.*■-- UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA AT LOS ANGELES ^r^Tf^/PT?SITY of CALIFORNliE X . i. LOS i-iiviGELES T ^rtrt A rtir NATURE STUDY ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 5909 ;V>Kc INTRODUCTION The course of Nature Study outlined in the following pages has already been subjected to the test of practical application in the schoolroom, with excellent results. I believe that it may be pursued with profit to teacher and pupil in any one of the first four years of school life, and in any school however poorly equipped. It is planned chiefly to meet the needs of the ordinary grade teacher in the public schools of a city. It is de- signed as an answer to two questions Avhich she will probably ask herself when invited to undertake this Avork — questions which may present themselves so force- fully as to be received as insuperable objections to the further consideration of the matter : " Can I teach this subject without scientific training ? " " Where can I gather material on the asphalt pave- ments and within the brick walls of a city ? "' The course here presented does not presuppose special training on the part of the teacher, nor special facilities for the collection of material. It does, however, take for granted a strong desire on her part to do this work, a lively belief in its efticacy, and an earnest effort to be- come better acquainted with the familiar, yet to most of us unknown face of nature. B 1 2 NATURE STUDY It is not my intention to disparage the value to the teacher of special training in science. Nevertheless it may be safely stated that the courses generally pursued in college and university do not necessarily equip the student for practical, every-day work with little children. They need to be supplemented by actual experience. The plan herein embodied has grown out of scientific training and experience in teaching little children, and I, therefore, present it with some hope that it may be a helpful volume to those teachers who desire to pursue a course in Nature Study. Recognizing that the search for facts in the ordinary text-books on science is a labor requiring more time than the teacher usually has at her disposal, and, also, perhaps, greater familiarity with technical terms than she might be expected to possess, I have given in the paragraphs marked "Facts" such necessary knowledge on the sub- jects therein treated as she should have. These facts are accurate and based upon the latest and most eminent authority. For more extended information on the subjects of the lessons, the following books are suggested : Animals : Birdcraft, j ^^^^j Osgood Wright. Citizen Bird, i Birds Through an Opera Glass, Merriam. Winners in Life's Kace, | ^rahella Buckley. Life and Her CliiUlren, > First Lessons in Zoology, Morse. Needham's Zoology. Frail Children of the Air, Scudder, Insects, Hyatt and Arms. INTRODUCTION 6 Manual for Insects, Comstock. The Aquarium, Mark Samuels. Directions for Collecting Insects (free), Smithsonian Institute, Washington, D.C. Plants : Plants and Their Children, Mrs. Dana. Bud and Leaf, 1 Flower and Fruit, I . Botanical Reader, Part I. , Botanical Reader, Part II., Story of the Trees, Mrs. Dyer. Familiar Trees and Their Leaves, Schuyler Matthews. Earth Sciences : Earth and Its Story, Heilprin. Thirty -six Observation Lessons on Common Minerals, Clapp. First Lesson on Minerals, Mrs. Richards. Common Rocks and Minerals, Crosby. Ocean of Air, 1 Father Aldur, i Alice Gibcrne. Earth and Its Foundation, J Instruction to Voluntary Observers (free), Weather Bureau, Washington, D.C. Miscellaneous : Murch^'s Science Readers. Nature Study, Jackman. Fairy Land of Science, Arabella Buckley. Tommy Anne, Mabel O.sgood Wright. Perhaps nine out of ten teachers, if asked what is the advantage of Nature Study to the oliild, wouhl say that it consists in the training of the observation through the senses. These are the days when " Sense-Training "' is the Shibboleth ; and, perhaps, so-called " Nature Study " has contributed more than any other one thing to raise on high this new god ; or, it may be, that Nature Study exists in our schools because the new god rules. 4 NATURE STUDY That the study of nature rests primarily on observa- tion, and that this rests on accurate sense perception, no one will deny; but that this is the end is a supposition fatal to successfully extracting from such a course results more precious to the child, — the cultivation of the judg- ment and the imagination. Indeed, if a choice must be made, let us cultivate these rather than the senses, for, without imagination, the acutest seeing, hearing, touch, taste, or smell will not help us to an intelligent observation. Those, therefore, who see only its more limited possi- bilities will teach the letter, — teach it well, perhaps, — but will probably miss altogether the spirit. Facts are neces- sary things. A teacher cannot have too many of them. In truth, the larger her stock of facts, the better will be her perspective ; the less imperative her desire to make every one of her facts a part of the mental equipment of the child, the greater the chance of escape for the eager mind of the child from being stultified and deadened. Let her therefore gather for herself her facts, and then, guided by her intelligence and her heart, direct her aim toward putting herself and the child in loving touch with whatever of nature there is about them. In short, then, the teacher of science should First : Prepare herself thoroughly, arranging her know- ledge from the perspective of the child ; endeavoring to foresee and to answer the questions which he will prob- ably ask. In this work she will doubtless find that the class know more than she gave them credit for. This is likely to be particularly true of the boys. Why this is so, I do not know, unless they investigate nature while their sis- ters are trying to keep their dresses spotless. With the INTRODUCTION O children's help, therefore, and with her own earnest efforts, she will find herself in possession of a rich store of facts at the end of the year. In her own stndy she must take advantage of Avhat others have learned and set down in books. The method of discovery is pedagogically right for the child, but the method of verification is the shortest and safest one for the teacher. Then when she knows her material, let it ask her questions : " Why am I prickly ? " says the Chestnut. '' Why do I open in the antumn ? " " Why was I closed all summer ? " " Why have some of my nuts two flat sides ? " " Why have they thick and shiny coats ? " " Why are they good to eat ? ' ' and many others. Let her think out the ansAvers to them all, and let that question, the solving of which ga'^ e her the greatest joy, be the one to Avhich she first leads the children. Second: Having thus prepared herself, then, with a cool head and a warm heart, let her leisureJy guide the child's observation, imagination, and reason to the most important truths with reference to the subject of the lesson. I have said, ''Be leisurely." Let her remember that the object is to lead the children to think. Their un- trained minds cannot do this in an atmosphere of im- patience, emphasis, and hurry. She should not have anxiety to cover a definite ground. Begin, and let the lesson shape itself. If the children are interested and are thinking, the teacher has succeeded, even if she has not tanght one fact. Time : This course presupposes at least an hour and a half a week, preferably divided into four periods for third and b NATURE STUDY fourth year pupils, and the same amount of time divided into periods of varying length, according to the kind of work, the time of day, and the temper of the children for first and second year pupils. This does not include the supplementary reading, drawing, and language, but it does include the very neces- sary short excursions. Material for Study: Although the teacher may recognize the value of indi- vidual work, she may sometimes find it difficult to pro- cure material in sufficient quantity to give a portion of it to each pupil in the class. In such cases, I have found that the lack is in a measure supplied by distributing to the class hektograph drawings of such animals and plants as could not be gathered in abundance. To help other teachers to do the same, this volume has been illus- trated with simple, yet rather detailed drawings which admit of reproduction in this way. As a proof of the practicability of easily gathering material for the lessons I should like to say that, of the subjects given in the index of this little volume, nearly all the trees, all of the stones and many more, many of the plants, and most of the animals were found within four squares of a well-built-up portion of Philadelphia. There may not be the same variety of material in every city street, but there will be, probably, enough for a year's study, if the will to fiud it and the desire to use it exist. As for the phenomena of weather — the winds, the clouds, rain, snow, hail, dew, their various causes and effects — a whole world of interest and beauty — what locality is so poor as not to be rich in weather ! In point of fact its economy is a strong argument in INTRODUCTION 7 favor of a Nature Course in the loAver schools. Heaven and earth supply the material independent of School Board appropriations. Those who assert that such a course is possible only with a large laboratory and gen- erous appropriations, speak either with prejudice or with- out thought. Excursions : Last year I made not less than eighty short excursions, each time with classes of about thirty-five. They were children of from seven to fourteen years of age. With- out their hats, taking with them note-books, pencils, and knives, they passed with me to the street. The passers-by stopped to gaze at us, some with expressions of amuse- ment, others of astonishment ; approval sometimes, quite frequently the reverse. But I never once saw on the part of the children a consciousness of the mild sen- sation that they were creating. They went for a definite purpose, which was alwaj's accomplished. There was but one exception to this satisfactory ex- perience, and on that occasion a circus parade exercised rival charms, and I withdrew in its favor. At least one longer excursion into the real country and in the springtime should be taken. For this tliree things are necessary for the teacher : First : Accurate knowledge of every inch of the ground over which the children are to be taken, and what it will yield to them of interest and information. Second : Good temper. Third: A shrill whistle to call the children together when they are scattered over the ground. For the children : A covered tin-pail in which to carry their treasures. 8 NATURE STUDY Butterfly nets and a lunch add to the pleasure of the occasion, but neither is an absolute necessity. Related Work : There is no doubt that some of the number work and much of the reading, literature, and language should be based on the science. The teacher, if left to herself and really interested, would do this unconsciously, but imfortunately the de- mands of the course of study must be heeded, and the consciousness of this keeps most of us from much experi- menting. This is especially true in the case of arithmetic. I have great faith in Jackman's ideas and suggestions for number, and had I a grade in my entire charge, I should certainly follow in his footsteps. But I cannot speak from experience, and one's own belief does not and ought not to count, except to one's self in these practical days. With regard to literature, reading, and language, I had unusual opportunities to test all the inviting theories on the subject. I had a typewriter and a mimeogi*aph with which to make such reading lessons as I desired, and such work in language as seemed to jne profitable. My conclusions are these: First : That either in reading or in language a restate- ment of the lessons taught is stultifying and uninteresting. Second: That the study of poems or prose — real lit- erature— on the object studied, or on a related subject, is profitable. Third: That the giving of additional and interesting information as silent reading is a valuable exercise from every point of view. INTRODUCTION 9 Fourth: That the language work shoukl be largely oral, and the attempt made not merely to restate the facts observed and their meaning, but to lead out into further thought on the same subject. The written language consisted of records in which exactness, brevity, and neatness were insisted upon ; orig- inal notes ; and, whenever a subject was finished, a writ- ten resume, usually illustrated, and always following an oral discussion. In Color, I am convinced that the initial work, at least, should never be from small objects, but should deal with large masses in obvious perspective. With white chalk and blue paper all the different clouds may be rep- resented ; with the ordinary colored crayons, a series of pictures accurately representing the change of seasons as shown, even in cities, by the progressive changes in color, may be made by the children. After this, they may more safely attempt to portray smaller objects, such as the trees, and finally, perhaps, the animals and flowers which they are studying. AVith the older children I have found color work with the plants and animals a great waste of time, from the science standpoint, at any rate. They see and learn much more when they attempt to make an accurate drawing. With the little children the reverse is true. CHAPTER I SEPTEMBER Poems . In September, Lovejoy's Nature in Verse. September, Helen Hunt Jackson. September, Wordsworth. In Time's Swing, Lucy Larcom. September's nature work must deal with the weather, with the autumn plants, and with insects. The real subject-matter is the same for all grades; but the amount of information and the method of imparting it must differ materially with the age of the children. Therefore, for the sake of illustration, the work on the weather will be separated into two parts — suggestions for the first and second years, and suggestions for the third and fourth years. It is, however, taken for granted that those interested in the last two years will read over the work outlined for the first two. WEATHER Wind and Clouds. First and Second Years : The study of weather in the elementary schools has the advantage of having the material supplied without expenditure of school funds ; of cultivating the observa- tion and the reason; of laying a good foundation for 10 SEPTEMBER 11 geography; aud, by means of daily records, of establish- ing habits of accuracy and neatness. In beginning the work withichildren, the approach to this side of nature should be made through the myths, of which a number are clearly a poetizing of natural pro- cesses. The stories of IVIercury, child of Jupiter and of Maia, in whose footsteps grew beautiful flowers, make a most happy introduction to the study of winds and clouds, and are at the same time an excellent basis for work in literature and language. Tell them of the wind god, Mercury, who was born at the peep of day, and who grew so rapidly that at noon he sang beautiful songs, accompanying himself on an instrument made out of the shell of a tortoise — music such as we all can hear even in a city when the wind sets the leaves in motion. In the evening of the same day he stole from his half-brother, Apollo, the sun god, his white oxen, which were then grazing on the tops of mountains near l)y. He covered their hoofs with twigs and drove them backwards into a cave, so that no one might find- them. But Apollo, discovering who had taken them, — for who but the wind could drive them away, — insisted that Mercury should go with him to their father Jupiter. Jupiter, having listened to Apollo's complaint, turned to hear the defence of the baby, who, winking, said that Apollo was a bully and a coward to attack a poor little one-day-old infant, who had learned only how to eat and sleep. Jupiter laughed so heartily that, finally, even the angry Apollo joined in his father's mirth at the pranks of the boy, aud forga\'e him. Mer- cury then presented his brother with his newly made tortoise-shell lyre, in return for which Apollo gave him a beautiful whip, and nux*le him herdsman of his cattle. 12 NATUKE STUDY Mercury was a great traveller, and, as he loved Apollo's cows, he drove them constantly before him in the great blue meadow which surrounds the whole earth. This myth should be told to them as a story, not pausing, as I have done in passing, to show its origin in the phenomena of the winds and clouds, but in- vesting it with all the possible charms of literature and art. (iiierber's "Myths" and Gay- ley's " Classic Myths " will be found invaluable for this pur- pose. Gayley, in particular, in his "Commentaries" in the back of the book gives valuable information concerning pictures and poems. "Nature Myths and Stories," by Flora J. Cooke (15 cents), may be helpful, par- ticularly at first, in enabling the teacher to bridge over the chasm which separates the myth, as told for the adult stu- dent in the various text-books on mythology, from the com- prehension of the little child. By means of the hektograph, the outlines, at least, of Giovanni di Bologna's Flying Mercury, the Belvedere Mercury of the Vatican, the Mercury in Repose in Naples, or Praxiteles' Mercury, may be made familiar to the children. SEPTEMBER 13 Choose for tlieir first excursion a day when the sky is full of beautiful, billowy, cumulus clouds. Tell them that they are going out to find the blue meadow and Apollo's clouds. Where are the cows going ? From what direc- tion does Mercury come ? Is he driving them quickly, or moderately, or very slowly ? What else is going in the same direction (smoke, leaves, etc.) ? If the clouds were not here, how could we tell from what place Mer- cury was running ? There can be no valid objection to letting the children use the terms " north, south, east, west, northeast, south- east, northwest, southwest," and much unnecessary cir- cumlocution is thus avoided. By all means, use some kind of a compass in teaching direction. A magnetized knitting needle run through a cork and suspended by a silk thread, so that it may move freely, costs practically nothing, and teaches most effectively the north, from which all the other directions may then be taught. By making excursions at different times of the day, establish these facts : The wind may often change, both in its direction and velocity during the day. It is usually calm, light, or moderate in the morning, increasing in velocity during the day until it becomes strong or even blows a gale. The north wind and east wind oftenest bring cold and rain ; while the south and west winds usually are warm. The clouds in the early morning are in layers round the horizon (stratus, or layer clouds), but later, on pleasant days, rise toward the zenith, lose their banded character, and look like great packs of white wool (cumulus, or wool-pack clouds). Sometimes they are very far from us, lighter, more feathery (cirrus, or feather clouds) ; 14 NATURE STUDY sometimes they are gray, low, heavy, and give us rain (nimbus, or rain clouds) ; and oftenest of all, instead of being simple cumulus, stratus, nimbus, or cirrus, they are puzzling combinations of two kinds. The com- monest of these mixed clouds is the strato-cumulus, and the most characteristic, the cirro-cumulus or mackerel sky. From the Weather Bureau, Washington, D.C., may be had, for the asking, pictures of the various clouds cor- rectly named. While it would be fatal to the main object of nature teaching to teach these forms and names dogmatically to the children, it is certainly essential that the teacher should know them, and that she should learn them by daily observation. Raixdrops : The study of the various forms of water, such as rain, snow, hail, etc., has been purposely delayed until Janu- ary ; yet the good teacher will not fail to take advantage of a rainstorm to call attention to shape, varying size, and impression made on the window pane and on the soil by the falling drops. LITERATURE Myths : Tell the story of ^olus, in whose cave Mercury was born ; of his children and their work ; of Thor and his Hammer ; of Aurora's Tears ; of Iris ; of the Palace of Alcinotls. Easy Poems : What the Winds Bring, Stedman. Stop, Stop, Pretty Water, Whittier's Child Life. SEPTEMBER 15 Eleanor Smith's Songs for Little Children. North Wind, Wind Song, Rain Coach, Rain Song, A ^Million Little Diamonds, St. Nicholas' Songs. Northerly, Mrs. Dodge's When Life is Young. How the Winds Blow, ] :Merry Rain, [ Lovejoy's Nature in Verse. Little Raindrops, I Who Likes the Rain, J Most excellent language lessons might be given on the people and countries to the north, south, east, and west of us. Tliinl and Fourth Years: The first wind lesson in September should be given after lessons in general direction, when it is quite certain that all of the children know which way is north, south, east, west, northeast, southeast, northwest, and south- west. The children should be taken out of doors to notice the direction from Avhich the wind comes, after they have been properly prepared for the work by dis- cussing various ways by which this may be determined, such as holding up the handkerchief, pieces of paper, watching the leaves, clouds, smoke, flags, etc. It must be made perfectly clear that all of these things will be blown in a direction exactly opposed to that from which the wind comes. If, for example, the smoke is going toward the southeast, the wind is from the north Avest. Three excursions to observe the direction of the wind will not be too many. Prepare for these and all other excursions by going over the ground first yourself. Do not fail to make most prominent the point at issue, but, at the same time, do not fail to help them to observe and admire such obvious and wonderful things as the clouds. 16 NATURE STUDY 4 3V ''^ .'i- "• ,.J ' jV the thistle is widely dis- ^' ^i ^"ff ''"'' JklX':'^'''''''^ J ^jJ^-s^-T^ ^ / / ^i:S^^rr^- STAMENS tributed. Indeed, the only "^J^^^''^" '^■||i<,v"^'~-^°''°'-'^ way to get rid of it is to cut ,,,,^,.-^l L Wr it down before it flowers, and "^e"^',;''"^^^^ |"||U, M^'^^^' °' "'°'" even this will be of small "^^--^ -^P use unless every one in the i ' neighborhood does the same "^^'^ °^ '^'^"^ ^''^ ''"'* ^"'^ f'°^«''- thing. The thistle belongs to the order of Composites, so called, because the flower heads are composed of many flowers. To this same order belong most of the common fall flowers, such as the goldenrod, aster, iron Aveed, bone- set, snake root, thoroughwort, cone flower, sunflower, yar- row, tansy, burdock, chicory, as well as the everlasting, the daisy and the dandelion, which bloom in the spring. As the flowers of this family are seldom self-fertilized, the advantage of the closely crowded conspicuous head is evident. Doubtless to protect the nectar from being diluted by the dew and rain, they open only in bright light. Metliod : Take the children out on a sunny day to observe the bees and to collect material, if this be possible. Thistles are not, however, found abundantly within city limits, and it may be necessary for you to collect the material 26 NATURE STUDY yourself. One plant is essential, with enough flower heads so that each child may have a portion. Do the bees visit this flower ? Why do you think so ? What is the little purple thing with a long white tube which you hold in your hand ? "Why do you think that it is a flower ? What other plants do you know in Avhich many flowers are crowded together in one head ? Is it bet- ter for the flowers to live in this way, rather than singly ? "Why ? Why is it better for the flowers to be more easily seen ? Why is it good for the bees to visit it ? How else can the bees tell that the thistle has honey for it and wants it to come ? What good are the prickly scales round the flowers ? What good are the prickles on the leaves ? When does the flower go to sleep ? How ? ^Vhy ? Whj is it closed on rainy days ? What is the good of the thistle down to the young fruits ? "Wliy is it better for the young seeds to sprout far away from the mother plant ? These lessons on the thistle should be followed up with drawings, a great deal of oral, and a limited amount of written expression. There are several stories of the' thistle which would make excellent language or reading lessons, such as Andersen's charming tale of " The Thistle," and the " Cousin of the Eose " in Stories from Fairy Land. Mrs. Dodge's " This- tle " is excellent. '^How West Wind Helped Dandelion," in Emilie Poulsson's In the Child's World would help to drive home the fact of the distribution of seeds. The following salient points with reference to the other flowers mentioned may be of use. I have purposely omitted much that any one might see, and have selected the more interesting points, and sought to give informa- tion not readily obtained by the amateur. It is taken SEPTEMBER 27 for granted that no one ^ill attempt to teach all the details of any plant. The Composites : As before stated, the goldenrod, aster, sunflower, black-eyed Susan (cone flower), ironweed, and chicory be- long to the Composites, and have the same general char- Chicory. Cross-section of head showing separate flower. acteristics as the thistle. The ironweed, like the thistle, has tubular flowers only. Chicory, like the dandelion, has only strap-shaped flowers. All of the others have strap-shaped (ligulate) flowers round the margin and tu- bular ones in the centre. To the former is given, there- fore, the name ray flowers, while the latter are called disk flowers — names doubtless derived from the respec- tive resemblance of each to the rays and disk of the sun. Chicory was introduced from Europe and is found by 28 NATURE STUDY dusty roadsides. It is an excellent flower to study with children who have already mastered the floral parts, because no other common composite, except the sun- flower, shows so clearly the structure. The ovary is large ; above it are the small chaffy scales which make up the calyx; the cor- olla is, of course, easily seen; the stamens with the heads or anthers united are exception- ally plain, and above them rises the pistil with its stigma, two- cleft when ripe. GoLDENROD : The flowers of the golden- rod are much too small to be studied botani- cally ; but the plant itself may be made interesting by compar- ing the common spe- cies, noting particu- larly their differences, which are obvious, though the ordinary observer will, with difficulty, believe that there are some forty -two native eastern species, of which at least a dozen are common. It would be a profitable lesson to collect sufficient of two or three different kinds for the children to compare them, giving the differences. Notice particularly the stem, which may be rough, hairy, or smooth, — gray, blue, or green, — unbranched, Goldenrods, showing some of their different habits of growth. 1. Early Goldenrod. 2. S. rugosa. 3. Elm-leaved Goldenrod (S. ulmiflora). 4. S. lanceolata. 5, S. canadensis. 6. Blue-stemmed Golden- rod (S. caesia). SEPTEMBER 29 with several long main branches, or with short branches. The leaves are various, and, in one species, quite fra- grant, shiny, and well formed. Asters, or star flowers, are almost as various as the goldenrod and, althougli their structure is much more obvious still their chief value in this grade is aesthetic and literary. SuxFLOWER : A characteristic held in common by all of the other composites, and likewise by many other ANTHERS... r;|,\ CALYX - 1 DISK FLOWEH--- Blue Aster (A- cordifolius). .n7#J% Aster flowers not of this order, is that of " sleeping," or the change in position of the parts of the plants with refer- ence to the light. This peculiarity is conspicuous in the smiflower probably because of its large size, and has caused this flower to be held in reverence by people of past ages. The Peruvians, who, at the time of the Spanish Conquest were sun Avorshippers, decorated the maidens of the temple with crowns of golden sunflowers, branches of which were carried in their hands. Sun- flowers were and are still used in the decoration of Christian churches. In the Cathedral at Eheims, they 30 NATURE STUDY form the aureoles of botli the Virgin and St. John, the flowers turning toward the figure of Christ on the Cross as toward their true sun. "The sunflowers not only rejoice at the sight of the sun, but follow with loving fidelity the attraction of its rays, gazing at it and turning toward it from its rising to its setting," wrote St. Francis Sweet Clover. Day position, 9 A.M. Sweet Clover. Sleep posi- tion, 12.30 A.M. de Sales, an observation and sentiment repeated by Moore when he sang, " The sunflower turns on her god when he sets The same look which she turned when he rose." As a matter of fact, this following of the sun is much less exact than the poets would have us believe, and is undoubtedly, as in other flowers, due to the necessity of protecting the nectar, as well as the organs of reproduc- tion from the dangers of the night, chief of which are cold and dew. The leaves of the sunflower, too, like those of peas, wistaria, jewel weed, cabbage, and many others, have sleep movements. These movements may be observed to a limited extent SEPTEMBER 31 by making use of rainy days, particularly if the plants are growing in the school yard. The florets of the sunflower are large and, therefore, excellent for strictly botanical study. Two sunflowers will be enough for a whole class, one to be kept entire to show the relationship of the parts. From the other, both ray and disk flowers should be removed, giving one of each kind to each child, and saving the now chaffy re- ceptacle surrounded by the green, leaf-like involucre for the class as a whole. The ray flowers have neither stamens nor pistils. Their only reason for ex- istence is to make the head coROLLPtf more conspicuous. The disk stamens--|| flowers, whose duty it is to set seed, have corolla, five stamens, and a pistil, with a two-cleft stigma, like other tubular flowers of this order. The calyx consists of two or more thin deciduous scales, and, as in all of the Compos- ites, of the enveloping coat of the ovary, or seed box. In the younger flowers, in which the pollen is ripe, the stigma has not yet opened. When it does appear above the en- circling stamen heads (anthers), and opens out its inner stigmatic surface, which the pollen must touch in order to insure fertilization, the pollen has disappeared. But bees and flies, visiting it for the sake of its honey, then bring to it pollen from other flowrets. Black-eyed Susax, purple cone flower or yellow daisy, as it is variously called, is a western flower which came to DISK FLOWER Sunflower. 32 NATURE STUDY US with clover seed and has spread into our fields. The structure of its flower is very similar to that of the sun- flower. Like many other plants, its root leaves are different from the stem leaves. The Wild Carrot, very commonly found even within city limits in waste lots, is sometimes called Bird's Nest, because the flower clusters are hollowed out in the centre, although, when quite in bloom, the top is flat or convex, in- stead of concave. This plant belongs to the same family as parsley, caraway, and carrot. One of the distinguishing traits of the family is the flower clus- ters, which look much like inverted um- brellas. Not less common is Butter axd Eggs, or Toadflax. This flower will be an easy riddle for children who know the floral parts perfectly. The five-parted calyx is obvious enough, but the tAvo-lipped, irregu- lar corolla is a little puzzling. The honey is secreted at the base of the ovary, but is kept in the spur. No animals can get at it, but those with long tongues, such as the bumble bee. Guided by the bright orange of the lower lip, the bee presses it down and helps himself to the nectar within. The structure of the flower of the ^NIorxixg Glory is very evident. Note also the star, and the fact, rather Black-eyed Susan, or Purple Cone Flower. Wild Carrot. SEPTEMBER 33 unusual among flowers, that there are red, white, and blue kinds, all of which has made it a popu- lar candidate for the national flower. The twining of the stem is also worthy of note. Like most climbing plants, it twines against the sun ; that is, from the left to the right hand of the observer. The hop and some honeysuckles reverse this movement. The mo- tion is quite rapid, and, on a hot day, only about two hours are re- quired for the growing tip to travel round a circle. When the free end is a foot or two in length, this motion can actually be seen. The Water Lily, like most of the other flowers already men- tioned, sleeps at night. Perhaps the most interesting thing about it, is the fact that there is no ab- solute difference between sepals and petals, or between petals and stamens. The outer leaves, it is true, are green and shining out- side, but they are white within, and the succeeding leaves are tinged with green. As we travel still farther within, they become tipped with yellow, finally bear- ing anthers (stamen heads), until at last we reach perfect stamens. {^« /> Common Toadflax (Butter and Eggs), fruit and flower. 34 NATURE STUDY This illustrates most beautifully the probably common origin of the floral parts, and suggests the following questions : Why are the calyx leaves usually green ? Why are the petals oftenest brilliant in color ? How was the bag or anther of the stamen originally formed ? Why does the pistil leaf of most flowers swell at the base ? Obviously, the ad- vantage of the first is its inconspicuousness which makes it a better cover or protection, whereas the second, for a contrary reason, is conspicuous, helping to 'attract to the flower animals which will transfer the contents of the stamen box (pollen) to the contents of the seed box (ovary) of another flower. The Garden Nastur- tium {Tropoeolum) flowers abundantly. It is better for the plants, moreover, to remove the flowers, since by so doing the formation of seed is prevented and, in consequence, new flowers are put forth. The calyx is made up of five parts, united into one, while the five petals are separate. There are eight stamens, which in the bud are bent down. Each one as it ripens rises separately, until it stands directly in the passage- way to the spur. This will be found, on biting it off, to be full of honey. It takes about three days for all of Garden Nasturtium. septp:mber 35 the stamens to rise, ripen, and discharge the pollen. After this is accomplished, the pistil elongates, and, spreading out its three branches, stands just where the stamens stood, so that an insect coming for the abundant nectar of the spur could not fail to deposit on it any pollen with which he may have been decorated in visits Pistil Section of flower PISTIL Stamen Garden Nasturtium. Different positions assumed by stamens and pistils in ripening. to younger flowers. Their brilliant color and strong odor draw many insects to them, and the honey guides, or dark lines of the corolla which lead to the spur, perhaps show them the way to the treasure within. Notice that the posi- tion of the flower protects it from rain and also makes of the lower lip a convenient landing place for the insect. The flowers and leaves are sometimes used for salad, tasting not unlike w^ater-cress. The fruit makes an ex- cellent pickle. 36 NATURE STUDY Ferns : In early September, it is sometimes possible to gather fern plants with a few leaves still in the bud. These leaves, or fronds as they are usually called, are rolled. They may be unrolled for a short dis- tance, but the inner portions are as yet undeveloped, and hence well protected. Many kinds are also covered with a brown wool, which makes an additional protection against rain and changes of temperature. Both these points are bet- ter observed, however, in the spring. The fern has no flowers, and hence no seed. How then is it reproduced ? By means of spores, which are borne usually on the under side of the leaflets, but sometimes make up the whole stalk. Often, too, they make up the larger part of the upper leaflets, while those below are quite barren. In the vicinity of Philadelphia, the small rock fern, the common wood fern (Christmas fern, as it is often called for obvious rea- sons), and the large bracken fern have thick leaves Avhich do not quickly fade. Not less Rock, wood, and Meadow Fern. Fern, showing deve oping leaves. SEPTEMBER 37 common are the finer- leaved, meadow fern, tlie sensitive fern, and the cinnamon fern. SOME LITERATURE WITH REFERENCETO SEPTEMBER PLANTS Myths, Legeiids, cuid Stories : Clytie (The Sunflower). Sunflower and K ash- light, Mr.s. Ewing. Lotus Eaters, The Odj's- sey (A Water Lily). Golden Rod and Aster, Marah Pratt's Fairy Land of Flowers. The Closed Gentian, Marah Pratt's Fairy Laud of Flowers. Sensitive Fern. I. Vegetative leaf. II. Spore-bearing leaf. III. Magnified fruit, Bracken Fern, or Brake. ". Fruit of the Brake. ''. Fruit of the Rock Fern. f. Fruit of Wood and Sensitive Ferns. The Thistle, Andersen. The Cousin of tlie Rose, Stones from Fairy Land. Training and Restraining, Mrs. Gatty's I'arables from Nature. East/ Poems: Little Purple Aster, Fairy Land of Flowers. Thistles, Mrs. Dodge's When Life is Young. More Difficult Poems : Golden Rod, Lucy Larcom. Golden Rod, Elaine Goodale. 38 NATURE STUDY Cinnamon Fern. I. Spore-bearing leaf. II. Vegetative leaf. 111. Magnified Fruit. Asters and Golden Rod, Helen Hunt Jackson. September, Helen Hunt Jack- son. Water Lily, Reynolds, Fairy Land of Flowers. Petrified Fern, M. L. B. Branch, Fairy Land of Flowers. Fringed Gentian, Bryant. Extracts from the Corn Song, Whittier. Legend of Mondamiu (Corn), Hiawatha. Blessing of the Cornfields, Hia- watha. Chicory, Margaret Deland. Ferns, Tabb. Ferns, Song Echoes. Thistle, Alice Gary. ANIMALS In September there is abundance of insect life of all kinds and in all stages. For their study in the school- room, a home for larva?, and, if possible, another for the adult forms, are needed. Glass aquaria, the tops covered with netting, will an- swer the purpose. For caterpillars, there should be a layer of earth, at least two inches deep, kept fairly moist, and plenty of fresh leaves each day. It is a good plan to keep these leaves in a narrow-necked bottle of Avater. Unless the opening is Avell filled with the stems. put them through a piece of cardboard or paper, thus preventing the possibility of death to the larvae from drowning. The adults, if butterflies or sphinx moths, need food in SEPTEMBER 39 the shape of a diluted syrup of sugar aud water. This most of them will take from the liuger. If they are not disposed to eat, uncoil the tongue gently with a pin, hold- ing the insect firmly but carefully by the vertically appressed wings, and letting the tip of the tongue come in contact with the syrup. If still he will not eat, fresh fragrant flowers will, perhaps, tempt him. At any rate, if he does not partake of their bounty, he cannot be very hungry. In the home for the Imtterflies should be placed also twigs and branches. Instead of glass aquaria, a soap box, in each corner of which are fastened uprights of wood, round and above which is nailed either wire or cotton netting, may be used. Grasshoppers, locusts, crickets, ground beetles, will flourish in caterpillar cages. They need abundance of fresh grass. The locusts will certainly deposit their eggs in the soil. The ground beetles should be placed under a stone. In every case, the secret of success is to imitate nature. The habits of these animals, what and how they eat, breathe, and move, are the most important points for study. In my own experience, I found that giving the children a simple definite question to be answered the next day made them observe intelligently at recess, after school, and in the mornings. The teacher must remem- ber this object, and with a word and real interest on her own part stimulate them. The following questions illus- trate the point : AVhat does the locust eat ? How does he jump ? Does he walk? Can he close his eyes ? After this preliminary work, it is desirable, by means of the hektograph, to make drawings for each child, illus- trating the animal studied. 40 NATURE STUDY The Locust (commonly called Grasshopper). Facts : The following may be observed by the children, and must be seen by the teacher, if she is to do intelligent work. In color, the locust imitates its surroundings, and this imitation, by making it difficult to discover it, protects it from its enemies, as does also its power of rapid move- .' EGG PLACER BREATHING HOLE Female Locust. ment and its thick outside covering. Its head has a wide range of movement, which gives to the insect a wide range of vision, in spite of its motionless eyes. Besides the large compound eye on each side of the head, there are three small eyes in the middle of its forehead. The an- tennae, or feelers, are sense organs. They move freely in any direction, and convey to the brain of the animal information of the outside world, perhaps, by touch or by smell. The mouth parts move from side to side, while in the palps is sometimes held its food. SEPTEMBER 41 The " tobacco " is parth- digested food and seems to be used for defensive purposes. Back of the head is the chest, to each of whose three parts is attached a pair of legs. The first pair points forward, the second outward and backward, and the third, which is more than double the length of either of the others, points upward and backward. In leaping, the insect uses its first pair of legs as points of resistance, pushing with the third pair, Avhich then straighten out as he jumps long distances into the air. In walking, the legs seem to be used somewhat alternately. The first pair of wings, wing covers, serve to protect the delicate gauzy wings folded like a fan beneath. Both are strengthened by veins. The male locust sings by rubbing his legs against the wing covers. The abdomen is made up of ten segments, which gives much freedom of motion. The nu- merous breathing holes are along ; cercus each side, so that a locust would have to be held, not with the head, but with the body in the Avater in order to drown it. Abdomen, Male Locust. At the end of the abdomen of the female are hard brown pincer-like organs, which make the hole in the ground in which the eggs are laid. These eggs, usually about twenty-eight in number, are long, yellow in color, and very commonly found. The young locusts hatch out in the early summer, looking very like the mother, except that they have no wings. About July they shed the outer covering and come out larger and with wing pads developed. In succeeding moults, these increase in size, until, at last, in the fourth moult, the wings develop. 42 NATURE STUDY 111 the neighborhood of Philadelphia, the wingless and wing-pad forms are abundant in June and the early part of July. There are several parasites, internal (worms) and ex- ternal (a red mite), which infest the locust, but their most powerful enemies are the birds, and a digger wasp which stings them and leaves them helpless, but alive, as food for its yonng. i^ WING PAD Wingless larva. Locusts. Nymph. Method : These animals may be collected in large quantities by sweeping the grass on a sunny day with a butterfly net. This net may be bought for twenty-five cents, or less, or may be made. A piece of dowelling, one-half inch in diameter and three feet long, will serve for a handle, although a bamboo handle of greater diameter would be better. An excellent rim may be made from rattan, about the thickness of a lead pencil, or from wire. The rattan should be bent into a circle, about a foot in diameter, the two free ends placed outside of the handle and bound to it SEPTEMBER 48 with staples or by winding round with wire. By means of carpet thread, a net of mosquito netting, preferably green or brown, a foot and a half long, may be sewn to the rim. When caught, the locusts should be placed in a glass or soap-box vi- varium, in the bottom of which there is good moist earth. The}' are enormous eaters, and should have a plentiful supply of fresh grass every day. Remove those that die, and mount one of them with the wings spread. For this purpose a " setting board " will be useful. This may be made by nail- ing or glueing two pieces of bev- elled-edged board or cork on a level piece of board, so that there is a half-inch groove between. In this groove the body rests while the wings are stretched and kept in place for a few days with narrow strips of paper. If the insect has just died, there will be no troul)le in doing this, but if he has been dead a day or so, it is safer to soften the wing joints by putting the locust in a piece of paper on moist sand for twenty-four or forty-eight hours. Let those children who will bring a tumbler or, better, a preserving jar with earth in the bottom and netting across the top, have a few locusts for themselves. Let the children answer such questions as these : What Setting board. Swal- low-tail Butterfly. 44 NATURP] STUDY is the name of these insects ? ^Vhy are they so called ? What color ? What other colors do they sometimes have ? Why ? Who are their enemies ? How can they make themselves disagreeable to these enemies ? How can they escape them? Mr. and Mrs. Katydid. Then tell them to watch the insects to find ont how they walk, how they jump, how the}^ fly. The next day correct and supplement their observa- tions. Give each child a hektograph drawing that he may clearly understand the beautiful adaptation of the legs and wings to their work. Give them other questions to guide them in their observations of the living animals. What do they eat ? How do they eat ? Can they see ? SEPTEMBER 45 How do they see ? How do they breathe ? How do they sing? The life history may be taught by means of hektograph drawings, or it may be left until late spring; at which time it is possible to obtain living material. To the same order belong the crickets and katy- dids. The main difference be- tween crickets and locusts is in the legs, the sound-making ap- paratus, and the ovipositors. The katydids are green in color, live in trees, and have longer antennae and ovipositors. Because the children may bring in specimens of dragon flies and cicadas (commonly and incorrectly called locusts), the following facts are given with reference to them. Dragox Flies : The adult dragon fly has a large head with large, brilliant, gemlike eyes. The head moves very freely in every direction, as indeed it must to see and catch its food, the lively mosquito. The wings are nearly equal in size and texture, deli- cate, beautiful in color, often with a metallic lustre. The long slender abdomen is chiefly used in steering. 1. Mr. Cricket. 2. Mrs. Cricket. C Egg placer. Sounding apparatus. 46 ^'ATUEE STUDY To its peculiar appearance is doubtless due the popular name of devil's darning needle, and the popular supersti- tion, that the chief reason for its existence is to sew up the lips and ears of naughty children. Because of the nature of their food, they are always found near water, where, indeed, the young dragon flies live an active existence for a long time before becoming adults. Life history of the Dragon Fly. I. Larva with the mask extended. ingofthe pupal skin. HI. Adult. II. Moult- The eggs, dropped into the water by the mother, hatch out into wingless larvae with a huge lower lip, which, when the insect is at rest, folds over the other mouth parts. It is capable of great and sudden extension and armed with a pair of pincers. The larva is so voracious that it is often called the water tiger. When about to change to the adult form, the nymph, which is very like the larva and produced from it by moult- ing, climbs OAit of the water with the aid of a plant ; the SEPTEMBER 47 skin splits along the back, and from this opening the dragon fly, with wet and crumpled wings, emerges. In about an hour these are spread and dry, and the dragon fly begins its comparatively short, terrestrial career. ■v-v., Nymph The Cicada or Harvest Fly. Cicada (Harvest Fly) : The cicada is neither a fly nor a locust, but a bug. Bugs are always easily recognized by the mouth parts, which form a long slender beak. 48 NATUliE STUDY The male cicada is easily distiiiguisliecl from his mate. He has a pair of drums on the under side of his abdo- men. With these he sounds his loud call so often heard in the hot days of August. The female cicada has a long sword, with which she punctures holes in twigs of trees and there deposits her eggs. The larvae hatch out in about six weeks, drop to the ground, and immediately begin to dig their way downward, using for this purpose their broad shovel-like fore legs. For more than a year and a half they remain contentedly in the earth, their beak piercing the roots of the tree and sucking its juices. After changing to a so-called pupa state, they burrow their way upwards, grasp tightly any convenient siipport, such as rails of fences or trunks of trees. The skin of each splits along the back, and from the opening emerges the adult form, which, after spreading and drying its wings, flies away, again to repeat the history of its race. One well-known species spends seventeen years under ground, and still another, thirteen. The cast-off nymph skins are very common, and often found by children. Beetles : The commonest beetles are ground beetles, usually found in abundance under stones. They may be so kept in the schoolroom. A potato plant, infested with the brown and yellow striped potato beetle, often erroneously called a bug, may be kept in the schoolroom, and is sure to show not only the adults, but the eggs and grubs. The last will bury themselves in the ground, and there live a quiescent life as a pupa for the whole winter, if you secure a last crop. During the summer, however, the change from egg to grub, to pupa, to the adidt beetle, SEPTEMBER 49 occupies not more than a month. Fireflies, lady bugs, and the borers with tlieir long antennee are also very commonly met with. In general, tlie beetles have small heads which give them a wedge shape, well adapted for boring and digging. t -s .'J h > Potato Beetle. The wing covers are very hard and horny, usually cover- ing the entire abdomen and meeting in a straight line in the middle of the body. The antennae are sometimes thread-like, but there is also a great variety of other shapes. The legs are nearly equal in size. The develop- ment is markedly different from that of the locust. From 50 NATURE STUDY the eggs are hatched grubs, — caterpillar-like animals, — except that they have only three pairs of legs. They are voracious eaters, often doing great damage, and after various moults hide themselves in the ground and there quietly A common Undergo the great changes which make of them Lightning ^-^^q adult auimals, very unlike the grubs. Most of the other statements with reference to the locust hold true in the case of the beetle. Moths and Butterflies : The caterpillars of moths and the butterflies are most common in the fall of the year. All caterpillars should be placed in vivaria with moist earth and plenty of food. This food is the leaves of the plant on which they were found. In September, caterpillars are usually full grown, and speedily dig their way into the ground, there to spend the winter, or else they weave for them- selves a cocoon, which protects them from both cold and wet. The common Isabella moth caterpillar, reddish- brown and black, remains fairly active all winter. Doubtless its thick, rather long hair pro- tects it sufficiently. Hektograph draw- ings of whatever cater- pillar is brought in should be made and used for study after the children have been led to observe what and how it eats, how it moves, how it breathes. There is a head without compound eyes and with stout jaws, succeeded by thirteen body segments, on the first three of which are Caterpillar. SEPTEMBER 51 three pairs of true legs. Further back are four pairs of prop legs, and, on the last segment of all, still another pair. The commonest butterfly is the white cabbage butter- fly, which is frequently seen even in city streets. As the name indicates, the caterpillar of it feeds on cabbages and does them much harm. In default of anything better, one of these and a hektograph drawing of the same for each child will serve to show the peculiarities of its class. Like all butterflies, ex- cept the skippers, it has knobbed feelers, large compound eyes, and a coiled tongue on its head, and a chest to which three pairs of legs and two pairs of wings are attached. These wings are covered with scales, and are held verti- cally when the insect is at rest. Usually, therefore, the under side is less conspicuously colored than the upper. Still, it must be remembered that a dull-colored butter- fly would be more noticeable than a brighter one when feeding on brilliant flowers. The cabbage butterfly, which is now one of our commonest, was not known in this country until just before the Civil War ; but it found here conditions so favorable for its development that it is now encountered all over the United States. Mr. Cabbage Butterfly, Mrs. Cabbage Butterfly, and chrysalis. 62 NATURE STUDY Swallow-tail butterflies, the Mourning Cloak, and ilie Milkweed or Monarch, as it is often called, are larger, more beautiful, and more interesting, if they can be ob- Mourning Cloak Butterfly on Willow. I. Larvae. II. Chrysalis. III. Adult. taiued. All three of these are easily tamed, and may be kept alive for some time if fed carefully on syrup. The milkweed butterfly is said to migrate like the birds. At any rate, large flocks of them are frequently found rest- ing on bushes and trees in the early fall. The males are SEPTEMBER 53 easily distinguished from the females, by the fact that they have pockets on their hind wings, in which are kept the Milkweed or Monarch Butterfly. I. Caterpillar. 11. Caterpillar changing to chrysalis. III. Chrysalis. IV- Adult. scent scales, by means of which they lure the female, flying before her and saying, "See how sweet I smell." The tussock moth is unhappily commonly found in all 54 NATURE STUDY of its stages in many kinds of trees, to which it does great damage. The caterpillars, in their livery of black, yellow, and red, are very handsome. They eat voraciously of the leaves of the trees, build a cocoon from their long pencils of hairs, and there pupate, i^rom some of these cocoons emerge the winged males, who fly to their poor wingless stay-at- home mates. Finally, the females lay their eggs in a mass of white foam, and from these m a season. Tussock Moth. I. Caterpillar. II. Cocoons. III. Wing less adult female. IV. Winged adult male. emerge the caterpillars, who grow larger and larger by dint of much eating, throwing off their old skin after growing another, imtil at last they attain their full size. Many broods are hatched out Hence the only Avay to exterminate them SEPTEMBER 55 is by waging against them a relentless war, taking par- ticular pains to destroy finally all of the winter eggs. Bees : Certainly these should be studied in connection with the flowers, among which the children have found them. It is impossible to keep them happily in the schoolroom for more than a day at a time. An observation hive in the yard would give to each child an opportunity' to see every stage in the most interesting life of the honey bee. Such a Mve may be purchased from any apiarist, and would cost from seven to ten dollars. AVith this hive, the Avhole history of the bee may be studied in the fall ; without it, it would be better to take up the life of the hive in the spring, and to consider only the worker bee in the fall. As a matter of convenience, however, the life history of both the humble and honey bee are given here : The queen is the fertile female, whose chief duty it is to lay tlie eggs ; the drones are the males ; and the workers, females who lay eggs only under exceptional circumstances, but who do all the other work of the hive. The humble bees are social in their habits. The whole colony dies off on the approach of winter, except the impregnated queens. Each of these hibernates, and, on the first approach of spring, looks for a home, choosing sometimes a deserted mole's nest, but oftener a conven- ient place in the ground, where, of any available mate- rial,— horse hair, grass, moss, — she constructs a nest, and, in a mass of pollen and honey, laj^s her first eggs. These hatch out into workers. The empty cocoons serve as storehouses. Later, are hatched workers capable of producing drones, then drones, and, last of all, the queens. 56 ^'ATUKE STUDY In the spring, a hive of honey bees contains only a queen and comparatively few workers. This queen be- gins again the great business of her life of laying eggs. She chooses the smaller Worker (eil. Honeycomb, showing' the different cells and larvae in various stages of devel- opment. cells, which compress slightly the abdomen, so that the eggs, in passing down, come in contact with the sper- matic fluid given her by the drone and stored in a special receptacle. This fertilized egg, in four days, develops into a white, footless larva, which floats in the food left in the cell, and is later fed by the nurses with a mixture of pollen and honey specially prepared in the crop. The nurses seal up the full-grown larvse after six days, with a cap of wax. The larva spins a cocoon of silk, and gradually develops into the adult form. In eleven more days, assisted by the work- ers, she gnaws open her prison, acts for a week or so as a nurse for the others, and then takes upon herself the labor of ventilating the hive, gathering honey, pollen, and propolis. The workers have a longer tongue, very large hind legs with pollen Worker. SEPTEMBER 57 baskets, and, on the nnder side of the body, six pockets, from which may be excreted flat plates of wax. They are particularly well fed and hang together like a cur- tain, when it is necessary to produce this substance. As it is formed, they pass it to the mouth and make of it a small pellet. Later, the queen lays eggs in the larger cells. These eggs are not fer- tilized, and hatch out in twenty-seven days into drones, the males, characterized by larger compound, eyes and no Queen. sting. They do not work, and are killed off in times of famine, and, in any event, die after they have fertilized a queen. The queens are hatched from larger cells in sixteen 58 NATURE STUDY days. They have been abundantly fed on royal jelly, and are not allowed to escape until the sound of their voice {" piping ") makes it certain that they are mature. Meanwhile, they are fed through a hole. Then the old queen and some of the workers, gorged with honey, leave the hive for a new home. This is called " swarming." If there is more than a single queen, they fight for suprem- acy, using their stings. The victor takes her nuptial flight, and returns to lay eggs to replenish the hive, often at the rate of three thousand a day. Their sense of sight and of smell is very acute. They prefer blue to other colors. They appear not to hear sounds other than their own. Wonderful as they are, however, Lubbock says that bees are less wise than ants. The life history of wasps, hornets, and ants is similar to that of the bees. Space cannot be given to them here, but no one should attempt to teach them without thorough preparation. Flies : The house fly has but one pair of wings, although close examination shows a small pair of winglets that at first sight appear to be sejDarate, although they really belong to the wings proper. These wings vibrate very rapidly, hun- dreds of times a second, making in the air the figure 8. With them move also the balancers, short-knobbed threads, occupying the place of a second pair of wings, and supposed to be modifi- cations of them. They are probably organs of hearing or breathing. They may be seen more easily by examining the fly from the under side. SEPTEMBER 59 The feet are armed with two claws, between which is a pad covered with hairs, which secrete a kind of muci- lage, thus enabling the fly to walk with ease on a ceiling. With its claws it can hold to rough surfaces. The under lip of the fly makes the thick tongue, whose broad, knoblike end can divide into two flat parts each with a rough surface. Of these we are unpleasantly con- scious when, on hot days, he endeavors to lick up the perspiration. IV Story of the Mosquito. I. Wiggler. II. Pupa. III. Adult escaping from pupa skin. IV- Adult. The eggs are laid in manure and hatch into maggots, footless, worm-like larvae, which after a while wrap them- selves up in a brown case, from which they emerge adult flies. This happens many times during the summer. AYhen winter approaches, a few, by hiding in protected places, manage to survive until spring. Mosquitoes : These insects belong to the Fly or Two Winged Family (Diptera), but in their life history they more closely re- semble the dragon fly. 60 NATUKE STUDY The eggs are laid in a boat-shaped mass, from the under side of which the larvae, called wigglers, escape. They lead an active life, moult several times, becoming at last large-headed pupse. From these the adults emerge, using the cast-off skins as a boat, until the wings are dry enough for them to fly away. Since the least motion would upset the boat, we never have mos- quitoes unless there is somewhere near still water. The male mosquito is short lived and does not bite. Methods : A general method for the study of insects has already been outlined on pp. 42-45, under the head of Method, and can be pursued with any of the insects described above. It is taken for granted that no teacher will attempt to study half the inserts mentioned, even in the two fall months in which they are abundant. The facts about them are given in one place merely as a matter of con- venience, and because it is impossible to tell what mate- rial may happen to come to the individual teacher. LITERATURE Myths, Legends, Stories: Aurora and Tithouus (Grasshopper). Madame Arachne (Spider), Celia Tliaxter. Not Lost But Gone Before (Dragon Fly), Mrs. Gatty's Parables from Nature. Dragon Fly (and other aquatic insects). Water Babies, Kingsley. Bees' Pockets, Wiltse's Kindergarten Stories. King Solomon and the Bees, told in verse by J. G. Saxe. King Solomon and the Ants, told in verse by Whittier. The Musician and the Dancer, Stories from Fairy Land. Ant and the Grasshopper, ^sop. SEPTEMBER 61 The Beetle that Went on his Travels, Andersen. King and the Locust, Book of Tales. Butterfly, Andersen. Waiting (Cricket), 1 j^^_ p^^^^^^^ Law of Au honty (Bee, Butterfly), [ ^^.^^^ ^^^^^^_ A Lesson of Faith, J Goddess of the Silk Worm, Eniilie Poulsson's In the Child's World. Tlie readers are full of stories of the metamorphosis of animals. Easy Poems : Spider and the Fly, Mary Howitt. Spider and the Fly, Alice Caiy. The Secret, Mrs. Dodge's When Life is Young. Grasshopper Green, Walker's Songs and Games. To a Honey Bee, Alice Gary. Seven Times One (one verse, the Bee), Jean Ingelow, The Busy Bee, Isaac Watts. Song of the Bee, Marian Douglass, Butterfly, Butterfly's Lesson, Lady Bug, Maude and the Cricket, Lovejoy's Nature in Verse. More Difficult Poems: Ode to a Grasshopper, Leigh Hunt. Grasshopper, Tennyson. Extracts from Humble Bee, Emerson. To a Butterfly, Wordsworth. Cricket, Cowper. Grasshopper, ~i ^ .,-.-, • ^^ T , „• 1 V Loveioys Nature in Verse. Lady Bn-d, / •' "' Hen and the Honey Bee, J. G. Saxe. CHAPTER 11 OCTOBER Easy Poems : October Party, Lovejoy's Nature in Verse. Autumn Song [October], E. C. Stedman. In Time's Swing, Lucy Larcom. More Difficult Poems : October's Briglit Blue Weather, Helen Hunt Jackson. October, Bryant. October, Wordsworth. October, Longfellow. Under the October Maples, Lowell. Easy Autumn Poems : The Autumn Winds are Crying, Eleanor Smith's Songs for Little Children. The Seasons, Lovejoy's Nature in Verse. Faded Leaves, Alice Cary. More Difficult Poems : Autumn Wood, 1 Extract from Death of the Flowers, „ ^T ■ f ^ <■ \ Bryant. Voice of Autumn, Extract from Song of the Sower, J Indian Summer, 1 Extract from Last Week in Autumn, !• Whittier. St. Martin's Summer, J 62 OCTOBER 63 The work for October should continue the study of the wind and clouds, the flowers and insects, and begin the study of fruits, and of the Eng- lish Sparrow. WEATHER The Sun. First and Second Yeai's : Myths : The Wanderings of Latona. Apollo and the Python. Apollo and Clytie. Hyacinthus. Phaethon. Iris. The myths named above give the story of the sun god, the giver of light and heat : Light, triumphant over Dark- ness, is typified in Apollo's struggle with the Python. The desire of plant life for the sun is told in the story of Clytie. The blooming vegetation of spring withering under the heat of summer is the meaning of the story of Hyacinthus. The destructive drought is the consequence of Phaethon's careless driving of his father's chariot ; and the storm of thunder, lightning, and rain is the thunder- bolt of Jupiter whici destroys the daring rider. Finally, comes the beautiful myth of Iris, the goddess of the rainbow. For these and other myths, Guerber's "Myths and Legends," or Gayley^s " Classic Myths," should be con- sulted— Cook's "Nature Myths" gives several of them arranged for children. Niobe. 64 NATURE STUDY Facts : The sun is more than a million times larger than the earth, and more than ninety-one million miles distant. We move around the sun, which sends to us light and heat by wave motions. The light and heat do a great deal of work for us. Without them it would always be Latona and her children, Apollo and Diana. bitterly cold and intensely dark. No rain could fall, no rivers flow, and neither plants nor animals exist. The course of the sun varies. It rises in or near the east, sets in or near the west, and in the summer journeys higher in the sky than in the winter. Hence in summer and at midday the vertical rays reach us, and it is then hotter than in the winter, or in the morning or evening when, the rays being slanting, the heat and light are less intense in a given locality, since they cover a larger area. OCTOBER 65 Method : Tell the sun myths in the way suggested for the myths of the wind and clouds. Something has come very softly into the room, it is bright and yellow and warm. It has come from a great distance. Who can tell his name? From what has Mr. Sunbeam come ? What day is named for the Sun ? Why ? How far is it to the Sun ? So far that, if you were there and could speak loud enough for me to hear, it would take two weeks for the sound of your voice to reach me ; so far that, if you told me to come to you on the fastest express that exists in the world, it would be about one hundred and seventy- five years before I could reach you, even if I travelled both day and night. Show in the same way how small the earth is in com- parison to the sun. Who has watched the light coming into the bedroom in the early morning ? Does it come at the same time ? At the same place ? Why is it first gray, then lighter ? Apollo Belvedere. 66 NATURE STUDY Yes, that is the way that it seems, but really we are travelling round the sun. Illustrate this by causing a globe Avith a small portion of it covered with black court plaster to revolve around a lamp until at last the plaster catches the light. Recall to their minds the similar phenomena familiar to them in the telegraph poles, fences, houses, which apparently rush by us as we gaze out of the windows of a moving car. Phaethon driving Apollo's car. "What does the sun give us ? How does it send us light and heat ? Illustrate by throwing a pebble in water, by shaking the room or desk, by the voice. What good does the light do? heat? To determine the apparent course of the sun and the consequent daily and seasonal variations in temperature mark each week at same hour the distance which the sun shines into the room. This may be done by driving a tack in the floor. During December the sun will come farther and farther into the room until the twenty-second. OGTOBEE, 67 Iris. Then for a few days it will be stationary. As the sim rises higher the path of the light shortens. The Light of Life, Mrs. Gatty in '• Parables of Nature/"' shows the necessity of light to plants. Show light through a prism again and again, until the 68 NATURE STUDY 18 JANUARY 97 SUNDAY MONDAY TUESDAY WEDNESDAY THURSDAY FRIDAY SATURDAY dPcLEAR ^FAIR Q CLOUDS ^ RAIN [o] SNOW I Yellow (Orange ^ Light Gray HDai-k Gray H o^Grty Sunshine chart. (See p. 69.) children can pick out the colors. When do we see rain- bows in the sky ? Why ? Show the heat of the sun's rays with a burning glass, which may be made to set paper afire. A pretty illustration of the work of the sun in photog- raphy may be made by putting a leaf in a printing frame OCTOBER 69 on blue print paper in the sun. By the end of the lesson the print will be ready to wash in clear water, giving a permanent photograph of the leaf. A daily chart of the sunshine may be kept by taking a piece of Bristol board, printing the name of the month above, dividing the remaining space into thirty-two squares, and by pasting in the ap2:)ropriate square each day a gummed color such as are used in kindergartens. Jackman suggests light yellow for sunny days, orange for fair weather, light gray for cloudy days, dark gray for rain, and the same with a Avhite centre for snow. Of course, the daily observation of the wind and clouds should be continued with frequent excursions. LITERATURE The myths have already been given. Sunshine Stories, Andersen. Easy Poems: I Had a Little Shadow, 1 ^, c. ■ . . c. r^ J -.r ■ TVf o 1-- Eleanor Smith's Songs for Good Morning, Merry Sunshine, \ -^ • , ^, ., , „ , . ^ -^ ' Little Children. Sunshine, I The Sunbeams, Emilie Poulsson's In the Child's World. Water Bloom (Rainbow), Celia Thaxter. Sunbeams, Little Sunbeam, The Sunbeam, Four Sunbeams, Sunshine, Good-night. If I were a Sunbeam, Lucy Larcom. Sunny Days, Mrs. Dodge's When Life is Young. Sunbeams, Mrs. Heinans. A Day of Sunshine, Longfellow, Lovejoy's Nature in Verse. 70 NATURE STUDY WEATHER RECORD, No. I Note. — Tliis should be printed on paper 8 in. x 12 in., to give sufficient space for children's writing. jVame, Grade. School. Wind Becord for the Month of 18 Observations made at Date DlRKO- TION Velocity Date Direc- tion Velocity 1 1 What has been the prevailing wind this inonth?.^-.^^^,^ OCTOBER 71 Third and Fourth Years: Frequent short excursions to continue the teaching of the names and appearance of the clouds, and to verify their daily observations on the wind, should be taken. The use of Weather Record, No. I. (see opposite page), should begin on the first of October. Each child should record her observations, without discussion, the first thing in the morning. After the papers have been collected, then the teacher, or, better, one of the children, should record the facts on the board. Then may folloAV the discussion. It will be sufficient for the class as a whole to make this record once a day, but the blackboard record should be made up of at least two observations, perhaps three, made at stated times during the day. Insist upon neatness and accuracy in this work, but do not allow it to degenerate into mere routine. When there are obvious relations between the wind and the weather, such as an east wind bringing rain, a cold north wind, or a warm wind from the soi;th, point them oiit. Think yourself, and make the cliildren think. PLANTS In addition to such fruits as may be found on the trees in the neighborhood, all grades should study, from the point of protection and distribution, the Chestnut, the Apple, either Burdock burrs or Stick-me-tight, and either the Maple, Ash, or Ailanthus. Chestnut Burr. Facts : The long white catkins of the chestnut appear in late June and early July. They have a strong, rather disa- greeable, odor. The flowers at the tip contain the sta- 72 NATURE STUDY Btaminate flowers —• FisUl&te flowers- mens, while those with the pistils, if found in the catkin at all, are at its base. There are usually three pistillate flowers, surrounded by green, prickly involucre. After fertilization, this involucre keeps pace with the growth of the two or three fruits within, easily protecting them from all enemies by reason of the prickles. The burrs themselves, at the ends of the branches, bright yel- lowish green in color, stand out sharply against the dark-green foliage. In the fall of the year, after frosts, they drop to the ground, and show within a beauti- ful plush-like, four-parted cup, holding from one to three nuts, each bearing at its tip a withered pistil. When there is more than one nut, the contiguous sides are flattened, but the sides toward the involucre are, of course, convex. The wind, squirrels, and small boys help to distribute the chestnuts, which would otherwise exterminate each other, since, if all germinated around the parent tree, neither soil nor space would be sufficient for their devel- opment. The fruits, or nuts, well protected from cold and rain by the thick, shiny, brown coat, live quietly through the winter, not beginning to sprout until the coming of spring promises them a warm period sufficiently long to enable them to attain a hardy growth before the approach of a second winter. In the nuts are often found worms, whose existence Chestnut. Three youngf chestnuts in the burr. Open burr. OCTOBER 73 within is something of a puzzle ; for, while it is not diffi- cult to find the hole by which they leave the chestnut, no one can see how they got in. The chestnut-borer, a beetle, bores a tiny hole in the nut, and deposits therein her eggs. These eggs hatch out into footless grubs that eat their way out of the chestnut by means of strong jaws, which move vertically, instead of sideways like those of other insect larvae. These grubs pupate in the ground, emerging thence full-grown weevils, which repeat the egg-laying process with the same results. The tree itself is one of the largest and tallest of our forest trees and a very rapid grower. Because of this, while the young bark is remarkably smooth, the bark of the trunk is hard and chestnut weevii. Chestnut Grub. rugged, with deep clefts. It has split repeatedly in order to accommodate the growth within. The leaves are long and very lovely in texture and in color. The wood makes valuable timber. It is both durable and beautiful, admitting of a high polish. It makes a profitable orchard because of its quick growth and the demand for its fruit. From it, in southern Europe, is made a flour much used by the poorer people. The chestnut tree attains a great age and size. On top of Mount ^Etna is a famous tree called the Tree of a Himdred Horsemen, from the fact that it once sheltered a hundred cavaliers. Method : By means of material supplemented with blackboard drawings, show a series illustrating the story of the de- 74 NATURE STUDY velopment of the nuts, beginning with the three little flowers in the prickly involucre, then the closed burrs, and open burrs with one, two, and three nuts. Look at the inside and the outside of the burr. AVhat difference in their texture, and why ? When is the burr closed ? Why ? AVhen does it open ? Why ? Look at this burr with only one nut, and at this with two. What difference in the shape of the nut ? Why ? Look at the burr with three nuts. Which is different from the other two ? Why ? Distribute nuts. Can you tell whether your nut was an only child, or whether it had one or two brothers ? Why ? If we plant the nut, what may it become ? What color is the coat ? What advantage is it to the nut to be brown ? to be shiny ? to be thick ? Why is it better for the nut to be quiet all winter, not even beginning to grow until spring ? What is the meaning of the large scar ? What was the slender tip ? What is inside the nut ? As they eat it, tell them of its use in other countries. Wormy chestnuts, hektograph drawings of the chestnut- borer and its grub, will be needed for a second lesson. How many find holes in their chestnuts ? Describe it. Open your nuts. Who can tell what made the hole ? Why do you think so ? What is the soft powder ? How did the grub get in the chestnut ? How will he get out ? Why does he want to get out ? What becomes of him finally ? It may be desirable to give the children some idea of the tree itself and its economic uses. This may best be done by taking them to see a tree. The next best thing is to bring them leaves and branches. Show them the wood and tell them of its uses. OCTOBER Apple, flower and fruit. 75 I. Branch, showing flowers and leaves. II. Vertical section through the flower. III. Flower after the petals have fallen. IV. Green apple. V. Vertical sec- tion, showing thickened calyx and ovary. VI. Cross-section of the same. T6 NATURE STUDY Work of the Codlin Worm. Larva. Codlin Moth. Facts : Pupa. Apple. For facts, see p. 241. Method : This is sufficiently well indicated in the paragraph on the Chest- nut. Blackboard or hekto- graph drawings of the tree in spring, of a single flower, a small green ap- ple, and vertical and cross sections of the ripe apple should be used to supplement the material. Burdock Burrs (Arc- tium lappa). This plant which belongs to the Composites is very commonly found in waste lots. The flowers are purple, rarely white, in color, and surrounded by an involu- cre, each scale of which is tipped with hooks. These, by catching in the clothing of man, or attaching themselves to other animals, serve to distribute the fruit. Method : Both the necessary material and Burdock OCTOBER 77 manner of using it have been sufficiently indicated in the paragraphs on the Chestnut and Apple. Stick-me-tight, Beggar's Lice (Bidens frondosa). Facts : This common and troublesome weed belongs to the same family, and distributes its fruits in the same way. The flowers are yellow. Method : Both the necessary material and the manner of using it have been sufficiently indicated in the above paragraphs. Maple, Ash, Ailanthus. Facts : Many maples ripen and distribute their fruit in the spring, but others, the sycamore maple for example, re- tain the keys until fall. If they can be obtained, these keys will serve excellently to show fruits distributed by the wind. The ash or ailanthus will an- swer equally well. The fruits of the dan- Ailanthus, fruit. delion, thistle, and milkweed illustrate the same point. For facts with reference to maple and ailanthus trees, see pp. 218-222. The ash is among the most graceful of trees and the most useful. Its wood resembles the chestnut and oak in appearance, but is lighter in color, and not so beautiful. It is elastic, hard, and strong. 78 NATURE STUDY Method : It would be an excellent plan to let the children have Milkweed seed. a number of fruits, like the ailanthus, ash, and maple, and note their resemblances and differences. Maple. Ash. OCTOBER 79 All of them agree in the fact that they are fruits, and that the seed within is carefully protected ; all have wings. What good is this to the seed ? What other fruits are distributed by the wind ? At the conclusion of these lessons the children should be given an oral language lesson, to crystallize the gen- eral ideas which they have obtained of the many ways by which plants protect and distribute their seeds. LITERATURE Stories : Plow West Wind Helped Dandelion, ■) T^ .,. -r, , . ^ , T -xxi ^i, . X T. Enulie Poulsson's In the Little Chestnut Boys, V ^, ., ,, „^ ,j „,..,•'' ( Child's World. Sleeping Apple, J Dandelion Clocks, Mrs. Ewing. Easij Poems : Dandelion Fashions, 1 , r. . , ,,.,, J Ti , • ;• Eleanor Smith. Milkweed Babies, j Dandelion Cycle, Emilie Poulsson's In the Child's World. Dandelion, Kate Brown, in Lovejoy's Nature in Verse. Dandelion's Complaint, St. Nicholas, August, 1897. 3Iore Difficult Poems : Apple Seed John, Lydia Maria Child, in Emilie Poulsson's In the Child's World. Planting of the Apple Tree, Bryant. Bitter Sweet (Cellar Scene), Holland. The Fruit Gift, Whittier. Maple, Lowell. Winged Seeds, Helen Gray Cone, in Lovejoy's Nature in Verse. Dandelion, in Four AViiids, Hiawatha. Prose : The Apple (Winter Sunshine), Burroughs. Seed Tramps, Sharp Eyes, Gibson. 80 NATURE STUDY ANIMALS English Sparrows. Facts : The male sparrow may be instantly distinguished from his mate by the white bar on his wings and the black mark on his throat and breast. The female is duller in English Sparrow, male. color, and the young birds, regardless of sex, resemble her. This difference in color between the sexes is even more marked in many other birds, and is variously accounted for. Darwin believed that it resulted from sexual selection, the female choosing for her mate the most brilliantly colored of those who courted her, thus perpetuating this characteristic. Wallace, on the con- trary, believes that the more brilliantly and conspicuously colored females have been destroyed, thus continuing only the race of dull-colored ones. Others think that OCTOBER 81 the brilliant coloring of the male is the visible expres- sion of his greater activity. The beak of the sparrow is a cone, the line of the mouth drooping characteristically downward. It is strong, well adapted to crushing grain, yet delicate enough to pick up small objects. The feet are typical of the percher, four slender toes, three in front and one behind. In the cities it nests preferably in protected corners of buildings, but since there is not, nowadays, a suf- ficient niunber of such places for the innumerable sparrows, they have learned to build nests in the trees. These nests serve not only for breeding purposes, but also as places of shelter during the colder winter months. In this latitude (Philadelphia) they begin to lay eggs in March, and the young are quite numerous on the ground in May. The eggs are bluish gvAj, speckled with brown; five or six in the large feather-lined nest. The mother bird usually occupies a week in dropping the eggs, two weeks in hatching them, another in feeding the young birds in the nest, and still another in feeding them outside. Probably about four broods are raised in a season. They eat all kinds of vegetable food, feeding particu- larly on the half-digested grain found by them in the horse droppings of city streets, on buds, on a few insects, but never on hairy caterpillars. They are quarrelsome, unclean, and have partially or Avholly exterminated many of our more valuable native birds. ]Srevertheless, since by their enormous breeding capacity they are now with us to stay, let us get what we can out of them by studying them with the children. 82 NATURE STUDY Perhaps those whom we thus educate will be more intel- ligent than those who in the early fifties started the sparrow " boom " by importing and protecting numbers of these birds from England and Germany under the impression, biologically absurd, that a conirostral bird could rid a country of insect pests. Method : Study the birds yourself until you are quite sure of the facts. Take the children out of doors. Tell them that Mr. Sparrow wears prettier clothes than Mrs. Sparrow, and ask them to pick out, if they can, ]Mr. and Mrs. Sparrow, and to notice the appearance of each. Although the sparrows are remarkably fearless and tame, it will be necessary to caution the children to keep at some distance and to observe quietly. At this time of the year corn, bread crumbs, or bird seed, scattered round shortly before the children are sent out, will be sufficient inducement to bring within range of their vision all the sparrows of the neighbor- hood. When the children return from the excursion, distrib- ute hektograph drawings of the male sparrow. From these obtain a description of the bird. How many saw birds like this ? What was the color of the throat and breast? How many saw clear white markings on the wings ? How many saw sparrows with- out the black on the throat or the white on the wings '.' Were they young or old birds ? Then tell them which were Mr. Sparrows, which were Mrs. Sparrows, and which were the children. Tell them to watch to see what else the sparrows eat. OCTOBER 83 Call for an answer to this question several mornings in succession. Take them out a second time to see if they reall}' do know the diiierence between the male, female, and young birds. • Do they run or hop ? With Pictures: Why would it be difficult for the sparrow to run? What are its feet good for ? "Why ? "When does it perch ? Why is it better for birds to perch at night rather than to sleep on the ground ? How does the bill of the spar- row differ from the bill of the robin ? Why ? From the crow ? Why ? Where are its nostrils ? Can it hear ? VHij do you think so ? Where are its ears ? Look at its forehead, eyes, nostrils, mouth, ears. Are they arranged like yours ? To what, then, do the wings correspond ? If possible, find nesting places in the vicinity of the school, and take the children to them. Bird-houses, holes in trees, eaves of buildings, are the most likely places in which to seek for them. Get a nest, and let them see of what diverse materials it is built. Why ? LITERATURE The various readers and bird books may be used, although there is very little in any of them with refer- ence to the English Sparrow itself, and, indeed, most of the usual bird stories will be more appropriate to spring study. 84 NATURE STUDY Birds' Nests, Gibson's Sliarp Eyes. Birds' Nests, Burrough's Wake Robin. Poems : Bird Thotights, Emilie Poulsson's In the Child's World. The Sparrow's Nest, Mary Howitt. G- CHAPTER III NOVEMBER Poems : November, Thomas Hood. November, Alice Gary. November, Bryant. A November Day, Whittier. Thanksgiving (Harvest Home). Stories : A Boston Thanksgiving, E. E. Hale. Emilie Poulsson's In the Child's World. The First Thanksgiving, Mrs. Wiggin's, and Miss Smith's The Story Hour. Thanksgiving Story, Wiltse's Kindergarten Stories. Poems : Thanksgiving Day, \ talker's Songs and Games. Gan a Little Ghild Like Me, i Harvest Song, \ Eleanor Smith's Songs for Little Ghil- Thanksgiving Hymn, / dren. Thanksgiving Day, Lydia Maria Child in Whittier's Ghild Life. The Pumpkin, \ Whittier. For an Autumn Festival. > For an Autumn Festival, WEATHER First and Second Years : In addition to a continuance of the study and observa- tion of the wind, clouds, and sun, the study of the moon may begin. 86 86 NATURE STUDY Facts : The moon is comparatively and varyingly near us, and much smaller than the earth. It revolves round us, taking about twenty-nine days to accomplish its journey. It has never shown to us but the one side. It shines by light reflected from the sun. Light reflected back from the earth causes the appearance popularly known as " the old moon in the new moon's arms," the out- line of the unil- lumined portion of the moon visi- ble a few days before and after the new moon. By its phases are meant the various appear- ances wliich it presents in its different relative Phases of moon. pOsitionS tO tllB sun and earth. These phases are the new moon, the first quarter, full moon, last quarter. The causes of these different classes below are best shown by the diagram. The delicate crescent of the new moon, with its horns turned from the sun, rises in the west just after sunset. It soon sets. Each night it rises further and further towards the east, and sets correspondingly later. Finally NOVEMBER 87 it reaches a point directly opposite the setting sun, and for this reason has its full half surface illuminated. The full moon in the autumnal equinox rises about sunset for several days in succession, thus making brill- iant moonlight nights. This is then called the Harvest Moon. The same thing happens in October. It is then called the Hunter's Moon. After the full moon, less and less of the surface is illuminated. It rises and sets later and later, and at this time may be seen high in the western sky long after sunrise ; so that those who feel that they must be able to show the moon in order to teach it, may take this oppor- tunity to begin the lessons. The various markings visible on the moon are caused by inequalities of its surface — the Mountains of the Moon. There are no clouds above it, and therefore no water on its surface, although there may be ice. Although all nations see the same side and markings on the moon, their legendary interpretation has been very different. The Chinese saw a rabbit pounding rice ; the Germans, a man carrying a bundle of fagots ; the Icelanders, our own familiar Jack and Gill ; and the Indians, according to Hiawatha, the grandmother of an angry warrior. Method : Why is it dark at night ? Is it always dark ? Why not ? Which is brighter, the sun or the moon ? Why ? How far is the moon from us ? Is it larger or smaller ? Does it look larger or smaller than the sun ? Why ? Has the moon always the same form ? What different forms ? Why ? What makes the man in the moon ? Is it warm or cold in the moon ? Are there clouds, 88 NATURE STUDY water, air ? Could people like us live in the moon ? Why not ? What day of the Aveek was named for the moon ? Why ? Why was the word month named for the moon ? What do the Chinese children see in the moon ? The little people in Iceland ? The Ger- mans ? The Indians ? Why do the different children see different things ? LITERATURE Myths and Legends : Greek, Diana and En- dymion. Chinese, Harper's Mag- azine, 1881. Indian, Clodd's Birth and Growth of Myth. Icelandic, Fisi^e's Myths and Myth Makers. German, Fiske's Myths and Myth Makers. Easy Poems : Two verses from Seven Times One, Jean Ingelow. jjijng Children in the Moon, Whittier's Child Life. New Moon, Whittier's Child Life. Silver Moon, New Moon, Baby and the Moon, Who has the Whitest Lambkins ? Waning Moon, Celia Thaxter. Eleanor Smith. NOVEMBER 89 Endymion. Thikd and Eourth Years : Weather Records : The weather record for October should be examined, and a record made, in the space provided for that piir- pose, of the prevailing wind. If the excursions have been frequent enough and sup- plemented by proper teaching, the children will now know the names of all the common clouds that are likely 90 NATURE STUDY WEATHER RECORD, No. II. Note. — This should be printed on paper 8 in. x 12 in., to give sufficient space for children's writing. Name, Grade. School. Weather Record for the 2Ionth of 18 Observations Made at Date Direc- tion OF Wind Velocity OF Wind Clouds Date Direc- tion OF Wind Velocity OF Wind Clouds What has been the prevailing wind this month ?_ Has it usually been strong or gentle ? What kind of clouds have been commonly seen 9- ^•0V EMBER 91 to occur in November. Tliey should therefore be given Weather Record, Ko. II., with its spaces, not only for the daily record of the wind, its direction, and force, but also for the names of the clouds. Instead of writing the names in full, they might now use the proper abbrevia- tions, which are as follows : Cumulus .... cu. Stratus s. Nimbus .... n. Cirrus ci. Mixed clouds, such as strato-cumulus, have for their abbreviation a combination of the two, in this case s. cu. The teacher, at least, should now begin to watch the clouds with reference to their indications of future weather. She herself can best judge when is the appro- priate time to teach what she learns, but certainly she should learn sometime during the year the following facts : The commonest cloud form in summer is the cumulus. In Avinter stratus and cirrus clouds prevail. In autumn cirro-cumulus and alto-cumulus are most frequently seen ; and in spring cirro-stratus and cirrus. Slowly moving cirrus clouds indicate a probable slight change in temperature. If they are moving rapidly along, the chances are in favor of a decided change. This is likely to be a fall in twenty-four hours, espe- cially when the wind is from the southwest. When the wind is northwest, on the contrary, there is likely to be a rise in temperature within twenty-four hours. With cirro-stratus clouds there is some probability of rain; with alto-cumulus and alto-stratus, the likelihood is greater. Cirro-cumulus clouds indicate fair weather. 92 NATURE STUDY Obviously, even these few facts cannot be learned by any one in less than a year. They are merely given here for the convenience of the teacher, and will be referred to again when the occasion demands. To do effective work it is absolutely essential that the teacher, even more than the children, should observe and think about the weather conditions. I would again urge a set time for the daily written record by the children, and a few minutes immediately after this for a free discussion of the facts and their meanings. Temperature : Every schoolhouse should have, just outside the door, a large alcohol thermometer, so placed that the mark 50° is level with the eye of the medium-sized child. It is worth while, if it be possible, to have a cheap thermometer for every other child. This, perhaps, can be managed by teaching the children in small groups. Facts : Heat causes the mercury to rise ; cold, to fall. A thermometer can only be accurately read when the top of the mercury column is on a level with the eye. In the winter, north and west winds usually bring cold; south and east winds, warmth. Method : Make the children handle the thermometers without touching the mercury column. No teacher needs to be told that this demands from her clear directions and vigilance in seeing that they are obeyed. NOVEMBER 93 Holding them in this way, let them describe the instrument. Nearest what number is the top of the column ? Let them put their hands about the bulb. What is happening ? Nearest what number is it now ? Let them put the bulbs in ice-water. What is happen- ing ? Nearest what number is it now ? What effect has heat on the column of mercury ? Cold ? Why ? For what purpose is a thermometer used ? With a blackboard drawing, make clear to the children the exact value of each of the spaces. Give them con- siderable practice in reading from the board before using a large thermometer. Let several children read from this, holding it much below the eye, then on a level, then above the eye. Put these numbers, which will probably be in the ratio of 71°, 72°, 73°, on the board, and ask for the explanation. In my own teaching, the children have always given as a reason that the heated air has expanded and ascended. Asked to think more about it, they came the next day fortified by the assurances of their fatheus and grandfathers that this is the real explanation. So strong is their belief in the wisdom of themselves and their families that several demonstrations of the fact that the change was due to the position of the eye, and not to any change in the thermometer, were necessary to convince them of their error. To do this, keep the ther- mometer stationary while the child, by stooping, by standing erect, by standing on an elevation, sees that the reading varies with his position. These lessons in accurate reading should be followed by the examination and criticism of the results of their daily inspection of the school thermometer. 94 NATURE STUDY • Add a column for temperature in the blackboard record, and constantly call attention to the relationship between the wind and the temperature. By a record of observa- tions, made at different times in the day, establish the fact that, ordinarily, the temperature rises in the morn- ing, and continues to rise until about three in the after- noon, and then as gradually falls. Why is this ? After the lessons on temperature, teach the facts about the sun given on p. 64. PLANTS Obviously the preparation of plants for winter must be the subject for botanical work in November. This preparation goes on all summer, but the results of this labor are more markedly visible in fall. Trees : Long before the leaves begin to fall, a close observer may find buds containing, in miniature, the whole of next year's growth. These buds attain their full growth shortly before the leaves drop off. Many are the devices by which the treasures within are protected. Numerous thick scales and woolly linings serve to keep some from the cold of winter, while a shiny outside, resin or gum, protects them from injury from rain cr melting snow. The leaves themselves turn yellow, and the food which they have been making goes into the twigs and branches. The green chlorophyll which did the work becomes disorganized. To this is mainly due the yellow or red color of autumn leaves. A new row of cells is formed, cutting across the stalk of the leaf. This causes the fall of the leaf. When the NOVEMBER 95 frosts come, a layer of ice is here formed, which, melt- ing and hence expanding, separates many leaves at one time from the branch. These leaves have done much for the trees ; in them have been effected the respiration and the digestion of the plant. But their good work does not end with their death. Decayed leaves (leaf mould) are a very necessary and valuable ingredient of the soil. The tree itself is much better off without the leaves, since it is now too cold for them to do any work. Its food material will be more effectively protected in the branches, and it can stand more vigorously against the storms and snows of winter now that all superfluous clothing is removed from it. Even the trees which retain their leaves make some preparation for winter. The green chlorophyll retires for protection to the innermost part of their leaves, which, in consequence, lose the vividness of their green. Method : Let the children compare the green leaves on the tree with those that are turning yellow, and also with those that have fallen to the ground. Take them out to collect the last material, and see that they get freshly fallen leaves as Avell as those which have already begun to decay. Let them observe the change in color which precedes and follows the falling. What work for the plant is done by the green of the leaf ? What has become of all this food ? Why has the leaf changed in color ? What else has happened ? AVhy do so many leaves fall after a frost ? What good is the leaf after it falls from the tree ? AVliat advantage 96 NATURE STUDY is it to the tree to be without leaves all winter ? From what trees do the leaves fall first ? last ? On what trees do the withered leaves persist ? What is left to mark the place on the branches where the leaf was ? Where are next year's leaves? ^^^aen were these buds made ? Why are they so small ? Why is their coat shiny ? sticky ? Why has it so many coverings ? Bulbs axd Fleshy Roots. Facts : All plants that survive the winter protect themselves in some way against cold, and also store up sufficient food to start their growth next year. The onion, hyacinth, tulip, die down to the ground, but not until they have formed beneath the ground a short, thickened branch on Toiin{ bolb Hyacinth bulb. which are borne closely crowded leaves full of nourish- ment and covering over a perfect little flower or stalk of flowers. This we call a bulb. It only needs a short period of rest in the cold, fol- NOVEMBER 97 lowed by abundance of moisture and warmth, to con- vince it that winter has passed, that spring has come, and that it is now time to begin to grow. This is the method and philosophy of forcing bulbs into bloom in the winter. Oftentimes the nourishment for the next season's growth is stored in the roots. Sweet potatoes, carrots, beets, turnips, are excellent examples of this. They, too, may be deceived into thinking that winter has gone, and that spring is here. One may cut the lower end from a carrot, scoop out some of the centre, keep it filled with water in a warm room, and watch, with delight, the green branches which insist upon growing upwards from the lower end. Method : A hyacinth bulb cut vertically in half shows perfectly the short thick stem, the numerous leaves, and the flower stalk within. Before showing this, ask the children the previous history of the bulb. They will know that there was a hyacinth in the spring with beautiful sweet-scented flowers and numerous green leaves, and that both have died long since. You will have to tell them that after the flower had passed away, the leaves worked with all their strength to make and to give food to little underground branches which are really just like little plants, except that they were not green. Show the cut bulb, and, by drawing or otherwise, make them realize that it, too, has leaves and flowers. Ask them why the leaves are not yet green, why they are so small, so thick, why they are so compact and well cov- ered ? Ask them when this bulb will begin to grow and why ? Will it grow now if we give it water and warmth ? H 98 NATURE STUDY Why not ? How can we make it believe that winter has come and gone ? Either a hyacinth or a narcissus bulb should then be placed in a glass so that the lower end just touches water. Keep them for six weeks in a cool, dark place ; or, better still, plant them in a pot of earth sunk in the ground, and covered with manure and straw to prevent a succession of freezings and subsequent thawings. At the end of six weeks, either the glass or the pot may be brought in the light and warmth, and will probably bloom within two months. One is apt to have better luck with bulbs planted in a pot, but those growing in a glass show beautifully the long roots protected at the tip by a root cap. In growing in a glass, be careful to keep the water pitre. Cloudy water means bacteria, and these will cause decay of the roots. Even when in the dark the glasses should be examined weekly, and the water changed when necessary. Keep a piece of charcoal in the water. The same method should be pursued with at least one of the edible roots. LITERATURE Stories : Kind Old Oak, Marah Pratt's Little Flower Folk. Baby Bud's Winter Clothes, Emilie Poulsson's In the Child's World. The Anxious Leaf, Beecher's Norwood. Easy Poems : Do the Little Brown Twigs Complain ? ■> Eleanor Smith's Songs Come Little Leaves. J for Little Children. I'll Tell You How the Leaves Come Down, Susan Coolidge. NOVEMBER . 99 Kitten and the Falling Leaves, Wordsworth. Some of the more difBcult poems have already been given under the heading of Autumn at the beginning of the chapter. ANIMALS The Pigeon. Facts : As its bill indicates, the pigeon is a grain-eating bird. It belongs to the Scratchers and not to the Perchers. This is shown by its feet, the toes of which, particu- larly the hind toe, are much stouter and shorter than those of the sparrow. The nostrils are situated about the middle of the bill and can be located by the swollen skin above them. They drink without raising the head. These birds build the roughest of nests, lay two white eggs, on which both the father and mother sit. The ugly naked young are called squabs. They are fed with a milklike secretion from the crop of their parents. Both squabs and pigeons are excellent food for men. Method : The same method of teaching should be used as in the study of the sparrow, Avhich see, pp. 82, 83. In addition, the children should compare the two birds and have a clear picture in their minds of Perchers and Scratchers. AxiMAL Preparation for Winter. Facts : The preparation made by the caterpillars for winter has been already demonstrated. They have either cov- 100 NATURE STUDY ered themselves with a thick coat and buried themselves beneath the ground, or else have spun for themselves a silken covering impervious either to moisture or to cold. The locusts and most of the butterflies are dead. The ^Milkweed Butterfly, however, has gone south with many of the birds, and the ^Mourning Cloak, follow- ing the example of the Queen Humble Bee, has found some sheltered corner in which to spend the winter. Beetles are pupating in the ground. The larger ani- mals, such as squirrels, snakes, tortoises, turtles, and the like, have found their winter quarters and have pre- pared for their long sleep, either by collecting a store on Avhich to feed in the warmer days, or by having eaten a goodly supply when food was more abundant. Even the aquarium animals are more torpid and less inclined to eat. Method : Suggestions have already been given about the study of the various insects and how they may be kept in a schoolroom. It is equally easy to have squirrels, guinea pigs, rabbits, mice, garter snakes, turtles, and an aquarium. Cages with revolving wheels are manufactured specially for squirrels, giving the animal opportunity for plenty of exercise. Excellent cheap cages may be made with coarse meshed wire nailed over and above four upright supports. These need not be more than a foot and a half high for rabbits and guinea pigs. Three feet is a better height for squirrels. Of course in the warm schoolroom they do not hiber- nate, but they do take much longer naps than in Sep- tember. ]\rake the children realize this fact and its reason. Observe, too, that the squirrel hides his nuts be- NOVEMBER 101 fore eating them, the hereditary instinct to prepare for winter ruling him, even Avhen no necessity for it exists. Garter snakes, easily kept in insect vivaria of any kind, absolutely refuse to eat during the winter. The same is true of alligators and frogs. Turtles will bury themselves in a bed of damp sand, allowing only the tip of the nose above ground. Frogs may be kept similarly, although an aquarium with a large island, some water plants, and a very little water is more to their liking. It will be necessary to close the opening with netting. Call attention to such facts with regard to hibernation and migration as happen to come within your horizon and that of the children. Supplement these with read- ing and language lessons. LITERATURE Stories : The readers, particularly Johonnot's, are full of stories of pigeons, and also of the preparation of animals for winter. The Stork (Migration of Birds), Andersen. The Ant and the Grasshopper (Preparation of Animals for "Win- ter), ^sop. Hibernation of Bears, Readings in Xature's Book. Coming and Going (Migration of Birds), Wiltse's Kindergarten Stories. Broken Wing (Migration of Birds), Emerson's Indian Myths. Crane Express, Emilie Poulsson's In the Child's World. Poems : Little Squirrel, St. Nicholas Songs. Flight of the Birds, E. C. Stedman. Departure of the Swallow, William Howitt. CHAPTER IV DECEMBER Poems December, Lougfellow. December, Lowell. In Time's Swing, Lucy Larcom. Winter. Stories : Ceres and Proserpine. Death of Baldur. Poems : Winter, Tennyson. Approach of Winter, B. W. Procter. Woods in Winter, Longfellow. Winter, Whittier's Cliild Life. Christmas. Stories : Tiny Tim, Christmas Carol, Dickens. The Fir Tree, ) . , ^ ' , ^ , , ^ , V Andersen. Last Dream of the Old (Jak, J Story of Christmas, Mrs. Wiggin's and Miss Smith's The Story Hour. Christmas, Irving's Sketch Book. 102 DECEMBER 103 Easy Poems : The Night Before Christmas, Whittier's Child Life. Waken, Little Children, 1 Christmas Hymn, , j^iganor Smith's Songs for Little Green Holly Boughs, Children. Bells are Ringing, Stars. First and Second Years. Facts : The stars which shine with a steady light are planets, like our own earth ; those that twinkle, are suns. The brightest of the planets are Venus, sometimes visible in full daylight, and Jupiter, the largest of all. Venus is never seen except in the east or west ; Jupiter is found in the south. Saturn is paler, and Mars may be known by its reddish color. The other planets are less easily found. The twinkling of the fixed stars is not intrinsic, but due to atmospheric conditions. It is more marked in tropical regions, where, too, the stars are more brilliantly colored. In our own zone it is more noticeable just above the horizon than in the zenith. The constellations most easily found in our latitude are the Great Bear, or Dipper, Cassiopeia, and the Dragon. When in addition to these Auriga and Lyra are known, all of the other constellations may be easily located. The first brilliant star in a line with the 4;wo pointers of the Dipper is the North Star. This is again the outer- most star of the handle of the Little Dipper. Directly opposite the Dipper, using the North Star as a centre, will be found the straggling W which makes the con- stellation of Cassiopeia. Equidistant from the North Star, and also from Cassiopeia and the Dipper, will be 104 NATURE STUDY found on the one side Capella, the most brilliant star of Auriga, and opposite to it, Vega, which belongs to Lyra. J2 * ^ Q. o ♦ * rt ■♦^ CO _© o OL * o Q. ♦ a. ♦ 'o ♦ * _a> * *-• -♦t * o is ^ .9- ^ <« O o > The principal stars of Auriga form an irregular five-sided figure. Besides Vega, there is a parallelogram of four stars, forming the constellation of Lyra. DECEMBER 105 When once these constellations are learned, then with almost any of the numerous Guides to the Heavens, one may locate the others. This is not only a very enjoyable occupation, but will certainly, as nothing else can, put the teacher in touch with such of the myths as have a nature basis. The Milky Way is a luminous, cloudlike band, which stretches across the heavens in a great circle, consisting of myriads of stars densely crowded together, but so far distant from us, that to our naked eyes there is only the appearance of diffused light. Our earth is travelling forward rapidly through space with the sun, and, in addition to this, the stars them- selves are moving in different directions and with vary- ing velocity, so that ultimately the whole appearance of the heavens must change. Nevertheless, no variation worth mentioning, except by the astronomer, has yet occurred within the memory of man. Nothing is more invariable, apparently, than tlie stars. For this reason they are invaluable aids to the mariner. Method : Which gives us the most light, the sun or the moon ? the moon or the stars? AVhy is the sun brighter than the moon? Why is the moon brighter than the stars? Which looks to be larger, the moon or the stars ? AVhy ? Some stars are like our earth; others like our sun. What does the earth look like to the people of Mars? If there are other inhabited worlds revolving round the star-suns, what does the earth look like to them? What does our sun look like ? Are the stars of any use to us? 106 NATUKE STUDY LITERATURE Myths : The Great and Little Bear, — Diana, Callisto, and Areas. Draco, — Cadmus and Tiiebe. Cassiopeia, — Perseus and Andromeda. Aries, the Ram, — Story of the Golden Fleece. The Pleiades. Gemini, the Twins, — Castor and Pollux. Orion. Ariadne's Crown. The Milky Way, a Russian Legend. Indian Myths, I ^*^^^"'^tl^<^L'ly- I Daughter of the Stars. * Stories : Child's Dream of a Star, Dickens. Will O' the Wisp, Mrs. Gatty's Parables from Nature. Star of Bethlehem. Easy Poems : Stars and Daisies, ^ ^^^^^^^ g^j^j^,^ g^^^^^ ^^^ ^^^^^^ Sleep, Baby, Sleep, V Children. Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star, ) A Naughty Little Comet, Ella Wheeler Wilcox, "1 Lovejoy's Nature The Star's Ball, / in Verse. Starlight, Lucy Larcom. Daises, |-p_ p Sherman, in Little Folks' Lyrics. Elfin Lamps, i Stars, Barry Cornwall. Legend of the Great Dipper, U^^^^^.^ gtories for Khidergartens. Peep, Star, > DECEMBER 107 WEATHER RECORD, No. III. Note. — This should be printed ou paper 8 in. x 12 in. to give sufficient space for children's writing. Name, Grade. School. Weather Becordfor the Month of^ Observations made at. Date DlREC- Tiox or Wind Force OF Wind Tem- pera- ture Eainou Snow Clovds Summary of Obser- vations 1 108 NATURE STUDY WEATHER Snowflakes : Take advantage of the first snowstorm for a lesson on the snowflakes. Facts : The relation between raindrops and snowflakes is very close. For example, the rains of winter are often due to the fact that the snow melts before reaching the earth, so that from the same clonds may fall snow on the highlands and rain in the valleys. Snowflakes have always six parts. This is because the ice needles, acting like small magnets, are attracted and repelled by laws of their own, forming regular and very beautiful figures on the hexagonal plan. Method : Choose a snowstorm when the flakes are very large. Let the children collect the falling snowflakes on black cloth and observe their shape. What is happening to the snowflakes ? Why ? Who could turn the water drops back into snoAv? Where must the drops be to become snow crystals again? What does Jack Frost make of the water that is on the earth ? in the sky ? What good is the snow to the plants? Who build houses of snow or ice to keep themselves warm ? "Weather Records : The daily record for November (Weather Record, No. II.) must be examined by the children to determine the prevailing wind, its character, and the prevailing cloud forms of the months. DECEMBER 109 Weather Eecord, No. III. (p. 107), may be given to the children for December. The general plan outlines, in Chaps. II. and III. for using these, should be pursued. LITERATURE Stories : Snow Queen, -| Snow Man, |- Andersen. Ice Maiden, J Snow Image, Hawthorne. Circle of Blessing, Mrs. Gatty's Parables from Nature. Snow Flakes, Emilie Poulsson's In the Child's ^yorld. Easy Poems : The Tree in Winter, i Snow Clouds, i Eleanor Smith's Songs for Little Little White Feather, [ Children. Old Jack Frost, J Tiny Little Snow Flakes, Walker's Songs and Games. Snow Flakes, Mrs. Dodge's When Life is Young. Snow Flakes (First Verse), Longfellow. Hide and Seek, F. D. Sherman in Lovejoy's Nature in Verse. Jack Frost, H. F. Gould, in Whittier's Child Life. Snow Song, Lucy Larcom. More Difficult Poems : Winter, Tennyson. Extract from Song of the Sower, Bryant. P2xtract from Frost Spirit, Whittier. Snow Storm, Emerson. First Snow-fall, Lowell. Snow Shower, Bryant. PLANTS The Holly, the Mistletoe, and the Christmas Tree, which is ahvays either a Spruce or a Balsam Fir, should be saved for the lessons just before Christmas. The Christ- mas Tree might be studied by the pupils of the first and 110 NATURE STUDY second years, the Holly by the third, year, and the Mis- tletoe by the fourth year. The other common evergreens — Hemlock, Pine, Arbor Vitse — may be studied earlier in the month. PixES : The pines most likely to be found in this vicinity *are the White, Red, and Pitch Pine. The White Pixe grows to be the tallest and most stately of all our American trees. Its bark is rather smooth and reddish green. Its branches are in whorls of five, and although all but the upper branches decay and disappear, yet traces remain of the older branches, and the age of the tree may be determined with their aid, since a new whorl is formed each year. The long green leaves are five in number, and arranged in tufts at the ends of branches. The year-old cones, two or three inches in length, are green. They are ma- ture at the end of the next season, brown in color, and from four to six inches long. Before fertilization, the scales are open, so that the pollen may reach the ovules. Afterwards, they become tightly closed and open only to distribute the winged seeds, Avhich, like nearly all the seeds of this family, are very excellent eating. White Pine, branch and cone. DECEMBER 111 Pine wood is soft, but is much used for building and makes the best of masts. Pitch Pine : This tree may be distin- guished from the above by its leaves, which grow in threes, by its irregular gro^Hh, and by its very rough bark. Its wood is much harder than the Avhite pine, and therefore better for floors. Its branches, the pine knots of commerce, are full of resin. Like the scrub pine of Xew Jersey, it will grow in bar- ren, sandy soil, where noth- Red or Norway Pine, branch and cone. Pitch Pine, branch and cone. ing else can flourish. The scrub pine has its green leaves in twos. The Red Pine : Its green leaves are in twos. Its bark is not nearly so rough as that of the pitch pine, and is in rather broad scales of red- dish color. The most valuable pine of all is the long-leaved southern pine, young trees 112 NATURE STUDY of which are brought into our markets about Christinas time. Its green leaves are in groups of three, and are used for the manufacture of "pine wool," from which cord and cloth are made. Its wood is extremely beau- tiful, hard, and of a lovely yellow color. From it are also obtained turpentine, tar, resin, and oil. Method : If possible, take the children where they can see pine trees growing. If this cannot be done, a picture of the tree and some branches may be made to answer the purpose. A\Tiat is the shape of the tree ? Why ? How are the branches arranged ? If there is a circle of branches for each year, how old is this tree ? What has become of the lower branches ? Why have they dis- appeared rather than the upper ones ? What is the color of the bark ? \Vliat do you find underneath the bark ? What does it smell like ? Why ? How are its leaves different from other leaves that you have studied ? AVhat advantage is that ? What is the shape of each leaf ? Why ? Do the leaves never fall ? How do you know ? What do the cones contain ? Why are they now closed ? When will they open ? AVhy ? What does the seed look like ? Of what use is the wing ? What use is the tree to us ? How is turpentine made ? pitch? tar? Hemlock, branch and cone. DECEMBER 113 Hemlock : This is the most graceful of the evergreens, because of its drooping, feathery boughs. Its leaves are flat, dark, lustrous green above, white underneath, and arranged on both sides of the branch, which, in consequence, has a flat appearance. For this reason they make good brooms, and have often been used for this purpose by New Eng- land housewives. It attains its greatest beauty in the spring, when it is covered with tassels of pale green leaves. Its cones are small. Its bark, mixed with that of the oak, is used for tanning. «^ Arbor Vit.e : This tree resembles the white cedar. Its wood is aromatic, and its leaves are different from the evergreens above men- tioned in that the}- are flat and scale-like. Arbor Vitas, branch and cone. Balsam Fir : This tree is the most commonly used for Christmas. It can easily be distinguished from the spruce by the blunt ends of its leaves, and by the fact that they are arranged only on the two opposite sides of the branch, making it flat instead of cylindrical, as is the case with the spruce. It is very aromatic. From its leaves are made balsam pillows. The tree has, until it grows old, a smooth bark. It is regular in shape. It has a whorl of five branches for each year's growth. Numerous large 114 NATURE STUDY cones add to its beauty. Its balsam ((Janada balsam) is of commercial importance, but its wood has no value. Balsam Fir, branch and cone. Red Spruce, branch and cone. Spruce : The peculiarities of this tree are sufficiently indicated in the above account, and in the cut. Its wood makes valuable lumber. Spruce gum found on the bark, and spruce beer made from the roots, are seldom seen outside of Xew England. Holly : Although the leaf of our American holly has not the gloss of its English cousin, nor are its berries quite so plentiful, yet it is a very beautiful substitute. DECEMBER 115 Its white flowers come in May. Its brilliant red ber- ries donbtless serve to attract animals and lead them to distribute its seed, while its thorny leaves must certainly protect the little tree from unwelcome visitors. Its use at Christmas is doubtless due to its beauty and the ever- green character of its leaves. It has been said, however, to keep off witches by reason of its holiness, a quality to Avhich its name is popularly supposed to be due. Mistletoe : Like the holly, the English mistletoe is much more beautiful than its American cousin. Both mistletoes are partial parasites, taking from the wood of the host crude sap. This is made into elaborated food in the green leaves of the plant. Each of the numerous white pulpy berries contains a single seed, which, perhaps, is distributed by birds in their excreta, or rubbed off against the tree by the bill of birds, who care only for the flesh of the fruit. The use of the mistletoe at Christmas is doubtless due to the high esteem in which it was held by the Druids, whose priests, dressed in white, cut it from the oak or apple Avith a golden sickle, and distributed it to the people with great ceremony. Once thus obtained, it was supposed to be a heal-all and a charm against disaster. It has been suggested that the frequent occurrence of its berries, in groups of three, — a sacred number, — may have had something to do Avith the high regard in which it Avas held. ]\Iore likely this was due rather to its peculiar method of growth and the appearance of life Avhich it gave to the apparently dead trees of Avinter. Methods : Sufficient suggestions were given under the Pine. 116 NATURE STUDY LITERATURE Myths and Stories: Death of Baldur (Mistletoe). Law of the Wood (Spruce), Parables from Nature, Mrs. Gatty. The Fir Tree, Andersen. The Last Dream of the Old Oak, Andersen. The Discontented Pine Tree, Marah Pratt's Fairy Land of Flowers Easy Poems : Christmas Eve, Mrs. Dodge's When Life is Young. Hemlock Tree (first verse), Longfellow. More Difficult Poems : Pine Needles, ^ Little Pine Tree, \ ^ • , -kt . • tt- ,^ ,, \ Loveioy's Nature m Verse. Holly, j Three Trees, J Under the Holly Boughs, Eric Mackay. Hiawatha's Sailing, Longfellow. ANIMALS The Aquarium : An aquarium properly cared for and intelligently used is not only an object of beauty in the schoolroom, but also an efficient aid in nature work. Unfortunately uncared for and unused aquaria are the rule; but this is not because there is any real difficulty in so establishing the proper balance between the plant and animal life that the tank is self-regulating. On the contrary, it is a perfectly simple thing to have a healthy, beautiful aqua- rium, which needs no care from year's end to year's end, except to feed the fish and occasionally to replenish the evaporated water. DECEMBER These are the essentials : 1. A glass globe or jar. 2. River sand. 3. Water plants. 4. Cold water. 5. Light. 6. Animals. 117 1. The size or the shape of the aquarium is a mat- ter of taste. The oblongs are more beautiful, perhaps, but they are also much more expensive, a medium size costing from two to three dollars. A cylindrical vessel holding five gallons, worth about a dollar and a quarter, would be an excellent choice. 2. The sand must be thoroughly cleaned by repeated washings. There should be two inches of sand covering the bottom of a five-gallon tank, for Avhich also two bunches of Cabomba or Myriophyllum will be sufficient plants. 3. The lead should be removed from the plants, and the leaves broken from the stem for an inch from the base. Plant securely in the sand, preferably in the tAvo rear corners. 4. Cold, clear water should be poured into the aqua- rium. Neither plants nor sand will be disturbed if the force of the falling water is broken by letting it fall first over the hand. 5. The aquarium should be permanently placed where it gets, if possible, good northern light. In a few days the water will be crystal clear, thoroughly aerated, ready for the animals. 6. Healthy American gold and silver fish cost a little more, but they are much hardier than the German fish, 118 NATURE STUDY which are so abundant at ten cents each, and so seldom worth buying. The latter are very apt to be consump- tive, and, indeed, are frequently sold w'hen in the last stages of consumption. A dorsal hump back of the head, ventral flatness, and rather frayed-out fins are sure indi- cations of the disease. The fish should not be too large nor too numerous. If you are so fortunate as to have a good northern exposure, and if the room is not overheated, a dozen medium-sized fish will not be too many in a five-gallon aquarium. Young minnows, dace, black-banded sunfish, may he safely placed with gold fish, as well as tadpoles, snails, and mussels. Eels, sunnies, catfish, mud minnows, cray- fish, beetles, must be cared for separately. It is better to keep a few gold fish first, experimenting later with the less hardy but more interesting kinds. Snails, tadpoles, and mussels, however, do not complicate the feeding, and do add variety. There are two kinds of pond snails, — those which breathe by means of lungs, Limnea -(large), Physa (small), and those which breathe by gills, Paludina (large). The large species cost sometimes five cents each, while for the same sum a dozen of the smaller ones may be purchased. For teaching purposes, Limnea is particu- larly valuable, but it cuts up the plants. Mussels and tadpoles are cheap. Tadpoles bought now are not likely to develop much more until spring. Feeding them on raw^-scraped beef, and keeping them in a warm room, often hastens the process. Feed every other day. A piece of the prepared fish food two inches square ought to be sufficient for a dozen medium-sized gold fish. Snails, mussels, and tadpoles do not require special feeding. It is a good plan to give all DECEMBER 119 the animals once a week a very little scraped beef, but great care must be exercised to remove the undevoured food. With a sponge, keep the outside and inside of the aquarium clean. The water in evaporating is apt to leave an ugly white line, which, however, may easily be removed. The water should be replenished from time to time, pouring it over the hand, as before, to break the force of its descent. If the animals die, it is because they were diseased in the first place, or because the aquarium gets too little light, or because food is allowed to decay, or because the room is kept too hot for either fish or children. If the water becomes quickly green, it is because the aquarium receives too much light. Lateral Lime . 5TFIL-, Mouth Fish. Facts : The external anatomy of the fish is probably sufficiently- indicated by the cut. The arm and leg fins, so named from their homology to our own legs and arms, are paired. All of the other fiiis are single. In some of the lower fish and in some embryos, the back, tail, and anal fins are 120 NATURE STUDY united in one. The arm and leg fins do the swimming, while the steering is done by the muscular tail and the tail fin. To understand clearly the breathing of fish, it is neces- sary for the teacher to understand the breathing of plants. This function is properly called respiration in plants as well as in animals, because in both the outward visible sign is the same, viz., the giving off of carbon dioxide. Respiration in the case of plants is continually taking place, but under certain conditions more than enough oxygen is given off to mask completely the breathing. These conditions are the assimilation of the food which is brought about by the presence of some carbon dioxide and strong light. The carbon dioxide is breathed out by both fish and plants. Now it follows that an aquarium with plants, light, and animals can be made self-supporting, since in the light the plants yield what the fish must have in abun- dance for their respiration, while the fish give in return the carbon dioxide necessary to the assimilation of the plants. In breathing, the fish swallows the water oxy- genated by the plants. As it is washed past its four pairs of red gills, an osmosis of the two gases — the car- bon dioxide of the blood and the free oxygen in the water — takes place. The blood is thiis purified, and the water charged with carbon dioxide passes out under the gill covers, carrying to the plant what it needs for its food, and receiving from it again the oxygen necessary to all the animals in the aquarium. The nostrils of the gold fish are well developed and easily seen. In them is located the sense of smell. They take no part in the work of breathing. The eyes are movable, but unprotected by lids. DECEJIBER 121 In the lateral line are located sense organs, whose exact function is not as yet satisfactorily determined. The appearance is due to the perforation of the scales in that region. The whole body of the fish is covered" with a skin, underneath which are the numerous protecting scales, all of which point backward — one of the many adaptations of the parts of the fish to forward movement. The viscera are all situated in a body cavity in the lower forward part of the body. All the rest of the fish (except, of course, the head) is made up of bone and muscle. Many fish are so transparent that it is quite easy to make out the much-coiled intestine, and above it the silvery air bladder, which helps to keep it afloat. Method : Lead the children to observe the breathing, eating, and motion of the fish by watching and feeding the animals before and after school. Give each child a piece of paper and tell her to write a sentence, telling the number of fins which the gold fish has. Invariably they say five. Give to each a hektograph drawing telling them that they may reconsider their answer. Send to the aquarium those who do not yet see that with the two pairs of paired fins there are altogether seven fins. Teach them the names of the fins. Give them, a few at a time, such questions as these to be answered by observation: Of what use is the tail to the fish? Which fins are most used in swimming? 122 NATURE STUDY Why does the fish open his mouth continually when he is not eating ? What else opens as frequently ? Why ? With the drawings, teach nostrils, mouth, gill covers, scales, lateral line, straightening out at the same time their ideas of the functions of these organs. Teach the elimination of the waste food, which is very evident in the gold fish. Tadpole. Facts : The tadpole is the larval form of a frog or toad, re- Eyt. hojTRlL-,., sembling its fishlike ancestor much more than its pro- spective adult form. DECEMBER 1 28 Like the fish, it breathes by means of gills and lives in the water, but it has no fins and only one breathing hole, which is on the left side of the body. From the gelatinous spawn of the frog is hatched out a tiny fishlike creature Avith rudiments of gills and with two disks on the head by which it clingi- to plants. Then the three pairs of external gills develop. At their roots are narrow clefts, which lead into the throat, out of which conies the water taken in by the mouth. A fold of the skin grows over the gills, leaving only a small opening on the left side, through which they protrude for a time. They soon atrophy, however, and are succeeded by in- ternal gills. In the meantime, the eyes, the nose (two nostrils in front of the eyes), the ears (circular patches back of the eyes), become distinct. The tadpole eats with a lip beset with numerous horny papillae surround- ing the mouth. The intestine is very long and coiled like a watch spring. The hind legs are first visible. With the growth of the legs, the tail shortens, the mouth elongates, the lip disappears, teeth develop in the upper jaw and on the roof of the mouth, and the animal gives up its mixed diet, preferring chiefly insects. The adult frog breathes by means of his skin, as well as by his lungs. It is necessary for his lung respiration that his mouth should be closed. The air is drawn in through the nostrils, which then close, while the under side of the throat is swollen, then flattened out, as the air is expelled. There is a pair of lymph hearts, which may be ob- served to pulsate near the end and on either side of the back bone. The fore legs are much shorter than the hind legs. 124 NATURE STUDY They each have four toes, which correspond to our four fingers. The hind legs are live toed and webbed. The male has a vocal sac, by means of which, particu- larly in the spring, he gives his loye croak. The tongue in both sexes is two forked, and attached to the middle part of the jaw by its forward end. The eggs of a toad occur in strings. The toad tadpole is black, much smaller, and develops more quickly into the adult form than the tadpole of the frog. Method : Is the tadpole a fish ? Why ? So far as appearances go, there are good arguments, to the mind of the child, on both sides. The mental disci- pline involved in weighing the evidence and settling the question is very valuable, particularly when he is subse- quently required to state sharply and clearly the resem- blances and differences between the embryonic frog and the adult fish. If children have already witnessed the metamorphosis of the tadpole, review the facts with indi- vidual drawings. Otherwise, wait until spring, when this wonderful change is sure to occur in the schoolroom. Snail. Facts : Observe in the living animal the brown skin with the limy shell underneath. The sutures, the whorls, the spire, the apex, the body whorl, the lines of growth, the mouth, the operculum, the foot, the eyes, the tenta- cles, the mantle, are all shown in the drawings. Limnea is an example of a lung-breathing pond snail, and, like other lung breathers, keeps the surface of the water clean. The snail ascends at fairly regular inter- DECEMBER 125 vals, forces out a bubble of air, and takes in a fresh supply. Both sexes are united in the one animal, and the semi-transparent eggs, laid in gelatinous masses, are BrEatming HOLt. fENTACU. BoDy Whorl. Apex LUMG jEMTACLt MOUTH- Limnea, a lung-breather. to be found on the plants in the aquarium or along the sides. In dry or cold weather it protects itself by secret- ing a membrane which covers the opening. 126 NATURE STUDY Of the smaller air-breathing pond snails, Physa is a good example. Paludina is a gill-breathing poiid snail. The water is conveyed to the gills by a tube on the right, and is then forced out of the tube on the left. The proboscis is well developed. The eyes at the base of the tentacles are borne on small projections. The young are brought forth alive, Ehtrance.. 10 GiLtj OPERCULUM. Paludina, a gilJ-breather. the eggs developing inside of the mother. Only the gill-breathing forms have an operculum. " Eye stones " are small lime opercula. Land snails have two pairs of tentacles. On the longer of these are borne the eyes, which can be invaginated. Land snails are found wher- ever there is lime and moisture. They both breathe and protect themselves from cold and dryness, like Limnea. To this genus (Helix) belong the edible snails. DECEMBER 127 Slugs are nocturnal lung-breathers, who do much damage in gardens. The saddle is all that is left to represent the mantle. There is an opening on the right side which admits air. Underneath the mantle is usually a small horny disk. Methods : How do the snails reach the top of the water ? How often does Limnea come to the top ? Why ? ^Miat does the snail eat ? How ? How does the snail move ? Distribute the empty shells. Let the children scrape off the brown skin and test with strong vinegar the shell beneath. The effervescence proves that it consists of lime carlionate. AVhat good to the shell is the brown skin ? What has happened to the tip where the skin has worn off ? With hektograph or blackboard drawings, teach the parts of the animal. Land snails and slugs may be simi- larly treated, or may be omitted, or taught by letting the children read about them. ^luSSELS. Facts : The mussels of the aquarium are really fresh-Avater clams. The parts of the animal are sufficiently indicated in the drawings on the next page. To the crawling action of the foot are due the long tracks so often seen in the sand. The pearly lining of the shell is very beautiful and one of the sources of domestic mother-of-pearl. The young of the mussel are stored away in the gill 128 NATURE STUDY chamber for a time. Then they attach themselves to the tins of fish, and, after a semi-parasitic existence, drop to the sand small adult mussels. BEAK, FOOT 'LINE OFGROWTft. TEETH. ^EAK. LIGAMENT. ^^.jamiiiiillHiniinn' 'MANTLE LIME. Keading and language lessons on the oyster and clam will be particularly valuable after the lessons on the mussel. LITERATURE Neptune. Hiawatha's Fishing. Water Babies, Kingsley. The Readers, particularly Johonnot's, are full of interesting accounts of fish, frogs, snails, and mussels. CHAPTER V JANUARY New Year Myths and Stories : Kronos. Janus. Story of the T^ar, Ander- sen. Little Match Seller, An- dersen. A New Year's Bargain, Susan Coolidge. Poems : The Little New Year, Walker's Songs and Games. January, Alice Gary. A New Year's Greeting, Lowell. A New Year, Mrs. Dodge's When Life is Young. A Suggestion for a Happy New Year, "i Mrs. Dodge's Wlien Life In Trust, / is Young. New Year Song, Lucy Larcom. Head of Janus. WEATHER In the examination of the weather record for Decem- ber, the chiklren will have a new problem. Instead of questions to be answered, there is now a column in which they are to make a general summary of their ob- K 129 130 NATURE STUDY servations for the month. Before allowing them to write this, conduct an oral discussion on generalizations with which they are already familiar, such as the pre- vailing direction and force of the wind and cloud forms. After these facts have been determined and written up, teach them to summarize the temperature in the same way by determining the average temperature for the month, the temperature of the coldest and of the Avarm- est day, -which winds caused a fall in temperature, which a rise. This will necessitate in most instances teaching them w^hat is meant by an average, and how it is found, much earlier than the course in arithmetic provides. In the keeping of January's w^eather record, provision should be made for recording the rain or snow fall in inches. The standard rain gauge used by the United States government costs five dollars. It is a cylindrical can, so planned that the amount of the rainfall is multi- plied by ten. If this instrument is too expensive, the main purpose may be served by using a tin can with a sharp, even rim, and, in place of the graduated cedar stick which comes with the official gauge, an unvarnished stick, with the tenths of inches marked upon it. Whatever the instrument, it should be placed in an open space, and the children should see wdiy this is essential. Snow is melted before measuring. It is very difficult to get the whole snowfall. Perhaps as accurate a way as any is to cut out wdth the inverted can a circular section of the snow. Melt and measure this. Of course a place must be selected where the snow has not drifted. The teacher should get for her ow^n use the daily JANUARY 131 weather map sent out by the government, and to be had on application to the Local Weather Bureau. PHYSICS Evaporation, Boiling, and Condensation. Facts : Under the influence of heat, Avater evaporates, that is to say, it passes into the air in the form of invisible vapor. The greater the heat, the greater the surface exposure ; and the stronger the wind, the more rapid will be the evaporation. In boiling, the first bubbles that are formed contain air. They break quietly. Soon, however, numerous small bubbles are formed at the bottom and middle of the dish which break explosively, increasing in size as they reach the surface of the water. Immediately above the water, or close to the spout of a teakettle, no steam can be seen; but just as soon as this true steam comes in contact with the colder air outside, it is condensed into water dust and becomes visible. The temperature of the water and of the steam does not vary after boiling is Avell under wa}', although of course the fire underneath becomes hotter and hotter. This extra heat causes the water to break up more rapidly. Whenever water vapor comes in contact with a colder solid, the water condenses on that solid. Method : Why do we add water to the aquarium ? Where does the water go? Can we see it? From which would it disappear more quickly, a deep dish or a shallow one? How shall we find out ? 132 NATURE STUDY Set up the experiment in accordance with their direc- tions. If the children do not know that the water passes into the air, write on the blackboard with a wet sponge, or wring out and hang up to dry a piece of cloth, etc., and let them watch the drying. Do clothes dry more rapidly in winter or in summer? When the air is still or in a wind? Why did the water evaporate more quickly in the shallow dish than in the deeper one ? How can we find out certainly whether heat and wind hasten evaporation ? Set up the experiments in accordance with their direc- tions. In these, as in all other experiments, the teacher must see that the children eliminate all unequal condi- tions. For example, the volumes of water in the two dishes must be equal ; the remaining volumes must be exactly measured; when experimenting with tempera- ture both dishes must be protected from currents of air, and vice versa. By means of a spirit lamp, or a Bunsen burner, Avater may be made to boil in a kettle or dish with a spout in the presence of the seated children. Lead them to see that the steam is invisible near the spout, and that a flame held below the steam beyond makes it invisible again. Tell them to boil some water in a shallow dish on the stove at home, and to bring you the answers to the fol- lowing questions: What happens just before the water begins to boil? Where do the bubbles form? Where are they largest ? Send them all to the blackboard. Let them touch it with their Angers. Is it warmer or colder ? Let them breathe on it. What has happened ? Where did the JANUARY 133 moisture come from ? What happens to our breath on a cold day ? Bring a pitcher of ice water into the room. What has happened ? Let some one breathe on the cold window pane. What has happened ? Hold a cold slate above boiling water. What happens to spectacles in going from the cold into a warm room ? Which is colder, your breath or the blackboard ? Your breath or the cold air ? The air of the room or the pitcher ? YQur breath or the window pane ? The slate or the steam ? The air of the room or the glass of the spectacles ? When only does the air give up its moisture ? On what is this moisture deposited ? Plants : If there was not sufficient time in December for the study of the commoner evergreens, continue their study in January. If possible, begin in this month the study of the germination of seeds.' Germination of Seeds : Facts : Usually seeds will not germinate until they are per- suaded that winter has passed and gone and that spring has really come. To make them believe this they must be given plenty of moisture and warmth. Water softens the food stored round or in the baby plant by its provi- dent mother, allows the ferment to act Avhich changes it into food immediately available for growth, viz., sugar. The first visible phenomenon of germination is the absorption of water and consequent swelling of the seed. Then the coat is broken by the radicle, which is pointed at the tip that it may more easily penetrate the ground. 134 NATURE STUDY The subsequent phenomena vary with the seed used. The following drawings, made by a student of mine in the Xormal School, show Avhat any observant person may see Dec, 16 Dec. 20 Germination of Pea Dec. 27 in the pea, squash, beau, corn, and pea- nut. Observe that in the pea the pri- mary roots become speedily much branched, thus anchoring it more securely in the ground, and furnishing it with more mouths to take in food. The stem is hooked at the tip, where are located ten- der, green, leaf-like bodies. This hooking is protective. Darwin graphically describes the arching and subsequent straightening thus : " It may be convenient to summarize, under the form of an illustra- tion, the usual movements of seedlings whilst breaking JANUARY 135 GREEN TIP ._ ABOVE SURFACE AT THIS STAGE I DISCOVERED WHICH SHOOT VMS ROOT AND WHICH WAS PLUMULE. THUS THE REVERSION IN DRAWING. IN REPLANTING THE SPECIMEN, THE STEM BROKE. ANOTHER SPECI- MEN WAS SUB- STITUTED WHICH ACCOUNTS FOR THE DIFFERENCE IN ROOTS, ETC. Jan. 14 Jan. 17 Jan. 10 TIP IS DRYING UP Jan. 22 Germination of Corn Grain. 136 NATUKE STUDY NOURISHMENT ._ SCUTELLUM ... COTYLEDON — PLUMULE Grain of Corn dissected. through the ground and immediately afterwards. We may suppose a man to be thrown down on his hands and knees, and at the same time to one side, by a load of hay falling on him. He would first endeavor to get his arched back upright, wriggling at the same time in all direc- tions to free himself a little from the surrounding pres- sure. The man, still wrig- gling, would then raise his arched back as high as he could. As soon as he felt himself at all free, he would raise the upper part of his body, whilst still on his knees and still wriggling." The corn differs from the pea in that its one cotyledon comes above ground instead of remaining buried under- neath, like the two cotyledons of the pea. This cotyle- don, or sheath, protects the bud within, until its stiff and sharp point has pierced the ground. For this reason the branch is not arched, as is the case in the pea. "'"""'' Instead of having only a single branched primary root, it has also several secondary roots that remain un- branched for some time. The leaves of the wheat are parallel veined ; those of the pea, netted veined. The former is the characteristic of almost all monocotyledonous plants ; the latter is true of all the dicotyledonous. COTYLEDON Bean, showing embryo. JANUARY 137 Jan. 13 Jan. 17 Jan. 25 Germination of a Bean. 138 NATURE STUDY The squash gets rid of its thick seed coats in a pecul- iar manner. On the root is formed a peg, which as it grows pushes open the coats, out of which come the two cotyledons, which as they reach the light become veined Jan. 12 Jan. 31 Germination of a Squash. and green — seed leaves in appearance as well as in name. The seed leaves (cotyledons) of the bean and peanut "sleep" at night, thus protecting the tender leaves within. The facts with reference to the other seeds are suffi- ciently indicated by the drawings. JANUARY 139 Feb. 9 Feb. 10 Germination of a Peanut. 140 NATURE STUDY Seeds need moisture, air, and warmth in order to germinate. Liglit is non-essential in the beginning, but is a necessity after the plants have come above the ground. Metliod : Seeds may be germinated in sand, in sawdust, on a damp sponge, in a tumbler, on raw cotton, or on blotting paper similarly placed. With young pupils, however, I have found the following to work admirably : Each pupil is requested to bring one, or better two, timiblers and a piece of string, a foot long. They are then given each a small gummed label on which the name is written, and then attached to the tumblers. Squares of coarse cheese cloth, or of mosquito netting, are given to each, and by each tied across the labelled timibler. The tumbler should now be filled with water so that the centre of the cloth is wet. Here place the soaked seeds, and cover with another tumbler, if possible, to protect the seeds from the dry, hot air of the ordinary schoolroom. It will be less trouble to show the children a tumbler properly prepared, and giving them each a label and mosquito netting, let them do the work at home. Shall we place these tumblers in the light or in the dark? If there is a difference of opinion, allow those who think that the dark will be better to place their seeds there, and vice versa. If no one wishes to do this, extra sets may be prepared by the teacher and so placed. Shall we place them in the cold, on the window ledge, or inside in the warmth ? As before, arrange to have some seeds in the cold. The best seeds for study, because they are sure to JANUARY 141 germinate even under unfavorable circumstances, are peas and wheat. Squash ranks third, but the others before mentioned do better either in sand, sawdust, or earth. For this reason I give the children soaked wheat and peas for their tumblers, letting them have the others for home growth. Fill a small, thin, glass bottle with dry peas. Cover the mouth with stout muslin tightly tied with twine. Invert the bottle in a pail, placing the whole apparatus in full sight. The seeds will absorb the moisture so rapidly, gaining so much in size, that the bottle will burst in from two to four hours. It will not be necessary to question the children about the experiment, or to ask them to give their attention. Every move of yours will be watched. Instead of allow- ing them to tell you what has happened, let them write an account of what was done and its consequences. Instead of this, dry peas and peas soaked in water over night may be distributed, one of each kind for every child. Ask the following questions, not, however, allowing oral answers, but giving sufficient time between the ques- tions for good silent thought and work : Are these peas of the same color ? size ? shape ? hardness ? With a pin, take off a portion of the coat of each. Hold this piece between the eye and the light. How many layers do you see ? Are these layers of the same thickness ? Remove the entire coat of the soaked pea. What is left ? Are these parts still connected ? Now give out paper, asking them to write all that they 142 NATURE STUDY have learned and to draw the remaining pea, showing as much as can be shown in one drawing. They might also draw the half of the pea which shows the embryo. Still another method of introducing the subject of germination is to fill the skull of any animal with dried peas, closing the foramen with stout muslin, as indicated in the bottle experiment. The skull should be placed in a dish of water. In less than a day it will be beautifully disarticulated. The teacher should grow, preferably in damp sawdust, a number of the seeds, planting a fresh lot every week, so that she may have on hand plenty of material for her own and the children's study. Care must be taken that the seeds are not kept too wet. Under ordinary conditions it will not be necessary to change the water, but if it does become cloudy, let the children pour it out, rinse the tumbler and refill. This can be easily done without disturbing the seeds. It will be about a Aveek before the seeds have made any perceptible progress. From your own store of material, select seeds which are in about the same stage of growth, and give one to each child. What has happened ? How did it happen ? What will this little root do ? Why ? Bring the seeds from the dark and from the cold — the dry seeds. Which seeds have grown best ? Why ? Which have grown least ? Why ? How many would like to put their tumblers in the dark room ? Why ? Older Seeds: What has happened to the root of the pea ? Why ? What difference is there between the JANUARY 143 root of the pea and that of the wheat ? What has hap- pened to the stem of the pea ? Look at the tip of tliis stem. What do you find there ? Touch them. Why is this tip bent under ? But the pea does not have to push its way through dirt or anything else in your tumbler, so why should it be arched here ? How does the stem of the wheat differ from that of the pea ? AVhy ? Still Older Seedlings: Why was the root of the pea branched ? Why was the stem uncoiled ? What similar changes have taken place in the Avheat ? Still Older Seedlings : Compare the netted veined, com- pound stipulate leaves of the pea with the simple parallel- veined leaf of the wheat. Teach the term " seed leaf." Give them all the stages of the pea to arrange in order and to draw. Require the labelling of the following parts, — root, branch, leaf, tendril, seed leaves. Give them all the stages of the wheat to arrange and draw in the same way. Teach them something of the Pea family, with its butterfly-like flowers, and its very useful seeds. Its best known members are the bean, clover, locust, and peanut. To the Grass family , belong not only the grass and wheat, but also corn and all the other grains. LITERATURE Stories : Little Grain of Wlieat, Mrs. Burnett. This is published in the Little St. Elizabeth volume. _JFive Peas in a Pod, Andersen. Unopened Parcels, Mrs. Gatty's Parables from Nature. 144 NATURE STUDY Story of the Seed, George MacDonald's, David Elginbrood. ' I Jane Andrews' Stories Mother Nature Told. Quercus Alba, J Picciola, Xavier Saintine. ANIMALS The Crow, Owl, and Woodpecker are, next to the spar- rows and pigeons, the best known resident birds. Crow. Crow. Facts : The crow belongs to the same family as the ravens, jays, jackdaws, magpies. It has stout perching feet also adapted for walking. Its beak is large, strong, and slightly hooked at the end. In flying, the wings appear saw-toothed. Its nest is very large, resting on a platform of sticks, made up in great part of cedar bark, and containing from JANUARY 145 four to seven large, strong, green eggs specked witLi brown. Its call note is " Caw."' Its food is corn, young birds, birds' eggs, and sometimes stray insects and field mice. Sparrow. Parrot. Humming Bird. Birds' beaks. Method : If possible, secure a stuffed and mounted crow with a nest filled with its proper quota of eggs. If this is im- possible, give the children hektograph drawings. What bird is this ? When and where have you seen it ? Look at its beak. How does it differ from the beak of the sparrow and pigeon ? What do you think, 146 NATURE STUDY then, is its food ? Of what use to it is the hook at the end ? Look at its feet. How are they like the sparrow's foot ? What can it do then ? How are they different ? Wliy '.' Owl. Facts : The commonest of the resident Owls is the little horned or screech owl {Megascops asio). As its name indicates, the head of this species is marked by a horn or tuft of feathers. It varies greatly in color. The nests are most frequently found in the hollows of trees, and Beak of Falcon. contain from four to six nearly si)herical white eggs. Like all the owls and hawks, it is a bird of prey. In conse- quence, its beak is sharply hooked, for this, with its stout, strong claws, is used for tearing its food. It eats mice, English sparrows, cut worms, and other animals. It is a nocturnal bird. Doubtless be- cause of its downy plumage, it makes little noise in flying. Horned Owl. JANUARY 147 The barn owl, the cat owl, the barred owl (hoot owl), the great horned owl, are also residents, and the snowy owl, while breeding further north, is sometimes seen here in the winter. Woodpecker. Fads : All of the woodpeckers are climbers, and have, in conse- quence, two of their toes in front and one or two behind. The bill is a long, strong chisel, well adapted for bor- ing into trees, which it does to make its nest. The tongue is long and remarkably ex- tensile. By means of this, it catches the insects which hide themselves under the bark of trees. They are mostly resident birds feeding, as they do, on dormant insects which are always abundant. 3fethods : These have been suflB.- ciently indicated in the ac- count of the Crow. If there is time, it would be well for the children of Woodpecker's bill and tong'ue. Red-headed Woodpecker. 148 NATURE STUDY the third and fourth years, since they have now studied perchers, scratchers, climbers, and birds of prey, to study the waders, the swimmers, and the runners. Of the first, either the heron or stork is an example. Notice the beak adapted for the catching and devouring Swimmer: Goose. Climber: Wood- pecker. Wader: Green Heron. Running- : Ostrich. Percher. Scratcher: Grouse. Bird of prey . Eagle. JANUARY 149 of fish. Ducks are swimmers. Notice their broad beaks, with strainer-like teeth, the adaptation of their feet to the soft mud, the boat-shaped body, and the legs well placed for rowing. The ostrich, whose foot more nearly approaches the human foot, is a splendid runner. Skeleton of Sparrow. Bones of Birds. Facts : Most of the bones of adult birds are hollow and filled with air, Avhereas the bones of mammals are always heavy, and when not solid are filled with marrow. This fact accounts in a great measure for the lightness of the body of birds, and the length of time which a diving bird can stay underneath the water. In the skeleton of a bird, notice the deep, thin breast bone, and the " wish " or collar bone on which we fi^nd 150 NATURE STUDY the solid white meat — muscle to move the wings ; the wing which corresponds to the arm even having a rudi- mentary thumb ; the knee, bending in the same direction as our knee ; the ankle joint, with the heel; the long leg- like foot ; and the tail bone. Method : Get from the children meat and chicken bones enough, if possible, so that each child may have one of each for comparison. The bones should be cleaned and broken, so as to show their structure. Which are chicken bones ? Why do you think so ? What other differences between these bones ? Have you never seen a hollow bone in beefsteak or other red meat ? What filled the opening ? Which bones are heavier ? What advantage is it to the cow to have heavy bones ? What disadvantage would they be to the birds ? Draw on the board the skeleton of a bird. Let the children pick out such bones as they know — the wish bone, wing, drumstick, breast bone, neck, back bone, ribs. Let them see the use of each, and its analogy and homol- ogy to the same bones in our own bodies. Feathers of Birds. Facts : The feathers of birds are outgrowths from the skin, differing from the scales of reptiles and the hair of the mammals in character but not in origin. The parts of the feather are the quills, the shaft, the barbs, and the barbules. The quill is hollow. The shaft is filled with a light pith. The barbules are covered with fine threads, usually hooked at the tip, thus fasten- JANUARY 151 ing together the barbs and making of them a close web, which resists the air, thus making it possible for the bird to fly. Besides the quill feathers from the wings and tail, there are the slighter clothing feathers, and in some birds, down. Piece of feather magnified, showing barbs and barbules. Method : Secure from a provision dealer a supply of quill, cloth- ing, and down feathers. Put in envelopes one of each, and distribute to the children for comparison. Tell the story of the eider duck, which again and again plucks first her own and then the breast of her mate to 152 NATURE STUDY reline the nest, from which men have stolen the soft down. Ostrich feathers, the ostrich, and ostrich farming make interesting lessons. LITERATURE The Readers are full of accounts of all the birds here mentioned. Why the Crow is Black, Chaucer's Canterbury Tales. Legend of the Woodpecker, Cooke's Nature Myths. A Legend of the Northland (The Woodpecker), Phoebe Gary. The Crow's Children, Phoebe Gary. The Owl, Tennyson. CHAPTER VI FEBRUARY An Afternoon in February, Longfellow. WEATHER The lessons on evaporation, boiling, and condensation, which have now been taken by children in all the grades, should be reviewed in connection with the following lessons on cloud formation, rain, snow, hail, dew, and frost. Facts : The heat of the sun causes constant evaporation from the surface of all water exposed to its rays. This evaporated water, water vapor we may call it, is invisi- ble and is lighter than- the atmosphere. Therefore it is continually rising, allowing the heavier air above to come down and take up more vapor. The amount of water thus quietly thrown into the atmosphere is enormous. In tropical countries not far from three-quarters of an inch of water a day is carried off from exposed surfaces. Clouds : As this water vapor rises, it gets into colder regions, and as a consequence condenses into visible masses which we call clouds. Cumulus or wool-pack clouds are often seen with a straight, lower edge resting on an invisible 153 154 NATURE STUDY column of water vapor rising from below. Oftener, how- ever, the water vapor which makes the clouds above us has travelled a great distance, sometimes in the form of clouds, it is true, but sometimes as invisible water vapor. Rain : If these clouds encounter a cold wind, more and more of the water is condensed, and the line particles of water dust by the law of cohesion are attracted toward each other. They unite, forming drops, which are drawn down to the ground in the form of rain by attraction of gravi- tation. Effects of Rain : Directly or indirectly all the inequalities of the sur- face of the earth may be traced back to the action of rain. Hills, slopes, plains, valleys, gorges, ravines, all are due to the action of water, and of water ceaselessly flowing back to the ocean only to be reprecipitated again as rain. Rain makes the greater part of the food of all vegeta- tion, and is absolutely essential to both animal and vege- table life. Sxow : If the water vapor reaches freezing air before conden- sation takes place, then small ice needles, white because they contain air, are formed and are attracted toward each other by a regular rule Avhich results in the forma- tion of many beautiful figures, all of which are built up on the plan of six. Vegetation is protected by the blankets of snow which cover the colder parts of the country in the winter. FEBRUARY 155 Hail : If the water vapor does not encounter freezing air until it has condensed into drops, until, in brief, it has be- come rain, then we have hailstones formed. Dew : After the sun goes down, the accumulated heat of the day is given back into the air often more rapidly than it can be drawn up from the ground below. This is par- ticularly true of blades of grass, because of their greatly exposed surface. In consequence, they become cold more quickly than the surrounding atmosphere, and on them is condensed water vapor in the form of dew. Peb- bles, however, do not give off heat much more rapidly than they can draw it up, therefore they do not become much colder than the air, and therefore do not have dew formed upon them to any extent. For this reason gravel paths will be dry even in the early morning, while the grass adjoining is wet. Anything which will keep the heat from radiating from a surface, will keep that surface free from dew. Thus while cobwebs fairly sparkle with dewdrops, the grass beneath is perfectly dry. Clouds act like the cob- web, preventing rapid radiation of heat. Therefore dew is not formed on a cloudy night. Frost : This is not frozen dew, but vapor condensed as a solid instead of as a liquid. In its formation it is analogous to snow, not to hail ; hence its crystalline form. Effects of Frost : Every farmer knows that frost breaks up the ground. For this reason, he often ploughs immediately after a 156 NATURE STUDY frost, because then half the work is clone for him. But it does more than this. It helps to form the soil by breaking up the rocks. Methods : Let the kettle boil again. Where else have you seen white masses like this ? What are they called ? From what are the clouds of steam formed ? How ? From what are clouds formed ? How? When the cold plate was brought in contact with the steam, what happened ? Why ? What happened to the drops of water ? Why ? What causes drops of water to form from clouds ? Why do these grow larger ? Why do they fall as rain ? If the immediate effects of rain on the soil of the school yard were observed in the fall, now will be a most excellent time to review and make coherent the know- ledge thus obtained by the children. If, however, these observations were not made, it will be better to wait until the time of spring showers. For the sake of convenience, however, the method of teach- ing the effects of rain will be given here. What kind of a mark did the raindrops make in the soil of the school yard ? ^\T.iy ? What became of these drops ? What good did the rain that sank into the soil do for the plants ? Why ? How ? What happened to the drops that staid above ground ? "VMien they found a channel, what did they do to it ? AVhy is the gutter stream so large ? Why is it so dirty ? What will hap- pen to this dirt after a while ? How do you know ? How are rivers formed? What ^vork do they do as FEBRUARY 157 tliey travel rapidly along ? What do they form when they go slowly ? Show the childi'en such pictures as those of the Canons of the Colorado, and tell them the story of the Missis- sippi or of the ISTile. For the proper study of snow and frost, the children should have some knowledge of the results of crystalliza- tion and the conditions under which it takes place. This is most easily done by allowing a saturated solution of salt in hot water slowly to cool and then to evaporate. Compare the resulting cubes with those found in ordinary cooking salt and in rock salt. The children will at once see that the difference is one of size only. They should be told that the crystals of rock salt are formed when the cooling and evaporation are very slow, so that the parti- cles of salt are not hurried, and are thus free to build up large crystals. This lesson will be more attractive, perhaps, if, instead of salt, sugar and rock candy are used. For other suggestions, read the chapters on crystals in Euskin's " Ethics of the Dust." The work of frost was illustrated, doubtless, in January, if one of the seed tumblers was placed on the window ledge. The water probably froze, and by its expansion in turning into ice broke the tumbler. ^Nlake use of this incident, taking up the work of frost in general. Dew has already been illustrated by bringing a pitcher of ice water into the warm room. Where is dew formed ? What must then be true of the temperature of the blades of grass ? Why are they colder ? AMiy does everything get colder at night ? What will prevent the formation 158 NATURE STUDY of dew? Why? Why do people cover plants with news- papers when they are afraid of a frost ? Literature : The poems with reference to snow and rain will be found in the weather literature for previous months. See pp. 15, 17, 18, 109. Stories : The General Thaw, Mrs. Gatty's Parables from Nature. Aqua, Kate Douglass Wiggin's The Story Hour. Story of the Boy and the Haarlem Dike. Father Alclur, Alice Giberne. A Drop of Water, Andersen. Easy Poems : The Brook, Tennyson. Little Jack Frost, Walker's Songs and Games. Jack Frost, Eleanor Smith. Little Artist, i Lovejoy's Nature in Verse. Jack Frost, Frost rictui'es. The River, J Jack Frost, Whittier's Child Life. 3Tore Difficult Poems : Rain, Margaret Deland. The Frost Spirit, Whittier. Mad River, 1 o T.- \ Longfellow. Songo River, J ° Fountain, Lowell. Lodore, Southey. A Farewell, Tennyson. Summer Shower, Emily Dickinson. PLANTS The study of the germinating seeds outlined in Chap. V. will not be finished until the close of February, or even until March. FEBBUARY 159 In addition to the observation of the growing seeds, such experiments shoukl be performed as will demon strate clearly to the children that these seeds are alive ; that like the animals, they not only grow, but that they also breathe and eat. Facts : Plants, like animals, breathe out carbon dioxide. This they do continually, but owing to the oxygen given out in the assimilation of food, a life process which takes place only in the light, respiration is most easily shown with plants that are kept in the dark. Plants take in nourishment osmotically through their roots. This food consists of water and substances dis- solved in it. They are able, however, b}^ means of an acid secretion, to act upon carbonate of lime, which is then available for food. Method : It is first necessary to show what breath really is. Let the children breathe against their ha:ids, against a cold surface, such as the board, into a little clear lime water through a straw or glass tube. Why is the breath warm ? What does it contain ? What effect has it on the lime water? The turbidity of the lime water is due to the fact that the carbon dioxide of the breath precipitates lime car- bonate, a white solid, and therefore easily seen in the water. These experiments establish the fact that we breathe out carbon dioxide and water vapor. This is true of all qnimals. Is it true of plants ? 160 NATURE STUDY The following experiments will decide these questions and some others : Place some fresh leaves in a bottle of water, which should then be placed in a fruit jar. Suspend in the same jar a small bottle of clear lime water. Close se- curely and cover with black paper, or set it in a perfectly dark closet. The jar must be absolutely air tight. Prepare another jar in the same way, omitting the lime water. The next day exhibit the first jar. What has happened to the lime water ? Why ? Where must the carbon dioxide have come from ? "What does this indicate ? Into the other jar, lower a bit of burning candle sus- pended by a wire. Owing to the presence of carbon dioxide it will immediately cease to burn. To show that this is not due to the shape of the jar, introduce the burning candle into a similar empty jar. In which jar did the candle go out ? What is the difference between the two jars ? Why, then, do you think that the candle went out in one jar but not in the other ? What two tests are there to prove the presence of carbon dioxide ? Set up this experiment in the same way, but put the jar where the leaves will be in a strong light. Test for carbon dioxide. Explain to the children why this time the candle does not go out. If the aquarium is flourishing and in a good light, they can see the little bubbles of oxygen given off by the plants. How shall we find out whether seeds breathe ? Set up one experiment in the light and the other in FEBRUARY 161 the dark. In both cases carbon dioxide is given off. Why is it that oxygen does not mask the respiration as before ? Because, since seeds are not green, no oxy- gen is produced. In this experiment peas soaked over night, or, better still, those already germinating, should be used. Fill the jar at least a quarter full, and put in with the seeds pieces of damp blotting paper to keep them moist. Do plants, like animals, breathe out water vapor ? An experiment ar- ranged as in the accom- panying cut will an- swer the question. Within twenty-four hours the glass abov^e the branches will be covered with drops of water. Care must be taken to make the upper tumbler air tight; otherwise the water transpired by the plant will be absorbed by the air, and in conse- quence none will be deposited in the glass. This may be done by fastening the upper tumbler to the pasteboard with asphalt, shellac, or putty. CARD-BOARO To demonstrate that plants can feed upon solid lime carbonate, plant a number of soaked peas on a piece of polished marble in earth. At the end of a month, 162 NATUEE STUDY or, better, two months, remove the marble. On its sur- face will be found the markings of the roots. These have dissolved the marble by means of an acid of their own manufacture. Seed Food-supply: It is, perhaps, an open question how much of the work in plant physiology above given should be taught. Omit all of it, rather than not give some lessons on seed food- supply. Facts : Either wrapped around the embryo, or stored away in some of its parts, is food sufficient to supply the needs of the body plant until it is able to get and make food for itself. This may be in the form of starch, oil, pro- teids, such as the gluten of wheat, or cellulose, of which the hard seed of the date is an example. Iodine turns wet starch blue or black ; oil is easily de- termined by the stain that it makes on paper. The gluten of wheat may be extracted by chewing it until only the gummy gluten is left. Many seeds — the nut- meg, for example — contain several kinds of food. Method : Give the children peanuts. Where do they grow? On what part of the plant are they found ? Do the flow- ers which produce them bloom under the ground, too ? Why is this ? How many coats has the peanut? How many parts to the seed ? Look closely. Do you find anything con- necting these parts ? What is it ? Prick the nut. What happens ? Of what use is the oil to the seed? Do you know of any people who like FEBRUARY 163 oil and oily foods ? Why does the peanut have oil in its seed leaves ? Its seed leaves are also full of starch. Do we use starch for food ? In what form ? Why does the mother plant provide the Ijaby with so much food ? Do you see now how it is that seeds Avill grow for a long time, apparently with only water to nourish them ? Who else likes the food of the peanut ? Tell me some other seeds that are good to eat. In the second and third years, teach also the iodine test for starch. Distribute soaked peas, beans, or corn. Tell the chil- dren to break them open so as to expose a rough surface. Pass up and down the aisles, putting a drop of the tinct- ure of iodine, by means of a glass rod or small brush, on the seeds, and telling the children to watch closely the result. They ought to be able to tell you that the liquid turns the seeds blue or black ; that this was not a solid color, but in numerous small dots. Ask the name of the liquid, and tell them that it has the power to turn starch blue. What is there in this seed ? How is it arranged ? Test wheat in the same way. It also contains starch. But it has also another and more valuable food, which can be discovered by first getting rid of the starch. Let them chew a handful of wheat until it is gummy. Wash away thoroughly all the starch. Test with iodine. This is gluten. Encourage the children to test for the food-supply of the seeds by themselves. Valuable language lessons may be given on commercial seeds and fruits. 164 NATURE STUDY ANIMALS The commoner winter residents among the birds of the Middle Atlantic States are the Chickadee, the Snowbird, the AVinter Wren, and the Golden-crowned Kinglet. They breed farther north, but come to us at the approach of cold weather, and remain with us all winter. Facts : In general, the birds move southward not only to avoid the cold, but also in search of food. Since it is the young who are most sensitive to cold, and most dependent on food, it often happens that they lead the way in the southern migration. The Chickadee : Its other name, Black-capped Tit- mouse, describes its appear- ance. This is one of our most familiar winter birds, coming early and leaving late. It is very sociable and fearless, eating nearly everything, and singing perpetually " Chick-adee-dee," or often in winter " day-day-day." It is about five and a half inches long. The Snowbird belongs to the Sparrow family. Its general appearance is slate color. It may be easily Chickadee. FEBRUARY 165 recognized by the lateral tail feathers, which are white. Like the chickadee, it frequents dog kennels, and is even more fearless in reference to the human race, coming often into city yards. It measures from six to six and a half inches in length. Slate-colored Junco, or Snowbird. The Winter Wrex is less commonly seen than the chickadee and snowbird, because of its shy disposition. It is easily recognized by its saucy tail and long, slender beak, characteristic of all the Wren family. Its song, which, of course, we never hear, is said by Burroughs to be surpassed by few in brilliancy and plain- tiveness. Its length is about four inches. 166 NATURE STUDY The Golden-crowned Kinglet is the second smallest bird, in the United States, measuring about four inches. The humming-bird is the smallest, and the winter wren the third in size. Golden-crowned Kinglet. The male kinglet may be easily distinguished from his mate by the crown of the head, which in his case is flame color edged with black, and in hers, yellow without the flame colored patch. In cold winters they often go as far south as Guatemala. FEBRUARY 167 They are especially fond of evergreens, in whose bark they find many insect larva. They are thus very useful to us. They were at one time much used for decorating women's hats, but the killing of them for this purpose has been stopped by law. Their chief enemy at present is the English sparrow. Method : Review the birds already studied, all of whom are resi- dents. Why are they residents ? Are all birds resi- dents ? Why do some leave us ? Where do they go ? Who goes first ? Why ? Do any birds come to us in the winter ? Where do they come from ? AVliy ? Where do we most commonly see them ? AVhy ? By means of pictures of stuffed birds, teach the chil- dren their striking peculiarities, never forgetting the bills and feet and their meanings. LITERATURE Stories : The Birds' Christmas (Chickadee), Emilie Poulsson's In the Child's World. Poems : Titmouse, Emerson, "1 The Snow Bird (Chickadee), | The Snow Bird's Song (Chickadee), | What the Snow Bird Said, J The Chickadee, Celia Thaxter. Snowbird, F. D. Sherman, in Little Folks' Lyrics. Snowbird, Dora Goodale. Lovejoy's Nature in Verse. CHAPTER VII MARCH Poems : March, Mrs. Dodge, in St. Nicholas Songs. March, Wordsworth. March, Mary E. Blake, in Verses Along the Way. March, Celia Thaxter. March Winds, Nora Perry, in New Songs and Ballads. WEATHER All the work that can reasonably be done in a prelim- inary first-year course by children from six to eleven years of age has already been outlined in the preceding chapters of this book. Begin now to test your own work, and to do over again what you find is not Avell done. The children ought to be able to tell at a glance, from many different signs, from what direction the wind is coming, and to give some comparative idea of its velocity. They ought to be able to name the clouds, to explain their origin and probable fate. They ought, within limits, to be able to predict the probable changes in weather. Of each month, and, above all, of the seasons, they should have a mental picture, in which is prominent not only the conditions and kinds of plants and animals, liut also the amount of sunshine, the prevailing winds, the clouds most commonly seen, and the temperature. And this picture should be an integral part of their minds. 168 MARCH 169 Have you gained this yourself, even ? Look back over your work, see where and why you have failed. Use to the best advantage the remaining months. Take the children out of doors, if only for a few moments, every day that you can, and take them always with a definite purpose. PLANTS Buds : In early March gather a large handful of buds on branches not less than eight inches in length. Get as many different kinds as possible. Cherry, horse-chest- nut, tulip, poplar, lilac. North Carolina poplar, willow, are particularly desirable. In cutting these from the tree, use pruning scissors, or a knife, and do not take more than a branch from any one part of the tree. Be especially careful not to spoil the horse-chestnut, because the whole year's growth of the branch is wrapped up in the large and very enticing terminal bud. Pruning scissors are worth buying, since they cost only fifty cents, and save a vast amount of strength and tem- per, both in securing the buds and caring for them after- wards. Cut off the ends of every branch under warm water. When finished, keep the jar where it is warm, and, if you choose, add warm water each day. Renew the water at least once a week, cutting off a piece of the stem at the same time. The Horse-chestxut : The bud of the horse-chestnut is very sticky, a wise provision against the rains of winter. It is covered with 170 NATURE STUDY about seven pairs of opposite scales, all of which appear to be thick, brown, and shiny. When the bud opens, however, it will be found that this is true only of the exposed tips of the inner scales. The part covered up is green and soft. Moreover, when they laxj together, they are rather Avoolly. Inside the scales are one, two, or even three pairs of very woolly, tightly Horse-chestnut branch. Cause of the Horse- shoes. Horse-chestnut buds. folded, opposite leaves. In the centre may often be found a compact, woolly flower cluster. The leaves look at first like rather clumsy small spoons, then like a hand with from five to seven fingers. At last, when the wool begins to drop off, they show that they are palmately compound leaves. The horseshoe-like scars below the bud are the marks left by last year's falling leaves. Observe that they are opposite. The nails indicate the number of leaflets. This MARCH 171 is typically seven, but owing to hybridization with the buckeyes, five, six, seven, and even eight or nine are occasionally found. Usually between every two pairs of leaf scars will be found rings. These mark the place where the bud scales dropped off, and therefore between them is a year's growth. Observe that some years the branch grew much more rapidly than others. Why ? Ifethod : Nothing could be better for the children than for each to have his own branch, with his name cut on it, to watch it from day to day and to draw it. But this is not often practicable. Moreover, it would be bad for the trees. Much can be accomplished, even in a large school, with a single branch, if only the teacher knows, if only she is in earnest. Review what the children learned of the buds in early fall. Why do we cut off their ends ? Vfhj do we place them in warm water ? Why are the buds sticky ? As they develop, give the children a hektograph draw- ing of each stage. How do the inner scales differ from the outer ones? Why are the latter brown ? Why leathery ? Why are the inner ones brown and leathery at the outside tip ? Why green elsewhere ? Why slightlv woolly ? What is inside the scales ? Why do you think that these are leaves ? Why are they woolly ? Why so folded together ? \\Tiat kind of leaves ? Hoav many leaflets ? Look at the stem. Do you see any signs of last year's leaves ? AVhat are the dots ? Do you find any signs of 172 NATUKE STUDY last year's bud scars ? How many pairs of leaves were wrapped up in this year's bud ? In last year's ? How old is your branch ? ' Cherry (the cultivated) : The leaf buds are smaller and longer than the flower buds. The former are terminal, or nearly so, while the latter are always axillary. The flower buds develo]) first. There are two or three flowers in each bud, and their stems are usually much shorter than those that develop normally on the trees. Lilac : The buds are four sided. Usually, two terminate the branch. The scales are green and leaf-like. Indeed, as they open, the transition from the scale to the leaf proper is gradual, but very noticeable. The lilac always develops Avell, and is therefore satisfactory. Moreover, it is often possible to obtain a sufficient quantity for the indi- vidual use of an entire class. Thk Tulip Tree: When these can be obtained at all, they are to be had in abundance, and, if carefully cut, the tree will not be injured. They are one of the prettiest buds in development, and the most satisfactory of all except, of course, the horse-chestnut, to pull apart. This may be done later, when the buds are at their largest, with a pin, or, better still, a penknife. Bud of the Tulip Poplar. MARCH 173 . The cut shows perfectly the gradual development from the bud. Notice, particularly, the folding and position of the leaves, and the fact that there is often a bud within a bud. Poplar : The buds of either the yorth Carolina or the balsam Leaf and flower bud. Balm of Gilead — Balsam Poplar. poplar will answer equally well. They are very easily obtained in a city, both because they are common as street trees, and because, at this time of the year, vandals go about "trimming the trees" and throwing on the ground an abundance of living branches. The branches often root in the schoolroom, thus illus- trating why these trees are so frequently grown. Like 174 NATURE STUDY the willow, it is only necessary to plant a branch in order to have a tree. The terminal buds contain the leaves. These do not come out until after the flowers. The axillary buds may contain either leaves or flowers. The leaf buds are much more sticky than the flower buds. The male flower clusters, familiarly called caterpillars, are made up of flowers consisting of numerous large stamens. AVhere are the pistils ? How does the flower dust get to the pistils ? Has this anything to do Avitli the fact that the flowers come before the leaves ? The leaves are very neatly and compactly arranged in the bud, each margin being rolled inwards. Willow : The willow belongs to the same family as the poplars, and, like them, the flowers, familiarly called pussy wil- lows, come in most kinds before the leaves. Like the poplars, too, the male, or staminate flowers, are more frequently found. They should be put in water, and attention called to the yellow stamens and abundant pollen. The poplars are fertilized by the wind, but the willows depend upon insects. Methods : The methods indicated for the horse-chestnut should be pursued with these branches. Do not study too many of them, nor any of them too minutely. Remember that the object of these lessons is to open the eyes of the children to the joys of spring, when, later, the buds begin to develop out of doors. MARCH 175 Ripe Pussy Willow (pistils), one flower enlarged. Pussy Willow. Seed. LITERATURE Stories : Bab}- Buds, Winter Clothes. Emilie Poulsson's In the Child's World. Easy Poems : Pussy Willow, In the Child's World. The Sunshine's Caress, Pussy Willow, |- Lovejoy's Nature in Verse, Miss Willow, 176 NATURE STUDY Seed Food-supply. Facts : Whatever may be the form in which the food for the little plant has been stored up for the winter, before it is available it must be changed to sugar. This is accom- plished by the action of a ferment, the other requisites being moisture and warmth. Methods : Soak over night a quantity of barley. Plant it the next day in damp sawdust. At the end of a few days the roots will be about half an inch in length. Take out half of the grain, when they have reached this stage, wash away quickly the sawdust, spread them out, and put them in an oven to dry. Allow the others to grow until the green leaves are developed. Wash and dry. Give to the children some grains of ungerminated barley, the dried germinated barley, and the seedlings. What is the seed food-supply in barley? How do you know ? Taste it. Taste the germinated barley. What difference do you notice ? What does this mean ? Taste the seedlings. What has become of the sugar ? Just the same thing happens with your own food. All the starch is changed into sugar, a part of it in the mouth. Germination : The seeds which were planted in January must by this time have grown as much as they will, unless they are planted in earth. This should be done. MARCH 177 In the bottom of a flower-pot jiut a few pieces of broken crockery for drainage, then fill the pot to within an inch of the top with good light earth. In transplanting, be particularly careful not to injure the roots. SOIL The greater portion of the United States has a soil made by the disintegration of rocks. The sandstones and shales give rise to a red or white soil, which is plainly seen to be due to the adjacent rocks ; Avhile particles of shining mica show the relationship of that soil to the surrounding gneiss, mica schist, or granite. In addition to mica, it is very easy to separate out the other ingredients common to granite and other soil, viz., clay, coarse and fine sand, and decayed vegetable matter. The decay of the mother rock may have been caused in various ways. The surest and commonest way in which a rock is destroyed is by the freezing of water which has soaked into it, and which in the freezing expands, forcing off small fragments. In desert regions where the difference between the day and night temperatures is enormous, travellers often hear the rocks crack, and even see the chips fly, in consequence of the inability of the rock to adapt itself to the rapid contraction and expansion whiich result from sudden changes of temperature, even when no ice is formed. This same cause results in rock disintegration in all parts of the world. Still another cause of the decay of rocks and conse- quent production of soil is shown by the yellow stain so commonly seen, Avhich means merely that the iron is oxidizing, or changing to iron rust. In the case of gneiss and mica schist, this oxidizing of the iron results in 178 NATURE STUDY the disintegratioa of the mica aud consequent breaking of the rock itself. Mica: The commonest of all the micas is white mica, or rauscovite ; the next, black mica, or biotite. Both of these are found in fiat, six-sided forms, made up of very thin, transparent, elastic layers. Both are quite soft, being easily scratched with the finger nail. "VMiite mica may be white, gray, or, less frequently, brown or yellow. Black mica is deep black to green. Moreover, it is almost opaque when viewed in one direction, and trans- parent and of a different color, when viewed in another direction. Mica is used in stove doors, for window glass in Siberia, for covering compass boxes, for frost work at Christmas time, and sometimes, like graphite, for lubricating machinery. Sand: The next most evident thing in soil is usually sand. The grains are easily picked out, and will be found to vary in color, some being transparent; others, milky white ; others, still, yellow. They are all grains of quartz, hard, therefore, and gritty. They have rubbed against each other until they have lost their sharp angles. Sand is used in the manufacture of glass, plaster, mortar, and for scouring and moulding. Clay: The clay in soil may be easily recognized by its char- acteristic odor, particularly when wet. It is, in most instances, derived from disintegrated feldspar. The pres- ence of too much clay in the soil makes it stiff and MARCH 179 impervious to water, while with sand alone the water would pass too quickly through. A mixture of sand and clay is the best for the farmer. Out of the clay is made porcelain, china, crockery, flower-pots, bricks, drain-pipes. Quartz axd Pebbles: Milky quartz in the form of white pebbles may be found in abundance in most streams, and may be bought at aquarium supply stores. Frequently mixed with them are feldspar pebbles which, however, are rather softer and may be scratched, usually with difficulty, Avith a knife. All of the quartz pebbles Avill be found to be hard, easily scratching glass, light in weight, with a glassy lustre, transparent or translucent, or even opaque, break- ing irregularly. The green color of some of the pebbles is due to plants grown in their former habitat — a stream of water ; and the yellow color of others, to the presence of iron which has rusted. All pebbles began their existence as angular pieces of rock. They have become rounded by dint of being rubbed against each other in water. Glacial pebbles, which are common enough in gravel pits and north of the line of the terminal moraine in the ice age, have of course been rounded by being rubbed along by the glaciers of that period. They are often scratched. Because of the great hardness of quartz and its lack of susceptibility to chemical change, we seldom have it reduced to anything finer than sand, while feldspar is finally reduced to impalpable clay. Quartz crystals are built up on the plan of six, typi- cally a six-sided right prism, capped on both ends with 180 NATURE STUDY a six-sided pyramid ; but this typical form is rarely seen. Often there are only the pyramids. This is called drusy quartz. The form most commonly seen is the prism terminated with a pyramid. Quartz crystals, when col- ored violet or purple, are known as amethysts. Other well-known forms of quartz are rose quartz, smoky quartz, yellow quartz, agate, chalcedony, carnelian, opal, onyx, flint, jaspar. The stiffness of grass blades and the grain is due to silica or quartz. Some of the uses of quartz have already been given under the head of Sand. Eock crystal was once used extensively for the best spectacles. What the boys call " reallys " (marbles) are made from agate, which is used, too, for various ornamental purposes, as are also car- nelian, amethyst, jaspar, chalcedony, onyx, and opal. From flint were made the Indian arrow heads. The white men used it for striking a fire. Feldspar : The commonest feldspar is that known to mineralo- gists as orthoclase. It is softer than quartz, harder than glass, ranging from six to seven in a scale of hard- ness, which is as follows : 1. Chalk, Talc, Graphite. ■ 2. White Mica, Rock Salt, 3. Calcite. 4. Fluorite. 5. Glass. 6. Feldspar (usually). 7. Quartz. 8. Beryl. 9. Corundum. 10. Diamond. MARCH 181 Feldspar has a pearly lustre and two planes of cleav- age, one at right angles to the other, or, as the children say, it breaks in steps. Its color is usually light, ranging from white to gray, pink, red, brown, and green. It is the mineral which gives granites their characteristic colors. As moonstone, it is somewhat used for ornaments. Its other uses have been given under the head of Clay. Methods : After the seeds have been planted in the earth, give to each child a small box half full of soil, or distribute it by the spoonfuls on pieces of paper already laid out on their desks. Put into one pile all the gravel that j-ou can find. What color is it? "What shape? Why? On the ground which would you find on top, the gravel or the fine soil ? Why ? Sort over the rest of the soil. What do you find next in size to the gravel ? What is it called ? Put in an- other pile the grains of sand. What colors ? What shape ? Hard or soft ? How do you know ? Let the teacher or the pupils drop a little water on what is left. What is the odor that you now notice ? What else is there besides the gravel, sand, clay, in your soil ? Describe it. They are sure to find all sorts of interesting things, — mica, grasshopper's eggs, bits of leaves and roots, earthworm castings, etc. Let them think out the reasons for the presence of whatever they find. If mica is in the soil, lessons on that mineral will be very interesting to the children. An excellent plan is to ask the children questions, 182 NATURE STUDY giving them time always to observe their specimens, and to think out the answers, but not allowing them to answer orally. Then giving them each paper, let them write all that they can. For mica the following questions might be used: What is the color of your specimen? Hold it up to the light. Has it the same color ? Try to scratch it with your finger nail. Is it hard or soft? Separate it into thin layers. Hold these to the light. What can you see through it ? Teach the words '' transparent," " structure." Teach them the uses of mica, and show them how it happens to be in the soil. It is usually perfectly easy to get a series of specimens of gneiss and mica schist, showing all the transitions from, the hard to the softer rock and to soil. Questions on quartz pebbles : Scratch it with your fin- ger nail, with a penknife. Try to scratch glass with it. Is it hard or soft ? What shape ? Why ? How hard ? What color ? Is it transparent ? Let the light shine on it. Does it shine like glass, or is it softer like pearls ? What is its structure ? Does it break regularly or irregularly ? Review " structure " and " transparent." Teach the words "translucent," "opaqiie," ''lustre." Teach part of the scale of hardness, namely, 1, 2, 5, 7. Procure as many different kinds of quartz as possible. Mix up with these crystals of rock salt, rock candy, cal- cite, fluorite, feldspar, anything, indeed, similar in ap- pearance to quartz, and let them learn to distinguish one from the other. This is easily done by testing the hard- ness. The peculiar crystalline structure of quartz should be thoroughly taught. MARCH 183 Excellent language and reading lessons may be had on the various uses of the different kinds of quartz, and particularly on the history and manufacture of glass. If possible, begin now a mineral collection. Get the largest and best specimens that can be obtained. Ar- range these minerals in families as much as possible, and secure specimens illustrating their uses. The labels should contain not only the name, but also the locality from which the mineral came. Let the children con- tribute the greater number of specimens and do the greater portion of the work. But the teacher must both give and work, if she expects to have a successful collec- tion of any kind. Feldspar is the commonest of all stones except quartz. Beautiful specimens may be bought for a small sum. By this time, each child should possess a piece of glass, a penknife, or a bit of sharp steel, and should have suffi- cient knowledge of the subject to be able, without ques- tions, to write a description of the mineral under these heads : AVeight, Structure, Color, Transparency, Hardness. Teach them the term '•' cleavage." The uses of clay and its independent discovery by different nations for the manufacture of pottery, an ex- cursion to a brick yard, or in default of this, the com- parison of brick clay, an unbaked brick, which may be afterwards baked, and a baked brick, all easily procured by the teacher, will make excellent supplementary lessons. Review thoroughly and compare the three minerals, — mica, feldspar, quartz. In what form does each exist in the soil ? Of what use is each to the soil ? Why ? 184 NATURE STUDY LITERATURE The stories and poems, illustrating the power of water and frost, already given under these heads are appro- priate here : Stony and Rocky, Emilie Poulsson's In the Child's "World. Pebbles, Lovejoy's Nature in Verse. ANIMALS Worms : One of the earliest signs of spring is the presence in the morning of fresh earthworm castings. They are to be found everywhere, both in the city and in the country, and tell a great deal of the life history of a most inter- esting animal. The thin iridescent cuticle of the earthworm is chitin- ous or horny. The rings are much larger in front and rather flattened at the other end, Avhich commonly re- mains in the burrow. Along the back and underneath may be seen blood-vessels. The bristles, by means of which it moves, are arranged in double rows along each side of the ventral surface of the body. Every segment, except the first and last, has four pairs of bristles. The popular opinion, that each part of a bisected earth- worm walks off and becomes a new worm, is not true. Only the head portion is capable of regenerating the other part. Although not so low in the scale as this prevalent superstition would indicate, they cannot see or hear, and have only a feeble sense of smell, as Darwin's and Henson's many experiments prove. They show some intelligence in lining their burrows, usually seizing leaves, etc., by their pointed ends. Leaves serve not only to line and to plug the burrow, but also for food. MARCH 185 The}' feed, likewise, upon the organic matter in the soil, which they swallow in great quantities, and eject in the form of the familiar " castings." • They are extraordi- narily numerous in all humid regions, a fact that we scarcely realize because they live in their burrows dur- ing the day, emerging only at night for food and to work. In cold or dry weather they are entirely quiescent. \F Egg Capsule Worm escaping from Capsule It has been estimated that about ten tons of earth in each acre of ground pass annually through their bodies in places where they are numerous. By this means fresh surfaces are kept continually exposed to the action of carbon dioxide and the humus acids, and thus decom- posed and disintegrated. Moreover, these '• castings " are distributed either by 186 NATURE STUDY rolling or by the action of the wind or by rain, so that the worms are thus constantly levelling the surface of the earth. Worms prepare the ground excellently for seedlings. They sift the soil, so that no stones larger than they can swallow are left in it. They mix it, as does a gardener who wishes to prepare fine soil for his choicest plants. They cover up bones, etc., thus bringing them in a more or less decayed state within reach of the roots. They cover seeds which lie upon the surface, thus giving the radicle a leverage ; and, last of all, their burrows facili- tate the penetration of the roots. Says Darwin : " The plough is one of the most ancient and most valuable of man's inventions ; but, long before he existed, the land was, in fact, regularly ploughed by earth worms. It may be doubted whether there are many other animals which have played so important a part in the history of the world as have these lowly organized creatures." Birds : Stray robins and bluebirds remain with us in Phila- delphia all winter. In the latter part of February those who have gone farther south begin to straggle up, stay- ing with us for a short time, but usually going further north. In March, the robins, bluebirds, and crow black- birds become quite common. The red-winged black- bird and the meadow lark are also to be found in their favorite haunts. All of these birds eat insects, a story plainly revealed by their long, narrow bills. They are, of course, all perchers. MARCH 187 The American Robix, when it first comes from the south, sings most freely at noon or in the afternoon ; but later, when the weather is mild enough to warrant such early rising, it begins its song at dawn. It is not a very intelligent bird, often building its heavy, bulky, mud-lined nests on branches not capable of supporting such a weisjht. American Robin. The eggs, perhaps the best known of all birds' eggs, are four in number, and of that peculiar blue green color, known as robin's egg blue. The robin belongs to the Thrush family ; its usual length is ten inches. Bluebird : These birds are found only in America. The coloring of the male is much more vivid than that of its 188 NATURE STUDY mate. Both, however, are blue above and rusty red under- neath. "When Nature made the Bhiebird," says Bur- roughs, in " Wake Hobin," " she wished to propitiate both the earth aaid sky, so she gave him the color of Bluebird. one on his back and the hue of the other on his breast, and ordained that his appearance in the spring should denote that the strife and war between these two ele- ments was at an end. He is the peace harbinger ; in him the celestial and terrestial strike hands and are fast friends." MARCH 189 The bluebird measures seven inches. In building the nest, they choose by preference a bird house, a hole in a tree, or some place that will afford the children sufficient protection without too much exertion on their part. Their eggs are pale blue, from four to six in number. They, too, belong to the Thrush family; but their song is more like the Warblers'. Crow Blackbird : These are the largest of all the Crow Blackbird, or the Purple Crackle. 190 NATURE STUDY spring birds mentioned, measuring from twelve to thir- teen inches in length. The color is iridescent black ; their eyes, conspicu- ously yellow. They journey in immense flocks, their dis- cordant cry and peculiar manner of flying making them a very prominent feature of the landscape. Their nests are well built, and their eggs, which vary greatly, are peculiarly marked and streaked, brown on a light-colored groundwork. They are universally hated by the farmer, who unjustly accuses them of destroying his cornfield. They help him, however, by destroying great quantities of insects. They are sometimes called Keel birds, from the use which they make of the tail in flying, and sometimes the Purple Grackle. Bird Migrations : To this most interesting siibject, allusion has been already made, but it seems worth while again to state some of the facts. It is a subject much discussed and not even yet thoroughly investigated. There are, popularly speaking, three classes of bjrds in any given locality, — permanent residents, migrants from the south, migrants from the north. These terms are only relative, since the so-called permanent residents travel about more or less extensively during the cold season, and even the truly migratory birds of one local- ity may be residents in another. The great cause of migration is probably failure in the food-supply. Therefore, in many families, it is the young who initiate the southward migration ; but it is the male, urged on by his nest-building, family-founding instinct, who is the first to return to the north. In most MARCH 191 cases, the birds pursue the same path year after year, and it is a very common observation that they even return to the same tree season after season. As Weiss- mann says, they have '' an inherited talent for geogra- phy " ; and, in addition to this, their method of flight, higli in the air, gives them a bird's-eye view of the country beneath, enabling them to use as landmarks what to us below are simply indistinguishable parts of a mixed and complete whole. Three or four times as many birds leave us in the fall as return to us in the spring, so that the loss of life in migrations must be large. Method : In preparing the children to study the earthworm, take them out with the avowed purpose of finding signs of spring. These, of course, will be the buds and the earthworm castings. Tell the children to bring in as many different kinds of the latter as they can find. They will gather all sizes and shapes, wet ones and those which have dried. Describe what you have brought in. Why are some of them moist while others are dry ? Where did they come from ? City children are often unable to answer the last question, and I have, in consequence, usually sus- pended the lesson here, sometimes telling them that if they wished to know, they might find out if they watered the place towards dusk, and watched to see what animal came out. This little experiment explains to them what they have already observed — the numer- ous earthworms to be seen in the spring mornings after a storm. 192 NATUKE STUDY Earthworms may be kept in a pot in the schoolroom, fed on cabbage leaves and other vegetables, of which they are very fond. The pot should be kept fairly moist. Cover it with a piece of glass and black paper ; then when the latter is suddenly removed, they may be seen at work. Strangely enough, children do not seem to object to touching earthworms, but bring in willingly many specimens. They should not be allowed to handle them, however, on the earthworm's account, not on theirs. If the teacher shall deem it advisable, each child may have a specimen to study, keeping it in a small box partly filled with moist earth. About how long is the earthworm? Where is it largest round ? What difference between the head and tail end ? How does it move ? What does the saddle look like ? What color is the skin ? What difference in color between the upper and lower sides ? Between the head end and the tail end ? Why ? Notice the blood-vessel in the back. Which way does the blood travel ? How many beats per minute ? In the study of the birds procure nests and stuffed birds if possible. If not, colored pictures will answer. In each case let the children determine the habit and the food of the animal by the study of its beak and feet. Get from them their own experience and observation of the particular bird under consideration, and add to these your own. i MARCH 193 LITERATURE The usual reading books are full of stories of the birds. Adaptations from Ruskin's Queen of the Air and Burrough's books, notably Wake Robin, are possible. Little Brothers of the Air, Olive Thorne Miller, and Merriani's Birds through an Opera Glass give suitable stories for children. Seaside and Wayside, No. II., has an interesting account of the earthworm. Additional Stories and Myths : How the Robin Got his Red Breast, Indian Myth, Whittier. The Unknown Land, Mrs. Gatty's Parables from Nature. The Storks, Andersen. Birds of Killingworth, Longfellow's Tales of a AVayside Inn. The Little Worm that was Glad to be Alive, Elizabeth Feabody, Emilie Poulsson's In the Child's World. Easy Poems: Out of the Sky, 1 ^ t. ^ , i.n t •* rr., c. . Mrs. Dodge's When Life The Secret, [ . '' How the Birds Fii'st Learn to Sing, J ^' Birds' Thoughts, Emilie Poulsson's In the Child's World. Morning Song, Tennyson, from Sea Dreams. The Coming of Spring, Brother Robin, A Song of Spring, If Ever I See, Lydia Maria Child, j A Bird's Nest, J „.,.,',, I Walker's Songs and Games. Birdie's Ball, J All the Birds Have Come Again, Eleanor Smith's Songs for Little Children. If the Bluebirds Bloomed, St. Nicholas Songs. More Difficult Poems: Sir Robin, I Lucy Larcom. Sister and Blue Bird, J \ Lovejoy's Nature in Verse. 194 NATURE STUDY In the Lilac Bush (Robin), I ^^jj^ Thaxter. The Robin, i Return of the Birds, Bryant. Trumpeter Redbreast, from Lilliput Levee. Extract from Owl Against Robin, Sidney Lanier. Winter Robin, 1 Robin Badfellow, i T. B. Aldrich. Robin, J Warbling of the Black Birds, Jean Ingelow. Bluebird, Whittier's Child Life. Robin, I p,jj^jjy Dickinson. Bluebird, J A September Robin, Miss Mulock. A Remembrance of Autumn, Adelaide Procter. CHAPTER VIII APRIL Easy Poems: Now the Xoisy Winds are Still, 1^ Mrs. Dodge's When Life is Au April Girl, J Young. April Showers, Lovejoy's Nature in Verse. April, Songs for Little Children, Eleanor Smith. More Difficult Poems: In April, I Lovgjoy,, Xature in Verse. April Fools, J April, Alice Cary. An April Welcome, Phoehe Cary. April Day, Longfellow. April, Whittier. April, F. D. Sherman, in Little Folks' Lyrics. April, Helen Hunt Jackson. Spring. Myths and Stoj'ies: Ceres and Proserpine. Bi-j-nhild. White Man's Foot, Hiawatha. Sleeping Beauty. Legend of the Spring Beauty, Emei-son's Indian Myths. Easy Poems: The Sap Has Begun to Flow, | Eleanor Smith's Songs for Little Spring Song, No. I., / Children. 105 196 NATUEE STUDY Spring Song, No. II., ) Eleanor Smith's Songs for All the Birds Have Come Again, ) Little Children. Out of the Sky, Mrs. Dodge's When Life is Young. Spring Song, ] A Spring Song, I . , ^^ . <-. • HT .• f Lovejoy's Nature m Verse. A Spnng Meeting, •' •' A Song of Spring, J More Difficult Poems: A Song of Easter, Celia Thaxter. Extracts From the Progress of Spring, i „ ,, , o • i o7 V Tennyson. Early Spring, J •' Extract from the Song of the Sower, 1 Extract from the New and the Old, \ Bryant. Return of the Birds, Return of Spring, Longfellow. The First Flowers, Whittier. STONES Granite. Facts : Granite is an igneous, Plutonic rock ; that is to say, it was formed by the action of fire in the bowels of the earth, the kingdom of Pluto. Just how it was made is still a matter of dispute. It has been generally sup- posed to be the oldest of all the rocks, the foundation stone of the earth, because it is known to constitute whole mountain ranges. Nevertheless granite is some- times formed to-day from the molten mass thrown out of volcanoes. Still, there can be no question that granite is of very ancient origin. Because of its crystalline structure, we know that it must have been originally a highly heated, molten mass, which cooled slowly. By reason of its compactness, APRIL 197 we judge that the cooling must have taken place under great pressure. The essential constituents of granite are feldspar and quartz. Usually either mica or hornblende is present, more commonly the former. Feldspar is always the most prominent constituent, and gives to the granite its distinctive color, — white, gray, red, pink. Method : This stone is so much used for building that pieces of it are easily procured in sufficient quantities. Is this rock made up of one or several minerals ? How many ? What colors ? Investigate the black mineral. Is it hard or soft ? What is its structure ? its lustre ? its name? Investigate the pink. What is its name? How do you know ? Investigate the third mineral. What is its name ? How do you know ? Of what, then, is granite composed ? Where is it found ? What is it used for ? Wliy ? Does it ever make soil ? How ? Describe the appearances of this soil. Gneiss. Facts : This is the commonest and therefore the most important of all the rocks. It is undeniably of very ancient origin ; but whether of aqueous or igneous structure is not yet settled. It is often found with the habit of granite, and even passing into it by gradual transitions. It is also often found with the habit of an aqueous rock, of which, indeed, it may be only a metamorphosis. Like granite, it is composed of feldspar, quartz, and 198 NATURE STUDY mica; but the mica is more abundant than in granite, and is, in the typical gneiss, arranged in layers. Because of this layering, gneiss is not nearly so valuable a build- ing stone, since it tends to break and to disintegrate along the line of the soft mineral. Method : The probabilities are that long before you are ready to teach gneiss, the children will have brought in speci- mens. The freshly broken specimens are pretty enough to attract them ; and in city streets, where building of any sort is going on, large heaps of gneiss are to be found. In what respect is this stone like granite ? How different ? Is it as good a building stone as granite ? Why not ? Does it make soil ? How ? What does this soil look like ? Mica Schist. Facts : The origin of mica schist is wrapped in the same obscurity that surrounds that of gneiss. It differs from gneiss in the presence of a much greater quantity of mica, occurring in larger pieces and in wider layers. Quartz may be present, or feldspar, or both. It is very apt to contain other minerals, such as garnets. Because of the abundance and the arrangement of the mica, it has small value as a building stone. Method : Specimens of mica schist are almost as easily found as those of gneiss. In what respects is this stone like granite ? How APRIL 199 different from it ? Like gneiss ? Different from it ? Is it used for building ? Why not ? For what is it used ? Does mica schist make soil ? How ? What kind of soil ? PLANTS Buds : If the teacher has secured, properly cared for, and used the unopened buds of March, she has prepared the children for the delights of watching the growing living green of the twigs and buds of April. Frequent short excursions should be made to the differ- ent trees of the neighborhood, and some time devoted to letting the children tell of other buds Avhich they are watching at home or on the Avay to school. After the buds have opened will be an excellent time to begin the systematic study of whatever trees may be in the neighborhood. The teacher must search for them and study them herself. To help her in this, I give below short accounts of the commoner trees. American Linden, or Basswood (Tilia Americana) : "And all around the Lime feathers low, — The Lime, a summer home of murmurous wings." Most of the characteristics of the leaf, its veining and margin, of the flower, fruit, and tree are suliiciently shown by the drawings. In addition to these, notice, in living specimens, the tiny tufts of russet down in the axils of the veins on the under side of the leaf ; the smooth bark ; the fragrance of the flowers, which are full of honey and very attrac- tive to bees ; and the long, ribbon-like bract, which aids in the wind distribution of the fruits. Its wood is light 200 NATURE STUDY and tough. It is much used for the panels of carriages and wagons and the sounding-boards of pianos. It is the best wood for carving. " Smooth Linden best obeys The carver's chisel ; best his curious work Displays in nicest touches." Most of the famous carvings at Windsor Castle, Chats- worth House, St. Paul's, were made in linden wood. Linden leaves and flowers. It makes an excellent charcoal. Its inner bark is used, to some extent, in the manufacture of coarse ropes. It was from the long fibres of this bark that the tree received its name — line tree, or linden. The handsomest street of Berlin, Unter den Linden, was so called from its double row of these trees. In Freiburg there still stands a very ancient linden sup- ported by stone pillars. Through its hollow trunk grows a younger tree, presumably a scion of the older one. APRIL 201 The story is, that the parent came origiually from a twig carried by a young native, who, in his anxiety to bring the good news of the victory of Morat back to Freiburg, forgot his wounds and weakness. He had only the strength to gasp out, "Victory," before he died. This same story is paraphrased from Euripides by Browning in the " Dramatic Idylls." An old tree in Germany has given its name to the town. No one knows its age, but its trunk is nearly sixty feet in circumference ; and its branches, extending in every direction a hundred feet, are supported by at least a hundred pillars of wood and stone. The American Elm (Ulmus Americana) : The great beauty of this tree is due partly to the arching character of its boughs, and partly to the fringed appearance of its drooping branchlets. These peculiarities give to it a distinc- tive grace, enabling any one to recog- nize the tree, even at night or in winter. In addition to the shape, the margin, and the veining of the leaf shown in the draw- ing, notice, in the living specimen, the harsh- ness of the texture of the leaf. The flowers appear before the leaves, and even the winged fruit is mature before their full expansion. Its wood, very hard and strong, is preferred to any for the hubs of wheels. Elm trees are characteristic features in New England 202 NATURE STUDY landscapes. New Haven is often called the City of Elms, but many other New England towns are shaded by avenues of elms of almost equal beauty. It was under an elm tree, still standing in Cambridge, that Washington took command of the American army, July 3, 1775. Under another elm — probably the Euro- pean elm — Penn concluded his famous treaty with the Indians on the Delaware near Philadelphia. The European elm, often seen here in cultivation, lacks the grace and distinction of its American cousin. It sel- dom attains a greater height than fifty feet in this coun- try, but in England it is a noble tree. No one who has been to Windsor Castle will ever forget the avenue of APRIL 203 elms planted by Charles the Second, — sixteen hundred and sixty of them, the number marking the date of his accession to the throne. The bark of the slippery elm is "well known. The tree has the characteristic elm leaf, but is larger and much rougher than the American elm. The Birches : The drawing of the leaf of either the red, yellow, or black birch resembles that of the elms, but the leaves themselves, instead of being rough and hairy, are shiny. The leaves of the cut- leaved European birch, of the white birch, and of the canoe birch are very unlike the others. There is, however, no difficulty in picking out members of the Birch family, since the bark of all of them has the unmistakable horizon- tal markings so notice- able in the bark of canoe birch. The birches are grace- ful trees. Several of them are valuable for timber, and most of them for fuel. One of them gives the oil to which is due the distinctive odor of Eussia leather. All of them are beautiful ornaments in any landscape. 204 NATURE STUDY The white birch (Betula populifoUa) is the one most likely to be seen in the city, partly because of its rapid growth, even in unfavorable situations, and partly be- cause its light and airy grace and the beautiful green of its leaves make it a desirable addition to lawns. " Most beautiful of forest trees, The Lady of the woods." white or Gray Birch. Paper or Canoe Birch. The canoe or paper {B. papyracea) is the best known of all the birches, because of its striking white bark which separates easily from the trees, and lends itself to many uses. Of this Michaux gives an interesting account : " In Canada and in the district of Maine, the country people place large pieces of it immediately below the shingles of the roof, to form a more impenetrable cover- ing for their houses ; baskets, boxes, and portfolios are made of it, which are sometimes embroidered with silks APRIL 205 of different colors ; divided into very tliin sheets, it forms a substitute for paper, and placed between the soles of the shoes, and in the crown of the hat, it is a defence against humidity. But the most important pur- poses to which it is applied, and one in w^hich it is re- placed by the bark of no other tree, is the construction of canoes. To procure proper pieces, the largest and smoothest trunks are selected. In the spring two cir- cular incisions are made several feet apart, and two longitudinal ones on opposite -sides of the tree, after which, by introducing a wooden wedge, the bark is easily detached. These plates are usually ten or twelve feet long, and two feet nine inches broad. To form the canoe, they are stitched together with fibrous roots of the white spruce, about the size of a quill, which are deprived of the bark, split, and suppled in water. The seams are coated with resin of the balm of Gilead. Great use is made of these canoes by the savages and the French Canadians in their long journeys into the interior of the country ; they are very light and are easily transported from one lake or river to another, which is called the portage. A canoe, calculated for four persons with their baggage, weighs from forty to fifty pounds. Some of them are made to carry fifteen passengers." Birch bark was also used for '• rind tents "' in the settle- ment of the Hudson Bay Company. These were sewed together with the white spruce roots, and were used the whole year round, requiring but a short time — a half hour — to pitch, and being an efficient protection against both the cold and the sun. The black birch, often called cherry birch, may be immediately recognized by the birchlike appearance of 206 NATUKE STUDY the bark, and the agreeable spicy odor and taste of both bark and leaves. It is found most frequently in the mountains, and is highly valued for its wood, which is extremely beautiful, much used for furniture and also for fuel. The Poplars and the Willows : These trees form a natural family of striking characters, and have many and important uses. Both are remarkable for the size and length of their roots, for their fondness for water, for their easy propagation, and for their hold on life. Their buds, flowers, and methods of fertilization have been already spoken of. The best-known poplars are the Balsam Poplar {Popii- lus halsamifera var. candicans), North Carolina Poplar (P. monilifera), the White Poplar (P. alba), and in some places the Lombardy Poplar (P. dilatata), and the Aspen, or Popple (P. tremidoides), as it is called by the country people. The balsam poplar is a great favorite in cities, because it makes a good-sized tree sooner and more surely than any other. But its branches are very brittle, breaking in the wind, and its roots are apt to find, penetrate, and fill up any but iron drainpipes. Its fragrant buds are very attractive in the spring, and also its reddish, caterpillar-like flowers. Nevertheless it would be better to use it chiefly to act as a screen and shelter to young and more valuable trees. The Carolina poplar, also known as the necklace poplar, because of the resemblance of its long catkin of matured fruits to the beads of a necklace, has also been called, for obvious reasons, the Virginia, the Swiss, and APRIL 201 the black Italian poplar. In general appearance it re- sembles the balsam poplar ; the chief difference between North Carolina Poplar. White Poplar. 208 NATURE STUDY the trees lies in the fact that the buds of the Carolina poplar are almost free from balsam. The bark and leaf of the white poplar are markedly different from any of the others. The bark is bright in color, but much roughened with black markings. Tlie leaves are white and downy underneath. It is said that when Hercules destroyed the robber, Cacus, in the 'cavern, on a poplar-covered mountain, he was so full of joy at his success that he tore a branch from a tree and wound it around his head. Soon afterwards he visited the infernal regions, where the smoke blackened the upper and exposed side of the leaves, while the under side were bleached by the perspiration of his forehead. It is currently believed that when the tree turns the white side towards you, it is a sign of rain. The Lombardy poplar is one of the most picturesque of all our trees, slender, tall, with upward pointing branches. It does not produce seed. It is said to have been planted by the French wherever they have settled. It is the hero of the legend of the Poplar Tree and the Pot of Gold. The American aspen is characterized by the restless quivering motion of its leaves, due to the long, slender Lombardy Poplar. APRIL 209 leaf stalks and common to all the poplars, although more marked in this species. This movement has been com- pared to that of women's tongues " which seldom cease wagging." Homer says of Penelope's maidens : "Their busy fingers wove Like poplar leaves when Zephyr fans the grove." Every one knows Scott's "And variable as the shade By the light quivering Aspen made." Black Willow. hybridized so much that it is often dif- ficult to separate from each other the different species. Coat Willow. Weeping Willow 210 NATURE STUDY Long Beaked Willow. Heart Leaved Willow. APEIL 211 Probably the Goat {Salix caprea), the Weeping (S. baby- lonica), the Black {S. nigra), the White {S. alba), and the Long Beaked {S. rostrata) are among the more distinc- tive and better known willows. The goat willow is frequently seen in lawns. It fur- nishes the foundation for the weeping uinbrella-like tree called Kilmarnock Willow. Tlie catkins appear long be- fore the roundish leaves, and, in ripening, show better than any other '' pussies " either the yellow stamens, or the two-horned pistils, of which they are composed. The wood of the willow makes the best of charcoal, and is used in medicine ; but it finds its greatest commer- cial value in the manufacture of wicker work. The Oaks: "The monarch Oak, the patriarch of trees, Shoots rising up, and spreads by slow degrees ; Tliree centuries he grows, and three he stays Supreme in state, and in three more decays." Oak. 212 NATURE STUDY Both the ancient inhabitants of Greece and of Britain worshipped the oak; and in all ages, among all people, the majesty and beanty of the tree has made it the glory of the woods and the recipient of the ad- miration of men. Its fruit, the acorn, was an important ar- ticle of food to the early inhabitants of 'Europe, and is still sold for that purpose in parts of Asia Mi- nor and Spain. In our own country, the bear, the raccoon, the squirrel, the wood pigeon, and the swine fatten on them. The bark is used for dyeing and tanning. The bark of the Spanish cork oak gives us cork. But the most valuable product of all is the wood, which for strength, hardness, and durability is unsur- passed. There are still standing in England oaks known to be from a thousand to twelve hundred years old. In an old oak in Boscobel Eorest, King Charles II. remained successfully concealed for a day after the battle of Worcester, from which circumstance the oak became a Stuart emblem. The day of accession of APRIL Pin Oak Black Oak. 214 NATURE STUDY Charles was long celebrated as a holiday, under the name of Royal Oak Day. The Yule log, half burnt at each of the great feasts of the Druids, Avas of oak. Red Oak. a. Acorns, first year ; c. Acorns, second year. The Round Table of King Arthur, still shown at Win- chester, alleged to be genuine, is a cross-section of an old oak tree, eighteen feet in diameter. The Greeks believed it to be the first tree that grew on APRIL 215 earth, and the Greeks, Eomans, and Germans considered it sacred to the king of the gods, called by them, respec- tively, Zeus, Jupiter, Thor. A chaplet of oak leaves was the highest honor that could be given to a Roman soldier. Next to the Charter Oak, perhaps the most famous American oak is the one near Fishkill, on the Hudson, under Avhich, it is said, Washington used to mount his horse. Even then it was famous for its age. In the Middle Atlantic States, of the trees that ripen their acorns within a year, the best known are the white and chestnut oaks ; within two years, the black, red, and the pin oaks. The oak is peculiarly subject to the attacks of insects. Several different species produce on them various galls, or large swollen masses, caused by irri- tation of the plant tissue, and in the centres of which are the eggs of the gall insect. From a tincture made from boiling certain kinds of these, on the addition of copperas, ink is made. The Beech: The bark of the beech, a fa- vorite subject with painters, is a smooth bluish gray, sprinkled with round ash-colored spots. The tree often retains its yel- low withered leaf all Avinter. Beech. These facts, combined with its peculiar bowl shape, especially marked in the 216 NATURE STUDY young tree, and the long, spindle-shaped pointed buds, make it easily recognizable even in Avinter. The Copper Beech, closely related, if not identical, to our own, made up those Birnam woods, whose approach was to foretell the death of Macbeth. The Chestnut has been already fully described. See pp. 71-73. Buttonwood. leaf and ball. The Buttonwood or Sfcamore (Platanus Occidentalis) : This is the largest and loftiest of all our native trees. Its broad spreading branches and large leaves form a APRIL 217 dense foliage for which it is chiefly esteemed, no part of it being of any particular commercial value. Xo tree is easier to identify. Its leaves, bark, flowers, fruits, all are characteristic. In spring the new shoots and leaves are covered with a copious down, which is gradually shed during the first season, except from the under side of the leaves and at the joints of the stem. The pistillate flowers make a globular ball, five-eighths of an inch in diameter. This afterwards forms the but- ton-ball, or fruit cluster, which often swings on the tree by its long slender stem the greater part of the winter. The stamiuate flowers are on a slender thread, one or two inches in length. The brown gray bark of the buttonwood peels off each year in thin, broad, brittle pieces, showing the light buff, fresh bark beneath. The sycamores, still standing, celebrated by Whittier in his poem of that name, were planted by the ]\[errimac, where now stands the town of Haverhill, nearly a hun- dred and twenty years ago. Under their shade passed Washington in his triumphal journey to the Xorth in 1789, and it was underneath them that AMiittier planned out his poem of Skipper Ireson's Ride. The Oriental Sycamore, often planted in our parks and closely resembling the buttonwood, was a great favorite with all European nations ; from the Greeks and the Romans, who are said to have nourished it with pure wine, to the Italians, Spaniards, and French, who, in early times, were compelled to pay for the pri^'ilege of sitting beneath its shade. It is said that the famous general, Xerxes, was so delighted with a beautiful tree of this kind that grew in 218 NATURE STUDY Asia Minor that he camped a huge army of a hundred and seventy thousand soldiers under its shade, and there kept them day after day. When finally he could remain no longer, he deco- rated it with neck- laces, collars of gold, and jewels, leaving some of his soldiers in charge of it. These are the trees, too, which the Greeks planted in groves round their schools striped Maple, and academies. The Maples : This is a most important family of trees, giving us not only magnifi- cent shade in sum- mer, and the distinc- tive beauty of our autumn woods, but also a large variety of useful products, including sugar and timber. The wood is used for fuel and in manufacture, be- ing both durable and wonderfully beautiful. The commonest of the maples* are the Silver or white Maple. * In the Middle Atlantic States. APRIL . 219 Striped Maple (Acer Pennsylvanicum), easily distinguished from the others by its vertically striped bark, and large, thin, three-pointed, double-toothed leaf ; the Silver Maple (A. dasycarpiim), with the under side of its five-lobed leaf Norway Maple. distinctly silver white, and its almost weeping branches; the Red Maple (^.4. rubruni), with its red flowers, its red- dish branches, and the bright dark red of its young twigs ; the Norway Maple (A. j)Jatanoides), with its beautiful green flowers, coming from exquisitely colored buds. 220 NATURE STUDY green, delicately lined with bronze, a leaf somewhat re- sembling that of the sngar maple, and frnit with widely divergent wings; the sycamore ma- ple (A. pseudo- plataims), called in England the sycamore, with its green incon- spicuous flowers, oddly winged fruit, and rather sycamore-like leaf. The Sugar or Kock Maple {A. saccliarinum) deserves a paragraph to itself. Its wood is very hard, and extensively used in cabinet work. The most beautiful form which it takes, called, from obvious resem- blances, bird's-eye mar pie and curly maple, is caused by rather rare Red Maple. conditions, in which the wood vessels become twisted or deflected from their naturally straight course. APRIL 221 The sugar maple should not be tapped before it is twenty-iive years old, but the process may be repeated annually without apparent injury to the tree. Open winters are supposed to make the sweetest sugar, and much freezing and thawing to be necessary to the abun- dant production of its best quality. The sap season con- sular Maple. tinues for six weeks, but in this time there may not be more than fifteen really good sap days. These are clear bright days, with a westerly wind and frosty nights. The farmer taps the tree with a three-quarter-inch auger, and into the hole thus made puts an iron or wooden spout, from which is suspended the pail. This receives the sweet sap, which flows at the rate of about seventy drops per minute when it runs most rapidly. The usual amount of sap given by a tree in a season is twenty-five gallons, which yields about five pounds of sugar. Formerl}', the sap was boiled in long pans over a bricked-in log fire, but nowadays it is put in one end of a patent evapo- rating machine as sap, and comes out at the other as syrup. 222 NATURE STUDY AiLANTHus (Ailanthus glandulosus) : The only objection to this tree is the fact that the staminate flowers which appear in June are offensive in their odor. There is, unfortunately, no way of telling whether a tree will bear stamens or pistils until it has grown up. It is said that of a large lot of trees from Ailanthus, branch, under side of leaf showing the glands of the leaflets. the same stock, planted at the same time, those in Kew York turned to be pistillate, while in Philadelphia all of the trees bore the ill-smelling sterile flowers. It is a rapidly growing, easily' propagated, graceful tree with pinkish or pale-green winged seeds. In China it is called the Tree of Heaven. The handsome ailanthus still stand- ing in Bartram's Gardens, Philadelphia, was planted in 1809 from a sucker of the first tree brought into this countrj^. APRIL 223 Locusts : The Common Locust {Robina Pseudacacia) and the Honey Locust (Gleditschia triacanthos) are frequently found, even in city streets. The "wood of the locust has considerable commercial value. The heart of the tree is liable to the attacks of insects so that it is very seldom that one sees a tree without a dead or dying limb, although the leaves seem to be singu- larly exempt from dis- eases of all kinds. As the structure of the fragrant, beautifid flowers and of the fruit plainly shows, the lo- custs belong to the Legu- minosae, or Pea family. The honey locust is so called from the greenish yellow sweet pulp which fills the space in the pods between the seeds. This is much relished by chil- dren, who, however, wait until the fruit drops, not ven- turing to climb a tree so well protected with its numerous clusters of triple thorns. The seeds are very hard, brown, and shiny. Children call them " burning stones," rubbing them to make them hot. The leaves are bipinnately compound, but it is not unusual to find every transition back to the parent type of a once pinnately compound leaf. Locust, leaf and flower clusters. 224 NATURE STUDY nate leaves; fruits whose covering is used for dyeing and whose sweet and wholesome kernel abounds in oil. Their wood is very- valuable. The Ash is sec- ond in the value of its timber only to the oak, which it resembles in the grain of its The tree itself is very large and much handsomer than the common locust. The Walnuts a.nd Hickories : These trees are closely related, bo- tanically and eco- nomically. Both are lofty timber trees, with aromat- ic, compound-pin- Shagbark Hickory APRIL 225 wood. The fruits are particularly interesting from their modifications for wind distribution. Horse-chestnuts and Buckeyes : Many of the details of the horse-chestnut have been given under the buds in the previous chapter. In general the buckeyes may be distinguished from the horse-chestnut by the fact that their leaves have only five leaflets, instead of seven, and are much less woolly in the bud. The names, Hyacinth Tree and Giant's Nosegay, very well express its stately and beautiful effect in the spring, when its erect clus- ters of flowers bloom forth from their dark green ground, like burning lamps on a huge chandelier. In London, the blooming of the horse-chestnut is an- nounced in the papers, and crowds of people go out to Bushey Park, Hampton Court (Wolsey's old palace), to see its avenues of mag- nificent trees. Very few of the flowers ripen into fruit, which is a large prickly ball of green. It splits open into three chambers, each of which should contain a seed; but as in the case of the sweet chestnut, often one or two of- them grow at the expense of the others. Q Black Ash. 226 NATUliE STUDY Method : The best way to study the trees is, without doubt, by making numerous short excursions, for which the chil- dren have been prepared, and to which they go armed ->■, i&? Horse-chestnut. to lectioo of teail with note-books and pencils to search for definite infor- mation. Usually I have drawn or shown the leaf, teaching its name. • Then after showing the children the importance of indicating correctly the height of the tree, the height APRIL 227 of its trunk above ground, and its general outline, I sent them out to draw the tree as a whole. I also required them to make a note, at the same time, of the color and character of the bark, and any other distinctive features. These points were then discussed in school, and later, drawings made of the leaves, or flowers, or sometimes of branches. These may be gathered fresh each year, as indicated below, or better still, the first supply may be pressed, mounted on cards, and used year after year. The secret of pressing so as to preserve the color is to choose young leaves in June, or earlier, and to dry them rapidly by changing the driers, or newspapers, every day, or oftener for the first few days. To mount them securely, use plenty of fish-glue, press- ing each part carefully down. After studying a number of trees, the children may make a plan of the locality, marking the names of the various trees there found, labelling each by drawing below it the leaf. A reproduction of one of these plans just as it was handed in by the pupil will be found in the Appendix. In addition to the numerous excursions, the talks on the uses of the trees, and the drawing lessons, the teacher may also make use of the language and literature lessons, to serve not only their own purposes, but also to make each tree a living reality to the child. For the benefit of those who think that they cannot manage the excursions, I submit the following plan : Gather four or five times as many leaves as there are children, sprinkle them slightly, roll them up in a strij) of old cotton or other thin cloth, and place them in a tight tin box, or covered jar. For the first lesson direct their observation by asking 228 NATURE STUDY questions which they must answer silently, such as the following: How many parts are there? What is the color of each part ? Describe with one word the surface. Turn the leaf over ; what do you observe with reference to the color and the surface of the under side ? Look at the margin of the leaf. Make a drawing of the upper and also of the lower surface, indicating with words anything additional you may have observed. Collect drawings. For the second lesson, place on the board outline draw- ings of the leaf studied. Teach the terms " blade," " leaf stalk," "veins." Erase drawings and words, give out fresh leaves, and conduct an oral language lesson on the points to which their observation was directed the first day. Have them taste the leaf, first the stalk, then the blade. Ask if it has any odor. If not, let them suggest that crushing and bruising will bring out whatever perfume it may have. Guard them against the rather dangerous practice of tasting everything within reach. Give out paper. Ask them to make other drawings, naming the parts, adding to it in words whatever they cannot show with the pencil. After- wards allow them to compare the first work with the second. Give to each child a small note-book. These may be purchased in quantities for a cent each. To each at- tach securely a pencil. On the first page let each make a map of the route from his home to the school. Give to each child another leaf, and ask him to put in his plan every tree bearing these leaves which he sees on the way home. Send him a second time, to find out which of these is the most beautiful, and why. Let this be his tree, and let him gradually learn all that he can APRIL 229 about it: its height, breadth, and general shape; the height above the ground at which it begins to branch ; the direction taken by the branches; the bark; the arrange- ment of the branches, the arrangement of the leaves, the buds, and, if possible, the flower, fruit, and wood. •LITERATURE Myths and Stories : Apollo and Daphne. Baucis and Philemon. Pan and Apollo. The Vine and the Oak, Emerson's Indian Myths. Old Piper and the Piper of the Dryad, Frank Stockton. The Walnut Tree that Wanted to Bear Tulips, Wiltse's Stories. Last Dream of the Old Oak, Andersen. Legend of the Poplar, Marah Pratt's Fairy Land of Flowers. Oak and the Ivy, Eugene Field. Poems : The Birch Tree, The Oak, The Beggar, \ Lowell. Rhoecus, The Maple, Hiawatha's Canoe, Longfellow. Planting of the Apple Tree, i „ -n- ^xi > Bryant. lorest Hymn, J The Tree, Bjornsen. The Tree, Jones Very. The Early Spring Flowers : Of these, the following, all of which may be easily obtained, even in the city, should certainly be taught in every classroom : Spring Beauty (Claytonia Vircjinica), the Trailing Ar- butus {Epigcea repens), the Common Blue Violet (Viola 230 NATURE STUDY cHcullata), the Quaker Lady (Houstonia ccerulea), and the Cherry Blossom. If it is possible to get the material, the children should know, at least by name, the hepatica, bloodroot, the anemones, and the dogtooth violet. The Spring Beauty : This, like all of the other early spring flowers, has nourishment ready to be turned into available food, just as soon as a little warm rain furnishes a first cause and means. In this case the starch is stored in a small, deep tuber from which comes the root. The number and peculiarities of the leaves, the structure of the flowers, and of the flower clusters are easily made out. The stamens ripen before the pistils, so that we do not find the stigma three cleft until the stamens have discharged their pollen. Tliis means, of course, that the ovules must be fertil- ized by pollen from other flow- ers. It received its botanical name {Claytonia Virginica) from John Clayton, who established in Virginia the first botanical garden in America. To the same family belong portulacca and the pusley, hated by the gardeners because of the trouble that it gives in weeding it out. Spring Beauty. APRIL 231 Trailing Arbutus : The fragrance of the flower at once betrays both to the insect and the botanist the store of honey within. The inside of tlie corolla is densely covered with fine, soft hairs, which serve to close its tube, perhaps from the rain that would dilute the honey, or, perhaps, from unwelcome visitors who would pilfer from the flower its sweets, giving nothing in return. On examining a number of different clusters, it will be noticed that the smaller, less widely opened flowers are the only ones which have the five long branches to the stigma which make it look like a little star, and that in these flowers the stamens are apt to be short and without anthers. In the flowers in which the stigmas are short the stamens are well developed. This looks as if the floAvers were actually becoming unisexual, since, if it continues on the road on which it has plainly started, there will, eventually, be flowers with pistils only, and other flowers with only stamens. It is one of the plants which has never been success- fully transplanted. For this reason botanists have tried, but failed, to find a trace of parasitic root connection. It belongs to the Heath family, in which are also found the azalea, rhododendron, blueberry, huckleberry, winter- green, and mountain laurel. Common Blue Violet : The flowers of the violet have all of them something of the same markings that are to be found in their cultivated cousin, the pansy. These all lead to the spur, and are followed by insects in search of honey. But there is very little nectar in the early violet, although it is quite abundant in the pansy. The appendages of the two lower stamens project into ■232 NATURE STUDY the spur, and secrete the honey. In getting at this, the bee thrusts the anthers apart. These, thereupon, deposit on him some of their pollen. This cannot be left on the pistil, because of the liiJ (which will be evident to any one who examines it carefully), but it is left in the stigmatic cavity of the next flower to which it goes. Uiikijrsgnil llii«e( Common Blue Violet. Strange to say, the greater portion of the good seed of the violet is not produced in the flowers thus elaborately cross-fertilized, but in underground flowers, which look like small green bud.s, and which never open. APRIL 233 the four stamens are much more evident. Quaker ladies, in truth, are the first, wliile the latter might be called Quakei Quaker Ladies : These pretty little flowers, also called bluets, innocence, blue-eyed babies, bright eyes, are always great favorites with children. It will be noticed that the larger flowers have in the cup an obviously two-branched stigma, while in the smaller flower „ W (^ &\ kei- <*- 1 f Marcaret E. .Sangster, in Little Lords and Chad and the Bird, \ ^ o ' t- Ladies. Robin Redbreast, Allinghaui. Add to page 109 : Little People of the Snow, Bryant. A Story for Wee Willie Winkle | Wiltse's Stories for Kinder- (North Wind and Frost), J gartens. The Snowflake, Margaret E. Sangster, in Little Lords and Ladies. Snow Flake, 1 Snow Song, |- F. D. Sherman, in Little Folks' Lyrics. Snow Weaver, J Add to page 116 : Christmas, ) Margaret E. Sangster, in Easter Bells. Holly and Pine, > Of All Dear Days, Nora Perry, in After the Ball. Add to page 128 : Fish or Frogs, Wiltse's Stories for Kindergartens. The Housekeeper (The Snail), Charles Lamb. Add to page 158 : Leak in the Dyke, Phoebe Cary. Dew Bells, Edith Thomas, in 0 Fair Shadow Land. Wizard Frost, The Juggler, A Fairy Story, j- F. D. Sherman, in Little Folks' Lyrics. Fairy Jewels, A Dewdrop, The River, Caroline B. Southey. 266 NATURE STUDY Add to page 175 : March Crocuses, Phoebe Gary. Snowdrop, Edith Thomas, in Lyrics and Sonnets. Add to page 184: Hernard Palissy, \ ^yi|tgg,j, stories for Kindergartens Grandma Kaoline, > Add to page 193 : Garl and the Earthworm, Wiltse's Stories for Kindergartens. Robin's Apology, ) ^ ^ Sherman, in Little Folks' Lyrics. In the Orchard, J Add to page 229 : The Birch Tree, Susan Goolidge. The Birch Tree, Edith Tliomas, in New Year's Masque. Dovecote Mill (Sugar Making), Phoebe Gary. Add to page 235 : Legend of the Gowslip, Wiltse's Stories for Kindergartens. Snowdrop, | ^^^^^^^ Goolidge, in Songs and Lyrics. Anemone, i Snowdrops and Grocus, | Margaret E. Sangster, in Easter Bells. Violets, ) The Violet, Herrick. Add to page 253 : What are Dandelions ? Wiltse's Stories for Kindergartens. Blossom Snow (Apple), Mr.s. Dodge, in Verses Along the Way. Apple Blossoms, / Edith Thomas, in New Charge to the Bees (Apple Blossoms), I Year's Masque. Apple Blossoms, Nora Perry, in After the Ball. Daisies, | y ^ Sherman, in Little Folks' Lyrics. Cherries, ) Daisies, Mary E. Blake, Verses Along the AVay. INDEX Academies (Greek groves), 218. Acorns, 212. Agate, 180. Ailantluis, 77, 79, 222. Amethyst, 180. Anemone, 230. Animals, ;iS-(;0, 80-83, 99-101, IKi- 128, 144-152, 164-167, 184-192: books on, 2 ; literature for, 60, 61, 83, 84, 101, 128, 152, 167, 193. 194. Apollo, 11, 63. Apple, 76, 241-243. April, literature for, 195. Aquarium, 116-119. Arbor Vita?, 113. Arbutus, 229, 231. Arthur's Round Table, 214. Ash, 77, 79, 224. Aspen, 206, 209. Aster, 29. Auriga, 104. Autumn, literature for, 62. Azalea, 231. Balsam fir, 113. Barley, 17(j. Bartram's Gardens, 222. Basswood, 199-201. Beaks of birds, 145, 147. Beans, 136, 137. Bee, honey, 55-58, 236 : humble, 55, 247. Beech trees, 215, 216. Beech, copper, 216. Beetle, potato, 48; ground, 39, 48. Beetles, 48-50, 236. Beggars' lice, 77. Berlin, 200. Birch bark, 204, 205. Birch, black, 205, 206; canoe, 203- 205 : cherry, 205, 206 ; cut-leaved, 203 ; white, 203, 204. Birches, 20.3-205. Birds, 144-152, 164-167, 186-192; literature for, 83, 84, 152, 167. Birnam Woods, 216. Blackberry, 245. Blackbird", 189, 190. Bloodroot, 230, 234. Blueberry, 231. Bluebird, 187. Bluet, 233. Boiling, 131-133. Bones, 149, 150. Breathing of plants, 159-161. Browning, 201. Brownstone, 255. Buckeye, 225. Buckwheat family, 249. Buds, 94, 95, 169-175, 199. Bulbs, 96-98. Burdock, 76. " Burning stones," 223. Bushey Park, 225. Butter and eggs, 32, 33. Buttercups, 245. Buttertiies, 50-53, 236. Buttouwood, 216-218. 267 268 NATURE STUDY Cabbage butterfly, 51. Cages for animals, 100, 101. Calla, 247. Calyx, 18, 19, 34. Canoe, birch bark, 205. Capella, 104. Carbon dioxide, 159-l(il. 254. Carnelian, ISO. Carrot, wild, 18, 32. Cassiopeia, 103. " Castings," 185, 18C, 1!)1, 192. Catalpa, 258. Caterpillars, 38, 60, (il, 237. Cecropia cocoon, 236. Cercus of an insect, 40, 41. Chalcedony, 180. Chalk, 255. Charter Oak, 212. Cherry, 172. Chestnut trees, 71-74 ; grub, 73, 74. Chicadee, 1(!4. Chick weed, 249. Chicory, 18, 27, 28, 38. Christmas, literature for, 102, 103. Cicada, 47, 48. Clay, 178, 183. Clayton, John, 2.30. Clouds, 11, 13, 14, 16, 1.52, 153, 1.56; literature for, 15, 18. Clover, red, 24(J, 247; white, 247; sweet, 30. Clytie, 63. Cocoons, 236. Codliu moth, 76. Color study, 9 ; protective, 22, 23. Composites, 25, 27-32, 239, 240. Condensation, 131-133. Conglomerate, 255. Coquina, 255. Corn, germination of, 135, 1.36. Corolla, IS, 19, 34. Cottonwood (North Carolina Pop- lar), 200-208. Cotyledon, 13(i. Crickets, 39, 45, 60, 61. Crow, 144-146. Crowfoot family, 245. Crystallization, 157. Crystal rock, 180. Daisy, 240. Dandelion, 2.38-241. December, literature ou, 102, Dew, 1.55, 157, 158. Diana, 88. Dicotyledon, 1.36- Dipper, Great, 103, 104 ; Little, 104. Disk flowers, 27, 31. Dogtooth violet, 230, 234. Dragon, 103. Dragonfly, 45^7, 60, 61. Drawing, 9, 24. Duck, bill of, 149; eider, 151. Ear of locust, 41. Earth sciences, book on, 2. Earthworm, 18-^-186, 191, 192. Egg filacer of insect, 41, 44, 45. Eider duck, 51. Elm, 201-203. Endymion, 89. Euripides, 201. Evaporation, 131-1.33. Excursions, 7, 13, 15, 22, 25. Eyes of insects, 40. " Eyestones," 126. Feathers, 150-152. February, literature for, 153. Feet (birds') , 146-149. Feldspar, 180, 183, 197, 198. Fern, 19, 36, 37, 38. Fertilization in plants, 21, 22, 23, 31, 32, 34, 35. Filament, 19. Fir, balsam, 113. Firefly, 50. Fish food, 118, 119. Fish, gold, 117, 122, Fivefinger, 245. Flies, 58, 59. Flint, 180. Flowers, autumn, 18-35; literature for, 37, 235, 253; spring, 229-235. INDEX 2G9 Food of plants, 15!), IGl, l9, 70, 71, 85, 89-94, 107-109, 129-133, 15.3-15S, 168, 1(J9; literature for, 17, is, 63, (;9, 109, 158: records, 70, 71. 90, 92, 107, 108, 129, 131 ; vane, 16. Whittier, 217. Wild carrot, 18. Willow buds, 174, 175. Willow trees, black, 209; crack. 210; goat, 209, 211 ; heartleaved, 210; long-beaked, 210; Kilmar- nock, 211; weeping, 209; white, 210. Wind, 10-13, 15, 16; literature for, 14, 15, 17, 18. Wing pads, 41, 42. Wings, 40, 41. Winter, 102; literature for, 102. Wintergreen, 231. Wolsey, Cardinal, 225. Woodpecker, 147. Worm, earth, 184-186, 191, 192. Wren, winter, 165. Xerxes, 217. Yule log, 214. / 5909 This book is DUE on the last date stamped below OCT 2 6 1931 iMUV 1 9 1931 JUN 8 193^ FEB 17 1933 JUU 1 9 1933 Form L-9-35m-8 '28 UCLA-Young Research Ubrary LB1532 .W69 y L 009 619 375 0 i y^mrr:^!- ^r^v^y of CALIFORNI/ AT LOS ANGELES ::.C£- *'**''ljil