Neanderthal (Mousterian) Man

BY

OLIVER C. FARRINGTON

Curator of Geology

and

HENRY FIELD
Assistant Curator of Physical Anthropology

^V of *<$>,

r/ST NATURAL X-j

^ HISTOR.Y £

FOUNDED BY MARSHALL FIELD ,

Geology
Leaflet 11

FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY
CHICAGO

1929

LIST OF GEOLOGICAL LEAFLETS ISSUED TO DATE

Model of an Arizona Gold Mine (Nichols) . . $ .10
Models of Blast Furnaces for Smelting

Iron (Nichols) 10

Amber — Its Physical Properties and

Geological Occurrence (Farrington) . . .10

Meteorites (Farrington) 10

Soils (Nichols) 10

The Moon (Farrington) 10

Early Geological History of Chicago (Nichols) .25

Agate (Farrington and Laufer) 50

How old are Fossils? (Roy) 25

Famous Diamonds (Farrington) 25

Neanderthal (Mousterian) Man

(Farrington and Field) 25

STEPHEN C. SIMMS, Director

FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY
CHICAGO, U.S.A.

No.

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Field Museum of Natural History

DEPARTMENT OF GEOLOGY
Chicago, 1929

Leaflet Number 11
Copyright 1929 by Field Museum of Natural History

Neanderthal (Mousterian) Man

The earliest type of man of which complete skeletons
have been found is that known as Neanderthal or Mouster-
ian man. Men of this race lived chiefly in western Europe
and survived there through a period perhaps as much as
100,000 years in duration.

The first skeletal remains of this race were found in
1856 in a little valley in Germany known as the Neander-
thal. In 1908 a complete skeleton was found at Le
Moustier, France. From these two type localities the
names given the race and their artifacts have been derived,
the human remains being generally regarded as belonging
to a separate species of man, to which has been given the
name Homo neanderthalensis, while the cultural objects
are classified as Mousterian. The type skull found at
Neanderthal was only a skull cap or calvarium, but it
showed the peculiar characters of prominent supraorbital
ridges and low, receding forehead which were found later
to mark the race as a whole. Associated near by were
bones of the rhinoceros and cave bear of Europe the
species of which had become extinct long before historic
times.

The exact interpretation of the human skull was for
a long time a matter of dispute, some authorities regarding
it as that of an abnormal individual of an existing race
of man, while others believed it to be that of a primitive
man of a stage intermediate between man and the anthro-
poid apes.

[181]

2 Field Museum of Natural History

Since the first find, remains of a large number of
members of this race have been discovered in various local-
ities and their racial characteristics have become well esta-
blished. The distinctive features of their culture are also
now well known. Many of the most important discoveries
of the remains of these people have been made in south-
western France, where a widely distributed, cavernous
limestone gave them shelter. At Le Moustier, in France,
the first find indicating the existence of early man was
made in 1863 by Messrs Lartet and Christy. This
consisted of various worked flints. Later, in 1908, at a
depth of five feet below the floor of the cave, a human
skeleton was found, accompanied by flint artifacts of the
Mousterian period. As described by Sir Arthur Keith in
his book, "Antiquity of Man": —

"Further excavation was stopped until the autumn,
when surrounded by a company of German anthropolo-
gists, in the heart of France, the skeleton was finally
extracted from its ancient bed, with expert eyes looking
on to bear witness to its authenticity and antiquity. The
skeleton was that of a lad of perhaps sixteen years of age;
his canine teeth and third molars were not fully erupted;
the growth lines of the long bones were unclosed. There
could be no question: he had been deliberately buried.
Near his right hand was a hand-axe of the Acheulean
culture, but typical implements of the Mousterian period
were near by. Charred remains of the ancient ox — the
urus — were noted. The body had been laid on its right
side, with the face turned down, and a pillow of stones
placed under the head."1'

On August 3, 1908, in a rock shelter near La Chapelle-
aux-Saints, a few miles east of Le Moustier, the most
complete skeleton of this type of man that had been dis-
covered up to that time was unearthed by the Abb£s

xThis skeleton was later purchased from Dr. 0. Hauser by the
Museum of Ethnology in Berlin for the sum of 125,000 francs.

[182]

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Neanderthal (Mousterian) Man 3

Bouyssonie and Bardon. The skeletal parts found included
a remarkably well-preserved skull, almost the entire back-
bone, twenty ribs, bones of the arm and part of the leg and
many bones of the hands and feet. This individual was
evidently a male, between fifty and fifty-five years of age
and his burial had without a doubt been of a ceremonial
nature. Associated with the skeleton in such a way as to
leave no doubt that they were contemporaneous, were
chipped flint points and scrapers of typical Mousterian
technique.

In the following year at La Ferrassie, France, another
skeleton which proved to be Neanderthaloid was dis-
covered by M. Peyrony. This skeleton was removed
with accurate recording of the data by Peyrony and his
scientific collaborators and in the following year another
skeleton was found in the same cave. Since the bones of
the second skeleton showed fewer traces of muscularity
and were smaller, it was considered to have been that of
a female.

Besides these places, many others in which bodily
remains of Neanderthal man were found have been
located. These localities are distributed widely over
western Europe. The more important are shown on the
accompanying map, PL VIII. Implements of Mousterian
type, the type attributed to this race, have a far wider
range of distribution. They have been found in Britain,
France, Spain, Gibraltar, Italy, Germany, Moravia,
Russian Poland, Croatia, the Crimea, Asia Minor, North
Africa, Palestine, Syria, North Arabian Desert, Iraq and
China.

From the skeletons of this race which have been found
it is now possible to form a definite idea of the general
appearance of its individuals. They were short in stature,
the average height of males rarely exceeding 5 ft. 4 in.
They were thick-set in build, with large heads and short

[183 1

4 Field Museum of Natural History

limbs. The concave curvature of the back was continued
in that of the neck so that the head and shoulders were
habitually bent forward. It was impossible for them to
stand fully erect. The knees, also, on account of the shape
of the thigh bones, were continually bent forward and
could not be straightened. Heavy, overhanging brows
were a dominant feature, as were also low foreheads, long
upper lips and receding chins. The teeth and jaws were
extraordinarily massive, corresponding with the general
massiveness of the skull. The nasal apertures were broad
and flat. The low forehead reduced the space for the
development of the frontal lobes of the brain; but this
reduction in size was compensated by the protrusion of
the occipital region at the base of the skull. In size their
brain was surely human, but, as is well known, cranial
capacity alone is no criterion of intelligence. According
to Boule and Anthony the brain of Neanderthal man had
many primitive characteristics. Thus the pre-frontal
area, which is the seat of the higher faculties, is not fully
developed in Neanderthal man and has a protuberance
as in the brain of the anthropoids. Also, the lobe associated
with the power of speech is but little developed as com-
pared with that in modern man. The hands of the Nean-
derthalers were large and their thumbs lacked the power of
opposition against the fingers. The feet were also large
and the great toe offset to some extent as in anthropoids.
The foot, moreover, had but little heel as compared with
that of modern Europeans, the calcaneum being but little
developed.

The Hall of Historical Geology of the Museum, desig-
nated, in honor of its chief patron, as Ernest R. Graham
Hall, is devoted to exhibits illustrating in chronological
order, the life of the earth in successive periods of the
earth's history. The exhibits consist chiefly of the fossil
remains on which our knowledge of the ancient plants and
animals is based, but in order to further vivify the creatures

[184]

LEAFLET 11

RESTORATION OF A NEANDERTHAL MAN
From the group by Frederick Blaschke in Ernest R. Graham Hall

Neanderthal (Mousterian) Man 5

of earlier days, several groups reproducing their bodily
forms have been or are being prepared. For that repre-
senting Man, Neanderthal man was chosen, since this is the
earliest human type of which complete skeletons are
known. The work of designing and modeling this group
was intrusted to the able sculptor, Frederick Blaschke of
Cold Spring-on-Hudson, New York. A small-size model of
a group was first constructed. This model consisted of a
reproduction of one of the caves or rock shelters inhabited
by Neanderthal man and near or within it, an adult
male figure bearing some trophy of the chase and two
female figures, one of them carrying a child.

After completing the sketch model, Mr. Blaschke and
the junior author went to Europe in order to observe the
known skeletons and other remains of Neanderthal man
preserved there and to visit some of the caves or rock
shelters known to have been inhabited by him. Messrs.
Blaschke and Field first visited London, where they
enlisted the cooperation of the celebrated anatomists
Professor Sir Arthur Keith, President of the Royal College
of Surgeons and Professor G. Elliot Smith of University
College. These distinguished authorities were most
generous in their advice and suggestions, and Mr. Blaschke
made small scale models of a prehistoric man and woman
under their personal supervision. Sir Arthur Keith's
interest was so engaged that he personally supervised a
reconstruction of the adult female Neanderthal (Mouster-
ian) skull which had been found at Forbes Quarry,
Gibraltar, in 1848, the original specimen of which is in
the collection of the Royal College of Surgeons. A cast
of this skull was obtained through the courtesy of the
British Museum and over this Sir Arthur Keith directed
Mr. Blaschke's moulding of clay to represent the flesh
and skin, while the original specimen lay before them.
In this manner modelling of a head proceeded slowly and
carefully until at the end of several days the details of

[186]

6 Field Museum of Natural History

the skin, nose, ears and other fleshy parts had been
completed. Sir Arthur Keith, furthermore, directed the
modelling of a one-fifth life-size scale model of a male
figure, and laid particular emphasis on many important
points which were to be taken into account.

Professor Elliot Smith made several suggestions with
regard to the angle of the head in relation to the vertebral
column. He also remarked that in Neanderthal man the
angle of the big toe in relation to the rest of the foot was
much more accentuated than in modern man (Homo
sapiens).

In France Mr. Blaschke discussed his work from time
to time with the Abbe- Henri Breuil, Professor at the
Institute of Human Paleontology, Paris, probably the
greatest living expert on prehistoric man. Professor Breuil
remained with the Field Museum1 expedition nearly two
months and rendered invaluable services. The Museum
representatives, accompanied by the Abbe" Breuil and an
artist and photographer, then proceeded to the rock
shelter of Le Moustier (see map) in the Dordogne region
of southwestern France.

While at Le Moustier Mr. Blaschke made a small
scale model of the uppermost rock-shelter and the artist
prepared color sketches to assist in reproducing the land-
scape. The photographer took a number of both still
and motion pictures under Mr. Blaschke's direction. A
quantity of flint chips and floor debris from the once
inhabited rock-shelter were collected, also several blocks
of stone from the shelter to serve as patterns for the color
and texture of the cave. The Museum party then visited
many other caves of the Dordogne region in company
with the Abbe" Breuil in order to absorb as much as possible
of the prehistoric atmosphere, and to hear the Abbe*
reconstruct in vivid terms the life of the prehistoric hunters

Captain Marshall Field Archaeological Expedition to western
Europe— 1927-1928.

[186]

LEAFLET 11

PLATE III

RESTORATION OF A NEANDERTHAL MAN IN PROFILE
From the group by Frederick Blaschko in Ernest R. Graham Hall

Neanderthal (Mousterian) Man 7

and artists who had roamed over that region many-
thousands of years ago.

Altogether, the party obtained not only casts of the
various excavated Neanderthal (Mousterian) skeletons,
but examined all the important literature on the subject
and had the personal direction and supervision of the most
famous anatomical experts on prehistoric man in the
world.

In October 1927, Mr. Blaschke returned to his studio
at Cold Spring-on-Hudson, New York, to execute the
life-size models for the group.

The head of the male figure he modelled over a cast
of the La Chapelle-aux-Saints skull, while for the details
of the body he followed the lines suggested by the Euro-
pean anatomists. The calvarium of the Neanderthal
(Mousterian) child from Devil's Tower, Gibraltar, exca-
vated by Miss Dorothy Garrod in a fragmentary condition
in 1926, was used as the basis of the reconstruction of the
child. The original calvarium was restored at Oxford by
Mr. L. H. Dudley Buxton. Field Museum acquired a
cast of this specimen through the courtesy of Professor
Arthur Thomson of the University Museum, Oxford.

Other casts of Neanderthalers skeletal remains were
carefully examined and measurements from them were
used in making the figures. As to anatomical details
therefore, it is believed that a remarkably accurate recon-
struction of several different individuals such as would
form a Neanderthal family has been made. Unfortunately
for the completion of the restorations there are no data
from which information as to the type, quality, and
quantity of the hairy covering of the heads and bodies of
people of this race could be obtained. Inasmuch, however,
as the primitive men of Australia have several Neander-
thaloid characters, including heavy brow ridges, it was
decided to follow their hirsute type.

[187]

8 Field Museum of Natural History

In the group exhibited at the Museum, a portion of
the rock shelter inhabited by people of the Neanderthal
race at Le Moustier has been reproduced in full size.
The scenery about the cave is represented by a painted
background showing the valley of the Vezere river as
seen from the vicinity of the cave. The scene is based
on sketches made at the locality with such modifications
as the climate of the glacial period might have produced.
The flow of water from melting glaciers is represented
as having raised the river above its height at the present
day. Beyond the river patches of snow on the hills and
scrubby vegetation indicate a sub-arctic climate. The
surface of the hills is broken by escarpments which are
changed little in outline from those of the present day.
A small herd of reindeer is represented as feeding in the
vicinity. The man of the family is shown just returned
from a successful hunt. A reindeer which he has slain
with a stone axe is lying at his feet. Emerging from an
inner portion of the cave, one of the women of the family
is seen with a baby in her arms. A small fire of burning
sticks occupies a central place in the shelter. Beside it
an older woman is cleaning meat and fat from a reindeer
skin with a stone scraper and near her a boy of about
ten years of age is gnawing on a bone. Flint chips from
the locality and undoubtedly made by the occupants of
the cave thousands of years ago, are strewn about on
the floor. The environment of the cave shows some of
the reasons for its choice as a shelter, since it was near
water and sufficiently elevated to give a good view of
the surrounding country. Over the neighboring hills, too,
roamed animals available for food. The flint associated
with the limestone of the region also furnished excellent
material for stone implements.

The determination of the period at which Neanderthal
man lived is gained chiefly from two lines of evidence —
one the nature and location of the deposits in which his

[188]

Neanderthal (Mousterian) Man 9

remains occur and the other the species of animals in
connection with which his remains are found. From a
study of these it has been learned beyond doubt that it
was during the Great Ice Age that Neanderthal man
inhabited Europe and that of the four great glacial
advances and retreats which characterized this Age, he
chiefly existed during the time after the Third or Rissian
and through that of the Fourth or Wurmian, (the last
great glaciation).

Beginning with the earliest, the four periods of advance
of the continental glacier in Europe are known as the
Gunz, Mindel, Riss and Wiirm. The two latter are
cotemporaneous respectively with what are known as the
Illinoisan and Wisconsin stages in North America. Two
occurrences of human remains may be mentioned as
showing unmistakably the connection of Man with the
Third Interglacial and Fourth Glacial periods. The first
occurrence is that at the cave of Bouicheta, Ariege, France,
where drift known to be of the Third or Rissian glacier
age is deposited. Superimposed upon this deposit, imple-
ments of Neanderthal man have been found, indicating
that his occupancy was later than the Third or Rissian
glaciation. The second is the finding of Neanderthal
man remains in the cave of Cotencher in Switzerland.
This cave is about 2,000 feet below the height reached
by the ice of the Fourth or Wurmian glacier and a mile
within its moraines. It could not have been occupied by
man during the later epoch because the cave was then
filled with ice; hence it must have been earlier, in the
epoch preceding the last glaciation.

The remains of animals found in connection with those
of Neanderthal man include the mammoth, bison, rein-
deer, wild horse and cave bear. These sufficiently indicate
a cold climate. There were also among smaller animals
the Arctic fox and hare and the northern banded lemming.
Not only did Arctic birds and mammals follow the glacia-

[189]

10 Field Museum of Natural History

tion southward but the Arctic flora prevailed as well.
Such animals as the woolly mammoth, Scandinavian rein-
deer, Arctic hare etc. being accustomed to feeding on the
mosses and other growths of the northern tundras, pro-
bably found similar growths on which to subsist as the
glaciation slowly moved southwards.

Doubtless the coldness of the climate had much to do
with causing Man of that period to choose caves or rock
shelters as a dwelling place. Such caverns or grottoes
afforded protection from the biting winds, snow and rain
and also enabled some storage of supplies to be made.
Often it was probably necessary to drive out animals
which had already availed themselves of these shelters
and many a battle of this sort must have been fought
before a man could gain a desired domicile. The cave
bear was probably especially troublesome in this respect
as he also had chosen grottoes for his natural home. Once
gained by man, such a home was easily defended, as the
entrance was often narrow and could be barricaded. The
locations chosen were also usually on eminences whence a
view of possible enemies could be obtained. Fire was
also a weapon that could be used to advantage against
wild beasts. The chief disadvantages of such shelters
were probably their dampness and lack of proper draught
for fire, making them moist and smoky.

The stone implements made by Neanderthal man
show marked improvement in design, workmanship and
technique over those of their predecessors. Two imple-
ments were especially typical of the Neanderthal
(Mousterian) design and manufacture. One was a point,
the other a scraper. Both are distinctive in being flakes
struck off from a larger nodule rather than made by
dressing one in its entirety to a required size. To make
these later implements, one face only of the nodule was
trimmed over its entire surface and from this the desired
flake was detached probably by one well-directed blow.

[190]

LEAFLET 11

RESTORATION OF A NEANDERTHAL WOMAN AND CHILD
From the group by Frederick Blaschke in Ernest R. Graham Hall

Neanderthal (Mousterian) Man 11

This flake was then trimmed to give it a sharp cutting
edge and sometimes retouched to render it less fragile.
The "point" used was spear-shaped and from 1 to 4
inches in length. It could be used for cutting, piercing
and sewing. A double point was also used. This was
likewise spear-shaped and may have been employed in
hunting.

Of the scraper there are several varieties, the general
form being crescentic and having an edge on the outward
curve. Other forms have straight edges. These scrapers
were probably used for removing meat and fat from
animal skins and perhaps for cutting up an animal.
Another implement used was a borer, a long flake with
one end finished to a very fine point. Evidences of the
use of these implements are found in the kitchen-middens
or refuse heaps of these people. The bones contained in
the refuse show scorings such as would be produced by
using the rough edges of the scrapers as saws, while
scratches made by scrapers in taking off meat and cuts
made by flint knives in disarticulating the joints are also
frequently seen. Bruised cuts on some of the bones seem
to show that they were used as anvils or chopping blocks.
Crude tools of bone were also found in some of the
Mousterian caverns of Switzerland. These implements
were made from the small leg bones (fibulas) of the cave
bear, by breaking them obliquely near the center and
smoothing the broken surfaces. They were used for
skinning and preparing hides. Teeth and other bones of
the bear also showed signs of use as points and scrapers.
At one locality, La Quina, inCharente, many small, spherical
balls of lime-stone shaped by the hand of man were found.
It is thought that they may have been used as are the bolas
employed by the Indians of South America today for
hobbling and thus capturing wild animals.

Remains found in the cave at Sirgenstein in Wiirtem-
berg give important suggestions as to the probable food

[m]

12 Field Museum of Natural History

and habits of the people. Hearths that had been used
by them were uncovered at two levels at this locality.

The following description of the remains found there is
given by Prof. W. J. Sollas in his book "Ancient Hunters,"

"The embers of extinct fires lay upon the soil, just as
they had been left by the inhabitants, stone implements
were found plentifully strewn about and so were also
broken bones of the animals which had served as food.
These bones were those of big game. The cave-bear
( Ursus spelaeus) was by far the commonest; this animal
was the universal "care-taker," occupying the caves
during the absence of the hunters, and receiving short
shrift when they returned. It was also a favorite food,
as is shown by the great number of bears' bones which
are massed together near the threshold of the cave as
well as plentifully scattered about. No one cave could
have supplied so many bears, and the hunters must have
ransacked the surrounding district in pursuit of them.
Most of the bones belonged to young animals, which
were, no doubt, an easier prey as well as more delicate
eating. Bones of the wild horse and the reindeer were
also included in the refuse as well as those of the mammoth,
rhinoceros and bison; the remains of the last-named
animals are, however, comparatively rare. After the
hunters had scraped the flesh from £he bones, no doubt
with their stone implements, they broke them to extract
the marrow, and afterwards threw them on the fire; as
they were rich in fat they provided a sort of fuel — probably
very malodorous. At Sirgenstein no wood charcoal was
found in the hearths, only the charred remains of the
bones.

In Sicily, where the warm fauna (Elephas antiquus
and Rhinoceros Merckii) seems to have survived into
Mousterian times, the hippopotamus furnished abundant
food. In the Grotto de San Ciro, near Palermo, the bones
of this animal were found in such quantity that, according

[192]

LEAFLET 11

RESTORATION OF A NEANDERTHAL WOMAN CLEANING A REINDEER SKIN
From the group by Frederick Blaschke in Ernest R. Graham Hall

Neanderthal (Mousterian) Man 13

to a careful estimate, they must have represented the
remains of at least 2,000 individuals."

Prof. Sollas says further —

"The debris of the caves shows man of that day to
have been a successful hunter, courageously maintaining
his existence amidst a crowd of competing beasts of prey.
But in one instance, at least, we seem to discover signs
of a more ogreish disposition; for the hearth at Krapina
in Croatia contains the charred bones of numerous human
beings, both young and fully grown men, women and
children. This impressed its discoverer, Gorjanovic-
Kramberger, with the idea of cannibalism. Considering
that the evidence is confined to this single cave and that
we meet with nothing similar, or at least so definite, on
the Mousterian horizon in other parts of Europe, we may
regard this for the present as an isolated instance. There
is no reason to suppose that cannibalism was common or
widespread, and still less reason for assuming that the
human race has passed through a cannibal stage."

On the contrary, two observed instances of ceremonial
interment of the dead seem to give evidence of reverence
for the departed and belief in a future life. One of these
instances is in connection with the skeleton already
mentioned as found at La Chapelle-aux-Saints. This lay
in a shallow grave extended from east to west. Around
it were a great number of well-worked implements of
Mousterian type, fragments of red ochre and broken
bones. Over the head were several long bones lying flat,
and one of them still in connection with some of the
smaller bones of the foot and toes, suggesting that it was
clothed with flesh at the time it was placed in this position.
Here was apparently then a ceremonial interment accom-
panied by offerings of food and implements for the use
of the deceased in the spirit world.

The second instance is that of the skeleton already
mentioned as having been found at Le Moustier. This

[193]

14 Field Museum of Natural History

lay on a carefully arranged pavement of flint implements.
It was resting on its right side, with the right arm bent
under the head and the left arm extended. Burnt bones
and Mousterian implements were disposed about the skull
and a large implement, beautifully dressed on both sides,
lay just within reach of the left hand.

After maintaining an existence in Europe for a period
estimated to have been possibly 100,000 years in length,
the race of Neanderthal (Mousterian) man became, as is
generally believed, extinct. Some authorities regard
certain characteristics of this race as detectable even in
some types of modern man, but this view is not generally
held. Neanderthal man was succeeded by taller, long,
narrow-headed peoples, the Aurignacians,1 who developed
a remarkable artistic sense and moved upward along the
path to modern civilization. The Neanderthalers had
perhaps contributed to man's future mastery of his world
a further knowledge of the uses of fire,2 a greater variety
and better pattern of stone implements, the beginnings
of family and communal life and some rudiments of a
religious belief.

Oliver C. Farrington.
Henry Field.

*For the chronology and order of succession of the races of
prehistoric man in western Europe see the Museum Leaflet,
Anthropological Series, No. 26, page 16.

\*& 2Charred wood and bones found in the industrial deposits of an
earlier culture, the Acheulean, are, according to Osborn, the first
positive evidences of the use of fire.

[194]

LEAFLET 11

-* :<

RESTORATION OF A NEANDERTHAL BOY
From the group by Frederick Blaschke in Ernest R. Graham Hall

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Boulb, Marcellin — Les Hommes Fossiles, Paris, 1921.

Burkitt, M. C. — Prehistory, Cambridge, England, 1925.

Keith, Arthur — The Antiquity of Man, London, 1920.

McCurdy, George Grant — Human Origins, Vols. I and II, New
York, 1926.

Osborn, Henry Fairfield — Men of the Old Stone Age, New York,
1919.

Sollas, W. J. — Ancient Hunters, London, 1915.

LEAFLET 11

FLINT IMPLEMENTS OF NEANDERTHAL MAN

1. Large side scraper from La Quina, France. 2. Double side scraper from La
Quina, France. 8. Triangular point from Le Moustier, France. 4. Long
narrow point from Le Moustier, France. 6. Oblong lanceolate point from La
Quina, France. All one-third natural size. Field Museum Collections.

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