumulated. The type cabinet for the collections consists of forty drawers, n which there are now some 15,000 specimens, and the library md collection together are insured for 200/. All through the year the society meets every Thursday, and many points of practical importance (some of them bearing on "the theory of evolution" put to the test by breeding) have been discussed. Among the vays in which members of the society have done valuable work nay be mentioned the preservation of the avenue of elms in Victoria Park from insect ravages by a knowledge of exactly how o proceed in dealing with the foe. Although this and several uch societies do not obtrude themselves on the scientific world, hey still, besides exercising a good effect on the members, often lo work of sterling value. Wk understand that it is proposed at University College to ive a larger development than before to the practical work of students in connection with the classes of mathematics, physics, and engineering in their workroom especially adapted to the purpose, and placed under the direction of a special teacher, M. Paul Robin. Various models to illustrate the theorems of modern and higher geometry, of kinematics and mechanics, so difficult to understand theoretically,— such modelsas are so largely represented in the South Kensington ICxhibition collection— will be made in a simple manner by the students themselves, side by side with their theoretical studies. The best models, and such as require more time and accuracy for their construction, will be preserved in a small educational collection. It would hardly be possible to insist too strongly on the usefulness, or rather on the absolute necessity of such work for the successful study of science. It is only when the student has not only seen and handled various practical illustrations and applications of the theorems of geometry and mechanics he is studying, but when he has himself constructed them — however roughly approximate they may be— that the mathematical truths will be permanently im- pressed on his mind. Only thus can he become so familiar with them, that they will be a basis for acquiring further notions, and a source of further mental activity. We wish, therefore, complete success to this new enterprise of University College. Shortly after the appearance of Prof. Tyndall's work on Glaciers, the Bologna Professor, Bianconi, observed that, while Tyndall's experiments certainly prove that rapid changes of form in ice are due to crushing and to regelation, they do not prove at all that ice is devoid of a small degree of plasticity, which degree might be sufficient to explain the plasticity of glaciers. He undertook, therefore, a series of experiments (described and published in 1871 in the Mt7n. of the Acad, of Bologna, 3rd sen vol. i. ) on planks and bars of ice submitted to bending and torsion. The bending of ice-planks having been afterwards the subject of researches of Messrs. Mathews, Moseley, Tyndall, and Heim, it will suffice to say that Prof. Bianconi, making his experiments at higher temperatures (from -t- 1° to + 5° Gels.), observed a still greater plasticity of the ice than that obtained by the experiments made in England and Germany at lower temperatures. These experiments proved that slow changes of form of the ice may go on without any crushing and regelation, and that ice enjoys a certain degree of plasticity notwithstanding its brittleness ; the ice-plank can, indeed, be shattered to pieces, during its bending, by the slightest shock. Now, Prof. Bianconi gives in the Journal de Physique iox October the results of his further experiments on .ice, much like those of Heim, or, yet more, those of M. Tresca on the puncheoning of metals. Granite pebbles and iron plates are slowly pressed into ice at the same temperatures, and not only do they penetrate into it as they would penetrate into a fluid or semi-fluid, but also the particles of ice are laterally repulsed from beneath the intruding body, and form around it a rising fringe. Moreover, when a flat piece of iron is pressed into the ice, the fringe rising around it expands laterally upon the borders of the piece, and tends thus, as in fluids, to fill up the cavity made by the body driven in. These experiments tend thus greatly to illustrate the plas- ticity of ice ; but it would be very desirable that M. Bianconi, if he continues his researches, should accompany them by some measurements (as has already been done by M. Heim) in order to obtain numerical values of the plasticity of ice under various circumstances. At the Warsaw meeting of Russian naturalists Prof. Mende* leeff described the results of researches he has pursued during 1875 and 1876 for the verification of Mariotte's law. His former researches had proved that the decrease of volume of the per- manent gases proceeds at a slower rate than the increase of pressure exerted on them, if the pressure is less or much greater than the mean pressure of the atmosphere. The experiments of Regnault, made with air, nitrogen, &c., at pressures higher than 70 NATURE \Nov. i6, i8 that of the atmosphere proved, however, dhectly the contrary, and a series of measurements undertaken some years ago by Prof. Mendeleeiif to verify those of Regnault, gave the same results. Suspecting that there might be some cause of error affecting in the same way both series of experiments, Prof. Mendeleeff and M. Bogussky constructed special apparatus eliminating all possible causes of errors and allowing the most perfect accuracy of measurements. With these they made a new series of researches, at pressures varying from 700 to 2,200 millimetres. These researches confirmed again the conclusions of Regnault, showing only numerical differences in the values obtained, and proving, for instance for the air, that its deviations from Mariotte's law are even less than appeared before. But the most important result of the researches is that the divergences from Mariotte's law shown by the air being negative at pressures above the mean atmosphere, as was observed by Regnault, proved to be positive (decrease of volume slovvtr than the increase of pressure) at pressures below it. We must then con- clude that tlie air experiences a change of compressibiliiy at a certaifi pressure about the mean of that of the atmosphere ; and this conclusion is supported by the circumstance that such a change was noticed also in the carbonic and sulphurous acid gases, but at pressures far lower than is the case for air. Only lor hydrogen the divergence is of the positive kind at all pres- sures. Altogether we must conclude that the deviations from Mariotte's law are far more complicated than has been suspected. At the same meeting Prof. Czehovicz demonstrated the influ- ence exercised by various sources of electricity on certain spectra, chlorine, oxide of carbon, &c. The inductive apparatus of Ruhmkorf gives a spectrum differing from that produced by the Holtz electric machine, not only by the number of rays, but also by their position and aspects. Prof. Czehovicz proposes there- fore lo make for comparative researches a selection of such rays as maintain the same aspect and occupy the same position wliatever source of electricity be used ; such lines will not be numerous. At the same meeting Prof. Grewingck presented the drawing of his geological map of the Baltic provinces, prepared for a second edition. It embodies the results of all acquisitions made in this department during the last fifteen years, and will soon be published. The Warsaw Zoological Museum having received during recent years valuable additions from America, Africa, and Eastern Siberia, presented by Count Branicky, is now very rich in the department of higher animals. It counts 514 species of mammalians, 3,216 of birds, and 4.00 of reptiles aird ampliibians. The Natural Science Club at Cambridge held several success- ful meetings during tlie two months' residence in the Long Vacation. The following papers were read : — " Hteckel's Gastrasa Theory," by Mr. Marshall (St. John's) ; " Fermenta- tion," by Mr. Stodart (St. Peter's) ; " Some Salts of Chromium," by Mr. Houghton (St. John's) ; " The Relation between the Fore and Hind Limbs of Vertebrates," by Mr. Pliillips (Sl John's); "Growth," by Mr. Buxton (Trinity); "Theories of Heredity," by Mr. Sedgwick (Trinity); "Owen's Vertebrate Theory of the EkuU," by Mr. Humphry (Trinity) ; many of which were followed by interesting discussions and re- maiks. A German paper describes a dreadful fight between two Polar bears, male and female, in the Cologne Zoological Gardens. After a fierce struggle the female became exhausted, and was dragged by the male into the water basin in the den, and held down till life was quite extinct. He then pulled her out and dragged the body for a considerable time round the den. From a correspondence in the Times we learn that the sta of Faraday, subscribed for years ago, and entrusted to Foley execute, was left by that sculptor in the clay at his death. Sii then, Mr. Burch, the principal pupil of Foley, has been entrus with the founding and completion of the work. The second edition of Brehm's well-known " Thierleben '' about to be published in 100 parts, with entirely revised t and with almost entirely new illustrations taken from life. At the meeting of the Mathematical Society, on Novembe) the changes were made which we intimated in vol. xiv. p. 58: Part 5 of the second series of the great .work, in quar upon the butterflies of America, with coloured drawings a descriptions, has just been published by Mr. Edwards, throu Hurd and Houghton, New York, and sustains the reputatior its predecessors by the artistic elegance an 1 superiority of illustrations. These consist of five plates, executed by Ri Peart in her best style, giving, for the most part, not only different sexes and varieties of the adult insects, but likewise eggs, larvae, and chryssalides, and the favourite plants uj which they feed. No new species are represented, althoi several of those included are of great rarity. The City Press states that some of the Livery Companies h a scheme in embryo for combining to form a College of Te nical Instruction in a building to be erected on the That Embankment. The Board for superintending non-collegiate students j notice that an examination in physical science for the award an exhibition of 50/. a year, granted by the Worshipful Comp of Cloth workers, an i tenable for three years by a non-collegi student, will be held in the Censor's rooms, 31, Trumping Street, Cambridge, commencing on Thursday morning, Dec< ber 14, 1876, at 9 o'clock. Fuller information as to the subji of examination and the conditions of tenure of the exhibii may be obtained from the Censor, Rev. R. B. Somerset, C; bridge. A Caucasian Society of Naturalists has been recently ope at Tiflis. The publishing house of Trlibner in Strasburg are issu translations of Macmillan's Science Primers, under the supe! tendence of the Professors of the University. There h already appeared Roscoe's Chemistry and Balfour Stews Physics, the former by Prof. Rose, and the latter by Prof. \A burg, Lockyer's Astrononay, by Prof. Winnecke, and Geik Physical Geography, by Prof. 03:ar Schmidt, are in the press The Augsburger All^emeim Zeitung of November 5 g some interesting details of the North-Butch canal, which ' opened officially by the King of Holland on the ist inst., 1 which connects tlie city of Amsterdam directly with the Gere Ocean. It appears that the canal is 25 kilometres in lenj that at its broidest part it measures 120 metres across its surl by 68 metres ^at its narrowest part. In the middle the de averages 6 metres, but during the next two years the depth i be made uniform all over the area of the canal, and to be creased to 8 20 metres, so that even the largest vessels can ct clo;e to the quays on both sides of the canal. Its name ii be Ymuiden, viz., mouth of the Y ; at the spot where it reac the sea two enormous moles or dykes have been construci reaching 1,600 'metres into the sea, and forming aspacijus \ of refuge for ships during stormy weather ; their extreme ends no less than i, 200 metres apart. The total cost of the canal, wl: was borne by the Dutch Government as well as by the cit} Amsterdam, amounted to more than twenty- six millions of flor and it is expected that about seventeen millions more will wanted for the construction of quays, warehouses, &c. ; yet Nov. i6, 1876] NATURE undertaking cannot fail to be a success, owing to its incalculable ' importance with reference to the commerce of Amsterdam. The following experiment has recently been employed by M Merget to demonstrate the phenomena of gas-synthesis in plants : Two glass cylindrical vessels of 300 cc capacity are placed with their open ends in a large vessel of water. The one is filled with hydrogen, the other with oxygen, their interiors are brought into communication by means of a branch which is long enough to reach from one end to the other. The level of the water is 1 gradually to rise in each cylinder, and both gases finally ;>pear, without, however (.as other experiments show), con- densation or displacement being produced. At the beginning of the experiment there is nearly equality in the volumes which disappear, since a part of the oxygen serves to form carbonic acid ; but^ in proportion as the water level rises in the two cylinders, and the projecting parts of the branch become shorter, the disappearing volume of hydrogen becomes more and more nearly double that of the oxygen. If a similar experiment be made with hydrogen and nitrogen in the two vessels, the dis- appearing volume of the gas is to that of the latter as three to one. Operating with hydrogen and carbonic oxide, both gases always disappear, but in very variable proportions. The most common was one volume hydrogen to one volume carbonic oxide, but the ratios of 4 : I and 5 : I were also sometimes met with. M. Merget finds in these variations the indication of a formation of hydrates of carbon, and of various carburets of hydrogen. It is pretty generally supposed that crystallised nitroglycerine is considerably more sensitive to shocks and blows than the liquid substance, though there is nowhere evidence of this ; and not only is practical experience against it, but from the theo- retical standpoint it seems very improbable, for by reason of the positive melting heat of crystallised nitroglycerine, 'a'considerable amount of heat must be employed to change its aggregate state before an explosion can occur. For decision of this question M. Beckerhinn (of the Vienna Academy) recently used a fall- ma- chine furnished with a block of wrought iron 2 "130 kilogrammes in weight, having at its lower end a hardened steel point of 7 "068 sq. mm. A flat anvil of Bessemer steel was employed as support for the nitroglycerine, which was placed on it in a thin layer, and the weight dropped upon it from different heights. It was found that the mean height of fall with which explosion of the liquid occurred was 078 metres, whereas the frozen nitro- glycerine did not explode till a fall-height of 2*13 m. was reached, showing that the ^frozen substance is considerably less sensitive to impact. M. Beckerhinn has determined some con- stants of the solid material. The average melting heat (from three experiments) appeared to be 33' 54 heat-units. The den- sity was found = 1*735 C^^^ determinations were made at a temperature of + lo" C, which is near the melting-point of nitroglycerine) ; that cf the liquid material was i "599, whence it appears that in crystallising of nitroglycerine there is a con- traction of about TfVj of the original volume. Among the various works presented at the last Congress of Orientalists we notice a very useful catalogue, " Bibliographia Caucasica ; and Transcaucasica," by M, Miansarofif, the first volume of which recently appeared in St. Petersburg. It is the result of fifteen years' labour by the author and of careful research pursued by him in the chief libraries of Russia, Germany, Italy, and Turkey. The work is divided into three parts, devoted respectively to the Earth, to Man, and to the Mutual Influences of Nature and Man. The first two form the first volume (800 pages' in 4to), which contains more than 5,000 titles of books and smaller papers on the Caucasus and Transcaucasus which have appeared in Europe and Asia since A.D. 1565. They are systematically arranged under the heads of geodesy, cartography, physical 71 geography and geographical descriptions of localitie.<;, geology, botany and zoology, mineral springs, climate, medicine, &c. Whatever be the imperfections of this work, or of the classifica- tion adopted in it, it will nevertheless prove most useful for all engaged in the study of Caucasus. JDr. King's report of the Royal Botanical Gardens, Calcutta, for the year 1875-76 has jiwt reached us. In the acclimatisation of valuable economic plants in India, the Calcutta reports have become of late years the official record, and the present report by no means lacks interest on this score, though it is unsatis- factory to find that Dr. King's opinion is still against the possi- bility of either india-rubber or vanilla becoming staple products of Bengal. With regard to rubber plants both of the Para and Madagascar kinds, he says that during the year it has become more apparent than ever, that neither of these valuable plants can be grown for commercial purposes in the climate of Bengal. In the gardens as well as in the warm tropical valleys of the Sikkim Himalayas both kinds failed. Dr. King suggests that a suitable home may be found for them further north than Tenaa- serim, Ceylon, or perhaps Malabar. Vanilla, of which a number of plants were put out in the garden under shading similar to that used for protecting the pepper plants, has not made satis- factory growth, which it is suggested may have been due to over- shading, and a further experiment has been made by planting many of them under the shade of mango trees. The finest old vanilla plants in the garden are described as growing against a north wall ; this year one of these plants was laden with pods, but an unusually high temperature caused these to drop prematurely. A better report is given of the ipecacuanha ; numbers of plants have been sent from Calcutta to Ceylon, t« the Neilgherries and to Burmah, and the quality of those grown in India is said to be equal to the best native Brazilian growth. A good deal of atten- tion has been directed lately to the bamboo as a source of paper- making material, and it has been thought that it might be cultivated with profit in India for this special purpose, the young tender shoots being reduced to a rough kind of paper- stock for convenience for transmission to England. Dr. King points out that if the old stem would answer the purpose there is plenty of material in India, and a large revenue would accrue, ' but the young shoots are only produced at a certain season ; nevertheless, experiments are being made with a view to utilise the bamboo for this purpose. In the distribution of plants and seeds, we learn that no less than 23,106 plants, and 6,343 parcels of seeds, were sent out during the year. It is satisfactory to know that amongst Dr. King's other multi- tudinous duties he has found time to prepare a " Manual of Cin- chona Cultivation," and to edit other works on Indian botany. We also learn that Mr. Kurz's "Forest Flora of Burmah " is passing through the press. Part 3 of vol. i. of the Proceedings of the West London Scientific Association has been published, and contains several interesting papers and accounts of excursions. The October part of the Journal of the Franklin Institute contains an interesting history of the steam-engine in America. Messrs. Williams and Norgate send us the following German scientific works :—"BUder aus Aquarium," by Dr. Hess, of Hanover ; and " Grundriss der Zoologie," by Dr. I Gustav von Hayek. I The additions to the Zoological Society's Gardens during the \ past week include two Esquimaux dogs ( C The Comet of 1652 63 The Brightness of Jupiter's Satellites 65 Biological Notes : — The Progress of Embryology .... 65 New Species of Echidna ^^ Sphenodon Guentheri 66 A New Fish 66 A New Peripatus 66 The Persian Deer 66 Fishes of the Aralo-Caspio-Euxine Basin 66 Development of the Mamma 66 Notes » 67 Societies an0 Acadbmies 7* NA TURE It THURSDAY, NOVEMBER 23, 1876 FERRIER ON THE BRAIN The Functions of the Brain. By David Ferrier, -M.D., F.R.S. With numerous Illustrations. (London : Smith, Elder, and Co., 1876.) I. 'T'^HIS is in many respects an important work. Full of -L experimental facts and theoretical suggestions, clearly and forcibly written, it is important as a contribution to our knowledge (and oui ignorance) of the functions of the brain. The reader must not misunderstand my parenthesis as an epigram. That we are ignorant of brain-function is un- doubted ; and this ignorance is sustained and fortified by the "false persuasion of knowledge" which prevents search in other directions. Such false persuasion of knowledge will be deepened by Dr. Ferrier's work — all the more because of its merits, if the conclusions maintained there are erroneous, and the conceptions which determine them are unphysiological j and on both points I am inclined to judge affirmatively. There is something seductive in the precision of his statements and the unhesitating confi- dence with which only one side of a question is presented. The reader is easily led captive by a writer who has no hesitation. Add to this the many difficulties which stand in the way of controlling by experiment the experimental data, and the indisposition of most men to undertake the labour of verification, and we may foresee that physicians and psychologists will eagerly accept this work as an authoritative storehouse of material for their speculations. They will see how its " facts " harmonise with their own pet errors. They will interpret clinical observations or psychological facts by its conclusions. Already we have seen various theories invoking the Hitzig- Ferrier views ; and when nerve-cells of a larger size than usual are found in a particular region of the cortex they are straightway declared to be motor-cells, because the region is said by Hitzig and Ferrier to be motor, while the existence of these cells is adduced in confirmation of the hypothesis respecting the region ! In view of the too-probable precipitation in adopting the conclusions of this work, we cannot do better than emphasize the warning with which the author closes his Introduction : — " We are still only on the threshold of the inquiry, and it may be questioned whether the time has even yet arrived for an attempt to explain the mechanism of the brain and its functions. To thoughtful minds the time may seem as far off as ever." The volume opens with an elementary sketch of the structure of the brain and cord, followed by a short chapter on the reflex functions of the cord, with passing reference to Pfliiger's view of its sensory functions, and to Goltz's experiments against that view. Then follows a chapter on the medulla oblongata as a respiratory and vaso-motor centre ; and one on the general relations of the mesencephalon and the cerebellum. After full, yet brief accounts of 'what is taught respecting the effects of removing the cerebrum, the mechanism of equilibration, the muscular sense, the function of the semicircular canals, vertigo, co-ordination of locomotion, and finally the mechanism of emotional expression, we are brought to the main topic of the book — the functions of the cerebrum Vol. XV.— No, •;6o and basal ganglia. Let a word, in passing, be also givei to the excellent chapter in which the psychological aspec of the cerebrum is treated. Rich as the work is in facts and suggestions, it is s( deficient in the indispensable correctives of counterfacti and arguments, that the reader must be cautioned agains accepting any position unless elsewhere verified. Parti; because, from long occupation with his subject. Dr. Ferrie has become unable to see it in any other light than tha of his own hypothesis, and therefore doffs aside al counter-facts and counter-arguments as not really signi ficant ; partly, perhaps, because his memory has let slij what must have entered into his knowledge ; from oni cause or another there is a disregard of counter- evidence which, in a second edition, I should seriously urge him t( rectify. Let me cite examples. In arguing against the sensory functions of the spina cord, the experiment which he urges as decisive is Goltz's well-known experiment on the insensibility of the brain less frog to pain. I formerly (Nature, vol. ix. p. 8^ pointed out the defect in logic, which concludes from the fact that under certain conditions a brainless animal is insensible to pain (equally to be said of animal; with brains), therefore it is altogether without sensibility Pain and sensation are so far from being equivalent terms that not only are the great mass of our sensations withoui pain, but some cannot even be exaggerated into pain Dr. Ferrier probably did not read the article in which ] answered Goltz ; but did he also overlook the article ir the Journal of Ana: amy for November, 1873, or the same article in the Sttcdies in the Physiological Laboratory Oj Cambridge^ Part i, where Prof. Michael Foster showed by decisive experiments that the facts observed by Goltz had another interpretation ? Again, is it possible that Dr. Ferrier has never been made to hesitate in assigning the optic thalami and corpora striata respectively as the integration of sensory and motor centres, by the observa- tions and experiments which show that sensibility some- times persists after total destruction of the optic thalami, and that paralysis does not always follow destruction of the corpora striata ? One such observation would be decisive against these localisations. But Dr. Ferrier neither disproves the facts nor suffers them to disturb his views of the functions of these ganglia. Finally, there is an experiment by Dr. Burdon Sanderson which, as I shall presently show, cuts the very ground from under Dr. Ferrier's feet— yet this he does not even mention. He probably overlooked its significance ; at any rate he leaves his readers without the advantage of knowing that there is such a fact. That this disregard arises from no unfairness, but simply from the onesidedness which comes from preoccu- pation with certain views, is evident in the way he equally disregards his own counter-evidence. A notable instance is the first assigning the occipital lobes as centres of or- ganic sensations on the faith of observed absence of such sensations when the lobes were removed, and then citing a case of complete recovery of such sensation five days afterwards, and instead of recognising this as decisive against his hypothesis, still persisting in maintaining it. Thus much on what may be called the " personal equa- tion." Another and more serious source of the mislead- ing effects of the book seems to me its following the n MATURE \Nov. 23, 1876 increasingly popular but thoroughly unphysiological con- ception of Localisation. Were not the current notions respecting organ and function very chaotic, and were not the indispensable artifice of analysis mistaken for more than an artifice which demanded rectification by synthesis, we should marvel to witness so many eminent investi- gators cheering each other on in the wild-goose chase of a function localised in a cerebral convolution, I will not, however, dwell on this point here, because it is one which would require a long discussion. It is only mentioned as a general caveat, and as leading up to the main question of cerebral excitation. In 1870 Hitzig and Fritsch startled the scientific world by announcing that the universally accredited notion of the brain not being excitable was an error. The most eminent experimenters had declared that mechanical, chemical, and electrical stimuli were utterly powerless to excite the grey matter ; and many a writer pointed to the paradox of the chief organ of sensation being insejisible. We may here note another example of the common con- fusion of sensibility with pain ; the brain was said to be " insensible " because no cutting, burning, pricking, or galvanising of it yielded evidence of pain ; whether other evidence of sensibility might have been present was not asked. The utmost the experiments could prove was that the brain was not excitable by these abnormal means, though excitable by the very different normal means of peripheral stimulus. And even this conclusion Hitzig and Fritsch upset, by demonstrating that there were cer- tain regions of the cortical substance which were excit- able by electricity, as proved by the movements following such excitation ; and the other " non-excitable regions " they inferred to be also excitable, though in another way, namely, by the production of sensations {Vorstellungen). This was an epoch-making discovery. Experimenters in Germany, Italy, England, Switzerland, France, and America, quickly verified it, although differing among each other both as to the particular facts, and their interpreta- tion. Among these followers the chief place must be assigned to Dr. Ferrier, both for the extent and the pre- cision of his results ; accordingly the names of Hitzig and Ferrier are usually coupled in speaking of the new hypo- thesis that various motor centres are located in particu- lar spots of the cerebral cortex. Although I have called it an epoch-making discovery, because I believe it will open a new track for the ana- tomical and physiological interpretation of the nervous mechanism, which will one day enable us to follow the whole pathway of stimulation, instead of — as at present — leaving us with the vague conception that " somehow " the cerebrum determines movements by setting the motor apparatus in action, I do not think that the hypothesis of motor centres in the cerebrum is tenable ; nay, more, I do not think that Hitzig and Ferrier have proved the grey substance to be excitable. It is one thing to admit that the brain is excitable, another to admit that the excitation so effected is effected by calling into activity the special property of the grey substance. We do not consider the fauces to be the centre of vomiting, although tickling the fauces will be followed by retching. We do not consider the centre of laughter to be located in the sole of the foot, because tickling the sole causes laughter. Something more is needed ; and it is preciseli'this ome- thing more which the Hitzig-Ferrier hypothesis has yet to find, namely, the anatomical connection of the so-called centre with the motor apparatus. Has any proof been adduced that the electrical stimulus first acts on the cortex, and then — by the stimulation there produced — on the white substance, which in turn acts on the motor ganglia ? N^one that withstands criti- cism. Knowing as we do that if the cortex be removed, or destroyed, the electrical stimulus nevertheless on reach- ing the white substance determines the same movements which had previously been determined when the stimulus was applied to the cortex, we may fairly ask : What proof is there that the current does not pass through the cortex (as through any other conducting medium) without exciting its activity ? That it does simply pass through the cortex is probable on two grounds : (i) only the electrical current causes an excitation ; mechanical and chemical stimuli have no such effects, because they cannot pass through the cortex to reach the white substance ; (2) it is a well- known law that the propagation of neurility, imlike that of electricity, takes place only at insensible distances : if the nerve be divided, and the two cut surfaces be brought into the closest possible contact, there is still no propaga- tion of the excitation from one surface to the other ; whereas electricity passes freely across the cut surfaces. Now here Dr. Burdon Sanderson's decisive experiment, formerly referred to, comes, as I said, to cut the very ground from under the Hitzig-Ferrier hypothesis. " If that part of the surface of the hemisphere which comprises the active spots is severed from the deeper parts by a nearly horizontal incision made with a thin-bladed knife, and the instrument is at once withdrawn without disloca- tion of the severed part, and the excitation of the active spots thereupon repeated, the result is the same as when the surf ace of the uninjured organ is acted itp07t " {Proceed- ings of the Royal Society, No. 153). Here the interruption caused by the incision, while it must have completely pre- vented the propagation of neural excitation, did not prevent the propagation of the electrical current. Clearly therefore the simple passage through the cortex v.'ill explain all the effects of electrical stimulation. Clearly therefore some other proof is needed before we can assign the motor effects to an excitation of the cortex. The arguments of Dr. Ferrier (pp. 135-6) are all set at nought by Dr. Sanderson's experiment ; and on the physiological and histological views now adopted I do not see how Dr. Sanderson's experiment can be brought into agreement with the motor centre hypothesis. Nevertheless, although I say that the preliminary fact of excitation of the cortex is not proved by Hitzig and Ferrier, I do not myself doubt that fact, although my reasons will sound so paradoxical that I must wait for another article to give them expression. George Henry Lewes {To be continued.) GREEK AND LATIN PHILOLOGY Baur's Philological Introduciioji to Greek and Latin for Stude7its. Translated from the German by C. Kegan Paul and E. D. Stone. (London : King and Co., 1876.) WITH the publication of Jacob Grimm's " German Grammar " the comparative study of language entered upon a new period of existence. Bopp and the Nov. 23, 1876] NATURE 75 other great founders of Comparative Philology had been too busily engaged in laying the foundations of the science, in determining its main laws and principles, and in classifying whole groups or families of speech, to devote themselves to the minute and special investigation of single languages, and trace therein the application and action of the laws they had formulated. But a time came when the work of the pioneer was finished, and when it was necessary for special scholars to elaborate the details of the new science and to strengthen or modify its con- clusions by a patient examination of individual dialects. The old-fashioned "philology" which had professed to analyse the forms of a language, as preserved in its litera- ture, had proceeded upon a wrong method and had accordingly arrived at wrong results ; its area of com- parison was too narrow and limited, its procedure was capricious and at haphazard, and its doctrines were based rather upon individual taste than upon inductive reason- ing. When it was discovered, however, that language is as much subject to the action of invariable laws as the bodily frame of man, that every sound in the words we utter is due to conditions which can be accurately gauged and determined, the "philology" of the last century underwent a complete change. It stands to the modern science of language in much the same relation as alchemy stands to chemistry. The general laws of lan- guage which had been obtained by a careful and far- reaching comparison of phenomena, were applied to explain and illuminate the facts presented by special languages, and these in their turn served to confirm or modify the generalisations already made. Latin and Greek w-ere naturally among the first to benefit by the new method of treatment. Thanks to the labours of scholars like Curtius and Corssen, the lan- guages of ancient Greece and Rom.e have been placed in their true position, and probed, as it were, to their very roots. Their grammatical forms have been explained and simplified, their words have been traced back to an epoch when they were the common heritage of the Aryan race, and their phonetic characteristics have been made to yield fresh testimony to the truth that the place and nature of every consonant and vowel is the result of the working of undeviating laws. What, perhaps, is of still greater importance, is the line that has been drawn between the literary and the linguistic value of the two classical tongues. For purely philological purposes they are of less interest than many a savage jargon, the name of which is almost unknown, and certainly than those spoken languages of modern Europe whose life and growth can be watched like that of the living organism, and whose phonology can be studied at first hand. The more or le£S artificial dialect of a literary class stands outside the ever-moving current of living speech; in pro- portion as it is impressed with the individualism of par- ticular writers, it becomes unsuitable for scientific treat- ment. The greater the literary perfection of a language, the less is its importance to the mere glottologist. The value of Latin and Greek, and more especially of Latin, lies rather in the literature they enshrine than in the linguistic features they present. No language, however, can be wholly valueless or un- interesting to the student of human speech, and Latin and Greek, from the minuteness with which they have been studied, and the number and variety of monuments they have left behind them, have a special claim upon his attention when revivified and illuminated by scientific philology. The laws which have been ascertained by the observation of living utterance have been applied to ex- plain the letter-changes of the classical tongues, and the comparison of their grammatical forms with those of the cognate languages has done much towards throwing light on the history of Aryan flexion and the vicissitudes through which it has passed. The innermost structure of the dead languages of Greece and Rome has been laid bare, and though there is much which will to the last resist analysis, the old mystery which enveloped the para- digms and " rules " of our school grammars has been dis- pelled for ever. Dr. Baur's attempt to convey the results of a scientific investigation of Greek and Latin in the shortest possible form is highly successful, and those who are unable to read German ought to be grateful for the translation of the work. The book is essentially a useful one, and we hope it will be extensively read in our schools and universities. As the author confines himself very strictly to the two classical languages, the teacher need have no fear of the pupil's mind being confused by a reference to less-known tongues. Indeed the book suffers from a neglect of Sanskrit, with which Dr. Baur does not seem to be acquainted. He has compiled the work, however, with German care and thoroughness, though, as is inevitable in a work of the kind, exception might be taken to some of his statements. Thus no distinction is made between primitive Aryan kw and k, and the two sounds are accordingly confounded together in Greek and Latin words. Quies, for instance, can have no connection with the Greek Kfifiai, Kw/iT], the English home, the Sanskrit 'si, but must go back to a dif- ferent root. So again it is very questionable whether the characteristic r of the Latin passive is really the reflexive pronoun se. In Old Bulgarian, it is true, we have divlya sc, divisi se, " I admire myself," "thou admirest thyself," and in Lithuanian dyvyju-s " I admire myself ; " but the Old Irish characteristic of the passive is also r, and in Old Irish r cannot be derived from an earlier s. A. H. Sayce OUR BOOK SHELF A Monograph of the Geometrid Moths or Phalanida of the United States (Tenth Report of the United States Geological Survey of the Territories). By A. S. Packard, Jun., M.D. (Washington, 1876.) This is without question the most valuable contribution to the study of the Geometrid Moths which has ever come under our notice. The size of the work, the paper, and the classification of the introductory chapters are all that can be desired ; as for the plates they are simply perfect, no pains having been spared to render them accurate even in the most minute details.^ After the Introduction, a chapter is devoted to the History of the Family from the time of Linnaeus, a work demanding no little research, and which consequently must claim for the author the gratitude of all succeeding generations of lepidopterists : the only point in which we disagree with Dr. Packard is as regards the prominence which he gives to the '• Tentamen " of Hiibner, the value ' To the eye of an amateur the plates would appear overcrowded, but to the workbg entomologist this must be one of thcr greatest merits. 75 NATURE \Nov. 23, 1876 of v/hich document will always be a disputed point with entomologists, inasmuch as (although twice quoted by its author in his subsequent works) it is more than doubtful whether it ever was actually published. The succeeding chapters are devoted to the differential characters of the family, to structural details, habits, development, secondary sexual characters, origin of the genera and species, and mimicry ; then follow concise descriptions of the genera and species, with comparative and other valuable notes, descriptions of preparatory stages, &c. It is a subject for congratulation, the importance of which none but the working lepidopterist can fully appre- ciate, that Dr. Packard has devoted six of the plates to the delineation of wing structure ; most of the generic errors in Mr, Walker's lists must be attributed' to his entire neglect of the characters offered by neuration ; attention to this is sometimes the only means by which species, otherwise wholly similar, can be distinguished. The structure of the thorax, although of much importance, can rarely be attended to, as the destruction of the speci- mens is necessary before it can be detected ; but in the examination of the wing-veins nothing is needed but a bottle of benzine, a brush, and a pocket lens, to reveal all that is required without injury to the insect. In conclusion we heartily congratulate Dr. Packard on having produced a work in every respect worthy of him- self and the Academy of which he is an officer. A. G. B. LETTERS TO THE EDITOR [The Editor does not Jiold Jmtiself responsibte for opinions expressed by his correspondents. Neither can he unda'take to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manuscripts. No notice is taken of anonymous communications ^^ Prof. Balfour Stewart on Meteorological Research It occurs to me to make the following remarks with reference to Prof. Balfour Stewart's proposal in Nature, vol. xiv. p. 388. I cannot see any objection either to the nomination of the council which is suggested, or to its constitution, provided each existing society is duly represented by a member who can, when circumstances seem to require it, attend and vote at any meeting of the Council in London. I quite agree with the Professor in thinking that the time has now come when our country should resolutely grapple with the data which have accumulated in past years and with those that are now being obtained. It is only by a thorough discussion of meteorological data that the importance of certain principles can be detected, and the necessity for altering the modes of observing can be demonstrated. I do not see that the appoiniment ot the proposed council should interfere prejudicially with the working of the different societies. While it is the duty of such societies to procure the facts, it seems to me essential in order to secure uniformity in instrumental observation, without which all deductions or genera- lisations from the data may be w^ rse than useless, that a council of control should be appo nted in order to lay down rules forregulating all observers. I would not give an arbitrary power to that council to compel every society to adopt their views, because I have a great aversion to centralisation in matters of science, for in some cases the branches may be more in the right than the head ; but in the event of a society declining to comply with the rules issued by the council, that society should not receive Government aid excepting for work that is done in terms of the rules. I take it for granted, however, that the council would give due weight to the arguments which were adduced )rom time to time by the representatives of the different societies. I am further of opinion that the different bodies should not only be allowed but encou- raged by Government aid to prosecute independently in their own way, any special subject which they may choose to take up. I hold so very strongly the absolute necessity of uniformity in instruniental observation, ihat I should be disposed to recommend each society to adopt almost any change in the forms of instru- ments, in the kind of exposure, in the hours of observation, in the form of protecting boxes, or in any other matter which might be recommended by the proposed council, provided such changes were practicable, and were agreed to once for all by the other societies in this country, and by foreign nations. I think it right to add that I am only stating my own indivi- dual convictions, and do not in any way profess to represent the opinions of the Council of the Society of which I am the hono- rary secretary, although I have no reason to suppose that they would take a different view. THOMAS Stevenson Edinburgh, November i8 Ocean Currents In the report published in Nature (vol. xiv., p. 492) of an address given at the Glasgow meeting of the British Associ ition, September 11, by Sir C. Wyville Thomson, and revised by the author, the following passage occurs : — "We have come to the conclusion that this great mass of water is moving from the Southern Sea, and there seems to me to be very little doubt — although this matter will be required to be gone into carefully — that the reason why this water is moving from the Southern Sea in a body in this way, is that there is a greater amount of evaporation in the North Atlantic and over the northern hemisphere generally, than there is of precipitation, whereas it seems almost obvious that in the southern hemisphere in the huge band of barometric low pressure round the south pole, the precipitation is in excess of the evaporation." Now I quite feel that I am guilty of very great presumption in challenging in any way the theories of so great an authority as Sir C. W. Thomson, and my only excuse for the remarks I am about to make is that there are some points that I and many other seamen would like to have cleared up before we entertain such an hypothesis. 1. Have the investigations of the Challenger sufficiently proved that there is no compensating or return current from the North Atlantic to the South Atlantic Ocean? Especially, is it quite certain that a stream of water from the Arctic regions does not set southerly along the West Coast of Africa, i.e., south of the equator ? 2. Allowing that the precipitation in the Antarctic regions is greatly in excess of that in the Arctic regions, is the precipita- tion in the north torrid and north temperate zones less than the precipitation in the south torrid and south temperate zones ? 3. Looking to the much larger distribution of land in the northern hemisphere, is it likely that the evapoiation there is in excess of the evaporation in the southern hemisphere ? 4. P^ven supposing the evaporation in the northern hemi- sphere to be in excess of that in the southern hemisphere, can it be shown that this vapour is carried to the Antarctic regions for condensation, or can the excess of precipitation in the Ant- arctic regions be accounted for in a more probable manner ? In answer to the first question I can only say that I am not able to gather from the reports of the ocean soundings and tem- peratures ot H.M.S. Challenger, published by the Admiralty,^ that it has been at all proved that there is no compensating stream of Arctic or other water. In answer to the second question, I have never heard it dis- puted, and my experience as a seaman leads me to doubt the possibility of reasonably disputing, that the rainfall in the north temperate and north torrid zones is not only not less, but that it is far in excess of the rainfall in the south torrid and south tem- perate zones. Maury (and no matter to what extent we may differ from his theories, we must give due weight to his data) says that the total amount of rain in the north temperate zone is half as much ajjain as in the south temperate zone. With reference to the third question, whether the evaporatioE in the northern hemisphere is in excess of that in the southerij hemisphere, I think the onus of proof rests with those whd start the theory, but in my present state of ignorance on tha subject I must confess that it is to my mind quiie inconceivable There are, with few exceptions, no large rivers in the souther hemisthere, and surely the discharge into the sea of the larg^ rivers in the northern hemisphere must be regarded as the return to the ocean of the excess ot precipitation over evaporation in the regions which they drain. There remains the fourth question, and before trying to answer this I should like briefly to state what I think is the general of; accepted belief up to the present time with reference to atmo-^ spheric currents or circulation. The trade winds are supposedj to be currents from the poles which, starting from the PoL I Plate VI. Report No. 7 would appear to indicate that Arctic water doesj cross the equator. Nov. 23, 1876] NATURE n regions as upper currents, descend to the surface of the globe on the tquatorial side of 30° of lat. in both hemispheres, they then travel onwards towards the belt of equatorial calms, when they meet and ascend into the upper regions of the atmosphere, whence they travel back towards the poles as upper currents, until they arrive at the calm belts of Cancer and of Capricorn, on the polar sides of which they once more descend to the sur- face, and are then known as the westerly winds of the temperate zones. Owing to the rotatory motion of the earth, it is im- possible for these westerly winds to blow direct towards the poles, but it is clear that if you surround the Polar regions with a belt of westerly winds, that no matter what the direction of the •wind may be in the Polar regions, it must, if a surface wind, be' supplied by this zone ; and that the winds experienced in the Polar regions are winds travelling on the surface, and are drawn from this belt of warm winds, is, I think, proved by the fol- lowing extract from an account of the wintering of the Hecla, Capt. (Sir Edward) Parry, at Melville Island, in the year 1819-20 : — " A gale of wind, from whatever quarter it might blow, was almost invariably found to raise the thermometer several degrees, even when it came from the north, as much as 14°. An east, south-east, or east-south-east wind causes the thermometer to rise 40°." From this extract it is evident, as might be supposed, that any current of air from this zone or belt of warm westerly winds raised the thermometer considerably, but that the wind that pro- ceeded the more directly from the ocean and had the least land to traverse was the warmest. Maury, without attempting to prove his case, and indeed throw- ing the onus of proof on those who ventured to disagree with him, considers that the south-east trade winds of the southern hemi- sphere become the south-west winds of the north temperate zone, and vice versd ; that the north-east trades of the northern hemi- sphere become the north-west winds of the south temperate zone. I do not say that this is not the case, but if you admit that the north-east and south-east trade winds meet in the belt of equatorial calms and there ascend, it appears to be more reason- able to suppose that their currents intermingle and that their naixed volume is then drawn off north and south as required to restore the equilibrium of the atmosphere. And there is a very strong argument against Maury's hypothesis, viz., that as the south-east trades of the southern hemisphere are stronger and extend over a greater surface than the north-east trades of the northern hemisphere, and as also the north-west winds of the southern hemisphere are stronger and more continuous than the south-west winds of the northern hemisphere, it is illogical to suppose that the stronger polar current, i.e., the south-east trade, feeds the weaker equatorial current, i.e., the south-west winds of the north temperate zone ; it v^ould be more reasonable to suppose the reverse to be the case. This entire theory of atmospheric currents is antagonistic to the presumption that a larger body of vapour is carried from the northern to the southern hemisphere. Owing to the scarcity of land, and especially of very high land in the south temperate zone, not only is the precipitation less, but the vapour-carrying winds, i.e., the westerly winds, are far more constant in their direction and force than are the westerly winds of the northern hemisphere. (The proportion of westerly winds to any others in the tempera'.e zone in the North Atlantic is two to one, while throughout the south temperate zone they are so constant as to have been christened by Maury the north- west trades. ) If you once admit that these westerly winds are equatorial cur- rents flowing towards the poles (a fact susceptible of undoubted proof), it is easy enough to account for the low barometer in :he Antarctic regions, as also the larger amount of precipi- ion there as compared with the precipitation in the Arctic 1. Because the westerly winds being much stronger and more I )iitinuous in the southern than in the northern hemisphere, the cension of the air in the South Polar regions must be greater an in the North Polar regions. 2. Because, owing to the westerly winds of the south tera- rate zone parting with less of their moisture (as previously xounted for) than the corresponding winds of the north tem- Tate zone, and also to their being stronger and more con- nuous, it is evident that when they meet with Antarctic cold and their vapour is condensed, the precipitation must be qreater, which also involves the giving out of a much larger amount of lament heat and the consequent greater expansion and ascension of the atmosphere in the South Polar rejjions. It is, I believe, universally acknowledged that all winds must blow from a high to a low barometer, i.e., from a zone of high pressure to a zone of low pressure (not directly, but in a direc- tion modified by the earth's rotatory motion). I may therefore fairly argue that the zones of low pressure at both the equator and the poles proceed from the same causes, i.e., from precipita- tion, and from the ascension of the atmosphere, and that the lower barometer in the South Polar regions fairly accounts for the greater strength and continuity of the westerly winds of the south temperate zone, and that without these constant inequali- ties of pressure we should have neither trades nor westerly winds. I have purposely from want of space avoided speaking other- wise than generally of the effect of the land on atmospheric currents, nor is it directly pertinent to my present argument. The hypothesis of atmospheric circulation which I have very briefly sketched is in many of its features susceptible of absolute proof, more especially in the following points, viz. — 1. That the trade-winds descend to the surface of the ocean on the equatorial sides of the calms of Cancer and of Capri- corn. 2. That the trade-winds ascend in the belt of equatorial calms. 3. That currents flow from the equator in the upper regions of the atmosphere in an opposite direction to that of the trade-winds on the surface of the ocean. 4. That these upper currents, flowing from the equator, descend again to the surface of the ocean on the polar sides of the calms of Cancer and of Capricorn. 5. That these equatorial currents, subsequent to their descent on the polar sides of the calms of Cancer and of Capricorn, are known as the westerly winds of the temperate zones. And with reference to my supposition that these westerly winds ascend in the Polar regions, one strong evidence in favour of this is, that if, as I say, the ascension of the atmosphere is greater in the South Polar than in the North Polar regions, the counter or return current towards the equator must also be greater, which is the fact. The onus lies on the promoters of the new hypothesis either to reconcile their views with the existing theory of atmospheric circulation or to supply us with a better theory, and one which shall agree equally well with well-established facts. October 27 Digby MURRAY Deiiniteness and Accuracy In my lecture on Force (antS, Sept. 21), I take' for granted that the scientific use of the word is that with which all are familiar in the expression ^^ the parallelogram, of/orces." Hence Newton's term for force is vis impr/ssa (Thomson and Tait's Nat, Phil, § 217) ; though, where there is no room for ifiistake, he often employs the single word vis. One of the main objects of my lecture was to protest against the absurd custom of translating the word vis in every case by the scientific v/orA/orce. It is not easy to get an unobjectionable single word for the purpose, for most of the available words have already a semi-scientiho sense attached to them. The word power is very flexible in i's meaninjj^, and would have been suit- able had it not been already seized by the eui^ineers. Thus (Thomson and Tait, § 216) vis insita is rendered innate poiuer. And, giving the word as wide an application as Newton gives to vis, we might render vis viva as active power, which is not far from actual or kinetic energy. But this is merely a suggestion. In Pogqeniorff s Annalen (No. 7 of this year) Prof. Zollner translates the scientific term, " the perpetual motion," by " die be- harrliche Bewegung," and thus, to his own satisfaction at least, proves me to be ignorant alike of the proper meaning of the \j%\\n perpctuum mobile ^Mdi of the first law of motion ! In another journal I have lately been held up to scorn, not in the main for any real or imputed fault of mine, but because my would-be critic (Mr. R. A. Proctor) happens not to know the scientific meaning of ^^ absolute" measure ! ! I could give many more telling instances, great and small, but I have given enough to show how needful was my contention for definiteness and accuracy. P. G. Tait College, Edinburgh, November 11 78 NATURE [Nov. 23, 1876 On the Internal Fluidity of the Earth The question of the solidification of the crust of the earth from the fluid interior nucleus, as referred to by Mr. Mathieu Williams, in Nature, vol. xv. p. 5, is one which has been long since fully discussed in my papers in the Philosophical Transac- tions, the Atlatitis, vol. i. , and in a paper of which an abstract appears in the Report of the British Association for 1856. As far as I am aware, no person has controverted my conclusions as to the process of solidification of the earth. The results are, in the mam, somewhat similar to those so admirably illustrated and enforced by Mr. Robert Mallet, and also such as Mr. Williams upholds in this journal. In articles 6 and 7 of my "Researches in Terrestrial Physic?," Part I, this subject is discussed as a problem of fluid equi- librium, and the conclusion is there deduced that the fluid interior mass of the earth must consist of spheroidal strata of equal density, the density of each stratum increasing from the surface to the centre of the nucleus. The mode in which this arrangement of the fluid matter would favour the formation of a solid crust is pointed out. In Part 2 Section III., the probable law of density of these fluid strata is discussed. In Section IV. the shape of these strata is investigated, and also that of the inner surface of the shell or crust. It is shown independently of the law of density that the least ellipticity of this inner surface of the crust cannot be less than the ellipticity of its outer surface. A similar result was soon afterwards enunciated by Plana in a paper in the Aitronomische Nachrichten. In the same section the theory of a solid nucleus in the earth originally proposed by Poisson, is examined and shown to be incompatible with physical laws. Owing to the pointed manner in which Sir William Thorason invited discussion in a previous number of Nature, I ventured to controvert his views as to the rigidity of the earth in a paper inserted at p. 288, vol. v. of this journal. Never at any time have I had even a doubt as to the untenable character of Sir William Thomson's views regarding ihe solidity of the earth. In again reiterating this opinion in Nature, vol. ix. p. 103, a reference to my paper was given, in which vol. vii. p. 285, is misprinted for vol. v. p. 288. In his address at Glasgow Sir William Thomson, while main- taining his opinion as to the eartli's solidity, appears to have seen the weakness of some of his former arguments by calling on his hearers (Natuiie, vol. xiv. p. 428) to erase whdle para- graphs of his paper on the Rigidity of the Earth, in the Philo- sophical Transactions. At the same passage of his address he refers to a hint from Prof. Newcomb, that viscosity might suffice to render precession and nutation, the same as if the earth were rigid. "This," he says, "I would not for a moment adnnit, any more than when it was ji?rj/ put forward by Delaunay." The Comptes Rendus of the Academy of Sciences of Paris for March 6, 1871, contains a paper in which my priority on this pomt is clearly established. In Nature, vol. iii. p. 420, the following statement occurs : — "Paris Academy of Sciences, March 13. — M. Delaunay read a declaration stating that he acknowledged that Mr. Hennessy had used the same arguments as himself against Mr. Hopkins' theory relative to the fluidity of the interior parts of the earth." I am willing to believe that Sir William Thomson had neither seen the Comptcs Jiendus nor the paragraph in Nature just quoted, but it is to be regretted that a presidential address should contain an erroneous statement on a point of recent scien- tific history, especially when the error could be avoided by a glance at the most widely knov/n scientific publications. All through the portion of his address which refers to the earth's structure Sir William Thomson assumes that the views of Mr. Ilopkirs are established and admitted. A reference to some of the past volumes of this journal alone shows the inadmissi- bility of such an assumption. At pp. 45 and 182 of vol. iv. and elsewhere Mr. Hopkins' views are distinctly controverted on mechanical, physical, and geological grounds. It appears that in the discussion on my p.^per in the Academy of Sciences of Paris, in which s-ome of the most eminent mathe- maticians and geologists of France took part, not one of them adopted Mr. Hopkins' " Discovery of the earth's sohdity." As far as I am aware, this "discovery" is not adopted anywhere on the continent of Europe. I have studied with as much care and attention as I could give to them, the mathematical and physical researches of Mr. Hopkins and Sir William Thomson relative to this subject, and for reasons already partly unfolded in this journal at vol. v. p. 288 and vol. iv. p. 182, I continue to firmly adhere to the almost diametrically opposite conclusions long since enunciated in the publications referred to at the outset of this communication. Henry Hknnessv Royal College of Science, Dublin The Age of the Rocks of Charnwood Forest I see that in Mr. Woodward's "Geology of England and Wales," recently published, the rocks of Charnwood Forest, in Leicestershire, ai^(with some hesitation) referred to the"Laur- entian " series. Prof. Ansted and Dr. HoU being quoted as authorities. The reviewer in the recent number of the Saturday Review adopts the same opinion ; at the same time it is proper to add that Mr. Woodward states in another place (p. 31) that the Charnwood Forest rocks "may be of Cambrian age," so that the reader is left to take his choice. For my part I confess to being at a loss to understand on what grounds these old rocks can be referred to any other than the Cambrian period. The evidence in any case is small, but what there is points to this conclusion. In the first place it ought to be remembered that the age of these rocks was first indicated by Prof. Sedgwick, whose opinion on such a question should not be disregarded unless on very sub- stantial grounds. Sedgwick's opinion of their age was founded almost entirely on lithological grounds, and no one was better qualified to recognise the representatives of the Welsh Cam- brians, though rising up isolated amongst much newer formations in the heart of England. Prof. Jukes, in his description of the geology of Charnwood Forest, appended to Porter's " History," adopted the same view, in which the officers of the Geological Sur- vey, including the present Director-General, who mr^de a personal examination of the forest rocks, c mcurred (see "Geology of the Leicestershire Coal Field," Mem. Geol. Survey, i860). I am not aware that they have changed their views owing to what has been since written on the subject. As regards the determination of the age of these rocks, if it is impossible to prove them to be of Cambrian age, there are very good grounds for conclyding they are not of " Laurentian " agf, assuming that term to refer to the fundamenial gneiss of the north- west Highlands and Isles of Scotland. These rocks consist, according to the description of Murchison, of coarsely crystalline gneiss, full of granite veins. They are everywhere intensely meta- morphosed. Now, this is far from being the case with the Charnwood Forest rocks. Generally they are no more meta- m.orphosed than are the Cambrian beds of the Longmynd, or of Llanberis. True "gneiss" is very exceptional, and meta- morphic action is quite local, and is chiefly confined to one district. Any argument, therefore, drawn from lithological re- semblance to the rocks of the typical district entirely iails ; and I cannot admit that the occurrence of rocks (sjenite, &c. ) resem- bling those of the Malvern Hills, is of any force in this question, as it is very far from having been proved that the Malvern Rocks are of Lanrentian age. As regards evidence founded on organic remains, it is of the most meagre kind, but whatever the obscure markings on the slates of charnwood may really be, they are certainly not those of eozoon. From whatever side, therefore, the question is viewed, there appears to be no good ground tor departing from the view regarding the age of these rocks originally adopted by Sedgwick. Edward Hull Geological Survey Office, Dublin, November 3 Mind and Matter Mr. Spalding in his critique on Maudsley's " Physiology of Mind" (Nature, vol. xiv. p. 541), while admitting that "the dependence of consciousness on nervous organisation, seemed," by the science of nerve physiolojjy, "to be fairly established,'" stated that the difficulty of conceiving how consciousness stood related to the material organism, was a difficulty which had not yet been overcome. Might not this problem be solved somewhat thus : — It is as easy to predicate subjectivity (or susceptibility to consciousness) of one entity called matter, as of another entity called soul or spirit. It is no more difficult to conceive of matter being sub- jective than of spirit being subjective. Again, energy accompanies matter in all its forms, and yet Nov. 23, 1876] NATURE 79 how it is related to the entity called matter, is no less mysterious than how subjectivity may be a pioperty of matter. Energy moreover may be divided, Why may not subjectivity? Energy exists in isolated as well as in grouped and combined forms. Why may it not be so with subjectivity ? Energy exists in a potential form when opposing forces neutralise each other — that condition of matter we call rest. May not subjectivity exist in a potential form when opposite kinds of subjective states tend to establish themselves in the same material mass — so constituting that condition of matter which we call unconsciousness ? Energy is only kinetic or active, that is, only shows itself in the form best realised by us when one force has of all the others the ascendency, or is the expression of their united tendencies. May it not be so of subjectivity that it only develops into its active md best recognised form when one kind of subjective state has the ascendency, or is the expr-'sion of the united subjective states? Thu=, as energy potential is rest, so subjectivity potential is unconsciousness. As kinetic energy is motion, so active sub- jectivity is consciousness. In this way while all matter is subjective or susceptible of consciousness, this subjectivity seems to exist in the potential form only in all but organisms possessed of a nervous system. In the active nerve fibre the subjectivity of matter appears alone to be active or conscious, while the complex organisation of the nervous systems of the hightrr animals alone permits of matter rising to the powers of mind by harmoniously combining many subjective states so as to build them up into perception, under- standing, memory, imagination, reason, invention, and judg- ment. Wm. S. Duncan Stafford, November 9 Meteor I OBSERVED from a high point overlooking the Weald, on the night of November 6, about the time Mr. Nostro mentions, a large meteor fall from a point a little below the zenith in the northern sky. It burst twice, emitting bluish sparks in doing so, once shortly before it disappeared, and the second time on its disappeiring. Could it have been the same meteor seen from different positions ? I could not l3e positive to a point or two as to its exact mag- netic bearing, but I do not think I am far wrong in saying it fell almost due north from where I observed it, Cecil H. Sp. Perceval Pulborough, November 18 \THE PRESENT STATE OF MATHEMATICAL SCIENCE AT the meeting of the Mathematical Society on November 9, Prof. H. J. S. Smith gave an ad- dress on this subject, in which he excluded all reference jto applied mathematics. "I shall regard it," he said, "as a fortunate circumstance if my successor when he, in his turn, is looking round for a subject for his own presidential address, should be attracted by a domain on which I must myself decline to enter, but of which he, better perhaps than anyone among us, is fitted to give us a clear and compre- hensive view." He professed to ofTer only fragmentary remarks, " hoping that even such fragmentary remarks may not be without their use if they serve to remind us of the vastness of our science, and yet of its unity ; of its unceasing development, rapid at the present time, pro- mising to be still more rapid in the immediate future, and yet deriving strength and vitality from roots which strike far back into the past, so that the organic continuity of its gigantic growth has been preserved throughout. In every science there is a time and place for general con- templations, as well as time for minute investigations. And it is a rule of sound philosophy that neither of these shall be neglected in its proper season (' itaque alter- nandse sunt istae contemplationes,' says Lord Bacon, * et vicissim sumendae ut intellectus reddatur simul penetrans et capax ')." Touching upon a charge brought against the Proceed- ings of the Society that its memoirs " have shown and still continue to show a certain partiality in favour of one or two great branches of mathematical science to the com- parative neglect and possible disparagement of others," it might be rejoined " with great plausibility that ours is not a blamable partiality but a well-grounded preference. So great (we might contend) have been the triumphs achieved in recent times by that combination of the newer algebra with the direct contemplation of space which constitutes the modern geometry — so large has been the portion of these triumphs, which is due to the genius of a few great English mathematicians — so vast and so inviting has been the field thus thrown open to research, that we do well to press along towards a coimtry which has, we might say, been 'prospected' for us, and in which we know beforehand we cannot fail to find something that will repay our trouble, rather than adven- ture ourselves into regions where, soon after the first step, we should have no beaten tracks to guide us to the lucky spots, and in which (at the best) the daily earnings of the treasure-seeker are but small, and do not always make a great show, even after long years of work. Such regions, however, there are in the realm of pure mathematics, and it cannot be for the interest of science that they should be altogether neglected by the rising generation of English mathematicians. I propose, therefore, in the first in- stance, to direct your attention to some few of these com- paratively neglected spots." The foremost place is assigned, by Prof. Smith, to the Theory of Numbers. " Of all branches of mathematical knowledge this is the most remote from all practical application, and yet, perhaps more than any other, it has kindled an extraordinary enthusiasm in the minds of the greatest mathematicians. We have the examples of Fermat, of Euler, of Lagrange, Legendre, of Gauss, Cauchy, Jacobi, Lejeune Dirichlet, Eisenstein, without mentiorang the names of others who have passed away, and of some who are still living. But, somehow, the practical genius of the English mathematician has in general given a different direction to his pursuits ; and it would sometimes seem as if we measured the importance of the subject by what we find of it in our best treatises of algebra, or as if we accepted the denunciations of Auguste Comte, and regarded the votaries of the higher arithmetic as reprobate of positive science, as moving in a vicious circle of metaphysical ideas, and as guilty of a great crime against humanity in the pursuit of knowledge beyond the limits of the useful. ... I would rather ask you to listen to what is recorded of the great master of this branch of science." Gauss (we are told by his biographer) held mathe- matics to be the queen of the sciences, and arithmetic to be the queen of mathematics—" She sometimes con- descends to render services to astronomy and other natural sciences (so spoke the great astronomer and physicist) ; but under all circumstances the first place is her due." A citation was also made from Jacobi's Life of Gopel : " Many of those who have natural vocation for pure mathematical contemplation find themselves in the first instance attracted by the higher parts of the theory of numbers." Three great departments of arithmetic were instanced : The arithmetical theory of homogeneous forms (or quan- tics) — " It is a memorable fact that some of the greatest conceptions of modern algebra had their origin in con- nection with arithmetic, and not with geometry or even with the theory of equations." In the " Disquisitiones Arithmeticae " are given for the first time the charac- teristic properties of an invariant and a contravariant (for ternary quadratic forms). " But the progress of modern algebra and of modern geometry has far outstripped the progress of arithmetic ; and one great problem which arithmeticians have now before them is to endeavour to turn to account for their own science the great results which have been obtained in the sister sciences. How 8o NATURE {Nov. 23, 1876 difficult this problem may prove is, perhaps, best attested by the little advance that has been made towards its so- lution." As an example, the researches of Cayley, Bachmann, and Hermite on the algebraical problem of the automorphies of a quadratic form, containing any number of indeterminates, were alluded to. Omitting many other points which were brought out, we can only mention the second department of arithmetic, the theory of congruences. In connection with this division, Prof. Smith also dwelt in detail upon the subject of complex numbers. "The last part of arithmetical theory to which I would wish to direct the attention of some of the younger mathematicians of this country is the determination of the mean values, or the asymptotic values of arithmetical functions. This is a field of inquiry which presents enormous difficulties of its own ; it is certainly one in which the investigator will not find himself incommoded or crowded out by the number of his fellow- workers. ' Nemo est fere mathematicorum,' said Euler, in the last century ; ' qui non magnam tempcris partem inutiliter consumpserit in investigatione numerorum primorum ;' but I do not think that (as a rule) the mathematicians of the present day have any reason to reproach themselves on this score." The speaker then pointed out what had been done in this direction since the days of Euler. " I do not know that the great achievements of such men as Tchebychef and Riemann can fairly be cited to encourage other and less highly gifted inquirers, but at least they may serve to show two things — first, that nature has fixed no im- penetrable barrier to the further advancement of mathe- matical science in this direction ; and secondly, that the boundary of our present knowledge lies so near us that at any rate the inquirer has no very long journey to take before he finds himself in the unknown land. It is this peculiarity, perhaps, which gives such perpetual freshness to the higher arithmetic. It is one of the oldest branches — perhaps the very oldest branch — of human knowled.<;e, but yet iis tritest truths lie close to some of its most abstruse secrets. I do not know that any more striking example of this could be furnished than by the theorem of M. Tchebychef. To understand his demonstration requires only such algebra and arithmetic as are at the command of many a schoolboy ; and the method itself might have been invented by a schoolboy with the genius of Pascal or of M. Tchebychef." Passing on to other branches of analysis, Jacobi's me- thod of approximation (" a natural extension of the theory of continued fractions "), Lejeune Dirichlet's researches on complex units and his great generalisation of the theory of the Pellian equation, Liouville's treat- ment of irrational quantities, Lambert's proofs that neither TT nor TT^ nor e are rational with M. Hermite's extensions, who, though he has proved that e is a transcendental irrational, declines entering on a similar investigation for the number ir, but leaves this to others, adding, " Nul ne sera plus heureux que moi de leur succ^s, mai?, croyez m'en, il ne laissera pas que de leur en couter quelques efforts " — all came in for a notice. Another class of questions mentioned were those which relate to the transcendental or algebraic cha- racter of developments in the form of infinite series, products, or continued fractions. The theorem of Eisen- stein and M. Hermite's recent investigation of it, lately communicated to the Society, "are amply sufficient to awaken the expectation of great future discoveries in this almost unexplored field of inquiry." Amongst important objects for mathematicians to set before them were named the advancement of the integral calculus (' confessedly all important in the applications of mathematics to physics "). In this connection the theory of differential equations and of singular solutions came in for a detailed notice, as al^o did the subject of elliptic functions. Towards the close of the address, Prof. Smith said : " I am convinced that nothing so hinders the progress of mathematical science in England as the want of advanced treatises on mathematical subjects. We yield the palm to no European nation for the number and excellence of our text-books of the second grade ; I mean of such text-books as are intended to guide the student as far as the requirements of our University examinations in honours are concerned. But we want works suitable for the requirements of the student when his examinations are over — works which will carry him to the frontiers of knowledge in certain directions, which will direct him to the problems which he ought to select as the objects of his own researches, and which will free his mind from the narrow views which he is apt to contract while getting up work with a view to passing an examination, or, a little later in his life, in preparing others for examination. Can we doubt that much of the preference for geometrical and algebraical speculation which we notice among our younger mathematicians is due to the admirable works of Dr. Salmon ; and can we also doubt that if other parts of mathematical science had been equally fortunate in finding an expositor, we should observe a wider interest in, and a juster appreciation of, the progress which has been achieved ? There are, of course, other works besides those of Prof. Cayley and Dr. Salmon to which I might refer ; there is, for example, the work of Boole, on Differential Equa- tions ; and there are the great historical treatises of Mr. Todhunter so suggestive of research, and so full of its spirit ; we have also a recent work by the same author on the functions of Laplace, Lamd. and Bessel. But the field is not nearly covered . . . There are at least three treatises which we sadly need, one on definite integrals, one on the theory of functions in the sense in which that phrase is understood by the school of Cauchy and of Riemann, and one (though he should be a bold man who would undertake the task) on the hyperelliptic and Abelian integrals. Geometry, and some other subjects, were hardly more than mentioned. " Varum haec ipse equidem spatiis exclusus iniquis Prastereo, atque aliis post memoranda relinquo." " In these days, when so much is said of original re- search, and of the advancement of scientific knowledge, I feel that it is the business of our Society to see that, so far as our own country is concerned, mathematical science should still be in the vanguard of progress. I should not wish to use words which may seem to reach too far, but I often find the conviction forced upon me that the increase of mathematical knowledge is a necessary condition for the advancement of science, and, if so, a no less necessary condition for the improvement of mankind. I should tremble for the intellectual strength of any nation of men whose education was not based on a solid foundation of mathematical learning, and whose scientific conceptions, or in other words, whose notions of the world and of the things in it, were not braced and girt together with a strong framework of mathematical reasoning. It is something to know what proof is. and what it is not; and where can this be better learned than in a bcic nee which has never had to take one footstep backward, and which is the same at all times and in all places. ... I shad be more than satisfied if anything that may have fallen from me may induce any one of us to thmk more highly than he has hitherto done of the first and greatest of the sciences, and more hopefully of the part which he himself ' may bear in its advancement." The address, delivered in the author's effective style, was frequently applauded by an appreciative group of members. On the proposal of Prof. Cayley it was re- solved (with the author's consent) that the address should be printed in the Proceedings. Ndv. ^3, 1S76] isTATURE 81 THE AUSTRIAN ARCTIC EXPEDITION"- IN addition to the points referred to in our article of last week, there are several others touched on in Lieut. Payer's work, which, in view of some of the results of our own expedition, it may not be unprofitable to dwell upon. Indeed a comparison between the observations and deductions of so keen and accomplished an observer as Payer and those of Capt. Nares's party, when these have been fully published, might, we think, lead to a dis- tinct advance of our knowledge of the Arctic basin. And here we may be allowed to say that when so experienced and cautious an Arctic explorer as Payer expresses a decided conviction, as we understand he has done, that Capt. Nares acted in the only way possible under the cir- cumstances, and no expedition could have been better conducted, surely it is a strong proof that our expedition was essentially successful. The translator in his Preliminary Notice refers to the ice- experiences of the Austrian expedition as compared with those of the English expedition, and finds in many points a striking similarity between them. We have already referred to the tedious journey of the Tes^etthojff party over the piled- up ice after they abandoned the ship, when they were able to make only nine miles in two months, suggesting in- evitably the now well-known and ever-memorable experi- ences of Capt. Markham and his party. To all appearance this retreat of the Austrians was over a part of the same field which held the Tegetthoff'va. its grip, and which those on board saw in the very process of changing from a level floe to mountains of "ice, as Payer calls them. It seems to be inferred by som^ that the ice of such enormous thickness met with by Markham was the result of the freezing of layer on layer through a long succession of years, since the last glacial epoch as it has been put — only of course a violent figure of speech. This notion we believe to be open to question. " The thickness which ice acquires in the course of a winter," Payer says, in his instructive chapter on " The Frozen Ocean," "when its formation is not disturbed, is about eight feet. In the Gulf of Boothia, Sir John Ross found the greatest thickness about the end of May ; it was then 10 feet on the sea and 11 feet on the lakes. In his winter harbour in Melville Island Parry met with ice 7 or 7^ feet thick ; and Wrangel gives the thickness of a floe on the Siberian coast, which had been formed in the course of a winter, at 9^ feet. According to the observations of Hayes the ice measured 9 feet 2 inches in thickness in Port Foulke. He estimates it, however, by implication, far higher in Smith's Sound : ' I have never seen,' he says, 'an ice-table formed by direct freezing which exceeded the depth of eighteen feet.' The rate at which ice is formed decreases as the thickness of the floe increases, and it cea?es to be formed as soon as the floe becomes a non-conductor of the temperature of the air by ithe increase of its mass, or when the driving of the ice- tables one over the other, or the enormous and constantly accumulating covering of snow places limits to the pene- tration of the cold. While therefore the thickness which ice in free formation attains is comparatively small, fields of ice from 30 to 40 feet high are met with in the Arctic Seas ; but these are the result of the forcing of ice-tables one over the other by pressure, and are cesignatcd by the name of 'old ice,' which differs ' from young ice by its greater density, and has a still greater affinity with the ice of the glacier when it exhibits coloured veins." It seems evident, then, that the palaeocrystic ice, like the ice in which the Tegetthojff^ was beset, is not the result of direct freezing of layer on layer, but to a great extent the result of pressure, by which a wide field may be broken up, and the pieces so piled over each other as to I " New Lands within the Arctic Circle. Narrative of the Discoveries of the Austrian Ship Tegetthoff in the Years 1872-1874." By Julius Payer, one of the Commanders of the Expedition. Maps and numerous Illustrations. Two roU. (London : Macmillan and Co., 1876L) Continued from p. 65. form impassable mountains and valleys. How this is accomplished may be learned from the impressive descrip- tion of Lieut. Payer : — "A dreadful day was the 13th of October — a Sunday ; it was decisive of the fate of the expedition. ... In the morning of that day, as we sat at breakf ist, our floe burst across immediately under the ship. Rushing on deck, we discovered that we were surrounded and squeezed by the ice ; the after part of the ship was already nipped and pressed, and the rudder, which was the first to encounter its assault, shook and groaned ; but as its great weight did not admit of its being shipped, we were content to lash it firmly. We next sprang on the ice, the tossing tremulous motion of which literally filled the air with noises as of shrieks and howls, and we quickly got on board all the materials which were lying on the floe, and bound the fissures of the ice hastily together by ice- anchors and cables, fiUir g them up with snow, in the hope that frost would complete our work, though we felt that a single heave might shatter our labours. But, just as in the risings of a people, the wave of revolt spreads on every side, so now the ice uprose against us. Moun- tains threateningly reared themselves from out the level fields of ice and the low groan which issued from its depths grew into a deep rumbling sound, and at last rose into a furious howl as of myriads of voices. Noise and confusion reigned supreme, and step by step destruction drew nigh in the crashing together of the fields of ice. Our floe was now crushed, and its blocks piled up into mountains, drove hither and thither. Here they towered fathoms high above the ship, and forced the protecting timbers of m.assive oak, as if in mockery of their purpose, against the hull of the vessel ; there masses of ice fell down as into an abyss under the ship, to be engulfed in the rushing waters, so that the quantity of ice beneath the ship was continually increased, and at last it began to raise her quite above the level of the sea." It can easily be imagined that were ice which had been subjected to such a process to get jammed permanently into any position, it would become a formidable barrier to all passage over or beyond it. But the question arises — Does such mountainous ice never break up ? Are these areas in the Arctic basin eternally covered with such ice, or is there a perpetual movement going on all over the Polar region ? That the pateocrystic ice is not a fixture in the position in which our expedition found it we endeavoured to show in a previous article ; if the observations of Hall and his party are to be trusted, and we believe they are perfectly reliable, the southern latitude of the formidable barrier must change con- siderably. That there is an open Polar Sea we do not think there is the least ground for believing. So far as we have seen, its only serious advocate is Dr. Hayes, one of its surviving " discoverers," and it is not to be at all wondered at that he should cling fondly to his pet theory. It is to be regretted that he did not wait for Capt. Nares's report, ere he rushed to an attack of the conduct and results of the English expedition ; he might then have spoken more coolly and courteously. At Cape Fligely Lieut. Payer came upon a large stretch of open water which one less well-informed and with less of a scientific training might at once have eagerly taken for the border of an " open Polar Sea," Not so Lieut. Payer, who has no faith in such a dream ; he took his open water for what it undoubtedly was seen to be on careful inspec- tion, a polynia, or water-hole. Here is his opinion on the question. After referring to the experiences of previous explorers he says : — " Those propitious ice-years amount, therefore, to no- thing more than a greater recession of the outer ice-barrier —trifling when compared with the mighty whole— or to an increased navigability of certain coast waters, or to a local loosening of the inner polar ice-net. In reality the whole Arctic Sea, with its countless ice-fields and floes, and its E 2 82 NATURE [Nov, 23, 1876 web of fine interlacing water-ways, is nothing but a net constantly in motion irom local, terrestrial, or cosmical causes. All the changes and phenomena of this mighty network lead us to infer the existence of frozen seas up to the Pole itself; and according to my own experience gained in three expeditions I consider that the states of the ice between 82° and 90° N.L. will not essentially differ frotn those which have been observed south of latitude 82° ; / incline rather to the belief that they will be found worse instead of better" Noon on December 21, 1873. This is almost prophetic of the results obtained by the English expedition, and is one more proof of the accu- racy of their observations. Still that there are one or more bodies of open water in the polar basin, bodies which are never permanently frozen over seems evident from even the comparatively little information we have. Hall saw only water and easily penetrable ice where our sailors were baffled by the impenetrable ancient ice. This simply shows that there is a constant shifting of the southern ice border, but that its position and that of what- ever open water exists within the basin itself will ever be so favourable as to enable a ship to navigate to the Pole is to us quite incredible. That the polar ice, like all other phenomena, is subject to some laws in its movements, we must believe ; what these are we as yet know not, but that Icebergs at the Base of the Middendorf Glacier. The ice seems to be in almost constant motion within the basin except in the immediate vicinity of coasts, and in order that this may happen there must be open spaces somewhere. The southern edge of the Novaya Zemlya ice varied in the years 187 1-2-4 by about 300 miles, and The View from Cape Tyrol. CoUinson Fiord — Wiener Neustadt Island they have some connection with the sun-spot period, is most likely. These and other points can only be satis- factorily settled by an international ring of Arctic obser- vatories. As to the future of the polar question, Payer believes that the days of large expeditions are past, and that until we are able to devise some aerial method of reaching or crossing the polar area, we ought to content ourselves Nov, 23, 1876] NATURE 83 with completing our knowledge of what has been dis- covered, and carrying on observations on the plan pro- posed by Lieut. Weyprecht. Still that there will be attempts to penetrate farther northwards we think is very likely ; and should any other nation surpass the latitude attained by Markham's party, or even find the secret of the pole itself, the English nation will not grudge it the honour. Ballooning has, since the return of our expedition, been frequently advo- cated as a means of polar exploration, and it may be interesting to meniion that more than twenty years ago Parry used balloons as a means of scattering mes- sages while his ship was frozen up. The meteorological observations of the Austrian expedition are likely to be of the greatest value when fully published. Some data are given in the appendix, and a few extracts in the text from Admiral von Wiillerstorf-Urbair's analysis of them. The observations made use of by Ad- miral V. Wiillerstorf-Urbair are those of the winds, including both direction and force, and such of the astronomical obser- vations as served to fix the positions of the ship while it drifted in the ice from Novaya Zemlya to Franz Josef Land. The results were published in two charts in Petermann's Mittheilungen in 1875, which show the positions of the ship from August 24, 1872, to November i, 1873, and the mean direction of the wind at the same times. They are deeply interesting from the light they seem to cast on the air and sea currents over this portion of the Arctic Sea. Speaking generally, during the first half of the course, or from October to the beginning of February, westerly and southerly winds pre- vailed and, during the latter half easterly and northerly winds ; these winds being, it may be remarked, in accordance with the mean distribu- tion of atmospheric pressure for the different regions and months respec- tively. The ice-drift followed ap- proximately a similar course, subject apparently, however, to deflections which may be supposed to be due to the coasts of Novaya Zemlya and Franz-Josef Land, and to powerful ice-drifts from the Kara Sea and from the sea to eastward of Franz-Josef Land. From the investigation so far as carried out, it is concluded that in the sea lying between Novaya Zemlya and Franz-Josef Land the existence of a gea-current is probable, the prevaiUng winds being also in accordance with this supposition, and that a great expanse of sea to the north and north-east of Novaya Zemlya is also probable. We look forward with much inte- rest to the publication of the detailed account of the meteorological work of this expedition for the elucidation of several questions, such as the remark- able changes in the course of the ice- drift in the end of 1872 and beginning of 187 3, viewed in con- nection with the weather of Northern Europe at the time. Thus, at Archangel the barometer rose on November 4 to 30476 inches, fell on the 8th to 29*1 18 inches, and on the following day the temperature rose to 33°"8 ; immediately after this the wind shifted from S.W. to N.E., temperature fell to - i3°'o on the nth, and the barometer rose to 30717 inches on the 13th. The great deviation in the course of the ice-drift, which extended from November 9, 1872, to February 2, 1873, began with this rise of the barometer, shift of the wind, and fall of the temperature at Archangel. Again, during January, 1873, the mean height of the barometer was 30*027 inches at Archangel ; 29'826 inches at Kem, on the west ccas^ Parhelia on the Coast of Novaya Zemlya. of the White Sea ; 29-838 inches at Vardo and 29770 mches at Alten, both in the extreme north of Norway ; 29*229 inches at Thorshavn, Faro ; and 29-131 inches at Stykkisholm, Iceland. In connection with the remark- ably disturbed state of I' i 1 ; jsphere in this arctic and Ice Pressure in the Polar NighL sub-arctic region, as indicated by these figures, it is to be remarked that it was just during this time that the most remarkable deviation from the general course of the ice- drift took place. On January 2 the course suddenly changed from a north-north-westerly direction to a direction almost due east, which was steadily maintained untill February 2, when it again suddenly changed 84 NATURE' [Nov. 23, 1876 to a north-north-westerly direction, the ship having drifted between these dates from 66° 50' to 73° 20' long. E, No more powerful argument, we think, could be ad- duced than these facts for the establishment of a series of Arctic observatories ; the influence of the changing Arctic conditions on the climate of Europe is unmistak- able, and a knowledge of what these conditions are, and what laws they are subject to, would undoubtedly be of great practical value. The chapter on the aurora is very interesting ; it con- tains the valuable observations by Lieut. Weyprecht, which we published in Nature, vol. xi., p. 368. Con- trary to the experience of our own expedition and others in high latitudes on the American side, the auroras seen by the Tegetthoff were remarkably brilliant. No sound of any kmd was observed to accompany the phenomenon. Lieut. Payer's work, though professing to be only a popular narrative of the expedition, contains, it will be seen, much of great scientific interest, and we repeat that in the discussion of the results of our own expedition, his observations and conclusions will be found of real value. OUR INSECT FOES 'X'HE receipt of the eighth Annual Report on the •*■ noxious, beneficial, and other insects of the State of Missouri, and the conferences on insect destruction in connection with the Paris Insect Exhibition recently held, bring again prominently forward the question — what are we to do to cope with our insect foes ? Mr. Riley, the State entomologist for Missouri, in his report, gives account of five noxious insects — the Colorado Potato- beetle {Doryphora 10-lineata, Say), the Canker Worms {Paleacrita vernata) and {Anisopleryx pometaria), the genus Paleacrita being a new one ; the Army Worm {Leticanm unipuncta, Han.), the Rocky Mountain Locust (Caloptenus spretus, Tho.), and the Grape Phylloxera. In each case an account is given of the estimated amount of damage done, and the proposed methods for attacking the enemy, as well as the life history, so far as is known, of tl.e insect itself. While the damage by Colorado Beetle during 1875 was less than usual, owing to the excessive wet drowning the broods, and the Army Worm (i id comparatively little damage, the devastation caused by the locust was unusually heavy, Mr. Riley gives separately the accounts of different counties of the State. One or two quotations will serve to indicate the gravity of the question, what is the remedy to be adopted .'' For example, in the account of Jackson County — " All kinds of growing crops disappeared before the black dead line of their advance. . . . With all the crops of wheat, rye, oats, flax, clover, corn, gardens, and pastures consumed in defiance of every human effort to stay the general devastation, the fields being as bare as the public roads, the outlook was gloomy beyond description. Many gave up in despair and left the county." So great was the destitution that relief meetings were held, the story of suffering being that many were reduced to a scanty supply of bread. Take again Buchanan County (written June 7) : " The crops are all destroyed now, together with meadows and pastures." Again, Bates County : " all our crops and pastures eaten off until they are as bare as in mid-winter." St. Clair County : " The terrible sights of the cruel war are now being outdone by the cruellest of sights — starvation." And so on with a large proportion of the counties. Some counties were so fortunate as to escape with small damage. The total loss to the State for the year is set down at $15,000,000. A day of supplication to Almighty God, with fasting, was ordered on June 3 by the Governor. Mr. Riley, however, repudiates the idea that this calamity was a divine visitation, and quotes from a speech he made in the pre- vious May, in which he said, "When I suggested last winter that a law should be passed offering a bounty for the eggs, the idea was ridiculed, but the people see now how wise such a course would have been. A few thousand dollars appropriated by the legislature for the purpose would have been the means of averting the present injury " (p. 93). The accoimts given from some States describe the air as thick with locusts on the wing, so that darkness as of twilight was produced. We fortunately in England do not suffer from the locust, but we may learn a lesson as to what is the course considered necessary for coping with insect ravages. Nothing short of an Act of Congress to enforce the action to be taken seems to be regarded as of any real use. Although districts have previously suf- fered to the verge of starvation, we find Mr. Riley saying (p. 132), " It is very evident that if anything can be done at all in averting this evil, it must be done by national means. The advantage of having the matter properly investigated by the national government has been repeat- edly urged by many prominent persons in the west best competent to judge." Societies have recently passed resolutions, the resolutions have led to a memorial, and the memorial to the introduction of two bills into Con- gress. The one proposed the appointment of a commis- sion of three by the Commissioner of Agriculture, who are to report on the best means of preventing incursions of the locusts. The other proposed that the Secretary of the Interior shall appoint a board of three entomologists on the nomination of the National Academy of Sciences. They were to report on noxious insects generally, and " as soon, also, as the information gathered shall enable them, the commissioners shall compile practical instruc- tions for the suppression of the different insects referred to." The amendments to both these bills were finally adopted in this form : — " That it shall be the duty of the Commissioner of Agriculture to investigate and gather information relative to those insects, &c. . . . and to make public from time to time such information and practical instructions for the suppression of the different insects." This, Mr. Riley remarks, is what people outside the senate were in the habit of supposing to be his duty. The chief practical suggestion Mr. Riley has to make is that State aid should be given for bounties of so many cents a bushel for the young insects while hatching. It will be some time, however, before we shall know what the Commissioner of Agriculture proposes to have done. Dr. Leconte, in his address before the American Association for the Advancement of Science at Detroit last year, urged the need for a law to compel farmers to destroy insects on their lands at a particular time. Let us now turn to what has been done in France. We have already in a note, a few weeks ago, mentioned the way in which it is sought, through the elementary schools, to spread a knowledge of practical entomology. It remains now to refer to the attempts at legislation. As far back as 1732 a law was passed ordering farmers and landowners to destroy the caterpillars on their lands under a penalty of fifty livres. This 1732 law was renewed by prescriptions in 1777 and 1787. During the revolution, fines were abolished and rewards for destruc- tion were substituted. It was found this plan was of no practical use. In 1796 the law known as that of 26 Ventose, an. iv. was passed. It enacted that the destruc- tion of caterpilliars should be effected by the owners or tenants of land, and that if they neglected to do it the adjoints were to have it down and recover the expense from the negligent owner or tenant. The public lands were to be done at public cost, and the Contmissaires du Directoire Executif were to visit the districts to see that all been carried out. The penalty fixed was not less than three nor more than ten days labour, in addition to repaying the expenses incurred by the employment of workmen. This law, made in 1796, is still the law for France, though practically it is not put in force. The local officials were found to hesitate in the performance Nov. 23, 1876] NATURE 85 of the duties laid down for them, those even who were disposed to carry them out saw how useless it was for one district to be cleared while adjoining districts remained as practically breeding grounds for the pests. That a workable law is wanted has been shown by the at- tempts in 1839, 1849, 1851, and 1872, to introduce a bill that shall repeal the old law and substitute one that could be worked. The first two attempts fell thr-^agh in consequence of dissolutions, the coup d'etat interfered with that of 1 85 1, but the proposal of 1872 was considered in March, 1873. passed a first reading December, 1874, a second on January 5, 1875 ; while the amendments were under discussion, however, M. Ducuing, the proposer, died. Last May a pro jet du loi, based on M. Ducuing's proposal, and somewhat modified in accordance with the discussion on the amendments, was introduced by MM, de la Sicotiirc, Grivart, and the Comte de Bouilld. They pro- pose the law to apply to all harmful insects, the duty of destruction being imposed on the landowners and tenants. The time of the year to be selected for the destruction is to be made known by the prefect who will have scientific advice ; the maires and commissionaires are to see that the law is carried out ; in cases of neglect they are to have the work done, and recover the cost from those who should have done it. Special provisions are made for public lands, lands bordering on roads and railways. The fines are to range from 10 to 25 francs for a first offence. The articles that refer to the protection of birds that eat insects are not applicable to the vvants of England as we already have legislation on that subject. But for years the want of some definite action to cope with " our insect foes " has been over and over again the subject of articles, speeches, and letters to the public pres^. The experience of France and America is that farmers must be compelled to iook to their own interests. The depart- ni.cnt of practical entomology under the direction cf the Committee of Council on Education is designed to give information regarding England's insect pesrs, but the question remains — How is tne knowledge to be applied for the practical good of the country "i In connection with this important subject, the following extract from a Memorandum of the Canadian Minister of Agriculture, in reference to a despatch of the Secretary of State for the Colonies, on the subject of the Colorado Beetle is interesting : — " The remedies which necessity has taught on this side of the Atlantic are such as to require for their application the joint effort of the community at large, kept alive to its interests and duties by the authorities, and men of devotedness to the common welfare. These remedies are (i) Searching for and crushing every potato-beetle where- ever found ; (2) Frequent visits to the potato-fields, and searching for the eggs deposited on the under-side of the leaves of the potato-vine ; and (3) Watching for the presence of the larvae on the buds and on the leaves of the plant, in ordt r to destroy them by means of Paris green, the only substance yet discovered to be effectually operative on a large scale for the destruction of the insect in its larva state. By these means, and by these means only, the invaded American States, and the Western part of Canada, have been able to secure pocato-ciops in a measure commensurate with the care and energy bestowed, and by similar mtans only can the invasion be retarded and lessened in its effects. No measure has been taken in Canada, for reasons given, to prevent the falling or creeping of individual insects on board ships load-ng in Dominion seaports. There is, however, almost a certainty that the environs of Montreal will be invaded next year, and with that prospect in view, general orders may be given to public officers and employts of the ports to look for and destroy any beetles which m-ght be observed on the wharves, on sheds, on packages of goods to be em- barked, or on board ships. A general appeal might also be made to all persons having to deal with the shipping for assistance in the execution of such preventive mea- sures. The undersigned respectfully recommends the adoption of such precautions, beyond which he does not see that there is anything within the power of the Cana- dian Government to do." CARL J ELI NEK ■p\R. CARL J ELI NEK was born at Briinn, in Mora- A->' via. on OctoVier 23, 1822. He entered the Uni- versity of Vienna in 1839 ^'^ ^ student of law, but soon thereafter his attention was turned more exclusively to the mathematical and physical sciences. In 1843 he assisted in the work of the Vienna Observatory, and in 1847 was appointed assistant in the observatory of Prague. It was while assisting in the work of the Vienna Obser- vatory, then under the direction of Kreil, that (is interest in exact observations in the fields of meteorology and magnetism was awakened— an interest deep and strong, which soon merged in a life-sacrifice to the furtherance of these sciences. It is not necessary here to dwell upon his connection with the events of 1848 further than to say that the high moral qualities for which he was in after life so remark- able were even then conspicuous, and that the knowledge he then acquired of men and affairs was an invaluable training for the successful discharge of the duties of the pubUc offices he afterwards filled. His first important contribution to science was a paper published in 1850 on the construction of self-registering meteorological instruments, an important department of practical science to which he continued to make contri- butions down to the last. Indeed the last published number of the Journal of the Austrian Meteorological Society opens with the last of a series of articles by him on this subject. He was appointed in 1852 Professor of the higher mathematics in the Polytechnic School at Prague. Eleven years afterwards, or in 1863, he returned to Vienna as successor to Kreil, the first director of the Central Institute for Meteorology and Magnetism at Vienna. In this new sphere his remarkable powers of administration and organisation had full scope. The influence of this calm, eager, untiring, and clear-sighted worker and administrator was immediately felt. A new spirit was infused into the machinery of the institute, its resources were increased, connections were formed on all sides with the similar institutes and societies of other countries, and its annual publications were enlarged and improved ; and in the course of time not the least im- portant change was efi'ccted by the erection of new build- ings for the Meteorological Institute on the Hohe Warte — an open commanding position on the outskirts of Vienna — thoroughly equipped with all the instruments required for meteorological and magnetical observation of the most improved construction, and placed in positions which indicate a clear perception of the problems to be investigated and the methods by which the observational data for their solution might be obtained. On June 14, 1864, he was elected a corresponding, and on August 3, 1866, a full member of the Imperial Academy of Sciences at Vienna. In 1864 he became a member of the Unterrichtsrath, and from 1870 to 1873 acted as secretary of the High Schools for technology and the schools for industry and commerce, and brought to bear on the discharge of these duties the matured results of science, a strong will, and an eagerness and activity that never flagged, which were productive of the best results to the interests of the department he served. His public services were recognised when he retired from the education department in 1873, by having conferred on him the title and rank of Hofrath and the distinction of Knight of the order of the Iron Crown. It is, however, in meteorology that he appears as an 86 NA rURE \_Nov. 23, 1876 original investigator endowed with an extraordinary capa- city for work. In these respects meteorology is perhaps the sternest of the sciences in exacting from those of its votaries who make any permanent contribution to its literature not only keen scientific insight, but also courage to encounter for years, if need be, the constant drudgery of calculations before the end sought can be attained. That Dr. Jelinek published scarcely any important work on meteorology from 1850 to 1865 need excite no surprise if we keep in view the great and important works on Austrian meteorology which appeared in quick succession from his pen between the years 1865 and 1870. The papers here referred to, about ten in number, several being really voluminous productions, are all of them rich in well-digested tabular matter, which, in relation to the subjects discussed, is of the most satisfying character. The paper on the five-day mean temperatures at Austrian stations from 1848 to 1863 contains 130 closely-printed quarto pages of rabies. Among the subjects discussed in these papers are the mean annual and monthly distribu- tion of atmospheric pressure and thunderstorms, and the annual, monthly, five-day, daily, and hourly distribution of temperature over the Austrian Empire ; the tempera- ture of Vienna for the ninety years from 1775 to 1864 thus supplying data calculated to throw light on not a few cosmical questions ; the cold weather which occurs in May, and the storms of November and December, 1866. An important result of this work is that over the whole of Austria a closely approximate statement can be given as to how far the temperature as observed at any hour of any day of the year is above or below the average. In addition to the above, he wrote his admirable and well-known " Anleitung zu Meteorologischer Beobach- tungen," which has already in the present year reached its third edition, and in 1866 established and edited, jointly with Dr. Hann, the Journal of the Austrian Meteorological Society, which is published fortnightly, and which, from its liberal and catholic spirit, and the position in science it has attained, stands alone among meteorological publications. In 1865 he succeeded in introducing telegraphic weather reports in Austria. Dr. Jelinek was also Secretary of the Meteorological Society of Austria, and the important services he rendered in connection with the Meteorological Congresses at Leipsig and Vienna are well known. Thus the Austrian Meteorological Institute, under Dr. Jelinek's management, has not merely made observations and published results, but it has also discharged the functions of a discussing body of a high order. The domain of meteorology in which Dr. Jelinek takes the highest position is that which is concerned with the dis- cussion of averages, taking the term in its widest signifi- cance. It is here where his scientific insight appears to the best advantage. We may refer in illustration to the judicious use he makes of the method of differentiation in the discussion of such problems as the normal atmo- spheric pressure in Austria during the months of the year. He does not commit the mistake of taking different terms of years for different places, according as observa- tions at each place were available, but by the application of the method of differentiation he practically takes the same terms of months and years for all places. In all his writings there is evinced the greatest care to avoid giving expression to any view or speculation unless he had taken the trouble of collecting together all available information that lay in his power bearing on the point in question. He died, after a lingering illness, on October 19, being thus prematurely cut off at the comparatively early age of fifty-four — a man of singularly noble and spotless cha- racter, ever on the alert, if we may use the expression, to discover and recognise real work wherever it appeared, and ever ready to offer his help to workers in science, even though he could do so only at the expense of much personal trouble and fatigue. His beneficence was cha- racteristic of the man, being absolutely without ostenta- tion, and his kindly acts were performed as if his left hand knew not what his right was doing. OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN The Distances of the Stars. — We shall here endeavour to present at one view the most reliable results of investigations relating to stellar parallax up to the present time. In making the selection parallaxes less than a tenth of a second of arc are omitted except in the case of the pole-star, for which independent researches have given values closely approximating to this amount. In estimating the " light-years," we adopt Struve's determination of the time occupied by light in traversing the mean distance of the earth from the sun, viz., 8m. 17 783. (According to Leverrier's last value for the solar parallax, and Clarke's diameter of the earth's equator, this would assign for the velocity of light, 185,360 miles per second, at which rate of travelling it would arrive at the planet Neptune in 4h. lom., or the breadth of the planetary spaces as at present known would be traversed in less than 8| hours.) By "light-years" is of course to be understood the interval which light would require to pass from the star to the earth at the distances respectively assigned. The authorities are, for a Centauri, Henderson's value as cor« rected by Peters, and that of Moesta, the mean ; for 61 Cygni, Auwer's mean of his own result and that of Otto Struve ; Lalande 21 185, Winnecke; |3 Centauri, Sir Thomas Maclear; /x Cassiopeae, Otto Struve ; Groombridge 34, Auwers ; Capella, Otto Struve ; Lalande 21258, Kriiger ; Oeltzen 17415, Kriiger ; a Draconis, Biiinnow ; Sirius, Gylden from Maclear's observations at the Cape of Good Hope ; a Lyrse, Briinnow's mean ; 70 Opbiuchi, Kriiger ; i\ Cassiopeae, Otto Struve ; Procyon, Auwers ; Groom- bridge 1830, a mean of results of Briinnow, Schliiter, Wichmann, and Otto Struve; and for Polaris, Peters. Name of Star Annual Distance in Light- and Magnitude. Parallax. Solar Distances. years . a Centauri (l and 4) 0-928 . 222,300 .. • 3-5 61 Cygni (54 and 6) ... 0'553 ' 373.300 •• 5-9 Lalande 21 185 (7*) 0-501 , 411,700 .. • 6-5 j8 Centauri (i) 0-470 . 439,100 .. . 6-9 \i. Cassiopeas (5^) 0-342 . 603,100 .. • 9-5 Groombridge 34 (Sg) ... 0-307 . 671,900 .. . 106 Capella (i) 0-305 . 676,300 .. . 10-7 Lalande 21258 (81) ... 0-271 . 761,400 .. . I2-0 Oeltzen 17415 (8^) 0-247 • 835,100 .. . 13-2 0- Draconis (5) 0 246 838,500 .. • 13 '2 Sirius (i) 0-193 • 1,069,000 .. . 16-9 a Lyras (1) O'lbO . .. 1,146,000 .. . i8-o 70 Ophiuchi (44) 0-162 . 1,273.000 . 20-I f\ CassiopeEe (45 and 7) 0-I54 . .. 1,339,000 .. 2I-I Procyon (i) 0-123 • .. 1,677,000 .. . 26-5 Groombridge 1830 (6|) 0-118 . .. 1,748,000 .. . 27-6 Polaris (2) 0-091 . 2,267,000 .. • 357 In the third column is given the distance of the star from the earth, in mean distances of the earth from the sun, as is usual ; it will be seen how greatly the alteration, even of a single unit in the last decimal place of the annual parallax in the preceding column, affects these numbers. So far as our present knowledge extends, light, travelling at upwards of 185,000 miles per second requires 3i years to pass from the nearest fixed star? to the earth, and it does not reach us from our well-known northern polar _star in less than thirty-five years. The Total Solar Eclipses of 1239, June 3, and 1241, October 6. — Prof. Celoria has published an important memoir on these eclipses, in the Transactions ot the Royal Institute of Sciences at Milan, vol. xiii. He refers to a note in Nature, vol. xii., p. 167, in which, when remarking on his first compu- I876J NATURE 87 ! of the eclipse of 1239, it was suggested that this pheno- w might deserve further examination, in connection with . clip=e of 1241, which had been already calculated by Lii. The present memoir contains a very careful and com- discussion of the two eclipses, employing Leverrier's tables A- sun, and Hansen's lunar tables, except that the last ; for the terms involving the square of the time, given by in in "Darlegung der theoretischen Berechnung der in londtafeln angewandten Storungen," Part 2, are substituted ' values adopted in the tables. The position of the belt dity in the eclipse of 1241, in its passage across Germany, y well defined by the statements of contemporary writers, chiefly from the great work of Pertz, " Monumenta Ger- ; Historica;" Prof. Schiaparelli had been similarly success- 1 lajing down the actual track of totality across Italy in the ■„' of 1239, from the Records in Muratori's collection of 1 writers. In both cases totality is assumed to have taken . when there is distinct mei)tion of stars having appeared, ; is about the only criterion that has value at these distant We shall probably revert to the subject of Prof. ;eloiai's able memoir. NOTES ManV geologists who have visited the Philadelphia Exhibition nd seen the geological collections there have been impressed ■ith the importance of having as nearly complete a collection as ossible on exhibition, of geological specimens, maps, and sec ons, in accordance with a previously arranged plan. The Inter- alional Exhibition to be held at Paris in 1878 will furnish ich an occasion, and it is proposed to invite to that end overnmental geological surveys, learned societies and private idividuals throughouti the world, to send to Paris such collec ons as will make the geological department of that exhibition 5 complete as possible. In order to take advantage of the col- ctlons which may thus be brought together, it is moreover roposei to convoke an International Geological Congress, to e held at Paris at some time during the Exhibition of 1878, and ) make that Congiess an occasion for considering many disputed roblems in geology. In accordance with this plan it is proposed lat the Geological department of the International Exhibition f 1878 shall embrace : — i. Collections of crystalline rocks, both rystalline schists and massive or eruptive rocks, including the 3-called contact-formations and the results of the local alteration f uncrystalline sediments by eruptive masses. 2, Collections ilastrating the fauna and the flora of the Palseozoic and more ecent periods. 3. Collections of geological maps, and also of ections and models, especially such as serve to illustrate the iws of mountain structure. In pursuance of the above plan fie American Association for the Advancement of Science iiiin(T its annual meeting at Buffalo, appointed a Com- to carry out this scheme, to which were added the ...-i of Prof. Huxley, Dr. Otto Torell, and Dr. E. H, von iaun.hauer. Prof. James Hall was elected chairman, and Dr. T. iteiry Hunt, secretary. It was then resolved to prepare a cir- ulai to be printed in English, French, and German, and listributed to geologists throughout the world, asking their o-operation in this great work of an International Geological ixhibition and an International Geological Congress to be held ,t Paris in 1878 ; the precise date of the Congress to be sub- equently fixlrd. All those interested in this project are invited o communicate with any one of the following members of the "ommittee :— Prof. T. H. Huxley, London, England ; Dr. Otto Torell, Stockholm, Sweden ; Dr. E. H. von Baumhauer, Har- em, Holland ; Dr. F. Sterry Hunt, Boston, Mass., U.S.A. At a recent meeting of the Literary aiid Philosophical Society of Manchester, Prof. Osborne Reynolds, in justly animadverting on the large type sensation headings in which some newspapers announced what, in their perversity or ignorance, they called the " failure " of the Arctic expedi- tion, showed that in truth the expedition had been one of the finest achievements ever accomplished. Looked at boldly, it comes to this. Since Hudson's time, more than 200 years ago, Arctic navigators had succeeded in penetrating about sixty or seventy miles of the 540 to \>t passed before the Pole could be reached. Whereas Capt. Nares has, in one year, carried the British flag some sixty miles nearer, so that nearly one half, and this by far the most difiicult half, of the entire results of all expeditions since Hudson's time has been accomplished by the last. And this is not all. Capt. Nares seems to have pur- sued the journey to its end, at least by that route ; and in coming back can say that he did not leave a single uncertainty behind him. So far, therefore, from having been a failure, this has been the most successful expedition ever sent out. It is expected that the French Government will ask our Ad- miralty to establish an Arctic department in the Exhibition of 1878, in whic'.i all the relics of English Arctic exploration will be collected and exhibited, as well as all the Parliamentary papers and publications relating to the subject. M. Chevheul was entertained at dinner the other day at the Cafe Corazza, in the Palais Koyal, by eighty savants in celebra- tion of the fiftieth anniversary of his professorship and member- ship of the Academy of Sciences. M. Chevreul, now the oldest member of the Academy of Sciences, is ninety years old, and enjoys perfect health and mental vigour. The most notable instances of academical longevity have been Fontanelle, one of the perpetual secretaries, who died in 1742, aged close on 100 years ; M. Biot, who lived ninety-two years, and preserved to the end of his days his mental powers; M. Mathieu, who died March 5, 1875, was also a nouogenarian, and the Annuaire du Bureau des Longitudes for 1875 was edited by him. He had succeeded in 181 7 Messier, an astronomer, who was an Acade- mician during more than forty years, so that the same seat had only t'.vo occupants in a whole century. A SERIES of lectures is now being given by eminent men of science, explanatory of the instruments in the Loan Collection of Scientific Apparatus at South Kensington. The lectures are free, and working men are invited to attend. The lectures at present arranged for are as follows :— Saturday, November 25, Prof, W. Leith Adams, F.R.S., on "Extinct Animals," as re- presented by magic lantern slides and specimens in the loan collection. Saturday, December 2, J. S. Gardner on " The Col- lection of Fossil Leaves." Saturday, December 9, J. Norman Lockyer, F.R.S., on "The Spectroscopes in the Collection." Saturday, December 16, Prof. Huxley, F.R.S., on "The Syste- matic Teaching of Biology." The lectures will be delivered in the Lecture Theatre of the South Kensington Museum at eight o'clock P.M. Prof. Hughes read a paper before the Cambridge Philo- sophical Society last Monday, in which he criticised the evidence offered to support the view that man existed on the. earth during or before the glacial period. He first re- viewed several of the older cases which had been put^forward, and tried to show that the evidence was always incomplete, or that its trustworthy charactex disappeared on closer examination. Coming to the two more recent and important instances of human remains or implements being found beneath glacial beds or in beds older than the glacial. Prof. Hughes gave his opinions from personal inspection and acquaintance with the localities. The human fibula found under glacial till in Victoria Cave, Settle, with Elephas antiquus, Rhinoceros leptorhinus, &c., had been regarded as decisive. Mr, Tiddeman (Nature, vol. xiv, p. ss NA TURE \Nov. 23, 187 506) says, " The Settle till is undoubtedly of the age of the ice- sheet." Prof. Hughes said that although the boulder day at the mouth of the cave had got rather underneath the brow of tre hill, yet from intimate knowledge of the physical nature and conditions of the district, which he had himself mapped, he saw no impossibility in the idea of the boulder clay having tumbled from the cliff above during the process of wearing back. Very often the upper limestone was so dissolved as to form pockets into which the boulder clay was let down, and then when an escarpment vvas disintegrated, he could quite conceive how such a pocket was thrown obliquely against the mouth of the cave in post-glacial times. This had ponded back the water that came into the cave, and necessarily produced a stratified deposit, in which the remains in question were found. With regard to the evidence brought forward by Mr. Skertchley, of the occurrence of palaeolithic implements in brick earth beneath the chalky boulder-clay at Thetford, near Brandon, he had visited the locality, and his opinion was that in each case there was a missing link in the proof that the clay beneath which the implements were found was identical with clay at no great distance which was indubitable boulder-clay. In fact, there were many indications of the opposite. Local conditions in denudation, solution of chalk, formation of the valleys, &c., were abundantly present to mask the true state of things. The proof in this case was certainly not cogent ; and it must be cogent to be accepted. We are glad to be able to confirm the report which appeared in our columns a short time ago that the Goldsmiths' Company had promised to contribute 1,000/. to the Chemical Society's Research Fund. This sum has now been handed over to the society and raises the amount of the fund already received to 3,050/., a sum which we hope will be still further largely increased. In a communication to the St. Petersburg Society of Na- turalists, Prof. Fr. Schmidt sketches the Tertiary formations on the northern shores of the Pacific as follows : — The formation consists of two stages. The Lower is a continental Miocene deposit with coal-seams and numerous plants, the complete de- scription of which will soon appear by Dr. Oswald Heer. This deposit has a very wide extent, having been found in the middle parts of the Amoor basin, on the Sakhalin, in Kamtchatka, Alaska, and on Vancouver Island ; and nearly the same rich flora which it contains can be traced as far as the Mackenzie River, Green- land, and Spitzbergen. An immense continent between North- eastern Asia and North-western America must thus have existed at this epoch, and its flora shows the prevalence of a far warmer climate than now, probably like that which the middle parts ot the United States now enjoy. The Upper Tertiary stage is a marine Pliocene deposit with numerous remains of molluscs, and it was observed on the Sakhalin Island (but wanting at the same time on the closely-adjacent Siberian continent), in Kamt- chatka, on the Aleutian Islands, in Oregon, U.S., and in Cali- fornia. Notwithstanding their varied lithological characteristics, these deposits contain a remarkably uniform fauna. The number of species already described by Prof. Schmidt, on the basis of large collections made during the last thirty years, is eighty, out of which eighteen have no living representatives, six inhabit only the Polar Sea and the Northern Atlantic, and the remaining fifty-six still inhabit the Northern Pacific. Out of the eighteen extinct forms six were already found in the Tertiary of Oregon and California, and one of them {Nucula ermani, Girard) will probably prove to be the same as the N. cobboldicE, Sow., of the English Crag. Generally, during the Pliocene epoch, the faunas of the northern parts of the Pacific and the Atlantic were far more alike than now, and it must be supposed that the connec- tion between both oceans through the Polar Sea was far closer than now, a supposition supported also by the close likeness of some forms inhabiting the Pacific and the Atlantic shores Northern America. Their close likeness, which appears strange when we leatn that they do not now inhabit the Pol Sea, is perfectly explained when we find them in a fossil state the Pliocene deposits of the far north, as was the case with t' Pholas crispata and the Pectuncuhis pilosus, which were foui fossil, the former on the Northern Dwina and Jenissei, and tl second on the Kadiak Island. The fossil fauna of the Ard regions thus explains the present distribution of forms. Pr< Schmidt expresses the wish that the Pliocene deposits of the regions were thoroughly explored as soon as possible. At the meeting of October 21 of the Geological Section of t St. Petersburg Society of Naturalists, Prof. Friedrich Schmi made an interesting communication on the Post-G!acial Peril in Esthonia. Starting from the supposition — which he suppoi in common with Swedish and Finnish geologists — that Esthoi was covered during the Glacial period with an ice-sheet whi concealed it with Scandinavia, Finland, Northern Russi reacliing probably the southern slope of the Waldai plateau, Pn Schmidt proved that after the melting of the ice the country w covered with numerous immense laxes. The land was then su merged by the sea, but only to a small extent, as notwithstandi many years' careful researches, formations with marine foss have not been found in Esthonia further than 30 kilometi distant from the Gulf of Finland, nor on levels higher than feet above the sea. They are Post-Glacial, containing a fau which, with very few exceptions, inhabits now the Baltic. Aft the submergence the land rose to its present height, but tl elevation was probably accomplished during pre-historic tim< At least, M. Schmidt states, contrary to the assertions of MI Baer, Hofmann, and others as to the present rising of all t islands of the Gulf of Finland, there was not in Esthonia e' dences of the rising of the land during the last four centuri which could be accepted as unmistakable. It may be remark that the conclucions of Prof. Schmidt as to the small subm( gence of Esthonia, however contradictory of current opinic are also supported by the circumstance that marine formatio were not found in Eastern Sweden above a level of 100-120 fee and that in Finland the traces of marine clays (with Car din edule and Tellina balthica) totally disappear at a level high than 62 feet. These negative evidences have some weight, bo countries having been well explored along some parts of th( coasts. At the meeting of the Literary and Philosophical Society Manchester, on October 17, Mr. Baxendell drew attention to \ paper " On the Protection of Buildings from Lightning," re by Prof J. Clerk Maxwell at the late meeting of the Briti Association at Glasgow, and stated that the system of protectii recommended by the professor, and which he appears to ha regarded as new, was suggested, and its adoption strongly adv cated, nearly forty years ago by the late Mr, Sturgeon, who many valuable contributions to electrical and magnetical scienc seem to have been strangely overlooked by recent investigato and writers. The paper in which the system was first describi was read before the London Electrical Society on March 7, 183 and an abstract of it was published in the second volume of t "Annals of Electricity." There is, however, one important difff ence between the two systems. Mr. Sturgeon considered it nece sary that the copper sheathing or covering of a protected roo or powder magazine should be well connected with the groun- but Prof. Maxwell is reported to have stated that " there woi be no need of any earth connection. They might even plac layer of asphalte between the copper floor and the ground, sc to insulate the building." It is obvious, however, Mr. Baxe dell states, that if the magazine were struck by lightning, a di ruptive discharge through the layer of asphalte would in a probability take place, which might rupture the copper sheatl 'f7ov. 23, 1876] NATURE 89 jng, and llius ignite the contents of the magazine ; but by the jidoption of Mr. Sturgeon's plan an accident of this kind could lot occur. Her Majesty has commanded that instructions be given to the hfas'er of the Mint to prepare a die and cast a sufficient number |)f medals commemorative of the Arctic Expedition. These ar« jo be distributed amongst the officers and crews of the Alert, Ihe Discovery, and the Pandora. The Lord Mayor, Sir Thomas \Vhite, is to give a dinner to the crews of the Aleri and Discovery JiX. the Mansion House, on the evening of December 5. The Lord Mayor intends to invite the officers of the expedition to a lanquet a few days later, probably December 8. The inhabitants )f Portsmoutli intend to entertain the crews of the Alert, Dis- ■(wery, and Pandora at a dinner on the 30th inst. Mr. R. J. Friswell has resigned the honorary secretaryship )f the Photographic Society. The Ethnographical Museum of Berlin has lately received leveral valuuble additions, viz., the objects acquired by Dr. Lenz luring the German-African Expedition. They represent tribes Irrom the West Coast of Africa hitherto little known, and consist of various wooden weapons, domestic implements and musical instru- i. Very shortly the excellent collections of the celebrated m traveller, Dr. NachLigal, are also to be exhibited at the am. Some of these come from tribes which Dr. Nachtigal _o the fnvt European to see. Much inconvenience is felt at the Jknuseum thrcugh want of space, and particularly so with refer- lon^p t,^ ir,,,,^ Ameiican curiosities sent for exlibition by Prof . John's College, Cambridge, offers for competition an , iition of 50/. per annum, for proficiency in Natural Science. She examirjation will commence on Saturday, April 7, and will e in chemistry, including practical work in the laboratory ; ics, viz.. Electricity, Heat, and Light ; and in Physiology iidates will also have the option of being examined in Geology, Comparative Anatomy, and Botany, provided they give notice of the subjects in which they desire to be examined four weeks prior to the examination. No candidate will be examined in more than three of these six subjects, whereof one at least must be chosen from the former group. It is the wish of the master and seniors that excellence in some one department should be specially regarded by the candidates. Names should be sent to ■ef the tutors at least fourteen days before the examination. fCHAiR of Physical Astronomy has been created in the ilty of Sciences at Lyons. How rapidly an interest in prehistoric researches is spreading among the educated classes in Germany is seen in the progress of the Anthropological Society of Munich. It was constituted in 1S70 as a branch of the German Anthropological Society, founded only three weeks before it. It began with thirty- five members and now numbers 300. The present effjrts of the German Anthropological Society are directed towards the preliminary preparations for an Anthro- pological and Primitive History of Germany ; by means of a terri- torial division of labour, extremely important data have already been obtained. Contributions on particular points are appearing in the Comspondeuzblatt of the German Anthropological Society, the Archiv fiir Afithropolo^ie, and the Berlin Zalschrift jiit Ethno^raphie. Meantime, at the Anthropological Meeting held in Munich last year, a plan was formed by a num.ber of Anthro- pologists, in reference to the astonishing richness of the pre- historic discoveries in Bavaria, for the advancement of German Anthropology, by the establishment of an organ for the publi- cation of the complete results which have been obtained in refer- ence to Bavaria. The accomplishment of this scheme has now commenced with the publication of a part of the Beitrdge zur Anthrofologie und Urgcschichte Bayerns, an organ of the Munich Society of Anthropology. This part contains a monograph ott the " Lake Dwellings in the Wiirm See," by S. v. Schab, who ha? thoroughly explained this prehistoric dwelling-place, and collected and arranged the rich find.";. The most important of the latter are shown in seventeen lithographic plates, partly coloured, with maps, plans, &c. Unv. Daily News Alexandria correspondent sends to that paper, November 21, some particulars of the life and work of an African explorer who has been quietly doing good service for many years. This is Signor Piaggia, who went to Tunis first in 185 1 as a gardener, and there and in Alexandria saved money for years, v.'ith which he went up to Khartoum. From then until now he has made, several important journeys ; to the country of the "Kieks," the territory of the Niam-Niams, where he became a great favourite, and stayed more than two years, the Bogos teni- tory on the borders of Abyssinia with the Marquis Antinori, into Cerada, southeast of Lake Tzana, which he explored minutely. Latterly, after accompanying Gessi for some distance, he has been in the districts of Mrooli and Mtesa, and made a thorough exploration of the Lake Capecbii. From all his journeys he has brought back large collections of objects of all kinds, which, it is believed, are now for sale. The Moniteur de I'Algerie states that from November 8 a violent sirocco, or wind from the desert, was felt in Algeria for several days. This accounts for the unusual elevation of tem- perature in Algeria. The exhibition of fossils, paintings, plants, and other objects illustrative of the mountain limestone in the Manchester Aqua- rium, was closed on Monday, having been open to the public a little more than a week. The exhibition has been in every way successful. Further details received regarding the cyclone of October 31 prove it to have been one of the most terrible calamities on record. Estimates based on official returns from each police section put the loss of life in the districts of Backergunge, Noak- holly, and Chittagong at not less than 215,000. Three large islands — Dakhin Shahabazpore, Hattiah, and Sundeep — and numerous small islands were entirely submerged by the storm wave, and also the mainland for some five or six miles inland. These ishnds are all situated in or near the estuary of the Meghna, a river formed by the confluence of the Ganges and Brahmapootra rivers. Up to 1 1 P.M. on the night of the catas- trophe there were no signs of danger, but before midnight the storm wave swept over the islands to a depth in places of 20 feet, surprising the people in their beds. The country is perfectly flat, and, therefore, trees were the only secure range. Almost every one perished who failed in reaching trees. A strange fact about the disaster is that in Dakhin Shahabazpore and Hattiah most of the damage was done by the storm wave from the north svi eeping down the Meghna, Several theories, the Times Cal- cutta correspondent state.?, have been started to account for this. One is that the cyclone, forming in the bay, struck the shore firi-t near Chittagong, and went north for some distance, and then turned southward again. Another is that the wind blew bsck the waters of the Meghna, which rebounded with terrific force when the pressure relaxed. A third supposition is that there were two parallel storms with a centre of calm between them. The first or third theory seems most probable, as in Sundeep and Chittagong the destruction came from the south. Mr. Henry Meiggs, the well-known American railroad con- tractor and engineer, whose efforts in connection with the establishment of railroads in Peru are so well known and appreciated, has recently furnished the means to M, Bur, a 90 NATURE \Nov. 23, 187 French ethnologist, for carrying on some explorations in the vicinity of Tiahuanuco, in Bolivia, a region which abounds in objects of archaeological interest. Mr, Meiggs has arranged that a full series of these objects shall be presented to the U.S. National Museum. A VALUABLE entomological collection has been presented to the Oxford University Museum by Mrs. Tylden, the relict of the late Rev. W. Tylden, formerly of Balliol College. The collec- tion numbers 23,518 specimens, arranged in cabinets. Prof. Palmieri, Director of the Observatory on Mount Vesuvius, has been made an Italian Senator. A DESPATCH received, at Rome from Aden, November 19, states that the Italian African Expedition has arrived in Shoa. The Government Resident at Somerset has telegraphed to the Colonial Secretary that Messrs. D'Albertis, Hargrave, and party hrve returned safely from their expedition to the Fly River. They ascended the country a distance of 350 miles above the spot rt ached by the expedition party of lai>t year. They were unable to communicate in any way with the natives who were very numerous and hostile. A SIXTH edition of Prof. Page's well-known "Advanced Text-Book of Geology " has been published. The work has been enlarged " to embrace whatever is new and important in the science, to afford space for additional illustration, and to com- bine, as far as possible, the principles with the deductions of geolo2[y." We have on our table the following books : — Preliminary " Re- port on the Forests of Pegu," by Sulpice Kurz (Calcutta). " The Aquarium," J. E. Taylor (Hardwicke and Bogue). " Spiritualism and Animal Magnetibm," Dr. Zc-rffi (Hardwicke and Bogue). " The Theory of Colour," Dr. W. von Bezold (Triibner). "The Art of Retouching," Burrows and Colton (Marion). " Science in Sport made Philosopl:y in Earnest," by Robert Routledge (George Routledge and Sons). The ninth edition of " Kirke's Physiology," edited by Morrant Baker (John Murray). " Between the Danube and the Black Sea," H. C. Barkley, C.E. (John Murray). The fourth edition of Wanklyn's " Water Analysis" (Triibner), "Demonstrations of Microscopic Ana- lysis," Harley and Brown (Longmans). " Mushrooms and Toad- stools," Worthington G. Smith (Hardwicke and Bogue). "Geo- logical Observations," Charles Darwin, F.R.S. (Smith, Elder, and Co.). "Lessons in Electricity," John Tyndall, F.R.S. (Longmans). "Our Birds of Piey," The Raptores of Canada, H. G. Vennor (Sampson Low and Co.). The additions to the Zoological Society's Gardens during the past week include two Prussian Carp {Carassius vulgaris), Euro- pean, presented by Lord Arthur Russell, F.Z.S. ; a Bubaline Antelope {Alcelaphus btibalinus), an Addax Antelope {Addax naso-maculatus) from North Africa, a Buff-breasted Partridge {Ptilopachys ventralis) from West Africa, four Brazilian Cormo- rants {Phalacrocorax brasiliensis) from Brazil, purchased ; a Macaque Monkey {Macacus cynotaolgus) from India, a Chilian Sea Eagle {Geranodetus a^uia) from South America, deposited ; a Hairy -rumped Agouti (Dasyprocta prymnolopha), born in the Gardens. SCIENTIFIC SERIALS Schriften der physikalisch-oekonomiscJien Gesellschaft zu KbnigS' berg (1875, I ^^^ 2). — These parts, amongst a number of snialler papers and notes, contain the following more important treatises : — On the determinations of temperature in the soil at different depths at the station at Kimigsberg, by Prof. E. Dorn. — Obser- vations on the genera of Nematida:, by C. G. A. Brischke and Prof. Dr. G. Zaddach. This paper occupies more than half of Part I. — On the temperature in the interior of animal bodies, by Dr. Adamkiewicz. — On a new species of Algas, Merismopedium Reitenbachii, Casp., by Prof. Caspary.— On the different forms of the stigmatic disc oi Nuphar luleum, Sm., by the same. — C the latest investigations made by M. Lassaulx on earthquake by O. Tischler. — On the so-called " Moosbriiche," specially ( the " Zehlaubruch," near Tapiau, by Herr Stiemer. — On tl courses of rivers," &c., in the North German plains during t: Diluvial period, by Prof. Berendt. — On one of Euler's geom trical problems, by Dr. Saalschiitz.— On the courses of rivers the province of Prussia, by Herr Stiemer. — On the Colora( bet-tie, by Dr. Schiefferdecker. — On refleciors, by Dr. Berth)] — On Gore's rotating ball, by Herr Momber. — On the artifici production of colours from the white of eggs, by Dr. Adai kiewicz. — On Phylloxera, by Dr. Benecke, — On the oscillatio of terra firtna, by Dr. A. Jentzsch. — New list of Prussian beetl (fourth paper), by Dr. Lentz. The author makes the total different species to the number of 3,216! — On old Prussi; " Kjokken Moddings" at the coast of the " Frische Haff," 1 Prof. Berendt. — On the conception of value in the differe theories of the same, by Adolf Samter. — On the power of accoi modation amongst plants and insects, by Dr. G. Czwalina. — On erratic block-limestone found near Tilsit, by Dr. Friederici. — ( salicylic acid, by Prof Samuel. — Archaeological researches 1 the " Kurische Nehrung," by O. Tischler. — On an alleged pre of the early existence of man in Europe, by Dr. Jentzsch. — ( an unusually large fungus, Agartcus suffructicosus, by Pn Casparv. — The Appendix contains the report sent bytheSocie to the Provincial Landtag on its geognostical researches in t province of Prussia. — The parts further contain a memoir of tl late Prof. Argelander, of Bonn, by Dr. Luther. SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES London Mathematical Society, November 9. — Prof. H. J. Smith, F.R.S., president, in the chair. — Mr. J. W. L. GLaish communicated a note on certain identical differential relations.- Mr. Tucker read parts of papers by Mr. Spottiswoode on curv having four-point contact with a triply-infinite peilcil of curve and by Mr. E. B. Elliott on some classes of multiple defini integrals. — In a paper published in \h& Afathematische Anno.l (vol. iii. p. 459) Brill has investigated the case of curves havi: three-point contact with a doubly infinite pencil of curves ; ai in the same journal (vol. x. p. 221) H. Krey, of Kiel, has appli a method, similar to tbat of Briil, to the next step in the probk proposed in Mr. Spottiswoode's paper. He dees not, howev* appear to have succeeded in completely eliminating the d ferentials which occur in the process ; arid in that respect 1 solution is incomplete. Some formuke used in Mr. Spott woode's paper on the contact of carves and surfaces, and in par cular in that on the sextatic points of a plain curve [Phil. Tran, 1865, p. 657), prove to be directly applicable to the questio An application of them to Brill's problem will be found in paper in the Comples Rendus (1876). Astronomical Society, November 10. — Mr. Huggins, pi sident, in the chair. — The Astronomer-Royal gave a she account of the proceedings of the Royal Observatory during tl recess, describing the lunar and physical observations which h; been assiduously prosecuted and the state of the calculations f his new lunar theory, — A paper by Prof. Langley, of the Allegai Observatory, Pennsylvania, on the measurements of the dire effects of sun-spots on terrestrial climates was read. Prof LangL has made experiments to determine the difference in the amou of heat radiated from the centre of a sun-spot and from an equ area of penumbra and photosphere. Combining these results wi the amount of the sun-spot area given as existing during a peric of maximum of sun-spot frequency in the tables of Messrs. De Rue, Stewart, and Loewy, he calculated that the mean terrestri temperature due to solar radiation at a period of sun-spot min mum would be something between three-tenths and one-tveentie of 1° C. greater than at a period of sun-spot maximum. Tl Astronomer-Royal pointed out that the observations of unde ground temperature made at the observatories at Paris, Edi burgh, and Greenwich showed differences in the mean annu t' mperature of the surface soil which amounted to as much 1 6° F. An examination of the temperatures at different deptl showed that the differences of surface temperature hnd the cau!-e in something external to the earth, but he .had i.^; four that the differences of mean surface temperature coincided wit the variations in the amount of the English serial crop as give by the Board of Trade returns or with the periods of sun-spo maxima. Mr. De la Rue said that it did not follow that tl \[ov. 23, 1876] NA rURE 91 iiount of solar radiation would necessarily vary inversely as the nspot area, for at a period of maximum sun-spot area it was issible that the radiation from the photosphere might be increased such an extent as wholly to counteract the difference caused by e decrease in the apparent area of the photosphere. He further marked that the numbers given in his papers in conjunction • th Messrs. Balfour Stewart and Loewy must not now be lied upon, as some serious errors had been discovered which was now endeavouring to put straight by a re-investigation the whole subject. — Mr. Penrose read a paper entitled " An ideavour to simplify the Method of making the Correction for ! Spheroidal Figure of the Earth in Lunar Observations, and rticularly with Reference to its Effect upon the Lunar Dis- ice." — Mr. Christie described some observations which had made with a polarising photometer upon the relative ghtness of different parts of the disc of Venus. He had ind that when the disc of Venus was gibbous, the last part of : disc to disappear, as its brightness was decreased by rotating 1 photometer, was a sausage-shaped patch, the convex edge of ich was found to be distinctly within the limb of the planet. : thought that his observations supported Mr. Brett's theory fto specula reflection from the surface of Venus. Linnean Society, November 2. — Prof. AUman, president, I the chair. — In exhibiting a live specimen of the Norwegian Imming, the survivor of seven at starting, Mr. Duppa Crotch I led attention to charts he had made showing the nature of the pund traversed in two instances in which he himself had wit- Ijsed the westerly migration of this singular little rodent. — Mr. I Bentham, vice-president, read a paper on the distribution of the jDnocotyledonous order into primary groups, more especially in lerence to the Australian flora, with notes on some points ): terminology. — Dr. Francis Day drew attention to exami- jltions he had made on some Irish sticklebacks (Gasterostei). ese had led him to doubt the conclusions arrived by M. vage {No7iv. Archiv. d. Mus., 1874), as to the propriety of ding the family into subgenera and some seventeen species. Day has noticed such abnormal variations in the presence absence of ventral fin and spines in specimens of the three- ned and ten-spined sticklebacks as cause him to believe these ipendagestobe a very imperfect diagnostic and specific charac- H. Nay more, as certain other Acanthopterygians have been lierically divided by such features, it is questionable whether ther observations may lead to considerable necessary revision of : families. He is of opinion, moreover, that the spinal arma- e of at least the Gasterostei has an increment in the ratio of t:ir proximity and access to a maritime habitat. — Mr. H. W. J tes communicated a paper by Mr. D. Sharp on the respiratory i iction o\ the Carnivorous Water Beetles {Dytiscidce). Experi- I nts made by the author on numerous species show that there are I ie differences in the length of time they spend submerged and the surface for breathing exposure. For example, the Pelobiiis rtnanni rtmainsunder water in a ratio of 375 to I of air expo- e; whereas Dytiscus marginalis, a more highly developed m, has a corresponding ratio of about 12 to I. Most specimens the group are more active by night than by day. The Hirmamti and Hydrovatus clypealis he regards as much Is developed, and adapted for moving through the water than 1 r indigenous water-beetles ; and therefore, along with the nerican Amphizoa, appear to him to represent the most rudi- tntary and primitive of existing forms of the Dyliscidse. — Prof. ckie gave a supplemental notice of Marine Algae obtained in ! Challenger E-pedition. Of some fifty species one only is Iff. — A description of Thaumantis pseridaliris and Amesia pexi- da, two new Lepidopterous forms from Malacca, by Mr. A. itler, was taken as read. — The same author also had a com- mication on the genus Euptychia, a revision, with the addition twelve new species being made ; a case of these butierflies was hibited in illustration of his paper. — A second communication, Mr. D. Sharp, referred to new species of beetles {Scarabceida:) im Central America ; these had been captured by Mr. Belt, iefly in the neighbourhood of Chontales. — Mr. A. Peckover hibited and made a few remarks on two skins of the young of Madagascar insectivore, Hemicentetes niqriceps, Giinth., and a series of insects from the same island, collected by Mr. A. igdon, near Antananarivo. -^Mr. E. D. Crespigny showed a ecimen of the Umbelliferous plant, Tordylium maximum, L., tained near Tilbury Fort, a locality wliere it had disappeared ■ a considerable length of time. Chemical Society, November 16. — Prof. Abel, F.R.S., sident, in the chair. — A paper on barwood, by the late Prof. Anderson, was read by the Secretary, describing the method of preparing baphuin from it, and also some of the educts obtained by the action of various reagents. — The second communication was on the alkaloids of the aconites. Part I. on the crystallisable alkaloids contained in Aconitum napellus, by Dr. C. R. A. Wright. The author finds that the alkaloids from A. ferox, which he calls pseudanicotine, CjijH^gNOu, differs both in properties and in composition from aconitine, C33H43NOJJ, the crystalline alkaloid of A. napella. In one instance, however, he obtained from the root of the latter a perfectly distinct bitter crystalline alkaloid, picroconinite, possessing scarcely any toxic power ; whether this is an alteration product of aconitine or not remains at present undetermined. — Mr. G. S. Johnson then read a paper on potassium triiodide, a crystalline compound obtained on saturating a saturated solution of potassic iodide with iodine, and slowly evaporating the solution over sulphuric acid. It forms prismatic or tabular crystals having an appearance very similar to that of iodine. — The last communication was by Mr. T. S. D. Humpidge, on the coal-gas of the metropolis. He has carefully analysed and determined the illuminating power of different samples, and comes to the conclusion that the gas at present supplied is but little if any better than it was twenty- five years ago, the actual increase in illuminating power being due to the use of improved burners. Physical Society, Nov. 4. — Prof. G. C. Foster, president, in the chair, — The following candidates were elected members of the society : — Warren de La Rue, D.C.L., F. R.S., and W. H. Preece. — Dr. Guthrie read two letters which he had received from Dr. Forel, in continuation of a communication which he made to the Society on May 27 last, in reference to the " Seiches " or periodic oscillations which take place in the Swiss lakes, and on which he has recently made an elaborate series of observa- tions. Since his communication he has found in a pamphlet by Dr. J. R. Merian, published in 1828, a formula which is strictly applicable to the phenomena under consideration. If t be the duration of half an oscillation, h the depth of the lake, and / its _ ( '^ - I-M 1 I ^ I \e^ + e ' fS" length, i = As/ — ) nh ~^ } Considering that pro- bably this formula will be applicable to lakes of irregular depth if k be the mean depth, he has applied it to several lakes, and the following are some of his results. In the case of transverse seiches on Lake Leman, the formula gives 216 metres as a mean depth, and 334 metres is the greatest known depth. With a longitudinal oscillation, the mean depth is found to be 130 metres. In the case of Lake Wallenstadt, the formula having shown the mean depth to be somewhat greater than the generally accepted greatest depth, Prof. Forel took a number of fresh soundings, and found a great basin of com- paratively even bottom and of such a depth as to render probable the mean depth given by the formula. — Mr. O. J. Lodge suggested that the formula would be rendered more simple by using the hyperbolic function. It would then become /=7r /•- Coth — '. Mr. Lodge also indicated the curve V £ >■ which this equation represents. — Dr. Stone exhibited some dif- fraction gratings on glass and metal, ruled for him by Mr. W. Clark, of Windsor Terrace, Lower Norwood. The majority of them were close spirals aljout 1,000 to the inch, which, when held between the eye and a distant lime-light, exhibited circular spectra of great brilliancy. The slight difference between the spiral and true circles appeared to exercise no appreciable effect on the result. The metal gratings were of linear form, 1,000 lines to the inch, intended for use by reflection in a spectroscope. The spectra thus obtained were of much greater brilliancy than those ordinarily obtained by refraction, and presented obvious advantages for examining the ultra-violet rays. He explained the mechanical difficulties which had been surmounted in their manufacture together with the manner in which the diamond cutters are prepared. The metals hitherto employed, namely, cast-steel and German silver, are objectionable, and Dr. Stone proposes, on the suggestion of Prof. McLeod, to employ speculum metal, and will report the result of the experiments more fully at a subsequent meeting. — Dr. Guthrie then briefly described some experiments which he has made to determine the effect of a crystalloid on a colloid when in the presence of water. Mr. Graham, in his classical re- searches, made numerous experiments witii a salt on one side of 92 NATURE [Nov. 23, 18; a colloid membrane and water on the other, and Dr. Guthrie thought it might be well to determine what action, if any, takes place when a salt is added to a solution of a colloid such as size. Two or three lumps of rock salt were added to a jelly of size, and the whole hermetically sealed in a glass tube. The colloid parted with its water readily, a saturated solution of the salt was obtained, and the size became perfectly white and opaque, having undergone a structural change. Experiments were also made employing a more hygrometric salt, such as chloride of calcium, — Mr. W. C. Roberts pomted out that a jelly containing 5 per cent, of silicic acid readily parts with water to sulphuric acid, and dries into a hard glass like hydrate of silica. He asked whether this might be considered as analogous to the action of salt on size, or whether the strong affinity between the acid and water removed it to another class of action. Dr. Guthrie thought it might be possible to establish the existence of a point at which the jelly did not give up its water to the hygrometric substance. He also pointed out the analogy between a jelly s^nd a mass of small bags filled with liquid. Entomological Society, November i. — Prof. Westwood, president, in the chair. — Mr. F. Smith exhibited some remark- able specimens of thorns from Natal and Brazil, which had been taken possession of by certain species of Cryptoceridce for the construction of their nests. Some of the thorns were as much as 3 inches in length. — Prof. Westwood mentioned an instance of the hairs of a larva of Lasiocampa riibi having caused consider- able irritation of the skin, and tha^ the irritation was complained of by his correspondent for a week afterwards. — The Professor exhibited a singular Coleopterous larva from Zanzibar, of a flat- tened, ovate form and a steel-blue colour, with two points at the extremity of the body, and with long, clavate antennce. The head bore some resemblance to that of the dipterous genus Diopsis. He also exhibited a specimen of the butterfly, Ihsperia sylianus, received from the Rev. Mr. Higgins, of Liverpool, having the pollinaria, apparently of an Orchid, attached to the base of the tongue. Also an Orchid bulb purchased by Mr. Hewitson with a collection of roots from Ecuador, which was found to contain nine living specimens of cockroaches, compii.-ing six different species, viz., Blatta orientalis, Americana, citterea, Ataderce, and two others unknown to hini, some being of con- siderable size. — Mr. Dunning read a " Note on Acentro/us," in which he remarked on Hter Ritsema's Second Supplement to his Histoiical Review of the genus, published in the Transactions of the Entomological Society of the Netherlands, in which that author tried to prove that two distinct species existed, of which one [A, nivcus, Oliv. = A. Garnonsii, Curt.) has a female with rudisnentary wmgs, and the other (^. latipennis, Moschl. — Zancle Hansotii, Ste.), has a female with normally developed wmgs ; whereas, Mr. Dunning argued that the facts, as stated by Heer Ritsema, did not in any way prove the duality, but were quite consistent with the unity of the species. Institution of Civil Engineers, November 14. — Mr. George Robert Stephenson, president, in the chair. — The paper read was on the Japan hghts, by Mr. R. H. Brunton. Paris Academy of Sciences, November 13. — Vice-Admiral Paris in the chair. — The following papers were read : — Theorems rela- tive to systems of three segments making a constant length, by M. Chasles. — Note on the recent progress of phylloxera in the departments of the two Charentes, by M. Bouilland. — Continua- tion of observations of eclipses of Jupiter's satellites at the Obser- vatory of Toulouse, by M. Tisserand . For eclipses of the first satellite little seemed to be gained by using larger instruments ; for those of the second and third the difference was greater. — M. Milne-Edwards presented the first part of tome xii. of his work on comparative physiology and anatomy of men and animals. It treats of audidon and sight. — Report on a memoir of M . Fouque, " Mineralogical and geological researches on the lavas and dykes of Thera" (irland of Santorin group). These lavas contain two, and often three triclinic felspars (some say volcanic rocks never contain more than one) ; albite predominates among the small crystals ; labradurite or anorthite among the large. These anor- thite lavas (hitherto thought exceptional) form forty-one of the dykes of Thera. M. Fouque shows, from experiments, that a lava fused and suddenly cooled is quite as crystalline as when it has solidified slowly ; crystals are formed before ejection from the ground. Contrary to M. Tschermak, who would eliminate from the catalogue of mineralogical species all triclinic felspars except albite and anorthite, M. Fouque shows reason for retain- ; ing oligoclase and labradorite. Tridymite, a variety of crysl listd silicon, is found in the lavas in form of thin hexago imbricated plates ; M. Fouque regards it as a posterior format to the other elements, and as having arisen at a high temperat under the influence of imprisoned droplets of water, when 1 surrounding ro:k was liquid or viscous. The report speaks hig' of the value of this memoir. — Researches on the brachistochro of a heavy body, with regard to passive resistances, by M. Hal de la Goupilliere. — On the characteristics of systems of con and surfaces of the second order, by M. Halphen. — M. Frang recommended, against phylloxera, the vitriolic water from I mines of pyrites of Sainbel. — Observations rela'iveto the gene theory of trombes, by M. Virlet d'Aoust. He describes so dust whirlwinds observed on the Mexican plateaux.— Determii tion, by the method of analytic correspondence, of the envelo] surface of a surface whose equation contains n parametres ci nected together only by « — 2 relations, by M. Saltel. — Influei of temperature on magnetisation, by M. Gaugain. The value the temporary variation varies considerably frjm one bar another. To determine the influence of temperature this shoi be kept invariable throughout an experiment ; the author ( scribes how he accomplished this. With a bar susceplible considerable temporary variation, the magnetism developed 300° is weaker than at ordinary temperature, but in the oppos case it is stronger. — On the hydrates of sulphate of copper, M. Magnier de la Source. — Onmargaric chloride and its derl' fives, by M. Villiers. — Researches on quercite, by M. Pruni He considers quercite to form a transition between the fa series and the aromatic series. — On angelic acid, by M. Deny 9ay. He verifies his former experimental results against soi contradiction of them by M. Fittig in the Berlin Chemi Society. — Physiological experiments on the functions of t nervous system of Echinida, by M. Fredericq. The coi described as the nervous system are the means by whi harmony of movements is established. Fa;ts seem also favour the existence of a nervous plexus situated in t thickness of the external tegument.— On the mobile sti of Podophrya fixa, by M. Maupas. This, he says, har*. merits its name ; it is more mobile and vagabond than kno' Acinetinians, and is an intermediate type between suctorial in soria and ciliated infusoria, properly sj called. He describes detail the changes which take place in it during its mobile peric —On the existence of asparagii'.e in sweet almonds, by i Portes. — On the influence of leaves and floral branches oa t nature and quantity of sugar contained in the scape of agave, M. Balland. Both leaves and flowers have an incontestable r in the formation of sugar. — On a meteoric iron very rich in nicl, found in the province of Santa Catharina (Brazil), by MM. Guig and Ozorio de Almeida ; iron 64 per cent., nickel 36. It a pears to belong to the terrestrial rocks. M. Daubree remark that a careful examination of all that region was very desiral. —Chemical composition of the wa'.er of the Bay of Rio Janeiro, by MM. Guignet and Teller. It contains consider,,' quantities of silica and alumina (9 "5 and 7*5 gr. respectively, cubic metre). This is from decomposition of the gndss a granite rocks under friction of the water. CONTENTS Pa Ferrihk on the Braix, I. By George Henry Lewhs Greek and Latin Philology. By Rev. A. H. Sayce Our Book Shhlf : — Packard s " IWonograph of the Geometrid -Vfoths or Phaloenida: of the United States .... . Lbtteks to the Editor : — Prof. Balfour Stewart on Meteorological Research — Thomas Sth- VENSON, C.E Ocoan Currents. —Capt. Digby Murray Dffiniteness and Accuracy. — Prof. P. G. Tait On the Internal FJuidity of the Earth. — Prof. Henry Hennessy F.R.S The Age of the Rotks of Charnwood Forest. — Pro'. Edward Hli.i,, F.R.S Mind and Matter. — Wm. S. Duncan . Meteor. — Cecil H. Sp. Percival The Present State of Mathematical Science. By^Prof. H. Smith, F.R.S The Austrian Akctic Expedition (M^i/A ///?«^?-rt// "-- 0 N \, \ w L— 1 1 ' \ \ „--- ^^ \ N /^ ^ \ / y / — 1 ^ / Fig. 4. row of holes is punched for the purpose of carrying the paper through the machine. The paper is then put into the machine and drawn along at a uniform speed by means of clock-work. The paper passes through the ooooooooo O o o o o 0 O 0090a Fig. 6. tube u and underneath two prickers placed so as to cor- respond to the right and left holes in the paper. When I04 NA TURE \Nov. 30, 1876 a right or left hole passes, the corresponding pricker falls into the hole, and in doing so lifts a spring through the opening / or /' into the rim of the revolving wheel O o'. The spring being caught in the rim of the wheel is obliged to remain there until the wheel makes one complete revolution, and the opening in the rim returns to free it. The wheel makes one revolution while one space passes the pricker. When the spring is lifted into the rim of the wheel it makes connection between the battery and another set of springs. The latter set of springs are acted on by a double cam, ( l', which is conntcted with the same shaft as O o', and revolves with it. During one revolution this double cam by means of the second set of springs sends first one current from the battery into the cable, and immediately afterwards a second current of the opposite name and of rather shorter duration. The first current is the signal and the second is the curb current. If a left-hand hole in the punched paper passes, and the corresponding pricker falls into it, a positive current will be sent first, followed by a negative current, but if a right-hand hole passes, the first current will be negative, followed by a positive one. Fig. 6 shows the appearance of the punched paper when it is prepared for the Automatic Sender. The specimen represents the signal "understand" and the fir^t seven letters of the alphabet. ON THE CONDITIONS OF THE ANTARCTIC^ MY principal object in this evening's lecture is to direct your attention to some of the peculiarities in the physical conditions of the Antarctic regions, and to put you in a better position to contrast these with the more generally known phenomena of the Arctic ; and it seems specially appropriate to allow our thoughts to travel for an hour towards that other fortress of the Ice King, a fortress apparently even more hopelessly im- pregnable, now whde the pulse of the nation is st;ll throbbing in sympathy with the brave little band who have just added another chapter to a long and terrible record of daring and self-sacrifice, and have succeeded in the face of almost unparalleled hardships in once more planting the Union-Jack nearest to the North Pole. The propriety is all the greater seeing that Capt. Nares, the gallant leader of the northern explorers, is also the last of the few navigators who have crossed the Antarctic Circle. I will first of all then give you a brief sketch of our Antarctic experiences in the Challenger, and then go on to consider what may be the most prolaable explanation of some of the most striking of the appearances which we observed. After spending about a month at Kerguelen Island, making meteorological and other observations, and se- lecting a suitable spot for the observation of the transit of Venus by the English astronomical party in the follow- ing season, the Challenger left Christmas Harbour on January 31, 1874, and on February 6 we reached the deso- late little group of the Heard Islands, and on the 7th continued our course southwards. Early on the morning of the nth a large iceberg was observed bearing south-south-east about six miles off. The berg was table-shaped, the top perfectly flat and covered with a dazzling layer of snow. The perpendicular ice-cliffs bounding it were of a delicate pale blue, apparently per- fectly clear, with some caves and slight recesses, where the blue was of a deeper shade. The height of the berg above the sea was 219 feet, and its extreme length by angular measurement was 2,202 feet ; so that, supposing it'to be symmetrical in shape, the contour of the visible portion being continued downwards, its depth below the ' The substance of a lecture by Sir C. Wyville Thomson, K. R.S., delivered in the City Hall, (.lasgow. on November 23, under the atrangements of the Glasgow Science Lecture Association. water may probably have been about 1,500 to i,8oo feet. In the afternoon Lord George Campbell observed during his watch a large piece come off the side, dashing up the spray, and we afterwards saw a quantity of fragments floating off". The 1 2th was misty, with a breeze force = 3-4 from the north-west by west. Many icebergs came in sight from time to time and quickly became obscured in the mist. The position of the ship at noon was lat. 62° 36' S., long. 80° 4' E. Towards evening we passed close to a very beautiful iceberg. One part of it was rounded and irregular in form, putting us in mind of the outline of the Sphinx, and another portion, separated from the first by a fissure, the sea dashing through between them, was like a frag- ment of a colossal cornice. As the sun sank the ice took a most lovely pink or mauve tint, and when we came close up to the berg it showed out veined in a wonderful way with lines of deep cobalt- blue. The ice was perfectly pure and clear. The bergs which we were passing at this time seemed to be breaking up very rapidly ; some large fragments had been detached from this one shortly before we reached it, for a quantity of debris was floating at a little distance. The pieces washing about in the water very soon lose their edges and angles, and get rounded, and shortly disappear. The 13th was a fine day, with a light wind from the north-north-east and occasional snow showers. There were some large tabular icebergs along the southern horizon. In the afternoon we passed close to a beautiful berg, very irregular in form, all the curves and shadows of a most splendid blue. The lower portion of the side of the iceberg next us formed a long steep slope into the water, and up this slope the surf ran with every heave of the swell, taking in its course the glorious blue of the ice and ending at the top of the glacis in a line of glittering foam. The evening fell grey and slightly misty, with a number of icebergs looming through the mist. One or two of us were standing on the bridge about midnight looking at what seemed to be a low bank of white fog coming down upon us, when all at once a universal grating and rasping sound and sensation seemed to pervade the ship, arid looking over the side we found that instead of saiUng in open water we had passed into the edge of the pack, and as far as the eye could reach to the eastward the sea was closely covered with blocks of ice of all sizes up to six or seven feet in length among which the ship ground her way. A cold-looking moon struggled faintly through the cloud and mist and showed the pack vaguely for a mile or so ahead, covered with a light fog through which we could just see several icebergs looming right ahead of us and on either bow, and the masses of ice becoming larger and forming a closer pack as we passed ^inwards from tb« outer edge. It was a wonderful and in a certain sense a beautiful sight, but one which would certainly require for its full enjoyment very fine weather such, as we had, or a spe- cially strengthened ship. The necessary orders were given, and we veered roimd and slowly passed out of the pack and into open water ; and we hung about beyond the line of wash-ice for the short Antarctic night. On the following morning there were icebergs all round us, some of them of very fine forms. One which we saw all day on the port quarter was gable- shaped with a glorious blue Gothic arch in the centre, and a separate spire over 200 feet high. It was like a gorgeous floating cathedral built of sapphire set in frosted silver. All day the pack could be seen from the deck stretching away to the east and south as far as the eye could reach, a mass of rugged gUttering blocks one piled on the top of another. The ice-blink, a beautiful and characteristic phenomenon, was very marked above the pack — a clear y Nov.'io, 1876] NATURE 105 band of white reflection rising some 12° above the horizon, and frequently bounded above by a dark- rolled cloud. The 15th was clear and calm, with a light wind from the south-east. There were innumerable icebergs in all directions, some with their blue cliffs entirely visible from the bridge, and the blue waves lapping about their- base, and springing up into fissures and recesses in jets of dazzling foam ; some only rising above the horizon and slowly developing their varied outlines, and for a time deluding us into the idea that they were low— sloping gently from the water, and that it might be possible to land upon them. All the very large bergs, and some of them were one or two miles in length, were table-topped, evidently retaining their original position. About 10 o'clock in the evening our attention was called by the officer of the watch to a very beautiful effect of lig^t. There had been a fine crimson sunset, and now a dark curtain of cloud had sunk almost to the water's edge, leaving between it and the sea a long open line of the most vivid flame-colour, broken here and there by an iceberg, which, according to its position, took a rosy glow from the sky, or merely interrupted it with its cold grey outline. During the forenoon of February 16 we passed on under sail through a splendid double chain of icebergs, most of them table-topped, and showing little evidence of change of form ; and all day, on the southern horizon, berg after berg rose solemnly out of the water, at first a white line only, the blue bounding-cliff growing in height as we ran southwards. Shortly after noon we crossed the Antarctic circle, and a little later we reached our most southern point, lat. 66° 40' S. ; long. 78° 22' E. exactly fourteen hundred miles from the South Pole. As the season was advancing, and as there was no special object in our going further south — a proceeding ^ which would have been attended with great risk to an un- protected ship, since, while the temperature of the surface-water ranged between — \°-6j and — 2°o C. (29" and 28°'4 F.), very close to the freezing-point of sea-water, . the temperature of the air fell to — 4" 44 C. (24 F.), and once or twice the water began to show that sludgy ap- pearance which we know sets so rapidly, converting in a few hours an open pack into a doubtfully penetrable barrier — Capt. Nares decided upon following the edge of the pack to the north-eastward, towards the position of Wilkes' " Termination Land." From our most southern point the sea was tolerably clear of ice for at least twenty miles in a south-westerly direction. The whole of the horizon to the south-east was closed by a chain of very uniform and symmetrical flat- topped bergs, all about 200 feet high above the water, one upwfirds of three miles in length, and several between one and two miles. During the next week we were making our way slowly to the north-east, along the edge of the pack, sometimes • lipping into it a little way, or crossing outlying loose patches. The pieces of ice on which we were bumping every now and then were 10 to 20 feet in length, rising from I to 2 feet out of the water. Most of them were covered with a smooth layer of lately fallen snow, which had apparently not even got splashed with the water which was lapping round the blocks, it was so pure and white. When the ship struck a block, the ice was usually driven aside unbroken ; but the crust of snow was shattered and fell into the water. At the line where the water broke against the ice-blocks, they were all more or less honeycombed and worn-looking, and along this line many of thtm were of a dirty-yellow colour, probably from the washing of diatoms and crustaceans into the spongy ice. The temperature of the air averaged about - 4°7 C. (23°-5 F.) in the shade ; and that of the surface of the sea - 2°78 (27° F.) ; every overhanging ledge of an iceberg was fring'^d with delicate new icicles, and the "gummy" look of the surface, threatening the formation of young ice, was very evident. The sea was usually a splendid deep blue.^ The weather changed during the night of the 23rd, and at daylight on the morning of the 24th the wind was rising fast with a cloudy sky and frequent snow-showers. We were very anxious to get a haul of the dredge in this posi- tion, and Capt. Nares had it put over in the hope of getting it up before the weather became too boisterous. The wind and sea rose so fast, however, that it was found necessary to shorten the operation. The dredge was got in safely, but, as we' anticipated, it was empty, and had probably never reached the bottom. During the forenoon the weather got rapidly worse. The snow became con- tinuous, and was so thick — blinding clouds of singularly beautiful wheel-hke crystals, which stung the face as if they were red hot — that we could scarcely see the length of the ship. We tried to get under the lee of an iceberg ; but while reefing an eddy caught the ship and dragged her towards the berg, which she fouled, carrying away her jibboom. At three P.M. things were nearly as bad as they could be. The wind was blowing from the south- east by east, with a hurricane force, in the squalls ; the sea was running very high ; the temperature had fallen to — 6°'ii C. (21° F.) ; we were surrounded with icebergs, which we could not see for the sheets of blinding snow, but we could hear the dull boom of the surf dashing upon them. When the gale was at its height we £aw the loom of an iceberg on the lee-bow, and we were drifting directlyupon it. As there was no time to steam ahead, Capt. Nares went full-speed astern with the four boilers, and set the reefed main topsail aback, and under this sail the ship fortu- nately gathered stern-way, keeping broadside to the wind, and we drifted past the berg. Towards evening the wind fell a little, and we moved about all night between two btrgs, whose position we knew, keeping as much as pos::-ible under their lee till daylight. On the morning of the 25th this storm, which was one of the most trying and critical episodes in the whole voyage, was entirely over, and the air was calm and clear. We pushed a couple of miles into the pack to the north- east. We were now about fifteen miles from the position of Termination Land on the chart sent by Lieut. Wilkes to Capt. Ross. The sky was clear to the southward and eastward, the direction of the supposed land, but there was nothing which could be taken even for an "appear- ance of land." A sounding taken close to the edge of the pack had given a depth of 1,300 fithoms, and there was no trace of land debris on any of the icebergs. We were forced to conclude that Lieut VViikes had been in error, and that there was no lin J n this position. We now ran on steadily in a north-easterly direction towards Cape Otway, and on March 4 we passed a low irregular iceberg, the last we saw during our southern cruise of 1874. We sighted Cape Otway on March 16, and on the 17th we anchored off Sandridgc Pier, in Hobson's Bay. In these high southern latitudes, at all events at the point where we crossed the Antarctic circle, it seems that originally all the icebergs are tabular, the surface perfectly level and parallel with the surface of the sea, a cliff on an average 200 feet high bounding the berg. The top is covered with a layer of the whitest snow ; now and then a small flock of petrels take up their quarters upon it, and trample and soil some few square yards, but after their departure one of the frequent snow showers restores it in a few minutes to its virgin whiteness. The upper part of the cliff is of a pale blue, which gradually deepens towards the base. When looked at closely, the face of the cliff is seen to be traversed by a delicate ruling of faint blue lines, the lines more distant above, and becoming gradually closer. The distance between the well-marked lines near the top of the berg may be a foot, or even more ; while near the surface of the water it is not more than 2 or 3 inches, and the spaces betweer io6 NA TURE [Nov. 30, 1876 the blue lines have lost their dead whiteness and have become hyaline or bluish. The blue lines are very un- equal in their strength and in their depth of colouring ; sometimes a group of very dark lines gives a marked character to a part of a berg. Between the stronger blue lines near the top of the cliff a system of closerbands may be observed, marking the division of the ice by still finer planes of lamination, but these are blended and lost in the narrower spaces towards the water-line. The blue lines are the sections of sheets of clear ice; the Fig. I. — February 11, 1874. Lat. 60" 52' S , Long. 80° 20' E. white intervening bands are the sections of layers of ice where the particles are not in such close contact— ice probably containing some air. The stratification in ;dlthe icebergs which we saw, was, I believe, originally horizontal and conformable, or very nearly so. In very many of them the strata had become inclined at various angles, or vertical, or reversed ; in many they were traversed by faults, or twisted or con- torted or displaced, but I never saw a sirg'e instance of deviation from the horizontal and symmetrical stratifica- tion which could in any way be referred to original struc- ture ; which could not, in fact, be at once accounted for by changes which we had an opportunity of observing taking place in the icebergs. I think there can be no reasonable doubt from their shape, and from their remarkable uniformity of character, Fig. 2.— Febniarj 23, i?74. L?.t. 64° 15' S., Long. 93° 24' E. that these great table-topped icebergs which we saw all around us, and closing in our southern and eastern horizon at the southernmost point of our voyage, and breaking down and melting a little further to the north, are pris- matic blocks riven from the edge of the great Antarctic ice-sheet, portions of whose vertical cliff were seen by Ross in January, 1841, and in February, 1842, in lat. 78° 4' and lat. jf 49' S. to the southward of New Zealand, and by Lieut.-Commandant Ringgold in the U.S. ship Porpoise, on February i and 2, 1840, in long. 130° 36' E. lat. 65° 49' S. There is unfortunately great difficulty in determining when the wall of ice to which the term " ice- barrier " was restricted by Capt. Ross was seen by- Lieut. Wilkes or any of his party, since Lieut. Wilkes applies the term indiscriminately to the solid ice-walls and to the masses of moving pack by v.'hich his progress was from time to time interrupted. The wall is satisfac- torily described at one or two points only. I iaelieve that the stratification of those portions of the icebergs which were visible to us is due entirely to suc- cessive accumulations of snow upon a nearly level surface. The spaces between the trans- verse blue lines on the bergs may possibly represent approximately the snow accumula- tion of successive seasons. The direct radiant heat of the sun is very great in these latitudes, and during summer the immediate surface of the snow is frequently melted in the middle of the day, the water percolating down among the snow beneath and freezing again at night, or when it has trickled down into the shade. This process repeated every clear day for the two or three months of summer might well convert a very considerable belt of snow into ice more or less compact. That the process does go on we had ample evidence in the icicles fringing the snow which was lying upon flat pieces of the pack, which dropped rapidly in the sun even when the thermometer in the shade was several degrees below the freezing point. The finer laminations may probably indicate the more feeble results of the same process after successive snow- falls. As I have already said there was not, so far as we could see, in any iceberg the slightest trace of structure stamped upon the ice in passing down a valley, or during its progress over roches montonnees or any other form of uneven land ; the only structure except the parallel strati- fication which we ever observed which could be regarded as bearing upon the mode of original formation of the ice-mass was an occasional local thinning out of some of the layers and thickening of others, just such an appearance as might be expected to result from the occasional drifting of large btds of snow before they have time to become con- solidated. We certainly never saw any trace of gravel or stones or any foreign matter necessarily derived from land on an iceberg; several showed vertical or irregular fissures filled with discoloured ice or snow, but when looked at closely the discoloration proved usually to be very slight, and the effect at a distance was chiefly due to the foreign material filling the fissure reflecting Ight le^s perfectly than the general surface of the berg. In one or two distant bergs there seemed to be thick hori- zontal beds of ice deeply coloured brown or -'':- bottle-green, but this was also, I believe, chiefly an effect of light. In the pack, which is made up of fragments of all sizes of berg-ice mixed with masses of salt-water ice, the berg-ice is almost always either white with pale- blue streaks, blue with a white opalescence, or rarely deep blue, or still more rarely black from absolute transparency ; it is seldom soiled in any way. It is so occasionally ; on the loth we passed, not far from our turning-point, a piece of berg-ice with a small flock of penguins upon it. The birds had evidently been there for some time for the snow on the surface of the ice was trampled into a dirty brownish mud ; another fall oi snow would have converted this layer into a discoloured vein in the block. C. Wyville Thomson {Xo ^s quantity, leaf-fragments of dicotyledonous plants. Besides leaf-shreds of Coniferae, there were woody pieces which indicated the existence of Picea (Obo- vata ?), Abies (Sibiiia?), Larix(Sibirica?), Gnetaceae, Betulaceae, and Salicineae. If it is scarcely possible to detemane certainly the species of a p-ant merely from some of the wood received in the state indicated, and from the structure of the leaf epidermis, it yet seems unquestionable that these remains must be referred ;o northern plants and to such ,as are "still partly found in the ligh north. Mr, Coxwell writing to the Daily Nrjjs in reference to Arctic ballooning, maintains that the ordinary practice of bal- looning would be quite unsuitable for the conditions found in the Arctic regions. I. MORITZ, director of the Tiflis Observatory, makes an resting communication on the results of an examination of magnetic instruments there last July by Prof. Smmoff, of an, who has been engaged during the last six years travelling ugh to determine the elements of terrestrial magnetism. The ii ruments employed by Prof. Smirnofif, which cost 300 roubles, . I re all verified at Kew, and are furnished with microscopes and ill the other accessories of the English system. The compass has 'irce needles (No. 4, No. 3, and No. 16), four inches in length, ml the mean of the readings of the three needles is the true liclination. At Tiflis there are two compasses long in use, con- structed according to the old method of Gambey, which are now generally looked upon as inferior instruments. They cost respect- ively only 165 and 40 roubles. The results of a very careful com- parison are these : — Assuming the mean of the indications of the three Kew needles as the true inclination the errors of the instru- ments were, Kew No. 4, — o''25 ; No. 3, + 2' '45 ; and No. 16, — 2' '22 ; the error of the large Gambey being -f o'*30, and of the small Gambey — o''09. M. Moritz remarks that the micro- scope and detached circle on which the readings are made, and which add so greatly to the price of the English compass, appear to add nothing to the precision with which the inclination is determined, facilities for minute readings of the compass being made counting but little, it being the form of the pivots of the physical axis of the needle which stamps its character on the instrument. " On Some Insect Deformities," by Dr. Hermann A. Hagen, is the ti'le of No. 9, vol. ii., of the Memoirs of the Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard College, Cambridge, U. S. We have received from Herr Schmilt, publisher, Ziirich, Dr. Hermann Berge's " Beittage zur Entwicklungsgeschichte von Bryophyllum Calycinum," and Dr. Gustav Schoch's " Die Schweizerischen Orthopteren." The following German publications have been sent us by Messrs. Williams and Norgate : — " Ucbcr die Zugstrassen der Vogel," by J. A. Palmen, of Helsinglors ; "Grundziige der Mikrophotographie," by Max Hauer ; "Sammlung wissen- schaftlicher Vortrage von Prof. Wilhelm I'orster ;" "Die Dar- win'schen Theorien und ihre Stellung zur Philosophic, Religion, und Moral," by Rudolf Schmid. The Goldsmiths' Company, whose donation to the Chemical Society we noted last week, have voted 500/. in aid of the fund for extending Edinburgh University buildings. It is stated that this Company spends annually 6,000/. for educational purposes alone. We wish the other City Companies would follow such a good example. , The following were elected office-bearers of the Royal Society of Edinburgh on Monday last : — President, Sir William Thorn- son ; Vice-Presidents, Rev. Dr. Lindsay Alexander, Bishop Cotterill, Sir Alexander Grant, Prof. Kelland, Lord Neaves, and David Stevenson ; General Secretary, Prof, Balfour ; Secre- taries to Ordinary Meetings, Professors Tait and Turner ; Treasurer, David Smith ; Curator of Library and Museum, Prof, Maclagan ; Members of Council, Prof. Crum Brown, Dr. James Bryce, Alexander Buchan, Dr. Matthews Duncan, Dr. A. Fleming, Dr. T. Harvey, D. Milne Home, Prof. McKen- drick. Dr. C. Morehead, Sir C. Wyville Thomson, Dr. R. H. Traquair, and Dr. Robert Wyld. The next meeting of the French Association for the Advance- ment of Science will take place, as we have already intimated, at Havre in the end of August, 1877, under the presidency of Dr. Broca. A local.committee has been already formed at Havre under the presidency of M. Mazurier, the mayor. At the first meeting M. Gariel, the secretary of the committee, suggested many useful and interesting experiments to be made in the Seine or the sea. Special efforts will be made to procure a large attendance of English savants and members of the British Association. It is reported that a special deputation will be sent to the Dublin meeting of the British Association. The place of meeting for 1878 has not yet been determined upon, but it will probably be Versailles or Paris. The Times of Monday contains a journal kept by the Rev. Mr. Lawes during a voyage from Port Moresby to China Straits, New Guinea. It contains a good many new facts of interest. I lO NATURE [Nov. 30, 1876 At Hood's Bay they sailed up a considerable river, and near the coast found a large village, regularly laid out in streets and squares, scrupulously clean, with gardens and carefully cultivated flowers. Canoes of large size and excellent make they saw being hewed out with stone hatchets. At a lagoon at Cape Rodney a regular lake village was found, the lagoon leading up to a considerable river. Near Table Point a large canoe " manned " by at least twenty-one women, came alongside ; it is reported at Port Moresby, and all along the coast, that there is a village of women somewhere near Amazon Bay. At the last meeting of the French Geographical Society, the president, M. Malte Brun, intim.ated that the Council General of the Seine had voted a sum of 2,000 francs to assist M. Largeau in bis exploration of the Sahara. M. Largeau left on November 19 for Algiers, whence he will proceed to Constantine, Tuggurth, and Central Sahara. The subscription on his behalf is pro- ceeding. The Geographical Council of Lyons has voted a small subji'Jy of 12/., and the Municipal Council of Lyons will send him, within a very few days, a considerable donation. M. Melidin, a rich landed gentleman, has offered to the Society to maint ain during one year any traveller approved by the Society. The offer was accepted with thanks. On December 20 the general secretary will deliver a lecture on "The Progress of Geography during 1876," and on the following day the annual banquet will take place at the Grand Hotel. At the Geographical Society on Monday night papers were read on the results of Col. Gordon's expedition in Central Africa, from General Stone, the Rev. E. J. Davis, and Signor Gessi- Sir Rutherford Alcock announced the death of an African missionary, Mr. Redman, who, by his explorations, had ma. terially helped subsequent travellers, and who first suggested that there was a great system of lakes in Central Africa. A GREAT extension of the medical department of the Univer. sity of Heidelberg has been in progress for some time. Large additions to the Medical School and the Hospital attached to it Jiave been made, and when completed, as it will be shortly, this institution will be one of the most complete in Europe. Every provision has been made for scientific investigation in connection with the healing art in all its departments. The A)xhiv filr Ant/iroJ>ologie (\x. 173) contains a paper by Herr L. Lindenschmidt, in which he pronounces his conviction that the drawings upon the fossil bones found in the Thayingen Cave are spurious and the result of intentional deception. These drawings, which represent a bear, a fox, and a stag, were generally admired in scientific circles in 1874 (when they were found) as being amongst the most perfect specimens of the kind ; they also led to the supposition of the highly-civilised state of the ancient cave inhabitants. Herr Lindenschmidt produces evidence to the effect that precisely the same drawings are con- tained in a little work by Leutemann, " Die Thiergarten und Menagerien mit Ihren Insassen," which was published in 1868, i.e. six years before the discovery of the cave near Thayingen. As the work in question had a very wide circulation in Germany the inference drawn is obvious. A NOTICE in the Osfsee Zeiiung accounts for the frequent de- ficiencies in the aroma of foreign cigars by announcing that from Guben whole waggon-loads of dried cherry-leaves are weekly exported for the manufacture of "tobacco." A SUCCESSFUL soirie of the Manchester Scientific Students' Association was held last Friday, when Prof. Williamson gave an address on Insectivorous Plants. A VERY fine new university building has been erected at Kiel, one marked peculiarity of which is that it has no " career," or prison, which hitherto, it seems, has been an invariable append- age to German universities. There met in Berlin, a few days ago, a German Government Commission whose business it is to look after the moors and marshes of Germany. They resolved to establish an experi- mental station at Bremen, to be opened on April i next year, drew up a plan for obtaining statistics and a topography of moors, and made arrangements for the complete canalisation of the moors in the Duchy of Bremen. The labours of the Commission will include the whole of Germany. The directors of the Swedish Government railways have turned their special attention to the frequent occurrence of colour-blind- ness amongst their engine-drivers and other officials. Prof. Holmgren has lately examined the whole staff of the Upsala- Gefle Railway, and amongst the 266 persons examined has found no less than eighteen who suffered from this defect, and who therefore were utterly useless and unfit for railway service. This investigation proves that cases of colour-blindness are far more frequent than is generally supposed, and that our railway companies would do well to follow the example of the Swedish State railways. The Kijlnische Zeiiung of the 14th inst. declares that the recent sudden cold was a perfectly abnormal meteorological phenome- non, and all the more so since it did not only visit a part but nearly the whole of Europe. Reports of heavy snowstorms have come from the whole of North Germany, Austria, Servia, and Roumania, and the temperature had fallen below freezing in all these countries as well as in Western France, Italy as far south as Rome, and the whole of European Turkey. In Hungary the cold reached 13° C. Violent gales were raging in the Black Sea, the Adriatic, and the Baltic. In another article, dated from the Teutoburg forest, the paper reports that the whole of that district is snowed up, and a valuable crop of vegetables, beetroot, &c. , has been destroyed by the cold. A MoNS, MfeNiER, of Bordeaux, has invented a new con- trivance for the steering of balloons. The mechanism is placed behind the car, and by a clever arrangement of network acli upon a belt which encircles the body of the balloon, extend- ing about four or five degrees above and below a horizontal plana through its centre — its equator, so to say. The rudder is plane, and can be used as a sail. The balloons are said to move obliquely upwards and downwards and also sideways, according to the position of the rudder. The sideway motion is very likely facilitated by changing the position of ballast. One circum- stance, which may be of special practical use, is that a balloon provided with this new apparatus, when falling to the ground, can be made to touch the earth's surface very obliquely and thus avoid any sudden shock, and at the same time facilitate a safe anchoring. Herr Edward Trewendt, publisher, Breslau, has issued the prospectus of a New Encyclopedia of the Natural Sciences, which will include [all departments of science. The first part will appear on January i, 1878. More than 18,000 francs have been already collected for the erection of Arago's statue at Perpignan. The additions to the Zoological Society's Gardens during the past week include a Bonnet Monkey {Macacus radiatus) from India, presented by Mr. E. F. Mathews ; a Slender-billed Cockatoo {Licmetis tenuirostris) from South Australia, presented by Mr. Stevens ; a Gannet {Sula bassana), European, presented by Mr. R. H. W. Leach; a VtxegxmQYa.\con{Falco peregritms)^ captured at sea, presented by Mr. A. Whyte ; a Giivet Monkey {Cercopithecus griseo-viridis) from Nubia, an Indian LeoparJ i^Felis pardus) from India, a Hooded Crane {Gtus monachus)\ from Japan, a Globose Curassow {Crax globicera) from Central] America, deposited j an Indian Muntjac {Cervulus muntjac), al Japanese Deer ( Cervus sika), boin in the Gardens. Nov. 30, 1876] NATURE 1 1 1 SCIENTIFIC SERIALS RIorphologiscJus yahrbuch, vol. ii. Part 2. — On the structure of the toes of Batrachia, &c., by Dr. Y. Leydig (32 pages). — On the valvular apparatus in the conus arteriosus of Selachians and Ganoids, by Dr. Stohr. — Contribution to the anatomy and his- tology of Asteroids and Ophiuroids, by Wichard La.nge (46 pages, 3 pla'.es). Reichert and Du Bois Reymond's Archiv, September, 1876. — Studies on animal heat, Part 3 (conclusion), by Dr. A. Adam- kiewicz. — Contribution to the theory of the growth of bone, by Dr. I.. Lotze. — On the negative variation of the muscular current during contraction, Part 3 (conclusion), by Du Bois Reymond. Archiv fitr mikroskopiscke Anatomie, vol. xiii. Part I, July, 1876. — Rhizopod studies. No. vi., by F. E. Schulze. — On the anatomy and liistology of the Coccida;, by E. L. Mark. — Studies of the development of Gastropods, by N. Bobretzky (75 pages), with 6 plates illustrating the development of Nassa mutabilis, Natica, and Fusus. — On the hypothesis of discharge and the motor end plates, by W. Krause. Bulletin de I' Acadimie Impa-iale des Sciences de St. Petersbourq, t. xxii., No. 2. — This part contains the following papers of interest : — Diagnoses plantarum novarum Japoniae et Mandshu- riae, decas xx. (continued from last vol.), by C. J. Maximovicz. — On the plants of the bear period found in the deposits of the Ogour liver, a tributary to the Jenissei, in Siberia, by J. Schmal- lusen. — Preliminary communication by the same, on a micro- topical examination of the food-remains of Siberian fossil rhi- noceros, viz., Rhinoceros antiquitatis sen tichorinus. — Onthesup- ])osed satellite of Procyon (a Canis min.), by O. Struve. The ther contents are only of archaeological and philological interest. SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES London Linnean Society, November 16. — Prof. Allman, president, in the cha'r. — Messrs. J. C. Oman, R. H. Peck, and D. G. Rutherford were duly elected fellows. — Mr. H. N. Moseley, of II. M.S. Challenger, read a paper on the flora of Marion Island. This island possesses considerable interest from its isolation and being within the Antarctic drift. It is about 1,000 miles from the African Continent, 450 frcm the Crozets, 1,200 from the desolate Kerguelen Island, above 2,000 from Tristan D'Acunha, and 4,500 from the Falklands, to which, nevertheless, its flora appears related. It is of volcanic origin and snowclad. The rocks at half-tide are covered with Darvilea uttlis, above high tide Tdhca tnoschnta is found in abundance, and beyond the beach a swampy peaty soil Covers the rocks, where there is a thick growth of herbage ; this is principally composed of species of Acceiia, Azorella, and Festuca, the first ol these three being the most abundant plant on the island, though the latter grass is by no mean) scarce. The cabbage-like plant Pringlea antiscorbutica is less profu'e than at Kcrguelen's Land. Some of the ranun- culus group are met with at water pools near the sea ; four kinds of ferns were obtained, Lomaria Alpina being tlse most numerous. Lichens are scarce, but mosses in plenty form yellow patches, which stand out conspicuously midst the green vegetation, which rises to an altitude of probably 2,000 feet. From the occurrence of Pringlea on Marion Island, the Crozets, and Kerguelen Island, and the existence cf fo sd trte-trunks on the two latter, the author surmises an ancient land connection between them. — A memoir on ■he birds collected by Prof. Steere (U.S. P4ichigan) in the : h.lippine Archipelago was read by Mr. R. Bowdler Sharpe, and copious coloured drawings of the new and rare forms exhi- bited and commtnte.i on. Although it is but lately that Lord Tweeddale's (President Zool. Soc.) remarkable monograph on the Philippine birds was published, with immense additions to the avifauna, yet Steele's collection has yielded over sixty hitherto unknown species. Many novelties may therefore still be expected as further exploration proceeds. The recorded species of birds from the Philippines at the present now amount to 2S5.— A letter containing observations on the Ameiican Grasshopper {Caloptenus femur -ruhruni), with remarks on the same by Mr. Frederick Smith, was noticed.— Mr. Moseley exhi- bited some insular floral collections in illustration of his paper and of the various parts touched at by the Challenger. He also called attention to a series of volumes and pamphlets, &c., on natural history obtained by him in Japan. Zoological Society, November 21. — Prof. Flowers, F.R.S., vice-president, in the chair. The Secretary read a report on the additions that had been made to the Society's Menagerie during the month of October. — Mr. Sclater exhibited and made remarks on the skin of a young rhinoceros (iV. sondaicus), belonging to Mr. W. Jamrach, which had been captured in the Sunderbunds, near Calcutta, in May last. — The Secretary exhibited on behalf of Mr. Andrew Anderson, a coloured drawing ofa specimen of ^//yx haviiltoni, lately captured at Futtehgurh (Ganges). The occur- rence of this Einys, chiefly confined to Lower Bengal, sd far west as Futtehgurh, was considered as of much interest. — A letter was read from Count T. Salvadori, containing remarks on some of the birds mentioned by Signor D'Albertis, as seen by him during his first excursion up the Fly River. — A communication was read from Mr. G. B. Sowerby, jun., containing descriptions of six new species of shells, from the collections of the Marchio- ness Paulucci and Dr. Prevost. — Mr. Edward R. Alston read a paper containing the descriptions of two new species of liesper- omys from Central America, which he proposed to call respec- tively Hesperomys teguina and //. couesi. — A paper was read by Prof. Garrod, F. R.S., on the Chinese Deer, named Lophotragus michianus, by Mr. Swinhoe, in which he showed that the species so called was identical with Elaphodus cephalophus (A. Milne Edwards), obtained by Fere David in Moupm. The close affinity between the genera Elaphodus and Cervulus was demon- strated, the latter differing little more than in the possession of frontal cutaneous glands not found in the former. — Mr. Arthur G. Butler read a paper containing descriptions of new species of Lepidoptera, from New Guinea, with a notice of a new genus, — A communication was read from Dr. J. S. Bowerbank, being the eighth of his series of ' * Contributions to a General History of the Spongiadse." Meteorological Society, November 15. — Mr, H. S. Eaton, M.A., president, in the chair. — Messrs. R. A. Allison, John Evans, F.R.S., Dr. W. Marcet, F.R.S., Rev. T. G. P. Pope, and Mr. G. Washington were elected fellows. — The following papers were read : — Results of meteorological observations made at Rossiniere, Canton Vaud, Switzerland, during 1874 and 1875, by Mr. William Marriott. Rossiniere is situated in a valley running north-east and south-west, about three quarters of a mile broad, the mountains on the north being 3,000 to 4,000 feet above the valley of the Sarine, and those on the south, 1,000 to 3,000 feet. The valley is shut in at either end by a gorge, that on the east being about one mile, and that on the west about two miles distant. The observations were all taken by Col. M. F. Ward, F. R.A. S. The mean temperature, as deduced from the mean of the maximum and minimum readings, was 43°'4 for 1874, and 43°'5 ^'^^ ^^IS- The monthly means ranged from 20°"0 for December, 1874, and 20°'5 for December, 1875, to 64° "9 for July, 1874. The highest temperature in 1874 was 89° on July 3, and 1875, 85° on August 18 ; the lowest in 1874 was — 4" on December 24, and in 1875 — 7° on January i. Owing to the situation of Rossiniere, the prevailing winds are those from north-east and south-west. In the winter months the air is for the most part calm, and it is owing to this absence of wind that the intense cold is not so severely felt as it would otherwise be. Tne total rainfall for 1874 was 54'282 inches, and for 1875, 55870 inches. The months of greatest rainfall are July and November, and those of the least February and March. Thunder- storms occur frequently from May to August, as many as five being sometimes recorded in one day. The number of thunderstorms ob- served in 1874 was forty-five, and in 1875, f.>rty-three. No thunder was heard or lightning seen in the months of December to March. — The climate of Fiji, by Mr. R. C. Holmes. This paper contains the results of meteorological obseivations taken at Delanasau, Bay of Islands, north coast of the province of Bua, Fiji, during the five years ending 1875. The average annual mean tempera- ture is 79° I. The highest temperature recorded was 9 7° 7 on January 12, 1871, and the lowest 58°"5 on August 20, 1875, the extreme range in the five years being 39° '2. The average annual rainfall is I24"I5 inches, and the number of rainy days 170. The greatest fall in 24 hours was 14 '95 inches, which occurred on March 19, 1871. After describing somewhat fully the chief characteristics ol the montlis and seasons, hurricanes and storms, earthquakes, waterspouts, &c., the author concludes with the question, "Is the climate of Fiji a healthy one ? " In reply he says that, con- sidered as a tropical country, an affirmative answer may be given without hesitation. Those fatal diseases so common in tropical countries, fevers of various kinds, cholera, and liver complaints, are almost unknown. This is owing partly to the geographical 112 NATURE \Nov. 30, 1876 position of the group, lying in the region of the trade winds, so that it enjoys almost perpetual breezes, calms being rare, and the islands so small that the sea-breeze from all direclions can penetrate into every corner. — Notes on some remarkable errors in thermometers recorded at Sydney Observatory, 1876, by Mr. H. C. Russell, F. R.A.S. For upwards of five years the same hygrometer has been in use at the Observatory ; the dry bulb is small, only 03 inches in diameter, and the instrument up to February 26 had always given very satisfactory readings, tested by those of a standard wrhich hangs only 3 inches from it; the difference in the readings was usually o°'2 to o°'3. On that day the maximum shade temperature rose to 96°'4 about noon ; at 3 P. M. the dry-bulb and standard read 83°7, and at 9 P.M., 68° '9 and 69° 'O. Next morning they read 69° '6 and 69°'8 ; as this was Sunday, they were not read again un'il 9 A.M. on the 28th, when the dry bulb read 87°'3, and the standard 64°'9, showing a difference of 22°'4. It was at once thought that the glass had cracked and let in the air, but as no crack could be seen after careful examination, it was determined to continue the readings. The author had always found before that if a thermometer cracks in the bulb, the mercury rises till the tube is full, and he expected it would be so in this case, though he could see no crack. The result, however, was tha: the difference steadily decreased, at first at the rate of 1° each day, and in thirty-five days the difference had fallen to less than 0° 5, or almost to its normal condition. Between April 7 aiul 17, it rose again, then fell ; on May 3, and again on the 7 th, sudden rises took place, since then the difference has been diminishing, except a slight rise on May 21 and 22. When very closely examined with the microscope, a very smill piece of colourei glass is to be seen in the bulb, as if lead had been reduced by the blowpipe, and on one side of the bulb a mark is visible, as if there was a minute quantity of water between the mercury and the glass at one spot. Paris Academy of Sciences, November 20. — Vice-Adrairal Pari-; in the chair. — The following papers were read : — Meridian ob- servations of small planets made at the Greenwich and Paris observatories during the third trimestre of 1876, communicated by M. Leverrier. — Tables of the planet Uranus, based on com- parison of theory with observations, by M. Leverrier. — On the physical and chemical properties of ruthenium, by MM. H. Sainte-Claire Deville and Debray. — New researches on the chemical phenomena produced by electricity of tension, by M. Berthelot. He studies the relations of the reactions to sign and tension oftheelectricity. — Onthe composition of some phosphites, by M. Wurtz. Phosphite of calcium, neutral and acid phos- phites of barium. — On the quantity of rainfall at Rome during fifty years, 1825 to 1874, by P. Secchi. The yearly maximum is in the end of October and beginning of November. No relation was perceptible between the quantity of rain and the sun-spots. The great rain-periods at Rome coincided with floods of the lake of Fucino^ 100 kilos, distant. — Organisation of a new meteorological observatory on Monte-Cavo ; meteorological ob- servations near Rome, by P. Secchi. — On the modifications of elacomargaric acid produced by light and heat, by M. Cloez. — On the phenomenon of the black drop, by M. Andre. — On a series of experiments with regard to the flow of water made at the reservoir of Furens, by M. Grseff.-^On exchange of gases in the tympanic cavity ; physiological considerations and therapeutical applications, by M. Loewenberg. In cases of obstruction of the Eustachian tube, causing deafness, the volume of gas in the tympanic cavity is diminished, and the membrane presses inwards. The author says this diminution must be due, not to absorption, but to exchange by diffusion, and he suggests as remedies — (i) the insufflation of air that has been inspired and expired four or five times ; (2) the insufflation of hydrogen. — New observations on the cure of typhoid fever by parasiticide phenicated medication (phenic acid and phenate of ammonia, in draughts, and subcutaneous injection in large doses), by M. Declat. — The theory of systems of land-elevation, a propos of the system of Mont Seny, by M. Vezian. — Researches on the structure and the vitality of eggs of phylloxera, by M. Balbiani. — Remarks on M. Bouilland's observations regarding the effects produced by sulpho-carbonates, by M. Mouillefert. — Experiments on treatment of phylloxerised vines by phenic acid and alkaline phenates, by M. Rommier. — On the practical con- ditions of employment of insecticides to oppose phylloxera, by M. Delachanal. — Results obtained from the use of sulpho-car- bonates in the vines of the Puy-de-D6me, by M. Aubergier.-— On the employment of pyrites in treatment of vines affected with o'idium, by M. Fran9ois. — On the gaseous movement in the radiometer, by M. Salet. — Experiments on the immersed radio- meter, by M. de Fonvielle. — Absorbent powers of bodies for heat, by M. Aymonnet. The atomic absorbent power appears to be constant (i) for all simple bodies dissolved in th(i same medium ; (2) for all simple bodies forming part of compounds of like chemical composition. — On a process of determination of alkaline sulphates, by M. Jean. — On the causes of error involved in the application of the law of mixtures of vapours, in the deter- mination of their density, by MM. Troost and Hautefeuille. — On the saccharine matter contained in the petals of flowers, by M. Boussingault. This is considerable, amounting in some eighteen cases examined to an average of 488 per cent, in the undried flower.— On a process of testing vi^ines for fuchsine, by M. Fordos. — On the investigation of rosolic acid in presence of fuchsine, by MM. Gayot and Bidaux. — New researches on the action of non-arsenical fuchsine introduced into the stomach and the blood, by MM. Feltz and Ritter. — On the action of iron in anzemia, by M. Hayem. It causes the globules to be- come charged with a larger amount of colouring matter, and this, not merely in the curable anaemic, but even in cachexia ; where, the organism being exhausted, the production of red globules is almost entirely stopped. — Experiments on the pneu- mogastric and on nerves supposed to be inhibitory, by M. Onanus. — Researches on the urea of the blood, by M. Bernard, — On tlie power possessed by certain Acarians, with or with- out a mouth, of living without food during whole phases of their existence, and even their whole life, by M. Megnin. — On crystals of oxydulated iron presenting a singular dtformat'on, by M. Friedel. — On the figures which are formed in superposed liquids, when a movement of rotation is imparted to them, by M. Bouquet de la Grye. These show some analogies to sun-spots. M. Faye added a few comments. — ^On some peculiarities of lightning, by M. Renon. Beaded lightning ; purple or violet flashes ; lightning in a near cloud without thunder ; sound of thunder heard at 40 kilom. distance. — Observations of falling stars during the nights of November 12, 13, and 14, 1876, at Clermont Ferrand, by M. Gruey. — On the present state of volcanic phenomena of Carvassera, by M, de Cigalla. Vienna Imperial Academy of Sciences, October 12, 26. — The following among other papers were read : — The nerves of hair- covered skin, by M. Arnstein. — The germination of plant spores in its relation to light, by M. Leitgeb. — On spontaneous vari- ations of blood-pressure, by M, Mayer. — On the action of chlo- roform and ether on breathing and circulation, by Jil. Knoll. — On some remarkable phenomena in Geissler tubes, by MM. Reitlinger and Urbanitzky. CONTENTS Pags FsHRiER ON THE Brain, II. By George Henry Lewes 93 Our Book Shelf : — " British ManuTacturing Iirdustries " g6 Prof. Flower's " Introduction to the Osteology of the Mammalii " 96 LSTTBRS TO THB EdiT'ir : — On the Word " Force." — P. T. Main g? Peripatus N. Zealandias. — H. N. Moselkv 96 The Age of the Rocks of Charnwood Forest —Rev. T. G. Bonnev ; Prot. A. H. Green ; Wm. Jkrome Harrison 57 Minimum Thermometers. —Thomas Fawcett 97 Electric Motor.Pendulum. — Dr. P. HiGGS (With Illustration) . gS Pkof. Young on the Solar Spectrum 98 Indian Geology 98. The River Clyde 99 Researches on the Radiometer. I3y Prof. Paul Volpicblli . . loi The SiPHON Recorder and Automatic Curb Ssndek {^With Illus- trations) lor On the Conditions of the Antarctic. By Sir C. Wvvillk Thomson, F.R.S. {IVith Illustrations) 10+ Our Astronomical Column : — Change of Colour in a Star .... . 107 New Double Stars 107 The Binary Star 17 Cassiopese 107 The Mass of Neptune 107 The Nautical Almanac for iSSo 107 Meteorological Notes: — Accelerated Transmission of Weather Maps 107 Great Storm of Wind at Sydney 107 The Temperature of the Northern Part of the Atlantic 107 Biological inotes : — New Freshwater Rhizopods io3 Rearrangement of the Orders of Endogens 108 The Sensation of Sound 108 The Absorption of Organic Matter by Plants 108 N»TES 109 SciBNTiFic Serials m Societies ANB Acadbmibs • , . zii mZ NA TURE "3 THURSDAY, DECEMBER 7, 1876 THE YORKSHIRE LIAS 'he Yorkshire Lias. By Ralph Tate and J. F. Blake. (London: Van Voorst, 1876.) [T might at first sight seem a piece of presumption in one whose palncontological attainments are of the enderest, and who knows no more of the Yorkshire Lias lan has been picked up during a few days ramble along le coast, to attempt a criticism of a work conspicuous ir elaborate pala:ontological research and rich in descrip- ve detail of the most minute and local character. But t forming an estimate of the work of a specialist the ab- :nce of minute special knowledge is in many cases far om being a disadvantage ; the specialist always runs )me risk c^^ becoming engrossed with details^ of looking jon them as the end and not as a means to something gher, of being " unable to see the wood for the trees," id ,as long as this risk exists, there is always a fair pros- xt that the remarks of an outsider, however inferior he ay be in special attainments to the man whose work he reviewing, may add something in breadth of view, and ;ay suggest questions that have been overlooked in the :sk of collecting minute particulars. It is with this feel- :g that we attempt to give an account of the work before '""d to discuss some problems which its perusal has ted to us ; and we make the attempt all the more iKT.iy, because the authors have by no means in the ultiplicity of their details lost sight of the broad ques- l»ns which underlie and spring from them. [The opening chapter on the " General Range of Liassic J^ata on the Continent and British Isles" would have been Itter for rather more copious references. The authors oted may be well known to the mass of professional |ologists, but if this book comes, as we feel sure it will, 0 the hands of workers of a more amateur class, iikinly occupied with the geology of their own neigh- urhood, but at the same time anxious to understand its ation to that of corresponding districts abroad, many its readers will certainly be glad of directions where to d the papers of geologists not familiar to the world at ge, and whose names they perhaps now meet with for ; first time. This indifference to references is a grow- i- nnd a very serious evil ; take, for instance, such a book :ou's " Explication de la Carte Gdologique de la '' to attempt to give in 200 pages a complete account geology of the globe would be a hopeless task, outhne no longer than this, abundantly furnished ferences, would be a work whose value it would be 'X to overestimate ; unluckily M. Marcou has fallen e prevalent carelessness in this respect, and for cference he has given, ought to have supplied fifty. ')ter II, gives an account of the literature of the lire Lias; the abstracts of the various papers and .^c on the subject are admirable for point and concise- s, and the criticisms fair and just. In Chapter III. the ge and general character of the Lias in Yorkshire are Ciirly sketched out. The fourth chapter lands us in one of those disputes, u Avoidable possibly in the present state of geological clature, which have far too much the look of fight- ing about mere words to be altogether satisfactory. The point at issue is, where should the line be drawn between the Lias and the Inferior Oolite? In some cases the demarcation between the two formations is both litho- logically and palasontologically so sharp as to leave no room for hesitation ; but some sections show a group of beds in which fossils that occur in the Upper Lias are found side by side with others generally looked upon as characteristic of the Inferior Oolite. Here, then, was a fine battle-ground for the systematists, and here, accord- ingly, as in other analogous cases, much good ink and paper has been — shall we dare to say — wasted in dis- cussing whether the problematical strata ought to be called Liassic or Oolitic. Dr. Wright maintains the first view, and the authors of the work before us lean to the second, the question being argued by both disputants on purely palreontological grounds ; it turns partly upon the correct naming of certain Ammonites, hard to discrimi- nate from one another, and possibly so closely allied that they ought to be looked upon as varieties rather than dis- tinct species ; it involves many points on which there is great difference of opinion, such as whether we ought to look mainly to the Cephalopoda or to the Conchifera in determining the relationship of the group ; and after carefully considering what has be^n said on both sides, it certainly seems that it is one of those cases where the impartial bystander would find it so hard to make up his mind that he would be sorely tempted to resort to the un- scientific method of " tossing up " to help him to a decision. Fortunately there is a better way out of the difiiculty ; we are not tied down, as the manner in which the ques- tion has been handled would seem to imply, to a single alternative. It is an easy thing to say that there shall be a Liassic group and an Oolitic group, and that of the rocks about the junction, what won't go into one shall be forced into the other, and by adopting this principle very neat tables of strata may be constructed. But if, as the group under consideration proves was the case, there was not a clean sweep of the Liassic forms of life before any Oolitic forms came in, but that to a certain extent the re- placement was gradual, then wherever the record of the change in the least degree approaches completeness, beds will occur which contain a mixture of Liassic and Oolitic species, and consequently cannot be placed consistently under either of these heads. It is unfortunate for the symmetry of our classification that it is so, but being so, we must bear the evil as best we may. Perhaps the best way is to let each man call the beds in dispute Lias or Oolite as his fancy prompts him, but to be careful to bear in mind that the meaning they carry with them is this — that, when they occur, we have been lucky enough to have preserved a record, which at other spots either never existed or has been destroyed, of the rate at which changes in life that took place between two indistinctly outlined periods of the earth's history were brought about. It would not, of course, be fair to blame Messrs. Tate and Blake, when they are writing a monograph on the Lias, for explaining what they mean by that term ; but it would possibly have been more philosophical if they had looked upon their upper boundary as purely conventional, and noticed the beds above that line as of interest because they show a gradual passage from the life of the period it4 NATURE \pec. 7, 187 with which they are specially concerned to the life of the period which followed it. A dispute of a similar nature arises when we come to the boundary between the Lower and the Middle Lias. The tabulated lists of fossils given by our authors show in the Yorkshire area a marked palaeontological break between the zones of Ammonites oxynotus and A. Jamesom, and a similar break has been observed at a corresponding horizon both elsewhere in England and on the Continent, Here then German and a large number of English geologists draw the line. But a diffi- culty arises when we attempt to construct maps accord- ing to this classification ; unfortunately the marked change in life is not accompanied by a corresponding change in the character of the rocks ; the beds above and below the palaeontological line are lithologically so much alike that it would be impossible to separate them on a map by the ordinary methods of geological surveying. Somewhat higher in the series, however, a change in lithological character, marked and sudden enough to allow of its being traced with considerable accuracy, does occur, and the field geologist, finding that he can sepa- i-ate on his map the rocks above and belov this line, naturally draws a boundary here. Hence it arises that the subdivisions drawn on maps, such as those of the Geological Survey, do not coincide with those established from palaiontological considerations. And no harm would follow from this if the lithological line always kept the same place in the series ; we should merely have to bear in mind that the boundary laid down on the map was adopted out of sheer necessity, because it was the only line that could be traced, that it did not coincide with any great change in life, but that the palasontological break occurred at a certain distance below it. But in the case before us the hard sandstones and ironstones of the Middle Lias are notoriously irregular and uncertain, and if we make the Middle Lias begin where rocks like these — which can be separated on a map from the clays— first make their appearance, we shall place in the Lower Lias at Banbury beds which we call Middle Lias at Frod- ingham. In such a case, when the map-maker is driven to neglect or set at defiance palaeontological boundaries, the right thing would seem to be that he should call his sub-divisions by names different from those used by the palaeontologist ; on the Survey maps, for instance, it would be better to drop the terms Lower, Middle, and Upper Lias, and speak merely of Lias Clays, Sandstones, and Ironstones, leaving it to the palaeontologist to decide to which of the three sub-divisions the strata distinguished on the map ought in each locality to be assigned. It should be added, however, that Mr. Judd has something to say even from a palseontological point of view for the classification of the Geological Survey ; ^ though it must be confessed that his words sound somewhat as if he were dutifully trying to make the best case for a line which his official position rather than his own convictions led him to adopt. For the painstaking zeal with which the authors have in succeeding chapters worked out the palaeontology of the different minor sub-divisions, and described the loca- lities where each may be studied, and for their long and elaborate descriptions and figures of the fossils the thanks • "Th« Geolojfy of Rutland" (Memoirs of the Geological Survey), p. 45. of all geologists, and specially of those interested in tli district, will be gratefully rendered ; and as they ha\ thought it necessary to defend the minute and detaile character of their work, a word miy be added 0 this head. It is somewhat unfortunate that a specii term, "zones," has been applied to those lesser sul divisions, which in common with the majority of pala ontologists they have sought to establish. It leads 1 the notion that a " zone " is something different from " formation," and to a vague fear that the zone-maker introducing some new and presumably unsafe method inl geological classification. But if, as the evidence seems t show, each zone is characterised not indeed by fossi entirely peculiar to itself, but by certain assemblages ( fossils which are not met with in any other zon then the principle on which zones are establish^ is identically the same with that which determines tl larger sub-divisions, and the only difference between zone and a formation is that the one requires more cai and labour to detect and defiue ic than the other. / our authors remark, we are quite in the dark as to t causes that brought about the change from the fauna i one zone to that of the succeeding zone ; but just tl same remark applies in many cases to the more marke differences between the fauna of successive formation If, then, the palzeontological facts on which zones ai based can be securely established, the existence of thes minor sub -divisions is a fact which geologists cannot refui to recognise ; but it is just here that the rub occurs. Tl intolerable complexity and uncertainty of palseontologic nomenclature, the utter want of agreement on points < the first importance between many leading palaeontoL gists, the strong tendency which so often exists to a mu tiplication of species in order to justify existing sul divisions or even tj increase their number, have raise suspicions and distrust in pateontological grouping, ui founded perhaps, but for which palceontologists ha\ only themselves to thank. What can, for instance, t more monstrous than the idea that the time at which lived ought to be taken into account in the definition ( a species ? An idea which, according to one of 01 authors, only a limited number of palaeontologists ai prepared to repudiate. If you have two creatures exact alike in every respect, what reason can there be for cal ing them by different names because one is alive now an the other died ages ago ? The idea is closely akin to tl old superstition that the volcanic rocks of the earli( periods must have been different from thDse of the preset day, and that if no real difference can be detected b( tween them, they at least ought to be called by differei names. Such a notion is now scouted by the mo; advanced petrologists, and when palaeontologists follow i their steps, they may be assured that the objections whic some geologists have urged against their smaller and les easily recognised sub- divisions will no longer be heard. We cannot help thinking that the authors have lai rather too much stress on the littoral character of tli Lias in the northern part of the North Riding. The lean to the conclusion that the Lias never extended muc further towards the north-west than the points where w now last see it in that direction ; in fact one or two c their expressions seem to hint that the Lias of the Nort Riding was deposited in a basin of its own. This ca \c. 7, 1876] NATURE "5 irdly be admitted ; the persistence over large areas the different palasontological zones of this formation ows that the Liassic sea formed one great life province, id that however it may have been broken up by pro- ;tiiig headlands or insular masses of land, there was :e communication between all its parts. That the water IS shallower in some places than others is likely enough, d variations in depth would seem to be sufficient to :count for the changes which occur in the lithological aracter of the Lias in North Yorkshire without in- king the neighbourhood of an extensive shore line. A ry interesting fact is the decided unconformity between e Lias and the Inferior Oolite east of Easingwold ; the iheaval to which it is due was only the forerunner of e still more important movements which a little later drove back the sea and established estuarine and ter- strial conditions over a large part of the North Riding. |It is not necessary that a scientific work should be a )del in point of style, but it is a matter for regret when entific writers neglect the graces of composition, and s certainly a blot on the work before us that the writing occasionally obscure, and that instances of somewhat !pshod English are not uncommon in it. [f we stop here it is not for want of more to say ; a ipk as rich in matter as this would furnish texts for ijny another lengthy disquisition. We may fairly con- [itulate the authors on having produced a mon ograph tich will take a high place among standard works on cal geology, and may be recommended as a model for »tings of a similar kind. We wish every natural geo- cical district in our island was likely to be worked out iV the same amount of patient labour and faithful licription as Messrs. Tate and Blake have bestowed on I; Yorkshire Lias. A. H. G, OUR BOOK SHELF Fauna der Clavulina Szabdi Schichten. Von Max. on Hantken. I. Theil: Foraminiferen. Mit 16 Tafeln. Buda-Pesth, 1875.) RY visitor to the Loan Exhibition of Scientific Appa- is at South Kensington must have noticed in the >logical Department some beautiful series of prepara- :i .s of Foraminifera and Bryozoafrom Hungary. These ii:e been sent by Dr. von Hantken, the Director of the Hngarian Geological Survey, who has greatly distin- ^ihed himself by the remarkable skill with which he a: studied these minute fossil organisms. One of these icles of fossils, which English geologists have now such ' able opportunity of studying, illustrates the remark- h Foraminiferal fauna of the zone of Clavulina in Eastern Europe, a fauna which is very admir- scribed in the work before us. This memoir is a of a portion of the fourth volume of the " Mittheil- aus dem Jahrbuche der kon. ungar. geologischen ■," which is published in both the Hungarian and m languages. Clavulina Szabdi Schichten are a series of clays, 1, . and marly limestones, sometimes glauconitic, h are situated at the junction of the Eocene and ene formations, and appear to have a wide distribu- Western Hungary. These strata are very remark- ir the wonderful richness of their fauna, especially aminifera, Bryozoa, Echinoderms, and Mollusca, a certain portions of the formation great numbers remains have also been found. No less than 213 i of Foraminifera have been described by Dr. von ^tn as occurring in these beds, and their distribution c Eocene and Neogene strata of Eastern Europe, as well as in the strata which most nearly correspond in geological age with the zone of Clavulina Szabdi in Ger- many and Italy respectively, are shown by the author in a very useful table. The lithographic plates with which this monograph is illustrated are beautifully executed, and reflect the highest credit on the present condition of the art of book-illustration in Hungary. Although the dimen- sions of each of the forms described is given with great exactness in the definition of the species, we think it is unfortunate that the extent to which each figure is magnified is not also indicated either on the plates them- selves or in the descriptions which accompany them. J.W.J. Elements of Algebra for Middle-Class Schools and Train- ing Colleges. By Edward Atkins, B.Sc. (CoUins's School Series, 1876.) This is a handy book, covering the ground usually occu- pied by similar treatises on the subject. It is a fairly independent work, keeping near the beaten track as re- gards results arrived at, but giving these results in many cases by new modes of proof. The chief additional fea- tures of interest are in some articles on " Imaginary Quantities," " Properties of Numbers," and " Determi- nants." We do not like the use of the expression, " It is easily found," and so on, in a few passages, and we. must point out that there are a great many mistakes, not merely typographical ones. These are faults which can easily be rectified in a second edition. Care also should be taken to correct the numerous wrong references. LETTERS TO THE EDLTOR [The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake to return^ or to correspond with the ivriters of, rejected manuscripts. A'o notice is taken of anonymous communications,'] Carl Jelinek Allow me to coirect a litlle inadveitency ia the necrology of Carl Jelinek (Nature, vol. xv. p. 85). In lire 8 from com- mencement "Prague" should be read instead of "Vienna," a3 the former and not the latter observatory was then under the direction of Kreil. Jelinek passed four years (1843-1847) as assistant in the Vienna observatory, then under my direction, and j'uV)lishcd in that peiiod a valuable memoir on hygrometrical observations made at Vienna in the years 1829-1845, besides several astronomical observations and computations in the Astronomische Nachrichten, and in the Annals of the Vienna observatory. Ch. de LiTTROW Vienna, November 29 Ancient Solar Eclipses In Nature, vol. xv. p. 65, is given the result of calculition of the solar eclipse of June 14, B.C. 763. As soon as notice of the probability of this eclipse was given by Sir Henry Rawlinson (m| May 1867), I asked the assistance of Mr. Hind for its computation. Mr. Hind most kindly acceded at once to my request, and sent to me on June 19, 1867, the following results, which he permits me now to offer to Nature. They were transmitted to Sir Henry Rawlinson on June 20, i867,>nd to Mr. George Smith on October 17, 1867. Solar Eclipse, -762, June 14-15. Path of ToiaUty, according to the Lunar Tables of Hansen and the Solar Tables of Le Verrier. Northern Limit. Central Line. Southern Limit. Greenwich Mean Solar Time, B.C. 763. Long. Lat. Long. Lat. Long. Lat. h. m. ^ , June 14, 18 n 35 23 37 52 36 3 h ' 36 44 36 20 IQ 0 38 29 38 S3 39 6 3^ ^ 39 43 'l '■♦ 19 6 41 33 39 46 42 7 38 54 42 39 3! 3 19 13 44 35 40 31 45 4 3938 45 32 38 46 19 18 47 34 41 9 47 59 40 14 48 23 39 21 19 24 50 32 41 40 50 5a 40 45 51 la 39 49 ii6 NATURE [Dec. 7, i8; The path of the shadow defined by these numbers differs sen- sibly from that given in Nature, vol. xv. p. 65. It passes to the north of Nimrud instead of the south. With the permission of Mr. Hind, I a'so transmit the follow- mg hst of solar ecHpses, computed by him, of which the results are preserved in the manuscripts of the Royal Observatory : — 885, July 24 .. - 533. Aug. 31 ... A.D. 671, Dec. 6 884, July 13 .. - 480, April 18 ... 647, Oct, 12 769, May 4-5 .. - 479, Oct. 1-2 ... 840, May 5 762, June 14 - 477, Feb. 16-17 1 133, Aug. I (above) - 309. Aug. 14 ... 1 140, March 20 688, Jan. 10 ,. - 189, March 13 .. 1 1 73, June II 609, Sept. 29 .. - 187, July 16 ... 1241, Oct. 6 602, May 17 .. - 103, July 18 ... 1433, June 17 584, May 28 .. -- 50, March 6 ... 1521, April 6-7 556, May 19 .. A.D. 29, Nov. 23 ... 1567, April 8 548, June 18 .. 113, May 31 ... 1598, March 6 546, Oct. 22 .. 237, April 12 ... 1652, April 7 534, March 17 .. 418, July 18 ... G. B. Airy Royal Observatory, Greenwich, December 5 Negretti's Reversible Thermometer and the Arctic Expedition Capt. Nares presents his compliments to the editor of Nature, and requests him to correct a mistake which Capt, Nares inadvertently made in his ofScial report to the Admiralty concerning the late Arctic expedition, and which has been re- printed in Nature, In obtaining some deep-sea temperatures, which pioved the existence of a sub-stratum of water warmer than that at the surface, the instruments used were the reversible thermometers of Negretli and Zambra, not Casella's. The Casella thermometer was used on other occasions, but not at the time referred to, H, M, S, Alert, Portsmouth, November 30 The Arctic Expedition Two or three considerations have led me to believe that possibly the recent Arctic Expedition has not been so fortunate as might have been wished, and that the same amount of fore- sight, courage, and energy, expended on a similar expedition another year might be attended with much more satisfactory results. The considerations referred to are these : — Fifty years ago Sir Edward Parry traversed a distance of some hundreds of miles in sledges upon what he at first supposed to be the main pack ; but on finding that as fast as he travelled north- wards he was drifting to the south, he concluded what he had mistaken for the main pack, was after all only a loose floe of immtnse extent. Now in 1872, on the return of the American expedition, we were all given to understand that an open Polar Sea existed where instead is now found a sea of ancient ice. All testimony con- curred in pointing to this open sea. The climate was warmer than further south; birds were seen fl>ing north; a creeping herbage flourished, and bright flowers were not absent. Musk oxen, rabbits, and lemmings also abounded. Now these Polaris explorers were neither mendacious nor stupid ; and it seems to me that it is rather premature to set down their inference from all they observed as a mistake. Now, sir, my theory, true or false, new or old, is this : — This Pal^KOcrystic Sea is really a vast floating island of ice ; say 500 miles in diameter. Just like the ice in a pail or on a pond, it mtlts in the hot weather at the edges, and then, disengaged from the land, it floats hither or thither, according to the direction of the prevalent winds or currents. If this theory be correct, it accounts for Parry's disappointing journey, for the inferences based on the Polaris observations, and for the otherwise unac- countable (act that the ice encountered by the recent explorers is undoubtedly ancient. The fact that the vast floe showed no sigr,s of drifting away last summer only shows that the wind was unfavourable, or that this northernmost Greenland coast, when once the ice {is stranded, does not easily relinquish its grasp. Possibly if a Hecla had attempted in 1876 what was impracti- cable in 1827, or if an Alert had tried in 1827 what has just proved a failure, both enterprises would have succeeded. Next time two opposite routes must be' undertaken simi taneously, of which one will fail and the other succeed. Wordsworth Donnistiiorpe 17, Porchestcr Terrace, W, The Age of the Rocks of Charnwood Forest In reference to the letters which have appeared in Natu (vol. XV. p. 97) allow me to say, in the first place, that I neit! attached, nor intended to attach, any discred t to Mr. Wo ward's very useful manual for the statements it contains in re ence to the age of the Charnwood Forest Rocks. On the oti hand, I am gratified to find that so competent an observer as t Rev. T. G. Bonney concurs with me in the view " that there not a particle of evidence for their Laurentian age," This v the special point of my letter; and I fail to see that Prof, Gree hypothetical inferences from certain sections at Mark field which he fears that he has kept no record) are of much value the question. Prof. Green, however, admits that the great m of these rocks give no evidence of Laurentian age. As regards what may be the respective limits of " Cambriai and "Silurian" rocks that is another question. I am qu aware that Sedgwick claimed formations as " Cambrian " whi are not so recognised by the Geological Survey, nor by 1 majority of authors, continental as well as British ; for examp M. Barrande, To which of the series of formations belongi to the Cambrian system of Sedgwick the forest rocks are to referred I am not prepared to say ; but I think it must allowed that the negative evidence founded on the absence fossils ought to have some weight in favour of the view that th are referable to the horizon of the " Cambrians" of the Geo gical Survey rather than to that of the Llaudeilo or Carad beds, Mr, Bonney's comparison of the forest rocks with those of t volcanic series of the Lake District is very suggestive ; nor the correspondence of the strike of the beds in both distri( without its weight, where every circumstance ought to be tak into consideration in question of such uncertainty. It woD also be very desirable if some general understanding could arrived at regarding the respective limits of the Cambrian a) Silurian systems. There are scarcely two authors who adopt i same view on this subject. Theoretically it may be a matter small consequence ; but practically it gives rise to confusi* amongst geologists and amongst students of geology. As this the age of " conferences " why should not a conference of Palre zoic geologists meet and lay down a frontier line for the tv kingdoms, which would last, perhaps, for a generation, at until the "instinct of nationality" crops up and brings ( another conflict between the inhabitants of Cambria and Siluri and their allies respectively? EDWARD HULL Geological Survey Office, Dublin, December 4 "Towering" of Grouse, Partridges, &c. Most of your readers doubtless know what is meant by tf towering of game-birds ; but, for the sake of those who do no I will begin by describing the facts. When a partridge, for i stance, is hit while on the wing by a few pellets of ihot — perh; only by one or two — the flight may continue for a variatjle ch tance ; but, if the bird is a " towerer," a slight irregularity soo begins to show itself, after which the flight rapidly becomf more and more laboured, till eventually the bird ceases ii onward motion altogether. The direction of the flight no' changes from the horizontal to the perpendicular, and with rapid fluttering sort of action the bird rises to a variable heigh! when all motion suddenly ceases, the animal falls like a '■"' and the sportsman then knows that when he finds his p. it will be lying dead on the exact spot where he "ma down," Before proceeding to state the cause of these curious move ments, I should like to draw more prominent attentior fact?, first, that the time after receiving the wound durinj horizontal flight continues is variable ; second, that the jukk^ variation are tolerably definite, a bird never towering until it 1; flown some distance after being shot, and never flying any ver great distance before towering ; and third, that the height which the bird rises is also variable, this height being sonieti only 1 or 2 feet, and at other times 40 or 50. Dec. 7, 1876] NATURE 117 Now I suppose there is not a sportsman in the country who bas not witnessed these phenomena scores and scores of times, md I dare say there is scarcely one of that numerous body who, ;f asked to assign the cause of these phenomena, would hesitate 'or a n oment in his reply. From the time he first saw a wd tower, he has probably satisfied himself that the current lypoihesis is the only one that can expluin the curious facts ; md if his interrogator should venture to doubt that cerebral in- ury is this cause, he would probably point to a drop of blood in ;he beak as a final answer to such scepticism. This drop of jlood has doubtless always seemed to him f uch a complete verifi- ion of the current hypothesis, that he has probably never waited o ask himself the followini:; questions : — i. Why is towering so ;ommon ? The head of a partridge or grouse is a small object, md therefore not hkely to be often hit. Moreover, common sense may show that if towering is due to cerebral injury, such njury must be of a very local and definite character as regards ;he brain : some particular part of that organ must be injured :o the exclusion of all other parts, or else the effect would be nstant death. This consideration would lead us to expect that lowering, if it is due to cerebral injury, should be of exceedingly rare occurrence. 2. Why does a bird always fly some consider- ible distance before towering ? If the action is due to cerebral njury, we should expect the former to ensue immediately upon he infliction of the latter. 3. Why is the distance which a bird hes btfore towermg so variable ? 4. Why is the height to which it does tower so variable ? 5. Why is it that birds tower most ^equently when shot from behind ? 6. Why is it that we iever see the hole in the skull through which the pellet has tassed ? j In view of these difficulties besetting the ordinary hypothesis, Ind in the hope of ascertaining the exact seat of cerebral injury J this hypothesis were the true one, I have last year and thi» ear dissected a number of partridges which I had observed to ;pwer, and in every case I found the cause of death to be the kme, viz., pulmonary hsemorrhage. In all my specimens the ings were gorged with extravasated blood. It thus becomes possible to doubt that we have here the true cause of tower- ig; and, as is al.vays the case with true causes, examination ill show that it is sufficient to explain all the effects. Towering common, because the lungs expose a large area to receive the lOt, and an area which is especially liable to be crossed by a ngle pellet from a bad marksman when, as is most usual, the rd. is shot from behind. The bird always flies a considerable stance after being hit, because it takes time for the blood to turinto the spongy texture of the lungs from the open ends of e severed blood-vessels. The distance flown is variable, because depends on the size and number of the severed blood-vessels — ., the rapidity of the bleeding — which of course is also variable. le height to which the bird towers is variable, because depend- on the same cause. The drop of blood in the beak comes ^m the bleeding lungs through the wind-pipe— the latter organ most of my dissections having been found full of clotted x)d. Lastly, we do not find any indications, either externally internally, of cerebral injury, for the simple reason that no ;h injury has taken place. A.ny one who is not a physiologist may here ask, Why does Imonary haemorrhage give rise to such very peculiar movements those that occur in towering ? The answer must certainly be, t in these towering movements — which, be it remembered, y take place immediately before death — we have to do with characteristically convulsive movements which in all animals k the last stages of asphyxia. That in birds these move- should show themselves mainly in the wings, might, I ik, be reascnal)Iy expected, seeing that the pectorals are the pal muscles in the body — and all sportsmen are aware how ..rticular birds in question exhibit violent fluttering motions eir wings when dying from any violent cause, just as :s, under similar circumstances, exhibit violent galloping _ ..ns of their principal muscle-masses in the hind legs. But J the convulsive movements of asphyxia should show them- es in these birds in the form of upward flight, is a question ch I cannot answer. It seems, however, to be a question of ic interest to the physiologist, and if worked out might pos- f tend to elucidate that obscure subject, the mechanism of It. Of course to investigate the phenomena of towering, lyxia of birds would require to be produced in the labo- ry ; and here I must leave the matter in other hands, for lUgh I have a licence to suffocate as many birds as I can in Ursuit of sport, I have no licence to suffocate a single bird e pursuit of science. And, in conclusion, may I suggest that those sportsmen who annually conduct their experiments on asphyxia by the thousand, should endeavour to glean from them one result of some little value to science ? It would be of interest to know what birds tower and what birds do not So far as my own observation extends, the peculiarity in question seems to be confined to members of the grouse genus, nearly all the endemic species of which I have observed to tower. But, excepting those species, I have never known any other bird to do so. By publishing this notice in vour columns, therefore, I hope to obtain information from any of your readers who may have observed the well-known phenomena in birds of other genera. George J. Romanes Squirrels On the lawn before the window near which I am writing is erected a tripod of three lofty poles, at the summit of which is suspended a basket containing nuts and walnuts. The squirrels, of which there are many in the shrubberies and adjoining planta- tions, ascend these poles, extract a nut from the basket, and quickly make their way down and across the lawn, in various parts of which they bury their nuts, scratching a hole in the green turf, putting in a nut, filling up the hole, and, lastly, with much energy, patting the loose materials with their feet till the filling-up is made firm and solid. This morning for a consider- able time only one squirrel was at work, giving me a better opportunity of observing the mode of opera'.ion. His journeys were made in all directions, and varied from 5 feet to nearly 100 yards, never, so far as I could observe, going twice to the same place or even nearly so. The squirrels, I am told, forget the spots where they hide the nuts, and in the following spring the lawn, which is very sp.-icious, is dotted with the young plants of nuts and walnuts. As the colours of flowers attracting bees and moths promote fertilisation, so the racy flavour of a nut, irresistible to a squirrel, contributes to the distribution of its kind. Turvey Abbey, November Henry H. Higgins Mr. Harris's Challenge to Mathematicians In an advertisement in Nature (vol. xv., p. xxxviii.) Mr. Harris (Kuklos) challenges mathematicians " to examine and disprove if they can " his published demonstration of the value of IT. Presumably he reads this publication ; if so, we would direct his attention to an article on " Cyclometers and some other Paradoxers " in vol. xii., p. 560, vol. xiii., p. 28. The part which is concerned with his approximation will be found on p. 29. Reasoning, however, which we venture to think will satisfy mathematicians, may not, we fear, convince Mr. Harris. The Writer ok the Article -« December 4 A ZOOLOGICAL STATION ON THE NORTH SEA REFERENCE was made in Nature (vol. xiv. p. 535) to the resolutions passed at the recent meeting of the Association of German Naturalists and Physicians at Hamburg, as to the establishment of zoologico-botanical stations on the German coast. The distinguished names of those appointed to draw up a memorandum, which is to be presented to the Imperial Chancellor, the Bundes- rath, and the Governments of the several States of the Empire, will no doubt be of the greatest service in secur- ing success to a scheme so universally approved of by all students of biology. The following is a brief sketch of similar endeavours made in Holland a year ago and of the results arrrived at during the summer of 1876 :— The Netherlands Zoological Association, at a meeting held in November, 1875, recog- nised the necessity of founding an establishment on the Dutch coast, where anatomical and microscopical inves- tigations of the fauna and flora of the North Sea might be carried on at leisure, and which could at the same time be made serviceable for physical, chemical, and meteoro- iiS NATURE [Bee. 7, 1876 logical observations on this part of the German Ocean. A committee, consisting of Prof. Hoffmann, Drs. Hoek and Hubrecht was appointed to take the necessary steps towards the realisation of this scheme, and to provide temporary accommodation during the summer months of 1876, where members of the Association might engage in these pursuits. In February, 1876, the Committee was obliged to report that no suitable accommodation was to be found in those localities on the Dutch coast, where the erection of a zoological station might prove a success, and that the funds of the Association would not suffice to carry out the scheme on the scale to which an institution like this ought to aim at from the beginning. The com- mittee proposed to raise the necessary funds by a public subscription as well as by the issue of shares of 10 guilders each, paying no interest, but terminating within a fixed number of years. The Association might thus obtain a building of its own, which, if it were made of wood, might be transportable from one locality on the coast to another according to season and varying abundance of the material for study. This proposal was agreed to, and within a few weeks about 400/. were raised, a sum more than sufficient to commence with. Accordingly a wooden shed similar to those which had served the Dutch astronomical party for the observation of the transit of Venus in Reunion was constructed. It has four windows on each side with corresponding work- ing tables and a small room adjoining, where the vessels containing marine animals may be kept in darkness, and where an apparatus for oxygenising the sea-water is to be kept in constant working order. This embryo zoological station, more resembling a block-house in the back woods than Dohrn's well-known institution, is, however, fitted out with all the requisites for histological and micro- scopical research prescribed by the different methods ol investigation of the present day. Next to the numerous chemical desiderata a store of glass and crockeryware is kept in readiness, a stock of standard works and othei Tiansiortable Zoological Station, 1876. books which may in any way prove useful is selected from the library of the Association ; in short, evei7thing pro- vided for, microscopes and steel instruments only ex- cepted. A set of dredges, towing nets, cross-bars with hempen swabs for scraping the bottom (Marion, Lacaze Duthiers), pelagic nets, &c., complete the inventory, and have to serve for the daily renewal of those marine forms which would be the objects of investigation in the station itself. In the first week of July all this was transported to Helder, the northern seaport opposite to the Island of Texel, and erected on the top of the great dyke which there protects the Low Countries behind from inroads of the sea. Regular dredging parties were organised, the work being carried on partly in sailing vessels hired for the occasion, partly by means of a small steamer belong- ing to the Navy, which the Minister of the Marine placed at the disposal of the Zoological Association. The work was carried on for eight weeks ; towards the end of August, when continual bad weather set in, the station was closed, taken down, and transported back to Leyden, in order to be erected again on another point of the coast next summer. During those two months ten members of the Associa- tion availed themselves of the opportunity of studying the marine fauna of that part of the Dutch coast, and in mJiny branches interesting results have been arrived at which will in time be published in the Annual Reports of the Association. The shifting sands, which everywhere form the bottom round the coasts of Holland as well the total absence of rocks and cliffs may explain tl deficiency of many sessile forms which form so consf cuous a part of the fauna of the French and British coasti Crustaceans and Annelids were numerically, perhaps, Uil best represented ; next came the Medusas, the HydroieT polyps, the Polyzoa, and different representatives of the classes of Molluscs and Echinoderms. Gephyreans were not met with, neither were Holothurians. As to Ascidians, Dec. 7, 1876J NATURE 119 they were represented by the composite Botryllidae, which could be had in immense numbers in some of the shallower parts at the entrance of the Zuyder Zee, mostly attached to blades of the Zostera. The stones employed in the con- struction of the great dyke, which are partly lyinj; loose, were of importance, as they usually covered over the haunts of numerous Crustaceans, Nemerteans, &c. A no hss rich harvest was got from the driftwood now and then met with, and from the wooden palings serving in the construction of the wharfs, &c., in the harbour, which were submerged at high tide. Altogether this first summer of the Dutch Zoological Station gave ample proof of its practicability. It would perhaps be a good idea to act conjointly in future with the German men of science, and to add a third perma- nent station to those proposed in the German Committee's Report (Kiel and Heligoland), say at Flushing. If, then, one other station were to be erected on the English or Scotch coast (St, Andrew's Bay ?), a conjoint attack could be made on the mysteries still hidden in that part of the ocean which is inclosed by our neighbouring coasts. The healthy competition which would arise out of this division of the work to be done, can only be favourable to the common end — an accurate knowledge of the natural history of our own seas, and a constant opportunity of studying their animal and vegetable pro- ductions in the fresh state. SENSITIVE FLAME APPARATUS FOR ORDI- NARY GAS PRESSURE, AND SOME OBSER- VATIONS THEREON A GLASS or metallic tube, about 5 inches long, and I in diameter, is closed at one end with a perforated cork, through this cork slides a piece of ^ inch tubing, about 6 inches long. One end of this is either drawn out to a jet, or closed in the blow-pipe Aflame to reduce its diameter to about -j^^ inch, and the other end is connected to a gas supply. (Fig. i.) The outer tube is held in a suitable support, and the inner tube is pushed through the cork till it nearly reaches the mouth of the outer one, and a light then applied. It now gives a long steady flame. Experiment I. — Lower the inner tube till the flame is on the point of roaring. It will now be found very sensitive to noise. Snapping the fingers at a distance of eight or ten yards will cause it to "contract fully \ of its height. The most suitable flame for this is about 6 inches high. Experiment II. — Adjust the gas to give a flame of about 4^- inches high, and gradually raise the inner tube. A point will be reached at which the flame becomes sensitive, not to noise, but note ; and it will be found to respond to a cer- tain note by dividing into two portions, and while this note is produced it will continue divided. It is difficult to keep I the exact note by whisthng with the mouth, and therefore a glass whistle with I paper slider should be used, or, better ' stilJ, a singing tube with adjustment. j Experiment ///.—Arrange two singing ; tubes to give the responding note. The \ flame divides. Now make one tube a little sharper than the other, so as to beat slowly. The alae of the flame alternately recede and coalesce. ! as to produce higher octaves of the responding note. The flame will be unaffec'ed, as though in perfect silence. The dimensions of the instrument are open to great variation, and also the size of the flame. For lecture work, a flame \\ or 2 feet would be more suitable, though less sensitive, and neither dividing nor shortening so per- fectly as the sizes given above. It will act effectively with any pressure of gas, from -^ inch (of water) up- wards, and the sliding jet makes it equally sensitive with a large or small gas supply. Observatitns on the Escape of Gas from Contracted Openings, and on a Differential Pressure Indi- cator. Glass tubes of about | in. bore are joined as shown in Fig. 2. At D the tube is slightly bent so as to retain a little drop of water. The gas enters at c, and then divides into two channels, one towards B, the other towards A. i ! D n Fig. I. Experiment IV. — Using the whistle ; blow it so hard r Fig. 2. If one of the exits be contracted, say B, then the water moves towards A. Certain precautions have to be ob- served, the conditional arrangements of which need not be mentioned here. Experiment I. — Connect to each, A and 1, a tapering jet, and C with the gas supply. Get the water stationary. Now light, say, B, the water will move towards A, showing that the exit of the gas is retarded by being ignited. This is rather a remarkable result, seeing that the gas is hotter, and therefore more mobile, and also that the heat must enlarge the aperture. Now light A, and the water will return to zero. Experiment II. — Connect B with a sensitive flame apparatus, A remaining as before, light and adjust to zero. Now sound the responding note and the water moves towards A, showing that the outflow of gas is retarded by a certain note. Now adjust the sensi- tive flame for noise, and rapidly snap the fingers or stamp the foot, and the water will still move to- wards A. Experiment III. — Arrange as in II., then extinguish the sensitive flame and readjust to zero. Produce the re- sponding note, and the same movement of the water will be observed. This shows that an issuing jet is affected in the same manner by a sound, whether ignited or other- wise. Experiment IV. — Fix the sensitive flame apparatus adjusted for note under a large jar open at both ends. A large stoppered gas jar answers very well. Fix three balls of spongy platinum, a, b, and c, upon a piece of thin platinum wire so that the point of the quiescent flame just reaches b, and the points of the responding flame reach a and c respectively. Now extinguish the flame with- out turning oflf the gas. The issuing gas will cause the ignition of b. Now sound the responding note, and b will cool, and a and c will be ignited. This confirms the previous observations, and forms a rather pretty lecture experiment. The object of the gas jar is merely to protect from air currents. R. H. RiDOUT I20 NATURE [Dec. 7, 1876 ON THE CONDITIONS OF THE ANTARCTIC^ II. ALTHOUGH no land debris of any kind was observed by us on the icebergs, there cannot be the slightest doubt that such is carried by them all over the region and distributed on the bottom. The samples brought up by the sounding instrument consist almost entirely of commi- nuted clays and sands, and the dredge always contained in considerable quantity, about the meridian of 8o* E., chiefly basaltic pebbles, and, further to the eastward, pebbles and larger fragments of metamorphic rocks, granite, gneiss, mica-slate, hornblende-slate, clay-slate, and chlorite-slate. While the evidence may be said to be conclusive that these icebergs have their origin on land, it seems to me that the presumption is greatly in favour of the land at their breeding-place having been comparatively low and flat, and bordered for a considerable distance by shoal water. Although the white ice which forms the exposed portion of the flat-topped southern icebergs is very hard, its specific weight is considerably below that of abso- lutely compact ice. Allowing for this difference, and supposing that one-seventh part of the ice is raised above the water, supposing also that the berg is symmetrical in form, which, from its appearance and probable mode of origin is likely to be the case ; before it has been subjected to the action of the sea, the submerged portion would be 1,200 feet in depth, the berg would float in water 200 fathoms deep, and the average thickness - of the land ice-cap would be 1,400 feet. ^ From the comparatively small number of icebergs at the point where we crossed the Antarctic circle, and so far as we could judge from our own observations and the previous observations of others, for a con- siderable distance to the west of the me- ridian of 80° E., we were led to believe that the place of their formation, the land and the belt of shallow water girding it, was at a very considerable distance from us. Although in the present state of our know- ledge it would be rash to form any very de- finite opinion as to the conditionsof the region included within the parallel of 70° S., still there are some indications which have a cer- tain weight. We have no evidence that this space which includes an area of about 4,500,000 square miles, nearly double that of Australia, is continuous land. The pre- sumption would seem rather to be that it is, at all events, greatly broken up, a large portion of it probably consist- ing of groups of low islands united and combined by an extension of the ice-sheet. One thing we know, that the precipitation throughout the area is very great, and that it is always in the form of snow, the thermometer never rising, even in the height of summer, above the zero of the centigrade scale. Various patches of Antarctic land are now' known with certainty, most of them between the parallels of 65° and 70° S. ; most of these are comparatively low, their height, including the thickness of their ice-covering, rarely ex- ceeding 2,000 to 3,000 feet. The exceptions to this rule are Ross's magnificent volcanic chain, stretching from Balleny Island to a latitude of 78° S., and rising to a height of 15,000 feet ; and a group of land between 55° and 95° west longitude, including Peter the Great Island and Alexander Land, discovered by Bellingshausen in 1821 ; Graham Land and Adelaide Island, by Biscoe, in 1832 ; and Louis PhiHppe Land, by D'Urville, in 1838. The remaining Antarctic land, including Adelie Land, « The svibstance of a lecture by Sir C. Wyville Thomson, K. R.S., delivered in the City Hall, Glasgow, on November 23, under the airangements of the Glasgow Science Lecture Association.! Continued fro-n p. io6. discovered independently by Dumont D'Urville, and Lieut. Wilkes, in 1840, in long. 140° 2' 30", lat, 66° 45' S ; Clairie Land, discovered by the same naviga- tors about 3° farther to the westward ; Sabrina Land, dis- covered by Balleny, in 1839 5 ^i^d Kemp Land and Enderby Land, discovered by Biscoe, in 1833, nowhere rise to any great height. If we were justified in adding the " strong appearances of land " reported by Lieut. Wilkes, which would virtually connect Ringgold's Knoll not far from the Balleny Islands, with a point in long. 106° 18' 42" E., lat. 65° 59' 40' S., by a continuous coast- line of moderate height, the extent of land of this charac- ter would be considerably increased. The geological structure of the Antarctic Land is almost unknown. South Victoria is actively volcanic and consists doubtless of the ordinary volcanic products. D'Urville's party landed on Adelie Land and found rocks of gneiss. Wilkes reports having landed on an iceberg, long. 106° 18' 42''', and finding "imbedded in it in places bouMers, stones, gravel, sand, and mud or clay. The larger specimens were of red sandstone and basalt." At the same place Lieut. Ringgold found that " the icebergs near at the time presented signs of having been detached from land, being discoloured by sand and mud." From one iceberg he procured several pieces of granite and of red clay which had been frozen in. Beyond these ob-er- Fn. 3.— February 25, 1874. Lat. 63^ 49' S-, Long. 94° 51' E. vations, and our own on'the nature of the pebbles brought up by the dredge, we have no information. That the area within the parallel of 70° S. is continu- ously solid, that is to say, that it is either continuous land or dismembered land fused into the continental form by a continuous ice-sheet, I think there can be little doubt. The local cases of abnormal distribution of temperature which produce suci remarkable conditions of climate even within the North Polar Sea exist in the southern hemisphere only to a very slight degree ; and we know by the absence of any well-defined local Antarctic return-cur- rents comparable with the Labrador current, or the current round the south of Spitzbergen, that the function of such currents as the Gulf Stream in ameliorating the northern climate, and breaking up the ice, and producing a circu- lation even in the highest northern latitudes, is not in any way represented in the south. In favour of the view that the area in question is broken up, and not continuous land, two considerations appear to me to be very suggestive. If we look at an ice-chart we find that the sea is comparatively free from icebergs, and that the deepest notches occur in the " Antarctic continent" at three points, each a little to the eastward of south of the great land-masses, and I have little doubt that the explanation of this fact lately suggested by Dr. Neumayer is the correct one. The great equatorial current impinging upon the eastern coasts of the continents bifurcates upon •yer I ing I 3on ■ Dec. 7, 1876] NATURE 121 ach, and both branches acquiring a slight but decided ieasterly set by their excess of initial velocity, pass orthwards and southwards directed for a time by the and coasts. But the fate of the southern is very different rom that of the northern branches. Instead of accumu- ting and " banking down " in the confined gulfs, the Atlantic, the Pacific, and the Indian Oceans, they at once pass into the waste of the " water hemisphere," and are almost merged in the great drift current which sweeps round the world occupying a belt from 600 to 1,000 miles broad in the southern sea. But while the greater portions of the Brazilian current, the East Australian current, and the southern branch of the Agulhas current are thus merged they are not entirely lost ; for at their points of junction with the drift current of the westerlies the whole belt of warm water is slightly deflected to the southward, and it is oppi =;ite these points of junction that we have the comparatively open sea and the penetrable notches in the southern pack. Thus Ross, in 1841 and 1842, after forcing his wiy through the moving pack, which he found sufficiently open to allow of his doing so, passed between the meridians of 170° E., and 170° W,, to the latitude of 78" 11' S. Weddell in 1823, and Ross in 1843, reached the parallels of 74° 14' and 71° 30' S. respectively, between the meri- dians of 15° and 30° W. The case of the Brazilian current is, however, a little more complicated than that of the others, for there is high and extensive land between the meridians of 55° and 65° W., in 65° south latitude, and the warm current already led fir to the southward by the south-American coast appears to bifurcate upon Graham Land, and to produce another bight, in 90° west longitude, a little to the west of the southern point of the South American Continent. In this bight. Cook, in 177 1, and Bellingshausen in 1821, pushed nearly to the 70th parallel of south latitude. The opening caused by the deflection of the southern branch of the Agulhas current towards Kerguelen and the Heard Islands, has not yet been fully explored, but what has been already done in that direction seems to be in striking confirmation of this view. We had indeed arrived independently at the same conclusion before reading Dr. Neumayer's paper. At the point where we crossed the Antarctic Circle (Long. 78° o' E ), and for some distance to the westward there were few icebergs, and the sea was almost clear to the south-west. It was Capt. Nares' opinion that had it been considered desirable and had the attempt been made earlier in the season, it would have been easy for us to have pushed southwards in that direction — how far we had no means of ascertaining — but the pack was moving about round us, and for the reasons already given we believed the barrier to be at a consider- able distance. But we not only observed the effect of the influx of warmer water ; we were able to detect its presence by the thermometer. Referring to the results of a serial tempe- rature-sounding of February 14, with a surface-tempe- rature of — r2 C, between 300 and 400 fathoms there is a band rising to more than half a degree above the freezing-point. That this warm layer is coming from the north there is ample proof. We traced its continuity with a band at the same depth gradually increasing in warmth, to the northward ; and it is clear that its heat can be derived from no other source, and that it must be con- tinually receiving new supplies, for it is overlaid by a band of colder water tending to mix with it by convection. It is of course possible that the three warm currents may, by coincidence, be directed towards three notches already existing in a continental mass of land ; but such a coincidence would be remarkable, and there is certainly a suggestion of the alternative, that the " continent " may consist to so great an extent of ice as to be liable to have its outline affected by warm currents. The second consideration is that during summer, the only time when these regions have been as yet visited, the greater part of the outline of the area representing the Antarctic continent has been found to consist of moving ice-pack. The prevailing winds within the Antarctic Circle are from the south-east, and as a rule the pack and the icebergs are moving to the westward, and fanning out from a centre. Almost all the navigators who have passed the belt of pack have receivedthe im- pression that there was open water within, that, in fact, by that time, late in the summer, the pack of the year had been drifted a considerable distance from its nucleus — the land or the continuous ice-sheet. If this be so it would at all events indicate that the "Antarctic continent" does not extend nearly so far from the Pole as it has been supposed to do. I conceive then that the upper part of one of these tabular icebergs, including by far the greater part of its bulk and culminating in the portion exposed above the surface of the sea, was formed by the piling up of succes- sive layers of snow during the period, amounting perhaps to centuries, during which the ice-cap was slowly forcing itself over the low land and out to sea, over a long extent of gentle slope, until it reached a depth considerably beyond 200 fathoms. The lower specific weight of the ice then caused an upward strain which at length over- came the cohesion of the mass, and portions were rent off and floated away. If this be the true history of the for- mation of these icebergs, the absence of all land debris on the portion exposed above the surface of the sea is readily understood. If any such exist it must be confined to the lower part of the berg, to that part which has moved upon the floor of the ice-sheet. The icebergs, when they are first dispersed, float in from 200 to 250 fathoms ; when, therefore, they have been drifted to latitudes of 65° or 64° S., the bottom of the berg just reaches the layer at which the temperature of the water is distinctly rising, and is rapidly melted, and the mud and pebbles with which it is more or less charged are precipitated. That this precipitation takes place all over the area where the icebergs are breaking up, con- stantly and to a considerable extent, is evident from the fact that the matter brought up by the sounding-instru- ment and the dredge is almost entirely composed of such deposits from ice; for diatoms, Globigerin^., and radio- larians are present on the surface in large numbers, and unless the deposit from the ice were abundant, it would soon be covered and masked by a layer of the exuviae of surface organisms. There is one point in connection with the structure of icebergs which is of great interest, but with regard to which I do not feel in a position to form a definite judg- ment. It lies, however, especially within the province of a distinguished professor in the University of Glasgow, Dr. James Thomson, and I hope he will find leisure to bring that knowledge and experience to bear upon it which have already thrown so much light upon some of the more obscure phenomena of ice. I have mentioned the gradual diminution in thickness of the strata of ice in a berg from the top of the berg downwards. The re- gularity of this diminution leaves it almost without a doubt that the layers observed are in the same category, and that therefore the diminution is due to subsequent pres- sure or other action upon a series of beds which were at the time of their deposition pretty nearly equally thick. About 60 or 80 feet Jrom the top of an iceberg the strata of ice a foot or so in thickness, although of a white colour, and thus indicating that they contain a quantity of air, and that the particles of ice are not inclose appo- sition, are still very hard, and the specific gravity of the ice is not very much lower than chat of layers not m^re than 3 inches thick nearer the water-line of the berg. Now it seems to me that this reduction cannot be due to compression alone, and that a portion of the substance of these lower layers must have been removed. G2 122 NATURE \Dec. 7, 1876 It is not easy to see why the temperature of the earth's crust under a widely extended and practically permanent ice-sheet of great thickness should ever fall below the freezing-point ; and it is matter of observation that at all seasons of the year vast rivers of muddy water flow into the frozen sea from beneath the great glaciers which are the issues of the ice-sheet of Greenland. Ice is a very bad conductor, so that the cold of winter cannot penetrate to any great depth into the mass. The normal tempera- ture of the crust of the earth at any point where it is uninfluenced by cyclical changes is, at all events, above the freezing-point ; so that the temperature of the floor of the ice-sheet would certainly have no tendency to fall below that of the stream which was passing over it. The pressure upon the deeper beds of the ice must be enor- mous ; at the bottom of an ice-sheet 1,400 feet in thick- ■BW^^ '^^^SSkI Fig. 4. — Iceb:-rg pa'sed on February 21, ib;4 i^at c9 0 ness it cannot be much less than a quarter of a ton on the square inch. It seems therefore probable that under tVe pressure to which the body of ice is subjected a constant system of melting and regelation may be taking place, the water passing down by gravitation from layer to layer until it reaches the floor of the ice-sheet, and finally working out channels for itself between the ice and the land whether the latter be sub- aerial or sub- merged. I should think it orobable that this pro- cess or some modification of it may be the provision by which the indefinite accumu- la ion of ice ovc:r the vast nearly level '^ regions of the "Antarctic continent" is °'" prevented, and the uniformity in the thick- ness of the ice- sheet maintained ; that in fact ice at the temperature at which it is in "^J contact with the surface of the earth's crust * within the Antarctic regions cannot support a column of itself more than 1,400 feet high without melting. When the icebergs are drifted in the summer a little to the northward — in the meridian of 80° E. to the parallel of 64° S. — they begin to disintegrate very rapidly. The water at the surface of the se i rises to zero and slightly above it, and dashing against the windward side of the berg, partly by its mechanical action, but more by the constant and rapid renewal of the warm water, it soon wears a deep groove in the face of the clifl". When the groove has cut in so far that cohesion will no longer maintain the weight of unsupported ice, ^hich seems usually to be the case when it is 10 to 15 feet deep, a mass of the cliff falls down, and the weight of the berg being reduced on that side it tilts up more or less and assumes an inclmed position ; the stratification thus becomes inclined, although it still remains conform- able with the plane of the top of the iceberg. The sea now washes up on the low portion which has been exposed by the tilting of the b^rg, which it soon reduces to a beautiful curved slope to the bottom of the new cliff, and the process is repeated until by re^jeaied falls of the face of the cliff one side of the berg is so much lightened, that the preponderating weight of the opposite side raises the newly exposed portion out of the water ; giving the berg a double outline and the veining a high inclination. We frequently saw table- topped icebergs with the upper sur'ac-^ very irregular ; when that is the case evidence G 5.— February 25, 1874. Lat. 63° 49' S , Long. 94° 51' £. may usually be found from the colour, the closeness of the veining, and other appearances, that it is not the original surface of the iceberg which is now presented to us, but a second surface produced by the cutting away by the sea of an entire story, as it were, of the berg; which athough it had no doubt at one time during the process been greatly inclined, had recovered its equilibrium on the whole of the upper layer having been more or less S)m- metrically removed. Fig. 3 is a view of an iceberg in which the whole of the upper tier seems to be breaking Dec. 7, 1876] NATURE 123 up and disintegrating under the influence of the air and waves ; it is fissured through and through, a large por- tioa has already fallen away, exposing terraces of blue ice previously submerged, and the sea around is cumbered with the fragments. It is easy to see how almost any eccentricity of form may be produced by the irregular action of the waves upon the different sides of an iceberg tilted to different inclinations. When an accidental hollow or other irregularity on the _ irface of an iceberg directs the action of the surf on any special point, a cave is speedily formed, and the effect constantly increasing with the deepening of the cavity, the ice is often honeycombed with caverns which pene- trate far into the solid berg, and add wonderfully to its beauty by their lovely colouring in shades of cobalt blue, varying with every play of shade and light. The caves are, however, very fatal to the iceberg. From the ice not biing thoroughly rigid, whenever the support is tahen away from beneath, the layers above bend and give way ; vertical fissures are produced which become filled with a breccia of ice and snow, often discoloured by sea-birds ; the ice, instead of showing its original uniform horizontal stratificati )n, is distorted into all sorts of anticlinals and synclinals ; and fragment after fragment crashes down into the sea. Fig. 2 pives an idea of the form of a beautiful vaulted berg. The sea was washing through and through it ; and as we passed close by, we sat gazing, entranced, at the marvellous beauty of the colouring of the vaults of ice, and the waves, and the snowy spray illuminated by a red setting sun ; but our gorgeous iceberg was evidently doomed to speedy destruction. Some glittering pinnacles were the only remains of the buttresses of former arches, and a quantity of debris floating round it showed that the whole fabric was undergoing rapid change. Some few of the bergs which we saw were tilted up to an angle of upwards of 50°, and in various ways — by the inclination of the bergs, by the denudation of successive layers by the action of the sea, and by " dislocations of strata." I believe we saw at various times sections of icebergs to the depth of perhaps 400 feet. All such sec- tions gave simply a continuation of the same phenomenon which we observed in the portion of the berg normally exposed, a gradual approximation of the lines of stratifi- cation and deepening of the blue colour. Sometimes we saw small bergs which were very irregular i n form, with all marked prominences rounded off, per- fectly clear, and of a deep sapphire blue. These I con- ceive to be masses of ice from near the base of a berg, which, from extreme shifting of its centre of weight, has turned right over, and exposed the ice near the bottom, in which, by melting and regelation under great pressure, all structure has been lost. The curious question naturally arises, Shall we ever be able to reach the South Pole ? With our present methods and appliances I should think that the answer must be an unhesitating negative. Except po?sibly somewhere in the region where Ross penetrated, in 1842, to the parallel of 78° to the south of New Zealand, or about Graham Land, where Capt. Dallman, in 1873, continued the ex- plorations of Capt. Biscoe, there seems to be no acces- sible lead of land ; and Ross's southernmost point is upwards of 700, and Graham Land 1,200 miles from the pole. The remainder of the outline of the Antarctic con- tinent appears to be a perpendicular cliff 200 to 250 feet in height, without shelter, and with a heavy pack broken up and kept in motion by frequent gales moving outside It during the gre ter part of the year, and bouading a vast expanse of glacier surface, a great part of it subject pro- uably to high winds and to almost incessant falls of snoAT. We have now learned that the North Pole, if not actually inaccessible, is much more d fficult of access than we imagined, even with the long roll before us of the gallant men who have strained through many years the resources of human skill and bravery to the utmost in fruitless attempts to attain the barren issue ; and we can only anticipate disasters multiplied a hundred-fold should the South Pole ever become a goal of rivalry among the nations. C. Wyville Thomson NORDENSKJOLUS EXPEDITION TO THE J EN I SS EI 1 "T^HE expedition, of whose plan, equipment, and composition -*■ we have already given some account, left Trom.^o in the steamer Ymer, on July 25 this year, and on the 30.h entered Matotschkin Scharr, where they obtained some specimens of Novaya Zemlya salmon. An easy passage was made to the east side, where, during a stay of twenty-four hours, the naiuralisis did some collecting, dredging, &c. Leaving the Scharr on trie 31st, the Kara Sea was at first found quite open, but after a few hours it became so blocked with loose ice in all direciions that the Ymer was compelled to turn back, and was anchored on the inner side of the promontory which projects from the southern side of the sound, nearly half way between the entrance and Gubin Bay. Here the sea is rich in varying animal forms, the land bleak and poveity-stricken. The mountains for the most part consist of black clay-slates, probably early Silurian, and grey dolomite beds, in which search was made for fossils in vain. On the other hand, the clay-slate is in many places full of quartz veins with numerous cavities, whose crystalline contents gave occa- sion to the unfortunate Tschirakin's statement that he had found here a block of stone set full with the most brilliant, beautiful, and valuable precious stones, for which, after his death, he was vehemently censured by his chief, Rossmylov, who sought in vain fur the supposed treasure. In one respect this part of Novaya Zemlya is of great geolo- gical interest ; for here are to be seen no fewer than six clearly- marked beaches, situated at different heights one above the other, and showing that the land hereabouts tias been elevated during the very latest geological pcfriod at least 500 feet. With the exception of certain parts of Greenland, where a considerable sinkirig of the land has taken place during recent centuries, a similar raising of the land has been observed in most other Arctic regions, and this raising of the land has without doubt played a very important part in the great geological changes which have occurred on the surface of the earth since the close of the Tertiary period. For the Swedish observer the pheno- menon besides has quite a special interest, inasmuch as attention wai first called to it in Sweden more than a century ago, and it then gave occasion to an impassioned discussion between those holding different opinions, which is well known in the history of science. Matotschkin is surrounded by high, bold mountain ridges and summits, which continue to occupy the interior of the island for more than thirty English miles south of the sound. Farther south the mountain tops disappear completely from the interior, and the land passes into a level high-lying plain, nearly free of snow during summer and sloping gently towards the east coast and the Kara Gate, till it terminates most frequently with a pre- cipitous face towards the sea. A broad ice-free belt of water having in the meantime been formed along the east coist of Novaya Zemlya, the expedition took advantage of it, and i-ailed along shore. The greater pari of the ice-fields were, however, nof/ quite ro ten, and it was clear that they would completely melt away during the remaining part of the summer. Partly by ice, partly by fog, the Ymer was prevented making right across the sea, and it was not till the I2th that the ice- belt was so broken up that they could steam on round White Island, pabt the Gulf of Obi to the mouth of the Jenissei, We sighted land here on the 15th, Dr. Nordenskjold goes on to state, thus exactly a year after the rocks at Dickson's Harbour were first seen from the Proven. This was some hours sooner than the dead reckoning promised, which at first was ascribed to the in- fluence of an easterly current in the parts of the Kara Sea we had just traversed. When we came nearer, however, I was sur- prised to see before me a plain which was unbroken by any "berg-asar," though I knew, from last year's observation, that ' Abstract of Prof. NordenskjiiiJ's Riport in the GSteborgs Ilan.hh n.tnLii^, October ^4. 124 NATURE \D£C. 7, 1876 an " as, " which was certainly low, but yet perfectly developed, runs over the tundra towards Jewremow Kamen ; neither could we discover any of the rocky islands which surround Dickson's Harbour. In the meantime we continued our course up the river along the bank, and after the lapse of four or five hours we obtained a quite unexpected explanation of the circumstances described. For it appeared that the mouth of Jenissei, which is ten Swedish miles (60') wide, is divided into two by an island about five Swedish miles (30') long, which was thought to have been unknown both to Russian chartographers and to the natives. That it has not been before observed clearly depends on its not being visible from the river bank along which the few boats that have traversed this part of the river are believed to have always kept. The navigable water on both sides is deep and free from shallows. This large new island ought clearly to be advantageous for navigation in those regions, as it will form a welcome protec- tion against north-westerly winds and sea for the vessels that may be in the mouth of the river. I mean to name it Sibiriakofif's Is'an^, after the zealous and generous supporter of all this year's Siberian expeditions. Steaming up the river the Ymer reached Mesenkin, which had been appointed the meeting-place with Dr. Theel's party. Here, where the Mesenkin falls into the Jenissei, Dr. Theel expected to obtain some specimens of mammoth skins, which, it was reported, had been washed out of the tundra near this place. Dr. Theel's party, not, however, having arrived at Mesenkin when the Ymer reached it, Nordenskjold himself made an ex- cursion to the locality already spoken of, where the mammoth hide was found. No complete hide was found here, but he suc- ceeded in digging two large and a number of small pieces out of a newly-formed sand-bank at the confluence of the Mesenkin with the Jenissei., The excavations showed that the mammoth remains in question had been newly brought down by the spring floods to the place where they were found from some point situated higher up in the river valley of the Mesenkin, and that the place where the mammoth was originally imbedded in the frozen tundra is to be sought for in this direction. On August 17 the Ymer proceeded up the river, but the water became so shallow, and the navigation by a steamer of such draught as the Ymer so dangerous, that Dr. Nordenskjold re- solved to return to Mesenkin. He left his merchandise at Kore- powskoj simovie, near Mesenkin, to be taken away next summer by the river steamer. After landing the goods another vain attempt was made to steam up the river, and the Ymer was again anchored, this time between Orlowskoj and Gostinoj. The fol- lowing days were devoted to excursions which yielded interesting information regarding the geology of the tundra, and a very rich collection of the sub-fossil shells, which are found in the sand of the tundra. Ey the word tundra are denoted, as is well known, the plains of immense extent in Russia and Siberia lying between the boundary of the forest region and the Polar Sea. The ground, at least in the northern parts of the Siberian tundra, is continu- ally frozen at no great depth, but during the summer bears a vegetation of low bushes, mosses, and grass, which yields sum- mer pasture to numerous herds of reindeer, partly wild, partly tame, which wander about on them. To the eastward of the Jenissei the tundra forms a level or slightly rolling plain, which toward the river has a sloping bank 50 to 100 feet hijih. In the interior of the country the plain is not interrupted by any very considerable heights, but on the other hand it is intersected at a number of places by deep river valleys, whose steep sides offer fine sections of the earthy layers. It is apparent, on a merely cursory examination, that these for the moat part consist of enormous masses of sand and mud washed down by the Siberian rivers. The tundra, however, is by no means a common delta formation. Numerous marine shells imbedded in the sand show that the tundra plain formerly lay under the surface of the sea, and that therefore a consider- able elevation of the land must have taken place during the latest geological period. For all the shells imbedded in the tundra sand belong to existing types, the most of which have been dredged up by us from the bottom of the Kara Sea, and which we a^ain hnd in the post-glacial beds at Uddevalla and Christiana Fjord, and the craj,' formation of England. All this shows that the tundra has been formed under climatic circum- stances very similar to the present, which is further confirmed by the ge gnosdc formation of the beds. It has therefore long been aifficult of explanation by the geologist that just in these sand-beds there are found in great abundance remains of the mammoth, rhinoceros, &c., that is to say, of animal types that for the present flourish only in a tropical or sub-tr ipical climate.^ The evident contradiction which is apparent here has indeed ob- tained an explanation through the researches of the Petersburg academicians, Middendorff, Schmidt, and Brandt. But there remains here much to clear up, and collections from these regions have, besides, a peculiar interest, from the remarkable circum- stance that here in the frozen earth of the tundra there are found not only skeletons, but also flesh, hides, hair, and intestines of animal types which died out many hundred thousand years ago. I therefore. Dr. Nordenskjold goes on to say, of course, gladly availed myself of the opportunities which offered them- selves J in making excursions in the neighbourhood of the places where the vessel was anchored. Among the results of our search may be mentioned large pieces of mammoth hide, found along with some few pieces of bone, at the confluence of Mesenkin with the Jenissei ; a skull of the musk ox, re- markable for its size, found together with mammoth bones in another tundra valley south of Orlowskoj ; a very rich collec- tion of sub-fossil shells, found principally between Orlowskoj and Gostinoj. In addition, various interesting observations concerning the geological formation of the tundra, &c., were made. During their stay on the Jenissei there was often a dense mist with rain prevailing, but otherwise they were favoured, as a table of observations shows, with warm and summer-like weather. The ground was quite free of snow, and at several places, especially in the tundra valleys, adorned with a variegated carpet of flowers. According to the statement of the inhabitants, how- ever, the former part of the summer in these regions had not been fine, and the preceding winter had been exceedingly severe. The temperature of the water of the river at the surface was almost constantly + 12° to 13° C, and even at a depth of nine fathoms the deep-water thermometer marked + 1 1 "1° C. As it had been arranged that Theel's party, which, as our readers know, had come overland, should in no case stay so long on the northern part of the Jenissei as to run the risk of missing the last river steamer to Jenisseisk, which this year was to leave Saostrowskoj about September 7, Nordenskjold resolved to set out on the return journey on September i. This he did, as Theel's party had not turned up. The sea, he continues, was at first completely free of ice, and first when we came quite close to the east coast of Novaya Zemlya in 754° N. lat., a very compact belt of worn ice was fallen in with, which stretched along the coast towards Matotsch- kin. The course was now set along the ice towards the south to 74° 40' N. lat., where the edge of the ice took a westerly direction, which allowed us, without the inconvenience of being hindered by ice, to steam right westwards towards Matotschkin. A perceptible swell now gave indication of ice-free water. If the course from Dickson's Harbour had been set close past White Island towards Matotschkin we certainly would not have met with a single ice-floe. Even in the northerly way I chose our advance was scarcely hindered by ice but by a nearly con- stant fog, which compelled us to lie still at night. In this way Dr. Stuxberg, the zoologist of the expedition, obtained a welcome opportunity for dredging and swabbing in the deep channel along the east coast of Novaya Zemlya. Of all the expeditions which have gone to Novaya Zemlya and the sea surrounding it, there are only three which, before thd last two Swedish ones, concerned themselves with zoological, botanical, and geological researches and the collections pertaining to them. These are von Baer's expedition in 1837, Heuglin's in 1871, and the Austro- Hungarian in 1872- 74. As far as zoology is concerned, von Baer brought home from his journey about seventy species of invertebrate animals, Heuglin increased our knowledge of the number of species within some groups, and the Austro-Hungarian expedition within others. But all those collections were from the south-western, western, and northern coasts of Novaya Zemlya. Of the nature of the animal life in the Kara Sea all actual knowledge was wanting till last summer. There was also a current tradition among zoologists, grounded on the knowledge of the immense mass of fresh water which the Obi and the Jenissei yearly carry down, partly also on something at first loosely uttered in literature, which afterwards took the form of axiomatic certainty, that the Kara Sea is exceedingly poor in animals. The Swedish expedition of 1875 has already dissipated these misconceptions, having brought home from Novaya Zemlya and ' The mammoth, for instance, is lool