xjVv\seuni o/ a. V/ "ri 1869 THE LIBRARY -ii' THE NESTS AND EGGS OF BRITISH BIRDS LARGE PAPER EDITION THE NESTS AND EGGS OF BRITISH BIRDS WHEN AND WHERE TO EIND THEM H 1l3anM)ooU to tbe ©oloov? ot tbc Britisb 55lan^5 By CHARLES DIXON AUTHOR OF 'annals of bird-life,' 'idle hours with nature,' 'the birds of OUR RAMBI.F.S,' 'the GAME BIRDS AiN D WILD FOWL OF THE BRITISH ISLANDS,' ' THE MIGRATION OF BIRDS,' E I C. WITH 157 COLOURED ILLUSTRATIO.VS OF EGGS LONDON: CHAPMAN AND HALL, Ld. 1S94 [All rights >-cserved\ 16^ Richard Ci.ay & Sons, Limitkd London & Bungay. PREFACE. The following pages deal exclusively with the birds that breed within the confines of the British Archi- pelago ; consequently the student will find several familiar species omitted, the Fieldfare and the Redwing for example, they having no claim whatever to be con- sidered in a work which professes to be a Handbook to the Oology of our islands alone. The idea of a work on the Nests and Eggs of British Birds occurred to me some twelve years ago ; and from that time to the present I have been carefully collecting facts, examining specimens, and so on, with the object of forming a comprehensive handbook to British Oology. The results of my studies are now presented to the reader in the following pages. Most of my information has been obtained from personal observation ; and with very few exceptions I have taken with my own hands nests and eggs of all our British species ; whilst with most of them I have extended my observations over periods of many years. In the present volume I have endeavoured to foster Oology as a science, not to encourage the indiscriminate collecting of these beautiful objects from the promptings of a mere bric-a-brac mania. The nest and eggs of a bird to a great extent reflect the life-history of the bird itself, and vividly illustrate no unimportant part of that bird's economy. If my labours serve to elevate Oology vi PREFACE. to a higher plane of dignity and importance than that on which it rests at present, it will be a source of un- mixed pleasure ; whilst if, by setting forth a description of the wonderful, if utilitarian, structures made by our native birds, or the charming and varied characteristics of their beautiful eggs, I can succeed in enlisting a fuller measure of sympathy for the birds themselves, I shall ever view the many years of patient yet loving labour with the highest satisfaction. I commenced to collect nests and eggs when I was barely ten years of age ; the passion has grown upon me ; and from then to now these wonderful objects have ever won from me an admiration which is only second to that which I have always had for the Birds that make and produce them. Charles Dixon. February 1893. CONTENTS. PAGE Raven ... Corvus ccvax I Carrion Crow ... „ coroue 3 Hooded Crow „ comix 5 Rook ... V /''''(^.'"'■^^^■''•f ••• 7 Jackdaw ,, moncdtila lO Common Chough .. Fyrrhocorax gracitlus 12 Common Jay ... Garrulns gla/idariiis .. 15 Magpie .. Flea caiidata ... .. 17 Starling .. Stnriius vulgaris .. 19 Golden Oriole 0 rial us galbula 21 Common Crossbill .. Loxia curvirostra ..i 23 Hawfinch Coccothraustcs vulgaris 26 Bullfinch . . Pyrrkula vulgaris . . . .. 28 House Sparrow . . Passer doincsticus . . . .. 29 Tree Sparrow ... „ viontanus • • 3^ Greenfinch F/i/igiila chloris •■ 34 Goldfinch „ carduclis ... .. 36 Siskin ... „ spiitus .. 38 Chaffinch ,, ca;lcbs .. 40 Linnet ... Liiiota caiinabina ... 42 Twite „ Jlavirostris ... .. 44 Lesser Redpole „ rufcsccns .. 46 Snow Bunting . . Plcctrophenax nivalis .. 4S Reed Bunting .. Embcriza schocniclus .. 50 Corn Bunting ... „ miliaria ... .. 52 Cirl Bunting ... „ cirlus ■• 54 Yellow Bunting „ citrinclla ... •• 55 Sky-Lark .. Alauda arvcnsis .. 58 viii CONTENTS. r.vuE Wood- Lark ... Alaiida arborca 60 Pied Wagtail . . . ]\IotaciUa alba yarrclUi 62 White Wagtail „ alba 64 (Jray Wagtail ... ,, siilpJiurca 66 Blue-headcd Wagtail /"^^'^ 68 Yellow Wagtail „ rail 69 Tree Pipit ... Aniluts trivialis • 71 Meadow Pipit „ pratensis 73 Rock Pipit ,, obsciiriis 75 Common Creeper ... Certliia familiaris ... 11 Common Nuthatcli ... . . . Sitta ccEsia ... 79 Bearded Titmouse ... Panuj'us biaiinicus ... . 81 Long-tailed Titmouse ... Acredula caudal a rosea 83 Crested Titmouse ... Pants cristatus 85 Marsh Titmouse ... Parus palnstris et paliislrL f drcsscri 87 Coal Titmouse ,, aterQ.ialer brilaiinian 89 Blue Titmouse „ caritleus 91 Great Titmouse „ major 93 Goldcrcst . . . Rcgidus crislatiis 95 Red-backed Shrike ... ... Laiiius collnrio 96 Woodchat Shrike „ rufns 99 Chiffchaff . . . PJiylloscopits rufiis ... 100 Willow Wren ... „ Irochilits lOI Wood Wren ... „ sibilalrix 103 Dartford Warbler ... Sylvia provincialis ... 105 Lesser Whitethroat ... „ curriica 107 Whitethroat ... „ cincrea 109 Garden Warbler „ Jiortensis III Blackcap Warbler „ atricapilla 113 Marsh Warbler ... Acrocephahis palitslris 115 Reed Warbler „ ariDidinaceus 117 Sedge Warbler ,, phras,viilis .. 120 Grasshopper Warbler ... Lociistclla locuslclla 122 Savi's Warbler „ litscinioidcs 123 Song Thrush ... Tiirdus niusicus 125 Missel-Thrush „ 7'iscr7'ori/s ... 127 Blackbird Mcrula mcriila 129 Ring Ouzel „ torquala 131 CONTENTS. i.K Robin Erithaciis riibcculd ... PAt.E Nightingale „ hiscinia ... 135 Redstart RitticiUa pluvnicun:s 137 Black Redstart „ titliys 139 Wheatcar Sa.vicola ananiJie 140 Whinchat Praiincola riibctra ... 142 Stonechat „ 7-Hbicola ... 144 Hedge Accentor A cceiitor modular is 146 Dipper ... Ci)iclus aquaticiis 148 Common Wren Troglodytes pa>-vii I us 150 St. Kilda Wren ,, pai'viilus ]iirt£usis 152 Spotted Flycatcher Muscicapa grisola ... 155 Pied Flycatcher „ atricapilla 157 Barn Swallow Hi)iindo nisi tea 159 House Martin Che lido n urbica 161 Sand Martin ... Cotyle ripixria 163 Wryneck lynx torquilla 164 Green Woodpecker ... Gccinus viridis 166 Lesser Spotted Woodpecker Pictis mijior ... 168 Great Spotted Woodpecker „ major ... 170 Cuckoo Cuculus caiiorus 172 Common Swift Cypschis apus 175 Common Nightjar Caprimulgus ei/ropurs 177 Hoopoe Upupa epops ... 179 Common Kingfisher ... A Ice do ispida iSi Barn Owl A lucojianimcus IS2 Wood Owl Strix ahcco ... 184 Short-eared Owl Asio bracJiyotus 185 Long-eared Owl „ otns 187 Peregrine Falcon Falco peregrin us 189 Hobby „ subbuteo 191 Merlin ... ,, ccsalon ... 193 Kestrel ... „ tinnunculus ... 195 Golden Eagle Aquila clirysaettcs ... 197 White-tailed Eagle Haliaetus albicilla ... 199 Common Kite Milvus regalis 201 Honey Buzzard Pernis apivorus 203 Common Buzzard Biiieo vulgaris 204 Rough-legged Buzzard Arclubutco lagopus ... 206 CONTENTS. Montagu's Harrier ... Hen Plarrier ... Marsh Harrier Goshawk Sparrow-Ilawk Osprey... Cormorant ^"^hag Gannet Mute Swan Gray-Lag Goose Common Sheldrake ... Gad wall Pintail Duck Wigeon Common Teal Gargancy Shoveller Mallard Pochard Tufted Duck Common Scoter Golden-Eye ... Common Eider Goosander Red-breasted Merganser Common Heron . ... Pittern Stone Curlew Lapwing Golden Plover Dotterel Kentish Sand Plover Greater Ringed Plover Oystcrcatcher ... Ruff Common Sandpiper .. Wood Sandpiper Redshank Circles a'nefaccits „ cyumeits „ ceruginosiis . . . A stitr paliinibariits . . . A ccipitcr nisiis Pandioji Jialiaiitus ... PJialacrocorax carbo „ i^raculus Sit la liassa/ia Cygniis olor ... A user ciiieretis Tadorna cor nut a Anas strepcra „ acuta ,, pen dope ,, crecca ... „ circia ... „ clypeata ,, boschas ... Fuligiilaferina „ cristata „ nigra Clangiila glancioii . . . Soinateria vwllissima Mcrgus merganser ... „ serrator Ardea cinerea Botaiirus stellaris . . . CEdicnetnns crepitans Vanelliis cristatus . . . Charadriiis pluvial is Eitdroniias inorinellits ALgialophilus can tian us /Egialitis hiaticula inajo Haniatopus ostralcgus Totanus pugnax „ liypoleucus ... „ gl area la „ calidris 208 210 211 212 214 216 218 220 222 224 225 229 230 232 234 235 237 239 240 242 243 244 245 247 248 250 251 253 255 257 259 260 262 264 266 267 269 CONTENTS. Grcenshank ... Common Curlew Whimbrel Red-necked Phalaropc Dunlin... Woodcock Common Snipe Richardson's Skua ... Great Skua Kittiwake Herring Gull ... Great Black-backed Gull Lesser Black-backed Gull Common Gull Black-headed Gull ... Sandwich Tern Roseate Tern Common Tern Arctic Tern Lesser Tern Common Guillemot ... Black Guillemot Razorbill Puffin Leach's Fork-tailed Petrel Stormy Petrel Fulmar Petrel Manx Shearwater Red-throated Diver ... Black-throated Diver Little Grebe Great Crested Grebe Black-necked Grebe ... Sclavonian Grebe Corn Crake Spotted Crake Baillon's Crake Water- Rail Watcrhen Totanus glottis . Ill Nitmcnius arquatus . i-ji „ phaopits ■ 274 PlialaropKs hyperborcus . 276 Tringa alpina . 278 Scolopax rusticola ... . 280 ,, gall in ago ... ,. 282 Stercoral iits richardsoiii .. .. 283 „ catarrhactes . . .. 285 Lanis tridactyhis ... .. 287 „ argent at us .. 289 „ mariniis .. 291 „ fa sens ... .. 293 „ caiuts ... .. 295 „ ridibundus .. 297 Sterna cantiaca .. 300 „ doiigalli .. 303 „ Jiirundo .. 304 „ arctiea • • 306 „ ininiita .. 308 Uria troile ... •• 310 „ gO'il'^ .. 312 Ale a tarda ■■ 313 Fratercula arctiea ... •• 315 Procellaria Icachi ... ■• 317 „ pelagica... ... 319 Fill mar us glac talis . . . ... 321 PuJJinus angloruvi ... ••• 323 Colyndnis septentrionalis - 325 „ arctieus ... •■• 327 Podiceps minor ... 329 „ cristatiis . . . ••• 331 Podiceps nigrieollis . . . ••• 333 „ cornutus . . . ••• 333 Crex prat en sis •■• 334 „ porzana •■• 335 „ bailloni ••• 337 Rallus aqu aliens - 338 Gallinula chloropus ... 340 xii CONTENTS. PACE Common Coot . Fulica nira ... •• 342 Ring-Dove Columba pahiinbiis ... •• 344 Stock-Dove „ a'/ias .. 346 Rock-Dove „ //7'/a •• 348 Turtle-Dove Til r fur aurittis •• 350 Pallas's Sand Grouse . .Syrrhaptcs paradoxus •• 351 Common Quail Coturnix connnunis . . . •• 352 Red-legged Partridge . Caccabis ritfa ■• 354 Common Partridge ... . Perdix citierea •• 355 Pheasant . . P/iasianiis colchicus •• 357 Capercaillie ... Teirao iD'ogalhis •• 359 Black Grouse ... „ tctrix ... .. 360 Red Grouse ... Lai^opus scofi'ciis .. 362 Ptarmigan „ 11! lit us .. 364 ADDENDUM. Paqe 162. — It would appear that the eggs of the House Martin [Ckclidon iirbica) are very exceptionally spotted. I note a recent instance recorded in the Field. Without wishing to cast doubt on the bona fides, I may remark that no such abnormal variety has ever come under my own observation. ILLUSTRATIONS. riate I. .. to face page I II. 55 )5 48 III. )1 5) III IV. 1, ;•) 1S9 V. 11 11 204 VI. 11 ;i 253 VII. 11 11 269 nil. 11 11 283 IX. 11 11 289 X. . )> )) 310 XI. . 11 11 313 XII. 5) 11 352 PLATE CHAFFINCH BULLFINCH. HAWFINCH. GOLDEN ORIOLE. CROSSBI LL. GREEN Ft NCH. L"^ REDPOLE . TWITE. LINNET TREESPARROW. HOUSE SPARROW. SISKIN GOLDFINCH. Virj:et«.Brooks,Day*-SoJvChroinolith. THE NESTS AND EGGS OF BRITISH BIRDS. Family CORVID.^. Genus CORVUS. RAVEN. CoRvus CORAX, LhmcEUS. Single Brooded. Laying season, March and April, sometimes in February. British breeding area : The Raven is slowly- vanishing as a breeding species from England. At the present time it breeds here and there on the rocky- headlands of the south coast of England, but few are the places where it is allowed to do so in peace. One or two pairs breed regularly on the coast of Devonshire (one pair to my knowledge this season on the rocks near Watcombe). In Wales it is perhaps more common. The great stronghold of this species now is in the wild districts of Ireland and the Highlands, especially in the Hebrides (including St. Kilda), where it nests com- monly, even in spite of ceaseless persecution. Inland localities are now nearly deserted, except in very secluded places, and the Raven's great breeding strong- holds are on the ocean cliffs. Breeding habits : The Raven lives in the company 2 THE NESTS AND EGGS OF BRITISH BIRDS. of its mate more or less closely during life, and for years and years will continue to frequent one favourite breed- ing-place. It is one of the very earliest birds to com- mence nesting duties, and the eggs are not unfrequently laid before the last of the snow has vanished from its haunts. Formerly the Raven usually nested in a tree ; but the incessant persecution that has banished this fine bird from most woodland districts has caused it con- siderably to alter its domestic arrangements. Most Ravens' nests are now built on lofty and very often inaccessible cliffs. Here a site is found on some ledge, or deep down in a fissure, or even amongst bushes and ivy growing from the rock. The exact spot is often indicated by the white droppings that splash surround- ing objects ; or the nest itself is generally very large, being often the accumulation of many years, as the birds frequently add to their home each season. The nest is made of sticks and often branches of heather or ling, sometimes with masses of wool clinging to them ; turf, roots, moss, wool, fur, and hair form a soft and plentiful lining. It has frequently been remarked that nests of this species built in trees are much more com- pact than those on cliffs. The parent birds are wary and watchful enough, and are ever ready to attack and beat off" any predatory bird that may venture too near their home. During the nesting period the old Ravens may frequently be seen playing and toying in the air above their nesting-place, and uttering by no means unmusical cries. Range of egg colouration and measurement : The eggs of the Raven are from three to seven in number; five being an average clutch. They are bluish- green or olive-brown in ground colour, spotted, splashed, and freckled with various shades of olive, and occasion- ally with smaller markings of very dark brown, nearly RAVEN. 3 black. The underlying spots are paler and not so clearly defined, being often gray or violet in shade. Some eggs are much more sparingly spotted than others. Their shape, too, varies considerably, some being oval, others more rotund, and less frequently, pyriform. Rare varieties are reddish-white in ground colour, spotted with reddish-brown surface markings and violet-gray underlying markings. Average measure- ment, 2'0 inches in length, by i"3 inch in breadth. In- cubation lasts from nineteen to twenty days, and is performed by both sexes, but the female takes the largest share. Diagnostic characters : Normally the eggs of the Raven are readily distinguished from those of every other British species by their colour and size ; but in some cases it is impossible to separate them from ex- ceptionally fine eggs of the Carrion Crow, or even the Rook and the Hooded Crow. In such cases it will, however, generally be fcund that those of the Raven are the heaviest for their bulk. Family CORVID^. Genus CoRVUS. CARRION CROW. CoRvus CORONE, Li?ina;iis. Single Brooded. Laying season, April and May. British breeding area : Notwithstanding the war of extermination almost everywhere waged against it, the Carrion Crow is fairly well distributed over the woodland districts and rock-bound coasts of England. In Ireland it is rare and almost replaced by its close ally the Hooded Crow ; the same remarks apply to 4 THE NESTS AND EGGS OF BRITISH BIRDS. Scotland, although it is not so scarce, and certainly breeds sparingly in many districts of the Highlands and is seen in the Hebiides, but I did not observe it in St. Kilda. Breeding habits : Like the Raven the Carrion Crow pairs for life, and will frequent a certain spot year by year for the purpose of reproduction ; but unlike that bird it is one of the latest of the Crow tribe to go to nest. The nests of this species are made in two very distinct situations : viz. on trees in wooded districts, and on cliffs and rocks in hilly and littoral districts. In the woodlands, a tall tree is selected in some secluded spot, often a fir or a pine, frequently an oak, an elm, or a beech, the nest being placed in the topmost branches. When on an inland rock or ocean precipice, precisely similar situations are chosen as those selected by the Raven. The nest is a bulky structure, differ- ing very little in appearance from that of the Rook. As they are often enlarged season by season, some nests are much bigger than others. The nest is made out- wardly of hirge and small sticks, branches of ling, and turf, and lined more or less compactly with roots, wool, moss, fur, and hair, a few feathers, and sometimes quan- tities of dry withered leaves. The cup containing the eggs is shallow, yet remarkably smooth. Nests in trees are better made than those placed on cliffs, if they are not generally so bulky. The remarkable wariness of this bird is even more intensified durinc^ the breeding season. In some districts abroad the Carrion Crow has been known to nest on the ground, and even in this country a large bush has occasionally been selected. Nests of this species are sometimes met with in much- frequented places. Range of egg colouration and measurement : The eggs of the Carrion Crow are from three to six in CARRION CROW. 5 number, five being an average clutch. They are green of various shades in ground colour, spotted, blotched, freckled, and dashed with olive-brown of different tints. Like those of all the other British species in this family they are subject to much variation in the amount and distribution of the markings, which are of two very distinct characters, viz. dark surface spots and paler and grayer underlying ones. Many eggs exhibit a few small dark brown markings, and occasional varieties occur which are almost spotless. Average measurement, 17 inch in length, by V2 inch in breadth. Incubation lasts from eighteen to twenty days, and is performed by both sexes. Diagnostic characters : It is impossible to give any reliable character by which the eggs of the Carrion Crow may be distinguished from those of the Hooded Crow or the Rook ; but as a rule they are a trifle larger and rounder than the eggs of those species. P"amily CORVID.E. Genus CoRVUS. HOODED CROW. CoRVUS CORN IX, Linncvus. Single Brooded. Laying season, April and May. British breeding area : Instances of the Hooded Crow breeding in England and Wales are few and irregular, although the bird is said to nest every year in the Isle of Man. In Ireland and Scotland, however, it is widely distributed, especially in the north and west of the latter country, frequenting not only the mainland but most of the islands, from St. Kilda in the west to the Orkneys and Shetlands in the north. In some parts 6 THE NESTS AND EGGS OF BRITISH BIRDS. of Scotland it has been known to interbreed with the Carrion Crow, as it habitually does in the valleys of the Elbe and the Yenesay. Breeding habits : I am of opinion that the Hooded Crow pairs for life, and frequents certain nesting- sites annually wherever it is allowed to remain undisturbed. It is rather a late breeder (although eggs of this species have been recorded exceptionally as early as the middle of March), The Hooded Crow readily adapts itself to circumstances, so far as a nesting-place is concerned. Where trees are scarce it will build on rocks or sea-cliffs, amongst tall ling on the hillsides, or even on the roof of the crofter's hut, as was remarked by Gray. The greater number of nests of this species in our islands are pro- bably built on rocks ; but in Siberia, where rocks are scarce and trees plentiful, the latter are most frequently used. Many nests are sometimes built near together, but the Hooded Crow is nothing near so sociable in this respect as the Rook or the Jackdaw. The materials of the nest do not differ from those employed by allied species. Sticks, twigs, the branches of ling and even bones are used to form the outer structure, which is well and warmly lined with moss, wool, hair, fur, feathers, and such-like soft material. Although by no means shy, Hooded Crows are wary enough at the nest, and seem to divine by inspiration whether an intruder can work them harm ; being careful to keep out of gunshot. Range of egg colouration and measurement: The eggs of the Hooded Crow arc from three to six in number, five being an average clutch. They are green, of various shades in ground colour, more or less boldly spotted and blotched with surface markings of olive- brown, and underlying markings of paler brown and gray. They vary considerably in size and shape, an ROOK. 7 uncommon variety being very pyriform, almost like that of a Snipe. Sometimes they are met with almost spot- less. Average measurement, 17 inch in length, by r2 inch in breadth. Incubation, performed by both sexes, lasts from eighteen to twenty days. Diagnostic characters : It is impossible to give any reliable character by which the student or collector may be enabled to distinguish the eggs of the Hooded Crow from those of the Carrion Crow and the Rook. The breeding areas cf the two latter species are, however, to a certain extent distinct ; so that the locality, in the absence of more reliable data, should be of some service in their determination. Family CORVID.E. Genus CoRVUS. ROOK. CoRVUS FRUGiLEGUs, Litinceiis. Single Brooded. Laying season, March and April. British breeding area : The Rook is widely and generally distributed throughout the British Islands, wherever there are trees sufficiently large to support its nest, and the surrounding country is not too barren to furnish it with sustenance. This species is gradually extending its range into many districts, especially in Scotland, where it has followed the planting of trees. More especially has this interesting fact been remarked in the island of Skye, w^iere already there are two extensive colonies, from which pioneers are spreading in various directions with more or less success. As might naturally be inferred, rookeries are more abundant in 8 THE NESTS AND EGGS OE BRITISH BIRDS. England than in other portions of the British Islands. Many rookeries may still be found in towns ; and Lon- don can boast not a few, although they are gradually decreasing in number and extent. Breeding habits : The Rook pairs for life. Not only does it continue to frequent the same nesting-sites every season, but it lives in close companionship with its mate throughout the year, and periodically visits its nest trees, as if to assure itself that the home is safe. Tall trees are generally selected for nesting sites — oaks, elms, beeches, horse-chestnuts, planes, and sycamores. Lofty and slender ash and larch trees — mere poles — and in many districts Scotch firs are frequently used. In some rare instances tall holly bushes are selected. As a rule the nests are made in the topmost branches, and very often numbers are built close together, sometimes in large masses. As the Rook is in the habit of adding to its nest each spring, some of the structures arc of enormous dimensions, and contain a sackful of sticks or more. In some instances these piles of accumulated sticks have ceased to serve as nests, the owners either being dead or having deserted them. The nest is very firm and compact, made principally of sticks cemented with clay or mud, which latter material usually forms the first or inner lining. This is further lined with turf, moss, wool, dry leaves, bits of straw, and often a few feathers. It is somewhat shallow, but the lining is remarkab smooth and compact. Both male and female assist in building the nest, and as a rule the birds only work at the task in the morning ; and in the smaller rookeries never remain all night in the trees until the first eggs are laid. Rooks are remarkably noisy and c/iarrelsome during the building period, and are very prone to steal materials belonging to their neighbours — a practice which often leads to fatal conflicts. As may ROOK. 9 often be remarked, many nests are much smaller than others, these being the produce of young and newly- mated birds. Very often an odd nest or so is occasion- ally seen in trees at some distance from the colony, but these are rarely occupied many seasons in succession ; although I have in several instances known them to form the nucleus of a thriving colony. In one case a new rookery was thus formed after a tree had been felled in the main colony. Rooks, however, are most gregarious birds, very conservative, and cling to their favourite breeding-places time out of mind. Range OF egg colouration and measurement: The eggs of the Rook vary from three to five in number, and should any of the first eggs be taken only the usual clutch seems to be completed, the birds sometimes being content to sit on a single q^^. They range from pale blue, nearly white, through various shades of green in ground colour, blotched, spotted, and clouded with olive-brown of varying degrees of intensity and under- lying markings of paler brown and gray. Usually the larger end of the shell is most heavily marked. Some specimens are spotted minutely with very dark brown, nearly black ; others are streaked with faint olive-green ; whilst others, yet again, are almost entirely devoid of colouring matter. They also vary considerably in size and shape, some being very rotund, others elongated. Average measurement, 17 inch in length, by V2 inch in breadth. Incubation lasts from seventeen to eighteen days, and is performed by both sexes, the female taking the largest share of the task. The eggs are sometimes sat upon as soon as laid. Diagnostic characters : It is impossible to give any reliable character by which the eggs of the Roo''J may be distinguished from those of the Carrion an'^ Hooded Crows. The best means of identification is at lo THE NESTS AND EGGS OF BRITISH BIRDS. the nest, the Rooks almost invariably breeding in colonies, the Crows more solitarily. The call-note of the Rook at the nest is nothing near so harsh or guttural as that of the Crows. Family CORVID^E. Genus CORVUS. JACKDAW. CORVUS MONEDULA, LillUCEUS. Single Brooded. Laying season, April and May. British breeding area: The Jackdaw is not only one of the commonest but one of the most widely distri- buted species in the present family. It breeds more or less abundantly in all^ suitable districts throughout the British Islands, even extending its range to Skye and the Orkneys, although some localities, apparently suitable in every respect to its requirements, are shunned for no determinable cause. It breeds abundantly on the ocean cliffs, and on many inland rocks, in forest districts, on ruins, castles, and cathedrals, in villages, and even in the busiest of cities. Breeding habits : Like the Rook, the Jackdaw is not only a life-paired bird, but remarkably gregarious, and breeds in certain places year after year, in most cases using the same nest annually. Like the Carrion Crow, however, it is a somewhat late breeder. The nest is made in a great variety of situations, yet almost in- variably in a hole, either of a cliff, a tree, or a building. Instances are on record where the nest is said to have been made amongst ivy growing on cliffs, but such situations must be very exceptional. It is also said occasionally to use a rabbit-burrow for a nesting-place. The Jackdaw breeds in colonies of varying size, according JACKDAW. II to the relative abundance or scarcity of nesting-sites. Some of these colonies are very extensive, as, for instance, on the cHffs above Devil's Hole in the Peak, and in the hollow trees in Sherwood Forest. Like the Rook, the Jackdaw may be seen almost daily at its nesting-colony all through the year. The nest of this species varies considerably in size. If the selected hole or crevice is large, it is generally filled with materials, and in some cases a vast mass is accumulated, being added to each season ; if the site is small but little nest is made, and in many cases no provision whatever is made for the eggs. I have taken the eggs from holes in the trunks of oak trees in Sherwood Forest where the decayed wood alone served for a nest ; but on the other hand some of the nests at this colony are several yards in height, the entire hollow trunk or limb having been closely packed with sticks and other rubbish, at the top of which the nest itself has been made. The foundation of the nest is made of sticks and twigs, pieces of turf, and occasionally all kinds of curious litter and rubbish, the cavity con- taining the eggs being formed of dry grass, pieces of moss, leaves, and straws, and lined with fur, wool, and feathers. Numbers of nests are often made close together, some- times several in the same hole or cleft. I have known as many as twelve in a single hollow tree. Many nests are quite inaccessible. Range of egg colouration and measurement : The eggs of the Jackdaw are from four to six in num- ber, five being the usual clutch. They vary from the palest of blue (almost white) to bluish-green in ground colour, spotted and blotched with very dark brown, nearly black in intensity, olive-brown and grayish-brown, and with underlying markings of pinkish-gray. Some specimens are much more heavily marked than others, and many have the spots small, deep-coloured, and more 12 THE NESTS AND EGGS OF BRITISH BIRDS. or less uniformly distributed over the entire surface. Some examples are very sparingly marked, and mostly with underlying spots. In shape and size also they vary considerably. Average measurement, r45 inch in length, by ro inch in breadth. Incubation, performed by both sexes, lasts from seventeen to eighteen days. Diagnostic characters : The clear blue or pale green ground colour, and comparatively few and well- defined markings, readily distinguish the eggs of the Jackdaw from allied British species. The eggs most likely to be confused with them are those of the Chough and certain pale varieties of those of the Magpie, but the clear definition of the surface-spots is a pretty safe guide. It must also be borne in mind that the Jackdaw rarely or never breeds near the colonies of the Choughs and the exposed, domed nest of the Magpie in the branches is ever an unfailing means of distinction. Family CORVID/E. Genus rvRRHOCOUAX. COMMON CHOUGH. Pyrrhocorax graculus {Liunccus). Single Brooded. Laying season, May. British breeding area : The Chough is now one of the rarest and most local of our indigenous birds, and though formerly fairly common in many inland districst, is now almost without exception only met with during the breeding season on the wildest and most inaccessible ocean cliffs. Even here many of its scattered colonics have been deserted, for no apparent cause, within com- COMMON CHOUGH. . 13 paratively recent times. Owing to the character of the coast, the breeding-places of the Chough are on the south- ern and western shores of the British Islands — districts in which the cliffs are lofty and far removed from the busy haunts of men. It breeds locally and sparingly from Dorset, west to Devon and Cornwall. A few pairs still breed on Lundy Island. Scattered colonies are established here and there on the wild rocky coasts of Wales, as well as in one or two localities inland in that portion of our islands ; whilst in the Isle of Man a few pairs still continue to breed. It is said also occasionally to breed in Cumberland. On the west coast of Scotland it is fairly plentiful, on the islands of Islay, Jura, and Skye, especially the former, and also in one or two localities on the cliffs of the mainland. In Ireland its chief strong- holds are on the coasts of Kerry, Mayo, Donegal and Antrim, Waterford and Cork. Breeding habits: There is much similarity between the habits of the Chough and the Jackdaw during the season of reproduction. Both birds are gregarious and breed in colonies, both birds are life-paired species, and both breed in holes or covered sites, and continue year after year to rear their young in certain favoured spots, tenanting the same nests each recurring season. On the cliffs the nests are made in the clefts or fissures, or in holes in the roof or sides of caves, often so deep down in the rock as to be absolutely inaccessible ; inland a hole in a ruin is sometimes selected. The nest, like that of the Jackdaw, varies a good deal in size, according to the accommodation afforded by the selected hole or fissure, and is composed of sticks, dead branches of heather, and the dry stalks of plants. The cavity con- taining the eggs is formed of dry grass, roots, wool, fur, and occasionally hair. If the colony is disturbed, the birds fly out of their nest-hol-es and act in a very Jack- 14 THE NESTS AND EGGS OE BRITISH BIRDS. daw-like manner, uttering their noisy and distinctive cries. One cavity sometimes contains several nests. Range of egg colouration and measurement : The eggs of the Chough vary from four to six in number, and range in ground colour from white, with a faint tinge of blue or green, to creamy-white, blotched and spotted with various shades of brown and gray, and with under- lying markings of violet-gray. Sometimes a few dark brown streaks or scratches occur, usually on the larger end. In the size and distribution of the markings they vary considerably, some having them large and bold, and arranged in a mass or zone round the largest portion of the shell ; others are more regularly spotted over the entire surface, and in this type the colour of the marks is paler. Another type has few markings, but bold and large, and scattered here and there over the entire surface. Average measurement, i'5 inch in length, by ri inch in breadth. Incubation, performed by both parents, lasts from seventeen to eighteen days. Diagnostic characters : The pale ground colour and comparative indistinct definition of the markings are the most important points of distinction characterizing the eggs of the present species. They are most likely to be confused with eggs of the Jackdaw ; but the two species do not breed in company. COMMON JAY. 15 Family CORVID/E. Genus Garrulus, COMMON JAY. Garrulus glandarius {Lvnia-us). Single Brooded. Laying season, April and May. British breeding area : The Jay, in spite of con- stant persecution, breeds more or less sparingly through- out the woodland districts of England and Wales. In many places where game is not very strictly preserved, and feathered marauders allowed to dwell in peace, the Jay is a common bird. In Scotland it is much more local and slowly becoming scarce, from the same causes, although its range has been extended with the planting and growth of trees. Its principal quarters in Scotland are the central counties, as far north as Inverness-shire ; it does not, however, breed in the Hebrides, and is only a straggler to the Shetlands. In Ireland, where it has also decreased in numbers, its chief breeding area is now in the south-east, in the area confined by the rivers Barrow and Suir. Breeding habits : The principal breeding-grounds of the Jay are the game coverts, woods, and plantations where the underwood is dense and leafy. The bird is particularly fond of covers where evergreens are plentiful, and is thus specially addicted to shrubberies. In all cases, however, the Jay will nest most abundantly where the cover is thickest. In my opinion this handsome bird is a life-paired species, and may be seen in company with its mate all through the year. As the breeding season approaches the Jay becomes much less noisy and even more skulking in its movenients, so that it often safely rears a brood in a cover where its presence has never been suspected. The site for the nest is seldom at any great altitude from the ground, the cover usually i6 THE NESTS AND EGGS OE BRITISH BIRDS. not being sufficiently dense above the growth of tangled underwood. A situation is generally selected in a tall bush or sapling, especially in a holly, yew, or other ever- green, and less frequently amongst a mass of woodbine or ivy. I have known ths nest to be made in a bunch of twigs and fine branches growing from a tree trunk where a branch has been lopped off. The nest is cup- shaped, and made externally of fine sticks and twigs, occasionally cemented with mud, and thickly lined with fibrous roots right up to the margin. Although made of coarse materials it is very neatly finished. The Jay is non-gregarious during the breeding season. Range of egg colouration and measurement : The eggs of the Jay are from five to seven in number. They are grayish-green or pale bluish-green in ground colour, mottled and speckled over the entire surface with olive-brown, and occasionally streaked with a few scratches or irregular lines of dark liver-brown. In many examples the mottled spots become most numerous and confluent towards the larger end, where they form a dis- tinct zone. The eggs of the Jay do not present much variation, although it is not unusual to find an ^g^ paler than the rest in a clutch. Average measurement, 1*25 inch in length, by '9 inch in breadth. Both parents assist in the task of incubation, which extends over a period of eighteen days. Diagnostic characters : The small size, indistinct character of the markings, and grayish-green appearance, readily distinguish the eggs of the Jay from all the allied British species. MAGPIE. 17 Family CORVID/E. Genus Pica, MAGPIE. Pica caudata, Gcrini. Single Brooded. Laying season, March and April. British breeding area : The Magpie breeds more or less commonly throughout the wooded districts of the British Islands, and in many places continues steadily to increase in spite of incessant persecution. There can be little doubt that this is due to the bird's great fecundity, and its habit of nesting in tall trees. The Magpie does not breed on the Outer Hebrides, nor does it visit the Orkneys and the Shetlands, but it nests sparingly on the Channel Islands. In Ireland the Magpie is much more abundant than formerly, and its numbers are still perceptibly increasing in many localities. Breeding habits: Although the great breeding- grounds of the Magpie are situated in or near woods, game coverts, and plantations, a considerable number of nests are made in more open situations, where timber is scarce. This species also pairs for life, and either tenants the same nest yearly, in spite of continued robbery and disturbance, or builds a new structure in the immediate neighbourhood. The nest may be found in almost every kind of forest tree, often in tall bushes or isolated trees in the fields, or even in a low hedgerow. The altitude varies equally as much, from the slender topmost twigs of some woodland giant, to the tangled thicket or hedgerow, not more than six or eight feet from the ground. Another remarkable trait in the Magpie's character is that of nesting close to habita- tions. Although a remarkably shy and wary bird all the rest of the year, in the breeding season it often becomes most trustful. The site for the nest, w4ien in a 1 8 THE NESTS AND EGGS OF BREJJSII BIRDS. tree, is usually amongst the slender branches, sometimes near the extremity of a massive limb, but in bushes or hedges the densest part is chosen. The nest is a large and bulky structure, and when finished completely covered with a dome or roof. The outer part of the nest is first formed of sticks, which are cemented together with large quantities of clay or mud, a lining of this material eventually being made. Then the huge dome is built over, dead thorns being favourite material, a hole being left on the side, near the top or rim of the nest cavit)', for ingress. Very often at this stage the nest is left for a day or so to dry, before the copious lining of fibrous roots is added. It has been recently stated that dry grass is also used, but this I deny, at any rate so far as British Magpies are concerned. The whole structure when completed and thoroughly dry is remarkably compact. Occasionally several Magpies' nests may be found at no great distance from each other, but the bird is neither gregarious nor social during the breeding season. It is a wary bird at the nest, slipping off very quietly if disturbed during in- cubation, but becoming much more bold and demon- strative when the young are hatched. Range of egg colouration and measurement: The eggs of the Magpie are from six to nine in number ; seven and eight are frequently found, but perhaps six forms the most usual clutch. They range from creamy- white to bluish-green in ground colour, thickly freckled, blotched, and spotted over the entire surface with olive- brown, and occasionally streaked with a few lines of very dark brown. They vary considerably both in shape, in size, and in colouration. Some eggs are very pyriform ; others are almost round. Some have little surface- colour upon them, being almost spotless pale blue, with perhaps a few violet-gray underlying markings ; STARLING. 19 others are grayish-white, thickly freckled with pale ash- brown. Average measurement, I '35 inch in length, by ro inch in breadth. Incubation, performed chiefly by the female, lasts eighteen da}'s. Diagnostic characters : The size, abundance, and smallness of the uniformly distributed markings and their brown colour readily distinguish the eggs of the Magpie from all allied species breeding within the British area. F.imily STURNID.E. Genus Sturxus. STARLING. Sturnus vulgaris, Linnaeus. Double Brooded. Laying season, April to June. British breeding area : Widely distributed, and breeds more or less abundantly throughout England and Wales, becoming the least abundant perhaps in the more thinly-populated districts of Wales. In Scotland it has increased in numbers, and extended its range to such a very remarkable extent during the past half- century, that it may now be said to breed in every suit- able locality. It also breeds throughout the Hebrides (including St. Kilda), and in the Orkneys and Shetlands. In Ireland it becomes much more local during the breeding season, being there most widely distributed and most abundant, especially in the south, during winter. Breeding habits: The Starling is another life- paired species, and returns annually to its old nesting- place ; indeed, like the Rook, it may, in a great many instances, be seen to visit its nesting-site from time to 20 THE NESTS AND EGGS OF BRITISH BIRDS. time right through the non-breeding season. Like the Rook and the House Sparrow, it evinces a strong par- tiah'ty for the dvvelHng-places of man, and Hke the latter bird it also displays great aptitude for adapting itself to a variety of conditions during the season of reproduc- tion. The Starling will make its nest almost anywhere, provided a site can be found well protected from the external air. Holes in buildings are now the favourite situations, but great numbers of nests are made in holes in trees and cliffs, in peat-stacks, and less frequently in rabbit-burrows. On St. Kilda I was both surprised and delighted to find my favourite bird actually nesting in holes in the ground, on the bare hillsides, and amongst the rough walls of the " cleats." The Starling is thoroughly gregarious all the year round, and numbers breed in close companionship, the size of the colony depending a good deal on the amount of the accommo- dation to be had. Instances are on record where the Starling has been known to breed in a Magpie's nest, and to rear its young in an open nest in a tree ; but from my lifelong acquaintance with this species I think such exceptions (if true) must be excessively rare. The size of the hole varies a good deal, hence the nest is bulky or small accordingly. It is a rude, slovenly struc- ture, made of straw, grass, and roots, and sometimes lined with a i&w feathers ; rags, twine, or paper will even be used occasionally. Very often a few straws are allowed to dangle out of the entrance, proclaiming the nest to every passer-by. If the eggs are removed from day to day the hen may be encouraged to lay an indefinite number of eggs. I once took no less than forty eggs from one hole during a single season. Odd Starlings' eggs are frequently found in the fields. Range of egg colouration and mea.surement: The eggs of the Starling are from four to six or even GOLDEN ORIOLE. 21 seven in number, five being an average clutch. They are pale greenish-blue, somewhat elongated, rather rough in texture, but with considerable gloss, and are spotless. The shade of colour varies a good deal, some eggs being almost white, others much more intense. Exposure to the light soon robs them of much of their colour. Average measurement, V2 inch in length, by "85 inch in breadth. Incubation, performed chiefly by the female, lasts fourteen days. Diagnostic characters : The eggs of no other species breeding in the British Islands can easily be confused with those of the Starling. Their large size and uniform greenish-blue tinge readily distinguish them from the eggs of all our smaller species. Family ORIOLID.E. Genus Oriolus. GOLDEN ORIOLE. Oriolus galbula, Liniia:us. Single Brooded. Laying season, May and June. British breeding area : The Golden Oriole is another melancholy instance of the senseless persecution of rare birds in the British Islands. There is nothing, so far as we can determine, to prevent this handsome and melodious songster from becoming as common on this side of the Channel as it is on the other, if the individuals of this species that almost yearly visit our southern and south-western counties were allowed to live and rear their broods in peace. There can be little or no doubt that the Golden Oriole has bred in Kent, Surrey, Essex, Northamptonshire, and Norfolk, but, alas ! the gaudy dress of the male bird is a fatal 22 THE NESTS AND EGGS OF BRITISH BIRDS. attraction, and the gunner or greedy collector soon put an end to the naturalist's hope of seeing this handsome species increase and multiply amongst us. Breeding Habits : Like most birds of conspicuous and gaudy plumage, the Golden Oriole is fond of the cover, and, although by no means a shy bird, is careful to conceal itself amongst the leaves when menaced by danger. In Europe the favourite breeding-grounds of the Golden Oriole are groves, the borders of woods, plantations, and well-timbered fields; but in Algeria, where I saw much of this species, the oases, public gardens, and groves of evergreen oaks in the park-hke country of the Aurcs Mountains were the favourite haunts. It is not improbable that this bird pairs for life, although I do not think the same nest is used two seasons in succession. The Golden Oriole very fre- quently rears its young quite close to houses, and even in towns, in avenues, and pleasure-grounds. The site for the nest is usually in an oak, plane, or fir tree, at distances varying from twenty to forty feet from the ground. The nest, so far as British, or even European birds are concerned, is unique, and cannot possibly be mistaken for that of any other bird. It is invariably suspended, cradle-wise, between a forked horizontal branch, the external materials being deftly woven round the supporting twigs. The outside is made of broad grass, sedge, and strips of bark, amongst which a few dead leaves or even scraps of paper are interwoven ; the inside is lined with the fine round flower-stems of grass. During the nesting period the old Orioles are careful not to betray their secret, and are ever ready to drive off any intruding birds. The very characteristic song of the male often proves a guide to the whereabouts of the nest. Range OF EGG colouration and measurement: The eggs of the Golden Oriole are from four to six in COMMON CROSSBILL. 23 number. They arc pure white, or white with a yellowish tinge, in ground colour, spotted and speckled with purplish-brown, and generally with a few small pale gray underlying markings. The surface of the shell, though somewhat rough in texture, is polished and glossy. As a rule, the eggs of this species do not exhibit much variety. Average measurement, V2 inch in length, by "9 inch in breadth. Incubation, performed chiefly by the female, lasts from fourteen to fifteen days. Diagnostic characters : The size, white ground colour, and reddish-purple spots, readily distinguish the eggs of the Golden Oriole from those of every other British species. The unique character of the nest is also another unfailing guide to the identification of the eggs. Family FRINGILLID/C. Genus LoxiA. Sub-family FRINGILLIN.-E. COMMON CROSSBILL. LoXIA CURVIROSTRA, Liniucus. Single Brooded. Laying season, February to April. British breeding area : The Common Crossbill is one of the most local of the species that breed within the limits of the British Islands. In England it breeds locally and irregularly in many of the counties lying south of a line drawn from the Wash to the Bristol Channel ; whilst north of this limit it is known to do so in Yorkshire, Durham, and Northumberland. In Scot- land it breeds more freely, especially in the central counties ; whilst in Ireland it is said by Mr. Ussher to have increased of late years as a breeding species, 24 THE NESTS AND EGGS OF BRITISH BIRDS. although its distribution during the nesting season in the sister isle is very imperfectly known. It appears to nest in some of the extreme eastern counties from Down to Waterford and Tipperary. Owing to the excessive shyness of this species in the nesting season, its pre- ference for dense conifer plantations, and the early date of laying, there can be little doubt that the Crossbill is much overlooked. Breeding habits : The favourite breeding-grounds of the Crossbill are the conifer plantations, the belts and enclosures of Scotch fir, spruce, and larch. It is not improbable that this species pairs for life, but owing to its nomadic habits neither the old nest nor the old locality seem to be visited each season for breeding purposes. The Crossbill, however, is a remarkably social bird, and not only spends the winter in parties in wandering about in quest of food, but during the breed- ing season lives frequently in companies, and several nests may often be found within a comparatively small area. The nest is generally built amongst the foliage of the Scotch fir, a site being selected at various heights from the ground, sometimes as many as forty or fifty feet, at others not more than four or five feet. Nests are far less frequently found in deciduous trees, owing to the fact that the foliage is not out at the time the Cross- bills begin to build. Sometimes the nest is made at a distance from the trunk on a flat branch; at others it is wedged into a fork near the top of the tree. The nest itself very closely resembles one type of that of the Greenfinch, being formed outwardly of twigs loosel}'' twined together, rootlets, and dry grass, and inwardly of wool, fur, and a few feathers and hairs. Sometimes a little moss, lichen, and a few bark strips are employed. The female sits very closely, often allowing herself to be closely scrutinized, or almost touched by the hand, COMMON CROSSBILL. 25 before she slips off her nest. Mr. Norgate remarks of a nest taken by him in Norfolk five years ago: "On March 26th I took a nest of four Crossbills' eggs from a Scotch fir ; the hen bird objected to leave the nest even after it was brought down from the tree, when three or four other Crossbills came and fluttered about close to our heads, uttering their peculiar cry and showing their hooked beaks." When disturbed from her eggs the female is often joined by the male, both birds fluttering about in an anxious, restless manner. Range OF EGG COLOURATION AND measurement: The eggs of the Crossbill are usually four in number, occasionally three, more exceptionally five. They vary from white to white tinged with green in ground colour, spotted with reddish-brown, and with underlying mark- ings of paler brown. The spots, never very large, are mostly distributed over the larger end of the Q-^^, where they not unfrequently form an irregular zone. Many of the spots often take the form of streaks, and then the colour is exceptionally dark. Average measurement, •9 inch in length, by 7 inch in breadth. Incubation, performed by the female, lasts fourteen days. Diagnostic characters : It is impossible to give any absolutely reliable character by which the eggs of the Crossbill may be distinguished from those of the Greenfinch. The range of colouration is practically the same in each species, but as a rule the eggs of the latter bird are smaller. The date of laying is one reliable characteristic, the Crossbill producing eggs as a rule from one to two months earlier than the Greenfinch. 26 THE NESTS AND EGGS OF BRITISH BIRDS. Family FRIXGILLID.E. Gunus Coccotiiraustes. Sub-family FRINGILLIN/E. HAWFINCH. COCCOTHRAUSTES VULGARIS, Fallas. Single Brooded. Laying season, May. British breeding area : Owing to the excessive shyness and skulking habits of the Hawfinch, it is somewhat difficult to define its exact distribution during the breeding season. It is decidedly an English bird, not breeding in any other portion of the United Kingdom, although some writers state that it does so in Ireland. Some authorities assert that the Hawfinch has steadily increased in numbers during the past half-century, but I am inclined to attribute this apparent fact to the closer scrutiny and greater number of observers. The Haw- finch breeds locally, and more or less frequently in almost every county of England ; most abundant in the home counties, and least so in the extreme north and west. Breeding habits : For a month or more before the nest is commenced, the parties of Hawfinches that ha\'e been leading a more or less nomadic life during the winter separate into pairs and betake themselves to the accustomed nesting-places. Orchards, small woods, fir plantations, and, less frequently, shrubberies are the favourite breeding-grounds of the Hawfinch ; but gardens, tall hedges in well-timbered fields, and ivy-clad trees in lanes are also selected. As the breeding season ap- proaches, the birds become even more shy and seclusive in their habits, and the peculiar and characteristic song of the males is almost the only sign of their presence. The nest is usually commenced tov\^ards the end of April. A site is selected in the branches of an old lichen-draped fruit tree, or hawthorn, in the pollard top of a hornbeam, amongst ivy, or in the dense branches HA WFINCIL 27 of a yew, a fir, or a holly. The altitude varies consider- ably. Some nests are built as much as forty or fifty feet from the ground ; others only a few feet. In many cases several pairs make their nest in the same plantation or enclosure, especially in districts where suitable cover is scarce. The nest is made externally of twigs, roots, scraps of lichen, and the dry stalks of various plants, and internally of dry grass, finer roots, and hair. It is large, flat in appearance, and although rudely fabricated outside is neat and well finished with- in. The hen-bird is a close and silent sitter, and when flushed glides very quietly from her eggs into the sur- rounding cover. If the first nest be destroyed another attempt to rear a brood is generally made. The Haw- finch becomes even much more s'lent than usual as soon as the eggs are laid. Range OF egg colouration and measurement: The eggs of the Ilawfinch are from four to six in number, the latter being perhaps more frequent than the former. They vary from pale olive or pale bluish-green to pale brownish-buff in ground colour, streaked and more sparingly spotted with dark olive-brown and pale grayish-brown, becoming almost violet-gray in buff ground-coloured examples. The streaks are frequently intricate, and as pronounced as those on a typical Bunting's ^^%. The amount of markings varies con- siderably, and, as a rule, on the eggs on which the spots are largest and most clearly defined the streaks are finer, more scratchy, and paler. Average measurement, '95 inch in length, by '75 inch in breadth. Incubation, per- formed by the female, lasts from fourteen to fifteen days. Diagnostic characters : The size, combined with the streaky markings and their colour, serve to dis- tinguish the eggs of the Hawfinch from those of every other allied British species. 28 THE NESTS AND EGGS OF BRITISH BIRDS. Family FRINGILLID/E. Genus Fyrrhula. Sub-family FRINGILLINM. BULLFI NCH. Pyrrhula vulgaris, Tcmmiiick. Double Brooded. Laying season, April to June, and even July. British breeding area : Breeds more or less abundantly in all suitable localities throughout the British mainland, becoming rarer and more local in Scotland and Ireland. There can be no doubt whatever that the bird-catcher has well-nigh exterminated this species from many districts where it formerly bred in considerable numbers. Breeding habits : The Bullfinch mates for life, and all through the year may be seen in pairs, although the old nest is not used season by season, neither, in many cases, is the same locality selected. Like many other birds that lead a nomadic life during winter, the Bullfinch appears to breed in any suitable district it may chance to be in when the time for that event arrives. Like the preceding species the Bullfinch becomes very silent, shy, and retiring in its habits during the season of reproduc- tion, and the love-song of the male generally ceases as soon as the eggs are laid. The chief breeding-haunts of the Bullfinch are plantations of firs, shrubberies, orchards, and dense hedgerows and thickets. The nest is built usually from six to ten or fifteen feet from the ground, in a fork of the branches, or on a flat branch at some distance from the trunk. Externally it is com- posed of fine twigs intricately interlaced, forming a flat structure, in the centre of which the cup for the eggs is made of roots and hair, and occasionally one or two feathers, or a scrap of wool. During the period of in- BULLFINCH. 29 cubation the Bullfinch becomes very quiet and shy, and the female, as is usual with so many Finches, is a close sitter, reluctant to leave her charge, yet slipping very stealthily away when disturbed. The male bird is not seen much in the vicinity of the nest until the young are hatched. Range of egg colouration and measurement: The eggs of the Bullfinch are usually four or five in number, sometimes as many as six. They are bluish- green or greeniih-blue in ground colour, spotted with purplish-brown, and with paler underlying markings of brownish-pink. Some eggs are streaked with very dark brown, as well as spotted. The markings usually form a zone round the large end of the . ^ SNOW BUNTING. 49 stones in crevices of rocks, or amongst drift on the shore, and is generally well and carefully concealed. It is a bulky structure, but remarkably well and neatly finished inside. The outer materials consist of dry coarse grass, roots and moss, and the inside is lined with finer roots, hair (when obtainable), wool, and feathers. The female is a somewhat close sitter, but the male often reveals the presence of the nest by his behaviour in keeping close to the neighbourhood of the place. Range OF egg colouration and measurement: The eggs of the Snow Bunting are from four to seven in number, but sometimes as many as eight have been found ; five or six are an average clutch. They vary in ground colour from grayish-white to very pale blue, spotted and blotched most numerously on the larger end with rich reddish-brown, and occasionally pencilled with a {c\^ streaks and scratches of darker brown. The underlying markings are conspicuous, large, and numerous, and vary in tint from pale brown to pale gray. Zoned varieties are not uncommon. Average measurement, "86 inch in length, by "63 inch in breadth. Incubation, performed principally by the female, lasts about fourteen days. Diagnostic characters: The eggs of the Snow Bunting cannot readily be confused with those of any other species breeding in the British Islands, with the exception perhaps of those of the Corn Bunting ; the smaller size and paler and smaller character of the markings will serve to distinguish them. It may be remarked that the eggs of the present species do not present the streaks and intricate pencillings that are so characteristic of the eggs of the Yellow Bunting and those of other allied species. 50 THE NESTS AND EGGS OF BRTTISH BIRDS. Family FKINGILLID/E. Genus Emberiza. Sub-family EMBERIZINAL. REED BUNTING. Emberiza schceniclus, Linmviis. Double Brooded. Laying season, April to June. British breeding area : The Reed Bunting breeds more or less commonly, if somewliat locally, in all suit- able districts throughout the British Islands, extending even to the Hebrides and the Orkneys. Breeding habits: The principal haunts of the Reed Bunting are close to water of some description — disused brick- and clay-fields, the Lanks of slow-running rivers and streams, canals, and ponds ; and in wilder country the swamps and marshes in uncultivated districts. The Reed Bunting pairs early in spring, the male regaining his love-song towards the end of March or early in April. It is for the most part a solitary bird during the breed- ing season, living in pairs, and each pair keeping to a certain beat. The first nests are commenced about the middle of April in the southern districts, but nearly a month later further north. The nest is generally built on or quite close to the ground, but never suspended, as was once popularly supposed. It is usually built in the centre of a tuft of rushes, or beneath the shelter of the same, or well concealed amongst grass and other plants on the banks of the water. Hewitson has found the nest of this species, although rarely, on a bunch of reeds several feet above the water ; whilst Jardine remarked it not uncommonly in plantations of spruce fir, from three to nine feet from the ground. The nest is made exter- nally of dry grass, moss, bits of withered reeds and flags, and internally of finer gras^;, hair, and the dry flowers of reeds. It is rather loosely put together, but well and REED nUXTING. 51 neatly finished, and is made by both birds. The female sits very closely, and sometimes feigns lameness when rudely scared from the nest ; a trick which the male occasionally joins his mate in performing. The latter frequently betrays the vicinity of the nest by his habit of perching conspicuously close by and warbling his monotonous song. Range of egg colouration and measurement : The eggs of the Reed Bunting are from four to six in number. They vary in ground colour from pale olive to buff, with a purple shade, boldly streaked and spotted with deep rich purplish-brown, some of them almost black in intensity. The underlying markings (both streaks and spots) are violet-gray. The spots are mostly paler and irregular in shape round the margin. The streaks are shorter, thicker, and not so net-like as those on the eggs of the Yellow Bunting. The markings are generally pretty evenly distributed over the entire sur- face of the shell, which is somewhat glossy. Average measurem.ent, 77 inch in length, by -58 inch in breadth. Incubation, performed by the female, lasts fourteen days. Diagnostic characters : The comparatively short dark broad lines and large round spots are characters, in combination with their size, that readily serve to dis- tinguish the eggs of the Reed Bunting from those of any other Bunting breeding in the British Islands. 52 THE NESTS AND EGGS OF BRITISH BIRDS. Family FRINGILLID/E. Genus Emberiza. Sub-family EMBERIZIN/E. CORN BUNTING. Emeeriza miliaria, Linitceus. Single Brooded. Laying season, May and June. British breeding area : Although the Corn Bunt- ing is widely distributed throughout the British Islands, it is decidedly a local bird. It is chietiy a lowland species, and is certainly most common on grain lands and rough pastures in maritime districts. It is found breeding most abundantly in the southern counties of England, becoming rarer and more local in the northern districts. In Scotland it is said to be most frequent in the southern, central, and western districts, reaching the Hebrides, but certainly not St. Kilda. One might just as much expect to find a Red Grouse in a flower-garden as a Corn Bunting in St. Kilda ! It is tolerably well distributed throughout Ireland in suitable localities, but everywhere local. Breeding habits: Grain lands, sand dunes, and rough pastures are the favourite breeding-haunts of the Corn Bunting. It is not improbable that this species pairs for life, for I have known certain fields tenanted year by year for the purpose of nesting. If Corn Bunt- ings are about they soon betray themselves by their monotonous notes, and habit of sitting for hours togetiier on some tall weed or plant, occasionally flying a little way and then returning. The brown plumage of this species and its sluggish habits are very char.icteristic, and readily assist the observer to its identification. The nest is usually made upon the ground, but in some cases is situated amongst low brambles. Many nests are made on the ground amongst the mowing-grass or CORN BUNTING. 53 growing corn, or beneath a tuft of grass, or the shelter of a tall plant or bush. The nest, which is somewhat carelessly and loosely put together, is made externally of dry grass, moss, roots, " bull polls " or tufts of " twitch," and a few dead leaves, and lined with finer grass, roots, and hair. The female sits closely, until almost trodden upon in fact ; but the male too often spoils his mate's precautions against discovery, by sitting poised on some stem, or even on the ground close by, droning out his monotonous song, and calling attention to its presence. The Corn Bunting is not at all social during the breeding season, and keeps in scattered pairs. Range of egg colouration and measurement : The eggs are from four to six in number. They vary in ground colour from pale buff to grayish-white, often tinted with purple ; the surface-spots, streaks, and blotches vary from pale brown to very dark purplish- brown, and the underlying markings are various shades of violet-gray. Some eggs are much more boldly and intricately streaked than others; some have the blotches large and pale, distributed over most of the surface; some have the markings collected in an irregular zone round the larger end ; whilst others are so thickly marked, either with surface-spots and streaks, or underlying markin^-s, as to hide most of the ground colour. The eggs in each clutch are generally pretty uniform in character and appearance, however, in spite of the wide variation of colour and markings. Average measurement, -98 inch in length, by 7 inch in breadth. The female performs the greater part of the task of incubation, which lasts fourteen days. Diagnostic characters : The large size of the eggs of the Corn Bunting readily distinguish them from those of all other allied species breeding in the British Islands. 54 THE NESTS AND EGGS OF BRITISH BIRDS. Family FRINGILLID/I5. ' " Genus Emberiza. Sub-family RMBEKIZIN/E. C I R L BUNTING. Emberiza cirlus, Linnccus, Double Brooded. Laying season, May to July. British breeding area : Few of our British birds have a more restricted breeding area than the Ciil Bunting. It breeds more or less sparingly and locally along the southern counties of England, from Cornwall to Kent ; thence its range has been traced northwards through Surrey, Middlesex, Hertford, Bedford, and along the counties watered by the Thames to Gloucester, and in the counties of the Avon and Severn valleys to Warwick, Worcester, and Hereford, Breeding habits : The principal breeding-haunts of the Cirl Bunting are farm lands, gorse and bramble- covered commons, and the lanes and highways near them, in which plenty of trees and tall hedges occur. In Devonshire it frequents very similar haunts to those selected by the Yellow Bunting, although it is everywhere more partial to trees. The Cirl Bunting pairs towards the end of March or early in April. The nest, cunningly concealed, is usually placed in a low gorse bush, or amongst a thicket of briar and bramble. At other times it is built on a hedge-bank amongst the luxuriant growth of weeds, or wedged amongst the roots of the hedge-bushes. Generally, the nest is close to the ground, if not absolutely upon it, but occasionally it is situated as much as six feet above it. Externally it is made of roots, dry grass, and leaves, moss, *' bull polls " or " twitch," and internally of fmer roots and hair. Accord- ing to circumstances the hair is omitted. It is somewhat loosely put together, but the interior is smooth and CIRL BUNTING. 55 neatly finished. The female sits remarkably close, and quickly returns to the nest after being flushed. Range of egg colouration and measurement : The eggs of the Cirl Bunting are four or five in number ; second clutches are not unfrequently composed of three. They are bluish-white in ground colour, sometimes with a faint greenish tinge, spotted and streaked with very dark brown, almost black. The streaks are bold, blotchy, and, as is usual, most frequent over the large end of the egg. The underlying markings, few, and faint in colour, are violet-gray. Average measurement, '%y inch in length, by "65 inch in breadth. Incubation, performed chiefly by the female, lasts fourteen days. Diagnostic characters : The intense, nearly black, lines and spots, and the bluish-white ground colour, readily distinguish the eggs of the Cirl Bunting from those of the Yellow Bunting, the only ones with which they are likely to be confused. Faan.ly FRINGILLID/E. Genus Emberiza, Sub- family EMBERIZINM. YELLOW BUNTING. Emberiza citrinella, Li7inccus. Double Brooded, Laying season, April to August. British breeding area : The Yellow Bunting breeds more or less commonly in all districts suited to its requirements throughout the British Islands, even extending to the Outer Hebrides and the Orkneys, but not to the Shetlands, Breeding habits : The favourite haunts of the 56 THE NESTS AND EGGS OF BRITISH BIRDS. Yellow Bunting are agricultural districts ; wherever land is tilled, even in the wildest localities, the bird may alnaost invariably be met with during the nesting season. It also frequents in some numbers commons and un- cultivated waste grounds, both on the uplands and the lowlands, and may be met with on the open spaces in coppices and well-timbered country. The Yellow Bunting pairs early in the year ; the love-song of the male sounding persistently from the hedges and trees from March onwards to the following autumn. The nest is made in a variety of situations, both on the ground and at various heights above it. A favourite situation is on the bank of a hedge, either amongst the roots of the shrubs or bushes, or amongst the grass and other herbage. Another favourite spot is amongst nettles and other similar rank vegetation. Less fre- quently it is made in a gorse bush or a thicket of brambles and briars, and even more rarely in a sajDling spruce fir. I have known the same spot used for several years in succession. Indeed the Yellow Bunting is much attached to a particular site, and frequently continues to lay Qgg after egg, even should the nest be removed. The nest is a rather bulky structure, loosely put together, but remarkably neat and well finished inside. Externally it is made of dry grass, bits of moss, roots and stalks of plants, and internally of finer roots and horsehair. Some nests, externally, are made almost exclusively of one or the other of the above-mentioned materials. A nest from Devonshire, now before me, is made entirely of straw and dry grass (obtained from the manure in a field near which it was taken), and lined with very fine roots and a few hairs — the whole stained very red from contact with the Devonshire soil. The hen sits closely, and leaves the nest in a silent manner, returning almost directly the nest is left in peace. Sometimes YELLOW BUNTING. 57 she tries various alluring antics to entice an intruder away. Range of egg colouration and measurement: The eggs of the Yellow Bunting are four or five in number, and vary in ground colour from white tinged with pur- ple to purplish-brown. They are streaked, spotted, and flecked with dark purplish-brown, and with a few similar underlying markings of violet-gray. The amount and distribution of the pencilled markings vary considerably. On some eggs the marks are broad and bold, and occa- sionally expand into blotches ; on others they are finer and interlaced in endless confusion, either over the entire surface or round the larger end, and emphasized here and there with broader and bolder scrawls. It is impos- sible to describe their endless pencillings, but it may be remarked that a strong family likeness runs through all eggs of this species. Average measurement, '87 inch in length, by -65 inch in breadth. Incubation, performed by both sexes, lasts fourteen days. Diagnostic characters : The distinct purple shade which suff'uses the eggs of the Yellow Bunting, combined with the purplish-brown markings, and the elaborate and tortuous pencilling, are sufficient to distinguish them from those of all the allied species breeding in the British Islands, 58 THE NESTS AND EGGS OF BRITISH BIRDS. Family ALAUDID^E. Genus Alauda. SKY-LARK. Alauda arvensis, Linnccus. Double Brooded. Laying season, April to July. British BREEDING AREA: The Sky-Lark is generally distributed throughout the British Islands, breeding in every part, even including the Hebrides, the Orkneys and Shetlands, Breeding habits : The great breeding-grounds of the Sky-Lark are the farm lands ; wherever agriculture is pursued the bird is present, and breeds in more or less abundance. It also frequents the upland moors and wild, uncultivated wastes, but is never found in wood- lands or on country where trees are close together. Early in March the flocks of Sky-Larks begin to disband and to separate into pairs for the coming breeding season. During this period the Sky-Lark is not at all gregarious or even social, and each pair keeps exclu- sively to itself. Numbers of nests may often be found, however, within the area of fifty acres. The Sky-Lark appears to pair each spring ; but not, I am of opinion, for every brood. During the mating season the male not only warbles on the ground as he runs to and fro, but may oft be seen in chase of the female, or beating off a rival for her favours. The nest is invariably built upon the ground, either amongst growing crops of grass and grain, amongst the coarse rank herbage on the common or waste, or snugly hidden in the ling and heath. It is made in a shallow depression, either scraped out by the bird or in the footprint of a horse or cow. It is not a very bulky structure, and is made of dry grass, straws, and scraps of moss, and lined SKY-LARK. 59 with finer grass, fine roots, and a little horsehair. The female is a close sitter, and when leaving or visiting her nest usually drops into the cover some distance from it, and runs the remainder of the way through the grass or herbage. The best way to find nests of this species is to search systematically at dusk, walking up and down the fields until the birds are flushed from their eggs. They sit closer than usual at this time, and seldom rise until nearly trodden upon. Range of egg colouration and measurement: The eggs of the Sky-Lark are from three to five in number. They vary in ground colour from grayish- white to white tinged with olive, thickly spotted, mottled, and freckled with olive-brown, and with underlying markings of pale vio!et-gray. As a rule the markings are so thickly distributed as to conceal most of the ground colour ; and round the larger end of the egg they very frequently run into a more or less clearly- defined zone, most distinct on eggs where the markings are not very profuse elsewhere. Rare varieties are white in ground colour, spotted and freckled with reddish-brown surface-spots, and lilac-gray underlying ones. The eggs of this species differ a good deal in size and shape, some being very rotund, others elon- gated. Average measurement, '92 inch in length, by '&^ inch in breadth. Incubation, performed chiefly by the female, lasts fourteen days. Dl\GNOSTIC characters : The numerous olive- brown markings which conceal most of the surface are a distinguishing characteristic of the eggs of the Sky- Lark ; those of the Wood-Lark being spotted with red- dish-brown. They most closely resemble those of the Crested Lark, but this species docs not breed within the limits of the British Islands. 6o THE NESTS AND EGGS OF BRITISH BIRDS. Family ALAUDID/E. Geaus Alauda. WOOD-LARK. Alauda arborea, Limimis. Double Brooded, generally. Laying season, March to June. British breeding area -. The Wood-Lark is another very local, if somewhat widely distributed, species. Its principal breeding area in our islands is in the southern counties, from Devon to Kent, and northwards to Gloucestershire, Buckinghamshire, and Norfolk. North of these limits it becomes more local and rare, but probably breeds sparingly here and there, in suitable localities, as far as the Lake District. It is only known to have bred once in Scotland, in Stirlingshire, but probably has been overlooked. Its distribution in Ireland is very imperfectly known. Breeding habits : The favourite breeding-grounds of the Wood-Lark are well-timbered districts, where the soil is light, dry, and sandy. It is specially partial to heaths and commons, to fields on the borders of woods, and to parks ; but everywhere the presence of trees seems essential to the Wood- Lark's requirements. The parties of Wood-Larks that have lived together during autumn and winter begin to disband early in spring, and to separate into pairs for the purpose of reproduction. The Wood-Lark appears to pair for life, and each season returns to some chosen spot in which to nest. In March the males may be seen toying with and chasing the females ; and as soon as they have got back to their old haunts, the cock-birds repair to their accustomed pcrch- ing-places on the tree-tops, close to where the nests are about to be made. The nest is almost invariably made upon the ground (although Professor Newton has re- IVOOD-LARK. 6i corded one in a stump of heather), sometimes in a very exposed situation on the bare turf, but more generally well concealed under brambles and briars, or beneath the shelter of a tuft of herbage or little bush. It is a simple structure, placed in a little hollow, usually scratched out by the parent birds, and made of coarse grass and moss, and neatly lined with finer grass and a little horsehair. Like so many other ground-building birds the Wood- Lark is a close sitter, and when leaving the nest volun- tarily runs for some distance through the herbage ere taking wing. The male sings constantly and sweetly throughout the nesting season. Range of egg colouration and measurement: The eggs are four or five in number, and vary from pale buffish-white to white tinged with green in ground colour, spotted and freckled with reddish-brown, and with underlying markings of violet-gray. On some eggs the markings are pretty evenly distributed over the entire surface ; on others they form a zone either round the end, or, more rarely, round the centre ; whilst others have most of the colouring matter in a more or less confluent mass at either end. Average measurement, •83 inch in length, by '63 inch in breadth. Incubation, performed almost if not entirely by the female, lasts fourteen days. Diagnostic characters : The white ground colour and distinct reddish-brown markings distinguish the eggs of the Wood- Lark from every species breeding in the British Islands at all likely to be confused with them. 62 THE NESTS AND EGGS OF BRITJSJI BIRDS. Family MOTACILLID/E. Genus Motacili.a. PIED WAGTAIL. MOTACILLA ALBA YARRELLII, Gould. Double Brooded. Laying season, March to June. British breeding area : The Pied Wagtail is widely and very generally distributed over the British Islands during the breeding season, extending in small numbers to some of the Hebrides and to the Orkneys, but not to St. Kilda, where I learned that it only occurred on passage. Breeding habits : The principal breeding-haunts of the Pied Wagtail are cultivated districts, those where water of some description is present being preferred. Brick-fields and the vicinity of clay-pits, where pools of water are numerous, are favourite localities, whilst the neighbourhood of country cottages and farm-houses, often far from open water, is equally preferred. It is very probable that some individuals of this species may pair for life. I stated the contrary in Rural Bird Life twelve years ago ; but since then I have on various occa- sions known pairs of these Wagtails breed year after year in one particular hole of a wall or building. The nest is made in a great variety of situations, but generally in places well protected from view. Very frequently it is made in a hole in the wall of a cottage or outbuilding, or in a wall by the roadside, or by the side of a stream. Almost as frequently it may be found under a clod of earth or clay, or beneath a tile in the brick-fields ; some- times in a crevice of the stacks of unbaked bricks. Near clay-pits it is often placed far under a heap of clay blocks ; whilst crevices in rocks or roots, or under steep bare river-banks, are utilized. A site is not unfrcquently riED WAGTAIL. 63 chosen in a hole of tlic thatch, or in the side of a wood- or hay-stack, or under a heap of stones in a quarry. The nest is a somewhat slovenly structure, but as a rule is well wedged and built into the hole. Externally it is made of almost any kind of vegetable refuse that may chance to be readily obtainable — dry grass, straws, twigs, roots, moss, dry leaves, bits of frayed rope or twine, wood-shavings, and large feathers, all loosely interwoven. The inside is thickly and warmly lined with any kind of hair that can be got, wool, and feathers. As a rule the frontage of the nest is much wider and more bulky than the back. The female sits rather closely. I have known her remain brooding on her eggs until a large heap of stones had been removed. Range of egg colouration and measurement: The eggs of the Pied Wagtail are from four to six in number, usually the latter. They are grayish or bluish- white in ground colour, thickly freckled, and more sparingly spotted with pale brown, and with numerous underlying markings of a similar character, of grayish- brown and violet-gray. On some eggs a few fine lines of very dark brown occur. There are at least two very distinct types. The first, usually grayish-white in ground colour, has the markings large and blotchy and pale brown, most of them on the surface, and round the large end of the cg^. The second type has the ground colour bluish-white, and the markings finer, of a grayer brown, and dusted over the entire surface, but most numerous round the large end of the o.^^'g : the underlying mark- ings are both small and numerous, and very gray in colour. Average measurement, 8 inch in length, by '6 inch in breadth. Incubation, performed chiefly by the female, lasts fourteen days. Diagnostic characters : It is impossible to give any character that will distinguish the eggs of the Pied 64 THE NESTS AND EGGS OF BRITISH BIRDS. Wagtail from those of the White Wagtail : the latter species, however, breeds very locally and sparingly in our islands. Nor is it possible always to distinguish them from those of the House Sparrow. The situation of the nest (failing a sight of the parents) is the best guide to their identification. Family MOTACILLID/E. Genus Motacilla. WHITE WAGTAIL. Motacilla alba, Linntciis. Double Brooded. Laying season, April to June. British breeding area : Although the White Wagtail breeds commonly enough in France, Holland, and Belgium, on our side of the English Channel it is a rare and local bird, its place being taken by the well- known and widely-distributed Pied Wagtail. Instances of its breeding in our islands are, however, on record, and doubtless it may nest more frequently than is suspected. Has been met with breeding in Middlesex, Devonshire, the Isle of Wight, Kent, Huntingdonshire, and Cambridgeshire ; and interbreeding with the Pied Wagtail in Norfolk and Suffolk. Breeding habits : So far as is known the White Wagtail does not differ in its habits, or in the localities it frequents, from the Pied Wagtail. Its nest is made of similar materials to those used by the commoner species, and is placed in much the same situations. Range of egg colouration and measurement : The eggs of the White Wagtail are from five to six WHITE WAGTAIL. 65 or even seven in number, and \-ary much more than those of the Pied Wagtail. I attribute this peculiarity to the fact of the Pied Wagtail having a very restricted geographical area, and being decidedly the youngest species. They vary in ground colour from pure white to very pale blue, spotted, freckled, and splashed with grayish-brown and various shades of reddish-brown. The underlying markings of the same general character are various shades of gray. Occasionally a {q.\v hair-like, nearly black streaks occur, notably on the large end. The spots are sometimes small and distributed over the entire surface ; at others they are chiefly collected in a broad zone round the large end of the &^^ ; whilst others, yet again, are distributed in splashes and mottlings over the entire surface. Average measure- ment, the same as in the preceding species. Incubation period the sane. Diagnostic characters: It is impossible to give any character ty which the eggs of the White Wagtail may be distinguished from those of the Pied Wagtail ; the range of variation is wider, and the markings are richer and larger. The White Wagtail is easily identi- fied by its slate-gray instead of black upper plumage below the nape. 66 THE NESTS AND EGGS OF BRITISH BIRDS. Family MOTACILLID.^. Genus Motacilla. GRAY WAGTAIL. Motacilla sulphurea, Bechsteiu. Probably Double Brooded. Laying season, April to June. British breeding area : The Gray Wagtail is pretty generally distributed in the mountain districts throughout the British Islands, becoming more local in the south of England. It however breeds more or less sparingly on Dartmoor, Exmoor, along the district of the Downs, and Salisbury Plain, From the Peak of Derbyshire northwards through Scotland (including some of the Inner Hebrides) the bird becomes com- moner and more generally dispersed, because districts suited to its requirements are more frequent. The breeding area of this Wagtail in Ireland is very im- perfectly known. Breeding habits : The favourite, almost the only, breeding-grounds of the Gray Wagtail in our islands are the rough wild banks of the rapid mountain streams, which are fringed with alders, birches, and the mountain ash, and clothed almost to the water's edge with a great variety of more lowly vegetation, — long coarse grass, ferns, bracken, briars, brambles, and such like. As the Gray Wagtail may be found nesting in one particular spot season after season, we may reasonably conclude that this species pairs for life. The Gray Wagtail begins to draw near its upland haunts from the low- lands where it spends the winter, in February and March. Each pair appears always to journey in company, and to betake themselves to the particular part of the mountain stream in which they have a vested right. They are not social birds, and keep very closely to certain reaches of the stream. The CA\4V 11^40 TAIL. 67 site for the nest is never far from the water-side; in many cases but a few inches from the stream. Some- times the nest is made under an overhanging rock on the bank, amongst tall grass and weeds ; sometimes a large stone, almost covered with bramble and fern, conceals it ; at others it is placed amongst drifted rubbish, or on the low stump of a tree. I have known it to be made in a hole in a dry wall ; in fact almost any well-sheltered nook by the stream is utilized. A nest of this species has been recorded as being built on an old deserted nest of the Song Thrush. The nest of the Gray Wagtail is loosely put together, and made externally of roots, dry grass, and moss, and lined with finer roots, cow- or horsehair, and, less frequently, feathers. The female sits closely, and when disturbed often flies into the nearest tree, when she is usually joined by her mate, and the two birds are very restless until left in peace. Range of egg colouration and measure?*ient : The eggs of this species are generally five in number, sometimes four, more rarely six. They vary from grayish-white to yellowish or buffish-white in ground colour, mottled and speckled with pale brown of various shades, and occasionally marked with a few irregular lines of very dark brown. Average measurement, 75 inch in length, by '55 inch in breadth. Incubation, performed chiefly by the female, lasts thirteen or fourteen days. Diagnostic characters : It is impossible to give any reliable character by which the eggs of the Gray Wagtail may be distinguished from those of the Yellow Wagtail and the Blue-headed Wagtail, or even from those of the Sedge Warbler. The situation of the nest, and the nature of the country, however, prevent much chance of confusion. 68 THE NESTS AND EGGS OF BRITISH BIRDS. Family MOTACILT.ID.E. Genus Motacilla. B L U E-H E A D E D WAGTAIL. Motacilla flava, Liumi^us. Probably Single Brooded. Laying season, May and June. British breeding area: The Blue-headed Wagtail, although common enough across the Channel, is even more rarely known to breed within our limits than the White Wagtail, although there can be small doubt that nests arc repeatedly overlooked. The only authentic instances of this species breeding in the British Islands, so far as is known, were near Gateshead, where its nest has been taken several times. Breeding habits : The principal haunts of the Blue-headed Wagtail during the breeding season are marshy meadows and pastures. The flocks of this species that have kept company during the winter disband in April and separate into pairs. The Blue- headed Wagtail appears to pair annually. The site for the nest is invariably on the ground, usually on a bank of the hedgerows, or amongst the herbage of the meadows. The nest, loosely put together, is made externally of dry grass, roots, and bits of moss, and lined with finer roots, horsehair, and occasionally a few feathers. Like most ground-building birds, the present species is a close sitter. Range of egg colouration and measurement : The eggs of the Blue-headed Wagtail are usually five in number, but sometimes as many as six, or in rarer instances only four. They vary from yellowish-white to very pale bluish-white in ground colour, mottled, freckled, and clouded with pale brown. Occasionally a few very dark hair-like lines occur on the larger end of YELLOW Jl'AGTA/L. 69 the egj. Average measurement, 78 inch in length, by '56 inch in breadth. Incubation, performed chiefly by the female, lasts about fourteen days. Diagnostic characters: As previously remarked, the eggs of the Blue-headed Wagtail so closely re- semble those of the Gray Wagtail and the Yellow Wagtail, that no character can be given by which they can be separated. The eggs require careful identifi- cation ; but it should be remembered that ths present species is very rarely known to breed within our area. Family MOTACILLID.E. Genus Motacilla. YELLOW WAGTAIL. Motacilla raii, Bonaparte. Double Brooded. Laying season, April and June. British breeding area : A common summer visitor, widely distributed during the breeding season throughout England, with the exception of Cornwall and Devon. In Scotland its principal breeding area lies south of Stirling. In Ireland it becomes even more local, and is only known to nest in the neighbourhood of Lough Neagh, and the vicinity of Dublin. Breeding habits: Marshy meadows and pastures, broads, and commons are the favourite breeding-grounds of the Yellow Wagtail. In this respect it closely resem- bles the Blue-headed Wagtail ; in fact the habits of the two birds, like those of the Pied and White Wagtails, are almost precisely alike. This Wagtail appears to pair annually, shortly after its arrival in spring; although it is probable that some pairs remain united for life, as 70 THE NESTS AND EGGS OF BRITISH BIRDS. we frequently find a certain spot tenanted year by year. The nest, made towards the end of April, is invariably placed on the ground, and generally well concealed, cither by a tuft of herbage, a projecting stone, or a clod of earth. It is made of a variety of materials, those being selected that are most readily obtainable. As a rule, dry coarse grass, roots, and moss form the outside ; the inside is somewhat neatly lined with finer roots and feathers, hair and fur, according to circumstances. The nest is rather loosely put together. Range of egg colouration and measurement: The eggs of the Yellow Wagtail are from four to six in number. They are grayish-white in ground colour (ex- ceptionally suffused with a rosy tinge), mottled and speckled with pale yellowish-brown or olive-brown, and occasionally streaked with blackish-brown on the larger end. The colouring matter is generally so thickly dis- tributed over the entire surface of the Q'gg as to hide all or nearly all the pale ground colour. Average measure- ment,'/S inch in length, by '56 inch in breadth. Incuba- tion, performed chiefly by the female, lasts about fourteen days. Diagnostic characters : As previously remarked, the eggs of the Yellow Wagtail are often absolutely indistinguishable from those of the Blue-headed and Gray Wagtails, and from certain varieties of those of the Sedge Warbler. They require most careful identifi- cation. TREE PI Fir. 71 Family MOTACILLID.E. Genus Anthus. TREE PIPIT. Anthus trivialis {Linncciis). Single Brooded generally. Laying season, May and June. British breeding area: With the exception of Wales and the extreme south-west (Cornwall and parts of Devon) the Tree Pipit is a widely and commonly distributed species in England, due allowance of course being made for the suitability of the district to its re- quirements. In Scotland it becomes much more local, its principal strongholds being in the south, especially in the Solway area and near Glasgow, It becomes much rarer in the north, although it has been found breeding as high as Sutherlandshire. The evidence for this species having bred in Ireland is unreliable. Breeding habits : The Tree Pipit is a summer visitor to our islands, arriving in April. Its principal haunts during the nesting period are well-timbered farm lands, the more open spaces in old forests, the borders of woods and plantations, and in parks. It is not impro- bable that this Pipit pairs for life, as season after season the old haunts are tenanted, and even certain trees are used year by year as perching-placcs for the males, during the intervals of their song-flights. The nest, invariably built upon the ground, is generally well concealed amongst herbage, although not unfrequently it may be found in very exposed situations, such as on the short turf under a tree in the pastures. Sometimes it is made on an open bank in the woods, or amongst growing grass, clover, grain, and such-like crops. Banks below hedges, either in the fields or by the wayside, are some- times selected, as is also the shelter of a little bush or 72 THE NESTS AND EGGS OF BRITISH BIRDS. grass tuft on the common. The nest is made in a Htllc hollow scraped out by the parent birds, and is formed externally of dry grass, twitch, moss, roots, and internally of finer grass, roots, and horsehair. It is not a very large structure, and is usually loosely put together, but neatly finished inside. Many nests of this species contain no horsehair, but are lined with fine grass alone. The Tree Pipit is a close sitter, and usually visits and leaves its nest by running for some distance through the herbage before taking wnng. The best way to find the nests of this species is to wallc up and down the ground at dusk. The approximate locality of a nest may be generally determined by the persistent presence of the cock-bird in some tree close by. Range OF egg colouration and measurement: The eggs of the Tree Pipit are from four to six in number, a clutch very frequently being of the latter amount. Few eggs of our British Passeres vary so much as those of the present species. They range in ground colour from grayish-white and bluish-white to pinkish-white and pale olive, mottled, spotted, and blotched with various shades of reddish-brown, purplish-brown, and olive-brown, and occasionally streaked with irregular lines of nearly black. The distribution and character of the markings vary considerably. Some eggs are so densely mottled and spotted as to conceal all or nearly all the ground colour ; others have the colouring matter mostly in a round patch or in an irregular circle round the larger end ; whilst others, yet again, are pretty evenly covered with splashes, blotches, and round spots, darkest in the centre. Eggs in the same clutch are invariably of the same colour and type. I have often remarked that the darkest -coloured eggs are generally found in the shady situations, whilst those of lighter tints are found in nests made in bare and open localities. Average measure- ME A DO IV PIPIT. y;^ ment, '82 inch in length, by '6 inch in breadth. The female perfornis most of the duties of incubation, which lasts thirteen or fourteen days. Diagnostic characters: The pinkish or reddish- brown appearance of the densely-marked eggs, and the bold spots and blotches of the olive types, are generally sufficient to distinguish the eggs of the Tree Pipit from those of the Meadow Pipit ; the eggs of the latter bird are also smaller and more constantly browner. The eggs of the Rock Pipit are sometimes met with of a reddish tint ; but olive-browns prevail. The Rock Pipit also never breeds inland, only on rocky coasts. Family MOTACILLID.E. Genus Anthus. M E A D O W PIPIT. Anthus pratensis {Lin/ncus). Single Brooded generally. Laying season, April to June. British breeding area : The Meadow Pipit is by far the commonest and most widely distributed species of this genus breeding in the British Islands. It breeds more or less commonly in almost every part of the United Kingdom, including the Channel Islands in the south, the Orkneys and Shctlands in the north, the Hebrides, St. Kilda, and the Blasket Islands in the west. Breeding habits: Few British birds breed more generally throughout our islands, on uplands and low- lands alike, than the unobtrusive Meadow Pipit. It may be found nesting almost everywhere— on moorlands and mountains, on sea-girt islets, on commons, pastures, 74 THE NESTS AND EGGS OF BRITISH BIRDS. fields, parks, and open grounds in coppices, by the water-side, on the country highways, and even in swamps. The Meadow Pipit appears to pair annually and very early in the season. The nest is invariably made upon the ground, under the shelter of a stone, a tuft of herbage, or a little bush, and very frequently amongst the wet moss on the marshes, or in the centre of a tuft of rushes. It may also be found very often amongst the long grass on a bank, or in heather and ling. The nest is simple and loosely put together, made in the first place of moss, dry grass, and bits of heath and reed, and lined with finer grass, fine roots, and horsehair. The Meadow Pipit sits closely, usually not leaving her nest until it is nearly under our feet. This species cannot be described as social during the breed- ing season (although it is gregarious enough during autumn), but numbers of nests may be met with in a comparatively small area. Range of egg colouration and measurement : The eggs of the Meadow Pipit are four or five in number, occasionally six. They are white, suffused with brown or pale bluish-green, in ground colour, mottled, spotted, and speckled with various shades of brown, and with paler brown underlying markings. Sometimes a few hair-like streaks of blackish-brown occur chiefly on the larger end of the ^gg. Usually the markings are so closely distributed that little of the ground colour is visible ; but in others the spots are larger, fewer in number, and sometimes form a zone round the larger end of the &g^. Average measurement, 79 inch in length, by "58 inch in breadth. Incubation, performed mostly by the female, lasts fourteen days. Diagnostic characters : The eggs of the Meadow Pipit may be readily identified by their small size and brown appearance. ROCK PIPIT. ■ 75 Family MOTACILLID.IJ. Genus Anthus. R O C K P I P I T. Anthus obscurus {Latham). Double Brooded. Laying season, April to July. British breeding area: The Rock Pipit breeds more or less commonly on all the rocky coasts of the British Islands, including the Channel Islands in the south, the Orkneys and Shetlands in the north, the Hebrides, St. Kilda, and the Blaskets in the west, and the Fame Islands and Bass Rock in the east. Breeding habits : The brecding--grounds of the Rock Pipit are always situated near the sea. This Pipit is a thorough rock bird during the nesting season, and never breeds save on or near a rock-bound coast. Although this species cannot be classed as gregarious or even social during summer, many pairs of birds may be met with along a short distance of suitable coast ; and the smallest of rocky islets frequently contains several pairs. The Rock Pipit pairs very early in spring ; nevertheless it is by no means an early breeder. The nest, which is generally by no means easy to find, unless stumbled upon by accident, is invariably placed on the ground, and may be met with in a great variety of situations. The site is usually a sheltered one, more or less, either under a mass of rock or a big stone, under a heap of dry sea-weed, or in some crevice of the cliffs, it may be hundreds of feet sheer above the water. Other nests may frequently be found amongst dense beds of sea-campion, or sheltered by a tuft of sea-pinks. I have taken the nest of this species from a disused Pufhn's burrow, and from a hole in the walls of a ruined hut. The nest is never made far from the water. 76 THE NESTS AND EGGS OF BRITISH BIRDS. Externally it is made of dry grass, sea-weed, and dry scraps of marine vegetation ; sometimes moss is almost exclusively used ; internally it is lined with finer grass and horsehair, wherever such can be obtained. I once found a nest of this species at the Fame Islands con- taining one large white Gull's feather in the lining. At St. Kilda the birds pull the Puffin snares to pieces to obtain the horsehair. The whole structure is loosely put together, but the inside is neatly arranged. The Rock Pipit is a close sitter, but when scared from the nest both parents frequently flit up and down in a very restless, anxious manner. Range of egg colouration and measurement: The eggs of the Rock Pipit are four or five in number. They vary in ground colour from pale greenish-gray to pale brownish-gray, or nearly white, mottled, spotted, and blotched with olive-brown or reddish-brown, and with underlying markings of grayish-brown. On some eggs a few dark brown lines or streaks occur, usually at the larger end. The markings are generally pretty evenly distributed over the entire surface ; but occasion- ally they are most numerous, and form a zone round the larger end of the Q.g%, and sometimes they are fewer and larger. Average measurement, "85 inch in length, by •63 inch in breadth. Incubation, performed chiefly by the female, lasts thirteen or fourteen days. Diagnostic characters : The large size and brown appearance of the eggs of the Rock Pipit, combined with the situation of the nest, serve to distinguish them from those of other British species most likely to be confused with them. COJ/MOA- CREErER. 77 Family CERTIIIID.E. Genus Certiiia. COMMON CREEPER. Certhia familiaris, LiinuTiis. Double Brooded. Laying season, April to June. British breeding area : The Creeper is more or less commonly distributed throughout the woodland dis- tricts of the British Islands, but is absent as a breeding species from the Hebrides (except Skye, where it is a local resident), the Orkneys and the Shetlands, and other treeless areas. Breeding habits : The Creeper is a resident bird in the British Islands. Its favourite haunts are districts full of large trees, especially localities where the timber is ancient and more or less decayed. For this reason the bird is most abundant in old forests, extensive woods, and well-timbered parks. Less frequently it may be met with during the breeding season in large orchards, especially such where the trees are old and abound in hollows and crevices. There can be little doubt that the Creeper pairs for life, and at all times may be met with in the company of its mate. The nest of this species is made in a variety of situations, perhaps most frequently in a crevice where a strip of bark has peeled or been torn away from the trunk of a tree. Occasionally a hole in the trunk is selected. In rare instances the nest is made in the side of a stick of cord-wood, in a hole of a building, or under thatch. Instances are on record Avhere it has been met with in a deserted Hawk's nest, and even in a pile of bricks. The nest of the Creeper varies a good deal in bulk, according to the capacity of the selected site, most of the surplus space being filled with a mass of fine twigs, the rim of the nest being 73 THE NESTS AND EGGS OF BRITISH BIRDS. formed of the same material ; the interior is made of fine roots, dry grass, strips of inner bark, and moss, and frequently finished off with wool and feathers in small quantities. Almost every kind of forest tree will be selected, provided a suitable site can be obtained. The Creeper is neither social nor gregarious during the breeding season, each pair keeping entirely to them- selves. The female sits closely, and when disturbed slips quietly away without demonstration. Range of egg colouration and measurement: The eggs of the Creeper are from six to nine in number, white, or white tinged with yellow in ground colour, spotted and blotched with reddish-brown or brownish- red, and with underlying markings of similar character, but violet-gray in colour. The markings differ a good deal in size and distribution ; some being minute and very dark in colour, others blotchy and paler ; some confined to a zone round the larger end of the Q^^, others equally distributed over the entire surface. On some eggs the markings are very few and minute. Average measurement, '62 inch in length, by "47 inch in breadth. Incubation, performed chiefly by the female, lasts from fourteen to fifteen days. Diagnostic characters : The eggs of the Creeper are indistinguishable from those of some of the Tits and allied species, but the singular nest affords an easy and constantly reliable means of identification. COMMON NUTHATCH. 79 Family PARID/E. Genus SiTTA, Sub-family SITTJNyE. COMMON' NUTHATCH. SiTTA CyESIA, Wolf. Probably Double Brooded. Laying season, April to June and July. British breeding area : The Nuthatch is another very local species, confined principally to England, being- very rare and accidental in Scotland, and entirely absent, so far as is at present known, from Ireland. It is most commonly dispersed in the southern and central counties, breeding certainly as far west as Devonshire. In the north of England it is much more local and rare, and apparently does not breed north of Yorkshire, whilst in Wales, where it is said to be on the increase, it certainly nests in many localities, in Breconshire and elsewhere. Breeding habits : The breeding-haunts of the Nut- hatch are woods, especially where plenty of old timber is to be found, old orchards, and country where large timber is plentiful. It frequently nests in large game coverts and plantations ; less frequently in barer situations, and occasionally near houses. The Nuthatch pairs for life. All the winter through it may be observed in pairs, and returns season after season to one particular spot to breed. It is not by any means a social bird, each pair keeping to one particular haunt. The usual site for the nest is in a hole in a tree trunk, or a large branch, or in a stump. More rarely a hole in a wall or a cavity in the side of a haystack is utilized. The distance from the ground seems purely to depend on the site, little if any choice being exercised. The entrance is invariably plas- tered up with mud or clay, and a neat round hole formed So THE NESTS AND EGGS OF BRITISH BIRDS. for ingress. The amount of clay vMrics a good deal accord- ing to circumstances : if the cavity is large the entrance is reduced to just sufficient for the passage of the birds. As many as eleven pounds of clay have been exception- ally found attached to a nest in the side of a haystack.^ Beyond this more or less elaborate structure of clay the nest of the Nuthatch is crude and simple, and so loosely fabricated as to render its removal entire an impossibility. It is almost invariably composed of a layer of dry leaves and flakes of bark, arranged at the bottom of the hole. Dry grass is used, but only very exceptionally. It should also be remarked that the Nuthatch sometimes enlarges a hole, and then a good deal of wood-dust and chips are mixed with the usual materials. The depth of the holes varies considerably, from a icw inches to a foot, or even more. The Nuthatch is not easily driven away from its nesting-hole, and will replace the clay at the entrance after it has been removed repeatedly, and return year after year in spite of regular disturbance. It will also continue laying egg after e.^^ after they are taken. The Nuthatch sits very closel}^ usually allowing itself to be removed by the hand from the ncst-hole rather than desert its eggs. Range of egg colouration and measurement: The eggs of the Nuthatch are from five to eight in number. They are pure white in ground colour, spotted, and more rarely blotched with reddish-brown, and with s'milar but fewer underlying markings of violet-gray The distribution of the spots varies considerably. On some eggs they are uniformly distributed over the entire surface ; on others they form an irregular zone or a circular patch on the larger end ; more exceptionally they are handsomely blotched, and even more rarely 1 This nest is now in the Natural History Museum at South Kensington. BEARDED TITMOUSE. 8i still a few short lines of very dark brown occur. Average measurement, 78 inch in length, by -57 inch in breadth. Incubation, performed pretty equally by both sexes, lasts fourteen days. Diagnostic characters : The eggs of the Nuthatch cannot with safety be distinguished from those of some allied species, but the character of the nest is an unfail- ing means of correct identification. Family PARID^. , Genus Panurus. Sub-family PANURIN.-E. BEARDED TITMOUSE. Panurus biarmicus {Linucviis). Double Brooded. Laying season, April to June and July. British breeding area : No more local bird breeds within the British Islands than the Bearded Titmouse. Formerly it was much more widely distributed than is now the case, the drainage of fens and the persecution of collectors having well-nigh exterminated it from all its accustomed haunts. Almost its only stronghold now is the district of the Broads in Norfolk. It may possibly still continue to breed sparingly in Suffolk, as it certainly does in at least one locality in Devonshire. Breeding habits : The favourite, and we may safely say the exclusive, haunts of the Bearded Titmouse are extensive reed-beds — the vast expanses of marsh and reed-clothed waters that may now almost only be found in one English county. I am unable to say whether the Bearded Titmouse pairs annually or remains in 82 THE NESTS AND EGGS OF BRITISH BIRDS. company with its mate U)X life ; probably it is the latter. The nest is made amongst the vegetation of the marshes, but never suspended from stems of reeds, like that of the Reed Warbler. It is usually built under a tuft of sedge or aquatic herbage, sometimes as much as a foot or more from the ground, and invariably well concealed by the overhanging and surrounding vegetation. Externally it is made of dry grass, leaves, bits of reed, and other scraps of withered aquatic vegetation ; internally, of finer grass and the flowers of the reeds. It is loosely put together, but neatly finished. The Bearded Tit- mouse is a cIo.se sitter, and when flushed from the eggs slips silently away and hides amongst the vegetation ; but if the nest contain young the old birds become more demonstrative. The Bearded Titmouse is not gregarious during the breeding season, but as evidence of its social tendencies during this period, it may be remarked that two females have been said to occupy the same nest. This species is evidently very prolific, as two females (mated to one male), kept in confinement, laid forty-nine eggs in about a couple of months ! Range of egg colouration and measurement: The eggs of the Bearded Titmouse vary from five to seven in number. They are creamy-white in ground colour, marked with short irregular lines, and more sparingly with specks of dark brown. They are subject to little variation. Average measurement, ■/ inch in length, by -55 inch in breadth. Incubation, performed chiefly by the female, lasts fourteen days. Diagnostic characters : The size of and peculiar streaky or line-like markings on the eggs of the Bearded Titmouse distinguish them at a glance from those of every other species breeding in the British Islands. LONG-TAILED TITMOUSE. 83 Family PARID.E Genus Acredula. Sub-family PARIN.-E. LONG-TAILED TITMOUSE. Acredula caudata rosea, Blyth. Single Brooded generally. Laying season, April and May. British breeding area : The Long-tailed Titmouse is pretty generally, if somewhat locally, distributed throughout all districts suited to its requirements in England and Wales. In Scotland it becomes rarer and more local, owing to suitable localities not being so numerous, although it breeds pretty generally in the wooded districts, even extending to Islay and Skye, in which latter island I met with it some years ago. The breeding range of this bird in Ireland is very imperfectly defined, but extends, it is said, to most wooded areas. Breeding habits : The favourite breeding-grounds of this Titmouse are plantations, woods, shrubberies, commons covered with thicket and underwood, and tall thick hedges on farm lands. It is also partial to an orchard or a large garden, and, less frequently, extensive gorse coverts. I am of opinion that the Long-tailed Titmouse pairs for life ; and although the same nest is not used annually, or in many cases not even the same locality, the bird may be seen in pairs all through the year. Although gregarious to some extent during the remainder of the year, there is no social tendency in the breeding season. The nesting-site varies considerably, both in situation and in altitude, sometimes being as low as five feet from the ground, at others as much as fifty feet above it. Almost every kind of bush or tree may be selected, but preference is perhaps shown for those of an evergreen nature. Firs, hollies, yews, and gorse 84 THE NESTS AND EGGS OF BRITISH BHWS. are perhaps the special favourites, but brambles, ivy, woodbine, hazels, whitethorns, and birches are frequently selected, as are also the branches of oaks, elms, and other forest trees. The nest of this species is one of the handsomest examples of bird-architecture to be found in the world, and takes about a fortnight to complete. It is globular in shape, like that of the Wren, with a small hole in one side near the top for ingress. The outer materials are chiefly composed of moss and lichens, cemented and felted together with spiders' webs, and often bits of wool ; the interior is thickly and warmly lined with feathers and hair, the former usually pre- dominating. The substance of the nest is very similar to that of the Chaffmch, and the outside is generally made closely to resemble surrounding objects, with a view to concealment. I have on one occasion had a nest of this species with a kind of flap over the entrance hole, which must have been raised every time the parents cither entered or quitted the structure. Selby and others have asserted that the nests contain two means of exit, but if this statement be true, the fact must be a very exceptional one. Range of egg colouration and measurement: The eggs of the Long-tailed Titmouse are usually from six to eight or ten in number, but instances are on record where many more have been found, up to sixteen and even twenty. It is probable that these very large clutches are the produce of two females. I have certainly seen several birds near one nest on more than one occasion. The eggs of this Titmouse are pure white, or grayish-white in ground colour, very sparingly and minutely spotted with pale red, and with underlying markings, similar in character, of gray. Very often the eggs are almost if not entirely devoid of spots, or have the colouring matter suffused indistinctly over the entire CRESTED TITMOUSE. 85 surface. Sometimes the spots form a very decided zone. Average measurement, -55 inch in length, by -43 inch in breadth. Incubation, performed chiefly by the female, who sits with her long tail resting over her back, some- times pointing out of the entrance-hole, lasts from twelve to fourteen days. Diagnostic characters: The exceptionally minute markings, together with their small number, readily distinguish the eggs of this species from those of all others likely to be confused with them. The form and composition of the nest are also an unfailing guide to identification. Family PARID/E. Genus Parus. Sub-family PARINM. CRESTED TITMOUSE. Parus cristatus, Linnceiis. Probably Double Brooded. Laying season, April to June. British breeding area : The Crested Titmouse is another very local species, being, so far as is known, confined chiefly to the counties watered by the Spey, extending, but more sparingly, into Ross-shire in the north, and to Aberdeenshire in the east. Breeding habits: The breeding-grounds of the Crested Titmouse are the pine forests, and, less fre- quently, the oak woods and birch coppices. There can be little doubt that this species pairs for life, as all the winter through it may be seen in company with its mate, and although gregarious to some extent at that 86 THE NESTS AND EGGS OF BRITISH BIRDS. season, no social tendency is evinced dining the nesting period. It is probable that the same nesting-place is tenanted season by season where the birds are not much disturbed. The nest of the Crested Titmouse is placed in a hole in a tree, a dead branch or trunk being selected by preference, at varying heights from the ground, from a few inches to a dozen feet or more, according to circumstances. If a suitable hole is not accessible, it is said that the birds will make one for them- selves in soft, rotten wood, notably in fences. In some extra British localities the bird is said to make its nest in the deserted home of a Crow or a Hawk, or even in the disused drey of a squirrel. Curious sites have been recorded : as, for instance, in boxes placed for the accommodation of Starlings ; whilst the bird has even been said to take possession of the nest of a Wren or a Long-tailed Titmouse. The nest is made of moss and dry grass, and lined with wool, hair, fur, and feathers well felted together. It is slovenly made, and varies a good deal in the amount and description of the materials. This Titmouse is a close sitter, usually remaining on the eggs until forcibly removed. Range of egg colouration and measurement : The eggs of this species vary from five to eight in number. They are white in ground colour, boldly spotted, blotched, and freckled with brownish-red. The distribution and size of the markings varies consider- ably. On some eggs they are pretty equally dispersed over the entire surface ; in others, they form a zone or even a circular patch round or on the larger end. On some varieties the spots are large, bold, and irregular, and paler in colour than those on other varieties, on which they are small and more or less round in shape. Occasionally the eggs of this species are almost spotless. Average measurement, "65 inch in length, by "5 inch in MARSH TITMOUSE. 87 breadth. Incubation, performed by both sexes, lasts from thirteen to fourteen days. Diagnostic characters : The large size and bold- ness of the markings on the eggs of the Crested Tit- mouse are to a certain extent aids to their identification. They however require careful verification. The precise locality is of some service, whilst the conspicuous crests of the parent birds cannot be mistaken. Family PARID.E. Genus Parus. Sub-family PARING. MARSH TITMOUSE. Parus palustris, LhuunHs, and Parus palustris DRESSERi, Stejneger. Double Brooded. Laying season, April to June. British breeding area : The Marsh Titmouse is somewhat locally distributed throughout England and Wales, and becomes even more so in Scotland, where it is not known to breed north of the Forth Valley. Its breeding range in Ireland requires definition. Breeding habits : The breeding-grounds of the Marsh Titmouse are woods, marshy plantations, or- chards, hedgerows, and the fringes of alders and pollard willows on the banks of canals and slow-running rivers. Its trivial name, to the uninitiated, implies a swampy habitat, but such is not the case, and this species may be met with in most localities tenanted by birds of the present family. The Marsh Titmouse probably pairs for life, and in some cases, at all events, returns year by year to one particular spot to nest. The nest of the Marsh Titmouse is seldom made more than five or six feet from the ground, and is often not many inches above 88 THE NESTS AND EGGS OF BRITISH BIRDS. it. It is usually placed in a hole in a tree or a stump — - a rotten stake in the hedgerows, or even a gate-post, is frequently selected, whilst holes in pollard willows and alders are favourite sites, and occasionally a hole in the ground itself, or a crevice in a dry wall, is made use of. In many cases where the wood is soft and rotten the birds excavate a hole for themselves, but where the wood is hard a knot-hole is usually selected. The nest is made at varying depths, sometimes not more than six inches, at others twice or even three times that depth. I have known it rarely as much as a yard. It is a slovenly-made structure of moss, bits of dry grass, wool, feathers, fur, and hair felted together and wedged tightly into the bottom of the hole. The Marsh Titmouse is a close sitter, and commences to hiss and bite when touched by the hand, remaining on the eggs until forcibly removed from them. The parent birds are also very careful in visiting or leaving the nest. Range of egg colouration and measurement : The eggs of the Marsh Titmouse are from six to ten in number. They are white in ground colour, spotted and freckled with brownish-red, or reddish-brown. As a rule the spots are most thickly distributed round the larger end of the o.^^. On some eggs the spots are minute, and scattered over most of the surface, whilst on others they are larger, irregular in shape, and fewer in number. Average measurement, '62 inch in length, by •48 inch in breadth. Incubation, performed by both sexes, lasts fourteen days. Diagnostic characters : It is impossible to give any reliable character by which the eggs of the Marsh Titmouse may be separated from those of allied species. It is absolutely imperative that the parents should be identified, to place the authentication of the eggs beyond doubt. COAL TITMOUSE. Family PARID.E. Genus Parus. Sub-family PAR/N.-E. COAL TITMOUSE. Parus ater, Lifwceus, and Parus ater britannicus, Sharpe and Dresser. Double Brooded. Laying season, April to June. British breeding area: The Coal Titmouse is generally distributed throughout the British Islands, although nowhere so common as the Blue Titmouse. It does not, however, extend its breeding range to the Outer Hebrides, the Orkneys, nor the Shetlands. Breeding habits : The principal breeding-grounds of the Coal Titmouse are birch and oak coppices, fir plantations, groves of alder trees, pine woods, and large orchards. Less frequently, shrubberies, parks, and old hedgerows arc frequented during the nesting period. It is not improbable that the Coal Titmouse pairs for life, and in numbers of instances returns year by year to one particular nest-hole. Certainly the birds may be seen in pairs every month in the year. The Coal Titmouse is more or less gregarious and social during autumn and winter, but all such tendencies lapse during the breeding- season, and each pair keep to themselves. The nest of this species is made in a variety of situations, but almost invariably in a hole of some kind, or well sheltered from the external air. The usual site is in a hole of some tree or stump, and less frequently in a crevice or chink in a wall. Occasionally a hole in the ground is selected. In many cases the selected hole is altered and enlarged by the birds. The nest is made at varying depths, sometimes but a few inches, at others a foot or even more. Like that of its congener, the Marsh Titmouse, 90 THE NESTS AND EGGS OF BRITISH BIRDS. it is rudely and slovenly made, and is composed of a little dry grass and quantities of moss felted together with hair, and warmly lined with feathers. The birds are careful not to betray the whereabouts of their nest, and are very silent during the period of incubation. The parent bird sits closely, and will hiss and peck at the intruder's hand, remaining brooding over the eggs until forcibly removed. Range of egg colouration and measurement : The eggs of the Coal Titmouse are from five to eight, or even ten, in number. They are white in ground colour, spotted and freckled with light red. As a rule most of the markings are distributed over the larger end of the egg, sometimes forming a zone, but frequently they are scattered over most of the surface. On some eggs the markings take the form of minute specks ; on others they are larger and more irregular in shape. Average measurement, '61 inch in length, by '46 inch in breadth. Incubation, performed by both sexes, lasts fourteen days. Diagnostic characters : It is impossible to dis- tinguish the eggs of the Coal Titmouse from those of allied species. The only reliable means of identification is to observe the parents — usually a very easy task. BLUE TITMOUSE. 91 Family TARID/E. Genus Parus. Sub-family PARIN^E. BLUE TITMOUSE. Parus CvERULeus, Linnccus. Double Brooded. Laying season, April and June. British breeding area : The Blue Titmouse is by far the commonest species of the present genus found in the British Islands. It is more or less abundantly dis- tributed in all districts suited to its requirements throughout the United Kingdom, but does not, as a breeding species, extend to the Hebrides, the Orkneys, and the Shetlands. It also becomes rarer and more local in the northern parts of Scotland, and the wilder districts of Ireland. Breeding habits : The Blue Titmouse shows little partiality for any particular haunt. Its breeding- grounds may be said to be anywhere in all districts that are sufficiently well wooded for the requirements of this species. It breeds indiscriminately in woods, fields, lanes, hedgerows, shrubberies, plantations, gardens, orchards, and in buildings of various kinds, as well as walls in suitable localities. I am of opinion that the Blue Titmouse pairs for life, and yearly it will be found to return to its old nest, even in spite of continued disturbance. Although social and gregarious for the remainder of the year, in the breeding season the Blue Titmouse is solitary, each pair keeping to themselves until the young leave the nest. The site for the nest of this species is invariably a covered one. Holes in trees, stumps, posts, and in walls are the favourite situations ; less frequently a hole in the ground is selected. Many curious sites for the nest have been recorded, which we 92 THE NESTS AND EGGS OF BRITISH BIRDS. have not space to namC; such as pumps, cupboards flowci'-pots, and the like. The bird will also readily take possession of a box placed in a tree, as I have many times experienced. The nest, made at varying depths, is a slovenly and careless structure of moss and dry grass, felted together with wool and hair, and lined Avith feathers. The actions of the Blue Titmouse at the nest do not differ in any important respect from those of species already described. Range of egg colouration and measurement : The eggs of the Blue Titmouse vary from six to ten in number, but clutches of a dozen are not very uncommon, whilst as many as eighteen have been recorded. They are pure white in ground colour, freckled and minutely spotted with light red. The markings are usually very small, most abundant round the large end of the q^^^ where they form a zone. Average measurement, "58 inch in length, by "45 inch in breadth. Incubation, performed by both parents, lasts fourteen days. Diagnostic characters : The eggs of the Blue Titmouse so closely resemble those of allied species, that the only safe means of authenticating them is to identify the parents at the nest. As a rule the eggs of this Titmouse are more minutely marked than those of allied species, but the character is not a constant one. GREAT TITMOUSE. 93 Family TARID.^. Genus Tarus. Subfamily PARIN.^. GREAT TITMOUSE. Parus major, Lifi/neus. Double Brooded. Laying season, April and June. British breeding area: Next to the Blue Tit- mouse the present species is certainly the commonest and most widely distributed Titmouse found within our area. It breeds more or less abundantly throughout the wooded and well-timbered districts of the British Islands, with the exception of the Hebrides, Orkneys, and Shetlands, Breeding habits : Confined in a similar manner to the cultivated and timbered districts as the preceding species, its haunts are practically the same. It may be said to breed almost everywhere, amongst trees of all kinds, in woods, plantations, and coppices, in gardens and orchards, in lanes and hedgerows, near houses, and in outbuildings. Like the preceding species it pairs for life, returning year by year to one favourite spot ; and although gregarious and social at other times, becomes solitary during the nesting period, each pair keeping to themselves. The birds also become much less noisy as soon as incubation commences, and skulk more closely amongst the foliage. The nest of the Great Titmouse may be conveniently divided into two very distinct types, each made in quite a different situation. First we have the most usual nest in a hole of a tree, post, or stump, or in a crevice of a wall, loosely and carelessly made of felted moss, dead leaves, dry grass, hair, and wool, lined with feathers. Second, we have the much less frequent nest placed in the deserted home of a Crow, Magpie, or 94 THE NESTS AND EGGS OF BRITISH BIRDS. squirrel, or amongst the sticks of a Rook's nest, well made, globular, and composed chiefly of moss exter- nally, warmly lined with feathers. Occasionally the nest is made in a hole in the ground, whilst many curious situations have been recorded. Montagu states that a nest is sometimes dispensed with altogether, the eggs being laid on the powdered wood. The bird fre- quently enlarges the hole, and has been known to excavate it entirely. The actions of the old birds at the nest do not differ from those of their congeners, already described. They are remarkably shy and wary birds throughout the breeding season. Range op" egg colouration and measurement: The eggs of the Great Titmouse are usually from five to eight in number, but occasionally ten or twelve may be found. They are white or yellowish-white in ground colour, freckled and blotched with light red. As usual, two distinct types of eggs occur : those in which the spots are minute, and those in which they are larger and blotchy ; whilst both types either have them uniformly distributed over most of the surface, or confined to a zone round the larger end. Average measurement, ■/ inch in length, by "55 inch in breadth. Incubation, performed by both sexes, lasts fourteen days. Diagnostic characters : The eggs of the Great Titmouse are on an average readily distinguished by their larger size from those of allied Titmice, but the eggs of the Nuthatch and the Creeper very closely resemble them ; the nest, however, is quite sufficient to designate the ownership. GOLDCREST. 95 Family PARID/E. Genus Regulus. Sub-family REGULIN.-E. GOLDCREST. Regulus cristatus, Koch. Single Brooded. Laying season, April and May, British breeding area : The Goldcrcst is generally and widely distributed throughout the British Islands, becoming, of course, the least common in districts where trees are scarce, and therefore not known to breed in the Outer Hebrides, the Orkneys, and the Shetlands. The range of this species is slowly yet steadily increas- ing in Scotland, owing to the formation of larch and fir plantations. Breeding habits: The principal breeding-haunts of the Goldcrest are shrubberies and plantations, especially such that contain fir, larch, or yew trees. It is note- worthy what a small plantation will content several pairs of birds, sometimes a mere bunch of Scotch firs or larches containing several nests. It is probable that the Goldcrest pairs for life, although a new nest appears to be made each year. This nest is a charming piece of handiwork, usually made at the extremity of a branch, nearly globular in form, and slung hammock-wise from the twigs. The foliage surrounding it is interwoven with the materials, so that the whole appears nothing but a more than usually dense tuft of vegetation. Nests of this species have been found on the top of flat branches, but this must be very exceptional, as are also nests made in bushes. The nest is composed of moss, spiders' webs, hairs, and a few lichens well felted together, and lined with a warm bed of feathers. The Goldcrest is shy and retiring during the nesting season. 96 THE NESTS AND EGGS OF BRITISH BJRDS. and a close sitter, but the peculiar high-pitched call- notes readily betray its presence, and render the dis- covery of the nest a by no means difficult task. Range of egg colouration and measurement : The eggs of the Goldcrest are usually from five to eight in number, but ten have been occasionally found. They are pale reddish-white in ground colour, sometimes pure white, minutely speckled with brownish-red, chiefly on the larger end. Some eggs have the colouring matter confluent, clouded, and suffused over the entire surface. Average measurement, "53 inch in length, by ■41 inch in breadth. Incubation, performed chiefly by the female, lasts twelve or thirteen days. Diagnostic characters : The small size, minute markings, and reddish tinge are sufficient to distinguish the eggs of the Goldcrest from those of any other species breeding in the British Islands. The nest also is unique. Family LANIID^. Genus Lanius. RED-B ACK E D SHRIKE. Lanius collurio, Liimceiis. Single Brooded. Laying season, May and June. British breeding area: The Red-backed Shrike is decidedly a southern species, but one nevertheless pretty generally distributed during summer over the southern and central portions of England and Wales. It is said to be rare in Cornwall, but is certainly common in Devonshire, and thence in all the southern RED-BACKED SHRIKE. 97 counties to Kent. In Norfolk and Lincolnshire it is said to be decreasing, and anywhere north of Yorkshire is decidedly rare and local. It has occasionally bred in the south-east of Scotland, but is unknown as a nesting species in Ireland. Breeding habits : The Red-backed Shrike is one of the latest of our summer visitors to arrive. The haunts of this species are farms where tall hedges are numerous, common lands, covered with plenty of thicket and brushwood, country lanes, orchards, and large gardens. I am of opinion that this bird pairs for life. It certainly migrates in pairs, and appears to return with wonderful regularity to its old haunts, even the same bushes being visited year by year. It seldom wanders far from one locality from the time of its arrival early in May, until the young are able to fly, in July or August. The nest is built in a variety of situations, generally with no attempt at concealment, and very often by the side of the highway or near a footpath. A favourite spot is in a tall hedge, or a thick bush, less frequently in a thicket of briars and brambles. One spot, visited yearly by a pair of these Shrikes, wa^ a large clump of willows on the Great Western Railway" ' embankment between Paignton and Torquay, and not a dozen feet from the passing trains. It has now been cut down, and the birds have gone elsewhere. The nest is built at varying heights, on an average about six or eight feet from the ground. It differs a good deal, not only in the materials, but in the amount of care and skill displayed in its construction. The usual type of nest is made externally of round dry grass-stems, the stalks of various plants, and a few roots ; internally, it is composed of finer stems and roots, a few feathers and flakes of moss and wool (round the rim), and finally lined with hair. A less frequent type of nest gS THE NESTS AND EGGS OF BRITISH BIRDS. now lying beside me is composed chiefly of moss and wool felted together, and strengthened on the outside with round dry grass-stalks, and a few dead twigs (oak, woodbine, wild-rose, and bramble). The nest is very loosely built into the site, sometimes a few of the surrounding twigs being enclosed with the outer materials. The male makes himself very conspicuous near the nest, and his actions, if observed, soon betray its whereabouts. The female sits closely, and makes little demonstration when disturbed from her eggs. I have known this bird make several nests one after the other in a certain spot as they have been taken. Range of egg colouration and measurement: The eggs of the Red-backed Shrike arc from four to six in number, the former often being found. They vary considerably in colour, but so far as I can deter- mine each bird constantly lays one certain type. The ground colour is either pale green, pale buff, white, creamy-white, or salmon colour. The green and buff varieties are usually spotted, freckled, and blotched with various shades of olive-brown, and the underlying markings, similar in character, are pale brown and violet-gray. The white, cream, and salmon-tinted vari- eties are usually spotted, freckled, and blotched with reddish-brown and brownish-red, and with underlying markings of violet-gray. The markings are generally most numerous on the larger end of the ^g^, where they form a broad, irregular zone, but sometimes they are more evenly distributed. The pale underlying markings are both numerous and well defined ; indeed on some eggs they predominate. Occasionally, a few streaks may be met with. Average measurement, '88 inch in length, by -65 inch in breadth. Incubation is performed almost exclusively by the female, and lasts fourteen days. WOODCHAT SHRIKE. 99 Diagnostic characters : The eggs of this Shrike arc not readily confused with those of any other species habitually breeding within the British area, their size, well-marked types of colour, and zones of spots being so far peculiar to them as to render their identification an easy matter. The nest is also very characteristic. The Woodchat Shrike {Laniiis rnfus) has been recorded as having bred several times in the Isle of Wight, but as our islands are somewhat out of the normal line of migration of this species, the event must be an exceedingly exceptional one. I had abundant opportunities of studying the habits of this handsome bird in Algeria. The eggs are usually laid in May. The nest is made in a fork of the branches of a small tree or large bush ; I have seen it twenty feet from the ground, close to the trunk of a poplar; and in many cases it is made with little or no attempt at conceal- ment. Externally the materials are stalks and stems of plants and grass, the dry leaves of grass, dead leaves, and occasionally tufts of wool ; it is lined with withered flowers of the cudweed and other aromatic plants, wool and vegetable down. The eggs are from four to six in number, five being the usual clutch. They are considerably larger than those of the Red-backed Shrike, but otherwise closely resemble them in appear- ance. It may be remarked, however, that the red type of Q^^ so common in that species is just as rare in the eggs of the Woodchat Shrike. Average measure- ment, '92 inch in length, by "69 inch in breadth. Incubation, performed almost entirely by the female, lasts fourteen days. But one brood appears to be reared in the year. loo THE NESTS AND EGGS OF BRITISH BIRDS. Family TURDID^. Genus Phylloscopus. Sub-family SYLVIINM. C H I F F C H A F F. Phylloscopus rufus {Bec/istein). Single Brooded. Laying season, April, May, and June. British breeding area: The ChifTchaflf is fairly well distributed over England and Wales, most abun- dant in the southern and midland counties, becoming rarer and more local northwards. In Scotland and the north of England it is nothing near so common as the Willow Wren, but certainly appears to extend as far as Ross-shire. Its breeding area in Ireland is very imper- fectly known, but the bird is certainly more local than in England. Breeding habits : The Chiffchaff is a summer migrant, reaching our shores in March and April. The haunts of this species are woods, plantations, and cop- pices, tall hedgerows and orchards, whence throughout the spring the monotonous song or cJiiff-cJiaff of the male is almost incessantly sounding. The Chiffchaff may pair annually, although there is some evidence to suggest that certain spots are visited by certain birds each season. The nest is either built on the ground or, more generally, from a few inches to a few feet above it. It is placed amongst tall, rank vegetation, growing in the woods or by the hedge-side, in ivy, either growing up a tree or wall, and least frequently of all in a bush or mass of brambles. The nest of the Chiffchaff is oval and semi-domed, the hole admitting the parents being on the side near the top. It is made externally of dry grass, dead leaves, and scraps of moss, and lined with a little horsehair and even roots, and a large quantity of feathers. The Chiffchaff is a close sitter, and when CHIFFCHAFF. loi disturbed glides very quietly from her eggs. In visiting the nest the old birds are exceedingly cautious, if any danger threatens, and hop restlessly about for a long time before they will betray their secret. This species is not at all social during the nesting season. Range of egg colouration and measurement : The eggs of the Chiffchafif are from five to seven in number. They range from white to white tinged with yellow in ground colour, somewhat sparingly spotted and freckled with dark or pale reddish-brown, and with a few underlying markings of violet-gray. Most of the spots are, as a rule, on the larger end of the &^^, but occasionally they are more uniformly distributed. Average measurement, '6 inch in length by "46 inch in breadth. Incubation, performed chiefly by the female, lasts thirteen or fourteen days. Diagnostic characters : The eggs of the Chiffchafif are best distinguished by their few and dark reddish- brown coloured markings. The eggs of some of the Titmice closely resemble them, but the formation and locality of the nest prevent confusion. Family TURDID^. Genus Phylloscopus. Sub-family SYLVIIN.-E. WILLOW WREN. Phylloscopus trochilus {LmncBus). Single Brooded. Laying season, April, May, and June. British breeding area : The Willow Wren is commonly distributed throughout the British Islands, extending to almost every portion where trees occur, I02 THE NESTS AND EGGS OF BRITISH BIRDS. although it docs not breed in the Orkneys and Shetlands. Breeding habits : The haunts of the Willow Wren embrace almost every kind of scenery, provided trees or bushes form a part. The bird may be found breeding near the moors, in the coppices and plantations of young trees, or amongst the trees and bushes that fringe the mountain stream. In better-cultivated districts it may be met with amongst the fields and orchards and gar- dens, in shrubberies, woods, and game coverts — in fact wherever trees with a moderate amount of undergrowth below them are to be found, the sweet song and plaintive call-note of the Willow Wren may be heard. It is un- doubtedly the most common of all the Warblers that visit us in spring, arriving early in April. Whether it pairs for life or not is difficult to say ; but I think the same spots are visited yearly, although the birds do not join into pairs for some time after their arrival. The nest is usually made on the ground, among herbage on a bank, and under the shelter of a bush or tuft of tall grass by preference. Frequently it is made among mowing grass, and very rarely it may be met with at some distance from the ground, I once found a nest some three feet from the ground, resting on a stone jutting from an old wall, surrounded with ivy, and partly supported by the stem of a hawthorn sapling. The nest is semi-domed, but more open than that of the Chifichaff, loosely put together, and made externally of dry grass, scraps of moss, withered leaves, and roots, and lined with horsehair, cowhair, and quantities of feathers, I have counted two hundred feathers in the lining of a single nest ! The parent birds are very wary at the nest, but may generally be made to disclose its whereabouts if sufificient patience is used. The bird is a close sitter, and when flushed will flit restlessly about IVILLOIV WREN. 103 from spray to spray near the cleverly-concealed nest, not venturing to visit it until all fear is allayed. Range of egg colouration and measurement: The eggs of the Willow Wren are from four to seven or even eight in number. They range from white to white tinged with yellow in ground colour, blotched, spotted, and freckled with pale brownish-red or reddish-brown. The markings are frequently distributed over most of the surface of the shell, occasionally most numerous on the larger end, and forming a zone or circular, semi- confluent patch. The amount of spotting varies con- siderably. Average measurement, '62 inch in length, by •47 inch in breadth. Incubation, performed by both sexes, lasts from thirteen to fourteen days. Diagnostic characters: The pale reddish-brown or brownish-red markings, combined with the locality and formation of the nest, serve to distinguish the eggs of the Willow Wren, and to render their identification easy. Family TURDID.4L. Genus Phylloscopus. Sub-family SYLVIIN.E. WOOD WREN. Phylloscopus sibilatrix {Bec/istei/i). Single Brooded. Laying season, May and June. British breeding area: The Wood Wren is by far the rarest and most local of the three British Willow Warblers. It is more or less thinly dispersed through- out suitable districts in England and Wales ; and 104 THE NESTS AND EGGS OF BRITISH BIRDS. becomes even more sparingly distributed in Scotland, although certainly breeding as far north as Sutherland- shire. In Ireland it is rare, but probably breeds in Wicklow and some other counties on the eastern sea- board. Breeding habits : The favourite breeding-grounds and summer haunts of the Wood Wren are large woods and coppices, plantations of tall mixed trees with plenty of undergrowth, game coverts, and, less frequently, orchards. It is a late migrant, not reaching the British Islands before the middle or end of April. It is im- possible to say whether this species pairs for life ; the sexes do not appear to migrate in company. I have observed a tendency to frequent a certain spot year by year. The nest is invariably placed on the ground often wedged in a little hollow bare of herbage. A bank in the woods well clothed with rank vegetation, or a more open spot in the coppices and plantations amongst heath and bilberry wires, are the favourite situations. The nest, in shape similar to that of the Willow Wren or the Chiffchaff, semi-domed, is made principally of dry grass, with scraps of moss and a few dead leaves, and lined sparingly with horsehair. The Wood Wren is another close sitter. The nest is cunningly concealed, and usually found as the bird hurriedly flies off. When disturbed, the actions of the parents are very similar to those of the Willow Wren, and the nest may usually be discovered with due patience. The Wood Wren is not at all social during the nesting season. The monotonous double call-note {dee-iir), and the strange shivering song are ready means of identifying this species. Range of egg colouration and measurement: The eesfs of the Wood Wren are from five to seven in number. They are pure white in ground colour, thickly JVOOn WREN. 105 spotted and freckled with rich purpHsh-brown, and with underlying markings of violet-gray. Usually the mark- ings are pretty evenly distributed, becoming most numerous round the larger end of the o.^^, often form- ing a zone. Some are much more thickly marked than others ; and on some many of the markings run into large pale blotches intermingled with smaller and darker spots. The underlying markings are both well defined and numerous. Average measurement, "65 inch in length, by "56 inch in breadth. Incubation, performed chiefly by the female, lasts from thirteen to fourteen days. Diagnostic characters : The numerous and rich dark brown surface-markings, and violet-gray underlying spots, readily distinguish the eggs of the Wood Wren from those of allied species breeding in our islands. The absence of feathers in the nest-lining is also another important fact in the question of their identification. Family TURDID^. Genus Sylvia. Sub-family SYLVIIN.E. DARTFORD WARBLER. Sylvia provincialis {Gmcliii). Double Brooded. Laying season, April and June. British breeding area : The Dartford Warbler is another very local species, and with a somewhat restricted area of distribution in our islands. It breeds locally from Cornwall to Kent, thence northwards along the Thames valley and through some of the midland districts io5 THE NESTS AND EGGS OF BRITISH BIRDS. (Worcestershire, Leicestershire, Derbyshire) south of Yorkshire. A few also probably breed in Cambridge- shire, Norfolk, and Suffolk. I have taken the nest of this bird from a gorse covert by the side of the reservoirs at Hollow Meadows, on the extreme southern borders of Yorkshire. Unknown in Ireland and Scotland. Breeding habits: The favourite and, during the breeding season, so far as our islands are concerned, exclusive haunts of the Dartford Warbler are gorse or furze coverts. It is a resident species, and does not wander far from its usual retreats all through the year. It is difficult to say whether this species pairs for life or not ; certainly the birds keep close company always, and may be found nesting season after season in certain favoured places. The Dartford Warbler is very skulking in its habits, and easily overlooked, although the peculiar and very characteristic note of pit-it-chou, or the more Whitethroat-like scolding chay-chay-chay, often reveals its presence when the bird is hidden from view amongst the dense and well-nigh impenetrable cover. The nest of this Warbler is almost invariably built amongst the withered lower branches of the furze, where very often long dry grass is matted round the stems. It is a very delicate and loosely-made structure, composed externally of round dry grass-stalks, bits of withered furze and scraps of moss, and lined with flakes of wool, finer grass- stems, and occasionally a few horsehairs. It is some- what deep, but very net-like and fragile. The parent birds are very skulking at the nest, the hen sitting closely, and when disturbed slipping quietly off into the dense surrounding cover. No social tendencies are manifest in the breeding habits of this species. Range of egg colouration and measurement : The eggs of the Dartford Warbler are four or five in number. They are white in ground colour, sometimes LESSER WHITE THROAT. 107 suffused with green or buff, spotted and freckled with dark brown, and with underlying markings of paler brown and gray. The spots are usually most numerous on the larger end of the egg, often forming an irregular zone, but sometimes they are more evenly dispersed over the entire surface. Average measurement, '68 inch in length, by "51 inch in breadth. Incubation, performed chiefly by the female, lasts from twelve to fourteen days. Diagnostic characters : The eggs of the Dartford Warbler very closely resemble those of the Whitethroat, but as a rule the markings are darker and more clearly defined. The eggs of this Warbler require the most careful identification. The nest in some measure assists the collector in the task. Family TURDID,^. - Genus Sylvia. Sub-family SYLVHN.E. LESSER WHITETHROAT. ' ' . Sylvia curruca {LiniicEiis). . Single Brooded. Laying season, May and June. British breeding area: The Lesser Whitethroat is a much more local species than the Common Whitethroat, becoming rare in the west of England and in Wales. It is fairly well distributed over the southern, central, and eastern counties, as far north as Lancashire and Yorkshire. It becomes rare north of these limits ; whilst in Scotland it is even rarer and more locally dispersed, as far north as the valley of io8 THE NESTS AND EGGS OF BRITISH BIRDS. the Forth. Of only abnormal occurrence in Ireland {Zoologist, 1 89 1, p. 186). Breeding habits : The breeding-grounds of the Lesser Whitethroat are coppices, small plantations, or- chards, gardens, commons, hedgerows, and shrubberies. It is a summer migrant to our islands, arriving during the latter half of April or early in May. It appears to pair annually, shortly after reaching its nesting localities. A peculiarity of its habits is its partiality for the higher branches of the trees and hedg