ai ee eerie eo et et eee ee on Feat in San “> i 7 ri : ‘ = . . entity iat Soa ier -_ a 4 x a © foes THE NESTS AND EGGS » OF BRITISH BIRDS ae av M ee ink NESTS “AND - EGGS wm BRITISH BIRDS WHEN AND WHERE TO FIND THEM BEING A thandbook to the Oology of the British S$slands By CHARLES DIXON AUTHOR OF ‘RURAL BIRD-LIFE,’ ‘EVOLUTION WITHOUT NATURAL SELECTION,’ ‘OUR RARER BIRDS,’ ‘ANNALS OF BIRD-LIFE,’ ‘STRAY FEATHERS FROM MANY BIRDS,’ ‘IDLE HOURS WITH NATURE,’ ‘THE BIRDS OF OUR RAMBLES,’ ‘THE GAME BIRDS AND WILD FOWL OF THE BRITISH ISLANDS,’ ‘THE MIGRATION OF BIRDS,’ ETC. LONDON? CHAPMAN AND. HALL, Lop: 1893 [Ad rights reserved] RicHarp Ciay & Sons, Limirep, Lonpon & Buncay. PREFACE. THE following pages deal exclusively with the birds that breed within the confines of the British Archi- pelago; consequently the student will find several familiar species omitted, the Fieldfare and the Redwing for example, they having no claim whatever to be con- sidered in a work which professes to be a Handbook to the Oology of our islands alone. The idea of a work on the Nests and Eggs of British Birds occurred to me some twelve years ago; and from that time to the present I have been carefully collecting facts, examining specimens, and so on, with the object of forming a comprehensive handbook to British Oology. The results of my studies are now presented to the reader in the following pages. Most of my information has been obtained from personal observation ; and with very few exceptions I have taken with my own hands nests and eggs of all our British species; whilst with most of them I have extended my observations over periods of many years. In the present volume I have endeavoured to foster Oology as a science, not to encourage the indiscriminate collecting of these beautiful objects from the promptings of a mere dric-d-brac mania. The nest and eggs of a bird to a great extent reflect the life-history of the bird itself, and vividly illustrate no unimportant part of that bird’s economy. If my labours serve to elevate Oology vi PREFACE. to a higher plane of dignity and importance than that on which it rests at present, it will be a source of un- mixed pleasure ; whilst if, by setting forth a description of the wonderful, if utilitarian, structures made by our native birds, or the charming and varied characteristics of their beautiful eggs, I can succeed in enlisting a fuller measure of sympathy for the birds themselves, I shall ever view the many years of patient yet loving labour with the highest satisfaction. I commenced to collect nests and eggs when I was barely ten years of age; the passion has grown upon me; and from then to now these wonderful objects have ever won from me an admiration which is only second to that which I have always had for the Birds that make and produce them. CHARLES DIXON. february 1893. Raven ... Sei Carrion Crow ... Hooded Crow NOOK = a. ie Jackdaw Bes Common Chough Common Jay ... Magpie a Starling ar Golden Oriole Common Crossbill Hawfinch ses Bullfinch a House Sparrow Tree Sparrow ... Greenfinch ... Goldfinch Ree Siskimepace bits Chaffinch ae Linnet ... acre Twite ..: Pee Lesser Redpole Snow Bunting Reed Bunting ... Corn Bunting ... Cirl Bunting ... Yellow Bunting Sky-Lark = CONT ENS: Corvus corax 9» corone ayes » Srugilegus » monedula Pyrrhocorax graculus Garrulus glandartus Picacaudata... Sturnus vulgaris Oriolus galbula Loxia curvirostra Coccothraustes vulgaris . Pyrrhula vulgaris ... Passer domesticus » montanus fringilla chlorts ” carduelis x Spinus ¥ calebs Linota cannabina » SJlavirostris » riufescens Plectrophenax nivalis on Emberiza scheniclus =) miltavta ... ae cirlus sae 5 cttrinella... Alauda arvensis N Oo WD W Ww n+ (ee) Vill Wood-Lark Pied Wastail ... sme White Wagtail oe Gray Wagtail ... Blue-headed Wagtail Yellow Wagtail Tree Pipit Meadow Pipit Rock Pipit Common Creeper Common Nuthatch Bearded Titmouse Long-tailed Titmouse Crested Titmouse Marsh Titmouse Coal Titmouse Blue Titmouse Great Titmouse Goldcrest Red-backed Shrike Woodchat Shrike Chiffchaff Willow Wren ... Wood Wren Dartford Warbler Lesser Whitethroat Whitethroat Garden Warbler Blackcap Warbler Marsh Warbler Reed Warbler Sedge Warbler Grasshopper Warbler Savi’s Warbler Song Thrush ... Missel-Thrush Blackbird Ring Ouzel CONTENTS. Alauda arborea Motacilla alba yarrellit 5 alba 55 sulphurea eave _ rait Anthus trivialts » pratensis 9, obscurus Certhia familiaris S7itta cesta Bee Panurus biarmicus ... Acredula caudata rosea Parus cristatus Parus palustris et palustris aressert », ater et ater britannicus 5 ceruleus 93 WHATOR 2. Regulus cristatus Lantus collurio AYES 2 Phylloscopus rufus ... PP trochilus r sthtlatrix Sylvia provinctalts ... 5 curruca » cinerea 5, Aortensts » atricapilla Acrocephalus palustris arundinaceus as phragmitis Locustella locustella FA luscintoides Turdus musicus o UISCLUOVUS Merula merula A torguata CONTENTS. PANObIN: «.< Nightingale Redstart _ Black Redstart Wheatear Whinchat Stonechat Hedge Accentor Dipper... Common Wren St. Kilda Wren Spotted Flycatcher Pied Flycatcher Barn Swallow House Martin Sand Martin .... Wryneck ie Green Woodpecker ... Lesser Spotted Wandpecker Great Spotted Woodpecker Cuckoo Common Swift Common Nightjar Hoopoe tee Common Kingfisher ... Barn Owl Wood Owl Short-eared Owl Long-eared Owl Peregrine Falcon Hobby ... Merlin ... Kestrel.. Se Golden Eagle.. White-tailed Eagle Common Kite Honey Buzzard Common Buzzard Rough-lezged Buzzard Ertthacus rubecula ... Fr luscinia Ruticilla phentcurus 3 tithys Saxtcola enanthe Pratincola rubetra.... 3 rubicola ... Accentor modularis ... Cinclus aguaticus Troglodytes parvulus cs parvulus hirtensts Muscicapa grisola ... & atricapilla Hirundo rustica Chelidon urbica Cotyle riparia Lynx torqguilla Gecinus viridts Picus minor ... PH OIOT. 0 Cuculus canorus Cypselus apus Caprimuleus europaeus Upupa epops... Alcedo ispida Aluco flammeus Strix aluco Asio brachyotus » otus Falco peregrinus y subbuteo 93 SALON 00 » tnnunculus Aguila chrysaetus ... Flaliaétus albicilla . Milvus regalis Pernts aptvorus Buteo vulgaris Archibuteo lagopus.... Montagu’s Harrier ... Hen Harrier ... eae Marsh Harrier Ene Goshawk Ne wee Sparrow-Hawk ae Osprey ... 593 she Cormorant... ane Shag... 0 ti. Gannet ie oe Mute Swan ... aoe Gray-Lag Goose — Common Sheldrake ... Gadwall ane stad Pintail Duck ... ee Wigeon... eee Bn Common Teal Rs Garganey 5ee ae Shoveller on ane Mallard au its Pochard ane ae Tufted Duck ... Ae Common Scoter ee Golden-Eye ... 360 Common Eider AAA Goosander ... ame Red-breasted Merganser Common Heron sat Bittern ... eee thie Stone Curlew ..: see Lapwing eee ae Golden Plover re Dotterel aes aos Kentish Sand Plover Greater Ringed Plover Oystercatcher ... one Rufio 390 aisle Common Sandpiper ... Wood Sandpiper... Redshank ste sac CONTENTS, Circus CileraceusS ... cyaneus ait 9) G@YULTHOSUS 426 Astur palumbarius ... Accipiter nisus bs Pandion haliaétus ... Phalacrocorax carbo ) 54 graculus Sula bassana ie Cygnus olor ... ie Anser cinereus aes Tadorna cornuta ... Anas strepera Soe y QLULE en Béc », penelope Soe Fy GHCCEM asst x ay) GUN ClE: ree Bac 5 clypeata sae » OGoschas ... se Fuligula ferina Poe 5 CTASTQUD Wane 99 nigra os Clangula glaucion ... Somateria mollisstma Mergus merganser ... 3 SCLEALOT étic Ardea cinerea ee Botaurus stellarts ... Gdicnemus crepitans Vanellus cristatus ... Charadrius pluvialis Eudromias morinellus A gialophilus cantianus Ee gialitis hiaticula major Hematopus ostravegus Totanus pugnax ... hypoleucus ... glareola ... calidris Soe ” ” ” Greenshank Common Curlew Whimbrel ae Red-necked Phalarope Dunlin... Woodcock Common Snipe Richardson’s Skua Great Skua Kittiwake Herring Gull ... : Great Black-backed Gull Lesser Black-backed Gull Common Gull Black-headed Gull Sandwich Tern Roseate Tern ... Common Tern Arctic Tern Lesser Tern Nee Common Guillemot ... Black Guillemot Razorbill Puffin ee wes Leach’s Fork-tailed Petrel Stormy Petrel Fulmar Petrel Manx Shearwater Red-throated Diver .. Black-throated Diver Little Grebe os Great Crested Grebe Black-necked Grebe ... Sclavonian Grebe Corn Crake Spotted Crake Baillon’s Crake Water- Rail Waterhen CONTENTS. Totanus glottis Numenius arquatus 0 pheopus Phataropus hy perboreus Tringa alpina Scolopax rusticola 25 gallinago ... Stercorarius richardsont 55 catarrhactes Larus tridactylus » argentatus » marinus Bo ORGS bac 3) COUN. » vedtbundus Sterna cantiaca » aougalld 5» Atrundo 30 GHEE: » minuta Uria trotle » grylle Alca torda Fratercula arctica Procellaria leachi a pelagica... Fulmarus glacialis ... Puffinus anglorum . Colymbus septentrionalis * arcticus Podiceps minor e cristatus Podiceps nigricollis ... or cornutus Crex pratensis porzana NE CQLLLONE! a Rallus aquaticus 3 Gallinula chloropus xil Common Coot Ring-Dove Stock-Dove Rock-Dove ... aye Turtle-Dove ... Pallas’s Sand Grouse Common Quail Red-legged Partridge Common Partridge Pheasant Capercallie s_.. Black Grouse ... Red Grouse -... Ptarmigan... CONTENTS. PAGE sen LOCO ALO rae ane Eg42 Columba palumbus ... me 44! | @nas a sec, 440 me livia ee cee 340 Turtur auritus as 500 SO Syrrhaptes paradoxus sf ool ... Coturnix communis ... ee Bb2 Caccabis rufa ace sooy moti Perdix cinerea aay wer) 355 Phasianus colchicus Soe Sy Tetrao urogallus ... eee eS5O By NLELF LSE see ae San {SO Lagopus scoticus ... wae, 402 55 mutus aide Sach» Zou! ADDENDUM. PAGE 162.—It would appear that the eggs of the House Martin (Chelidon urbica) are very exceptionally spotted. I note a recent instance recorded in the /%edd. Without wishing to cast doubt on the édoxa fides, | may remark that no such abnormal variety has ever come under my own observation. DE NESTS ANDefGEGS «OF BRITISH: BILRDS. Family CORVID. Genus CORVUS. Rea EN. CORVUS CORAX, Linne@us. Single Brooded. Laying season, March and April, sometimes in February. BRITISH BREEDING AREA: The Raven is slowly vanishing as a breeding species from England. At the present time it breeds here and there on the rocky headlands of the south coast of England, but few are the places where it is allowed to do so in peace. One or two pairs breed regularly on the coast of Devonshire (one pair to my knowledge this season on the rocks near Watcombe). In Wales it is perhaps more common. The great stronghold of this species now is in the wild districts of Ireland and the Highlands, especially in the Hebrides (including St. Kilda), where it nests com- monly, even in spite of ceaseless persecution. Inland localities are now nearly deserted, except in very secluded places, and the Raven’s great breeding strong- holds are on the ocean cliffs. BREEDING HABITS: The Raven lives in the company B . 2 THE. NESTS AND ECGS°OP BRIISE Bucy, of its mate more or less closely during life, and for years and years will continue to frequent one favourite breed- ing-place. It is one of the very earliest birds to com- mence nesting duties, and the eggs are not unfrequently laid before the last of the snow has vanished from its haunts. Formerly the Raven usually nested in a tree; but the incessant persecution that has banished this fine bird from most woodland districts has caused it con- siderably to alter its domestic arrangements. Most Ravens’ nests are now built on lofty and very often inaccess'ble cliffs. Here a site is found on some ledge, or deep down in a fissure, or even amongst bushes and ivy growing from the rock. The exact spot is often indicated by the white droppings that splash surround- ing objects; or the nest itself is generally very large, being often the accumulation of many years, as the birds frequently add to their home each season. The nest is made of sticks and often branches of heather or ling, sometimes with masses of wool clinging to them ; turf, roots, moss, wool, fur, and hair form a soft and plentiful lining. It has frequently been remarked that nests of this species built in trees are much more com- pact than those on cliffs. The parent birds are wary and watchful enough, and are ever ready to attack and beat off any predatory bird that may venture too near their home. During the nesting period the old Ravens may frequently be seen playing and toying in the air above their nesting-place, and uttering by no means unmusical cries. . RANGE OF EGG COLOURATION AND MEASUREMENT : The eggs of the Raven are from three to seven in number; five being an average clutch. They are bluish- sreen or olive-brown in ground colour, spotted, splashed, and freckled with various shades of olive, and occasion- ally with smaller markings of very dark brown, nearly RAVEN, 3 black. The underlying spots are paler and not so clearly defined, being often gray or violet in shade. Some eggs are much more sparingly spotted than others. Their shape, too, varies considerably, some being oval, others more rotund, and less frequently, pyriform. Rare varieties are reddish-white in ground colour, spotted with reddish-brown surface markings and violet-gray underlying markings. Average measure- ment, 2°0 inches in length, by 1°3 inch in breadth. In- cubation lasts from nineteen to twenty days, and is performed by both sexes, but the female takes the largest share. DIAGNOSTIC CHARACTERS: Normally the eggs of the Raven are readily distinguished from those of every other British species by their colour and size; but in some cases it is impossible to separate them from ex- ceptionally fine eggs of the Carrion Crow, or even the Rook and the Hooded Crow. In such cases it will, however, generally be found that those of the Raven are the /eavzest for their bulk. Family CORVID. Genus Corvus. Coen LON CRON. CORVUS CORONE, Linnceus. Single Brooded. —_ Laying season, April and May. BRITISH BREEDING AREA: Notwithstanding the war of extermination almost everywhere waged against it, the Carrion Crow is fairly well distributed over the woodland districts and rock-bound coasts of England. In Ireland it is rare and almost replaced by its close ally the Hooded Crow; the same remarks apply to 4 THE NESTS, AND EGGS OPRLBRIITSEH BIS. Scotland, although it is not so scarce, and certainly breeds sparingly in many districts of the Highlands and is seen in the Hebrides, but I did not observe it in St. Kilda. BREEDING HABITS: Like the Raven the Carrion Crow pairs for life, and will frequent a certain spot year by year for the purpose of reproduction ; but unlike that bird it is one of the latest of the Crow tribe to go to nest. The nests of this species are made in two very distinct situations: viz. on trees in wooded districts, and on cliffs and rocks in hilly and littoral districts. In the woodlands, a tall tree is selected in some secluded spot, often a fir or a pine, frequently an oak, an elm, or a beech, the nest being placed in the topmost branches. When on an inland rock or ocean precipice, precisely similar situations are chosen as those selected by the Raven. The nest is a bulky structure, differ- ing very little in appearance from that of the Rook. As they are often enlarged season by season, some nests are much bigger than others. The nest is made out- wardly of large and small sticks, branches of ling, and turf, and lined more or less compactly with roots, wool, moss, fur, and hair, a few feathers, and sometimes quan- tities of dry withered leaves. The cup containing the eggs is shallow, yet remarkably smooth. Nests in trees are better made than those placed on cliffs, if they are not generally so bulky.. The remarkable wariness of this bird is even more intensified during the breeding season. In some districts abroad the Carrion Crow has been known to nest on the ground, and even in this country a large bush has occasionally been selected. Nests of this species are sometimes met with in much- frequented places. RANGE OF EGG COLOURATION AND MEASUREMENT : The eggs of the Carrion Crow are from three to six in CARRION CROW. 5 number, five being an average clutch. They are green of various shades in ground colour, spotted, blotched, freckled, and dashed with olive-brown of different tints. Like those of all the other British species in this family they are subject to much variation in the amount and distribution of the markings, which are of two very distinct characters, viz. dark surface spots and paler and grayer underlying ones. Manyeggs exhibit a few small dark brown markings, and occasional varieties occur which are almost spotless. Average measurement, 1°7 inch in length, by 1:2 inch in breadth. Incubation lasts from eighteen to twenty days, and is performed by both Sexes, DIAGNOSTIC CHARACTERS: It is impossible to give any reliable character by which the eggs of the Carrion Crow may be distinguished from those of the Hooded Crow or the Rook; but as a rule they are a trifle larger and rounder than the eggs of those species. Family CORVID. Genus Corvus. OO iE Dy Gle@ VW CoRVUS CORNIX, Linnaeus. Single Brooded. Laying season, April and May. BRITISH BREEDING AREA: Instances of the Hooded Crow breeding in England and Wales are few and irregular, although the bird is said to nest every year in the Isle of Man. In Ireland and Scotland, however, it is widely distributed, especially in the north and west of the latter country, frequenting not only the mainland but most of the islands, from St. Kilda in the west to the Orkneys and Shetlands in the north. In some parts 6 THE NESTS AND £CGGS OF BRATS! WELDS, of Scotland it has been known to interbreed with the Carrion Crow, as it habitually does in the valleys of the Elbe and the Yenesay. BREEDING HABITS: I am of opinion that the Hooded Crow pairs for life, and frequents certain nesting-sites annually wherever it is allowed to remain undisturbed. It is rather a late breeder (although eggs of this species have been recorded exceptionally as early as the middle of March). The Hooded Crow readily adapts itself to circumstances, so far as a nesting-place is concerned. Where trees are scarce it will build on rocks or sea-cliffs, amongst tall ling on the hillsides, or even on the roof of the crofter’s hut, as was remarked by Gray. The greater number of nests of this species in our islands are pro- bably built on rocks; but in Siberia, where rocks are scarce and trees plentiful, the latter are most frequently used. Many nests are sometimes built near together, but the Hooded Crow is nothing near so sociable in this respect as the Rook or the Jackdaw. The materials of the nest do not differ from those employed by allied species. Sticks, twigs, the branches of ling and even bones are used to form the outer structure, which is well and warmly lined with moss, wool, hair, fur, feathers, and such-like soft material. Although by no means shy, Hooded Crows are wary enough at the nest, and seem to divine by inspiration whether an intruder can work them harm; being careful to keep out of gunshot. RANGE OF EGG COLOURATION AND MEASUREMENT: The eggs of the Hooded Crow are from three to six in number, five being an average clutch. They are green, of various shades in ground colour, more or less boldly spotted and blotched with surface markings of olive- brown, and underlying markings of paler brown and gray. They vary considerably in size and shape, an ROOK, P uncommon variety being very pyriform, almost like that of a Snipe. Sometimes they are met with almost snot- less. Average measurement, 1°7 inch in length, by 1:2 inch in breadth. Incubation, performed by both sexes, lasts from eighteen to twenty days. DIAGNOSTIC CHARACTERS: It is impossible to give any reliable character by which the student or collector may be enabled to distinguish the eggs of the Hooded Crow from those of the Carrion Crow and the Rook. The breeding areas cf the two latter species are, however, to a certain extent distinct; so that the locality, in the absence of more reliable data, should be of some service in their determination. Family CORVID, Genus CoRVUS. 1K @ Osis CORVUS FRUGILEGUS, Linneus. Single Brooded. Laying season, March and April. BRITISH BREEDING AREA: The Rook is widely and generally distributed throughout the British Islands, wherever there are trees sufficiently large to support its nest, and the surrounding country is not too barren to furnish it with sustenance. This species is gradually extending its range into many districts, especially in Scotland, where it has followed the planting of trees. More especially has this interesting fact been remarked in the island of Skye, where already there are two extensive colonies, from which pioneers are spreading in various directions with more or less success. As might naturally be inferred, rookeries are more abundant in & THE NESTS AND EGGS(%OF BRITISH BIRDS. England than in other portions of the British Islands. Many rookeries may still be found intowns; and Lon- don can boast not a few, although they are gradually decreasing in number and extent. BREEDING HABITS: The Rook pairs for life. Not only does it cantinue to frequent the same nesting-sites every season, but it lives in close companionship with its mate throughout the year, and periodically visits its nest trees, as if to assure itself that the home is safe. Tall trees are generally selected for nesting sites—oaks, elms, beeches, horse-chestnuts, planes, and sycamores. Lofty and slender ash and larch trees—mere poles—and in many districts Scotch firs are frequently used. In some rare instances tall holly bushes are selected. Asa rule the nests are made in the topmost branches, and very often numbers are built close together, sometimes in large masses. As the Rook is in the habit of adding to its nest each spring, some of the structures are of enormous dimensions, and contain a sackful of sticks or more. In some instances these piles of accumulated sticks have ceased to serve as nests, the owners either being dead or having deserted them. The nest is very firm and compact, made principally of sticks cemented with clay or mud, which latter material usually forms the first or inner lining. This is further lined with turf, moss, wool, dry leaves, bits of straw, and often a few feathers. It is somewhat shallow, but the lining is remarkably smooth and compact. Both maleand female assist in building the nest, and asa rule the birds only work at the task in the morning; and in the smaller rookeries never remain all night in the trees until the first eggs are laid. Rooks are remarkably noisy and quarrelsome during the building period, and are very prone to steal materials belonging to their neighbours— a practice which often leads to fatal conflicts. As may ROOK. 9 often be remarked, many nests are much smaller than others, these being the produce of young and newly- mated birds. Very often an odd nest or so is occasion- ally seen in trees at some distance from the colony, but these are rarely occupied many seasons in succession ; although I have in several instances known them to form the nucleus of a thriving colony. In one case a new rookery was thus formed after a tree had been felled in the main colony. Rooks, however, are most gregarious birds, very conservative, and cling to their favourite breeding-places time out of mind. RANGE OF EGG COLOURATION AND MEASUREMENT: The eggs of the Rook vary from three to five in number, and should any of the first eggs be taken only the usual clutch seems to be completed, the birds sometimes being content to sit ona single egg. They range from pale blue, nearly white, through various shades of green in geround colour, blotched, spotted, and clouded with olive-brown of varying degrees of intensity and under- lying markings of paler brown and gray. Usually the larger end of the shell is most heavily marked. Some specimens are spotted minutely with very dark brown, nearly black ; others are streaked with faint olive-green ; whilst others, yet again, are almost entirely devoid of colouring matter. They also vary considerably in size and shape, some being very rotund, others elongated. Average measurement, 1°7 inch in length, by 1°2 inch in breadth. Incubation lasts from seventeen to eighteen days, and is performed by both sexes, the female taking the largest share of the task. The eggs are sometimes sat upon as soon as laid. DIAGNOSTIC CHARACTERS: It is impossible to give any reliable character by which the eggs of the Rook may be distinguished from those of the Carrion and Hooded Crows. The best means of identification is at 10’ THE NESTS AND EGGS “OF BRITISH BIRDS. the nest, the Rooks almost invariably breeding in colonies, the Crows more solitarily. The call-note of the Rook at the nest is nothing near so harsh or guttural as that of the Crows. Family CORVID/E. Genus CoRVUS. JACKDAW. CORVUS MONEDULA, Linneus. i Single Brooded. Laying season, April and May. BRITISH BREEDING AREA: The Jackdaw is not only one of the commonest but one of the most widely distri- buted species in the present family. It breeds more or less abundantly in all suitable districts throughout the British Islands, even extending its range to Skye and the Orkneys, although some localities, apparently suitable in every respect to its requirements, are shunned for no determinable cause. It breeds abundantly on the ocean cliffs, and on many inland rocks, in forest districts, on ruins, castles, and cathedrals, in villages, and even in the busiest of cities. BREEDING HABITS: Like the Rook, the Jackdaw is not only a life-paired bird, but remarkably gregarious, and breeds in certain places year after year, in most cases using the same nest annually. Like the Carrion Crow, however, it is a somewhat late breeder. The nest is made in a great variety of situations, yet almost in- variably in a hole, either of a cliff, a tree, or a building. Instances are on record where the nest is said to have been made amongst ivy growing on cliffs, but such situations must be very exceptional. It is also said occasionally to use a rabbit-burrow for a nesting-place. The Jackdaw breeds in colonies of varying size, according FACKDAW. 1 to the relative abundance or scarcity of nesting-sites. Some of these colonies are very extensive, as, for instance, on the cliffs above Devil’s Hole in the Peak, and in the hollow trees in Sherwood Forest. Like the Rook, the Jackdaw may be seen almost daily at its nesting-colony all through the year. The nest of this species varies considerably in size. If the selected hole or crevice is large, it is generally filled with materials, and in some cases a vast mass is accumulated, being added to each season ; if the site is small but little nest is made, and in many cases no provision whatever is made for the eggs. I have taken the eggs from holes in the trunks of oak trees in Sherwood Forest where the decayed wood alone served for a nest ; but on the other hand some of the nests at this colony are several yards in height, the entire hollow trunk or limb having been closely packed with sticks and other rubbish, at the top of which the nest itself has been made. The foundation of the nest is made of sticks and twigs, pieces of turf, and occasionally all kinds of curious litter and rubbish, the cavity ccn- taining the eggs being formed of dry grass, pieces of moss, leaves, and straws, and lined with fur, wool, and feathers. Numbers of nests are often made close together, some- times several in the same hole or cleft. I have known as many as twelve in a single hollow tree. Many nests are quite inaccessible. RANGE OF EGG COLOURATION AND MEASUREMENT: The eggs of the Jackdaw are from four to six in num- ber, five being the usual clutch. They vary from the palest of blue (almost white) to bluish-green in ground colour, spotted and blotched with very dark brown, nearly black in intensity, olive-brown and grayish-brown, and with underlying markings of pinkish-gray. Some specimens are much more heavily marked than others, and many have the spots small, deep-coloured, and more 12 THE NESTS AND. EGGS (OF, BRITISH BIRDS. or less uniformly distributed over the entire surface. Some examples are very sparingly marked, and mostly with underlying spots. In shapeand size also they vary considerably. Average measurement, 1°45 inch in length, by ro inch in breadth. Incubation, performed by both sexes, lasts from seventeen to eighteen days. DIAGNOSTIC CHARACTERS: The clear blue or pale green ground colour, and comparatively few and well- defined markings, readily distinguish the eggs of the Jackdaw from allied British species. The eggs most likely to be confused with them are those of the Chough and certain pale varieties of those of the Magpie, but the clear definition of the surface-spots is a pretty safe guide. It must also be borne in mind that the Jackdaw rarely or never breeds near the colonies of the Choughs, and the exposed, domed nest of the Magpie in the branches is ever an unfailing means of distinction. Family CORVID. Genus PyRRHOCORAX. COMMON (CHvOnG PYRRHOCORAX GRACULUS (Linne@us). Single Brooded. Laying season, May. BRITISH BREEDING AREA: The Chough is now one of the rarest and most local of our indigenous birds, and though formerly fairly common in many inland districts, is now almost without exception only met with during the breeding season on the wildest and most inaccessible ocean cliffs. Even here many of its scattered colonies have been deserted, for no apparent cause, within com- COMMON CHOUGH. 13 paratively recent times. Owing to the character of the coast, the breeding-places of the Chough are on the south- ern and western shores of the British Islands—districts in which the cliffs are lofty and far removed from the busy haunts of men. It breeds locally and sparingly from Dorset, west to Devon and Cornwall. A few pairs still breed on Lundy Island. Scattered colonies are established here and there on the wild rocky coasts of Wales, as well as in one or two localities inland in that portion of our islands; whilst in the Isle of Man a few pairs still continue to breed. It is said also occasionally to breed in Cumberland. On the west coast of Scotland it is fairly plentiful, on the islands of Islay, Jura, and Skye, especially the former, and also in one or two localities on the cliffs of the mainland. In Ireland its chief strong- holds are on the coasts of Kerry, Mayo, Donegal and Antrim, Waterford and Cork. BREEDING HABITS: There is much similarity between the habits of the Chough and the Jackdaw during the season of reproduction. Both birds are gregarious and breed in colonies, both birds are life-paired species, and both breed in holes or covered sites, and continue year after year to rear their young in certain favoured spots, tenanting the same nests each recurring season. On the cliffs the nests are made in the clefts or fissures, or in holes in the roof or sides of caves, often so deep down in the rock as to be absolutely inaccessible ; inland a hole in a ruin issometimes selected. The nest, like that of the Jackdaw, varies a good deal in size, according to the accommodation afforded by the selected hole or fissure, and is composed of sticks, dead branches of heather, and the dry stalks of plants. The cavity con- taining the eggs is formed of dry grass, roots, wool, fur, and occasionally hair. If the colony is disturbed, the birds fly out of their nest-holes and act in a very Jack- 14 JHE NEST SVANDVEGCGS OR BRITS BERD S. daw-like manner, uttering their noisy and distinctive cries. One cavity sometimes contains several nests. RANGE OF EGG COLOURATION AND MEASUREMENT : The eggs of the Chough vary from four to six in number, and range in ground colour from white, with a faint tinge of blue or green, to creamy-white, blotched and spotted with various shades of brown and gray, and with under- lying markings of violet-gray. Sometimes a few dark brown streaks or scratches occur, usually on the larger end. In the size and distribution of the markings they vary considerably, some having them large and bold, and arranged in a mass or zone round the largest portion of the shell; others are more regularly spotted over the entire surface, and in this type the colour of the marks is paler. Another type has few markings, but bold and large, and scattered here and there over the entire surface. Average measurement, 1°5 inch in length, by 1°I inch in breadth. Incubation, performed by both parents, lasts from seventeen to eighteen days. DIAGNOSTIC CHARACTERS: The pale ground colour and comparative indistinct definition of the markings are the most important points of distinction characterizing the eggs of the present species. They are most likely to be confused with eggs of the Jackdaw ; but the two species do not breed in company. COMMON FAY. 15 Family CORVID. Genus GARRULUS. COMMON JAY. GARRULUS GLANDARIUS (Linn@us), Single Brooded. Laying season, April and May. BRITISH BREEDING AREA: The Jay, in spite of con- stant persecution, breeds more or less sparingly through- out the woodland districts of England and Wales. In many places where game is not very strictly preserved, and feathered marauders allowed to dwell in peace, the Jay is a common bird. In Scotland it is much more local and slowly becoming scarce, from the same causes, although its range has been extended with the planting and growth of trees. Its principal quarters in Scotland are the central counties, as far north as Inverness-shire ; it does not, however, breed in the Hebrides, and is only a straggler to the Shetlands. In Ireland, where it has also decreased in numbers, its chief breeding area is now in the south-east, in the area confined by the rivers Barrow and Suir. BREEDING HABITS: The principal breeding-grounds of the Jay are the game coverts, woods, and plantations where the underwood is dense and leafy. The bird is particularly fond of covers where evergreens are plentiful, and is thus specially addicted to shrubberies. In all cases, however, the Jay will nest most abundantly where the cover is thickest. In my opinion this handsome bird is a life-paired species, and may be seen in company with its mate all through the year. As the breeding season approaches the Jay becomes much less noisy and even more skulking in its movements, so that it often safely rears a brood in a cover where its presence has never been suspected. The site for the nest is seldom at any great altitude from the ground, the cover usually 16 THE NESTS AND EGGS OF VERS H LIRDS. not being sufficiently dense above the growth of tangled underwood. A situation is generally selected in a tall bush or sapling, especially in a holly, yew, or other ever- green, and less frequently amongst a mass of woodbine or ivy. I have known the nest to be made in a bunch of twigs and fine branches growing from a tree trunk where a branch has been lopped off. The nest is cup- shaped, and made externally of fine sticks and twigs, occasionally cemented with mud, and thickly lined with fibrous roots right up to the margin. Although made of coarse materials it is very neatly finished. The Jay is non-gregarious during the breeding season. , RANGE OF EGG COLOURATION AND MEASUREMENT : The eggs of the Jay are from five to seven in number. They are grayish-green or pale bluish-green in ground colour, mottled and speckled over the entire surface with olive-brown, and occasionally streaked with a few scratches or irregular lines of dark liver-brown. In many examples the mottled spots become most numerous and confluent towards the larger end, where they form a dis- tinct zone. The eggs of the Jay do not present much variation, although it is not unusual to find an egg paler than the rest in a clutch. Average measurement, 1°25 inch in length, by ‘9 inch in breadth. Both parents assist in the task of incubation, which extends over a period of eighteen days. DIAGNOSTIC CHARACTERS: The small size, indistinct character of the markings, and grayish-green appearance, readily distinguish the eggs of the Jay from all the allied British species. MAGPIE. 17 Family CORVID. Genus Pica. NMP Gab ie PICA CAUDATA, Gevrint. Single Brooded. Laying season, March and April. BRITISH BREEDING AREA: The Magpie breeds more or less commonly throughout the wooded districts of the British Islands, and in many places continues steadily to increase in spite of incessant persecution. There can be little doubt that this is due to the bird’s great fecundity, and its habit of nesting in tall trees. The Magpie does not breed on the Outer Hebrides, nor does it visit the Orkneys and the Shetlands, but it nests sparingly on the Channel Islands. In Ireland the Magpie is much more abundant than formerly, and its numbers are still perceptibly increasing in many localities. BREEDING HABITS: Although the great breeding- grounds of the Magpie are situated in or near woods, game coverts, and plantations, a considerable number of nests are made in more open situations, where timber is scarce. his species also pairs for life, and either tenants the same nest yearly, in spite of continued robbery and disturbance, or builds a new structure in the immediate neighbourhood. The nest may be found in almost every kind of forest tree, often in tall bushes or isolated trees in the fields, or even in a low hedgerow. The altitude varies equally as much, from the slender topmost twigs of some woodland giant, to the tangled thicket or hedgerow, not more than six or eight feet from the ground. Another remarkable trait in the Magpie’s character is that of nesting close to habita- tions. Although a remarkably shy and wary bird all the rest of the year, in the breeding season it often becomes most trustful. The site for the nest, when in a c 18 THB NESTS AND EGGS OF BRITS Baie Ss. oe tree, is usually amongst the slender branches, sometimes near the extremity of a massive limb, but in bushes or hedges the densest part is chosen. The nest is a large and bulky structure, and when finished completely covered with a dome or roof. The outer part of the nest is first formed of sticks, which are cemented together with large quantities of clay or mud, a lining of this material eventually being made. Then the huge dome is built over, dead thorns being favourite material, a hole being left on the side, near the top or rim of the nest cavity, for ingress. Very often at this stage the nest is left fora day or so to dry, before the copious lining of fibrous roots is added. It has been recently stated that dry grass is also used, but this I deny, at any rate so far as British Magpies are concerned. The whole structure when completed and thoroughly dry is remarkably compact. Occasionally several Magpies’ nests may be found at no great distance from each other, but the bird is neither gregarious nor social during the breeding season. It is a wary bird at the nest, slipping off very quietly if disturbed during in- cubation, but becoming much more bold and demon- strative when the young are hatched. RANGE OF EGG COLOURATION AND MEASUREMENT: The eggs of the Magpie are from six to nine in number ; seven and eight are frequently found, but perhaps six forms the most usual clutch. They range from creamy- white to bluish-green in ground colour, thickly freckled, blotched, and spotted over the entire surface with olive- brown, and occasionally streaked with a few lines of very dark brown. They vary considerably both in shape, in size, and in colouration. Some eggs are very pyriform ; others are almost round. Some have little surface- colour upon them, being almost spotless pale blue, with perhaps a few violet-gray underlying markings ; STARLING. 19 others are grayish-white, thickly freckled with pale ash- brown. Average measurement, 1°35 inch in length, by Io inch in breadth. Incubation, performed chiefly by the female, lasts eighteen days. DIAGNOSTIC CHARACTERS: The size, abundance, and smallness of the uniformly distributed markings and their brown colour readily distinguish the eggs of the Magpie from all allied species breeding within the British area, Family STURNIDE. Genus STURNUS. Sia Re NG: STURNUS VULGARIS, Linnceus. Double Brooded. Laying season, April to June. BRITISH BREEDING AREA: Widely distributed, and breeds more or less abundantly throughout England and Wales, becoming the least abundant perhaps in the more thinly-populated districts of Wales. In Scotland it has increased in numbers, and extended its range to such a very remarkable extent during the past half- century, that it may now be said to breed in every suit- able locality. It also breeds throughout the Hebrides (including St. Kilda), and in the Orkneys and Shetlands. In Ireland it becomes much more local during the breeding season, being there most widely distributed and most abundant, especially in the south, during winter. BREEDING HABITS: The Starling is another life- paired species, and returns annually to its old nesting- place ; indeed, like the Rook, it may, in a great many instances, be seen to visit its nesting-site from time to 20 THE NESTS AND 2GGS OF BRITISH LIDS, time right through the non-breeding season. Like the Rook and the House Sparrow, it evinces a strong par- tiality for the dwelling-places of man, and like the latter bird it also displays great aptitude for adapting itself to a variety of conditions during the season of reproduc- tion. The Starling will make its nest almost anywhere, provided a site can be found well protected from the external air. Holes in buildings are now the favourite situations, but great numbers of nests are made in holes in trees and cliffs, in peat-stacks, and less frequently in rabbit-burrows. On St. Kilda I was both surprised and delighted to find my favourite bird actually nesting in holes in the ground, on the bare hillsides, and amongst the rough walls of the “cleats.” The Starling is thoroughly gregarious all the year round, and numbers breed in close companionship, the size of the colony depending a good deal on the amount of the accommo- dation to be had. Instances are on record where the Starling has been known to breed in a Magpie’s nest, and to rear its young in an open nest in a tree; but from my lifelong acquaintance with this species I think such exceptions (if true) must be excessively rare. The size of the hole varies a good deal, hence the nest is bulky or small accordingly. It is a rude, slovenly struc- ture, made of straw, grass, and roots, and sometimes lined with a few feathers ; rags, twine, or paper will even be used occasionally. Very often a few straws are allowed to dangle out of the entrance, proclaiming the nest to every passer-by. If the eggs are removed from day to day the hen may be encouraged to lay an indefinite number of eggs. I once took no less than forty eggs from one hole during a single season. Odd Starlings’ eggs are frequently found in the fields. RANGE OF EGG COLOURATION AND MEASUREMENT: The eggs of the Starling are from four to six or even GOLDEN ORIOLE. 21 seven in number, five being an average clutch. They are pale greenish-blue, somewhat elongated, rather rough in texture, but with considerable gloss, and are spotless. The shade of colour varies a good deal, some eggs being almost white, others much more intense. Exposure to the light soon robs them of much of their colour. Average measurement, I'2 inch in length, by ‘85 inch in breadth. Incubation, performed chiefly by the female, lasts fourteen days. DIAGNOSTIC CHARACTERS: The eggs of no other species breeding in the British Islands can easily be confused with those of the Starling, Their large size and uniform greenish-blue tinge readily distinguish them from the eggs of all our smaller species. Family ORIOLID, Genus ORIOLUS. COE DEN ORIOLE. ORIOLUS GALBULA, Linneus. Single Brooded. Laying season, May and June. BRITISH BREEDING AREA: The Golden Oriole is another melancholy instance of the senseless persecution of rare birds in the British Islands. There is nothing, so far as we can determine, to prevent this handsome and melodious songster from becoming as common on this side of the Channel as it is on the other, if the individuals of this species that almost yearly visit our southern and south-western counties were allowed to live and rear their broods:in peace. There can be little or no doubt that the Golden Oriole has bred in Kent, Surrey, Essex, Northamptonshire, and Norfolk, ut, alas! the gaudy dress of the male bird is a fatal 22, THE NESTS AND EGGS OF BRITUSE BIRDS: attraction, and the gunner or greedy collector soon put an end to the naturalist’s hope of seeing this handsome species increase and multiply amongst us. BREEDING HABITS: Like most birds of conspicuous and gaudy plumage, the Golden Oriole is fond of the cover, and, although by no means a shy bird, is careful to conceal itself amongst the leaves when menaced by danger. In Europe the favourite breeding-grounds of the Golden Oriole are groves, the borders of woods, plantations, and well-timbered fields; but in Algeria, where I saw much of this species, the oases, public gardens, and groves of evergreen oaks in the park-like country of the Aures Mountains were the favourite haunts. It is not improbable that this bird pairs for life, although I do not think the same nest is used two seasons in succession. !The Golden Oriole very fre- quently rears its young quite close to houses, and even in towns, in avenues, and pleasure-grounds. The site for the nest is usually in an oak, plane, or fir tree, at distances varying from twenty to forty feet from the ground, The nest, so far as British, or even European birds are concerned, is unique, and cannot possibly be mistaken for that of any other bird. It is invariably suspended, cradle-wise, between a forked horizontal branch, the external materials being deftly woven round the supporting twigs. The outside is made of broad grass, sedge, and strips of bark, amongst which a few dead leaves or even scraps of paper are interwoven ; the inside is lined with the fine round flower-stems of grass. During the nesting period the old Orioles are careful not to betray their secret, and are ever ready to drive off any intruding birds. The very characteristic song of the male often proves a guide to the whereabouts of the nest. RANGE OF EGG COLOURATION AND MEASUREMENT: The eggs of the Golden Oriole are from four to six in COMMON CROSSBILL. 23 number. They are pure white, or white with a yellowish tinge, in ground colour, spotted and speckled with purplish-brown, and generally with a few small pale gray underlying markings. The surface of the shell, though somewhat rough in texture, is polished and glossy. Asa rule, the eggs of this species do not exhibit much variety. Average measurement, I‘2 inch in length, by ‘9 inch in breadth. Incubation, performed chiefly by the female, lasts from fourteen to fifteen days. DIAGNOSTIC CHARACTERS: The size, white ground colour, and reddish-purple spots, readily distinguish the eggs of the Golden Oriole from those of every other British species. The unique character of the nest is also another unfailing guide to the identification of the eggs. Family FRINGILLID. Genus Loxta. Sub-family “RINVG/LLINA. COniIiwvO N ‘CROSSE VEE: LOXIA CURVIROSTRA, Linnc@us. Single Brooded. Laying season, February to April. BRITISH BREEDING AREA: The Common Crossbill is one of the most local of the species that breed within the limits of the British Islands. In England it breeds locally and irregularly in many of the counties lying south of a line drawn from the Wash to the Bristol Channel; whilst north of this limit it is known to do so in Yorkshire, Durham, and Northumberland. In Scot- land it breeds more freely, especially in the central counties; whilst in Ireland it is said by Mr. Ussher to have increased of late years as a breeding species, 24 THE NESTS AND EGGS (OF BRITISH BIRDS. although its distribution during the nesting season in the sister isle is very imperfectly known. It appears to nest in some of the extreme eastern counties from Down to Waterford and Tipperary. Owing to the excessive shyness of this species in the nesting season, its pre- ference for dense conifer plantations, and the early date of laying, there can be little doubt that the Crossbill is much overlooked. BREEDING HABITS: The favourite breeding-grounds of the Crossbill are the conifer plantations, the belts and enclosures of Scotch fir, spruce, and larch. It is not improbable that this species pairs for life, but owing to its nomadic habits neither the old nest nor the old locality seem to be visited each season for breeding purposes. The Crossbill, however, is a remarkably social bird, and not only spends the winter in parties in wandering about in quest of food, but during the breed- ing season lives frequently in companies, and several nests may often be found within a comparatively small area. The nest is generally built amongst the foliage of the Scotch fir, a site being sclected at various heights from the ground, sometimes as many as forty or fifty feet, at others not more than four or five feet. Nests are far less frequently found in deciduous trees, owing to the fact that the foliage is not out at the time the Cross- bills begin to build. Sometimes the nest is made at a distance from the trunk on a flat branch; at others it is wedged into a fork near the top of the tree. The nest itself very closely resembles one type of that of the Greenfinch, being formed outwardly of twigs loosely twined together, rootlets, and dry grass, and inwardly of wool, fur, and a few feathers and hairs. Sometimes a little moss, lichen, and a few bark strips are employed. The female sits very closely, often allowing herself to be closely scrutinized, or almost touched by the hand, COMMON CROSSBILL. 25 before she slips off her nest. Mr. Norgate remarks of a nest taken by him in Norfolk five years ago: “On March 26th I took a nest of four Crossbills’ eggs from a Scotch fir; the hen bird objected to leave the nest even after it was brought down from the tree, when three or four other Crossbills came and fluttered about close to our heads, uttering their peculiar cry and showing their hooked beaks.” When disturbed from her eggs the female is often joined by the male, both birds fluttering about in an anxious, restless manner. RANGE OF EGG COLOURATION AND MEASUREMENT: The eggs of the Crossbill are usually four in number, occasionally three, more exceptionally five. They vary from white to white tinged with green in ground colour, spotted with reddish-brown, and with underlying mark- ings of paler brown. The spots, never very large, are mostly distributed over the larger end of the egg, where they not unfrequently form an irregular zone. Many of the spots often take the form of streaks, and then the colour is exceptionally dark. Average measurement, ‘9 inch in length, by °7 inch in breadth. Incubation, performed by the female, lasts fourteen days. DIAGNOSTIC CHARACTERS: It is impossible to give any absolutely reliable character by which the eggs of the Crossbill may be distinguished from those of the Greenfinch. The range of colouration is practically the same in each species, but as a rule the eggs of the latter bird are smaller. The date of laying is one reliable characteristic, the Crossbill producing eggs as a rule from one to two months earlier than the Greenfinch., 26 THE NESTS AND EGGS OF BRITISH BIRDS. Family FRINGILLID. Genus COCCOTHRAUSTES. Sub-family “R/NGILLINAE, HAW Fl Nie hie COCCOTHRAUSTES VULGARIS, Pad/as. Single Brooded. Laying season, May. BRITISH BREEDING AREA: Owing to the excessive shyness and skulking habits of the Hawfinch, it is somewhat difficult to define its exact distribution during the breeding season. It is decidedly an English bird, not breeding in any other portion of the United Kingdom, although some writers state that it does so in Ireland. Some authorities assert that the Hawfinch has steadily increased in numbers during the past half-century, but I am inclined to attribute this apparent fact to the closer scrutiny and greater number of observers. The Haw- finch breeds locally, and more or less frequently in almost every county of England; most abundant in the home counties, and least so in the extreme north and west. BREEDING HABITS: For a month or more before the nest is commenced, the parties of Hawfinches that have been leading a more or less nomadic life during the winter separate into pairs and betake themselves to the accustomed nesting-places. Orchards, small woods, fir plantations, and, less frequently, shrubberies are the favourite breeding-grounds of the Hawfinch ; but gardens, tall hedges in well-timbered fields, and ivy-clad trees in lanes are also selected. As the breeding season ap- proaches, the birds become even more shy and seclusive in their habits, and the peculiar and characteristic song of the males is almost the only sign of their presence. The nest is usually commenced towards the end of April. A site is selected in the branches of an old lichen-draped fruit tree, or hawthorn, in the pollard top of a hornbeam, amongst ivy, or in the dense branches HAWFINCH. 2, of a yew, a fir, or a holly. The altitude varies consider- ably. Some nests are built as much as forty or fifty feet from the ground; others only a few feet. In many cases several pairs make their nest in the same plantation or enclosure, especially in districts where suitable cover is scarce. The nest is made externally of twigs, roots, scraps of lichen, and the dry stalks of various plants, and internally of dry grass, finer roots, and hair. It is large, flat in appearance, and although rudely fabricated outside is neat and well finished with- in. The hen-bird is a close and silent sitter, and when flushed glides very quietly from her eggs into the sur- rounding cover. If the first nest be destroyed another attempt to rear a brood is generally made. The Haw- finch becomes even much more silent than usual as soon as the eggs are laid. RANGE OF EGG COLOURATION AND MEASUREMENT: The eggs of the Hawfinch are from four to six in number, the latter being perhaps more frequent than the former. They vary from pale olive or pale bluish-green to pale brownish-buff in ground colour, streaked and more sparingly spotted with dark olive-brown and pale grayish-brown, becoming almost violet-gray in buff sround-coloured examples. The streaks are frequently intricate, and as pronounced as those on a typical Bunting’s egg. The amount of markings varies con- siderably, and, as a rule, on the eggs on which the spots are largest and most clearly defined the streaks are finer, more scratchy, and paler. Average measurement, “95 inch in length, by *75 inch in breadth. Incubation, per- formed by the female, lasts from fourteen to fifteen days. DIAGNOSTIC CHARACTERS: The size, combined with the streaky markings and their colour, serve to dis- tinguish the eggs of the Hawfinch from those of every other allied British species. 23 THE NESTS AND EGGS OFF BRAS Bie Ds: Family FRINGILLID. Genus PYRRHULA. Sub-family ARZNVGILLINEZ. BULLE ELAN Gee PYRRHULA VULGARIS, Zemminck. Double Brooded. Laying season, April to June, and even July. BRITISH BREEDING AREA: Breeds more or less abundantly in all suitable localities throughout the British mainland, becoming rarer and more local in Scotlaud and Ireland. There can be no doubt whatever that the bird-catcher has well-nigh exterminated this species from many districts where it formerly. bred in considerable numbers. BREEDING HABITS: The Bullfinch mates for life, and all through the year may be seen in pairs, although the old nest is not used season by season, neither, in many cases, is the same locality selected. Like many other birds that lead a nomadic life during winter, the Bullfinch appears to breed in any suitable district it may chance to be in when the time for that event arrives. Like the preceding species the Bullfinch becomes very silent, shy, and retiring in its habits during the season of reproduc- tion, and the love-song of the male generally ceases as soon as the eggs are laid. The chicf breeding-haunts of the Bullfinch are plantations of firs, shrubberies, orchards, and dense hedgerows and thickets. The nest is built usually from six to ten or fifteen feet from the ground, in a fork of the branches, or on a flat branch at some distance from the trunk. Externally it is com- posed of fine twigs intricately interlaced, forming a flat structure, in the centre of which the cup for the eggs is made of roots and hair, and occasionally one or two feathers, or a scrap of wool. During the period of in- BULLFINCH. 29 cubation the Bullfinch becomes very quiet and shy, and the female, as is usual with so many Finches, is a close sitter, reluctant to leave her charge, yet slipping very stealthily away when disturbed. The male bird is not seen much in the vicinity of the nest until the young are hatched. RANGE OF EGG COLOURATION AND MEASUREMENT : The eggs of the Bullfinch are usually four or five in number, sometimes as many as six. They are bluish- green or greenish-blue in ground colour, spotted with purplish-brown, and with paler underlying markings of brownish-pink. Some eggs are streaked with very dark brown, as well as spotted. The markings usually form a zone round the large end of the egg (sometimes round the small end), but in some specimens they are more uniformly distributed over the entire surface. Average measurement, 75 inch in length, by °55 inch in breadth. Incubation, performed by the female, lasts fourteen days. DIAGNOSTIC CHARACTERS: The deep, clear blue of the ground colour, and their size, readily distinguish the eggs of the Bullfinch from those of any of the allied species breeding within the British area. Family FRINGILLIDA. Genus PASSER. Sub-family PRZNVGILLINA. POU SE) S PAK OW. PASSER DOMESTICUS (Liz7@u5). Double Brooded. Laying season, February to October. BRITISH BREEDING AREA: Breeds more or less abundantly throughout the British Islands wherever houses are found, with one or two exceptions: these 30 THE NESTS: AND 2GCGS OF GRITISH BIkDS. are in the wildest and most elevated districts of Scot- land and Ireland. Most abundant in towns and well- cultivated districts. BREEDING HABITS: The House Sparrow pairs for life, and during all the open months of the year may be found breeding in greater or lesser numbers. The great breeding season is in April, May, and June. There are few birds more gregarious than the House Sparrow, and the size of its breeding-colonies seems regulated purely by the extent of accommodation offered. No other British bird selects such a great variety of sites for its nest as the House Sparrow. It may be found almost everywhere—in every nook and crevice of all kinds of buildings, and amongst statuary, in trees (both in holes in the timber and in the open branches) and_ bushes, amongst ivy and other creeping plants, in holes in cliffs and sand-banks, both inland and marine, amongst the sticks of Rooks’ nests, and even in deserted nests of Crows and Magpies. The materials used are just as varied in character, and it is difficult to name any soft substance that is not used at some time or another in the construction of the nest. Straws, dry grass, and herbage of all kinds, strips of rag, cotton, twine, worsted, wool, hair, and feathers are universally employed. The nests of the House Sparrow may be divided into two very distinct types, which differ considerably in form and in the quality of the workmanship. The first and com- monest type, made in holes, is little more than a rude heap of material massed together, with the softest por- tions for the lining. The second type, placed in trees and amongst ivy, is much more skilfully made. Dry grass, straws, and withered plants are woven together into a large dome-shaped structure, with a small entrance hole on the top or side, and warmly lined with hair, wool, feathers, etc. These nests will be used year after HOUSE SPARROW. 31 year, and if destroyed, new ones will be made on the same sites, for the Hlouse Sparrow is greatly attached to its breeding-place. Both male and female assist in building the nest, and the thieving propensities of build- ing birds often lead. to combats. Brood after brood is reared in the same nest. RANGE OF EGG COLOURATION AND MEASUREMENT: The eggs of the House Sparrow vary from four to six or even seven in number, five being the average clutch. They vary from bluish-white to pale grayish-brown in ground colour, more or less thickly mottled, blotched, and spotted with various shades of brown and gray. The eggs of this species present considerable variation, both as regards size, shape, and colour. Certain varieties are so thickly mottled and spotted that the ground colour is almost, if not entirely, concealed ; others have the surface-spots small, ill-defined, and distributed over the entire surface of the shell ; others have the spots fewer in number, but large and boldly defined ; whilst others, yet again, have a zone of colour round the large or small end. In some the markings are chocolate-brown ; in others, ash-brown or reddish-brown. Average measure- ment, ‘9 inch in length, by ‘6 inch in breadth. Incuba- tion, performed by both sexes, lasts fourteen days. Very often the eggs are sat upon as soon as laid. It might also be remarked that in many instances one odd egg in a ciutch is differently marked than the rest. DIAGNOSTIC CHARACTERS: It is impossible to give any character by which the eggs of the House Sparrow may always be distinguished from those of allied species. Eggs of the Tree Sparrow are often indistinguishable ; as are also eggs of the Pied Wagtail and the Meadow Pipit. Asa general rule, the situation of the nest is a safe and unfailing guide to the identification of the eggs. 32, JHE NESTS ANDY EGGS OF SBRITISH, BIRDS, Family FRINGILLID#. Genus PASSER. Sub-family -RIVGILLINAE., TREE 'S PAR BiOgie PASSER MONTANUS (Linn@us). Double Prooded generally. Laying season, April to June or July. BRITISH BREEDING AREA: Owing to wide-spread confusion with the House Sparrow, it is difficult to trace the breeding area of this species with any detailed completeness. It is certainly a local bird, and appears to breed most commonly in the eastern and midland counties of England, becoming rarer in the north and west, It breeds very locally in Wales, whilst in Scotland, although widely dispersed, it seems to be nowhere common. Its principal breeding area across the border is from the Lothians to Sutherlandshire on the east coast ; although in the west, and on the Hebrides, it is by no means unknown, and I found it breeding even in remote St. Kilda. In Ireland it is even more local and sparingly distributed. It is difficult to say whether this species is slowly extending its range, or becoming better known and more universally distinguished from its commoner ally. BREEDING HABITS: It is more than probable that the Tree Sparrow pairs for life, inasmuch as the same nesting-place will be used for a number of years in succession. In its choice of a breeding-haunt the Tree Sparrow differs considerably from the House Sparrow. Although it frequents the neighbourhood of farm-houses and out-buildings, it is much more of a field-haunting species, and in a great many cases rears its young in wild, uncultivated districts. The first nests are usually commenced towards the end of March. The site chosen TREE SPARROW. 33 varies considerably, and depends a good deal on the nature of the haunt. In some localities pollard willows are the favourite nesting-places; in others, holes in walls and cliffs, as I found to be the case in St. Kilda, the sides of old quarries, and even in the deserted nests of Crows and Magpies. I have also taken the nest from a hole in the branch of an oak tree. In other cases, a site is selected under the eaves of a building, or even in a hole in the thatch. In some few instances (when in old nests of Crows) the nest is domed and well made, but as a rule it is a slovenly structure, like that of all or most hole-builders, cup-shaped, and made of dry grass, straws, and roots, and warmly lined with feathers, and, less frequently, wool and hair. I have noticed that this species becomes very demonstrative when disturbed at the nest, and evinces much more anxiety than the House Sparrow usually does. Both male and female assist in the construction of the nest, in which as many as three broods are sometimes reared. The Tree Sparrow is nothing near so gregarious as the House Sparrow, and each pair of birds keep much to themselves. RANGE OF EGG COLOURATION AND MEASUREMENT: The eggs of the Tree Sparrow are from four to six in number, and vary considerably in colour. Even in the same clutch one egg is often found much lighter in colour than the rest. They are grayish-white, or white with a faint blue tinge in ground colour, spotted and speckled with rich brown and grayish-brown, and with underlying markings of violet-gray. On some examples a few dark lines or streaks occur. The markings are generally so thickly distributed over the surface as to hide almost all trace of the pale ground colour; but on others, where the spots are larger and fewer, this is not the case, and then the gray underlying markings are also more conspicuous. Average measurement, ‘79 D 34 THE NESTS AND EGGS OF BRITISH BIRDS. inch in length, by *55 inch in breadth. Incubation, performed by both sexes, but the greater part by the female, lasts fourteen days. DIAGNOSTIC CHARACTERS: As a rule the eggs of the Tree Sparrow may be distinguished from those of the House Sparrow by their smaller size and more glossy texture. They do not vary so much in colour as the eggs of the latter species. In any case, however, they require careful identification, as the characteristics are too poorly defined to be absolutely reliable. Family FRINGILLID#. Genus FRINGILLA. Sub-family #RZINGILLINA. GAGE-E NING FRINGILLA CHLORIS (Linneus). Double Brooded. Laying season, April to July, and even August. BRITISH BREEDING AREA: Breeds more or less com- monly in all the wooded districts throughout the British Islands. Its breeding area has been largely increased within the last fifty years, owing to the extensive plant- ing of trees in many localities. BREEDING HABITS: The principal breeding-haunts of the Greenfinch are in the well-cultivated districts, in shrubberies, parks, and gardens, and in the tall hedge- rows of the lowland farms, in lanes, and on commons. The Greenfinch appears to pair annually, although I am of opinion that each pair of birds remain in company until two or three broods are reared, a new nest being made for each. The Greenfinch is remarkably social during the breeding season, and several nests may GREENFINCH. 35 frequently be found quite close together. I have seen two nests in one small yew tree, and many similar instances have been recorded. The usual site for the nest of this species is in an evergreen of some kind, a dense thicket, or a tall hedge, whitethorn, perhaps, by preference. Other sites are frequently chosen however, as, for instance, in a gorse bush, amongst a cluster of woodbine, amongst ivy growing either on walls or trees, and less frequently fifty or sixty feet from the ground in a tall elm, either amongst the slender branches, or lower down, wedged closely into a crevice of the gnarled and knotted trunk. The nest varies a good deal accord- ing to locality. Some nests are made externally of twigs, others of coarse roots, intermixed with scraps of moss, and lined with finer roots, bits of wool, and quantities of hair and feathers. In other nests the external material is dry grass (I have known a nest made almost entirely of new-mown hay), twigs, and moss. The rim of the nest is generally well felted together, and the cup is smooth and neatly finished, although the lining varies a good deal in quantity and kind of material used. But little or no care is taken to conceal the nest, but generally the amount of surrounding foliage hides it from all but very close scrutiny. The old birds are quiet and seclusive during the nesting period, and the female is a close sitter, leaving the eggs with the greatest reluctance. Both male and female assist in making the nest. Some nests are much larger and better made than others. RANGE OF EGG COLOURATION AND MEASUREMENT: The eggs of the Greenfinch are from four to six in number, and range from pure white to white tinged with blue or green in ground colour, somewhat sparingly speckled and spotted with reddish-brown, and with underlying markings of grayer brown. As a rule the spots are largest, most numerous, and deepest in colour 36 THE NESTS AND EGGS OF BRITISH BIDS. at the large end of the egg, where they often form an irregular zone. In some eggs the pale underlying markings are large and more numerous than the surface- spots, and in others a few streaks or small spots of very dark brown occur. A rare variety is white and spotless. Average measurement, 84 inch in length, by 55 inch in breadth. Incubation, chiefly performed by the female, lasts fourteen days. Sometimes the first egg is sat upon as soon as laid. DIAGNOSTIC CHARACTERS: It is impossible to give any character by which the egys of the Greenfinch can be distinguished, either from those of the Crossbill, the Goldfinch, or the Linnet. Asa rule the eggs are larger and more boldly spotted than those of the two latter species, and slightly smaller than those of the former. The style and situation of the nest are of some service in their identification. Family FRINGILLID. Genus FRINGILLA. Sub-family “RIVG/LLINAE. GOL DFUNGEH- FRINGILLA CARDUELIS, Limnc@us. Double Brooded occasionally. Laying season, May to July. BRITISH BREEDING AREA: The Goldfinch is another bird whose breeding area has been sadly curtailed by the bird-catcher and modern improvements. Thirty years ago, in my part of Devonshire (Torquay) this charming bird bred in almost every orchard; now scarcely a pair can be found. It may still, however, be said to breed more or less sparingly and locally in all the English counties, becoming most rare in the GOLDFINCH. 37 extreme north and west. In Scotland it becomes even more local, although it is known to breed as far north as Caithness, and in some of the southern districts appears to be increasing in numbers. It has been known to breed on one occasion in Skye. In Ireland it is widely dispersed, but everywhere uncommon and very local. BREEDING HABITS: The principal breeding-grounds of the Goldfinch are orchards and gardens, and the hedges and shrubberies near them. This bird appears to pair annually, although it may from time to time be seen in pairs all through the winter. The nest is usually made in a fork of some lichen-covered fruit tree ; less frequently in an evergreen, and sometimes suspended from a drooping branch of a large tree. Occasionally it is made in a hedge near the garden or orchard. Few of our British nests equal that of the Goldfinch in beauty. It is almost as neatly made as that of the Chaffinch, the materials being felted in much the same way, but is smaller, and the garniture of lichens is not so conspicuous. It is made of moss, vegetable down, fine roots, and dry grass-stems, cemented with spiders’ webs and a few bits of lichen, and lined with feathers, down, and hair. The cup is exquisitely finished, about two inches in diameter and one inch in depth. The old birds are remarkably quiet and careful not to betray the vicinity of the nest, the female sitting closely until approached. RANGE OF EGG COLOURATION AND MEASUREMENT: The eggs of the Goldfinch are four or five in number, white, with a greenish or grayish tinge in ground colour, spotted and streaked with purplish-brown, and with underlying spots of gray. The amount of spots varies considerably, as also does their intensity of colour, some being almost black in appearance. As a rule most of 38 LHE NESTS AND EGGS “OF BRITISH Wis. the spots are displayed on the large end of the egg, where they often form a zone.